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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Cambridge Papers - -Author: Walter William Rouse Ball - -Release Date: January 19, 2017 [EBook #54023] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAMBRIDGE PAPERS *** - - - - -Produced by Laura Wisewell, David Wilson and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (The -original copy of this book was generously made available -for scanning by the Department of Mathematics at the -University of Glasgow.) - - - - - - - - - -CAMBRIDGE PAPERS. - - - - - MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited - LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA · MADRAS - MELBOURNE - - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO - DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO - - THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. - TORONTO - - - - -CAMBRIDGE PAPERS - -BY -W.W. ROUSE BALL -FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. - - -MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED -ST MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON - -1918 - -[_All rights reserved_] - - - - -PREFACE. - - -This volume contains papers on some questions of local history put -together, mostly for undergraduate societies and magazines, at various -times during the last twenty-five years. I have included a memoir, -written for a London Society, on Newton's _Principia_, a work that -profoundly affected the development of University studies in the -eighteenth century, and a chapter on the History of the Mathematical -Tripos, which at one time appeared in my _Mathematical Recreations and -Essays_, since these are concerned with Cambridge subjects. - -I print the papers, whether long or short, and whether read at length -or, as was more often the case, curtailed in delivery, substantially -in the form in which they were first written. This leaves allusions -which bear evidence to their domestic origin, and involves, in those -of them dealing with cognate subjects, some repetition of facts. If -these are defects they could be removed only by rewriting much of what -appears here; it seems to me preferable to let the essays stand in -their original forms, save occasionally for the addition of a -paragraph or sentence dealing with what has happened since they were -first presented. The dates in the text are reckoned in the modern -style, taking the year as beginning on the first day of January. - - W.W. ROUSE BALL. - Trinity College, Cambridge. - _January, 1918._ - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - PAGE - Preface v - - =Part I. Concerning Trinity College.= - - Chapter I. The Foundation of Trinity College 3 - Chapter II. The Tutorial System 26 - Chapter III. The Westminster Scholars 48 - Chapter IV. The Society for the Prevention of - Cruelty to Undergraduates 71 - Chapter V. The College Chapel 84 - Chapter VI. Some College Treasures 104 - Chapter VII. The College Auditors 127 - Chapter VIII. Wren's Designs for the Library 144 - Chapter IX. A Christmas Journey in 1319 154 - Chapter X. An Outline of the College Story 161 - - =Part II. Concerning the University.= - - Chapter XI. The Beginnings of the University 179 - Chapter XII. Discipline 194 - Chapter XIII. Newton's _Principia_ 225 - Chapter XIV. Newton on University Studies 244 - Chapter XV. The Mathematical Tripos 252 - - Index 317 - - - - -PART I. - -=Concerning Trinity College.= - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE FOUNDATION OF TRINITY COLLEGE. - - -Trinity College was founded by Henry VIII in 1546. To obtain a site -for it, he suppressed King's Hall and Michael-House, two medieval -colleges which were built on or owned most of the ground now occupied -by the Great Court, and with their revenues, largely augmented by -property of dissolved monasteries, he endowed it. The scheme of the -College and his objects in founding it are stated in his letters -patent of 19 December 1546, and particulars of the income assigned by -him to the foundation are set out in his charter of dotation dated -24 December 1546. These documents have been printed[1] and are readily -accessible, but the history of the events leading up to the foundation -of the College is less generally known. I cannot promise that the -story in itself is interesting but the material facts have never -before been brought together[2] so its telling is justified. - -After the dissolution of the monastic houses, anxiety was felt in -Cambridge and Oxford lest they should suffer a similar fate. The -policy of the suppression of the two universities and the confiscation -of their property was openly advocated by politicians at court, and -naturally great alarm was felt when in 1544 an Act[3] was passed -empowering the king to dissolve any college at either university, and -appropriate its possessions. - -The universities were right in thinking that the danger was pressing, -for Parker, who played a leading part in the affair, has put on -record[4] the fact that after the passing of the Act certain courtiers -importunately sued the king to have the possessions of both bodies -surveyed, meaning afterwards to obtain the same on easy terms. In -these circumstances the Cambridge authorities, says Strype, "looked -about them and made all the friends they could at court to save -themselves." In particular they urgently begged the aid of two of -their professors, John Cheke, then acting as tutor to the prince of -Wales, and Thomas Smith, then clerk to the queen's council. Here is -the letter[5] of the senate to Smith on the subject: - - Si tu is es, Clarissime Smithe, in quem Academia haec - Cantabrigiensis universas vires suas, universa pietatis jura - exercuerit, si tibi uni omnia doctrinae suae genera, omnia reipub. - ornamenta libentissime contulerit, si fructum gloriae suae in te uno - jactaverit, si spem salutis suae in te potissimum reposuerit: age - ergo, et mente ac cogitatione tua complectere, quid tu vicissim illi - debes, quid illa, quid literae, quid respublica, quid Deus ipse pro - tantis pietatis officiis, quibus sic dignitas tua efflorescit, - justissime requirit: Academia nil debet tibi, imo omnia sua in te - transfudit. Et propterea abs te non simpliciter petit beneficium, - sed merito repetit officium: nec unam aliquam causam tibi proponit, - sed sua omnia, et seipsam tibi committit. Nec sua necesse habet - aperire tibi consilia, quorum recessus et diverticula nosti - universa. Age igitur quod scis, et velis quod potes, et perfice - quod debes. Sic literis, academiae, reipublicae, et religioni; sic - Christo et Principi rem debitam et expectatam efficies. Jesus te - diutissime servet incolumem. - -Parker tells us that the London friends of the University, among whom -Smith and Cheke were doubtless conspicuous, wisely took the line of -welcoming an enquiry, but begged the king to avoid the expense of a -costly investigation. Their representations were successful, and he -issued a commission[6] dated 16 January 1546 to Matthew Parker (then -vice-chancellor, and later archbishop of Canterbury), John Redman -(warden of King's Hall, chaplain to the king, and later master of -Trinity), and William Mey (president of Queens', and later -archbishop-elect of York) to report to him on the revenues of the -colleges and the numbers of students sustained therewith. The -commissioners were capable and friendly. - -The king must have been impatient to know the facts, for in less than -a week, on 21 January, he ordered Parker to come to Hampton Court with -the report. Immediate compliance was impossible, but the command may -well have stimulated the commissioners to act as rapidly as possible. -In fact they obtained the services of eleven clerks from the Court of -Augmentations in London, and at once set to work to collect -information. - -The University was keenly alive to the risks it was incurring. To -placate the king, the senate, on 13 February, put all its belongings -at his service, and when forwarding a copy of the grace to Secretary -Sir William Paget it reminded him of the value of the University to -the state, and begged his protection. At the same time it addressed -the queen, Katharine Parr, through Thomas Smith, imploring her -advocacy.[7] - -The queen replied[8] on 26 February. After complaining that he had -written to her in Latin, though he could equally well have expressed -himself in the vulgar tongue, she discoursed at length on the duties -of members of the University, and, saying that she was confident that -her wishes in these respects would be fulfilled, she concluded her -letter as follows: - - I (according to your desires) have attempted my lord the King's - Majesty, for the establishment of your livelihood and possessions: - in which, notwithstanding his Majesty's property and interest, - through the consent of the high court of parliament, his Highness - being such a patron to good learning, doth tender you so much, that - he will rather advance learning and erect new occasion thereof than - [to] confound those your ancient and godly institutions, so that - learning may hereafter justly ascribe her very original whole - conservation and sure stay to our Sovereign Lord. - -This was good news, and things now moved rapidly. By the end of -February the commissioners had drawn up a detailed report giving the -information required. It is printed[9] at length in the _Cambridge -Documents_, 1852, and occupies nearly 200 pages. - -The commissioners in person presented to the king at Hampton Court a -brief summary of this report. We do not know the date of this -interview, but conjecturally it may be put as being early in March. -Parker has left[10] in his own handwriting a full account of their -reception as follows: - - In the end, the said commissioners resorted up to Hampton Court to - present to the King a brief summary written in a fair sheet of - vellum (which very book is yet reserved in the college of Corpus - Christi) describing the revenues, the reprises, the allowances, and - number and stipend of every College. Which book the King diligently - perused; and in a certain admiration said to certain of his lords - which stood by, that he thought he had not in his realm so many - persons so honestly maintained in living by so little land and rent: - and where he asked of us what it meant that the most part of - Colleges should seem to expend yearly more than their revenues - amounted to; we answered that it rose partly of fines for leases and - indentures of the farmers renewing their leases, partly of wood - sales: whereupon he said to the lords, that pity it were these lands - should be altered to make them worse; (at which words some were - grieved, for that they disappointed _lupos quosdam hiantes_). In - fine, we sued to the King's Majesty to be so gracious lord, that he - would favour us in the continuance of our possessions such as they - were, and that no man by his grace's letters should require to - permute with us to give us worse. He made answer and smiled, that he - could not but write for his servants and others, doing the service - for the realm in wars and other affairs, but he said he would put us - to our choice whether we should gratify them or no, and bade us hold - our own, for after his writing he would force us no further. With - which words we were well armed, and so departed. - -This important interview was followed by a rumour that it was Henry's -intention to found at Cambridge a new and magnificent college to serve -as an enduring record of his interest in learning, and perhaps the -University may have taken the queen's letter as indicating what was -coming. It is believed that Henry had long entertained vague ideas of -the kind, but that the definite suggestion, which was encouraged by -the queen, originated with Redman, who, as royal chaplain, had -constant access to the king and considerable influence with him. - -The preparations for Henry's proposed foundation were made with -extreme speed: a wise course in view of his failing health and -variable temper. It was decided to take advantage of the Act of 1544 -and suppress King's Hall and Michael-House, using their grounds and -adjoining property as the site of the new college. We have no -reference to the appointment of commissioners for the business, though -there is an allusion, quoted later, to receivers: perhaps the matter -was left in the hands of the officials of the Court of Augmentations. -Redman was the chief authority at Cambridge in the arrangements that -had to be made there, and it was intended that he should be the first -master of the new college when it was founded. - -The two Societies above mentioned were (save for Peterhouse) the -oldest in the University. To Trinity men their history has, naturally, -great interest, and I interpolate a few remarks on this and their -position in 1546. - -The King's Scholars, normally thirty-two in number and of all ages -from fourteen upwards, were established by Edward II under a warden in -1317 and incorporated in 1337. They had for their original home a -large house (King's Hall) situated on the grass plot and walk in front -of the present chapel, and rapidly acquired all the adjacent land -between the High Street (now known as Trinity Street) and the river, -extending their buildings in various directions. Popular writers -sometimes assert or assume that all medieval colleges were founded for -poor students. That is not universally true. No condition of poverty -was imposed on the scholars of King's Hall, nor was their life here -penurious: they had a dining-hall, library, common room, chapel, -kitchens, a brewery, a vineyard, a garden, and a staff of servants -maintained by the Society, while a good many of them also kept their -own private servants: they received a liberal allowance for daily -commons, clothes and bedding were supplied from the royal wardrobe, -and pocket-money was given to buy other things. They were appointed -by the crown largely from among the families of court officials, -nominations being restricted to those who knew Latin. After completing -their course many of these students entered what we may call the -higher civil service of the time in church or state. - -In the report of the commissioners, the annual income of King's Hall -was returned as £214. 0s. 3d. and the expenses as £263. 16s. 7d.; and -it was stated that at the time there were on its boards, a master, -twenty-five graduate fellows, and seven undergraduate fellows, -besides servants. The Society owned the patronage of the livings of -Arrington, Bottisham, St Mary's Cambridge, Chesterton, Fakenham, -Felmersham, and Grendon. According to the return, the normal annual -expenditure of King's Hall, if all the scholars resided, required -£182. 18s. 4d. for the emoluments of the warden and fellows (namely, -£8. 13s. 4d. for the warden, £5. 10s. 0d. for each of twenty-five -graduate fellows, and £5. 5s. 0d. for each of seven undergraduate -fellows); £32. 2s. 0d. for the college servants (namely, the butler, -barber, baker, brewer, laundress, cook, under-cook, and the warden's -servant); £3. 1s. 4d. for the estate officers and quit-rents; £3. 19s. -4d. for the expenses of the chapel services and the bible-clerk; £5. -0s. 0d. for firing for the hall and kitchen; £5. 0s. 0d. for rushes -for the hall; £5. 10s. 4d. for the exequies of the founder and the -following refections; £29. 1s. 4d. for repairs and renewals; and £10 -for extraordinary expenses. - -The other College (Michael-House) whose buildings were transferred to -Trinity was of a different type. It was founded by Hervey de Stanton -in 1324 for a master and six secular clergy who wished to study in the -University. Their original home was a large house on the site of the -present combination room and the land round it; later they acquired -all the property between Foul Lane and the river. At first the -Society's means were barely sufficient for its needs, but in time it -received many gifts, and the foundation was increased to a master and -eight priests with chaplains and bible-clerks. It had an oratory in -its House but did not need a chapel as it owned St Michael's Church; -traces of this ownership will be noticed in the arrangement for stalls -(to be occupied by members of the Society) in the choir, which is sunk -below the level of the nave and chancel. - -In the report of the commissioners, the annual income of Michael-House -was returned as £141. 13s. 1¾d. and its expenses as £143. 18s. 0d.; -and it was stated that there were on its boards a master, eight -fellows, and three chaplains, besides servants. Besides St Michael's -Cambridge, the Society owned the patronage of the livings of -Barrington, Boxworth, Cheadle, Grundisburgh, and Orwell. According to -the return, the normal annual expenditure of Michael-House required a -sum of £91. 10s. 8d. for the emoluments of the Society (namely, £7. -6s. 8d. for the master, £47. 17s. 4d. for the six fellows on the -original foundation, £11. 6s. 8d. for the two Illegh fellows, £15 for -three chaplains, one of whom served Barrington, and £10 for four -bible-clerks), £1 for the auditor, £6. 6s. 8d. for college servants -(namely, the cook, butler, barber, and laundress), rather more than -£17 for the exequies of benefactors, £1. 13s. 4d. for the -commemoration refection, £20 for repairs, and £6. 6s. 8d. for -extraordinary expenses. A clerical society like Michael-House had no -difficulty in providing for due celebration of the exequies of its -friends, and in fact more than twenty benefactors are mentioned by -name as being thus commemorated every year. In 1544, the House, -presumably with the object of averting its destruction, began to admit -students resident elsewhere in the University, and in a couple of -years no less than forty-eight students matriculated from it; the -number of admissions must have exceeded this, but what was involved in -such cases by admission is uncertain. - -A scheme containing a "first plott or proportion" for the new College -was prepared for the king by the Court of Augmentations in London; it -seems certain that this was worked out in collaboration with Redman. -The clerk who drew it up was Thomas Ansill. The College, after its -foundation, recognized its obligation to him in the matter and -presented him to the vicarage of Barford which was and is in its gift. -He preserved a copy of his scheme; this was purchased from his son by -one of the fellows in 1611, and given to the College. - -The manuscript of the suggested scheme, to which Mr Bird first called -my attention, is endorsed _Distribucio Collegii_ and headed "the -proporcon diuised for Trinite College." It is undated, but in a later -hand it is added that it was made Anno 37 Hen. 8, and therefore before -22 April 1546. From internal evidence it must have been composed in or -after March in that year, since those who graduated in that Lent term -are described as being of the standing of the degrees then taken. Of -those who graduated afterwards some are described correctly, others -not so: doubtless Redman knew about the standing of the members of -King's Hall and Michael-House, but he may well have made mistakes -about the standing of some of the junior students of other colleges. -If however we accept the endorsement as correct, we may fix the date -of the composition of the plan as being in the early half of April, -1546. This manuscript has not been printed, and I proceed to describe -it. - -The object of the compilers of this scheme was to see what income -would be required for the suggested new College, and to arrange how -the income should be used; incidentally it reveals the general -organization proposed. The constitution of the College, the various -offices to be created, and the stipends intended are specified. In -most cases the names of the proposed fellows, scholars, bedesmen, and -servants are given, but generally the allocation of the proposed -principal offices is not indicated and probably had not been then -arranged. The names of the proposed fellows and scholars agree with -those appointed later, though the order is not always the same, but -the provisional list of bedesmen differs from that of those ultimately -nominated. - -The _Distribucio_ begins with a statement of the names and suggested -stipends of the master and fellows. The stipend of the master was to -be £100 a year: that of each of the next fifteen fellows (one of those -proposed being a doctor of divinity, ten bachelors of divinity, and -four masters of arts) was to be £10 a year and £1 a year for livery: -that of each of the next twenty-five fellows (twenty-two of those -nominated being masters of arts and three bachelors of arts) was to be -£8 a year; that of each of the next twenty fellows and scholars (seven -of the nominees being bachelors of arts and thirteen junior scholars) -was to be £6. 13s. 4d. a year. The names are given and agree with -those in the letters patent of 19 December. - -There was to be a schoolmaster (Richard Harman) who was to have £20 a -year, an usher of grammar (William Boude) who was to have £10 a year, -and provision was made for forty childer grammarians, whose names are -given, each of whom was to have £4 a year. This shows that it was -intended that the foundation should include students in grammar, and -the two teachers specially responsible for them were to be a -schoolmaster and usher. - -The question arises whether it was intended to found a grammar-school -connected with the College or whether these grammarians were what we -should call undergraduate scholars or exhibitioners. The former view -is the correct one, for the royal commissioners in May 1549 definitely -asked[11] the College "to surrender the Grammar Schole." This was done -and the school was then absorbed in the College. Probably at that time -the distinction between boys at the grammar-school and junior -undergraduates was not regarded as important--the term grammarian or -grammaticus being commonly used for a junior undergraduate as well as -a school-boy[12]. This indifference to the distinction between the two -classes is illustrated by the fact that of the grammarian school-boys -named in the _Distribucio_, ten were already matriculated members of -the University, nine matriculated from Trinity shortly after its -foundation, and of the others six matriculated in 1548 or 1549 which -is not inconsistent with their having been students of the University -in 1546. - -In 1547, the accounts include a particular payment for six boys of the -grammar-school, and wages for one quarter for the schoolmaster and Mr -Boude; thus showing that the school was then being carried on. In -1548, the accounts specify forty-two grammatici, in addition to -certain graduates and dialectici, as being in residence, but in this -year there is no mention of a schoolmaster or an usher though possibly -they may be included among the ten lectors for whom provision is made. -In 1551 the grammatici appear as discipuli, and thenceforth the -grammarians were treated as undergraduate scholars. - -The _Distribucio_ next goes on to enumerate seven readers. Three of -these were to be public or university readers, of whom one (John -Maydew) was to read in divinity, one (John Cheke) in Greek, and one -(Thomas Wakefield) in Hebrew, each at £40 a year. The other four were -to be fellows of the College, of whom one (Simon Bridges) was to read -in divinity at £6. 13s. 4d. a year, two in philosophy at £5 a year -each, and one in logic at £5 a year: such stipends to be in addition -to their fellowship emoluments. It would seem that Bridges or Briggs -declined to accept the nomination to a fellowship at Trinity and -accordingly was not appointed to the office. Provision was also made -for two under-readers in logic at £2. 3s. 4d. each. Next are mentioned -two examiners in scholastic acts at £5 a year each; and two chaplains -at £6. 13s. 4d. a year each, one (Henry Man) for the fellows and the -other (unnamed) for the childer and bedesmen. I note that Henry Man -occupied for many years rooms in the Great Court adjoining and on the -west side of what is now known as the Queen's Gate. - -The next entry is that of twenty-four almsmen or bedesmen at £6 a year -each; the names of all but one are given, but the list differs -somewhat from that appearing in the account book of 1547 of those -appointed when the College began work. The unnamed bedesman was the -cook of Michael-House, and it is impossible not to wonder whether his -inclusion in this list (which involved his retirement from the -kitchens) was due to the memory of indifferent dinners eaten by Redman -when a guest at the high table of that House. - -The _Distribucio_ then returns to the enumeration of the officers and -servants of the College. There were to be two bursars at £4 a year -each; a vice-master at £5 a year; two deans to direct disputations of -divinity and philosophy, one at £4 a year, and the other at £3. 6s. -8d. a year; eight bible-clerks, whose names are given, to serve the -hall, choir and vestry, and to attend upon the curate when visiting, -at £2. 13s. 4d. a year each; an organ-player at £6 a year and his -commons; two butlers, the senior at £5 a year and the junior at £4 a -year; a manciple at £6. 13s. 4d. a year; a master-cook at £6 a year; -two under-cooks, one at £4 a year, and the other at £3. 6s. 8d. a -year; and a turn-spit at £2 a year. There was also to be a barber at -£5 a year; a laundress at £5 a year; a porter at £6 a year; a -bricklayer at £4 a year; a carpenter at £4 a year; a mason at £4 a -year; two stewards of lands at £5 a year each; an auditor for the -lands at £10 a year; a receiver for the lands at £13. 6s. 8d.; and an -attorney in the exchequer for the lands at £3. 6s. 8d. Allowance was -to be made for the yearly distribution of alms to the amount of £20; -and of another £20 to be spent on the mending of highways. The total -expenditure contemplated amounts to £1286. At the end in another -handwriting is added that allowance (amount unspecified) should be -also made for wine and wax, riding, extraordinary charges, and -repairs. - -It must have been in April, or early in May, 1546, that the -commissioners, or other officials concerned, took possession of King's -Hall and Michael-House and the ground adjacent thereto. They at once -made arrangements to shut up Foul Lane which ran across the present -Great Court, to purchase such part of that court as did not belong to -King's Hall and Michael-House, and to enclose the site. Stone and -other materials for the new work were taken from the church and -cloisters of the dissolved Franciscan monastery which stood on the -land now occupied by Sidney Sussex College, and in a survey, dated -20 May 1546, those buildings are described as having been already -partially demolished in order to provide "towards the building of the -King's Majesty's new College." - -It is probable that during this time members of King's Hall and -Michael-House were in residence, and possibly also some of the -members-elect of Trinity College. The cost of the maintenance of the -House and the expenses of the alterations must have been heavy, but in -December 1546, the Court of Augmentations was ordered[13] "to pay Dr -Redman of your new College in Cambridge £2000 towards the -establishment and building of the same, and in recompense for revenues -of their lands for a whole year ended Michaelmas last, because the -rents were paid to your Majesty's receivers before they had out -letters patent for their donation." We have no record of these -expenses, but I conjecture that this grant allowed a clean start to be -made from Michaelmas 1546. - -The members of the new College entered into possession of the -buildings and began their academic life as members of Trinity College -about Michaelmas 1546. The surrender of King's Hall and Michael-House -to the king took place on 28 October, and arrangements were than made -to pension the master and eight fellows of Michael-House and one -fellow of King's Hall. Redman was appointed master of the new -foundation. - -The original members of the Society were selected from the whole -University with the addition of a few Oxonians: it is believed that -all the nominees were favourable to the new learning and the -protestant faith. Of the forty childer grammarians named in the -_Distribucio_ all save one accepted the nomination; of these, six had -been previously members of Michael-House, one a member of Pembroke, -one of Peterhouse, one of St John's, and one of some unnamed College. -Of the sixty students nominated to fellowships or scholarships in the -letters patent, fourteen did not reside and presumably refused the -nomination. Of the forty-six who accepted the office, thirty-six were -graduates and ten were non-graduates. Of these thirty-six nominees, -three came from Michael-House, one from King's Hall, two from -Christ's, one from Corpus, one from King's, one from Pembroke, two -from Peterhouse, one from Queens', one from St Catharine's, and three -from St John's: of the colleges or hostels from which the remaining -twenty had graduated, I can find no particulars. Of the ten -non-graduates who accepted the office, one had been at Pembroke, one -at Queens', two at St John's, and one at Trinity Hall: of the previous -history of the remaining five I know nothing. Of the fourteen who did -not reside and presumably declined the offer, eleven were graduates, -of whom one had been at Corpus, one at King's, one at Pembroke, three -at Queens', two at St John's, and two at Oxford, and of the remaining -graduate I can find no particulars. Of the three non-graduates who did -not accept the nomination, one had been at Michael-House, one at -Oxford, and of the other I know nothing. It appears from the -account-books that there were also still in residence a few -students[14] who had been members of King's Hall and Michael-House: it -was only courteous to give these deposed students the hospitality of -the House, and they occupied a different position to the pensioners -and fellow-commoners who later were admitted in considerable numbers. -We cannot prove or disprove the presence at this time of other -students, but it is most likely that at first there were no residents -in College other than those mentioned above. - -The legal formalities connected with the surrender of the properties -of King's Hall and Michael-House took a considerable time, and were -not completed till 17 December 1546. The letters patent founding the -College and the charter of dotation were signed a few days later[15]. -The actual endowment granted was valued at £1640 net a year, which -must have been deemed ample to provide for the expenses and the -maintenance of the House. Comparing this income and the estimated -expenditure with those of King's Hall and Michael-House we gather how -much more important than these colleges was the contemplated new -foundation. - -Thus were King's Hall and Michael-House dissolved, but only to be -merged in a new and nobler Society. The letters patent founding -Trinity College state that Henry to the glory and honour of Almighty -God and the Holy and Undivided Trinity, for the amplification and -establishment of the Christian and true religion, the extirpation of -heresy and false opinion, the increase and continuance of divine -learning and all kinds of godliness, the knowledge of language, the -education of youth in piety virtue discipline and learning, the relief -of the poor and destitute, the prosperity of the Church of Christ, and -the common good and happiness of his kingdom and subjects, founded and -established a College of letters, sciences, philosophy; godliness, and -sacred theology, for all time to endure. These are noble objects, and -we may look back with honourable pride to the way in which Trinity -College has on the whole carried out the intentions of its founder. - -The organization of the new College followed closely that outlined in -the _Distribucio_. To meet the expenses already incurred during the -Michaelmas term the Court of Augmentations[16] in January 1547 paid -Redman £590 "towards the exhibition of King's Scholars in Cambridge." -This was about one-third of the total intended income of the House, -and presumably cleared matters up to 24 December 1546, when the -College entered into possession of its endowments. If we may trust the -sermon preached in London on 12 December 1550, by Thomas Lever, -subsequently master of St John's College, Trinity had reason to regret -the death of Henry in January 1547, for the preacher asserted that a -substantial part of the intended endowment was appropriated by -courtiers in London; I have never investigated what part (if any) of -it was thus lost to the College. - -The first account-book of the new College covers the civil year 1547, -but only certain selected items of income and expenditure appear -therein. It shows total receipts of £786. 16s. 7d. and total payments -of £799. 11s. 1½d. Most of the income is said to have come from the -"Tower." I conjecture that rents, etc. were paid to the master who -kept the college moneys in the treasury in the Tower, and the bursar -in his book accounted only for such portion of it as was handed to -him: of other sums received or paid on account of the Society, we -have no particulars. In most cases the commons (though not the -stipends or wages) paid to officers are set out, but up to Lady-Day -instead of giving full details there is an entry of £52. 6s. 10d. paid -to fellows and scholars for "the first quarter after the erection, -besides stipends and wages." The account-book for the next year, 1548, -is better kept. It shows total receipts of £531. 13s. 11½d. and total -payments of £528. 12s. 8½d. In the accounts of this year are mentioned -a master, fifty graduate fellows (of whom thirteen were bachelors), -ten dialectici, forty-two grammarians, and eight bible-clerks. Entries -appear of payments for commons to six former members of King's Hall -and Michael-House, but of these only three seem to have been in -regular residence. An examination of the early account-books allows us -to see something of the development of the College, but a description -of this would hardly come within the purview of this paper. - - -[Footnote 1: _Cambridge Documents_ issued by the Royal Commissioners, -London, 1852, vol. III, pp. 365-410.] - -[Footnote 2: This was true some years ago when this paper was written, -but since then I have given part of the story in a booklet on the -King's Scholars and King's Hall which, at the request of the College, -I wrote in 1917 for the meeting held to celebrate the six-hundredth -anniversary of the execution by Edward II of the writ establishing -those scholars in the University of Cambridge.] - -[Footnote 3: 37 Henry VIII, cap. 4.] - -[Footnote 4: _Correspondence of M. Parker_, Cambridge, 1852, p. 34.] - -[Footnote 5: _Life of T. Smith_ by J. Strype, Oxford, 1820, -pp. 29-30.] - -[Footnote 6: _State Papers_, Domestic, 1546, vol. XXI, part i, no. 68. -See also J. Lamb's _Documents_, London, 1838, pp. 58-59; -_Correspondence of M. Parker_, Cambridge, 1852, p. 34.] - -[Footnote 7: _State Papers_, Domestic, 1546, part i, nos. 203, 204.] - -[Footnote 8: _Ecclesiastical Memorials_ by J. Strype, Oxford, 1882, -vol. XI, part i, pp. 207-208; _Correspondence of M. Parker_, p. 36.] - -[Footnote 9: _Cambridge Documents_, vol. I, pp. 105-294.] - -[Footnote 10: _Correspondence of M. Parker_, pp. 35-36; J. Lamb's -_Documents_, p. 59.] - -[Footnote 11: _State Papers_, Domestic, Edward VI, May 1549.] - -[Footnote 12: Senior undergraduates were then commonly termed -dialectici.] - -[Footnote 13: _State Papers_, Domestic, 1546, no. 647 (25).] - -[Footnote 14: Three fellow-commoners had matriculated from King's Hall -in 1544.] - -[Footnote 15: The charter of foundation, dated 19 December, and that -of endowment, dated 24 December, are printed at length in the -_Cambridge Documents_, vol. III, pp. 365-410.] - -[Footnote 16: C.H. Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, Cambridge, 1842, -vol. I, p. 452.] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE TUTORIAL SYSTEM. - - -The word Tutor is used at Cambridge to describe an officer of a -College who stands to his pupils in loco parentis; now-a-days he may, -but does not necessarily, give direct instruction to them. The object -of this chapter is to describe the development of the office in -Trinity College. - -Trinity College was founded in 1546 by Henry VIII. It is, however, -essential in dealing with its early history to bear in mind that it -was founded in a pre-existing[17] University having well-established -rules and customs. Nearly all the original members of Trinity had been -educated at Cambridge, they were familiar with its traditions, and -even the buildings they occupied were associated with the college life -of earlier times. It was intended that the Society should promote the -reformed religion and the new learning, but there is no reason to -suppose that in establishing it, it was wished or proposed to alter -the existing practice about the tuition, guidance, and care of the -younger students. - -In the system in force in the University shortly before the -foundation of Trinity, the students corresponding to our scholars and -sizars lived in endowed colleges (of which eight were founded before -1353 and seven between 1440 and 1520), most of those corresponding to -our pensioners in unendowed private hostels (of which in the sixteenth -century there were twenty-seven and in earlier times possibly a few -more), and most of those belonging to religious orders in monasteries -or monastic hostels. A student on admission to the University was -apprenticed to some master of arts or doctor who directed the lad's -studies until he took a master's degree. This graduate was known as -the student's "master": in the case of a member of a college we may -assume that the master was chosen from among the senior members of the -House, though it is doubtful if this was necessarily so in the case of -the hostels. The head of a college or hostel was responsible for the -conduct and control of the lad in non-scholastic matters, but in -colleges in later times this work was assigned to a dean. Thus for -practical purposes a tutorial system already existed in the medieval -system of apprenticeship and control. - -The royal scheme for Trinity College comprised a master, fifteen -senior fellows, twenty-five middle fellows, twenty junior fellows (of -whom, in 1546, thirteen were undergraduates), and forty grammarian -school-boys. In addition to these, there were servant-students (known -as sizars or subsizars), each being attached as gyp to a particular -fellow, and receiving education, board, and lodging in lieu of money -wages. There is nothing to show whether or not the presence of -pensioners was contemplated. - -We have a list, apparently complete, of all the intended officers; -tutors do not appear among them, though a schoolmaster and usher were -provided for the grammarians. Hence it would seem that the relation -between an apprenticed undergraduate and his master was regarded as -personal, and that the latter was selected and paid by his pupil or -pupil's guardian, and not by or through the College--I conjecture that -this was the usual medieval practice. The deans are mentioned as -officers of the College, and the discipline of the younger members was -part of their business, though no doubt a lad's master or tutor -assisted in enforcing it. The formal charter of foundation was given -by Henry in December 1546, but the grammarians are not mentioned -therein. - -During the next six years, 1546-1552, three important developments -took place. First, the grammar-school side of the College was -abandoned, and all boys then in the school were entered as scholars -of the House; next, and perhaps consequent on the abolition of the -school, a distinction between fellows and scholars was drawn; and -finally, following the growing custom of other colleges, the -admission of pensioners was definitely recognized as desirable, thus -introducing a class of students below the standing of scholars. Before -coming to the subject of tutors it will be well to add a word or two -about the pensioners and scholars of these early days. - -With the upset of the medieval scheme of education the number of -pensioners and fellow-commoners seeking admission to the University -greatly decreased, and the reception of a limited number of them in -the colleges fairly met the needs of the University. The private -hostels were then no longer wanted and being unendowed disappeared. -Thus when again, as soon happened, the number of would-be pensioners -increased, it was necessary (unless new non-collegiate arrangements -were made for their reception in the University) to admit them in -larger numbers to the colleges. At Trinity a limit was, in theory, -placed on the number of pensioners admissible, but not on that of -fellow-commoners. A pensioner at Trinity, and I suppose also at other -colleges, had to be qualified by learning and morals for admission, -and I conceive further that his entry was conditional on his finding a -fellow who would receive him. A pensioner or fellow-commoner had no -rights, and resided only on such terms and as long as the College or -the fellow receiving him willed. I believe that students of this class -did not often stay here for more than three or four years unless in -due course they became scholars. - -A most important question for the new College was how the supply of -scholars and fellows should be provided. In King's Hall vacancies -were filled by royal nomination, and boys came into residence as -scholars-elect. We do not know what was proposed in 1546, but I think -that, as far as entry to the grammar-school was concerned, nomination -by the senior fellows was the most likely method to have been -contemplated. The abandonment of the school and the enrolment of all -its members as scholars of the House must however have raised the -question in an acute form, and it was settled in or before 1552 by the -establishment of an annual examination for the election of scholars. -Probably from the first it was intended that the new fellows should be -formally elected and admitted. - -The charter of 1546 contains a reference to statutes to be given later -by the king. There was considerable delay in preparing these, and the -liberty of action thus left to the Society seems to have been used -unwisely, for the commissioners of 1549 reported that its state was -"much out of order, governed at large and pleasure for want of -statutes ... the fellows for the most part too bad." - -In November 1552 the College received the long-expected statutes by -which it was to be governed: with their appearance we leave the field -of conjecture and come to facts. The foundation as here described -included a master, fifty fellows of the standing of master or doctor, -and sixty bachelor and undergraduate scholars: provision was also made -for student-servants or sizars. Vacancies in the roll of scholars were -to be filled by an annual election held at Michaelmas on the result -of a two days' examination. Bachelors of arts and those insane or -suffering from contagious disease (a curious conjunction) were -ineligible: also there could not, at any one time, be more than three -scholars from any one county. The regulation that a bachelor was not -eligible for election to a scholarship suggests that a candidate might -be in residence as an undergraduate, though it does not exclude the -candidature of those who were not already members of the House, but -the custom (if it ever existed) of electing non-residents had died out -before 1560. The admission of pensioners, not exceeding fifty-four in -number, was definitely recognized in 1552: of these the master might -take as his pupils four, and each fellow one. The pensioner which -every fellow might thus receive was in addition to such scholars as -had been assigned to him as pupils, but though scholars had tutors, -the fellow responsible for a pensioner is not explicitly described as -his tutor. It seems that an important part of the duty of a tutor was -to see that all payments due to the college from his pupils were made -punctually. Scholars, unlike pensioners, had definite rights. - -The following are some of the regulations: - - Nemo ex discipulis sine tutore in collegio sit, qui fuerit, - expellatur. Pupilli tutoribus pareant, honorem paternum et - reverentiam exhibeant, quorum cura consumitur in illis informandis - et ad pietatem scientiamque instruendis. Tutores fideliter et - diligenter quae docenda sunt suos doceant, quae agenda instruant et - admoneant. Omnia pupillorum expensa tutores collegio praestent, et - singulis mensibus aes debitum pro se et suis quaestoribus solvant. - Quod ni fecerint, tantisper commeatu priventur dum pecunia - dissolvatur. Pupillus neque a tutore rejiciatur, neque tutorem suum - ubi velit mutet nisi legitima de causa a praeside et senatu - probanda; qui fecerit collegio excludatur.... In discipulis - eligendis praecipua ratio ingenii et inopiae sit, in quibus ut - quisque valet maxime ita ceteris proferatur. Eo adjungatur doctrinae - studium et mediocris jam profectus, et reliqui temporis spes illum - fore ad communem reipublicae posthac idoneum. Horum studium sit ut - vitae innocentiam cum doctrinae veritate conjungant, et in veritate - rerum inquirendi et honestate persequenda laborent.... Sic sint - grammaticis et studiis humanitatis instituti ut inquisitiones aulae - sustinere et domesticas exercitationes suscipere possint.... - Pensionarii et studiorum socii in collegium recipiantur ... - provideatur ut neque praesidi plures quam quatuor neque singulis - sociis plures uno pensionario sint. - -Grave offences were punishable by expulsion, rustication, etc., and -those who committed only "minor offences" were liable to penalties of -extreme severity. Thus we read: - - Quicunque in aliqua parte officii sui negligentior fuerit, et - aliquem e magistratibus bene admonentem non audiverit, aut - insolentem se ostenderit, si ephoebus sit verberibus sin ex ephoebis - excesserit decennali victu careat et uterque praeterea poenitentiam - declamatione tostetur. - -The text is corrupt, but the meaning is clear. A marginal note -suggests the obvious correction that decemdiali should be read for -decennali. The deans superintended, even if they did not inflict, -corporal punishment when it was ordered. - -Another code of statutes was drawn up in 1554, but was never sealed, -and thus did not become effective. I need not quote the text which, on -tutorial matters, does not differ materially from that of 1560. The -draft contains a clause to the effect that the master of the College -was not to take more than four pensioners as his pupils, a fellow who -was a master of arts or of some superior degree was not to take more -than two, and no one else was to take a pensioner as a pupil. The word -"two" however has been crossed out and "one" substituted. From this it -would seem that the question of how many pensioners it was desirable -to admit was already a matter of debate. - -In 1560 new statutes were granted to the College, and its constitution -as then settled remained practically unaltered till 1861. In this -code the foundation is described as including a master, sixty fellows, -four chaplains, sixty-two scholars, and thirteen sizars or gyps, -namely, three for the master and one for each of the ten senior -fellows. Henceforth scholars were elected annually in the spring, from -undergraduates already in residence. By a gracious provision, whose -disappearance in 1861 I regret, it was ordered that forty of the -scholarships should be specifically associated with the name of -Henry VIII, twenty with that of queen Mary, and two with that of -Thomas Allen as pre-eminent benefactors. Pensioners and subsizars were -also admissible to the Society on conditions. If fellow-commoners -dined at the high table, as seems likely, they may have been reckoned -extra numerum. Every student under the degree of master of arts was -required to have a tutor, thus regularizing the position of -fellow-commoners, pensioners, sizars, and subsizars as members of the -College, and bringing them under the same rule as scholars. - -The regulations in point are as follows: - - Est ea quidem ineuntis aetatis imbecillitas ut provectiorum consilio - et prudentia necessario moderanda sit, et propterea statuimus et - volumus ut nemo ex baccalaureis, discipulis, pensionariis, - sisatoribus, et subsisatoribus tutore careat: qui autem caruerit, - nisi intra quindecim dies unum sibi paraverit, e collegio ejiciatur. - Pupilli tutoribus pareant, honoremque paternum ac reverentiam - deferant, quorum studium, labor, et diligentia in illis ad pietatem - et scientiam informandis ponitur. Tutores sedulo quae docenda sunt - doceant, quaeque etiam agenda instruant admoneantque. Omnia - pupillorum expensa tutores collegio praestent, et intra decem dies - cujusque mensis finiti aes debitum pro se ac suis omnibus senescallo - solvant. Quod ni fecerint, tantisper commeatu priventur dum pecunia - a se collegio debita dissolvatur. Cautumque esto ne pupillus - quispiam vel stipendium suum a thesaurariis recipiat vel rationem - pro se cum eisdem aliquando ineat, sed utrumque per tutorem semper - sub poena commeatus menstrui a dicto tutore collegio solvendi fieri - volumus.... Pensionarios ut studiorum socios in collegium - recipiendos statuimus; sitque in illis recipiendis ratio morum ac - doctrinae diligenter habita; magistris artium aut superioris gradus - unum, baccalaureis autem nullum omnino concedimus. Nemo illorum - admittatur nisi a decano seniore et primario lectore examinatus. - -In time, serious discrepancies between the statutes and the practice -of the College grew up. Some, but not all, of these were removed in -1844, when the statutes were revised. The sentence above quoted -"magistris artium aut superioris gradus unum, baccalaureis autem -nullum omnino concedimus" was then struck out. - -In 1861 new statutes were given to the College: these contain no -mention of pensioners, but merely prescribe that no bachelor or -undergraduate shall be without a tutor. The present statutes of 1882 -similarly direct that no member of the College in statu pupillari -shall be without a tutor. - -Except by accident, we have no record before 1635 of the names of the -tutors of the various students, but it is probable that at first the -master regularly entered some undergraduates as his own pupils: -certainly Whitgift did so, and so too did some of his successors. It -seems most likely also that by 1560 it was already usual for the -master to assign a student to that fellow who was to act as his tutor, -though of course regard must always have been paid to the wishes of a -parent or guardian in this matter. This remained the ordinary custom -for perhaps two hundred years. - -Some information on tutorial affairs in the sixteenth century may be -gathered from an account-book kept by Whitgift, covering parts of the -years 1570 to 1576, and containing statements of the charges he made -as tutor: the names of thirty-nine men are given. In the history of -Trinity College which I wrote for my pupils some years ago, I -published a few of these bills. I give here a few details illustrative -of the many matters with which a tutor was then concerned. - -The payment made to him as tutor varied in different cases, but 6s. -8d. a quarter for a sizar, 10s. for a pensioner, and 13s. 4d. for a -fellow-commoner were usual sums. In a few cases there are records of -an admission-fee to the College or a fee for entering into commons: -the normal payment for this was 15s. for a pensioner, and 20s. for a -fellow-commoner--there is no mention of any such charge in the case of -a sizar. The cost of the silly ceremony by which the senior -undergraduates initiated a freshman, known as his salting, was charged -in the bills, and varied from 8d. for a sizar and 1s. 4d. for a -pensioner to 4s. for a fellow-commoner. The charge for matriculation -appears to have been 4d. for a sizar, 1s. for a pensioner, and 2s. for -a fellow-commoner. - -Of course the cost of the purchase of books comes in most of the -accounts. Aristotle, Plato, Sophocles, and Demosthenes constantly -appear among Greek writers, Homer and Xenophon only once; Cicero, -Caesar, Sallust, and Lucian occur often among the Latin authors, Livy -only once. Euripides and Horace are noticeable by their absence. I -have not observed any mathematical books. Works by Seton and Erasmus -are frequently mentioned. Among English books we have a prayer-book -charged at 1s., a service-book at 1s. 8d., a bible at 9s., and a -testament at 2s. The charge for a bible in Latin was 7s. and for a new -testament in Greek 2s. A Greek grammar cost 1s., 1s. 2d., or 1s. 4d.; -a Hebrew grammar 1s. which seems cheap. Paper was charged 4d. by the -quire and 2s. 6d. by the half-ream: the cost of a bundle of pens and -an inkhorn was usually 4d. or 6d. - -Clothes appear to have been expensive, but naturally the cost varied -widely according to the status of the student. Apparently at that time -the wardrobes of men were fairly extensive: the prices of the various -articles are set out in full. I hesitate to distinguish academic gowns -from other robes, but the charge of 4s. to John Waring, a pensioner, -for his gown and square cap, as also the charge of 2s. 6d. for making -a gown and hood for Phillip Harrison, another pensioner, must, I -think, be taken to refer to academic costumes. The cost of a surplice -to Richard Therald, a sizar, was 4s., but to Henry Gates, a -fellow-commoner, was as much as 11s. 7d. - -As to amusements, the richer students seem to have kept or hired -horses at considerable cost. Horse-hire to London varied from 4s. to -8s.; to Lincoln from 3s. 6d. to 4s. 8d. Bows and arrows constantly -appear in the bills--the price of a bow ranging from 1s. 4d. to 3s. -Tennis was another popular amusement of the day. The court stood on -the site of the north end of the present library, and the keeper of -the court was regarded as a college servant; there are no charges in -connection with the bats, balls, or use of the court. - -It may be interesting to notice that coals were used regularly as well -as wood: they were sold at 1s. 3d. a sack. Candles were charged at -either 3d. or 4d. a pound. Among miscellaneous things 6d. was charged -for an hour-glass; 4d. for a mouse-trap; 10d. for a scabbard for a -rapier; and 10s. for a lute. A set of singing lessons cost 3s. and a -set of dancing lessons 6s. - -Sickness appears to have been common. In general we have no record of -the duration of illnesses, and the charges for doctors and chemists -varied widely. The charge for plucking out one tooth seems to have -been 1s. 4d., but for two teeth the dentist reduced his charge to 1s. -a tooth. - -We get another aspect of student and tutorial affairs in the next -century (in 1659) contained in a long letter from which I gave -extracts in the history of the College to which I have already -referred. Robert Creighton, pronounced Crickt-on, of Somersetshire, a -Westminster boy and a scholar of the House, was then a candidate for a -fellowship. At the time there were in residence a good many zealots, -introduced into the Society under presbyterian or Cromwellian -auspices, and one of these, a year senior to Creighton, was also a -candidate for a fellowship. Just before the election some of the -scholars were playing tennis in the college court when the ball by -chance struck one of them in the eye. On this Creighton called out "Oh -God, Oh God, the scholar's eye is stroke out," whereon his competitor -accused him to the authorities as a profane person who took God's -name in vain; and as confirmation added that he never came to the -private prayer meetings of the students. By good luck the master was -Wilkins, afterwards bishop of Chester, who owed his appointment more -to the fact that he had married Cromwell's sister than to his devotion -to the doctrines of the Independents. It is clear that he disapproved -of the complaint, but he considered it prudent to summon a meeting of -the seniority to hear the case and examine witnesses. Creighton's -tutor, Duport (who gave us our large silver salt-cellar), spoke up for -his pupil, and thereon the master said that the charge looked like -malice, and it did not matter much if Creighton did neglect to go to -the private prayer meetings of undergraduates since he never failed to -go to chapel and to his tutor's lectures. He then proposed, if we may -trust our authority, that the seniority should at once reject the -informer and his friends, and elect to the vacant fellowships the -accused and his friends, and so it was done. Such were elections then! - -It is satisfactory to add that public opinion in the College was -against those who trumped up this ridiculous charge, and on the day -after the election the following notice was found on the screens. "He -that informed against Ds Creighton deserves to have his breech kickt -on." An amusing glimpse of life under the Commonwealth. Note that the -tutor gave lectures to his pupils, and from the tutorial point of -view observe the esteem gained by regular attendance thereat. - -No obligation to take pupils seems ever to have been imposed on -fellows, though a pupil once taken could not be transferred. This, and -the fact that scholars were elected only from students already in -residence, made it undesirable to retain any rule to the effect that a -fellow should not have more than one pensioner as a pupil. Hence in -time those who liked tutorial work and did it well were allowed to -have more than one pensioner pupil, and gradually the bulk of the -entries came to be made under a comparatively few tutors. - -The average annual entry of students at Trinity during the years 1551 -to 1600 was fifty-one, during the years 1601 to 1650 was fifty, and -during the years 1651 to 1700 was thirty-nine. During the years 1701 -to 1750, it sank to twenty-seven: this diminution being partly due to -the Bentley scandals. During the years 1751 to 1800 the average annual -entry was thirty-seven, during the years 1801 to 1850 was one hundred -and sixteen, during the years 1851 to 1900 was one hundred and -seventy-four, and during the years 1901 to 1913 was one hundred and -ninety-nine. - -Let us see how the men were divided among the tutors. From April to -December 1635, twenty-eight students were admitted who were -distributed among seventeen tutors, of whom eleven had only one pupil -and none had more than four pupils. Taking every tenth year -thenceforward, we find that in 1645, there were (excluding ten fellows -intruded by order of parliament) fifty-seven entries; of these -fifty-one were divided among ten tutors. In 1655, there were -fifty-three normal entries divided among twelve tutors; in 1665, -forty-three entries divided among six tutors; in 1675, forty-nine -entries divided among twelve tutors; in 1685, thirty-four entries -divided among five tutors; and in 1695, twenty-eight entries divided -among four tutors. In 1705, there were twenty-nine entries, of these -twenty-eight students were divided among three tutors. In 1715, there -were fourteen entries divided among six tutors; in 1725, thirty-four -entries divided among twelve tutors; in 1735, twenty-eight entries -divided among six tutors; and in 1745, twenty-one entries divided -among eight tutors. - -In 1755 there were only two fellows acting as tutors, namely -S. Whisson and J. Backhouse. Thenceforth there were definite tutorial -"sides," each under one tutor or joint tutors, a tutor being appointed -to a side when a vacancy occurred; and every admission to the College -being made on a designated side. In effect the work of a tutor was now -regarded as being of a character which should occupy a man's whole -energies, and it was generally held that a tutor, while he held -office, had not, and ought not to have, leisure during term-time for -independent work. From 1755 to 1822 there were two sides. In 1822 a -third side was created. In 1872 one of the sides (being the lineal -successor of Backhouse's side) was divided into two. These four sides -are to-day designated in the college office by the letters _A_, _B_, -_C_, _D_; side _A_ being that created in 1822, sides _B_ and _D_ being -the two made out of the successor of Backhouse's side, and side _C_ -being the lineal successor of Whisson's side. [In the pre-war days of -1914 side _A_ was under Dr Barnes, side _B_ under Mr Laurence, side -_C_ under Mr Whetham, and side _D_ under Dr Fletcher.] - -Proceeding by decades in the same way as before, the entries on each -of the two sides (denoted by _C_ and _BD_) which existed from 1755 to -1822 were in 1755, nineteen and ten; in 1765, four and six; in 1775, -twenty-one and twenty-four; in 1785, eighteen and twenty-nine; in -1795, twenty-nine and seventeen; in 1805, forty-two and twenty-six; -and in 1815, fifty-one and thirty-six. From 1822 to 1872 there were -three sides (denoted by _C_, _BD_, _A_): the normal entries on these -were in 1825, forty-two, fifty-five, forty-one; in 1835, forty, -forty-five, fifty-three; in 1845, fifty, sixty-eight, forty-nine; in -1855, fifty-three, forty-eight, fifty; and in 1865, fifty-eight, -nineteen, sixty. Since 1872 there have been four sides (denoted by -_C_, _B_, _D_, _A_) which were made approximately equal: the normal -entries on these were in 1875, forty-one, forty, forty-four, forty; in -1885, forty-nine, forty-four, forty-five, forty-eight; in 1895, -forty-eight, thirty-eight, fifty, fifty-one; and in 1905, fifty, -fifty-three, fifty, fifty-seven. - -Until 1755 the number of pupils in residence in any one term assigned -to an individual tutor was not large, and a tutor interested in any -particular aspect of a subject likely to be studied was generally -available: hence it was usually possible for a tutor to give -personally the teaching and guidance required by his pupils. There -were then no lecture-rooms in College, so probably all instruction was -given in the tutor's rooms and was informal in character. With the -establishment in 1755 of sides, this system of teaching required -modification, and in the course of the latter half of the eighteenth -century it became the custom for a tutor to supplement his teaching by -the services of another fellow or other fellows. These officers, known -as Assistant-Tutors, were appointed and paid by individual tutors; -they lectured regularly, took an important part in the life of the -Society, and occupied a recognized position. - -A marked development of the system of formal lectures is indicated by -the erection in 1835 of a block of four large and four medium-sized -lecture-rooms. No other important changes were made for another thirty -years, and until 1868 instruction remained normally organized by -sides; indeed it was only by arrangement that lectures on one side -were open to men on the other sides, though in fairness it must be -added that an arrangement for throwing them open was made as a matter -of course whenever it seemed desirable. The retention to so late a -date of appointments by sides was due to the fact that the finances of -the four sides were then kept as separate accounts. - -This scheme, clumsy and illogical though it was, might have worked -fairly well as long as the great majority of honour men read nothing -but mathematics, classics, and perhaps theology, but it was condemned -by the fact that the authorities allowed it to be superseded in -practice by an elaborate system of private tuition paid for by the -individual students. With the introduction of new subjects (like law, -history, and various branches of science) and the development of the -corresponding triposes, it became necessary to recast the scheme of -teaching if adequate college instruction on such subjects was to be -provided. The earliest appointment of a college lecturer (as -contrasted with an assistant-tutor nominally attached to a particular -side) was made in 1868, his lectures being open to all students of -the Society, and his stipend not charged on the funds of a particular -side. This was soon followed by the placing of all educational -appointments and finance in the hands of the College without regard to -sides; and shortly afterwards the lecture-room accommodation was -considerably extended. - -About this time a further step was taken by throwing most of the -advanced lectures open to members of other colleges. Thus in a few -years instruction by tutorial sides was replaced by college lectures -and class-work, and then this, to a large extent, by teaching -organized on a university basis, supplemented by individual and -catechetical instruction in college: with this, the custom of using -private tuition has largely disappeared. Ultimately the title of -assistant-tutor was dropped; the last appointment under that title was -made in 1885, but from about 1870 we may say that practically the -duties of an assistant-tutor were those of a lecturer. Thenceforth -tutors also took their share of lecturing on subjects connected with -their own lines of study, and did not confine their instruction to -their own pupils, though for a year or two lectures on elementary -mathematics and classics to freshmen on each particular side survived -as a historic curiosity. These changes led to the existing scheme -under which tutorial and tuition duties are separated, and thus the -giving of direct instruction to his pupils is not now necessarily -part of the duties of a tutor. - -The sequence of tutors on each side has been published, and I am -sorely tempted to add various anecdotes on the way in which some of -these officers fulfilled their duties, but such additions lie outside -the object of this essay. - -Of course during this long period there have been bad as well as good -tutors, but I think everyone will admit that on the whole the system -has worked well. Its special characteristic is a personal relation -between the tutor and the pupil, materially strengthened by constant -intercourse and by the fact that practically all the correspondence -with the parents of the pupil passes through the hands of the tutor: -experience shows that the tutorial influence has not been weakened by -the fact that in most cases direct instruction is now given by other -lecturers. - - -[Footnote 17: The history of the University prior to 1546 covers some -three centuries and a half, that is, about as long a period as has -elapsed since 1546.] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE WESTMINSTER SCHOLARS. - - -The relations between Trinity College and Westminster School have -always been of an intimate character. Under the Elizabethan statutes -of the two foundations a limited number of boys from the school were -entitled, if duly qualified, to election to scholarships at Trinity, -and later an attempt was made to extend the privilege to fellowships. -The whole matter is now one of ancient history, but it may be -interesting to put on record some of the facts connected with it. - -The school at Westminster owes its foundation to queen Elizabeth. Of -course the abbey is many centuries older, and in a sense so is the -school, for a grammar-school (in addition to the choir-school) had -been attached to the medieval monastery, though doubtless it existed -only at the pleasure of the monks. When Henry VIII created the diocese -of Westminster with the former abbey as its cathedral, he also -established a school connected with it. The diocese soon disappeared, -and later the church and buildings were given by queen Mary to the -Benedictines. The arrangement made by Mary was in turn annulled by -Elizabeth, who, shortly after her succession founded the collegiate -Church of St Peter, divided into two branches, one ecclesiastical and -the other scholastic, the whole being placed under the rule of the -dean and chapter. Thus Elizabeth is rightly designated as the founder -of the present school, though a link with the past has been preserved -in the fact that the sequence of headmasters dates by custom from -1540. The buildings were divided between the two sides of the College; -for the scholastic side, one part of the monastic dormitory was made -into a school-room, the granary was turned into a school dormitory, -and the boys were allowed the use of the refectory for meals. - -The queen interested herself in the school she had established; its -connection with particular colleges at the universities was suggested -by the precedents of Winchester and Eton, and it was natural that she -should desire to associate it closely with the Houses at Cambridge and -Oxford which had been founded by her father. There is some reason to -think that the details of the arrangement made were due to Bill, the -first dean of Westminster, who was at the same time master of Trinity -and provost of Eton; a fortunate pluralist! - -On 29 March 1560, Elizabeth gave new statutes to Trinity College, -Cambridge, and in statute 13, dealing with the sixty-two scholars of -the College, she directed as follows: - - Sumantur autem potissimum et eligantur ex eorum numero, si modo - idonei et ceteris pares reperiantur qui Schola Regia Westmonasterii - educati ... sint.... Ex aliis regni partibus ac locis indifferenter - ad numerum supplendum qui maxime idonei videbuntur, semper sumantur. - -In June 1560, she gave statutes to the Collegiate Church at -Westminster, and in statute 6, dealing with the forty scholars of the -school, she directed that three scholars from the school should be -elected annually to the foundation of Christ Church, Oxford, and three -to that of Trinity College, Cambridge. It is said that the queen did -not ratify these statutes. Be this as it may, in the following year, -on 11 June 1561, she sent to Trinity College letters patent referring -to the Westminster statutes as indicating her wishes in the matter, -and expressing her desire that the Society should select as many -scholars from Westminster as was possible. This then was the position -in 1561, and it was recognised these letters were binding and -conferred rights on duly qualified Westminster scholars. - -Throughout the three centuries of the existence of these rights, -candidates usually preferred the Christ Church studentships, which, -being tenable under certain conditions for life, were much more -valuable than Trinity scholarships, since the latter ran out in less -than seven years. Perhaps too the boys were attracted to Christ Church -rather than to Trinity by the fact that there they formed a larger -proportion of the whole Society than in Henry's foundation by the Cam. -Further a boy elected to Christ Church entered sooner into the -emoluments of his studentship than a boy elected to Trinity--the -latter not being admitted to his scholarship until the next annual -election of scholars which took place in the following spring, usually -some six months after he had commenced residence. - -There were only forty scholars at Westminster and a provision for the -election from them every year of six scholars to the two universities -was more than ample. Thus in 1561 one scholar was elected to each -university, during each of the six following years, 1562-67, two -scholars were elected to each university, in 1568, six scholars were -for the first time presented, and each university took three. In 1569 -the school again presented three boys for election at Trinity, but the -master, Whitgift, refused to elect more than two, alleging that there -were not vacancies in the House for more than that number. Thereon the -scholar or his friends appealed to Sir William Cecil, the chancellor -of the University. Correspondence ensued, but the Society refused to -give way on the particular election. On the general question the -College addressed a letter[18], dated 3 July 1569, to Cecil -entreating him to interpose with the queen to lighten the burden -imposed on Trinity by the royal statutes, and asserting that the -Westminster scholars took up so many places as to act to the detriment -of other and more worthy students. The crown assented to this -proposal, and it was agreed that thenceforth three scholars should be -chosen every third year, and not necessarily more than two in the -other years. - -This arrangement lasted but a short time, for a year or two later, -perhaps in 1575, Goodman, dean of Westminster, petitioned[19] the lord -treasurer to confirm or re-enact the original statutes whereby three -Westminster scholars were to be elected each year to each of the two -universities. The petition was granted, and, I conjecture, was the -occasion of the letters patent sent by the queen on 7 February 1576, -to Trinity College, Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford, wherein she -repeated and explained her former injunctions. In these letters she -stated that Westminster scholars were not to be allowed to remain at -the school after attaining the age of eighteen, and in regard to their -coming to one of the universities she directed: - - Quamvis cupimus plurimos e nostris Discipulis Westmonasterii ad - Academias in dicta Collegia quotannis promoveri, tamen ne incertus - sit omnino numerus, sex ad minimum, videlicet, tres in Ecclesiam - Christi Oxonii et tres in Collegium Trinitatis, singulis annis, si - aut tot loca vacua ... aut tot idonei e nostris Discipulis - Westmonasterii reperti fuerint, admitti volumus; Plures autem - optamus, si ita praefatis Electoribus commodum videbitur. - -In fact, however, the former custom of electing three scholars every -third year and two scholars in each of the other years continued until -1588 after which it became usual, though the custom was not -invariable, to elect at least three scholars to each university each -year. During the forty-seven years from 1561 to 1607 inclusive, one -hundred and thirteen scholars in all were elected from Westminster to -Trinity, of whom forty became fellows. - -In 1603 James I came to the throne. He interested himself in the -school and was prepared to intervene in its interests or what he -regarded as such. The earliest case of difficulty in the new reign -occurred at the election in 1604 when the king directed the master of -Trinity, Nevile, to whom in fact he was under some obligations, to -take a boy, by name Albert Moreton, as one of the scholars of -Trinity[20]. The boy was ignorant, and Nevile politely but definitely -refused to accept him. The matter was not urged further, and though on -some occasions later the Trinity electors consented under pressure to -alter the order in which candidates were elected, their right to -reject on the ground of ignorance was not again disputed. Three years -later, the College was faced by a more serious question concerning its -connection with Westminster. - -In 1607, James I addressed letters patent to Trinity College, in which -after referring to the letters patent already mentioned, he ordered -them to be strictly observed, and intimated that thereafter the -scholars of Trinity should be taken chiefly from Westminster school if -duly qualified. He then continued that he observed that the scholars -who had been elected to Christ Church were notable for their learning -and subsequent distinction, and regretted that this was not so in the -case of the scholars elected to Trinity, a fact which he attributed to -their want of succession to fellowships and to their leaving the -University as soon as they had taken the degree of master. Accordingly -he ordered that Westminster scholars at Trinity who had taken the -bachelor's degree should, unless deficient in learning or good -conduct, be promoted to fellowships in preference to other candidates. -He further ordered that any Westminster scholar in the College, who -had not been admitted to a fellowship before taking a master's degree, -might remain resident an additional two years during which time he -should be eligible to a fellowship, subject to lawful exceptions. The -letters are dated 27 June 1607, but it would appear that they were not -presented until September of that year. - -Deep resentment was felt at this order, for Trinity attached great -importance to the desirability of electing as fellows the best -candidates, though it was admitted that candidates from places where -the House had property had statutable claims for special -consideration. The College took immediate steps to protect itself, and -in support of its position addressed to the chancellor of the -University, the earl of Salisbury, a petition accompanied by a -reasoned memorandum. These documents are not dated, but I think may be -assigned to the Michaelmas term, 1607. - -The petition is briefly to beg the chancellor to assist the College in -obtaining a review of the letters patent with the object of -maintaining its ancient privileges and former liberties; the letters -patent being said to be contrary to the intentions of its founder, and -to its statutes[21]. The wording is humble and courtly. - -The memorandum that accompanied the petition is more outspoken. It is -long, but it is so interesting that I shall venture to quote from or -describe it at length. I conjecture that it was composed by Nevile. -It contains fourteen assertions or arguments to the following effect: - - 1. It is inconvenient that so large a College as Trinity should be - restrained unto a particular School, and it can be easily shown that - other Schools have furnished Trinity with students of much better - hope and proof than Westminster hath done or is likely to do, for - the whole number of Westminster boys who are eligible to both - Universities are but forty, and there are seldom more than eight or - nine candidates for the six vacancies at the two Universities. - - 2. To alter or subvert the ancient liberties of one of the chiefest - Colleges in Christendom and to divert from the uses intended by his - Majesty's Predecessors a foundation like Trinity in order to satisfy - private humour or under the pretence of benefitting an ordinary - School is a great indignity to his Majesty's Sacred Person, Power, - and Prerogative. - - 3. The suggestion that boys coming to Trinity do not become Fellows, - Doctors, Deans, and Bishops as do boys entering Christ Church is - untrue, frivolous, and unfair: it is untrue, because, in fact, of - the existing sixty Fellows of the College, more than one-sixth have - come from Westminster, and at Trinity the custom is to prefer the - worthy: it is frivolous, for the fact of a man having once been at - school at Westminster is not the cause of his advancement to the - position of a Doctor, Dean, or Bishop: and it is unfair, "for - although Christ Church in Oxford be a most magnificent and royal - foundation, and hath bred in all ages as learned, wise, and worthy - prelates as the kingdom hath, yet Trinity College in Cambridge hath - had no less royal founders, and if we fail in our Westminster brood - (as otherwise I hope we do not) either the defect hath been in - themselves or else (which rather we suppose) it may be imputed to - those good means the other College hath, being also a Cathedral - Church and having Cannons both richly beneficed and highly dignified - which doth enable them to Doctorships, Deaneries, and Bishopricks--a - great blessing of God that our poor College wanteth." - - 4. "Howbeit in that kind of fruitfulness we also are not destitute - of God's gracious blessing; for ... besides Doctors in all faculties - to the number at the least of sixty, Deans to the number of eleven, - Publick Professors to the number of ten, the two Archbishops, - Canterbury and York, the most Reverend Fathers Whitgift and Hutton, - and seven other principal Prelates of this kingdom, namely, Fletcher - of London, Still of Bath and Wells, Babington of Worcester, Redman - of Norwich, Rud of St Davids, Bennet of Hereford, and Gouldesborough - of Gloucester, all of them simul et semel Bishops of this kingdom - ... are such a demonstrative instance as we think no other College - in either University can afford the like--and not one of these - chosen out of Westminster School." - - 5. "It is to be doubted whether there can be the like success if our - Elections out of a private School shall be indubitate and certain; - we rather think there can be no readier means to make Droanes and - Loyterers in Colleges, nor any worse prejudice or more deadly bane - unto learning and vertue, then when the rewards, and means thereof - are tyed to persons, times, and places, and made regular and - certain." - - 6. The proposal would do a grave injustice to other students who - might be men of great abilities. - - 7. The proposal would defeat the express wishes of Henry VIII, - Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, all of whom are to be reckoned as - founders as well as benefactors of Trinity College. - - 8 and 9. The proposal would be contrary to the existing statutes of - the College, and to the oaths taken by the Master and Fellows on - admission. - - 10. Preferences of this character are injurious to the particular - School, the College, and the whole University, and a constant source - of discord and contention. - - 11. "It is also against the Policy and common-wealth of a kingdom to - restrain and abridge places and preferments originally meant, - founded, and hitherto with good success employed for the common - benefit of that kingdom to a private School: for benefits and - privileges are to be amplified and not restrained; publick rewards - are not to be applied to private places, purposes, or respects." - - 12. Interference with the intentions and directions, of previous - benefactors is contrary to public policy, and tends to prevent - future benefactions. - - 13. This implies that Nevile had accepted the office of master of - Trinity College under promises which rendered it inequitable that - the college statutes should, during his tenure of the post, be - altered against his wishes, but it is stated that this argument, - though noted, is not to be pressed. - - 14. This raises some technical points, especially as to whether - statutes of a College given under the great seal can be varied by - letters patent without explicit reference to the clauses altered or - repealed. - - The memorandum concludes with a request that the College may have - liberty to ask the opinion of the Judges on the questions raised, - and thus obtain the benefit of the king's "most equal just and - princely laws." - -The use of the personal pronoun in one or two cases and the reference -in the thirteenth paragraph to Nevile suggest that the document was -composed by him. I cannot find out anything about the result of the -petition, but I conjecture that nothing came of it. Nevile however was -not inclined to let the matter rest, and no doubt the esteem felt for -him at court and his personal popularity were of great assistance to -the Society in the negotiations that followed. - -It was a few months later, in May 1608, at the annual election of -scholars at Westminster that Nevile took the next step in defence of -the college position. The following account of the election is based -on a paper preserved at Westminster: - - The Master of Trinity College (Nevile) refused to take the oath - which was required, previously to the election, by the Law of the - land as well as by the local Statutes. He also refused to elect to - his College the three Scholars ordered by the Letters Patent of the - Crown. The oath however was taken by the Dean of Westminster (Neile) - and the Dean of Christ Church (King), as well as by their - assistants, and by the Master of the School (Ireland). The Dean of - Westminster then demanded, in writing, that the election should - proceed; when the Master of Trinity College referred to some - composition by which he stated he would be governed. To this the - Dean of Westminster replied, that he knew of no such composition, - and that, if it had existed, it was necessarily set aside by the - Letters Patent of Queen Elizabeth and of His Majesty; whereon the - Master of Trinity College observed, though with much protestation of - his loyalty, that he did not allow the validity of the Letters - Patent. - - The other Electors, however, having agreed to proceed, the nine - Scholars who had been examined were called in to hear the Statute - read for the election to the two Colleges. The Master of Trinity - then said that he had not places enough vacant in his College. [In - fact in April he and the Seniority had filled up all scholarships - then vacant and pre-elected men to succeed to scholarships as - vacancies occurred.] To this it was replied, that the want of - vacancies had been occasioned by pre-elections of supernumerary - Scholars, that the words of the Statute were disjunctive, and there - was a clause commanding such Scholars to be received if they were - fit. The Master of Trinity College did not deny the fitness of the - candidates, but still refused to elect. In this wrangling the whole - morning was wasted. - - At length they went to dinner. After this, a fear having been - expressed, that this "distraction" might become troublesome to their - friends, "perhaps to His Majesty," and "not without some obloquy" to - themselves, the Master of Trinity College proposed a private - settlement, naming October for it. The suggestion was favourably - received by the Electors other than the Dean of Westminster. The - latter however affirmed, that with his consent less than three - Scholars should never be taken by Trinity College and three by - Christ Church if the School produced so many fit Scholars: and as to - that part of the Letters Patent, which related to the election of - Westminster Scholars at Trinity College to Fellowships, he required - that they should be taken in preference to others, if their - qualifications were equal; stating at the same time, that the clause - declaring them eligible to Fellowships two years after their degree - of A.M. had arisen solely from the practice of pre-electing so many - Fellows, that for three or four years together no election took - place; and the Westminster Scholars at Trinity College were driven - out to seek a better fortune elsewhere. The Master of Trinity - College allowed that the practice of pre-elections was wrong; and it - was at length agreed that if this were discontinued, that part of - the King's Letters concerning the eligibility of Westminster - Scholars two years after their degree of A.M. should not be urged - against the local statute of Trinity College, _De Gradibus - Suscipiendis_. Thereupon the Master of Trinity College took for his - College as Scholars three candidates, to wit, Hacket, Shirley, and - Herbert. - -The three scholars so taken obtained fellowships in due course, Hacket -became chaplain to James I, Charles I, and later to Charles II, -suffered cruel persecution under the commonwealth, and at the -restoration was made bishop of Lichfield: the Bishop's Hostel was -erected at his cost. An incident in Shirley's career is chronicled -below (see p. 223). Herbert was the well-known poet and divine. If the -above account is reliable, and there is no reason to doubt its -accuracy, the most important question in dispute, namely the -preferential right of Westminsters to election to fellowships at -Trinity, was left open. Nevile however had no intention to allow the -matter to drop, and having made his protest at Westminster, he now -secured the good services of his friend and Cambridge contemporary, -Richard Bancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, who undertook to act as -mediator in drawing up a "friendly and full" settlement of the -question. - -An agreement, drafted I feel confident by Nevile, was submitted to the -archbishop and, after he had made a few alterations, was accepted by -the dean and chapter of Westminster. The seniority of Trinity College, -on 5 September 1608, passed a minute that the matter "be referred to -our Master against the 13^th of October," and the deed is so dated, -but its execution must have been delayed since there is a minute of -the seniority, 8 December 1608, ordering that the composition with -Westminster should be engrossed and sealed at the audit so as to be -delivered before 1 February 1609. - -The deed embodying this agreement was made between the dean and -chapter of Westminster and Trinity College, and provided that the -College should take yearly three scholars from Westminster School to -be scholars of the College, and that there should be no pre-elections -of supernumerary fellows to the prejudice of the Westminster scholars -if deserving of fellowships. In consideration of these definite -obligations the dean and chapter of Westminster agreed that the -letters patent of 1607 should never be urged against the College by -the dean and chapter or the schoolmaster or ushers or scholars of -Westminster, and that the College should have such full power to elect -fellows as had been previously enjoyed, excepting only the practice of -pre-elections. To the deed is appended a statement that it was made -with the privity and approbation of the archbishop of Canterbury, the -earl of Salisbury (lord high treasurer of England and chancellor of -the University of Cambridge), and of the earl of Northampton (the lord -privy seal), all of whom signed it. This conclusion of the affair may -be regarded as a personal triumph for Nevile. - -The arrangement was submitted to the king who in a letter directed to -the College approved it, but required that the Westminster scholars -each year should be granted seniority over other scholars of Trinity -of their year and not be hindered by pre-elections: he did not however -withdraw or rescind the previous letters patent. I have never seen the -text of this letter but its contents are indisputable, and there are -various subsequent references to it. The obligation to allow this -seniority to the Westminster scholars was henceforth recognized by the -College as binding on it. - -The advisers of Trinity seem to have been doubtful whether it would be -admitted that this second letter implied the rescission of the letters -of 1607, and since there was every reason to avoid raising the -question whether royal letters or mandates could be set aside or -modified by private arrangements, it was wise to let matters run on as -long as the agreement of 1608 was carried out by the school -authorities. There is however a memorandum, ascribed to January 1610 -in the State Papers, showing that "the recent grant by the King for -the students of Trinity College, Cambridge, to be chosen from the -Westminster scholars is prejudicial to the interests of Trinity," -which seems to imply that further negotiations took place. I have not -seen the memorandum and know nothing more about this than here -appears. - -During the sixteen years following this settlement, that is, from 1608 -to 1623 inclusive, fifty-eight scholars were elected from Westminster -to Trinity, of whom sixteen became fellows. - -In 1623-24 a fresh dispute occurred. It would appear that while -Trinity carried out its undertaking relating to the election of -scholars from Westminster, it again began to pre-elect fellows with -the object, it was said, of preventing any claim being made on behalf -of the Westminster scholars in residence. Whether this was done in -self-protection against unjustifiable claims or was a deliberate -breach of the agreement of 1608 we do not know. An appeal to the crown -on behalf of the school ensued, and on 7 September 1623, the king sent -letters patent to the College as follows: - - Trusty and well beloved we greet you well. Being much interested in - the prosperity and well-fare of that our College which is both our - immediate Foundation and the fairest in all our kingdoms, and - furnished, for the most part with the extracions of our own - free-school at Westminster, we cannot but be very sensible of any - alteration in the government of the same. - - Whereas therefore we are given to understand that younger students - of that College have of late years been totally disheartened in - their studies by a new and unwarrantable device of pre-electing more - Fellows than there are places vacant at the time of that Election - and the Scholars of our own School (in whose loyalty and affection - we are so much interested from their cradles) strangely discouraged - and disgraced by being cast in their seniority behind all the - Scholars and Fellows in their several Elections though never so - exceeding in learning and education, we straightly will and require - you that from this time forward ye do forbear all manner of - pre-elections whatsoever as the pest and bane of all learning and - succession; and that also you bear that regard and respect to the - Scholars of that our own Royal School in giving them in all such - elections respect and precedency which we are informed they fully - deserve before all other of what country soever. Lastly, whereas we - are given to understand that heretofore a corrupt custom hath crept - into that our College of turning elections into particular - nominations of the Master and the several Seniors which smells - altogether of partialitie and corruption we do straightly will and - require you the said Master of our College of whom we conceive a - very good opinion, to see that hereafter all elections as well of - Scholars as of Fellows be done according to the local statutes of - your College and carried about with that pluralitie of voices - therein required. - -What reply (if any) the College made or could make I do not know, but -presumably the answer was not satisfactory as these letters were -followed by the appointment of royal commissioners to enquire into the -Westminster elections. There is extant a letter from the master of -Trinity (Richardson) dated 9 June 1624, to one of the commissioners, -asking to be excused from attending the usual election of Westminster -scholars, on account of poor health. Probably this was regarded as an -impertinence, and he must have been reprimanded since we have a letter -dated 26 June signed by the master and six of the senior fellows, -deprecating the royal displeasure, offering the most humble -submission, promising to obey in anything that his majesty might -command, but begging that present compliance might not be drawn into -an example against the College. Richardson and James I died in March -1625, and the enquiry seems to have been then dropped. - -The election in 1636 was interesting. It is said that among the -candidates was Cowley who had already written various poems and a -comedy showing distinct ability. The story runs that the boy failed -badly in grammar, and the Trinity electors, insisting that this was -conclusive, rejected him as a Westminster scholar, but offered him an -ordinary scholarship at Trinity, which he accepted. Against this are -the fact that he had been entered at Trinity as a pensioner in April, -a few weeks before the election at Westminster, and the improbability -that the electors would have drawn such a distinction between -Westminster and other scholars of the House. Still old-time anecdotes -are not to be lightly rejected: at any rate Cowley came into residence -in due course and was made a scholar in the same term as the four boys -taken from Westminster by the electors, these five students being the -only scholars elected by the College in 1637. - -During the seventy-seven years from 1624 to 1700 inclusive, three -hundred and fifty-six scholars were elected from Westminster to -Trinity, of whom one hundred and twenty-six became fellows. During the -fifty years, 1701 to 1750, out of one hundred and eighty-seven -Westminster scholars at Trinity sixty-two became fellows; during the -fifty years, 1751 to 1800, out of one hundred and eighty, thirty -became fellows; and during the fifty-six years, 1801 to 1856, out of -one hundred and seventy, four became fellows. Throughout this long -period the friendly relations between the College and the school -suffered no change. - -In 1727 there was a curious echo of the controversy of 1607. A strange -suggestion had been made, apparently with the tacit approval of the -authorities of Westminster, that new statutes should be given to -Trinity constituting the dean and chapter of Westminster Visitors of -the College, and it was decided by the advocates of the movement to -open the campaign by asking the dean of Westminster to call the -attention of the master of Trinity (Bentley), to the "Letters Anno -Quinto Jacobi Primi." Bentley replied on 5 March 1727, denied their -validity and argued that even if originally valid, they could not be -pressed after more than a century during which time "they had never -been acted upon": he added that, if antiquated letters were still -binding, there were various matters in which he had powers, whose -exercise might prove singularly inconvenient to those who had raised -the question. This was really conclusive, but further consideration -had shown the inherent weakness or folly of the original idea, and the -chapter was wise enough to proceed no further with the matter. - -Shortly afterwards, probably at the following election at Westminster, -Bentley is said to have referred to the dean's communication, and -remarked that the authority of the letters of 1607 would doubtless -have seemed stronger, at any rate to the dean's predecessor -(Atterbury), if not to the chapter, could they have been described as -"Anno Primo Jacobi Tertii"--an irrelevant remark, but it carried a -sting, for Atterbury's devotion to the cause of the Pretender was -deeply resented by the government. - -From an unknown date until the early years of the nineteenth century, -Westminster scholars at Trinity were allowed the privilege of wearing -academic gowns of a cut different from those of other undergraduates -and further distinguished by having on the sleeves a violet button -with a silk loop. The gowns of all pensioners in the University were -then black and (except for those worn by Westminsters) cut to a -common pattern. The Westminster distinction was discontinued when the -present system of different gowns for different Colleges was -introduced. - -During the first half of the nineteenth century the numbers in the -school fell seriously, and well-founded complaints were made about the -standard of scholarship attained by the scholars elected to the -universities. In 1856, as the result of negotiations, initiated by -Whewell, the arrangements with Trinity were completely recast, and it -was agreed on 5 December 1856 that the school should abandon the right -of Westminster boys to election to scholarships at Trinity, and that -in filling up open emoluments in Trinity, former Westminster boys -should enjoy no preference. In consideration of this release, the -Society undertook to establish at its own cost, exhibitions, not more -than three to be awarded each year, for boys elected from the school -who were otherwise qualified for admission to the College; every such -exhibitioner, if so deserving, to be eligible for a college -scholarship tenable with the exhibition. This was approved by the -queen in council on 25 June 1857. It was further agreed that the -Westminster exhibitioners were to be placed on the same footing as -exhibitioners elected by open competition before commencing -residence. The mode of election is settled by the school statutes, but -it would seem that the Trinity electors have no right to demand -intellectual attainments beyond those required at the time for -admission to the College. The exhibitions are not now confined to -scholars of the school. - -So ends the story of Westminster Scholars at Trinity College, -Cambridge. During the two hundred and ninety-six years from 1561 to -1856 inclusive, one thousand and sixty-four scholars had been elected -from Westminster to Trinity (or say 3.6 a year), of whom two hundred -and seventy-eight (or say one in four) had become fellows. In -conclusion I may add that in 1869 in virtue of the powers given by the -Public Schools Act, 1868, the dean and chapter of Westminster, the -dean of Christ Church, Oxford, and the master of Trinity College, -Cambridge, created a new Governing Body in whom the governance of the -school has been since vested. - - -[Footnote 18: See _Life of Whitgift_ by J. Strype, London, 1718, -pp. 13, 14 and Appendix, pp. 7, 8.] - -[Footnote 19: _Life of Whitgift_ by J. Strype, London, 1718, Appendix, -p. 9.] - -[Footnote 20: _State Papers_, Domestic, 1604, p. 185.] - -[Footnote 21: According to Dean Peacock, royal letters and orders, at -variance with college statutes, were binding only if explicitly or -tacitly accepted by the Society. That may have been technically -correct, but it is very doubtful if Tudor or Stuart sovereigns would -have admitted it.] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY -TO UNDERGRADUATES. - - -This is an account of a famous struggle some eighty years ago between -the authorities and the undergraduates of Trinity College on the -subject of attendance at chapel. The story is not to the credit of the -authorities, but, for what it is worth, here it is. - -There is a prelude to it concerned with a controversy in 1834 between -Thirlwall, later the statesman-bishop of St David's, and Wordsworth, -then master of the House, which raised the question of the -advisability of compelling undergraduates to be present at religious -services in College. At that time regular attendance at chapel was -required--as for centuries previously it had been--from all students -as a matter of discipline, and the rule in force on the subject was -embodied in a college order of 22 April 1824, as follows: - - Agreed by the Master and Seniors that every Undergraduate not having - an aegrotat or dormiat do attend Morning Chapel five times at the - least in every week, or four times at the least including Sunday; - and the same number of times in the Evening, under penalty that the - week in which anyone shall not have so attended be not reckoned - towards keeping the Term of such Undergraduate--unless such omission - be repaired by extra attendance the week following. - -Absentees were punished, and those who offended frequently were liable -to expulsion. - -Until the era of the Reform Bill some regulation like this was -accepted as a matter of course, but when, in that period of enquiry, -all things were put to the proof, doubts as to its wisdom began to be -voiced. In 1834 Thirlwall, then assistant-tutor to Whewell, in an open -letter dated 21 May, while advocating the admission of dissenters to -the University, lamented the constant repetition in college chapels of -a mechanical service, believing the practice to be detrimental to the -interests of religion: he further expressed the opinion that -attendance at chapel services should be voluntary. He referred to a -then recent statement by Wordsworth in which the latter had said "the -alternative is not here between compulsory religion (as it is called) -and any other religion, but between compulsory religion and no -religion at all," and on this remarked: - - I cannot indeed draw such delicate distinctions as my friend seems - to make in this passage; for as the epithet compulsory applied to - religion appears to me contradictory, the difference between a - compulsory religion and no religion at all is too subtle for my - grasp. But if for _religion_ we substitute the word _service_, - which would probably better express his meaning, then I should quite - agree with him, that, in this case, a voluntary service would soon - be changed into no service at all: that is, the persons who are now - compelled to attend, if they were left at liberty, would stay away. - And this is the very reason why I think it would be better that they - should be allowed to do so. - -The argument was amplified in a second letter dated 13 June. This was -skilful enough as a piece of dialectics though hardly likely to -convince opponents. - -That an officer of the college should express such views and in this -way was regarded by Wordsworth as scandalous, and five days after the -publication of the first letter, without asking for any explanation, -he, with the consent or approval of Whewell and the two deans (Thorp -and Carus), removed Thirlwall from his office of assistant-tutor. This -arbitrary act was generally resented in the Society even by those who -disagreed with Thirlwall or thought that he had been indiscreet in his -advocacy; some too considered the act unstatutable, but Thirlwall -refused to appeal to the Visitor, and shortly afterwards left -Cambridge on his appointment, in November 1834, by the lord -chancellor, to the important living of Kirby-under-dale in Yorkshire. - -Two years later, in 1836, while the matter was still a subject of -debate, Carus was made senior dean. He was a kindly man, leader in -the University of the school of thought associated with Simeon's name, -but, whether rightly or wrongly, was regarded as unsympathetic by -those who did not think as he did on religious questions. Carus -detested the view taken by Thirlwall, and far from conciliating -college opinion, which had been outraged by Wordsworth's action, urged -the seniority (a Board consisting of the master and the eight senior -resident fellows to which, under the Elizabethan statutes, the -government of the College was entrusted) to re-draft the rule of 1824 -and make clear or stiffen the penalties for non-obedience. The -seniority agreed, and on 7 February 1838, issued the following order: - - Agreed by the Master and Seniors, that all Undergraduate Scholars, - and Foundation Sizars do attend Chapel eight times at the least in - every week, that is twice on Sunday and once every other day; the - Scholars, on pain of losing _ipso facto_ their statutable allowance - for Commons, and such additions as have since been made by the - College in the way of augmentation to the Commons, for every week - when there has been a failure of such attendance as is above - described; and the Sizars, on pain of incurring _ipso facto_ an - equivalent deduction in money from their allowances. - - Agreed also, that a like attendance be required from all other - Undergraduates; and that in case of failure, the Parties so - offending be forthwith admonished by the Deans; and if, after such - admonition, irregularity be persisted in, notice be sent by the Dean - to the Tutor, that a warning from him also may timely be given: - after which, if both these means shall fail in producing regularity, - the offender shall be reported by the Dean to the Master (or, in his - absence, to the Vice-Master) to receive a formal admonition from - him, in the presence of the Dean, a record of which shall be - preserved: and finally, in all cases where such formal admonition - shall have been incurred three times, the offender shall _ipso - facto_ be removed from the College, either entirely, or for one or - more Terms, according to the circumstances of the case; a record of - this sentence being also preserved. - - Authority is given to the Deans to grant occasional leave of - absence, on special application made previously, but not otherwise. - Also on any casual failure of attendance, it is allowed to Deans to - accept (in order to make up the deficiency) an equivalent attendance - on other days during the same week only; any failure on Sundays to - be compensated by attendance twice on other days. - -According to college tradition, which came to me from C.W. King, an -undergraduate of the time, a deputation of scholars, who remonstrated -on the severity of these sanctions, was informed by Carus that -attendance at chapel was not so much a duty as a privilege, which was -valued the most by those who were oldest and therefore best qualified -to form an opinion on the subject--a boomerang argument which -obviously was dangerous unless the fellows themselves attended chapel -with the regularity desired from undergraduates. - -On this rebuff, certain students formed a Society for the Prevention -of Cruelty to Undergraduates. Its founders issued a notice asking -whether what was forced on undergraduates was practised by dons; and -that facts might speak for themselves, they announced that they would -issue marking-sheets showing the attendance week by week of the -fellows in chapel. Copies of these marking-sheets were put -(surreptitiously) on the college screens, sent to London clubs, and -widely circulated. All efforts by the deans to discover the authors or -the printer employed failed; I understand, however, that -W.J. Conybeare, G.E.L. Cotton, J.S. Howson, C.L. Rose, and C.J. Tindal -were its chief promoters, and that the printer was Metcalfe of -9 Trinity Street. Copies of these marking-sheets are now very rare, -but a few years ago one came into the market which I was fortunate -enough to secure. It is bound in blue calf, stamped with the college -arms having as supporters two undergraduates in knee breeches waving -their caps, and with the motto _Nemo me impune lacessit_. - -The first sheet is for the week ending 17 February 1838, and shows the -attendances, morning and evening, of the master and the eighteen -fellows then in residence. Each of the two deans attended ten times, -but they were in a peculiar position, for it was their duty, as the -Society pointed out, to go twice a day and therefore fourteen times in -each week. Only one of the other fellows, Perry, later bishop of -Melbourne, complied with the rule imposed on undergraduates, four -fellows went only once, and four not at all. To this sheet the Society -appended the following note: - - Does then this new regulation of the Master and Seniors proceed from - any religious motive? Do they practice (_sic_) what they force on - the Undergraduates? They are very regular in their attendance in - Hall, but why are their places vacant in Chapel? - -The next week showed a slight improvement in the attendances. The -Society congratulated itself on this, and in some general remarks -indicated what it expected from the fellows, copying these from the -notices on the subject issued by Carus. It should be said that in the -sheets those who were ill or away from Cambridge, were marked with an -_aeg_ or _abs_, so any such explanation of the absence of the others -from chapel was impossible. - -In the third week the improvement continued, and three fellows in -addition to the master and the deans complied with the rule, but this -was the high water-mark of attendance, and after all it did not come -to much. The Society expressed its gratification at this, which it was -pleased to treat as the result of its efforts, and at the same time -issued the following notice: - - A prize for general regularity, and good behaviour when in Chapel, - has been instituted by the Society, who are as anxious to reward - merit as they are to punish immorality. But whilst they thus wish - to instil into the minds of the Fellows those Religious feelings - which, owing to a bad education, they may possibly be without, the - Society most distinctly declare that they shall not be guided merely - by an outward show of religion. It is not, therefore, enough to go - merely eight times a week to Chapel, and when there to utter the - responses so loud as to attract attention, or otherwise disturb the - prayers of Undergraduates. Such conduct will at all times be - severely punished.... For convenience of those members of Trinity - College now residing in London, six copies of this publication are - sent weekly to each of the University Clubs there. - -In the fourth week, apart from the indefatigable Perry and the two -deans, no one came up to the prescribed standard. On this result the -Society remarked: - - The Society regret much that during the last week great laxity has - prevailed among the Fellows in general with regard to their - attendance in Chapel. This is the more to be lamented, as they had - been for the two previous weeks so much more regular than usual. - This irregularity cannot proceed from ill health, for they have been - constantly to Hall, although they are not compelled to go there more - than five times in each week. The Society, however, still hopes that - in the ensuing week they will be able to make a more favourable - report both of their attendance in Chapel, as also of their good - conduct when there. As was before stated, any Fellow who shall, - owing to any wine-party, or other sufficient reason, be prevented - from attending, will be excused on sending a note previously to the - Secretary of the Society, and his absence will be counted as - presence. [The last seven words were a quotation from a note by - Carus.] It is agreed by the Master and Seniors that all - Undergraduates do go eight times at least each week! Why then do - they not set us a better example? - -These publications were widely disseminated and led to the production -of a number of epigrams and lampoons which were scattered broadcast -in the University. The Society appended to this sheet a note that its -members had "_no connexion whatever_ with _any_ of those abusive and -profane publications which have been so industriously circulated -during the last two weeks." - -The sheet for the week ending 17 March, announced the success of the -movement, though in this return only Carus and Perry came up to the -standard. Appended to the sheet were the following notes: - - The Society in laying the first list of this month before the - public, have much reason to be pleased with the success of the work - which they have undertaken, for they have been informed, on very - good authority, that the Cruelty System will not be continued more - than a week longer, but that the Master and Seniors have determined - to come to a new Agreement about Chapels.... If this should be the - case, the end which the Society had in view will be accomplished, - and the weekly publications will be discontinued, until called again - into life by some new act of Cruelty upon the much enduring - Undergraduates, but not otherwise. The Fellows have been very - irregular during the last week, in their attendance at Chapel; so - much so that only two of the whole number in residence have kept the - number, which the Undergraduates are compelled to keep, on pain of - being _ipso facto_ rusticated, either entirely, or for one or more - terms. And yet one Member of Trinity College was really sent away - during the past week (who had always been seven times each week - before) because he had the courage to object to compulsory - attendance at Chapel, especially from those men who had set him such - an example! - -In the course of the next week a printed notice appeared on the -screens reducing the number of compulsory attendances in chapel to two -on Sundays and four during the week. The paper, type, and setting look -as if this were issued by the authorities. I have, however, seen a -contemporary letter in which it is said that this notice was in fact a -forgery: the suggestion being that the men were tired of the joke, and -invented this way of terminating the episode. I cannot say whether the -deans modified their rule, and the question of the genuineness of this -notice must be left undecided. It is true that no extant minute of the -seniority exists about any new regulation, but the records of the -proceedings of that body are so imperfect that no conclusion can be -drawn from this. - -The Society in publishing its last sheet, namely, that for the week -ending 24 March, concluded with the following class list and notes: - - The examination of the Fellows is now finished: and in arranging the - different classes the Secretary has attached to each person's name - his number of marks, in order to do away with any appearance of - favour shewn more to one than another, as is too often the case in - other Examinations. - - =First Class.= - *Carus 72 - Perry 66 - *Barnes 50 - - =Second Class.= - Heath 42 - Wordsworth Senior 38 - Thorp 35 - Whewell 34 - Blakesley 30 - - =Third Class.= - Peacock 28 - Thompson 19 - Brown 17 - Dobson 13 - Martin 12 - - =Last Class.= - Wordsworth Junior 9 - Sedgwick 5 - Field 4 - Donaldson 3 - - Burcham 0 - Walsh 0 - - * The two gentlemen marked with an asterisk are respectively - Senior and Junior Dean, whose duty it is to go twice every - day to Chapel. - - The Prize Medal for regular attendance at chapel and good conduct - when there, has been awarded to Mr Perry, who has passed an - examination highly creditable to himself and family. He was only 18 - marks below the highest number which he could possibly have gained. - It is, therefore, to be hoped Mr P. will be more regular and do - still better next term. With respect to the two Gentlemen who are - not classed, the Secretary need hardly say that he does not envy - them their feelings on the present occasion. In consequence of the - New Agreement, the Chapel Lists will _ipso facto_ be discontinued - for the future. - -In the above list the master is designated as Wordsworth Senior. The -prize was awarded to Perry the future bishop, but instead of the -promised medal he was given a bible. This was secured for the College -in 1906, and now rests in our library. It is bound in calf, stamped -with the arms and supporters assumed by the Society, and bears the -inscription "From the Undergraduates of Trinity College to the Rev. -Charles Perry, M.A., as a mark of affection and esteem for the good -example which he set them and the _rest_ of the College by his -constant attendance at Chapel." I have been informed that to each of -the two fellows who did not attend at all there was sent a small bible -with an inscription therein of the Society's hope that its presence -among his books might in the future encourage him to perform tasks -which he believed to be important even though he found them -unpleasant. - -The doggerel verses to which I have alluded as appearing in connection -with the struggle were, as far as I have seen them, poor stuff as -literary productions, and some were highly improper. The author of one -of the worst of them was discovered and expelled from the College, -12 March 1838. I possess copies of four or five of these productions, -their value consists entirely in giving us stories then current about -dons and things academic--stories, I may add, which appear generally -to have had no foundation in fact. The best set of verses, supposed to -be addressed on Saturday evening by a man to his bedmaker, is a parody -of Tennyson's _May Queen_. It begins: "You must mind and call me -early--call me early, d'ye hear? For I in morning chapel to-morrow -must appear," and on the whole runs easily. There is nothing in these -squibs which deserves remembrance or needs any further notice here. - -There ends the story, and no comments on it or the actors in it are -needed. It may be added as a postscript, that for a long time -subsequent to this incident some attendance at chapel was required -from all who had no good reason to ask for exemption, and that as time -went on the requirements gradually grew less. The question of making -attendance at chapel compulsory on those who have not yet fully -attained years of discretion is admittedly difficult, and made more so -by the fact that while such attendance is approved and rigorously -imposed every day of the week at most public boarding schools on lads -up to the age of eighteen or nineteen, it is regarded as unthinkable -in the case of young graduates of twenty-one or so. Trinity College -finally adopted the view advocated by Thirlwall, and to-day attendance -at chapel services is voluntary. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE COLLEGE CHAPEL. - - -The College Chapel, as it appears to-day, is described in many of the -guide-books which are pressed on the casual traveller in Cambridge. I -am not here concerned with the accounts of it there given, for in this -paper I intend to deal with little beyond its history and traditions. - -It is a matter of common knowledge that the present chapel was built -under the auspices of the Tudor queens, Mary and Elizabeth, on the -site of the old chapel of King's Hall. Let me begin by tracing briefly -the history of these successive buildings, and their connection with -college developments. - -King's Hall owed its origin to the establishment of scholars in the -University of Cambridge by Edward II in 1317, and was put on a -permanent footing by Edward III in 1337. The original home of the -Society was a large two-storeyed house, built of wood and thatched, -bought from Robert de Croyland, and situated on the ground now -occupied by the walks and grass plot in front of the chapel. No chapel -or oratory was connected with it, and the Society worshipped in All -Saints' church which then stood on the green in Trinity Street facing -our present chapel. - -In 1375 the College began the erection on the ground to the north and -west of its house of a larger building comprising a cloister court -with various extensions. The west side of this court, some hundred and -twenty feet long, is still standing and faces the bowling green: the -other three sides and the extensions have been destroyed. These -buildings were of three storeys, built of stone, brick, or rubble, and -tiled: they were finished about 1438, and the old mansion of Robert -de Croyland was then pulled down. Into the inner quadrangle of this -cloister court there projected from the middle of its western face a -wooden erection some fifteen feet long by fifteen feet wide, built in -1419-24 over what is now the junior combination room, and containing -on its upper floor an oratory which opened on to a gallery over the -cloisters on that side of the court. A list of the service-books, -plate, copes and other vestments, altar-cloths, curtains, gold -embroidery, etc., kept in this oratory in 1479 is given in my booklet -of 1917 on King's Hall. The building was small and the Society -continued to use All Saints' church for its more important services. - -The desirability of having a chapel large enough for all college -purposes was obvious, and in 1464 the Society began the erection of -such a building, on ground beyond the eastern extension of the -cloister court. This new chapel, which covered part of the site of our -present chapel, was about a hundred feet long and thirty feet broad, -that is roughly half the length of and the same breadth as the present -chapel: it was built of stones, squared and supplied ready for use, -which according to Caius came from the large banqueting hall of the -Castle then being pulled down and probably by purchase from King's -College to whom these materials had been granted. It was wainscotted, -and was fitted with stalls and carved woodwork; the high altar, like -that of the older oratory, was of wood and the interior walls above -the wainscotting were plastered and whitewashed; the sum spent -suggests that the fittings were not elaborate. The work was finished -in 1499, but probably the chapel was used from 1485 onwards: of course -the plate, service-books, etc., were removed to it from the old -oratory. - -Trinity College, on its foundation in 1546, naturally made use of this -chapel, for it was the only one available on the site[22] of the new -College. It is fairly certain that it was then fitted up with -additional seats and probably redecorated: the provision of a new -organ and a new lectern happen to be specifically mentioned. - -Edward VI ascended the throne in 1547, and barely had the interior of -the chapel of King's Hall been adapted to the needs of the new -foundation than the College was required to remove all popish traces -from it. The altar and steps were taken down, and a communion table -set up, most likely in the middle of the chapel. The books, copes, -vestments, and altar ornaments which had come down from old times were -sold: they realized no less than £140. 8s. 8d., and the magnitude of -the sum obtained in such unfavourable conditions shows that the -services must have been conducted with considerable pomp. There is -to-day in the library a standing censer boat, ascribed to the end of -the fourteenth century or the early years of the fifteenth century, -with traces on it of its ancient gilding, but there is no record as to -how or when it came to us. King's Hall did in fact own among its -chapel vessels a "ship of silver" which probably means a censer boat, -and it may be that this is the vessel in question. With this possible -(but doubtful) exception all our medieval chapel plate has gone. - -When in 1553 Mary succeeded her brother, the Roman religion was -restored, and the chapel again adapted to the old forms of worship. -Perhaps remonstrance was made by the master, Bill, who had been -appointed in 1551 on Redman's death and was a strong Anglican: at any -rate he was deprived of his office. The expulsion was dramatic and -apparently physical, for as he was sitting in his stall in the chapel -two members of the House, Mr Boys and Mr Gray, approached and "removed -him ... in a rude and insolent way." Declining any contest he retired -to Bedfordshire, and was succeeded as master by Christopherson, the -queen's chaplain and confessor. - -Mary recognized the interest taken by her father in Trinity and, in -furtherance of his design, decided to rebuild the College on a -comprehensive plan. She issued orders about this on 24 October 1554, -and it was arranged in 1555 that the first large task undertaken in -connection with it should be the erection of a new chapel. Preliminary -work on this was commenced in 1556 and it was then expected that the -building would be finished by the end of 1557, but by October of that -year the walls were only half-way up: delays ensued and ten years -elapsed before the building was completed. The old chapel was unroofed -in 1561, and cannot, it would seem, have been used after that date: it -is possible it was shut up in the course of 1557, but early in that -year it was still in use, for the royal commissioners in January 1557 -complained of the absence of lights on the altar and of coals to cense -the sacrament. During the years from the closing of the old chapel to -1567 it is uncertain whether the services were held in College or in -one of the town churches. - -It was originally intended that the new chapel should be a hundred and -fifty-seven feet long and thirty-three feet broad, the east end being -flush with the street frontage of the Great Gate. The roof was to be -curved, open, and relieved with fretwork and oak pendants. There was -to be an east window, a west window, eleven windows on the south side, -and twelve on the north side from which it follows that it was to be -a detached building save for its abutment on staircase E in the Great -Court. - -It was designed to contain two rows of stalls made after the pattern -of those at King's College, sixty-eight in the upper row with -misereres, divided by pillars, and with double crests above, and a -lower row of stalls not so divided. Unfortunately the contractor got -into money difficulties and sold much of the timber which had been -bought for the intended roof and stalls, causing the work to fall into -arrear. - -After the accession of Elizabeth, changes in the plans of the new -chapel were made, the length being increased to two hundred and five -feet, thus making it project beyond the east side of the Great Court. -In 1564 the walls of the building were finished and plastered, and -the date 1564 cut on the east gable together with the text from the -Vulgate, Matthew xxi. 13, _Domus mea domus orationis vocabitur_, which -in the authorized version runs: "My house shall be called the house of -prayer" and is followed by the clause "but ye have made it a den of -thieves." Wags have sometimes continued the inscription by adding the -second clause on the chapel either of Trinity or of St John's as their -inclinations led them. The roof, put on in 1565, is of a style earlier -than this date, and Willis came to the conclusion that it is the -actual roof of the old chapel of King's Hall supplemented by -additional timber to fit it for the larger building: I like to think -that we still worship under the roof which sheltered our predecessors -more than four centuries ago. - -In the year last mentioned, 1565, the stones for the pavement were -brought from Croyland Abbey and maybe some are still there. In the -next year the interior fittings were taken in hand, and the organ -screen erected. In the following year, 1567, the windows were glazed -with white glass bearing inscriptions, coats of arms, and heraldic -badges such as the fleur-de-lys, portcullis, and rose: the organ (a -small instrument) and the pulpit were moved from the old chapel, and -the stalls put in. It would seem that the wainscotting and wall-seats -in the present antechapel are of this date, and possibly came from -King's Hall. Moving from west to east in the completed building there -were in succession an antechapel sixty-five feet long, an organ-screen -eight feet deep, the chapel seats along some seventy feet, a space of -twenty-four feet, the communion table, and a space of thirty-six feet -free of encumbrances. The work was finished by Michaelmas, 1567. There -is no record of the building having been consecrated. - -Mary died in 1558, and on 20 November, the Sunday following the -proclamation of Elizabeth, Bill, the former master of the College, -preached at St Paul's Cross in London; the next Sunday, his successor -Christopherson preached there. Probably the men disliked one another, -and certainly took different views of the position. Some scandal was -caused, an the upshot of the affair was that Christopherson was sent -to prison, while Bill returned to Cambridge, restored to the -mastership. - -Bill, a discreet courtier, was a favourite at court, and held, under -Elizabeth's favour, the provostship of Eton and the deanery of -Westminster together with the mastership of Trinity; it was probably -due to his influence that Elizabeth in 1560 issued a commission to -procure materials and labour for completing the chapel which had been -begun on her sister's initiative. Baker praised his prudence and -temper while master, and added that "if he has shown any frailties or -failings here, allowances must be made for difficult times and potent -courtiers that are not easily resisted." In my opinion the services to -the College of its first three masters, Redman, Bill, and -Christopherson, were of the greatest value, and have hardly received -that recognition from posterity which they deserve. - -On Bill's death, the crown offered the mastership to Beaumont, a -calvinist whose views were more pronounced than Cecil supposed at the -time of the appointment. Beaumont sympathized with the puritan party, -whose numbers in the University were now rapidly increasing, but did -little to guide them or to check their intolerance which constantly -offended public opinion. - -The description of the windows in the new chapel does not suggest that -figures or catholic symbols appeared thereon, but, none the less, the -"malcontents" thought them objectionable and in November 1565, broke -"all the windows wherein did appear superstition." In the same term -occurred the famous surplice disturbance[23]. The puritans objected to -the use of the surplice in chapel on Sundays, Saints' days, and their -eves, and on a certain "Sunday (in Dr Whitgift's absence), Mr -Cartwright and two of his adherents made three sermons on one day in -the chapel so vehemently inveighing against the ceremonies of the -church that at evening prayer all the scholars save three [together -with one of the chaplains] (viz. Dr Leg, Mr West, Whitaker's tutor, -and the chaplain) cast off their surplices as an abominable relic of -superstition"--a curious illustration of how little the calvinists -esteemed the value of academic discipline unless they exercised it -themselves. The organization of this demonstration was attributed to -Cartwright, their leader in the University and a fellow of the -College; it was probably due to the disapproval of his conduct in this -and similar matters that shortly afterwards he went out of residence -for two or more years. - -Beaumont died in 1567 and at his request was buried "with no vain -jangling of bells nor any other popish ceremonies" in the new chapel, -his being the first interment in it. He is commemorated by a carving -(somewhat difficult to detect) of his face on the tenth principal in -the chapel roof reckoned from the east end--it is lettered _R. B. Mr._ -He was succeeded by Whitgift and the result of the subsequent bitter -struggle between him and the puritans settled the constitution and -policy of the University till the middle of the nineteenth century, -but the battle was mainly fought in the senate-house and in London, -and is not specially connected with our chapel. - -Alterations to the organ were made in 1594, and elaborate hangings -placed in the organ loft in 1604. Thenceforward repairs and -reconstructions of the organ followed one another every few years. The -history of the instrument has been published in pamphlet form, and I -shall not again refer to its successive enlargements. The west window -was blocked up about this time owing to the removal of King Edward's -Tower to its present position. - -There is an account of college doings in chapel in 1635 in the -following memorandum sent to Laud, and endorsed by him as embodying -matter which he intended to examine during an intended visit to -Cambridge in September 1636. - - In Trinity College, they have been long noted to be negligent of the - chapel and of prayers in it; the best come but seldom, and by their - example the rest make small account of service. In some tutors' - chambers (who have three or four score pupils), the private prayers - are longer and louder by far at night than they are at Chapel in the - evening. Some fellows are there, who scarce see the inside of the - chapel thrice in a year, nor public hall, nor St Mary's Church, and - (they say) impugn all. - - A quire is there founded for Sundays and holydays, but the quiremen - are so negligent and unskilful, that, unless it be an anthem, they - often sing the hymns no otherwise than in the common psalmerie tune. - And to mend the matter, they have divers dry choristers (as they - call them), such as never could and never meane to sing a note, and - yet enjoy, and are put in to take the benefit of those places - professedly. They have a large chapel, and yet the boyes rows of - pews are placed just in the middle of the chapel, before and behind - the Communion-table, which some there are about to reform. - - They lean, or sit, or kneele at prayers, everyone in a several - posture as he pleases. At the name of Jesus few will bow, and when - the creed is repeated, many of the boyes, by some men's directions, - turn towards the west door. Their surplices and song-books, and - other furniture for divine service, is very mean. The cloth that - lies upon the table not worth 14d. He that executes, steps over the - exhortation and begins, _Wherefore I pray and beseech you, &c._ They - use no Litany for the most part, but in Lent only, and in Lent only - upon Sundays, and when they say it, it is at the Communion-table. - They repeat not the Creed after the Gospel, and instead of the - _Magnificat_ and the _Nunc Dimittis_, they will at pleasure - (sometimes when the quiremen are present) sing the 23rd or some - other riming Psalm.... They have lately taken advice, and are about - mending their chapel, if it holds. - - Fellows ... (when of the degree of M.A.) and fellow-commoners, take - themselves generally to have a privilege to miss prayers, as well as - the public table of the hall. From hence it comes to pass, that so - many of that ranke are to be founde at those times, either in - taverns and towne-houses, or at some other pleasant imployments, - where they please. - -Whether all this was true or not we cannot say, but at any rate in the -following year, 1636, the College spent a considerable sum on -alterations and decorations in the chapel. The communion table was -removed to the east end and the ground there raised, a pavement of -stone and marble laid down, the walls were panelled, and rich hangings -provided. Charles I, with his son the prince of Wales, visited the -chapel in March 1642, and was much pleased therewith: we read at this -time of candlesticks, tapers, and a crucifix on the altar; other -references show that the ritual was high. - -The next year 1643 saw a great change, for the parliamentary party -secured control of the town and district. The order compelling the use -of the surplice on certain days was now rescinded, and under Dowsing -the chapel was purged, the altar steps levelled, the altar taken away, -and a wooden communion table without rails set up in the middle of the -chapel; the organ and hangings were removed; and certain figures, -painted on the walls at the east end whitewashed. The zealots did not -think the reforms had gone far enough, but no other changes were -forced on the College, and a few months later the Society made a money -present "to some of Major Scot's souldiers who defended the chappell -from the rudenesse of the rest." A few years later, on 12 March 1647, -Sir Thomas Fairfax then in command of the district came, and was -received "in great state ... in the Chapel, he was presented with a -rich bible, and in the hall with a sumptuous banquet"--a pleasant -combination. - -At the restoration, the original altar of 1643 was recovered and -replaced at the east end, a screen of rich mosaic work erected behind -it, and as far as practicable the chapel restored to its former -appearance. Doubtless, however, practices continued which to-day would -strike us as unseemly, for I notice that in 1665 "it was agreed that -Dod have the place of keeping the dogs out of the chapel." - -In the early years of the eighteenth century the condition of the -fabric caused anxiety; after only a little more than a century's wear -the roof was found to be in a dangerous condition, and a portion of -one of the external walls in danger of falling. It was determined to -place the building, inside as well as outside, in thorough repair. -Work began in 1706 and was nearly thirty years in progress. The -fellows and a few friends subscribed a large part of the cost, and the -rest was paid out of corporate income. In the plan adopted, which is -associated with the names of Bentley and Cotes, the east window was -blocked, and the present stalls, baldachino, organ-screen, and -wainscotting erected: the design of the latter is excellent of its -kind, though not altogether suited to the architecture of the -building. Some of the old stalls are said to have been removed to -St Michael's church, and the tradition may be accepted as probable. -Later in the century, 1787-88, the roof was painted in white and gold. - -The number of residents in College in the early half of this century -was small, and probably the chapel was in regular use during most of -its restoration. A trivial incident at this time afforded some -amusement. Complaints had been made that Bentley--an illustrious -scholar, genuinely interested in promoting learning, but as master of -Trinity arrogant, unscrupulous, and dishonest--never went to chapel -though required to do so by the statutes. This was true enough, and he -determined to silence his critics by appearing again. But so long had -he been absent that the door of his stall had got fixed and could not -be opened till the lock had been wrenched off. - -Prof. Hughes has called my attention to some unpublished notes[24] by -a friendly visitor about the chapel services on Saturday and Sunday -evenings in the fourth decade of the eighteenth century. The writer -says that interpolated in the evening prayers were elaborate musical -performances sometimes involving two symphonies[25] and two anthems -in which the choir, organ, and six violins took part; he also repeats -more than once that the building was crowded [by strangers] and the -noise so great that little of the service could be heard. Thus, to -quote one instance, under date of 28 May 1738, he writes: - - This evening I was at Trinity Colledge Chapple where there was so - great a crowd that nothing could be heard of the whole service, I - could see the Readers lips go, but, not so much as heare the least - sound of his voice, and when Dr Walker read the 2d Leason could I - only heare the sound of his voice but not to distinguish one word. - There was great difference in the Musick part from what used to be, - for the symphony was first by the Organ and then by 6 violins in - 3 parts to all which the Organ was the base. After the reading the - first and 2nd Lessons, 3 men sang the [blank] to which the Choire - was the Corus. Before the Prayer for the King there was another - Symphony by the Organ, & Violins, and the Anthem was Sung by one - man, to which the choir was likewise the chorus. - -Throughout most of the eighteenth century, a good many of the fellows -resident in Cambridge held livings in the vicinity. They were -accustomed to ride out on Sunday to their cures, hold services, and -return home to a comfortable supper the same evening, but in general -neglected their parishes during the rest of the week. Thus if a -parishioner died, the funeral was deferred till the following Sunday; -and if a marriage-service was to be held in the village, it had to -wait for a free Sunday. In these circumstances the bride and -bridegroom often settled the matter by coming into Cambridge for the -ceremony, and during the first half of this century our chapel was -constantly borrowed for such marriage services; after the Marriage Act -of 26 George II, cap. 33, this use of it became illegal unless a -special license were obtained. Since that Act, it has been used only -once for such a purpose, namely, for the marriage of Miss Butler on -18 December 1901. - -Coming to the nineteenth century, we have numerous notes about the -chapel and the services. At the beginning of this period the author of -_Alma Mater_ (J.M.F. Wright, who commenced residence in 1817) gives an -unfavourable account of the services, saying that they were gabbled -through as fast as possible amid a great deal of talking. The first -part of this statement may be correct, but as to the second probably -conversation was rare, and such as took place, though not condemned by -public opinion, was subdued and was held only in recesses, one of -which was known as iniquity corner. In fact, we may take it that the -vast majority of the undergraduates acted as gentlemen though they -attended chapel reluctantly and merely as a matter of discipline. -Attendance was required at seven o'clock in the morning, not a -convenient hour, albeit considerably later than that usual in Tudor -times. - -In 1831 the fabric was again thoroughly repaired, the roof -redecorated, certain stalls elevated, desks at the east end -constructed, and a new scheme of lighting by candelabra introduced. A -few years later, in 1838, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to -Undergraduates concerned themselves with marking the attendance of -fellows in chapel. That incident I have described elsewhere. - -In 1867-75 the building was again thoroughly overhauled, the south -side faced with stone, a porch, a new vestry, and a choir-room built, -the organ screen moved a few feet westward, the walls and roof -painted, gilding used freely on the panelling, the windows filled with -stained glass, backed benches and kneeling stools introduced for -undergraduates, and the building lighted with gas. During part of the -time occupied by this restoration, the College used St Michael's -church as its chapel. - -According to the scheme of decoration, adopted on the advice of -Lightfoot and Westcott, if we proceed eastwards up the chapel we are -supposed to note, in order, the frescoes on the walls (which -represent old testament heroes and teachers) and paintings on the roof -(which illustrate the Benedicite), leading up through Jewish history -to the birth of Christ, and then, returning westward, to have -suggested to us, by the successive windows, the historical development -of Christianity and the growth of learning particularly in the -University and College. A man might worship many years in the chapel -before he discovered this design. - -The panels in the sacrarium are replaced by intarsia work in which all -the woods used are of their natural colours. The sixteenth-century -silver cross on the communion table came from Spain. The wrought-iron -gas standards here and through the chapel are also worthy of note; -fortunately they were allowed to remain when the electric light was -introduced. All this, as well as the scheme of decoration of the -antechapel, is described in guide-books with more or less accuracy. - -Probably the services were never rendered more effectively than in the -years following this restoration. Attendance on Sunday evening was -required unless absentees could urge conscientious or other good -reasons for exemption, but a large proportion of those who might have -obtained exemption did, in fact, take part in the Sunday services. -More benches were placed in the chapel than are there now, and the -building, with every seat occupied and everyone (save a few -privileged visitors) in a surplice, presented a most impressive scene. -Electric light was introduced in 1893, and has added much to the -comfort of congregations in winter evenings. - -In former days members of the Society who died in College were not -infrequently buried in the chapel--a shocking thing to permit in a -building in constant use, though sanctioned by the custom of many -centuries. There are a good many tombstones scattered over the floor, -and copies of all the inscriptions have been published. I wonder how -many members of the Society know that among those here buried is one -woman, bearing the strange Christian name of Elismar. The last -interment in the chapel took place in October 1886, and further -burials are now forbidden unless sanctioned by the Home Office. - -The building has always been used for various secular purposes, such -as elections to scholarships and fellowships; the admission of -scholars, fellows, and officers; the affixing of the College seal to -documents, and the delivery of declamations by students. Within recent -years lectures in the antechapel and an oration in the chapel have -been delivered. I believe the view that a church or chapel is intended -only for the performance of religious services is modern and -unwarranted by history: at any rate our records give no authority for -it. - - -[Footnote 22: On the site acquired for the College were situated the -buildings of King's Hall, Michael-House, Physwick's Hostel, and some -private hostels or boarding houses. Members of private hostels used -their parish churches. All the students in Physwick's Hostel were -members of Gonville Hall, and used the chapel of that Hall. The -members of Michael-House used St Michael's church: this House had been -founded in 1324 by Hervey de Stanton for a master and six fellows, who -if not priests at the time of admission, had to take orders within one -year; and later two more fellows, three chaplains, and four bible -clerks were added to the foundation, which was intended for secular -clergy studying in the University. The church of St Michael was -appropriated to it, and rebuilt by its founder for use as its chapel. -The fellows had in their House an oratory, and in March 1393, the -bishop of Ely granted them leave to build a chapel, but their history -and convenience alike made them wish to continue to use St Michael's -church as their regular chapel.] - -[Footnote 23: Fuller's _History of Cambridge_, reprint 1840, p. 265. -Fuller mistakenly assigned the disturbance to 1566-67 instead of -1565-66.] - -[Footnote 24: Since published in the _Proceedings_ of the Cambridge -Antiquarian Society, 22 May 1916, vol. XX, pp. 114-116.] - -[Footnote 25: When I first came into residence a survival of this -interpolated symphony existed in a long organ solo which preceded the -anthem.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -SOME COLLEGE TREASURES. - - -Those who live among beautiful surroundings and in constant touch with -works of art are often apt to take their privileges for granted. -Members of Trinity are proud of the buildings of the College and the -grounds in which they are placed, and most of us know something of -their history and characteristic features. But with our art treasures -there is less general acquaintance, and so perhaps it may not be out -of place to jot down a few notes on some of them--chiefly pictures and -plate--in which I take pleasure. - -Of the contents of the library I say nothing, for a volume would be -needed to describe them even briefly. The illuminated manuscripts and -the early printed books attract most attention, but there are numerous -other subjects in which the library must be ranked among the most -important in Great Britain. I have often been told by undergraduates -that they have never been in the building except once when they signed -the Admission Book. That is true enough of some men, but those who are -interested in rare and famous books and yet never visit the Library -neglect exceptional opportunities. - -Of oil portraits--in all nearly two hundred--of former members of -the College, we own a valuable collection, and they illustrate in a -remarkable way how many distinguished men have been educated here. -Identification is easy as labels are placed on most of the pictures. -Unfortunately we have no gallery in which they can be shown. Some are -put in the hall, some in the master's lodge, some in the combination -room, and some in the library, lecture-rooms, etc. Those in the lodge -are set off well, but the others are not hung to advantage. - -About twenty-five years ago a proposal was made to raise subscriptions -for an art gallery to be built along the edge of the river starting -from the present north end of the library and extending over the land -now occupied by the master's stables and the end of his garden. At -that time the proposal did not receive much favour, but now I -sometimes wonder if we were wise in putting the plan on one side. -Certainly we have more canvasses than we can exhibit satisfactorily. -The hall, too, would look a more dignified apartment if the pictures, -except for one or two on the dais, were taken away: recently their -temporary removal was necessitated by repairs to the woodwork, and the -improvement in the appearance of the room was noticeable. The general -effect of such a clearance may be judged by a visit to the hall of the -Middle Temple in London. The dimensions of the body of that hall are -the same as ours, but instead of pictures on the side walls, each -small oak panel bears an armorial shield: these harmonise well with -the architectural lines of the building. Where, as is the case with -our neighbours at St John's, the panelling is low and there is above -it a big stretch of stone or painted wall, pictures add to the effect, -but this is not the case where the panelling is high. - -Of all our pictures I suppose the one which attracts most attention is -that of Henry VIII which hangs over the dais at the north end of the -hall: it was given us by Robert Beaumont, who held the mastership from -1561 to 1567. The artist was Hans Eworth, a Dutchman who lived in -London circ. 1543-75, and worked with or under the influence of -Antonio Moro: the portrait was taken from or founded on that of the -king in the fresco painted by Holbein in 1537 on a wall of the privy -chamber in Whitehall palace. This fresco, which was destroyed in the -fire of 1698 and till then deservedly treated as one of the art -treasures of London, contained portraits of Henry VII and Henry VIII -with their queens, Elizabeth of York and Jane Seymour. Holbein's -studies for the heads of the two kings have been preserved, and are at -Chatsworth and Munich. Most of the extant portraits of Henry VIII are -copied from or founded on this fresco. Signs of deterioration in the -fresco were noticeable in the reign of Charles II, and by his orders -it was copied by Remée, a French painter then resident in London. The -original fresco was on each side of and above a fireplace or window. -Instead of depicting this, the artist represented this space as -occupied by a pedestal containing an inscription: his delineation of -the faces of the sovereigns is poor, but he has preserved Holbein's -general design. Two copies of the reproduction are extant, one of -which is in the royal collection and the other at Petworth. - -Hardly less notable than the presentation of our founder, and far more -valuable, is the charming portrait by Joshua Reynolds of the duke of -Gloucester (1776-1834) as a boy: the duke was a cousin of George III -and afterwards chancellor of the University. Reynolds wrote in his -diary that the boy sat for his portrait in March 1780 when he was four -years old, and that the finished picture was delivered in January -1788--the charge for it being a hundred guineas. Horace Walpole -praised it, but thought it "washy," an opinion not shared by modern -critics who esteem it one of Reynolds's masterpieces. The picture was -left to the College in 1843 by the will of the duke's sister, the -Princess Sophia, with a request that it should be hung in the hall. -The legacy was due to the good offices of a freshman of the time--the -Hon. Douglas Gordon, son of George, fourth earl of Aberdeen. He -described the circumstances attending the gift as follows: - - When I went up to Trinity in 1842, I used to see a great deal of the - princess.... [I was then] a freshman full of admiration for my - College of which I used to boast. One day the old princess shewed me - the picture, ... and asked if I thought it would look well in the - Hall. On my saying what a boon it would be, she very graciously said - "You can tell Mr Whewell that I will leave it to the College through - you, and I hope you will see this picture placed in a good - position." At her death I took it down to Trinity where I was still - an undergraduate. - -The portrait of queen Mary on the other side of the dais is a Spanish -copy of Antonio Moro's famous picture which hangs in Madrid. The -original is said to have been given to Philip after his engagement to -her; it presents her as a woman of strong character but far from -beautiful. When the marriage took place, it was unkindly said by a -Spanish courtier that whatever were the faults of his master, it must -at least be admitted that he recognized the obligation of a gentleman -to keep his word. - -Of other pictures in the hall those of Tennyson (1809-92) painted in -1890 by G.F. Watts, of the earl of Essex (1566-1601) painted in 1590, -of Isaac Newton (1642-1727) painted in 1725 by John Vanderbank, and of -Francis Bacon (1561-1626) copied from Van Somer's portrait in Gray's -Inn are specially noticeable. Newton and Barrow (together with -Pearson who is mentioned below) played a leading part in the -intellectual life in the University towards the close of the -seventeenth century, but I need not talk here about this. Barrow, who -was a mathematician and divine, had a ready wit. When, previous to his -admission to holy orders, he was examined on his faith, the dialogue -is said to have been as follows:--Chaplain: _Quid est fides?_ Barrow: -_Quod non vides._ Chaplain: _Quid est spes?_ Barrow: _Magna res._ -Chaplain: _Quid est caritas?_ Barrow: _Magna raritas._ On which his -questioner retired in dudgeon, and reported that there was a candidate -for ordination who would only give him "rhyming answers to moral -questions": but the bishop had the sense to recognize that truths can -be expressed in rhyme as well as in prose, and Barrow was ordained. - -A very pleasing picture is that reputed to be of Byron: this looks -like a Raeburn, though it is ascribed to Thomas Lawrence: its history -is doubtful, but the absence of any peculiarity in the ear is _prima -facie_ evidence that it is not of Byron. Another striking portrait is -that of W.H. Thompson (1810-1886) painted in 1881 by Hubert -von Herkomer. When Thompson saw the completed portrait of himself, he -is said to have remarked, "Do I really look as if I held the world so -cheap" and in a print of it in the house of one of my friends, this is -inscribed on the frame. I ought also to call attention to the window -portrait of Richard, duke of York (1411-60), the father of Edward IV -and Richard III, which probably comes to us from King's Hall. - -Among other paintings, which at present hang on the hall panelling, -are portraits of the following famous members of our College:--Edward -White Benson (1829-96) archbishop of Canterbury, Isaac Hawkins Browne -(1706-60), Arthur Cayley (1821-95), the earl of Derby (1826-93), -Michael Foster (1836-1907), Francis Galton (1822-1911), the earl of -Halifax (1661-1715), Fenton John Anthony Hort (1828-92), Richard -Claverhouse Jebb (1841-1905), Joseph Joachim (1831-1907) the musician, -Thomas Jones (1756-1807), Joseph Barber Lightfoot (1828-89) bishop of -Durham, Frederick Denison Maurice (1805-72), James Clerk Maxwell -(1831-79), viscount Melbourne (1779-1849), Matthew Raine (1760-1811), -Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873), Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900), Charles John -Vaughan (1816-97), Brooke Foss Westcott (1825-1901) bishop of Durham, -John Westlake (1828-1908), and William Whewell (1794-1866). - -Of these, Raine, Jones, Halifax and Hawkins Browne lived in the -eighteenth century. The last-named is known to fame through having -caused a change in the family reigning in the two Sicilies. In fact, -coming to Naples in his travels he danced at a court ceremony "with -such inconceivable alacrity and vigour" as to provoke universal -amusement and amazement: in particular the queen's laughter was so -immoderate that a miscarriage ensued. On such events may the histories -of dynasties and empires turn! He is described on this occasion as -pirouetting in a "dress of volcano silk with lava buttons": perhaps it -is in this costume that he is depicted on our walls. Having related -this anecdote I must in fairness add that he was a poet of -considerable ability, a good talker in an age when the standard of -conversation was high, and an excellent judge of wine. Most of the -portraits are, however, of celebrities of the Victorian age. Of these, -Melbourne and Derby were politicians; Benson, Hort, Lightfoot, -Vaughan, and Westcott represent the church; Westlake was a lawyer; -Jebb a scholar; Maurice and Sidgwick represent ethical philosophy; -while Cayley, Foster, Galton, Maxwell, Sedgwick, and Whewell, were men -of science. - -Among the canvasses above the panelling are portraits of Richard -Bentley (1662-1742) the scholar, Edward Coke (1549-1634) the lord -chief justice, Cowley (1618-67) the poet, John Dryden (1631-1701) the -poet, the earl of Macclesfield (1666-1732), John Pearson (1613-86) -bishop of Chester, Robert Smith (1689-1768) the mathematician, and -John Wilkins (1614-72) bishop of Chester. Wilkins is now almost -unknown but he wrote some interesting books, notably one on the -ciphers employed in the civil war of the seventeenth century. Another -work of his on the possibility of a journey to the moon, provoked the -duchess of Newcastle to ask him where she could find a place to bait -if she tried the journey: "Madam," said he, "of all the people in the -world I least expected that question from you, who have built so many -castles in the air that you may lie every night in one of your own." - -The pictures in the large combination room of Isaac Newton by Thomas -Murray, and of Matthew Prior (1664-1721) by Godfrey Kneller are good: -the former came to us from a descendant (Mrs Ring) of Newton's -favourite niece, and its history is given in a letter from Charles -Simeon to Mansel, master of the College at the time of the gift. The -other canvasses are too big for a private apartment, but the portraits -of the "proud" duke of Somerset (1662-1748) by Nathaniel Dance, the -marquess of Granby (1721-70) by Joshua Reynolds, the duke of -Gloucester by John Opie, the marquess of Camden (1759-1840) by Thomas -Lawrence, the duke of Grafton (1760-1844) also by Lawrence, and the -duke of Sussex (1773-1843) by James Lonsdale, are of some repute: to -these there was added in 1915 a portrait of Arthur J. Balfour by -P.A. Laszlö de Lombros. - -Of the peers mentioned above the names of Granby and Somerset are -still well known. Granby fought in the Culloden campaign, was colonel -of the blues (horse guards) at Minden, 1759; commander of the British -contingent in the campaigns of 1760, 1761, and 1762; and in 1766 -became commander-in-chief of the army. Delighting in danger, which -even when in supreme command he deliberately sought, brave to a fault, -an excellent cavalry leader, rich and lavishly generous, he was the -idol of the public, and witnesses to his popularity remain in the -numerous public-houses scattered far and wide over England which bear -his name and arms. Somerset was of a very different type, being a -stupid man whose power was chiefly derived from his enormous landed -possessions. To the Somerset properties he added, by his marriage with -the sole heiress of the earls of Northumberland, the great estates of -the Percies. He held the chancellorship of the University for the -extraordinary term of sixty years. His title of the "proud duke" -commemorates only his arrogance, and was derived from the fact that -even to speak to anyone in a menial position was regarded by him as a -condescension. His servants were trained to understand his wishes by -signs, and numerous footmen surrounded him when in the streets so as -to avoid the risk that any people of the lower classes should approach -or address him. Perhaps the best known of the stories of his -pretensions refers to his remark to his second wife who once called -his attention to something by touching him with her fan (or according -to another version kissed him without asking his leave), "Madam," said -he, drawing himself apart, "my first wife never dared to take such a -liberty, and she was a Percy." As another illustration of his -character I may add that he deprived one of his daughters of £20,000 -because she had sat down in his presence without asking his leave. - -In the lodge there are numerous portraits of former masters of the -College, and obviously this is the proper place for such a collection. -It is not complete, twelve past masters being unrepresented, but -portraits of two of these (namely Wilkins and Pearson) hang in the -hall. The most notable picture in this series is that of Nevile, which -is properly given the place of honour over the mantelpiece in the -dining room which he built. He holds a paper in his right hand, and -I like to think that this is intended to suggest the letter which -Elizabeth on her death-bed entrusted to him to take to Scotland, -informing James VI of that kingdom that she designated him as her -successor. In this room too are portraits of Porson and Thompson with -whose memories so many excellent academic stories are associated, but -I must not linger over these. In the drawing room the most striking -portraits are those of queen Elizabeth by Mark Gerrard, the duke of -Gloucester (1776-1834) in his undergraduate robes by George Romney, -and queen Mary probably by Hans Eworth. The painted panels in the -entrance hall often escape attention, but are worth looking at, -especially in the case of the portraits of Edward III, Henry VII, -Elizabeth of York, Mary of Scotland, Edward VI, and queen Mary. The -collection of portraits, formed by Dr Butler, of Trinity men who have -held judicial appointments is also interesting, but is not generally -accessible to visitors. - -The pictures in the lecture-rooms and on the walls of the staircase -leading to them form a sort of overflow collection, and though of -unequal merit, a few are worth attention. There are also some pictures -of merit in the library among which I note in particular portraits of -Tennyson and Lightfoot. - -The engravings of former members of the College placed in the small -combination room will repay study. There are at present between one -hundred and fifty and two hundred here, but there are many more in -portfolios in the library. Several of these have been acquired in -recent years through the generosity and knowledge of John Charrington. - -The painted glass in the hall shows numerous coats of arms, and anyone -acquainted with heraldry will find here a rich field of study. The -windows could have been filled over and over again with the arms of -former famous members of the College, but the matter has been managed -in a haphazard way, and many distinguished sons of the House are -unrepresented. In spite of some bad glass the collection is -interesting. Perhaps however any further account of it here would be -more technical than would be justified in a paper like this. Of other -glass in the College, the windows in the chapel are typical of the art -of 1870, and are only moderately satisfactory. The window at the south -end of the library, executed in 1775, was made by Peckitt of York, -after a design by Cipriani: it illustrates some curious points in the -history of the art of stained glass, but the design is impossible, and -the scheme of colour atrocious. - -Sculpture, unless it is absolutely first rate, does not represent a -man as well as portraiture. The number of pieces of statuary of the -first class in Great Britain is small, and in the possession of such -pieces the College is extraordinarily fortunate. The statue of Newton, -with its proud inscription "Newton qui genus humanum ingenio -superavit," in the antechapel by Roubiliac--"the marble index of a -mind for ever voyaging through strange seas of thought alone"--is of -the highest merit. It was described by Chantrey as "the noblest of -English statues," and I have never seen any modern piece of statuary -anywhere which can be ranked superior to it: the man lives and almost -moves. Thorwaldsen's statue of Byron, rejected by the authorities of -Westminster Abbey on account of his alleged atheistical opinions, -which stands in the library, and that of Bacon in the antechapel may -also be reckoned among examples of first-class statuary. Of these -three pieces two are by foreigners. There are also in the antechapel -statues of Barrow, Macaulay, Whewell, and Tennyson, and in the library -a large number of busts. The statues of Edward III on the clock tower, -of Henry VIII, James I, Anne of Denmark, and Prince Charles on the -great gate, and of queen Elizabeth on the queen's gate are -interesting, though not to be reckoned as works of art. - -Old Silver Plate has a peculiar beauty. We have some fine specimens -though they are fewer and later than from our history we should -expect. Most of the pieces are kept in the butteries, and can be seen -by visitors. Twice a year anyone entering the hall will see the junior -bursar there with all the plate spread before him checking it by his -lists, a pretty spectacle which always suggests to me the picture of -the king "in his counting house counting out his money," and formerly -in "May-week" typical pieces were set out on show in the hall. - -We have a catalogue of the plate--a large and valuable -collection--owned by King's Hall in the fifteenth century, and we may -reasonably suppose that this, as well as the plate belonging to -Michael-House, came in due course to us; all this has gone with the -possible, but doubtful, exception of a censer boat now in the library. -We know also that some plate was given us in Tudor and early Stuart -times: of this, only five pieces remained to us at the restoration. I -take it however that until well into the eighteenth century people -were accustomed to regard plate, other than pieces of historic -interest, as a convenient way of keeping portable wealth in a form -which could be easily turned into coin, and its dispersion in times of -emergency when money was wanted is not surprising. - -It was customary for noblemen and fellow-commoners to present plate to -the House when they completed their academic career: their -caution-money being commonly employed for or towards the purpose. -After the restoration, thanks to this graceful practice, our -possessions of this kind grew rapidly. Unfortunately a good many of -our pieces were lost through two burglaries, one in 1795 and the other -in 1798; for instance, no less than fifty-five drinking cups some of -great beauty were then taken. During the eighteenth century, in -colleges and throughout the country, large numbers of "standing -pieces" of plate were melted down, and the metal used to make spoons -and forks; this accounts for the disappearance of some of our -treasures of an earlier date. Until 1870 new pieces continued to be -added in large numbers: in that year the College abolished the general -admission of noblemen and fellow-commoners, holding that distinctions -of rank were undesirable in academic life; and since then our -collection has increased only by special gifts or by purchase. - -Of our pre-commonwealth plate the oldest pieces are two silver-gilt -flagons, dated 1607-08, given us in 1636 by John and Bernard Stuart, -sons of the duke of Lennox, then about sixteen and fourteen years old. -There is in the small combination room a charming print of Vandyke's -portrait of the brothers: both boys were killed during the Civil War, -John at Edgehill and Bernard at Rowton Heath. Whistles are placed in -the handles of these flagons, so they must have been originally -intended for secular use, but they have been included, as far back as -our records go, among the communion plate: perhaps the spouts were -added when the vessels were placed in the chapel. Our next earliest -piece is the handsome cup, dated 1615-16, given us by Nevile probably -in 1615: it was originally silver-gilt. The fourth of these pieces is -a bursarial rose-water basin and ewer dated 1635-36. We owe it to -Ambrose Aykerod who was bursar in that year: his arms are engraved on -the cup, and the inscriptions on it refer to vows and pledges by him -which are now inexplicable. The only other early piece which survived -the Civil War was a cup given by John Clarkson between 1610 and 1620 -and known from its inscription "Pauper Johannes Dictus Cognomine -Clarkson Hunc Cyathum Dono Gratuito Dedit" as the "Pauper Joan Pot": -this was stolen in 1798. Clarkson had matriculated as a sizar in 1553, -obtained a scholarship in due course, and graduated B.A. in 1560. - -Apart from the four pieces mentioned above, the most striking objects -in our collection are the rose-water basins and ewers, the Duport -standing salt, the standing or loving cups, the tankards, and the -punch-bowls. - -We have several notable rose-water basins and ewers. The earliest of -these is the set given by the earl of Kent in 1662 to commemorate the -passing of the Act of Uniformity. The date is given by a quaint double -chronogram: and the central inscription Νιψον ανομηματα μη μοναν οψιν -reads alike forwards and backwards. Another beautiful set is that -given by the duke of Buckingham in 1671, the circumference of the -basin being over seven feet. The visitor should also notice a set of -1740 bequeathed by David Humphrey, and a set of 1748 given by William -John Bankes. Another set consists of a basin of 1716 given by John -Bennet, with a graceful ewer probably made about 1675. This ewer must -have been originally a "standing cup" since a whistle is placed in the -handle, but a spout was added between 1789 and 1810 with the intention -of turning it into a flagon: on it are engraved the Trinity and -Westminster arms, and in an early catalogue it is called the Busby -cup: its donor is unknown. - -There is a curious custom at the high table connected with these -dishes. At the end of dinner on ordinary nights, before grace is said, -a rose-water dish with an empty ewer is placed before the fellow -sitting at the head of each table. I conjecture that this dates from a -time when napkins and forks were unknown, and diners were accustomed -to rinse their hands in water before rising from the table. Now the -appearance of the empty ewer is only a sign that dinner is over. At -feasts the ewer contains rose-water which is poured into the dish and -passed round the table. - -We have a fine specimen of a standing salt in a piece associated with -the name of James Duport. Its breadth is nearly ten inches, and its -height, without the handles, seven inches. It was these massive salts, -and not "trencher salts," that were originally used to divide the -company into those that sat above and below the salt; and in the -middle ages the standing salt was generally the most valued single -piece in the house and the chief ornament on the table. The medieval -specimens usually have a cover to protect the salt, and the handles in -specimens like ours are said to have been introduced for a similar -reason, as a napkin can be twisted round them so as to cover the salt, -and thus save it from dust. Our specimen bears the inscription εχετε -εν εαυτοις ἁλας και ειρηνευετε εν αλληλοις, together with a statement -that it was given by Duport. Probably his gift was made in 1665, when -he left the College on his appointment as master of Magdalene. The -piece, however, bears the hall-mark 1733-34; here, and in some other -cases, it would seem that the original piece was exchanged for a new -one, perhaps when repairs were required, and it was the custom in such -circumstances to engrave the old inscription on the new piece of -plate. - -In spite of our losses at the end of the eighteenth century some fine -drinking cups and covers still remain in our possession. Notable among -these is one of 1691-92 given by Charles and George Firebrace, one of -1697-98 given by Henry Boyle, and one of 1711-12 given by John Verney. -We have also a cup and cover of 1726 given by the earl of Sandwich, -another of 1729 given by Samuel Husbands, another of 1763 given by -John Damer, another of 1771 given by George Augustus Henry Cavendish, -another of 1776 given by William Greaves, and another of 1780 given by -the earl of Mexborough. To these I may add the Lyndhurst silver-gilt -cup and cover of 1876-77 given by Sir Theodore Martin. All these are -fine specimens of silversmith's work, and can be used at feasts as -loving cups, with the ceremonial customary to such drinking. - -The tankards with lids form another striking group of plate, but the -larger ones which contain three quarts or more must be regarded as -being decorative rather than useful. Conspicuous among these pieces is -one, probably made about 1670, given by Thomas Taylor, one of 1698-99 -given by Peter Pheasaunt, one of 1699-1700 given by Thomas Alston, one -of 1700-01 given by Thomas Bellot, one of 1739-40 given by Thomas -Foley, one of 1746-47 given by Francis Vernon, one of 1751-52 given by -Charles Paulet, one of 1757-58 given by Edward Fitzgerald, and one of -1762-63 given by Hans Sloane. There is also a fine collection of ale -plate. Of the smaller tankards, stoups, and drinking cups there are -innumerable specimens. I will not dwell longer over our other pieces. -Suffice it is to say that of punch-bowls there are three or four fine -specimens of the eighteenth century, as also various snuff-boxes, -silver trays, etc. Of candlesticks there are between two and three -hundred, many of them beautiful pieces of work. Of ordinary domestic -plate the stock is large. - -There is also a good deal of plate which has been given or assigned -for use in the lodge: this includes the Perry silver-gilt dessert -service. In the chapel plate besides the flagons already mentioned -there are two silver-gilt patens of 1661-62, associated in the early -catalogues with the names of John and Bernard Stuart; also an -alms-dish of 1673, and an altar cross given in 1894 and said to be of -Spanish renaissance work. - -I add some particulars of thirteen challenge pieces of plate owned -by the Boat and Athletic Clubs: of these, five belong to the First -Trinity Boat Club, and eight to the Athletic Club. These pieces are of -recent make and their chief interest comes from the inscribed names of -the successive holders. - -Trinity men will recollect that there are various races arranged each -year by the First Trinity Boat Club, the winners of which receive pots -or other prizes, and that in five of these events, the winners, in -addition to receiving the special prizes, hold challenge pieces on -which are engraved the names of past winners. These challenge pieces -are: A two-handled silver chased cup and stand (hall-mark 1836), held -by the winner of a sculling race (the Macnaughten Sculls) rowed in -the Michaelmas Term, open to all members of the Club who have not -previously won it or the University Colquhoun Sculls. A two-handled -silver cup and stand (hall-mark probably 1857 or 1858), which came to -the club from the now defunct Second Trinity Boat Club, held by the -winner of a sculling race (the Baines Sculls) rowed in the Lent Term, -open to all members who have not previously won it or the Macnaughten -Sculls or the University Colquhoun Sculls. Silver oars (hall-mark -1860) held by the winners of a pair-oared race (the Wyatt Pairs) rowed -in the Michaelmas Term, open to all members who have not previously -won it or the University Magdalene Pairs. Silver oars (hall-mark 1861) -which came to the Club from Second Trinity, held by the winners of a -pair-oared race (the Dodington Pairs) rowed in the Lent Term, open to -all members who have not previously won it or the Wyatt Pairs or the -University Magdalene Pairs. Silver Sculls (hall-mark 1897) held by the -winners of a double sculling race (the Taxis Sculls) rowed in the -Easter Term, open to all members who have not previously won it or the -University Magdalene pairs. - -Similarly among the sports arranged each year by the Trinity Athletic -Club are seven events, the winners of which in addition to receiving -special prizes, hold challenge pieces of plate on which are engraved -the names of past winners. These challenge pieces are: A half-fluted -silver bowl and plinth (hall-mark 1887) held by the winner of the mile -race. A half-fluted silver bowl and plinth (hall-mark 1899) held by -the winner of the half-mile race. A silver chased claret jug with -handle (hall-mark 1886) held by the winner of the quarter-mile race. -Four silver candlesticks (hall-mark 1899) held by the winner of the -hundred yards race. A two-handled half-fluted silver cup (hall-mark -1888) held by the winner of the hurdles race. A two-handled silver -bowl (hall-mark 1896) held by the winner of the long jump. A silver -salver (hall-mark 1896) held by the winner of the high jump. Finally -there is a two-handled silver chased cup and plinth (hall-mark 1892) -held by the man who scores most marks in the various events. - -It may be thought that I have occupied too much space in giving bare -lists of pieces of plate, but the shapes of some of the pieces are so -good and the surface of old silver, when carefully tended, has such a -beautiful texture that I believe it may be worth calling the attention -of any interested in such things to some of our possessions of this -kind. Only societies and families with continuous records dating from -a distant past can show such collections. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE COLLEGE AUDITORS. - - -There is no reference in our earliest college statutes--those of -1552--to an Auditor, but the extant accounts show that the office -existed from the foundation of the College in 1546. Definite -regulations for the appointment were proposed in the draft statutes of -1554, and were embodied in the statutes of 1560. By these the auditor -was made one of the statutable officers of the Society: the post was -held for long periods, and it was not permissible to perform the -duties by proxy. The statute in question was re-enacted in 1844. By -the statutes of 1861 the office was made annual, and tenable only -during pleasure. It remains annual under the present statutes, but a -definite proviso was inserted in 1882 that it is not tenable by a -fellow or officer of the House, and a clause was introduced providing -for the appointment from among the fellows of an Assessor or Assessors -who should be present during the audit. - -From the foundation of the College, its financial year ran from -Michaelmas to Michaelmas, and the audit of each year was concluded in -the following December. At first the annual honorarium of the auditor -seems to have been £10 with an allowance of £2 for travelling -expenses, stationery, etc., but before the end of the sixteenth -century it had been reduced to £5, with an augmentation of £3. 6s. 8d. -and some allowances. - -The form of the _declaratio computi_ was much as at present, and -generally, with but small variations, it takes the form now -stereotyped "and so the said A. B. Senior (or Junior) Bursar upon the -foot of this his account for one whole year ending Michaelmas ... -oweth unto the College the sum of...." In some cases, and notably in -the seventeenth century, the sums include fractions of a penny, even -as small as one thirty-second part thereof. Presumably the audit was -always followed by a "feast," as still remains the custom. - -Of the occupants of the office from 1546 to 1618 the information in -the college books is incomplete. The only auditors previous to 1618 -whose names I have noticed, with the years in which they held office, -are Edward Burnell, 1553, 1561, 1563 and 1564; Adam Winthrop, 1606; -and Richard Brooke, 1614. I have not, however, read the account-books -through from cover to cover, and it may be that there are references -which have escaped me. Luckily Winthrop's diary and some memoranda -from 1595 to 1621 are extant, and contain references to a few earlier -dates. From these we can take our continuous record back to the year -ending Michaelmas 1593, when he was auditor. He resigned in 1610, and -was succeeded by Brooke. Brooke was acting in 1615, and had commons in -1616, and I have no doubt acted in 1617. From 1618 onwards we can, -from one source or another, make out the names of those who held the -office. The handwritings of the earlier auditors have marked -characteristics. They suggest that there was one auditor from 1547 to -1552, another from 1553 to 1578, who must have been Edward Burnell, -another from 1579 to 1591, and another from 1592 to 1609, who must -have been Adam Winthrop. But I present these as mere surmises, and I -do not attempt to go back beyond 1593. - -Our roll then is as follows. From 1547 to 1592 we cannot definitely -say more than that Edward Burnell was auditor for a period which -included the years 1553 to 1564, for no doubt his tenure was unbroken. -From 1593 the sequence runs thus: - -Adam Winthrop, 1593 (or earlier) to 1609; Richard Brooke, 1610 to -1617; Robert Spicer, 1618 to 1628; Francis Hughes, 1629 to 1668; -Samuel Newton, 1669 to 1717, Newton resigned in 1674, and thereon he -and William Ellis were appointed to the office, with remainder to the -survivor of them, but apparently William Ellis never acted; Denys -L'Isle, 1718 to 1726; William Greaves, 1727 to 1778; Robert Graham, -1779 to 1791; Samuel Knight, 1792 to 1811; Nicholas Conyngham Tindal, -1812 to 1825; James Parke, 1826 to 1828; Andrew Amos, 1829 to 1836; -John George Shaw-Lefevre, 1837 to 1851; George Denman, 1852 to 1862; -George Valentine Yool, 1863 to 1869; Augustus Arthur VanSittart, 1870 -to 1881; John Willis Clark, 1882 to 1908. Since 1908 the office has -been held by a professional accountant. The dates given indicate the -ends of the audit year: thus the audit of 1669 was for the year -1668-69. It will be noticed that during the three hundred and sixteen -years from 1593 to 1908, there were, if we omit William Ellis, only -seventeen auditors, giving an average tenure of more than eighteen -years. Of these seventeen auditors at least eleven have been lawyers -and four ultimately rose to the Bench. I add a few biographical notes -on these auditors. - -Of Edward Burnell, the earliest holder of the office whose name I have -given, I know nothing. His successor Adam Winthrop, 1548-1623, the son -of a prominent London merchant and reformer, had been admitted as a -fellow-commoner at Magdalene in 1567, and had left the University -without a degree. He had been called to the bar, but did not practise, -and was content to fill the rôle of a well-to-do country squire. He -was an intimate friend of Still, master of Trinity from 1577 to 1593, -whose sister he married in 1574, and whose wife was his connection by -marriage. I conjecture that he owed the office to Still's influence. -Winthrop was a fair scholar, an indifferent poet, and somewhat of a -pedant. His tomb is at Groton, Suffolk. More than one of his -descendants were distinguished. In particular his son, John, -1588-1649, who was admitted to Trinity College in 1602, was the -founder of the well-known American family of this name; and his -great-great-grandson, Sir George Downing was the founder of Downing -College. - -Winthrop seems to have done the whole of the audit work at the end of -the Michaelmas term of each year. Thus in 1601 he wrote: - - The ivth of Decemb. I ridde to Cambride & beganne the Auditt the 7th - beinge Monday. The xiiijth of Decembre I returned from the Auditt & - did see the Sonne in the Eclips about 12 of the Clock at noone. - -Perhaps his resignation was made at the suggestion of the College, for -early in 1610 he wrote: - - Dr Meriton came to speake with me about the resignation of my office - in Trinity College to Mr Brookes.... I surrendered my Auditorship in - Trinitye College to the Mr fellows & schollers before a pub. - notary.... I dyned at Dr Meriton's in Hadley & received of him xxlb - for my Auditorshippe.... Mr Rich. Brooke the nue Auditor of Trinity - College was at my house in Groton to whom I dd. divers paper books & - Roles touchinge his Office. - -Of the next three auditors I can discover very little. Richard Brooke -was appointed in 1610. The following conclusion of 8 June 1615, seems -to refer to him, "concluded that Mr Brookes in regard of his paines -taken divers times for the Colledge that he shoulde ... have given him -Twentye pounds," and during his visits in the following year be -allowed commons. We may assume that he held office till the end of -1617. A Richard Brookes had entered at Queens' as a fellow-commoner in -1587, but whether he was the subsequent auditor there is nothing to -show. In 1618 we have the copy of the appointment of Robert Spicer. He -held office till the end of 1628, since a conclusion of 3 June 1629, -appointed in his place Francis Hughes. Hughes, who held the office -till his death in October 1669, was admitted a scholar in 1616, -graduated M.A. in 1623, was one of the esquire-bedells, and occupied -rooms in College at the time of his death. - -The next occupant of the office was Samuel Newton, 1629-1718, a -prominent attorney in the town and mayor in 1671. He was not a member -of the University. His diary from 1662 to 1717 preserved in the -library of Downing College, contains an account of his election to the -post in the chapel by the master and seniors, he being present in the -antechapel. He attended next day in his gown, was sworn to the -faithful discharge of his duties, and signed the roll of college -officers. He proved thoroughly efficient. For his services at the -audit in 1669 he received the fee of £5 with the customary -augmentation of £3. 6s. 8d., a sum of £6. 13s. 4d. for engrossing the -audit rolls, which henceforth were kept excellently, a sum of £1 for -preparing a book of arrears, and a sum of £1. 2s. 8d. for stationery. -He also received from the junior bursar, billets of wood of the value -of 6s. 8d.; from the steward, a "warp of lyng" of the value of 6s. -8d.; from the manciple, a "coller of brawne, also a dish of wild fowle -or 6s. 8d."; and from the brewhouse, "2 barrels of strong beere." - -In 1674 Newton surrendered his patent of appointment as auditor, but -he was immediately reappointed jointly with his cousin, William Ellis, -with remainder to the survivor of them. They were at the same time -appointed on the same conditions to the office of college registrar, -then vacant by the death of a Mr T. Griffith. According to Newton's -diary, William Ellis proceeded M.A. in 1670, but his name does not -appear in the list of graduati, unless indeed he is the Wm Ellis who -received the degree _per lit. reg._ in 1671. The college account-books -continued to be signed by Newton, and I have not noticed in them -evidence that Ellis ever took any part in the audit. The Society's -solicitors and attorneys have frequently acted as registrars, and it -may be that Ellis was in partnership with Newton, and was for that -reason made with him joint auditor and registrar. - -Samuel Newton died in 1718 in his ninetieth year. For the three years, -1715, 1716, and 1717, the books were audited by John Newton, -presumably his son or grandson, as his deputy. No doubt the -arrangement was made in consequence of the failing health of the old -gentleman whose signature in 1714 was very shaky. The appointment of a -deputy was invalid under the statute, but it must have been made with -the approval of Bentley, and perhaps of the seniority. At any rate -John Newton conducted the audit, and signed the books as deputy -auditor. - -Newton was succeeded in 1718 as auditor and registrar by Denys L'Isle. -L'Isle had been a fellow-commoner of Trinity Hall, admitted in 1712, -graduated LL.B. in 1715, who had gone down and in 1716 taken his name -off the books. He was a vigorous and not too scrupulous barrister. He -owed his appointment to Bentley, and he showed "extraordinary activity -and zeal in promoting all" his benefactor's "wishes and interests" and -represented him in some of his disputes. Whatever view may be taken of -Bentley's character, no one can justify his conduct in regard to the -college finances. A notable scandal occurred in the audit of 1722. In -the accounts of that year large sums were charged to the College for -works at the lodge and other sums spent by the master which had not -been sanctioned by the Society. Undoubtedly the charges were illegal, -but Bentley and L'Isle refused to allow the accounts to be examined by -the seniority. In fact in this, as in other matters, L'Isle had no -scruple in screening Bentley from the consequences of acts which were -neither legal nor honourable. - -L'Isle died in 1727, and was succeeded as auditor, steward of the -courts, and registrar by William Greaves. Greaves had in 1719 migrated -to Clare, Cambridge, from Brasenose, Oxford; he graduated B.A. in -1720, and in 1722 was elected at Clare to a fellowship which he held -till 1742. He was a barrister and an able man: he too owed his office -to Bentley, and acted as his counsel in many of his tortuous -proceedings. Through Bentley's influence Greaves had in 1726 been made -commissary of the University, an office which he held till 1778. The -letters patent to the office of college auditor were made out for the -term of his life, but a question having been raised as to whether this -was statutable, he surrendered them, and the College granted new -patents for the term of fifty years if he should live so long. I -suppose he was duly admitted to the office, for probably an acute -lawyer would have seen to this, but there is no record of the fact in -our books. - -Greaves seems to have performed his duties as auditor in an -honourable manner. After the audit of 1778, he surrendered his office -at the close of fifty years' tenure of it: he then received a present -of plate from the College, with their thanks for his long and faithful -services. Six years later he made a donation to the Society of £100 to -found an annual prize for an essay on the character of King William -the Third. After nearly a century it was said that the essayists had -exhausted the subject, and in 1882 the College got leave to substitute -for it one connected with the history of the British Empire. - -Robert Graham, 1744-1836, a lawyer of note, succeeded Greaves. Graham -had graduated as third wrangler in 1766, and in the following year had -been elected to a fellowship. He held the office till after the audit -of 1791. He was made a baron of the exchequer in 1799, and proved a -singularly inefficient judge. He retired from the bench in 1827. - -Graham's chief distinction is said to have been his urbanity, and at -the Bar it was currently believed that no one but his sempstress had -power to ruffle his equanimity. He was somewhat pompous, and an -adventure of his at the assizes at Newcastle afforded much amusement -to his contemporaries. There, on one occasion just before charging the -grand jury, he tumbled, unnoticed, into the river from the garden of -the house where he lodged, but luckily was hauled out by some passing -watermen. The rough remedies of the quay-side failed to restore -consciousness, and the bystanders, supposing he was drowned, carted -him to a dead-house, where he was stripped and laid out. The coroner's -jury, summoned with unusual celerity, had viewed the body, and were -considering their verdict when, to their surprise he showed signs of -life and came to himself. His position was not altogether dignified, -but realizing at once that it is always incumbent on a judge to move -in state, he was by his directions fetched from the mortuary in the -sheriff's carriage, with the trumpeters, and usual ceremonial. - -Of Graham's successor, Samuel Knight, 1755-1829, I know little. He had -been admitted as a pensioner in 1772, became a fellow-commoner in -1774, and graduated in the poll in 1776. Apparently he had no special -qualifications for the post beyond being a pleasant member of society. -He resigned in 1812, and died in 1829. - -After Knight's resignation, the post was offered to Nicholas Conyngham -Tindal, 1776-1846, a lawyer of distinction. He had graduated in 1799 -as eighth wrangler, was a Chancellor's medalist, and had been elected -to a fellowship in 1801, which, as he did not take orders, he had -vacated in due course in accordance with the provisions of the -Elizabethan statutes. The plan of offering the post to a -distinguished past fellow now became the custom, and all the auditors -hereafter mentioned were past fellows of the college. - -Tindal was one of the counsel for queen Caroline; he is celebrated in -the history of the courts for having secured to a criminal client the -right of wager of battle, which had long fallen into disuse but had -not been abolished by statute. He was member for the University from -1827 to 1829 in which year he was made chief justice of the Common -Pleas; he held that office till his death in 1846. Though not -specially successful as an advocate, he had a profound knowledge of -law and was an excellent judge. His enormous dimensions are -commemorated in a print in my possession with the inscription "Judges -of A Size," representing him standing by Joshua Williams one of his -colleagues on assize, who was very diminutive; probably this is an -ancient joke. - -The next auditor was James Parke, 1782-1868, a lawyer of even greater -distinction. He had graduated in 1803 as fifth wrangler, and had been -Craven scholar, Browne's medalist and Chancellor's medalist. In 1804 -he had been elected to a fellowship. He was one of the counsel briefed -against queen Caroline. He was made a judge in 1828, and of course -then resigned the office of auditor, which he thus held for only three -years. - -Parke had a profound knowledge of the common law, and admired, and was -a rigid adherent of, ancient forms and customs. The fact was well -known, and led to a curious scene, when on one occasion, while giving -a judgment, he fainted. Cold water and smelling salts were applied -without success, whereon a somewhat malicious colleague brought from -an adjacent room an ancient volume of reports, black with the dust of -ages, and banged it under the nostrils of the judge. It may have been -a coincidence, but Parke at once revived, and in a few minutes was -able to proceed with the business in hand. - -At one time when Parke was trying a criminal case the prisoner -confessed his crime to his advocate, who thereupon (most improperly) -acquainted the judge with the fact and asked his advice. Parke rebuked -the barrister for informing him of the prisoner's guilt, but added -that counsel was not the less bound to defend his client to the best -of his ability. The case has been often cited, and states the practice -of the bar; it being of course assumed that nothing is said or done -for the defence which an honourable man might not say or do. - -Parke's subsequent career served to settle a constitutional question -of great importance. In 1856 he was created Baron Wensleydale with a -life peerage. It was decided that the power of the crown to create -life peerages had been lost by disuse. He was then made a baron with -the usual remainder in tail male. - -Parke was followed as auditor by Andrew Amos, 1791-1860, also a lawyer -of distinction. He had graduated as fifth wrangler in 1813, and in -1815 had been elected to a fellowship. He was appointed auditor in -1829. He had a large arbitration practice, acted on the Criminal Law -Commission, and was professor of English Law in London. In 1837 he was -appointed legal member of the Indian Council, and on his departure for -the East had to resign his office in the college. On the first vacancy -after his return to England, he was, in 1848, elected Downing -Professor of Laws in Cambridge, and occupied the chair until his -death. - -Amos was succeeded by John George Shaw-Lefevre, 1797-1879. -Shaw-Lefevre had been senior wrangler and first Smith's prize man in -1818, and had been elected to a fellowship in the following year. Like -his predecessors he was a barrister, but most of his time was taken up -with duties connected with public departments. He settled the county -divisions under the Reform Act of 1832, and was a member of numerous -Commissions, notably those connected with compensation for the -abolition of slavery, with the Poor Law Act, with the creation of -South Australia, with ecclesiastical affairs, and with the Indian -Civil Service: till 1875 he was busily engaged in public affairs. He -stood unsuccessfully for parliament in the university contest of 1847. -He resigned the auditorship after the audit of 1851. His tenure of the -post is commemorated by his gift of the chandelier which hangs in the -large combination room. - -The next auditor was the Hon. George Denman, 1819-1896, also a lawyer. -Denman had been senior classic in 1842, and had been elected to a -fellowship in the following year. He had always kept up his connection -with the College, where he had numerous friends. He became auditor in -1852. Like his predecessor he stood unsuccessfully for parliament as a -representative of the University: this was in 1856. Subsequently he -was appointed counsel to the University. He entered parliament in -1859, and owing to press of work gave up his college office at the -close of the audit of 1862. After a distinguished legal career he was -raised in 1872 to the bench. He was a good scholar, had a fine -presence, and to the end of his life was popular with all classes of -Cambridge society. - -If I may trust my memory Denman told me that among his annual -perquisites as auditor was a case of audit ale, and that on one -occasion he gave it to Livingstone who he knew would appreciate it. -The case travelled with the explorer through Africa, and as long as -the ale lasted glasses of it were circulated, to the great -satisfaction of the natives, whenever solemn treaties were ratified. - -The next holder of the office was George Valentine Yool, 1829-1897, -a chancery barrister, who had been third wrangler and second Smith's -prizeman in 1851, and had been elected to a fellowship in 1853. Yool -took but little part in public affairs. He was appointed auditor in -1863, and gave up the office at the end of 1869. - -After Yool's resignation the College reverted to its former practice, -and appointed as auditor a resident, Augustus Arthur VanSittart. -VanSittart had been bracketed senior classic in 1847, and had been -elected to a fellowship in the following year. After once standing -unsuccessfully for parliament, he devoted himself to literary work, -and among other things collected and collated the various readings of -the New Testament. His annual speech at the audit feast, wherein he -gave a witty sketch of the more interesting developments of academic -life during the preceding year, was one of the features of the time, -and served somewhat the same purpose as the Tripos verses of earlier -ages. He held the office till his death in the spring of 1882. He was -wealthy, and a most generous benefactor of the Fitzwilliam Museum and -other Cambridge institutions. - -On VanSittart's death the post was given to John Willis Clark, -1833-1910. Clark had come up to Trinity in 1852, obtained a first -class in the classical tripos, 1856, and was elected to a fellowship -in 1858. He made his home in Cambridge, and his unceasing activities -in zoological, library, and theatrical matters are chronicled in the -local records. He completed the _Architectural History of the -University_--a permanent and invaluable record of Cambridge -history--which had been commenced by his uncle, and wrote on various -library and antiquarian subjects. He held the registraryship of the -University from 1891 to his death in 1910. - -Clark vacated the office of auditor in 1908, and since then the -College has appointed to the post a professional accountant. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -WREN'S DESIGNS FOR THE COLLEGE LIBRARY. - - -In 1914 the College obtained an interesting series of photographs of -Wren's original drawings and plans for our library in Nevile's Court. -They will well repay inspection by those who are interested in our -history or in architecture. - -The present library is the third building assigned by Trinity for the -purpose. During the first half-century of its existence the Society -used the library[26] of King's Hall, a good first-floor room, some -twenty feet long by ten feet broad, which had been built in 1416-21 -near the north-west corner of the cloister court of that House. This -room was connected with the old oratory of King's Hall by a gallery -over the west cloister. - -Soon after the foundation of Trinity the provision of a larger library -was contemplated, and in the order (about providing building materials -for the chapel) of queen Elizabeth of 1560, it is said that its -erection had been already begun. In fact however it was then only -under discussion. - -[Illustration: Wren's Second Design for the College Library. -Exterior.] - -[Illustration: Wren's First Design for the College Library. Exterior.] - -[Illustration: Wren's First Design for the College Library. Interior.] - -[Illustration: Wren's Design for a Senate House.] - -Our predecessors, in their arrangements for the "reconcination" or -rebuilding of the Great Court, naturally attached great -importance to not interfering with King Edward's Tower which had long -been the chief entrance to King's Hall and then stood near the present -sundial. A suggested way of working this Tower into the scheme of the -court is shown on the plan which hangs on the staircase leading to the -library annexe; in this, a block one hundred feet long and thirty-four -feet broad, was to be built over an open colonnade running eastwards -from the Tower and ending in front of and a few yards from the Great -Gate. The first floor of this block might have been used for the new -library; or alternatively it might have been used for chambers, and -the new library built elsewhere, for instance, as was suggested, on -the site of the range of chambers which now stretches from the chapel -to the turret staircase adjoining the lodge. - -Neither of these proposals was then adopted, and our second library -was not erected till Nevile, between 1594 and 1600, took the matter in -hand. He provided for it a room seventy-five feet long and thirty feet -broad on the second floor of the range connecting the Clock Tower and -the lodge; it has since been converted into chambers. - -Less than a century after Nevile's library was finished, the Society -again found it necessary to provide more book accommodation, and the -result is the impressive and excellently designed building which -stands on the west side of Nevile's Court. According to tradition, its -erection, commenced in February 1676, was due to Barrow, then master -of the College, who in the previous year had pressed the other heads -of Houses to provide a room worthy of the University for its meetings, -and urged that it should be of the best. Such schemes are expensive -and cannot be effected without public spirit. Caution, it is said, -carried the day, whereon Barrow, piqued at this faint-heartedness, -declared that he would go to Trinity, "lay out the foundations of a -building to enlarge his back court, and close it with a stately -library, which should be more magnificent and costly than what he had -proposed.... And he was as good as his word, for that very afternoon -he ... staked out the very foundation upon which the building now -stands." - -The story may be substantially true, for the long-cherished idea of -building a university theatre and library was then in the hands of a -syndicate: on the other hand the extant speech of Barrow in which he -put forward his policy was not delivered till the Easter term 1676, -and Wren's designs for such a building are referred to the year 1678 -and indicate that the scheme had not been then abandoned. But whether -the anecdote be true or not, we may take it that the erection of our -library was due to Barrow's initiative, and that he personally raised -a considerable sum towards its cost. - -Sir Christopher Wren, a warm personal friend of Barrow, was selected -as the architect, and placed his services at the disposal of the -College without remuneration. His original drawings are included in a -collection of his designs preserved at All Souls' College, Oxford, -and by the kindness of that Society we have been allowed to take -photographs of the plans which concern us. These relate to two plans -for our library and one for a university commencement-house. The two -plans for Trinity were made not later than 1675; they may have been -submitted as alternatives, but there is a tradition that the second -design was prepared only after the first had been rejected. - -Nevile's Court, as now arranged, contains three staircases on each of -its sides, is closed on the east by the hall and small combination -room block, and on the west by the library. In 1675 only two of the -staircases on each side had been built, and the western ends of these -were connected by a blank wall pierced in the middle by a gate, which -is believed to have been later removed, stone by stone, and finally -placed as the entrance to the College at the bottom of Trinity lane, -where it now stands. Beyond this wall and between it and the river was -the college tennis court. The land between Nevile's Court and the -river was selected as the site of the library. - -Wren's first design shows a double cylindrical shell about sixty-five -feet across inside and ninety feet high, surmounted by a dome and -entered through a six-columned Ionic portico facing Nevile's Court. On -the ground floor was a lobby round which were stone seats. Above this -the inside of the inner cylindrical shell was lined with bookshelves, -and for convenience of approach there were three galleries. The room -was lighted by windows in the dome and a superimposed lantern. The -east side of the portico was half-way between the western ends of the -court, and these ends were connected with the body of the library by -low curved walls surmounted by iron rails. This building is described -as "a very beautiful and most commodious model," but it strikes the -ordinary layman as poor in design, and I do not think that all Wren's -genius could have made it other than unsatisfactory. Why it was -rejected we do not know, but few will doubt that the decision was -wise. - -Wren's second or alternative design, which was adopted, shows a lofty -oblong room about one hundred and fifty feet long by thirty-eight feet -broad supported on a colonnade. Several of his drawings for this were -engraved for the _Architectural History of Cambridge_ by Willis and -Clark, but the photographic reproductions of the originals--some with -Wren's notes attached--which are now available have an interest of -their own. A careful study will show details which were subsequently -modified. The present library was placed to the west of the court as -then built, and the rows of chambers on each side were extended to -meet it. It is well-known that the shelves, cases, benches, tables, -and book-rests now used were designed by Wren, and his drawings for -them are reproduced in this series of photographs. The removal of all -the bookcases except those fixed against the walls would enable us to -judge the appearance intended by Wren. How fine the effect must have -been, may be gathered from the plate in Le Keux's _Memorials_ or the -engraving in the _University Almanack_ of 1852. - -Among Wren's plans is also one for "a Theatre or Commencement-House -with a Library annexed, according to an Intention for the University -of Cambridge, about the year 1678, but not executed." Whether this -represents a sketch of the general plan which it is said that Barrow -had suggested to the heads of Houses in 1675 it is impossible to say. -The erection of a building on these lines might have been costly, but -the result would have been a valuable addition to the architecture of -Cambridge. - -I published in the _Trinity Magazine_ in 1914 the elevations of our -library according to Wren's two plans and of his suggested -Commencement or Senate House. I reprint these here (see above, -pp. 145-148), but add nothing more as it is intended shortly to -reproduce in book-form various drawings on the subject made by Wren. - - -[Footnote 26: There was an earlier library in King's Hall but we do -not know where it was situated.] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -A CHRISTMAS JOURNEY IN 1319. - - -In the Record Office in London are preserved some money accounts[27] -concerned with a visit of the scholars of King's Hall to York at -Christmas in the year 13 Edward II, that is, in 1319. The following -analysis gives the route followed by one section of the party and the -expenses of the journey: it is a valuable record of the method and -cost of travelling in medieval times. - -By way of preamble, I may say that the origin of King's Hall is to be -found in the establishment at Cambridge, in 1317, by Edward II, of a -body of Scholars or King's Children; that they were regarded as part -of the royal household; and that the nominations to the office of -warden and to scholarships were reserved to the king. King's Hall -was dissolved in 1546, and its buildings and property assigned by -Henry VIII to Trinity College. - -Early in December 1319, the warden and scholars were ordered to spend -the coming Christmas with the court, then at York, and the sheriff of -Cambridgeshire was directed to provide for their journey. During the -preceding Michaelmas term thirty-three members of the House had been -in residence, and all of them went to York. - -The names of the members of the House in 1319 are immaterial to our -story, but I venture to give them, for these students lived here -nearly six centuries ago, and doubtless had hopes, plans, and -ambitions at bottom much the same as we have. They were, in order of -seniority, John de Bagshot the warden, Nicholas de Durnford, Nicholas -de Rome, David de Winchester, William Pour, Richard Pour, Nicholas -Pour, John de Aston, John de Torterold, James de Torterold, Robert -de Immeworth, Thomas de Windsor, Walter de Nottingham, Roger Parker, -John de Kelsey, John de Hull, Edward de Kingston, Hugh de Sutton, -Philip de London, John de Salisbury, Richard de Salisbury, Robert -de Beverley, John Fort, Ralph de Gretford, Henry de Gretford, Nicholas -Parker, Nicholas Pull, Richard de Berwick, Andrew Rosekin, Thomas -Griffon, John Griffon, William Draghswerd, and John de Woodstock. It -will be noticed that some of the students are designated by surnames -which were already coming into use and some by place names: the latter -show from what a wide area the scholars were drawn. - -For the purpose of travelling the Society was divided into two -sections, both of which started from Cambridge on Thursday[28], -20 December. One party, comprising the warden, John de Bagshot, and -six of the scholars, went on horseback, and arrived at York on -Christmas eve. Their journey thus occupied five days and they covered -about thirty-five miles a day; of it we have no particulars, save that -the warden paid £1. 3s. 4d. for the hire in Cambridge of seven -hackneys, and was allowed £1. 9s. 2d. for the other expenses, namely -10d. a day for each member of the party. The remaining twenty-six -scholars travelled under the care of one of their number, John -de Aston, and arrived at York on 28 December. They took with them -seven and a half lengths of cloth with the furs thereto belonging, and -four grooms, but whether the grooms went the whole way is not clear. -It is with this nine days' journey that I here deal. - -The cloth and furs which had been purchased on behalf of the crown -from merchants at Bury were valuable. The former was red in colour -(_de blodes mixto_) and had cost £21. 2s. 6d.: the latter comprised -twenty-one lamb skins, bought for £2. 19s. 6d. and six budge skins, -bought for £1. The carriage of these goods must have been a serious -hindrance to rapid travelling. - -The first two days, Thursday and Friday, 20 and 21 December, were -occupied in the journey from Cambridge to Spalding. This was made in -two hired boats (with the services of six men), for which the charge -was 5s. On 20 December, the travellers paid 2d. for porterage of their -goods to the boats at Cambridge, 1s. 7d. for bread, 2s. for beer, 1s. -for herrings, 1s. 4d. for hard fish and codlings, and 4d. for fuel. On -21 December they paid 1s. 5d. for bread, 2s. 2d. for beer, 1s. 7d. for -herrings and other fish, 3d. for cheese, 2d. for porterage from the -boats at Spalding, 5½d. for fuel and candles, and 8d. for beds at -Spalding. - -On Saturday, 22 December, they travelled to Boston. On this day, they -paid 2s. for hiring two carts for carrying the cloth and fourteen of -the scholars, and 3s. for twelve hackneys for the rest of the party. -They also spent 1s. 4d. for bread, 1s. 11d. for beer, 2s. 3d. for -herrings and other fish, 5d. for fuel and candles, and 8d. for beds -at Boston. - -The next two days, Sunday and Monday, 23 and 24 December, were -occupied in the journey to Lincoln which was performed in a single -large boat. On 23 December, they paid 5s. for the hire of this boat, -4d. for straw to spread on it, 2d. for porterage to the boat, 1s. 6d. -for bread, 2s. 7d. for beer, 2s. 4d. for meat, 1s. 6¾d. for eight -hens, and 6d. for fuel. On 24 December, they paid 1s. 2d. for bread, -2s. for beer, 2s. 1d. for herrings and other fish, 9d. for eels, 3d. -for porterage from the boat at Lincoln, 6½d. for fuel and candles, and -8d. for beds at Lincoln. - -Tuesday, being Christmas Day, was spent quietly at Lincoln. Their -expenses for the day were 1s. 4d. for bread, 2s. 1d. for beer, 2s. 3d. -for meat, 1s. 1¼d. for five hens, 7½d. for candles and fuel, and 8d. -for beds. - -On Wednesday, 26 December, the party travelled to Torksey, making the -journey in two boats hired at Lincoln. On this day, they paid 2s. 8d. -for the hire of the boats, 3d. for porterage to the boats, 1s. 8d. for -bread, 2s. 3d. for beer, 2s. 1d. for meat, 7d. for eggs, 4d. for fuel -and candles, and 8d. for beds at Torksey. - -The next two days, Thursday and Friday, 27 and 28 December, were -occupied in the journey from Torksey to York, which was made in a -large boat hired at Torksey. On 27 December, they paid 6s. for the -hire of this boat, 2d. for porterage to the boat at Torksey, 1s. 7d. -for bread, 2s. 6d. for beer, 1s. 10d. for meat. On 28 December, they -paid 1s. for bread, 1s. 5d. for beer, 1s. 4d. for herrings and other -fish, and 2d. for porterage of their goods at York. - -The total cost of the journey came to £4. 5s. 8½d., and this was -repaid to the warden from the royal exchequer on 31 December. On the -opposite page is a summary of the daily expenditure described above. - - |Dec. |Dec. |Dec. |Dec. |Dec. |Dec. |Dec. |Dec. |Dec. - | 20.| 21.| 22.| 23.| 24.| 25.| 26.| 27.| 28. - |s. d.|s. d. |s. d.|s. d. |s. d. |s. d. |s. d.|s. d.|s. d. - Hire of Boats | 5 0| ... | ... | 5 0 | ... | ... | 2 8| 6 0| ... - Straw | ... | ... | ... | 4 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... - Porterage | 2| 2 | ... | 2 | 3 | ... | 3| 2| 2 - Hire of Carts | ... | ... | 2 0| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... - Hire of Hackneys| ... | ... | 3 0| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... - Bread | 1 7| 1 5 | 1 4| 1 6 | 1 2 | 1 4 | 1 8| 1 7| 1 0 - Beer | 2 0| 2 2 | 1 11| 2 7 | 2 0 | 2 1 | 2 3| 2 6| 1 5 - Hard Fish, etc. | 1 4| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... - Herrings, etc. | 1 0| 1 7 | 2 3| ... | 2 1 | ... | ... | ... | 1 4 - Eels | ... | ... | ... | ... | 9 | ... | ... | ... | ... - Meat | ... | ... | ... | 2 4 | ... | 2 3 | 2 1| 1 10| ... - Hens | ... | ... | ... | 1 6¾| ... | 1 1¼| ... | ... | ... - Eggs | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 7| ... | ... - Cheese | ... | 3 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... - Fuel and Candles| 4| 5½| 5| 6 | 6½| 7½| 4| ... | ... - Beds | ... | 8 | 8| ... | 8 | 8 | 8| ... | ... - |-----|------|-----|------|------|------|-----|-----|----- - |11 5| 6 8½|11 7|13 11¾| 7 5½| 8 0¾|10 6|12 1| 3 11 - -There are no records of the expenses of the Society during the time -the members were at York; but presumably while there, they were -treated as members of the royal household. Their visit, however, was -not devoid of incident since a warrant was issued against one of them, -Robert de Beverley, for having joined with the prior of the preaching -friars of Pontefract in an assault on a certain William Hardy: the -student was left behind at York, and there disappears from our -history. Two other members of the House, Edward de Kingston and David -de Winchester, were also left in the city, of whom probably at least -one was concerned in this disturbance. One new member, Warin Trot, was -admitted at York. These changes reduced the numbers to thirty-one. Of -these thirty-one members, twenty-one, under the guidance of John -de Aston, came back to Cambridge on the festival of St Fabian and -St Sebastian (_i.e._ 20 January), while the warden and the remaining -nine scholars, among whom Trot was included, arrived on 9 February, -and from these dates their stipends in Cambridge during the Lent Term, -1320, were reckoned. - -Why the king summoned the members of the House to York at so -considerable cost I cannot say, but I think the detailed statement of -how most of them travelled and their expenses on the journey are -interesting. - - -[Footnote 27: _Exchequer Accounts_, 552/10.] - -[Footnote 28: In my original paper the days of the week were given -incorrectly.] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -AN OUTLINE OF THE COLLEGE STORY[29]. - - -I have been asked to take you round Trinity College to-morrow, and by -way of preface to say to-night something about its history. The first -of these tasks, to anyone who lives here, is not difficult, but it is -far from easy to give, in forty minutes, a sketch of a history -covering centuries of academic life and involving references to the -lives of many distinguished scholars and men of affairs. If I confined -myself to an account of the buildings the problem would be simpler, -but though they must form the chief topic of our talk to-morrow, I -would prefer to-day to say something about the growth of the College. -On these lines then I proceed, though necessarily in an incomplete -way, to state the outline of our story. - -2. Trinity College was founded in 1546, just about half-way back in -the history of the University. Of those pre-Trinity days I will only -say that the University arose about the end of the twelfth century, -and that it was nearly a hundred years after its establishment before -the first college was founded. Colleges were erected for the benefit -of selected scholars who were maintained at the expense of the -foundation, and throughout the middle ages, most of the students lived -in Private Hostels. In Tudor times undergraduates who paid their own -expenses were admitted to colleges, and finally, every student was -required to be a member of one of these Houses: the peculiar -collegiate character of Oxford and Cambridge dates from this change. -I need hardly add that women were not (and are not) admissible as -members of the University, and that in former days teachers and -students alike were unmarried. - -3. Towards the close of his reign, Henry VIII determined to found a -college at Cambridge which should promote his views on religion and -the new learning. He decided to use for the purpose the buildings and -land occupied or owned by two of the chief medieval colleges, King's -Hall and Michael-House. Accordingly, under parliamentary powers, he -compelled those Societies to surrender to him their charters and -possessions, purchased such small parts of our present Great Court as -did not belong to them, and gave all this property to his new college -together with large revenues from religious houses which he had -recently dissolved. The proceedings were high-handed, but we may say -that the result justified him. It is believed that, during these -proceedings, the university careers of a few of the students, at any -rate of King's Hall, were not interrupted, and that thus our academic -life runs without a break from the days of Edward II to the present -time. Most of the buildings of Michael-House have now disappeared, but -our connection with King's Hall is still evident through the remains -of its Cloister Court, our Great Gate which bears an inscription -commemorating the permanent establishment of King's Hall by -Edward III, and our Clock Tower on which is a statue of that monarch. -To this group of buildings we must first direct attention to-morrow. - -4. Trinity was far larger than the colleges to whose buildings and -property it succeeded. Of course it has had ups and downs in its -career, but it has generally occupied and still occupies a predominant -position in the University. Thus in 1564, its residents numbered three -hundred and six out of a total of one thousand two hundred and -sixty-seven in the University, while last October [1905], it had five -hundred and sixty-eight undergraduates out of a total of two thousand -eight hundred and thirty-five in the University, and two hundred -resident graduates out of one thousand and five in the University: we -now confine our normal entry to under two hundred a year, and as long -as this is so, our numbers cannot exceed a certain limit which we -have long reached, so, as the University grows, the percentage of -students on our boards decreases. The College has always recognized -that it was its duty to be a centre of learning as well as one of -higher education, and thanks to its traditions and the large number of -resident fellows, it has been able to fulfil this double duty. - -5. For the first few years after its foundation, Trinity was occupied -in settling the many problems which arise in a new foundation. As far -as accommodation went, the buildings of King's Hall and Michael-House -were connected, and sufficed for immediate needs. Naturally the -protestant character of the foundation given by Henry was emphasized -by the advisers of Edward VI, the altar in the chapel being removed -and a communion table set up in Huguenot fashion in the middle of the -building. Queen Mary increased the foundation, and took a warm -interest in its affairs; of course the Roman service was then -restored. Under Elizabeth the Anglican services were resumed, and she -completed the erection of the present chapel which had been begun by -her sister: it stands to-day externally much in its original form, -though the interior scheme of decoration is different. We may leave -till to-morrow the description of it and college doings connected -therewith. This first chapter of our history ends in 1560 when the -constitution of the College was definitely established in a form -which remained practically unaltered till 1861. - -6. The next decade was critical. Many of those who had adopted the -reformed religion desired further changes on presbyterian lines, and -Cambridge, which had taken so prominent a part in the reformation, was -their chief intellectual stronghold. Their leader was Cartwright, a -fellow of Trinity, and their chief opponent was Whitgift, the master -of the College: thus a contest of national importance was mixed up -with college politics and carried on partly within the college walls. -Whitgift's powers as master were large, and he strained them to the -utmost to remove from the House those who opposed him; times, however, -were revolutionary and public opinion condoned and even approved his -actions. At any rate victory remained with him and his party in the -College, the University, and the State, and the position of the Church -of England between Rome and Geneva is that for which he fought. - -7. Whitgift acted as tutor to some of the students, among whom were -Francis Bacon and his brother Anthony: you will see the portrait of -the former (as also that of Whitgift) to-morrow, together with those -of his contemporaries, Edward Coke subsequently the great lawyer, and -Robert Devereux earl of Essex the ill-fated favourite of Elizabeth. -By a happy accident some of Whitgift's tutorial ledgers have been -preserved, and we have in them details of the expenditure of his -pupils, which, combined with information from other sources, enables -us to give a fairly complete account of their daily work, prayers, -meals, and amusements[30]. A usual age for commencing residence was -fifteen or sixteen, and it would seem that students then (though of -course subject in many things to reasonable restraints) were allowed -that liberty of action which in my opinion is, even though sometimes -misused, an essential feature of university education as opposed to -the control of the pupil's doings in every hour of the day which is -common in many schools. In 1577 Whitgift accepted a bishopric: an -eloquent farewell sermon preached in College from 2 Corinthians, -chapter 13, verse 2, revealed sincere affection for the place and -moved his audience, "insomuch that there were scarce any drie eyes to -be found amongst the whole number." He left the House prosperous and -of high repute. - -8. In 1593 Nevile was appointed master, and took in hand the needed -reconstruction of the buildings. It had from the first been -recognized that the site offered opportunities for the erection of -buildings worthy of the reputation of the College, and he realized how -much the effect would depend on making the court large, and above all -on keeping the chamber frontage only two storeys high with attics -above. The Great Court as it stands to-day is his creation; the only -obvious defect in it is the ugly block built in the south-west corner -in 1770 to replace Nevile's set of combination rooms which had an -elevation agreeing generally with that of the master's lodge, but -enriched by a large projecting trefoil oriel. The hall, kitchens, -combination rooms, and lodge form another group of buildings to which -we must pay attention to-morrow: the first two of these are in the -form left by Nevile. The blazoned glass in the hall and our collection -of pictures in these rooms, especially the portraits of Henry VIII, -Mary, and Elizabeth, all of whom have played an important part in our -history, will well repay your study. Nevile also built, at his own -cost, part of the court situated on the west side of the hall. This -too we shall see to-morrow on our way to the library: in his day, the -court was closed on the river side by a low wall, in the middle of -which stood the stone gateway now used as the entrance to the College -from Trinity Lane, and beyond this wall were the tennis courts and -paddocks. - -9. The prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I, came to the College to -inspect these alterations, and he was followed later by James I. These -visits are commemorated by the statues of James, his wife, and Charles -placed on the west side of the Great Gate. The king was so pleased -with his entertainment that he repeated his visit on three subsequent -occasions. Of Nevile, one of his contemporaries wrote, "He never had -his like for a splendid courteous and bounteous gentleman," and the -College still gratefully honours his memory. He was trusted and -esteemed by Elizabeth, and when dying she selected him to carry to -Scotland the fateful letter in which she nominated James I to succeed -her. If you go into the dining room of the lodge you will see Nevile's -portrait, hung in the place of honour over the mantelpiece, -representing him as holding this letter in one hand. - -10. You must not think that under Nevile's rule the energies of the -College were wholly directed to material ends. In a memorandum of 1607 -on the use of college emoluments for students, he was able to say that -of the higher church officials of the day, eleven deans, seven -bishops, and the two archbishops, were drawn from Trinity. In academic -distinctions, in legal appointments, and in statesmanship its records -were equally satisfactory: so the College was worthily maintaining its -tradition of service in church and state. Under his immediate -successors the College entered on a period of steady prosperity. In -the next generation, however, the shadows of the civil disturbances of -the seventeenth century began to fall; theological disputes increased, -scholarship in other subjects received but scanty attention, and a -general slackness in intellectual pursuits was visible, though it is -fair to say that among the students of the time were three or four who -later deservedly acquired reputation as poets. Among the latter I -particularize George Herbert, Abraham Cowley, and Andrew Marvell; -Dryden entered a few years later. - -11. On the outbreak of civil war the town was occupied by the -parliamentary forces, troops were quartered in the College, and a good -deal of damage done to the fabric. In 1644 a large number of the -fellows were expelled, their places being filled by zealots of but -slight education. It may be put to the credit of a few who were left, -notably Duport and Ray, that in this time of stress they devoted -themselves to maintaining the standard of scholarship. On the -restoration such of the expelled fellows as were still alive and -unmarried resumed office. They decided that there should be no -retaliations, and that all those nominated to fellowships under the -commonwealth should be allowed to remain, provided only they did not -preach in the chapel unless they were members of the Church of -England: that was a noble reply to the wrongs suffered. - -12. The College took pride in resuming at once its position in the -world of letters and science, and the following years are famous for -the work of Pearson and Barrow, two great divines of the time, and -above all of Isaac Newton. The influence of the last-named philosopher -on the studies and intellectual life of Cambridge was far reaching. -His discoveries in pure mathematics, mechanics, physics, and dynamical -astronomy were of the utmost importance, and made Cambridge the centre -of mathematical work in England. I will show you to-morrow the rooms -he occupied and in which he wrote his famous _Principia_. The -staircase on which these rooms are situated has had other -distinguished occupants: the rooms on the ground floor on the -right-hand side on entering it were occupied by Thackeray, and -subsequently by the late astronomer-royal; those on the opposite side -by Macaulay; the rooms on the first floor next the gate which once had -been occupied by Isaac Newton, were used later by Lightfoot, the -theologian, and Jebb, the Greek scholar; and those on the opposite -side by Sir James Frazer, who has done so much to investigate the -beliefs of primitive man. This is an interesting group of men, but in -fact there are few rooms in College which have not been inhabited at -some time by those who have made their names famous. - -13. Barrow held the mastership from 1673 to 1677. On his initiative -the College erected, on the west side of Nevile's Court, the -magnificent library which is now stored with literary treasures. This -is another building to which we must pay attention to-morrow, and with -it we may associate the adjoining chambers. From the close of the -seventeenth century onwards we can describe life in College, -especially among undergraduates, in considerable detail. The usual age -of entry had risen to seventeen or eighteen. To the dons the College -offered a comfortable home until an opportunity occurred of taking a -college living, and it must be admitted that some were beginning to be -content to consider it as nothing more. Materials for the history of -the time and the following century have been published by Christopher -Wordsworth. - -14. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, the number of -entries fell; this was attributed, and no doubt correctly, to the rise -to office in College of those fellows appointed by mandatory letters -from James II--he having filled every fellowship that became vacant -during his reign. The history of the Society during the early years of -the eighteenth century may be dismissed with the briefest notice, for -college energies were largely occupied by domestic disputes, and the -number of residents still further decreased: these misfortunes were -mainly due to the scandals inseparably associated with the name of -Bentley. Bentley held the mastership from 1700 to 1742: his critical -work can hardly be over-praised, but his career here was marked by -malversations and many dishonourable transactions. The only scholars -of the time I need mention are Cotes and Robert Smith who were -mathematicians of repute. The latter of these scholars, when master, -did something to restore orderly government and discipline. - -15. It was not until near the close of the century that the College -recovered from the taint of Bentley's misrule, and scholarship again -flourished within our walls: among the residents of the time was -Porson, whose wit and conversation must have been delightful features -of the High Table of his day--he lived in K 5, Great Court. -Mathematics now afforded the chief avenue to distinction, but some -acquaintance with classics and moral philosophy was also obligatory. -This period is famous for the number of eminent judges educated in the -College: the strict training in formal logic and geometry required for -success in the mathematical tripos being especially favourable to -legal work. Out of eleven such Trinity judges of the time the names -of Tindal, Pollock, Maule, Lyndhurst, Wensleydale, and Cranworth are -still remembered. Socially, manners were generally coarser than at any -time during the previous century or than later; though the revival of -religion under the influence of Simeon did something to ameliorate -matters. - -16. Unlike its predecessor the nineteenth century was one of unbroken -progress in college achievements and reputation. Near its commencement -two internal changes of some importance were introduced in the -imposition of an entrance examination test and of a limit to the -number of those admitted. None the less our numbers increased, and in -1823-25, another court (the New Court) was built on the south side of -that erected by Nevile. At this time, conspicuous among the resident -fellows were Sedgwick the geologist, Peacock the mathematician, -Scholefield, Hare, and Thirlwall, Macaulay the historian, and Airy the -astronomer: it would be difficult to exaggerate their influence on the -intellectual life of the College and University. The undergraduate -society a few years later also numbered a group of men of exceptional -power, notably Trench afterwards archbishop of Dublin, Thackeray, -Fitzgerald, Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton), Spedding, Arthur Hallam, -Kinglake the historian, the three Tennysons (Alfred, Charles, and -Frederick), and Thompson; while a little later came Alford, -Lushington, Grote, Tom Taylor, Burnand, and Francis Galton. Materials -left by these men, and books like J.M.F. Wright's _Alma Mater_, -C.A. Bristed's _Five years in an English University_, Leslie Stephen's -_Sketches from Cambridge by a Don_, and W. Everett's _On the Cam_, -give us full information of college life during the middle of the -century. In connection with the social life of the early half of the -nineteenth century I should note that athletic clubs now began to be -formed--the First Trinity Boat Club, constituted in 1825, being the -earliest. These societies led to the formulation of definite rules for -various forms of sport, and to much more attention being paid to -out-door games. The subsequent growth of organized recreations of this -kind, increasingly developed in recent years, will strike the future -historian as one of the outstanding features of the last century. - -17. In 1840 Whewell was appointed master. He was of commanding -abilities and exercised extraordinary influence: to him more than to -any other single individual is due that development of scientific -studies at Cambridge which has been so marked in the recent history of -the University. Under him, the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII, -was entered at the College, and later showed his appreciation of its -influence by sending his eldest son, the duke of Clarence, here. -Whewell erected at his own cost the two courts on the east side of -Trinity Street, the rents being used to encourage the study of -International Law in the University. During his mastership the old -order began to crumble, and new ideals of education, study, and -research arose. The Elizabethan statutes were replaced by transitional -statutes in 1844 and 1861, and these in turn were replaced by others -in 1882, under which the College is now governed. - -18. Whewell died in 1866, and was succeeded as master by Thompson, and -he in 1886 by Butler. With their masterships we come to the affairs of -to-day. The 1882 statutes opened a new chapter in our history; -restrictions on the marriage of fellows were removed, and successful -teachers thus encouraged to remain in residence; incidentally, this -created a new social atmosphere. In this and other ways the conditions -of academic life were considerably changed. We need not, however, shun -a comparison with older times: if you want to see how freely Trinity -during the late Victorian period spent itself in the public service -look down any list of judges, bishops, statesmen, colonial governors, -and civil servants of the time, and in all you will find many Trinity -men conspicuous. Confining ourselves strictly to academic work in -Cambridge and to those who have now [1906] passed away, I may mention -the names of Clerk Maxwell in physics, of Cayley in mathematics, of -Munro and Jebb in classics, of Thompson in Greek philosophy, of -Sidgwick in ethics, and of Westcott, Lightfoot, and Hort in theology: -all of these were fellows of the College, and professors in the -University. - -19. This is a bare summary of a complex story. Of the spirit that -actuates the College, of all that makes it a living Society, I have -said little. In truth, these are incapable of analysis. The charm that -the place perennially exercises on those who, generation after -generation, make it their home, the affection it inspires, are -intangible: they exist, there are but few members of the House who -have not felt them, and perhaps that is all I need say on this aspect -of our history. - - -[Footnote 29: A paper read to a party of north-country students -visiting the College in 1906.] - -[Footnote 30: On some of the items in Whitgift's tutorial ledgers, see -above, chapter ii, pp. 36-39: the bills are printed at length in -volumes 32 and 33 of the _British Magazine_, 1847, 1848. Other -information on the daily life of students of the time is given in the -statutes of 1560. An interesting list of the outfit and furniture in -the rooms of a fellow-commoner in 1577 was printed by C.H. Cooper, -_Annals of Cambridge_, vol. II, pp. 352-356.] - - - - -PART II. - -=Concerning the University.= - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE BEGINNINGS OF THE MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITY. - - -The problems connected with the beginnings of the University of -Cambridge and the conditions of life in its early days have always -interested me. Much is uncertain and open to various readings[31], but -the following is a summary of the story, as it appears to me. - -First, as to the site of the University. About the end of the eleventh -century, Cambridge was little more than a village concentrated round -St Peter's church, having separate hamlets in its vicinity, one near -St Benet's church and the other at Newnham: at that time there was -nothing to suggest the likelihood of its being chosen by students as -a place where they might live and work in security. During the next -century, however, it became of considerable importance. This was due -to several causes. The chief of these were the castle erected in it -by William the Conqueror to overawe the fen-men; its geographical -location which gave it command of the river passage by which most of -the traffic between the midlands and the counties of Norfolk and -Suffolk went; its position as a port of entry for small sea-going -vessels coming from Lynn, of which a relic still survives in a bonded -warehouse on the banks of the Cam; its vicinity to Sturbridge common -on which came to be held one of the chief annual fairs in the kingdom; -and lastly the establishment here of the large monastic Houses of the -Augustin Canons, of the Brethren of St John's Hospital, and of the -Nuns of St Rhadegund: it would seem also that it became[32], maybe -under the authority of the secular canons of St Giles, the seat of a -grammar-school or schools. By 1200 the town had spread from castle-end -to where Christ's, Peterhouse, and Queens' now stand, and along the -east side of the river there were numerous small wharves, locally -known as hythes. The writs of Henry I and Henry II and the charter of -John bear witness to its importance in their reigns, but later this -tended to diminish relatively to other towns. - -The Universities of Cambridge and Oxford were initiated near the end -of the twelfth century, both arising in towns free from disorder and -where accommodation for students was obtainable. It was a time when -men of scholarly tastes, especially those resident in religious -houses, were conscious of their ignorance of recent developments in -theology as set out by Peter Lombard and in canon law, and were keen -to study these subjects and scholastic logic. Schools to meet these -needs arose in Cambridge and Oxford and became permanent. Like centres -of instruction were established in other places, but for one reason or -another did not survive long as degree-granting corporations. - -It is not known whether the University of Cambridge began with a few -teachers taking up their residence in the town, giving instruction, -and attracting students and other teachers, or whether it started -ready-made by a migration of a body of discontented teachers and -students from some existing school. I believe the former view to be -correct. If so, we may reasonably assume that a considerable -proportion of the earliest adult students were previously living in -monastic houses here or in the neighbouring fenland monasteries at -Ely, Peterborough, or Croyland. It has been suggested that at first -the lectures were given in the local grammar-schools: this is -probable, and would fit in with the secular organization of the -University and the fact that boys learning Latin grammar (glomerels) -were reckoned among its students. Probably the movement was started -with the sanction and direct encouragement of the bishop of Ely, -certainly it was not directly monastic, and more likely the teachers -were secular clerks and not monks. I conjecture that at first the -lecturers were strangers to the locality, but this in no way implies -that a fragment of another university, students as well as teachers, -migrated here as an organized body. - -Whatever the origin of the University, its members organized -themselves for mutual aid and protection as a _Studium_ on the model -of that at Paris, with which it seems later to have been frequently -in touch. If we may trust ancient traditions quoted by Bulaeus and -Peacock, the early University had also some connection with the -studium of Orleans: this is possible but speculative. Bologna -represented another type of organization which, however, was not -adopted anywhere in England. The University of Cambridge existed in -working order in 1209, and in my opinion its origin may be safely -assigned to some time in the previous twenty years. - -Of its external history during the century following its organization -we know little: we read of its chancellor in 1225, of French students -coming to it in 1229, of special privileges conferred by the crown in -1231 and 1251, of its recognition by the pope in 1233, and finally of -a papal grant in 1318--exceptional in extent--of all rights which were -or could be enjoyed by any university in Christendom. Oxford went -through somewhat similar stages. The two universities were closely -connected, and by 1333 their position had become so firmly established -that they agreed not to recognize any other studium in the kingdom, -and in fact after that year no other university was established in -England until less than a century ago. - -Originally the main source of university authority was the body of -active teachers (regents) acting with the concurrence of the -chancellor who represented the bishop of Ely; their grouping in -faculties was an obvious development, and probably took place early in -the thirteenth century. Resident graduates who had ceased to teach -(non-regents) were allowed a voice on matters of property, rights, and -privileges. The establishment of monasteries and colleges with -administrative officers tended to retain in residence graduates who -were not lecturing; through them the house of non-regents grew in -power, and finally in many questions obtained concurrent jurisdiction -with that of the regents--the result was a very complex constitution. -At first the University had no buildings of its own; the regent and -non-regent houses met in St Benet's or St Mary's church, and lectures -were given wherever accommodation could be obtained. After this -digression I return to the position of the students in the early -University. - -Numerous monasteries were established in Cambridge during the -thirteenth century, and from this I infer that the number of members -of the religious Orders studying in the University steadily increased -during that century. Of monastic Houses in Cambridge previous to the -foundation of the University I have already mentioned those of the -Augustin Canons, founded in connection with St Giles' church, about -1092, and moved in 1112 to Barnwell where their priory became in time -one of the largest conventual buildings in England, and of the Austin -Brethren of Frost's or St John's Hospital, built about 1135 on ground -now occupied by St John's College. Shortly after the organization of -a studium in the town, five important Orders established Houses here. -These were the Franciscan or Grey Friars, who, from their first home -situated near the present Divinity Schools and used from 1224 to 1294, -removed in 1294 to a site now occupied by Sidney Sussex College, where -their church was one of the conspicuous architectural features of -medieval Cambridge; the Dominican or Black Friars, who built in 1274 -on ground now occupied by Emmanuel College; the Carmelite or White -Friars, who, having previously lived in houses at Chesterton and -Newnham, removed in 1290 to a site now occupied by Queens' and King's -Colleges; the Augustine Friars, who built, about 1290, a home on or -near ground now occupied by the university examination halls and -lecture rooms, in the basement of which some fragments of the old -friary may be found; and the Sempringham or White Canons, who about -1290 obtained possession of St Edmund's Priory which had been built -before 1278 near the Trumpington Gate. The Houses of the Bethlehem -Friars, opened in 1257, of the Friars of the Sack, opened in 1258, and -of the Friars of St Mary, opened in 1273, were suppressed in 1307, and -probably were never important foundations. I believe that the presence -in Cambridge of these great establishments, always housing a certain -number of students, gave stability to the nascent University, and -tended to prevent its dissipation in times of stress: this is a point -in our early history which is sometimes overlooked. Students from -Houses of the Benedictine or Black Monks were also sent to Cambridge, -but until 1428 they seem to have had no special home of their own: in -that year the Order built for them a hostel known as Buckingham House -which now forms part of the first court of Magdalene College. - -These conventual Houses were outside town and university authority, -but their wealth and position made them influential. Striking evidence -of this is afforded by the facts that they secured to their members -the right to proceed direct to degrees in divinity without graduating -in arts--a privilege not granted to students in law or medicine--and -that at every congregation of the University the senior religious -doctor present could veto the offer of any grace and so block all -business. These privileges suggest that monastic students were the -dominant class in the early days of the University. They were, -however, naturally distrusted by other students, for admittedly they -owed allegiance to outside bodies, and no man can serve two masters. -By the end of the thirteenth century the monastic movement had spent -its force, and thenceforth the religious students took a constantly -decreasing share in university activities; of course they disappeared -at the reformation, when the monasteries throughout the country were -suppressed. - -I come next to the question of the secular students in arts, most or -all of whom would be clerks in major or minor orders. Rejecting the -migration theory of the origin of the University, I do not suppose -that in its earliest days these secular students were numerous, for -the vicinity cannot have provided many such men, but as soon as the -University acquired reputation as a centre of higher teaching they -would be attracted to it from a wide area, and their numbers would -be increased by many glomerels who would continue their course as -students in arts. In the course of the thirteenth century these -secular students became strong enough to assert themselves against the -position and privileges assumed by the religious students, and after -that century graces were constantly passed (_ex. gr._ in 1303) to -prevent monastic interference in academic affairs, or (as in 1369) to -limit the number of monastic graduates. - -A non-graduate student in arts was, before admission, expected to -know Latin, and, on admission, apprenticed to a master or doctor who -acted as a tutor in scholastic matters: in 1276 this system of -apprenticeship was made compulsory. The full medieval course lasted -several years. Students who entered as boys stayed, if they took the -full course, till they were grown men, gradually taking up teaching as -part of their course of study. The bachelors may have assisted in the -education of the younger arts students and of the glomerels who are -mentioned below, but normally instruction in the arts course was given -by masters, and in the higher faculties by doctors. The degree of -master was a license to teach, and newly created masters were required -to teach and to reside for two years (or later at least one year) for -that purpose. This pre-reformation scheme is in marked contrast to the -modern plan where the students enter as young men, all of about the -same age, with a normal course lasting three years or so, and with -their studies sharply differentiated from those of a limited number -of post-graduate and research students and of a separate body of -teachers. Mullinger estimated that during the medieval period the -number of resident regents varied from one hundred to two hundred, and -the number of students (apparently exclusive of monastic students) -never exceeded two thousand of whom the great majority were of humble -birth; no doubt there were wide variations in the numbers at different -times. - -The history of Guilds in the University cannot be given with any -certainty. It may be that in the early years of the University most -secular students and teachers from any particular locality were -associated together as a guild, and perhaps every student on arrival -was expected to join his local guild, and through it become a member -of the University. The guilds imposed on their members definite rules -for their conduct in relation to one another, and enforced such -regulations by means of money fines, refusal of assistance, and in -extreme cases expulsion. The relations between the members of -different guilds were, however, often unfriendly or worse; in -particular there was constant friction between the guilds connected -with localities north and south of the Trent. It has been suggested -that at one time one of the proctors represented the cis-trentine -guilds and the other the trans-trentine guilds: this seems to have -been the case at Oxford, but there is no evidence of such a custom at -Cambridge where, according to Peacock, these trentine disputes were -less violent than at the sister University. - -We may take it that the master to whom a secular non-graduate student -was apprenticed looked after his studies, and probably officers of the -guild to which he belonged looked after him when sick or maltreated. -In other matters, however, he was left to take care of himself, and -thus was constantly liable to extortion. To meet this evil, the -University early obtained powers enabling it to settle, without -consulting the citizens, various local matters such as the prices of -lodging and food. - -Besides students in arts there was also another class of secular -students consisting of boys, known as glomerels (grammarians) and -rhetoricians, who were under a special officer of the University -called the master of glomery. I conjecture that originally these were -the boys at the local grammar-schools, that after the foundation of -the University such boys were regularly treated as glomerel members of -it, and that for this reason we hear nothing more of the local -grammar-schools which had at first supplied them: most students of -this type must have lived at home and come from the town or immediate -neighbourhood. I suppose that in later times the number of glomerels -was swollen by the entry among them of students who had come to -Cambridge, and were found to be ignorant of Latin grammar, and so -inadmissible to the arts faculty. - -The chief study of a glomerel was Latin grammar, and on attaining -reasonable proficiency in it he could change over to the arts faculty -if he wished. If a student continued in the glomerel faculty, the -degree of master in grammar (or rhetoric) was open to him, but in -processions of the University, such graduates took a lower place than -students in arts, and their inferior position was emphasized by a -statute which, while regulating the attendance of regents at the -funeral of a regent master or student in arts, stated that graduates -and scholars in grammar were not entitled to such recognition--_Illis -tantummodo exceptis, qui artem solam docent vel audiunt grammaticam, -ad quorum exequias nisi ex devotione non veniant supradicti_. - -The ceremony of graduation in grammar has often been described: it -involved the beating openly in the schools of a shrewd boy obtained by -the university officers for the purpose, and the presentation to the -new master of a ferule: this suggests that the course was regarded as -a training for a schoolmaster's career, it also facilitated admission -to orders. As time passed, the glomerels, originally forming a large -and important section of the University here and at Oxford, decreased -in numbers, and in the latter half of the fifteenth century they -ceased to be of much importance in academic life. The faculty of -rhetoric was constituted on similar lines to that of grammar, and -practically treated as part of it. The last degrees in rhetoric and -grammar of which we have notice were conferred in 1493 and 1548 -respectively: probably the office of master of glomery fell into -disuse about the beginning of the sixteenth century, though it is -possible that it was held by Sir John Cheke as late as 1547. - -The evils consequent on allowing inexperienced students, some of whom -were quite young, to fend for themselves in all matters outside the -schools were obvious, and it was not long before steps were taken to -improve matters by the foundation of colleges and the licensing of -private hostels. - -Colleges were designed for selected scholars partly to provide -assistance for them, and partly to protect them from pressure to join -a monastic Order: the advantages offered being shelter, a common -sitting room properly warmed, regular meals, the use of books, and -general supervision. The earliest attempt to provide aid and -protection of this kind for certain scholars was made, about 1275, -by Hugh de Balsham, who arranged for their reception as members of -Frost's Hospital; but there were constant quarrels between the two -sides of the House, and in 1284 he dissolved the union and moved the -secular students to a building (Peterhouse) of their own. Other -similar foundations were soon created: the King's Scholars (later -incorporated as King's Hall) in 1317, Michael-House in 1324, Clare in -1325, Pembroke in 1347, Gonville in 1348, Trinity Hall in 1350, and -Corpus Christi in 1352. Every new college that was established -provided fresh definite ties with the locality, and rendered less -likely the break-up of the University and the scattering of its -members--a serious risk to which in early days it was always subject. -Then came an interval of nearly a hundred years, but in the fifteenth -century the collegiate movement recommenced, and we have the -foundation of God's House in 1439, of King's in 1441, of Queens' in -1448 and 1465, of St Catharine's in 1473, and of Jesus in 1496. In the -sixteenth century we have the larger and more ambitious foundations of -Christ's in 1505, St John's in 1511, Magdalene in 1519, Trinity in -1546, Emmanuel in 1584, and Sidney Sussex in 1596. - -The colleges were intended for picked scholars. In the course of the -fourteenth century the problem of the care of other students was taken -up, and they were forbidden to live in lodgings selected by themselves -and under no external supervision. To provide for them, the University -licensed private hostels which were managed by masters of arts on -lines somewhat similar to boarding houses in public schools to-day. -Thenceforth throughout the middle ages the majority of undergraduates -resided in these hostels. Caius gave the names and sites of -twenty-seven private hostels which he had known and all of which -closed their doors during his life, the last in 1540: Fuller -enumerated thirty-four hostels and two "inns" while his editor -mentioned fourteen other hostels, but some of these certainly ought -not to be included under the term. Perhaps we may say that the number -open at anyone time rarely exceeded thirty or fell short of twenty: -some were cheap, some expensive; some were well managed, others not -so. After the development of these hostels the guilds decreased in -importance, and finally disappeared. - -With the establishment of colleges and private hostels the University -was fairly launched on its career in a form which lasted till the -middle half of the sixteenth century. My object was to state how, in -my opinion, it originally took shape, and I do not propose here to -follow its history further. - - -[Footnote 31: Most of the known facts are given in Mullinger's -excellent histories, Peacock's _Observations on the Statutes_, and -Rashdall's _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_--but all the -views of the last-named writer are not universally accepted.] - -[Footnote 32: See _passim_ G. Peacock, _Observations on the Statutes_, -London, 1841, p. xxxv.] - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -DISCIPLINE. - - -This paper contains some extracts from my notebooks on the way in -which university and college discipline was maintained in former days -at Cambridge. The records on the subject are scanty, but I think the -facts are worth putting together in a connected form. There is no -reason to suppose that the practices of different colleges varied -materially, and if in the later period I have taken examples from the -records of Trinity it is only because I have had easier access to -them. - -In the history of university discipline and social customs abrupt -changes are not to be expected, and none such are noticeable in the -transition from the medieval period, _circ._ 1200 to 1525, through -the renaissance, _circ._ 1525 to 1640, and the period of stagnation, -_circ._ 1660 to 1820, to the present age of reconstruction and -extension. I begin naturally with discipline in medieval Cambridge. - -In the early days of the University the students lodged in the town -and were of all ages from twelve or thirteen upwards. Except in -strictly academic matters, there was little or no supervision of their -conduct, and, outside the schools, grave disorders were common; the -University, however, claimed power, when it chose, to take cognizance -of all offences contrary to good manners, and at any rate in later -days did so in serious cases. The regulations at Cambridge and Oxford -were so similar that we may fairly draw illustrations from either -University, and the records of the chancellor's court at Oxford in the -fifteenth century show that fines, imprisonment, and, in extreme -cases, expulsion were customary penalties for serious offences against -university regulations and customs. I have no doubt that earlier -records, if extant, would be of the same general character. - -The first college to be founded at Cambridge was Peterhouse which took -its final form in 1284, and during the next century several other -similar Houses were established: these societies were intended for -selected scholars. The problem of the control of other students was -met in the course of the fourteenth century by preventing them from -living in private lodgings chosen by themselves, and thenceforth, -throughout the middle ages, those who came from a distance were -generally required to reside in private hostels run by masters of arts -on lines somewhat similar to boarding houses in public schools to-day. -Besides the lay and secular students accommodated in colleges, private -hostels, and at their homes, there were also in the medieval -University a considerable number of "religious" students who were -housed in monasteries or monastic hostels. Some of the colleges in -later medieval times received as paying members a few wealthy -pensioners, parochial priests in middle life, and even monks from -distant convents, but probably the number of such favoured students -was never large. With the establishment of colleges and the -organization of private hostels discipline improved; inside their -walls as well as in the monastic hostels it is probable that order was -well maintained, but outside them, at least among the students at -private hostels, discipline was left to the university authorities who -did little or nothing in the matter. - -The colleges took seriously their responsibilities for discipline, and -all things contrary to good manners and morals were prohibited. For -the gravest offences, such as contumacy, crimes of violence, and -heresy, expulsion was usually ordered. Among less serious -delinquencies, explicitly forbidden and therefore we may assume not -unknown, were bringing strangers into the house, sleeping out, and -absence without leave; using insulting language, drunkenness, -gambling, and frequenting taverns; keeping company with loose women; -throwing missiles and carrying arms; and the keeping of dogs, hawks, -falcons, and ferrets. In the regulations of many colleges, a course -of study was indicated, and directions given that idleness was to be -punished. Regular attendance at religious exercises was assumed, and -was explicitly directed on certain occasions: I suppose that students -performed such duties without much external pressure, and I know no -record of the infliction of any penalty in early times for -non-attendance. In the middle ages Latin was the language generally -enforced, though occasionally French was permitted; this remained the -rule until the seventeenth century. Conversation during dinner and -supper was forbidden in many colleges, and of course was impossible in -those cases where some book was then read aloud. At King's College, -jumping and ball throwing, and at Clare College meetings in bedrooms -for feasting and talking were also forbidden. At a somewhat later date -Caius ordered his students to be in bed by eight o'clock at night, but -they made up for this by rising very early in the morning. In general -the punishment for minor faults was left to the discretion of the -authorities. This was only reasonable, for a medieval college was a -mixed community of lads and men, the members being of all ages from -about fourteen or fifteen upwards; and rules enforced on boys of -fourteen could not be applied to men of twenty-three or twenty-four, -who were in fact already taking part in the teaching of the junior -scholars. - -For all members, the ultimate penalty for the gravest offences was -expulsion. For less serious misconduct, fines, restrictions on the -food supplied, impositions, and confinement within the walls, are -believed to have been common penalties, at any rate for adolescents; -but, as I explain below, I think that corporal punishment was -constantly inflicted on non-adults in lieu of a fine, which indeed -boys would have had considerable difficulty in paying. As far as the -younger students and the bachelors at colleges were concerned the -extant regulations in regard to their exercises, amusements, incomings -and outgoings, suggest that they were treated much like the junior and -senior boys in a rather strict public school in the first half of the -nineteenth century; and perhaps the senior graduate members were -treated somewhat like residents in colleges at the same period. - -Membership of a college was a privilege confined, in general, to -scholars specially nominated, and no doubt the standards of work and -discipline there were higher than in the private hostels. Naturally we -know less of life in these hostels, but it is likely that disciplinary -rules were originally made by or with the approval of the elder -residents, and that the normal discipline in them was of the same -general character as that exercised in colleges, though, as the -members paid for themselves, money fines were possible and usual -penalties, especially in the case of the older members. There must -have been more variety in the discipline of hostels than of colleges, -and we may safely say that some hostels were well conducted, others -not so. - -It is possible that finally the University claimed the right to -examine and supervise the internal regulations of the hostels. A set -of rules, thus enforced on an unendowed hall at Oxford in the -fifteenth century, has been discovered and printed by Rashdall: they -do not differ much from those usual at a college, except that some of -the penalties specified are pecuniary, and that the principal was -given explicit permission, if he wished, to flog a student, even -though the lad's own master (_i.e._ the master to whom he had been -apprenticed) had certified that he had already corrected him or was -willing to do so. - -Was corporal punishment commonly used in medieval times? Until -recently it was accepted without argument that this was the case; and -certainly in the fifteenth century and later when we get detailed -information on the subject, the younger students were subject to it. -Rashdall, however, has argued that the absence of its mention in -earlier times implies that the birch was unknown in the ordinary -university regulations till towards the end of the sixteenth century -or later, though he admits in various places that glomerels were -liable to it: his authority is accepted by Rait. It is true that in -the statutes given in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, -birching is not mentioned explicitly, but, since the punishments for -petty offences are rarely specified in detail, this proves nothing. In -the fifteenth century corporal punishment is mentioned as a recognized -penalty. For instance, the statutes given by Henry VI to King's -College, Cambridge, prescribed that scholars and young fellows might -be punished by stripes, and a year or two later, the statutes of -Magdalen College, Oxford, directed that the demies should be subject -to flogging. In later regulations of various colleges, to some of -which I refer below, whipping is mentioned as a recognized punishment, -but often as one to which only the younger students were liable. - -I have already argued that in medieval colleges discipline must have -varied according to the age of the offender, and I conjecture that -adults were never regularly subject to corporal punishment, but that -boys were always so, and that the use of the rod was regarded as -needing no explicit statutable authority. Its employment was no -strange thing, for adult offenders against the law, apprentices, and -boys at school, were all flogged at times. And what else, it has been -well asked, could the authorities do with a troublesome boy of -fourteen? In general a fine was impossible for he had no -pocket-money. Most of the colleges were designed for poor scholars, -and in such foundations usually the allowance for commons was so small -that without risk to health any reduction for more than a day or two -was difficult; little leisure was allowed for recreation or exercise, -and thus heavy impositions were impossible; and confinement to the -precincts of the House was so common that gating was no punishment. A -lad of seventeen or eighteen had more liberty and privileges, and in -general on reaching that age was as safe from the chance of corporal -punishment as was a boy of the same age at a public school fifty years -ago. - -Somewhat similar arguments apply to the private hostels, and the -regulations of an unendowed hall at Oxford, to which I have already -referred, show that the use of the rod or birch was recognized there. -If as I suppose is likely, Clement Paston was at a private hostel, we -have a definite instance of the similar use of the rod at Cambridge, -for among the Paston letters is one dated 28 January 1458 from Dame -Agnes Paston, about her boy, Clement, in which she says "prey -Grenefeld to send me feythfully word by wrytyn who (how) Clement -Paston hathe do his dever i lerning. And if he hathe nought do well, -nor wyll nought amend, prey him that he wyll trewly belassch (_i.e._ -flog) him tyll he wyll amend, and so ded the last Maystur and ye best, -that ev' he hadd at Cambrege." Clement was born in 1442, so he was -then fifteen years old. - -I asserted above that school-boys in the middle ages were liable to -the birch or cane. I suppose this will not be questioned, but by way -of parenthesis I add that this liability seems to have been a -well-established practice for centuries. It goes back to classical -times for in the schools of Rome the less serious offences were -punished by the cane applied to the hand, and graver faults by the -birch applied to the back; and there is a curious fresco at -Herculaneum of the application of the latter to a boy, horsed by one -schoolfellow and with his feet held by another. The royal whipping -boys in the courts of Western Europe remind us that, at least -vicariously, princes were subject to this discipline as well as -commoners. - -In more recent times the deeds of Busby and Keate at Westminster and -Eton respectively are preserved in tradition, while the reputation of -Udall at an earlier time, _circ._ 1530, may be gathered from the -remarks of Thomas Tusser, a choirboy at St Paul's Cathedral, who -subsequently went to Eton: Tusser says, "From Paul's I went, to Eton -sent, To learn straightways the Latin phrase Where fifty-three stripes -giv'n to me, at once I had. For faults but small, or none at all, It -came to pass thus beat I was." The similar vigour of Udall's -successor, Cox, is mentioned by Ascham. In short, the old saw: "Spare -the rod, and spoil the child, Solomon said in accents mild, Be it boy -or be it maid, Whip 'em and wallop 'em Solomon said" represented the -current belief and practice of former days; though the dictum -attributed to that king is stronger than the passage in Proverbs, -xiii, 24 warrants. - -In the sixteenth century the colleges opened their doors to the -admission of pensioners and fellow-commoners. Collegiate teaching and -arrangements were superior to those of the private hostels, and before -the middle of the century the latter had disappeared: their revival -was rendered impossible by a regulation that membership of the -University should be confined to those who were members of a college. -Shortly afterwards it became the custom not to require residence for -degrees after the baccalaureate, and thus a course limited to three or -four years became usual for the average student. These changes were of -far-reaching importance. - -In the course of this century new statutes were given to the -University and colleges, and subsequently we possess records, fairly -complete, of the domestic life of students. Early in the following -century, the average age of entry began to rise, and before its close, -it had become common for students to defer entry until about seventeen -years old. - -University decrees regulating the conduct of students in many matters -now appear, notably one in 1595 by Goad, then vice-chancellor, which -gives a summary of what was expected. Expulsion, suspension from -degrees, and refusal of leave to graduate until after a specified -time, were normal punishments for serious offences, for trivial -misconduct fines are now constantly prescribed, and physical -punishments for non-adults are also directed in many cases. - -In colleges, the Tudor statutes generally enjoined good conduct on all -students. The regulations about the punishment of offences were mostly -concerned with grave matters for which admonitions, and finally -expulsions, were the recognized punishments. Penalties for the -non-performance of religious exercises now appear: thus, at Christ's -College, Cambridge, and at Balliol College, Oxford, whipping was -prescribed as a penalty for absence from chapel, though probably -restricted to the younger students; so too at Peterhouse, students -over eighteen who were absent from prayers were to be fined, while -younger students so offending were to be deprived of dinner, and if -persistent in their neglect flogged in hall. - -As in medieval times, the authorities were generally left a free hand -in settling the regulations for the maintenance of normal discipline. -Probably fines, impositions, restrictions on the food supplied, and -gatings continued to be ordinarily used. Reading the bible aloud at -meal times in hall, dining apart on bread and water, and being -deprived of commons, are definitely mentioned in the 1520 statutes of -St John's College, Cambridge, as possible penalties; similarly at -Corpus Christi College, Oxford, being compelled to eat alone at a -small table in the middle of the hall and restriction to bread and -water are specified as suitable punishments. - -The use of the birch was now constantly prescribed, though probably -in practice always confined to lads. Thus, at Christ's College, -Cambridge, a whipping for lads and a fine for adults; and at -Brasenose, Oxford, a fine or a flogging, at the discretion of the -principal, were statutable punishments for various faults, including -at the latter College the making of odious comparisons in -conversation. At other Houses too, for instance, at Corpus Christi, -Oxford, Wolsey (Christ Church), Oxford, Trinity College, Cambridge, -and Gonville and Caius, Cambridge, the use of the cane or birch is -sanctioned in the case of lads. I have no doubt this was also the -general rule in earlier days, and nothing in the Tudor codes indicates -that any material change was made in the existing practice, but on the -whole I conjecture that the regulations were more humane, and I am -inclined to think, contrary to Rashdall's view, that discipline was -less severe after the renaissance than before it. In colleges the -deans were and are the chief officers responsible for discipline; in -the University, the proctors. - -A part of the fifth chapter of the Trinity statutes of 1560 relating -to the office of deans may be summarized as indicating what was then -customary, or at any rate desired, in the matter of chapel attendance -and in certain questions of petty discipline. The statute, which is in -Latin, is to the following effect: - - In every community regard should be paid to correctness of morals - and general probity of life, accordingly there shall be two deans to - give their sedulous attention to these objects; at least one of such - deans shall be a bachelor of divinity and chosen from the eight - senior fellows, and the other, a master of arts or a bachelor of - divinity. - - The deans shall provide for the fitting performance of public - worship; see that all fellows, scholars, pensioners, sizars, and - subsizars attend on Saints' days and Sundays at morning and evening - prayers, the litany, the communion, and sermons; and see that the - same persons are on other days regularly present at prayers between - five and six o'clock in the morning. Every fellow who is absent - shall be fined three half-pence, and if he comes in late or goes out - early, one half-penny. The fine for a bachelor scholar who is absent - shall be one penny, and for one who comes in late or goes out early, - one half-penny. Every undergraduate scholar, and every pensioner, - sizar, and subsizar who is absent shall, if his age exceeds eighteen - years be fined one half-penny, and if he comes in late or goes out - early, one farthing; but if such student has not attained this age, - he shall be chastised with rods in the hall on the following - Friday. Those are to be deemed as coming late who at evening prayers - arrive after the first psalm; at morning prayers, after the - _Venite_; at the Litany, after the words _O Holy Blessed and - Glorious Trinity_; and at the communion service after the recital of - the commandments: anyone who, during service, remains in the - antechapel is to be punished as if he had been absent. - - Each week on Friday, at seven o'clock in the evening, the deans - shall chastise non-adult offenders. All scholars (bachelors - excepted), pensioners, sizars, and subsizars shall be present during - the infliction of such corporal punishment, and anyone who does not - answer to his name when called, and does not stay until all the - punishments are finished, shall, if an adult, be fined one penny, - and if non-adult be flogged on the next day. - - Each week on Thursday, the deans shall appoint two monitors from - among the bachelor scholars for noting offences of bachelors; and - six monitors [from among the undergraduate scholars], two for noting - offences of undergraduates at public worship, and four for noting - those who fail to speak Latin: the monitors shall prepare lists of - all who offend in these particulars. The deans shall also appoint - each week six scholars and four sizars for service at the fellows' - table, and one sizar for the organ. - - In order to ensure the decorous celebration of public worship, the - deans shall bring with them to the first vespers of every festival - a written schedule of the duties of everyone concerned in that - festival, and shall further appoint an inquisitor who shall remind - everyone of the duty so assigned to him. Anyone who shall fail in - such duty shall, if a non-adult, be whipt, and, if an adult, be - fined fourpence. - - One half of all fines inflicted shall go to the College, the other - half shall be kept by the deans. - -The Tudor statutes generally remained in force till the middle of the -nineteenth century, though in time the practices of the colleges came -to differ materially from what was there directed. Briefly we may say -that in the sixteenth century the standard of medieval discipline and -study sank; but in the early years of the seventeenth century things -improved until the civil disturbances threw academic work into -confusion. With the establishment of the commonwealth the age of entry -rose, and thus the use of corporal and puerile punishments died out, -and with the disappearance of boys as members of the University, rules -intended only for young lads became obsolete and inoperative. Most of -the students henceforth were adolescent. The few who were younger were -dealt with like school-boys, but the comparison is rather with -school-boys of recent years than with those of their own period. - -As far back as Sir Simon D'Ewes's time--and he entered Cambridge in -1618--the majority of the students were regarded as responsible, and -capable of conducting themselves rationally. They reflected the -virtues and foibles of their time, but they were a select class, and -compare favourably in manners and morals with their contemporaries -elsewhere. Almost without exception they speak warmly of their -development in college from lads to young men, of friendships formed -with their elders as well as their contemporaries, of the abiding -influence of the place, and of their affection for it. - -From the restoration to the regency was a period of stagnation. -Discipline deteriorated, and if we may trust contemporary accounts -drunkenness and immorality were far from uncommon. No doubt there were -always some residents who maintained high traditions and ideals, but -on the whole the records of the social life prevalent then at -Cambridge and Oxford make but sorry reading. - -The sixteenth century codes indicate lofty aims, but statutes and -rules are not always observed literally, and it may be thought that -those mentioned represented only old customs, perhaps already -obsolete, or what was deemed desirable but was not enforced. It may be -well then to turn to contemporary evidence, to regulations passed on -specific occasions, and to records of definite punishments--though we -can expect the latter to have been preserved only in grave cases, and -cannot hope to learn from them much about discipline in petty matters. - -Contemporary evidence would serve us best if we could get it, but the -diarists and letter-writers are mostly silent on the subject. From -this, however, I conclude that generally the disciplinary regulations -were thought sensible. Life in the University may have been hard and -probably was so, but I do not believe that discipline was -unreasonable. All the evidence is to the contrary. Thus the -above-mentioned Tusser, a student of no special brilliancy, who -entered at Trinity Hall in the early half of the sixteenth century -speaks thankfully of leaving school, and says: "To Cambridge thence -... I got at last, There joy I felt, there trim I dwelt, There heaven -from hell, I shifted well, With learned men, a number then, the time I -passed." - -Coming now to definite punishments, I mention successively corporal -punishments, such as birching, the use of the stocks, and stanging; -fines, direct and indirect; deprivation of days or standing; gatings; -impositions; declaratory confessions; and rustications and expulsions. - -_Birching, Flogging._ Birching remained a recognized punishment for -the younger students in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but I -think that in practice it was not often inflicted except on boys. One -or two examples of orders directing it will suffice. - -On 8 May 1572, the Vice-Chancellor, Whitgift, issued an order which is -so detailed that I write it at length. Here it is: - - If any scholar shall go into any river, pool, or other water in the - county of Cambridge; by day or night, to swim or wash, he shall, if - under the degree of bachelor of arts, for the first offence be - sharply and severely whipped publicly in the common hall of the - College in which he dwells, in the presence of all the fellows, - scholars, and others dwelling in the College, and on the next day - shall be again openly whipped in the public school, where he was or - ought to be an auditor, before all the auditors, by one of the - proctors or some other assigned by the Vice-Chancellor, and for the - second offence every such delinquent shall be expelled his College - and the University for ever. But if he shall be a bachelor of arts, - then for the first offence he shall be put in the stocks for a whole - day, in the common hall of his College, and shall, before he is - liberated, pay 10s towards the commons of the College, and for the - second offence shall be expelled his College and the University. And - if he shall be a master of arts, or bachelor of law, physic or - music, or of superior degree, he shall be severely punished, at the - judgment and discretion of the Master of his College. - -From this it is clear that at that time undergraduates, even of mature -age, were liable to be flogged as a part of the ordinary discipline of -the University and College, but probably it was unusual to inflict the -penalty. - -Thirty years later, after the disturbances of 20 February 1607, -following the performance of a comedy in King's College, an order was -issued that thereafter every ringleader in any similar disturbances -should be banished from the University: and every less responsible -offender should, if a graduate, pay for the harm done, be suspended -from his degree, and for one year refused leave to take a further -degree; and if a non-graduate should for one year be refused leave to -graduate, and further, if non-adult, be corrected in the schools by -the rod, and, if adult, make an open confession of his guilt in the -schools: also the offender if not a scholar should be set in the -stocks at the bull ring in the market place. Here, it will be noticed, -the punishment by the rod is restricted to those non-adulti. - -In a list of punishments inflicted at Corpus Christi College in 1622, -quoted by Lamb, admonitions, fines, suspensions, and whippings are -mentioned. Even as late as 1648 there is a record of "Benton per -Tutorem suum Magistrum Johnson virgis castigandis." - -In 1648 an undergraduate bible-clerk of Peterhouse, age about -seventeen, Tobias Conyers by name was "corrected publicly"--which, -I take it, means flogged--for toasting the king. But times were -abnormal, and if Conyers ventured into the stirring field of politics, -he had to take the consequences. - -The liability to a flogging still existed after the restoration. -Thus in the _Poor Scholar_, by R. Nevile, London, 1662, there are -references to it in Act ii, Scene 6, and Act v, Scene 4, as being -still in use in colleges though whether adults were so liable is -uncertain. If the author's statements refer to contemporary matters -and are trustworthy it would seem that the punishment was then -common, the culprits being mounted on barrels, and the flogging -inflicted at the butteries. The birch was also still occasionally used -in university discipline, for on 20 March 1674, the vice-chancellor -ordered Ellethorpe of St John's, and Hodges of Sidney Sussex to be -whipped for having been rude to the junior proctor, Peter Parham, of -Caius College: neither of the offenders had matriculated. - -These references provide the strongest evidence with which I am -acquainted for the assertions that flogging was a usual punishment at -Cambridge during the seventeenth century. There is a widely spread -tradition that when at Christ's College, Milton was flogged, but Peile -has shown that there is no satisfactory evidence for it, and it is -intrinsically improbable. In a disciplinary order of Corpus Christi -College in 1684, the only punishments mentioned are discommonsings, -admonitions, rustications, deprivation of seniority, and refusal of -college testimonials, so, comparing this with the orders of 1622 and -1648 which I have quoted above, perhaps we may take it that the use of -the rod there had become obsolete. - -The above extracts are sufficient to show that corporal punishment was -recognized under the Elizabethan codes, though it seems probable that -public opinion was against its use, unless the students were quite -young; perhaps this was always the practice, and thus, as the age of -entry rose, the use of the birch died out. Incepting bachelors and -senior students were usually punished for serious offences by -deferring their admission to degrees, loss of terms, or rustication: -being adult, they were in effect regarded as not subject to corporal -punishment. - -_Stocks. Stangs._ A couple of other physical punishments--ignominious -and sometimes painful--may be mentioned in passing. - -One of these was confinement in Stocks. To this allusion has already -been made in the orders of 1572 and 1607. Another instance is to be -found in the records of Corpus Christi College, where about 1580, one -of the students, Tobias Bland, who had libelled the master, was -compelled to confess his fault publicly, next put in the stocks, and -then expelled. In the old dining hall of Trinity College there were -stocks in the minstrel's gallery, but there is no evidence that they -were re-erected when the hall was rebuilt in 1605; perhaps the -punishment was then becoming unusual, though against this may be set -the fact that there are references to the college stocks in 1610 at -King's, in 1625 at Christ's, and in 1642 at Emmanuel. The stocks at -King's and Emmanuel, like those at Trinity, were in the hall. -Allusions to their use are rare. The punishment continued to be -inflicted after the restoration, for on 10 April 1680, Thomas Grigson, -who had been rude to the junior proctor, Thomas Verdon of St John's -College, was ordered to be "sett fast in the stocks, by the heeles for -one whole houre, which was presently effected by the Constable of -Saint Bennett's Parish in Cambridge." He had partially atoned for his -offence by begging pardon on his knees, and so escaped a worse -punishment. - -The Stang was a wooden pole on which the luckless culprit was tied, -and carried ignominiously through the courts of his college. In John -Ray's _Collection of English Words not Generally Used_, London, 1674, -it is said that the "word is still used in some colleges in the -University of Cambridge; to stang scholars in Christmas, being to -cause them to ride on a colt-staff or pole for missing of chappel." -References to the place where the pole was kept occur in the -account-books of Trinity, St John's, Queens', and Christ's. In Parne's -unpublished manuscript history of Trinity College, allusion is made to -stanging as though at the beginning of the eighteenth century it had -become recently obsolete. From his language it would seem also that -undergraduates themselves inflicted the punishment on those of their -members who declined to take part in the Christmas revelries. - -_Fines._ Pecuniary fines have been used to enforce discipline from -the earliest times by the University as well as by the colleges: after -the renaissance, the increasing age and means of students made fines a -suitable penalty for many of the less serious offences, such as -participation in forbidden amusements, visits to places out of bounds, -walking across the grass in college courts, smoking in public places, -the failure to wear academic dress when required, non-attendance at -lectures, chapel, hall, etc. Probably grave misconduct was punished -otherwise, or by fines combined with additional penalties. A fine, if -heavy, presses unequally on men of different means; and thus a system -of fines on a fixed scale cannot be regarded as equitable. Fines are -still used as penalties for the infraction of rules. - -_Discommonsing. Dissizaring._ To be put out of commons was a -well-recognized penalty, applicable chiefly to scholars and sizars, -part of whose emolument consisted of a right to dine in hall and, in -some cases, to have commons (bread, butter, and beer) to a limited -amount each day. To deprive such a student of the right to dine in -hall or of his commons was equivalent to a pecuniary fine, and in the -case of a poor scholar might be a severe, though not a satisfactory, -punishment; probably a modicum of bread and beer was supplied to -students even when discommonsed. In some comments, published in 1768, -on university education at Cambridge, discommonsing is described as -"one of the most idle and anile punishments ... inflicted rather on -the parent than on the young man, who being prohibited to eat in Hall -is driven to purchase a dinner at a tavern or coffee house." - -Here is an example of an order of discommonsing at Trinity in the -seventeenth century: "Agreed that Cassill should be punisht a monthes -commons.... Agreed at the same time that Pepys besides a monthes -commons, should have an admonition and pay the charges of the -chirurgion for the healinge Cassil's head w^h he broke with a key." -(Conclusion, 1 August 1643.) Its preservation is due to the fact that -Pepys' punishment was combined with an admonition, and evidence that -an admonition had been given might be required if subsequently a -question of expulsion arose. The culprit in question was Thomas Pepys -(B.A. 1645) and not the Samuel of immortal memory. - -In 1815, Mansel, master of Trinity and bishop of Bristol, was -accustomed to put men out of sizings and commons if they appeared in -hall in trousers instead of knee breeches, and it would seem then that -to be put out of sizings further deprived the student of obtaining -private supplies from the college kitchens. Half a century ago the -penalty was still in use at Trinity, being imposed on scholars in -waiting, who failed to appear after hall to say grace. - -_Loss of Days._ To qualify for a degree and for an emolument, it is -and has been generally necessary to keep a certain number of days by -residence in each of certain specified terms. At one time a common -form of punishment was to cancel a certain number of days already -kept. Thus the student would be obliged to stay at Cambridge for so -many additional days to make up for the requisite number which had to -be kept in the course of that term. In the seventeenth century the -authorities went further and sometimes cancelled terms that had been -kept. I believe this form of punishment has long been obsolete. - -_Gating. Walling._ Continuous confinement within the walls of the -college (walling) or confinement during certain hours (gating) was -another form of punishment. A case of walling occurred at one of the -smaller colleges in Cambridge in 1872, but I know of no more recent -instance. Gating is still in force. It causes some social -inconvenience. As far as it goes, it promotes regular hours and -economy, and it has no indirect ill-effects. Accordingly it serves -well to mark dissatisfaction and act as a warning. - -Here is an old-time example from the records of Trinity, 19 July 1652, -of the infliction of this and other penalties interesting from the -name of the scholar on whom it was inflicted: - - Agreed that Dryden be put out of commons for a fortnight at least, - and that he goe not out of the colledg during the time aforesaid, - excepting to sermons, without express leave of the master or - vice-master; and that at the end of the fortnight he read a - confession of his crime, in the hall, at the dinner time; at the - three fellowes tables. - -His offence was disobedience to the vice-master, and his contumacy in -submitting himself to discipline. - -_Impositions._ Another tolerably obvious punishment was the setting of -impositions. The imposition might be the learning of lines by heart or -the delivery of a declamation on some given subject, or the production -in writing of so many lines of a classical work or of an analysis of -some book. Impositions in writing were constantly done vicariously, -and if so, the punishment was little more than a fine: apparently this -abuse of the practice was well known. - -The tasks set were very heavy. In the _Gradus_, 1803, the learning by -heart of the first book of the _Iliad_ is mentioned as a possible, -though very severe imposition. Similarly, according to J.M.F. Wright, -a thousand lines of Homer would have been regarded in 1815 as an -unusually sharp punishment, but such as might have been given in lieu -of rustication. Other impositions mentioned are the learning by heart -of a satire of Juvenal, and the production of an analysis of Butler's -_Analogy_. - -At Trinity the deans were provided with long sheets of paper on which -were printed in double columns forms such as the following: - - ... to transcribe ... lines of Virgil's Aeneid, beginning at line - ... book ..., and to deliver it to the Junior Dean after morning - Chapel on Tuesday. - - ... to transcribe ... lines of Homer's Iliad, beginning at line ... - book ..., and to deliver it to the Senior Dean after Morning Chapel - on Thursday. - - ... to repeat ... lines of ... by order of the Junior (or Senior) - Dean. - -These were filled up by the deans, cut off, and distributed by the -chapel-clerk to the men concerned. Customarily in Trinity the senior -dean gave impositions from the _Iliad_ to be delivered on a Thursday, -an the junior dean from the _Aeneid_ to be delivered on a Tuesday. -Forms for putting men out of commons, and admonishing them were -printed in the same way on sheets, to be used as occasions arose. - -Impositions were set at Trinity as late as 1830, but I believe the -custom had died out before 1840, though I am told it was still used in -certain Cambridge colleges as late as 1855. At Oxford the practice -continued rather later and indeed at a few colleges seems to have been -in force till near the close of the nineteenth century, for Rashdall, -writing in 1895, speaks of the practice as having been in force there -until recently. - -A century ago there seems to have been a sort of recognized scale of -penalties for cutting lectures or chapel. First, a reprimand was given -at an interview or sent in writing by a servant; second, an imposition -was set; third the offender was deprived of commons and sizings. If -these steps were ineffective, the matter might be regarded as a -serious offence against college discipline, and lead to "hauling" by -the tutor, a gating, an interview with the master, a formal -admonition, and in extreme cases to rustication. - -The theory of these petty punishments was set out by Whewell in his -_Principles of English University Education_, 1837. A punishment, -according to him, was to be regarded as the visible expression of -college dissatisfaction with certain conduct: as an infliction it -might be slight, but it emphasized the discontent expressed, and acted -as a definite warning. He suggested a most severe scale; namely, for -the first offence, forfeiture of one month's commons; for the second, -of three months' commons; and for the third, expulsion; but there is -no reason to think that this was ever the practice. - -_Confessions._ A public confession was another form of punishment once -used: I believe that this ceased to be employed by the middle of the -eighteenth century. - -_Statutory Admonitions. Rustication. Expulsion._ For the graver -offences, a statutory admonition, rustication (temporary removal from -the college), or expulsion were reserved. - -A formal admonition was intended to act as a serious warning, and it -served as a statutory prelude to expulsion. For this reason it was -usually recorded, and in former times an additional sting was added by -compelling the culprit to make also a public or written confession of -his fault. Admonitions are not very common in the records of Trinity: -some thirty or forty occur in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, -only a few in the eighteenth century, and they are rare in the -nineteenth century save for a few relating to irregularity of -attendances at chapel or lectures. The last admonition at Trinity was -given in 1881, shortly before the new statutes of 1882 became -operative. Here are typical instances of the record of admonitions. - - Whereas heretofore I have received an admonition from the Master of - the College for my lewd and outrageous behaviour within the same, - and have since that time for like rioting and swaggering in the Town - received another admonition from him before the Vice-Master of the - College and my Tutor and also therewith all public correction, if - these admonitions together with due punishment do not work - reformation in me hereafter, I do likewise willingly acknowledge - that I am incorrigible and worthy for the next like offence to be - expelled the College. Galen Browne. Circ. 1601. [Browne was elected - to a scholarship in 1602, and graduated B.A. and M.A. in due course, - so presumably he amended his ways.] - - Whereas I have very unadvisedly and rashly stricken one Mr Halfhead, - a College servant, to the shedding of blood, I do acknowledge myself - to have received an admonition for that fault tending to expulsion. - Thomas Shirley, 22 February, 1621. [Halfhead was the manciple. - Shirley was a fellow and master of arts, so the offence was the more - serious, but perhaps the provocation was great. Shirley was - subsequently junior bursar and tutor.] - - I, Christopher Offley, do confess that often time and many ways I - have offended against the Statute _de Modestia Morum_ to the - displeasure of God, hurt to myself, the evil example of others, and - discredit of the College, and also have broken mine oath taken when - I was preferred scholar in unreverent behaviour towards some of the - fellows and specially in giving scandalous and contumelious speeches - to Mr Hitch, being the Minister and Fellow of this College for which - misdemeanors and undutiful carriage I am unfainedly sorry and - heartily desire forgiveness both of God, and him, or any other whom - I have offended, and confess I have received a just admonition of - the Master and Seniors by setting my date to this writing. Circ. - 1622. [Offley graduated B.A., 1624, and M.A., 1627, so presumably he - amended his ways.] - - Whereas we whose names are underwritten, on the fourth of April - last, were guilty of grave irregularity and misbehaviour by - insulting the Vice-Master, the Dean, and other officers of the - College and thereby gave just offence to the Society, we do profess - ourselves heartily sorry for the same and acknowledge the lenity of - the Master and Dean in suffering us to return so soon from - rustication. And we do hereby engage to be strictly observant of our - duty for the future and take this as our first admonition in order - to expulsion. James Bensley, John Ambler. 29 May, 1754. [Bensley - graduated in due course and was elected to a fellowship: Ambler did - not graduate.] - - Ordered that ..., for irregular attendance at lectures and neglect - of impositions, be admonished a second time previous to rustication - or expulsion. 29 May, 1844. - -Temporary or permanent removal from the College were penalties -reserved for the gravest offences. They are still recognized as -possible punishments. The fact that there are but few records of the -infliction of these extreme penalties indicates how easily discipline -has always been maintained. - -My readers may well think that the results of these notes are somewhat -scanty, but if that nation is happy which has no history, surely -universities and colleges are to be congratulated whose records of -punishment are so few. To sum up the matter, the general effect left -on my mind is that most of the common offences were due only to -youthful exuberance of spirits and not to deliberate mischief making; -and that the rules and sanctions, judged by the standard of their -time, have been neither harsh nor unreasonable, and have usually been -approved by public opinion in the University. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -NEWTON'S _PRINCIPIA_. - - -Newton's _Principia_ is one of the few scientific books which has -sensibly affected the methods of scientific research and the ideas of -men about the universe. It is on this aspect of the subject I propose, -in this paper, to make a few remarks. The work itself is a classic in -the history of mathematics: the exposition of the subject, the -enunciation of the principle of prime and ultimate ratios, the -creation of mechanics as a science resting on experiments, and the -theory of universal gravitation with concrete applications to the -solar system, make it a masterpiece. Here I avoid all technicalities, -and confine myself to a general description of its genesis and -contents and the reason why its publication affected scientific -thought and methods. - -Newton's exposition arose from an investigation of the cause of the -motion of the planets round the sun, and this in due course led to the -enunciation and establishment of the Newtonian theory of attraction. -The origin of this theory has been often told, but will bear -repetition. The fundamental idea occurred to Newton in 1665 or 1666, -shortly after he had taken his degree at Cambridge, when, as he wrote -later, "I was in the prime, of my age for invention, and minded -Mathematicks and Philosophy more than at any time since." His -reasoning was as follows. He knew that gravity extended to the highest -hills, he saw no reason why it should cease to act at greater heights, -accordingly he believed that it would be found in operation as far as -the moon, and he suspected that it might be the force which retained -that body in its path round the earth. - -This hypothesis he verified thus. If a stone is allowed to fall near -the surface of the earth, the attraction of the earth causes it to -move through sixteen feet in one second: also Kepler's Laws, if -accurate and applicable, involve the conclusion that the attraction -of the earth on a distant body varies inversely as the square of its -distance from the earth. Now the radius of the earth and the distance -of the moon were known to Newton, and therefore, on this hypothesis, -he could find the magnitude of the earth's attraction on the moon. -Further, assuming that the moon moved in a circle, he could calculate -the force required to retain it in its orbit. At this time his -estimate of the radius of the earth was inaccurate, and, when he made -the calculation, he found that this force was rather greater than the -earth's attraction on the moon. The discrepancy did not shake his -faith in his theory, but he conjectured that the moon's motion was -also affected by other influences, such for example, as the effect of -a resisting medium which might itself be in motion as supposed by -Descartes in his hypothetical vortices. - -In 1679 Newton knew with approximate correctness the value of the -radius of the earth. He repeated his calculations, and found the -results to be in accordance with his former hypothesis. He then -proceeded to the general theory of the motion of a particle under a -force directed to a fixed point, and showed that the vector to the -particle would sweep over equal areas in equal times. He also proved -that, if a particle describes an ellipse under a force directed to a -focus, the law must be that of the inverse square of the distance from -the focus, and conversely, that the orbit of a particle projected in -free space under the influence of such a force must be a conic. The -application to the solar system was obvious, since Kepler had shown -that the planets describe ellipses with the sun in one focus, and that -the vectors from the sun to them sweep over equal areas in equal -times. This investigation was made for his own satisfaction and was -not published at the time. In it he treated the solar bodies as if -they were particles, and he must have realized that the results could -be taken as being only approximately correct. - -In 1684 the subject of the planetary orbits was discussed in London -by Halley, Hooke, and Wren. They were aware that, if Kepler's -conclusions were correct, the attraction of the sun or earth on a -distant external particle must vary inversely as the square of the -distance, but they could not determine the orbit of a particle -subjected to the action of a central force of this kind. It was -suggested that Newton might be able to assist them. Accordingly in -August, Halley went to Cambridge for a talk on the subject, and then -found that Newton had solved the problem some five years previously, -and that the path was necessarily a conic. At Halley's request Newton -wrote out the substance of his argument, and sent it to London. - -Halley at once realized the importance of the communication, and later -in the autumn returned to Cambridge to urge Newton to prosecute the -theory further. He found that Newton had already done something in the -matter, the results being contained in a manuscript which he saw. -Probably this reference is to the holograph manuscript, still -preserved in the University Library at Cambridge, of Newton's lectures -in the Michaelmas Term, which served as the basis of his memoir sent -to the Royal Society a few months later. The great value of these -investigations was recognized, and Newton was persuaded to attack the -more general problem. His results are given in the _Principia_. - -As yet Newton had dealt with the problem as if the sun and the planets -might be regarded as heavy masses concentrated at their centres. -Clearly at the best this was only an approximation, though considering -the enormous distances involved it was not unreasonable. In January or -February, 1685, he considered the question of the attraction of bodies -of finite size, and found, to his surprise and gratification, that -a sphere or spherical shell attracts an external particle as if -condensed into a heavy mass at its centre. Hence the results he had -already proved for the relative motion of particles were true for the -solar system, save for small errors due partly to the fact that the -bodies were not perfectly spherical and partly to disturbances caused -by the planets attracting one another. It was no longer a question of -rough approximation: the problem was reducible to mathematical -analysis, subject to the introduction of minute corrections, which, -given the necessary observations, could be calculated very closely. -This was a new discovery of first-rate importance, and initiated the -modern theory of attractions. - -The first book of the _Principia_ was finished before the summer of -1685. It deals with the motion of particles or bodies in free space -either in known orbits or under the action of known forces. In it -the law of attraction is generalized into the statement that every -particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force which -varies directly as the product of their masses and inversely as the -square of the distance between them. Thus gravitation was brought into -the domain of Science. - -The second book was completed by the summer of 1686. It treats of -motion in a resisting medium and of various problems connected with -waves. At the end of it, it is shown that the Cartesian theory of -vortices is inconsistent with the laws of motion, and necessarily -leads to incorrect results. This book opened another world to the -application of mathematics and, in effect, created the science of -hydrodynamics. - -The third book was finished in March 1687. In this, the theorems -previously established are applied to the chief phenomena of the -universe, and briefly we may say that all the facts then known about -the solar system and, in particular, the motion of the moon with its -various inequalities, the figure of the earth, and the phenomena of -the tides, were shown to be in accord with the theory. Much of the -material for these calculations was collected by Flamsteed and Halley. - -The _Principia_, as I have said, is a classic. Like other books to -which that compliment is paid, it is rarely read: indeed, I doubt -whether there are a dozen men in Cambridge who have glanced all -through it, even in a cursory manner. When I was an undergraduate the -course for the Tripos involved five sections (1, 2, 3, 9, and 11) of -the first book, but now, probably with good reason, even this slight -acquaintance with the work is no longer required, and to-day the -character of these investigations is unfamiliar to most -mathematicians, while the fact that it is written in Latin tends to -diminish the number of its readers. I will, then, with your -permission, describe briefly its frame-work. - -First, however, let me remark on how different was the knowledge of -mathematics, even among experts, at the time it was written from -that current to-day. In the geometry of the circle and conics -mathematicians were familiar with the methods of Greek science, and in -their application Newton was unrivalled among his contemporaries, but -outside geometry methods of investigation were far to seek. Analysis -had been but little developed; algebraic notation had only recently -taken definite form; trigonometry was still used mainly as an adjunct -to astronomy; analytical geometry had been invented by Descartes, but -no text-books on it of modern type were available; while nothing about -the calculus had been published. Mechanics, however, had recently been -treated as a science--statics by Stevinus and dynamics by Galileo--and -this paved the way for Newton's investigations. In particular, -Galileo had established principles which foreshadowed the first two -laws of motion, and had deduced formulae in linear motion like -_v² = 2fs_, _s = ½ft²_, and in circular motion like _f = v²/r_. - -Newton prefaced the _Principia_ by explaining that the earliest -problems in natural philosophy which attract attention are connected -with the phenomena of motion, and it was with motion that the book -dealt. To discuss motion effectively, it was necessary to give -precision to the language used, and accordingly he propounded -definitions of mass, momentum, inertia, and so on, which have settled -the language of the subject. He next enunciated his three well-known -laws of motion, and described the experiments on which he based them. -He followed this up by deducing rules for the composition and -resolution of forces, and discussed relative motion. - -This preliminary matter is followed by the first book, concerned with -the motion of bodies in an unresisting medium. It is divided into -fourteen sections containing ninety-eight propositions with various -interpolated lemmas, corollaries, and scholia. - -The first section is on the method of prime and ultimate ratios, by -the use of which Newton was able, in effect, to integrate. He applied -this to the curvature and the areas of curves, and proved that, at -the very beginning of the motion of a body from rest under any force, -the space described is proportional to the force and the square of the -time. - -The second section is concerned with the motion of a particle under a -central force. It contains the well-known propositions that if the -force is central the area swept out by the vector to the centre is -proportional to the time, and conversely that if such area is -proportional to the time the particle is acted on by a central force. -Newton further discussed particular cases of circular, elliptic, and -spiral motion. In the third section he dealt with motion in a conic -under a central force to the focus, showed that in this case the force -must vary inversely as the square of the distance, and conversely that -if a particle be projected from any point in any direction with any -velocity under such a force it must describe a conic about the centre -of force as a focus, and that in such elliptic orbits the periodic -times are in the sesquiplicate ratio of the major axes of the -ellipses. He also explained how to treat the problem if disturbing -forces are introduced. These two sections solved the problem of -planetary motion if the planets could be treated as particles and did -not disturb one another's motions. - -The fourth and fifth sections are given up to the proof of certain -geometrical propositions in conics required for subsequent -discussions: in particular the construction of a conic when a focus -and three other conditions or when five points on it or five tangents -to it are given. - -In the sixth section Newton returned to the problem of the motion of a -particle in an ellipse under a central force to a focus, and discussed -how to determine the position of the particle at any given time. -(Kepler's Problem.) - -The seventh and eighth sections are devoted to the motion of a -particle under a central force which is any function of the distance. -The geometrical treatment of these problems is ingenious, but -necessarily more involved than when modern analysis is used. - -In the ninth section Newton dealt with the motion of particles in -orbits which are revolving about the centre of force, and on the -motion of the apses of such orbits: this introduced the theory of -disturbing forces. The tenth section is concerned with constrained -motion, and particularly with the motion of pendulums. The eleventh -section deals with the motion of particles under their mutual -attractions and incidentally with the problem of three bodies. These -three sections afford a notable illustration of Newton's analytical -powers. - -The twelfth and thirteenth sections deal with the attraction under -various laws of force of spherical bodies, circular laminae, and -solids of revolution. These sections brought the problem of the solar -system, consisting of solid bodies of finite size and approximately -spherical in form, into the domain of mathematics, and led up to the -generalization that all particles of matter attract one another with a -force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely -proportional to the square of the distance between them, from which -law it would seem that all the known phenomena of the motions of the -solar system can be deduced. - -The fourteenth section is concerned with the motion of minute -corpuscles, with applications to the corpuscular theory of light. - -The second book is devoted to the discussion of the motion of bodies -in resisting mediums: there are fifty-three propositions besides -lemmas, scholia, etc. - -In the first section, Newton considered the motion of a particle or -sphere moving in a medium whose resistance varies as the velocity of -the particle: in the second section the resistance is assumed to vary -as the square of the velocity: and in the third section the resistance -is supposed to consist of two terms, one varying as the velocity and -the other as the square of the velocity. The fourth section is on -spiral motion caused by resistance of the medium. - -The fifth section deals with the density and pressure of liquids and -gases at rest (Hydrostatics). - -The sixth section treats of the motion of pendulums in a resisting -medium; and the seventh section is concerned with the motion of -fluids, and the resistance they offer to the motion of projectiles. -The latter section contains the celebrated statement of the form of -the solid of least resistance, whose demonstration proved a puzzle to -mathematicians until the invention of the calculus of variations. -Newton's solution is in the Portsmouth papers, and elsewhere I have -published it: it involves the use of fluxions, and it is probable that -it was his failure to translate this demonstration into geometrical -language that led him to give the result without a proof. - -The eighth section deals with the motion of waves with applications to -the theory of sound and the undulatory theory of light; and the ninth -section deals with vortices; it is here shown that the theory of -vortices suggested by Descartes to explain the motion of the solar -system is untenable. - -This book created the theory of hydrodynamics. Much of it is -incomplete, but it is astonishing that Newton proved as much as he -did; of course to-day no one would suggest that the best way of -attacking these problems is by Newtonian geometrical methods. - -The third book contains the practical application of the propositions -in the two earlier books to the solar system. I need not describe this -in detail. In order to justify this application, Newton commenced by -laying down four rules which have since been accepted as binding in -scientific investigations. These, as given in the third edition, are -to the following effect: (1) We are not to assume more causes than are -sufficient and necessary for the explanation of observed facts. -(2) Hence, as far as possible, similar effects must be assigned to the -same cause; for instance, the fall of stones in Europe and America. -(3) Properties common to all bodies within reach of our experiments -are to be assumed as pertaining to all bodies; for instance, -extension. (4) Propositions in science obtained by a wide induction -are to be regarded as exactly or approximately true, until phenomena -or experiments show that they may be corrected or are liable to -exceptions. The substance of these rules is now accepted as the basis -of scientific investigation. Their formal enunciation here serves as a -landmark in the history of thought. - -As soon as the Copernican view of the solar system was accepted, it -was natural for men to seek to explain the reason why the planets -moved as they did. Descartes, in 1644, had suggested that the -explanation might be found in the existence of vortices in space. This -conjecture, although based on arbitrary assumptions, and in fact -untenable, played an important part in the history of the subject, -for it accustomed men to think that planetary phenomena might be -explicable by the same laws as are found to be true on the earth. -That this was so was established by Newton in his _Principia_, where -all the motions of the solar system were made to depend on one -assumption as to the law of attraction. The question whether this law -could itself be deduced from some more fundamental assumption was -raised by Newton, but he could not devise a satisfactory hypothesis. -It has been discussed again and again since his time, and the problem -is still unsolved. - -Newton's conclusions were immediately accepted in Britain, and very -rapidly by the leading mathematicians in Europe: indeed Huygens came -expressly from Holland in order to make the personal acquaintance of -a writer whose work promised to revolutionize the history of science. -The refutation of the Cartesian hypothesis ran, however, counter to -the sentiments and wishes of a certain number of philosophers, and -some few years elapsed before the truth of the gravitation theory was -universally admitted, but it would be ungracious to dwell further on -this. In Britain the work exercised a profound influence in philosophy -as well as in science, and educated men of all schools of thought -acquainted themselves with the general line of Newton's reasoning and -his deductions. - -That men of science and philosophers should have approved Newton's -theory is not surprising, but it is somewhat curious that it excited -so little opposition among theologians. Galileo's discoveries of -hills, vales, and (supposed) seas on the moon and planets had already -suggested that life might exist there, and in the popular (but -illogical) view this involved the idea of the existence of beings with -spiritual and intellectual faculties not unlike those of men. Newton's -results seemed to show that there was nothing in the nature of things -to differentiate the earth from the other planets, and therefore -considerably strengthened the view that life might be found on them. -It might well be asked whether such life, and indeed whether the -mechanism of the solar system as expounded by Newton, was in -accordance with Scripture. That these difficulties were not pressed -against Newton's conclusions is, I think, attributable to the fact -that his theory was explicitly concerned only with non-organic matter. -His own opinion was that the extension of the reign of law was an -additional argument in favour of a divine creation: this view, set out -at the end of the _Principia_ and in his five letters to Bentley in -1692-93, was generally accepted by the leaders of religious thought in -Britain. - -Lagrange more than once remarked that Newton was not only the greatest -mathematician of former days, but the most fortunate, since, as there -is but one universe, it can happen to but one man in the world's -history to be the interpreter of its laws. It is true that Newton -applied his theory only to the solar system for which alone he had the -necessary data, but after the publication of the _Principia_, no one -doubted that gravity extended to the most distant regions of space. -The work of Sir William Herschel and that of all later astronomers on -binary and other systems rests on this hypothesis. - -The influence of the _Principia_ on dynamical astronomy has been -permanent. It is not too much to say that when it was published, the -theory, as there set out, had outstripped observation, but during the -succeeding century large numbers of new facts were collected, and -applications of the theory to new problems were made, notably by -Clairaut, Euler, and Lagrange. All these researches tended to confirm -it. - -The demonstrations in the _Principia_ are expressed in the language of -classical geometry, and, though unnecessarily concise and difficult, -their correctness is unimpeachable. That Newton could carry his -calculations so far with the limited mathematics then at his command -is not the least wonderful part of the performance, but it is the -prerogative of genius to get great results with but scanty equipment. - -Newton's methods, which even in the seventeenth century were archaic, -became in time quite out of date. This reason, the growth of the -subject, and the development of analysis made it desirable to expound -dynamical astronomy afresh. Towards the end of the eighteenth century -the task was undertaken by Laplace in his _Mécanique Céleste_. This is -far more than the translation of the _Principia_ into the language of -modern analysis, for it greatly extends the theory of some branches of -the subject which had been left incomplete by Newton, either on -account of his not having the requisite analysis at his command or -because the necessary facts were not available. Laplace acknowledged -his debt to Newton, and expressed his deliberate opinion that the -_Principia_ was pre-eminent over every previous production of human -genius--"so near the gods, man cannot nearer go." A century later a -fresh exposition of the subject embodying the discoveries of the -nineteenth century was given by F.F. Tisserand in his _Mécanique -Céleste_; this presents the subject in its modern form. - -Newton had applied his theory to the solar system as it existed, and -had not investigated its origin. We owe to Laplace the enunciation of -a hypothesis as to its evolution. According to this conjecture, the -solar system originated in a quantity of incandescent gas rotating -round an axis through its centre of mass. Laplace assumed that as this -gas cooled, it would contract, and that successive rings would break -off from its outer edge; these rings in their turn would cool, and -finally condense into the planets with their satellites; while the sun -represents the central core which would be left. Recent investigations -show that this cannot be taken as correct without numerous -modifications. Moreover every extension of our knowledge requires the -introduction of alterations in the hypothesis, and this clearly -suggests that the conjecture is untenable. It played, however, a -useful part in its day, as suggesting a common origin for all members -of the system. Perhaps I ought to add that a nebular origin had been -previously outlined by Kant, who had also suggested meteoric -aggregations and tidal friction as agents concerned, but these were -little more than vague conjectures. - -The _Principia_ convinced its readers that the laws of mechanics, -discovered by experiment on the earth, were operative throughout the -solar system. It was reserved for the nineteenth century to extend the -reign of law to other celestial phenomena. Newton and his successors -had proved that the law of gravity extends through all parts of space -where observations are possible. That the sun, stars, and planets are -constituted of similar materials was generally believed; and this has -now been confirmed by the use of the spectroscope which has enabled us -to calculate the temperature of gaseous stars, and specify the -chemical elements comprised in them. Thus the composition of -far-distant suns has been reduced to problems to be settled in our -laboratories. The scientific world, however, in admitting the validity -of the theory of universal gravity had implicitly accepted the -principle that the reign of law, as investigated on the earth, extends -throughout the universe. Thus the daring which permits us, living on a -medium-sized planet attached to one of the smaller suns, to analyse -the universe is, I venture to say, the direct outcome of the genius of -Newton as displayed in his _Principia_. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -ISAAC NEWTON ON UNIVERSITY STUDIES. - - -Among the Portsmouth papers in the University Library at Cambridge[33] -is a memorandum by Isaac Newton, drawn up, I conjecture, towards the -close of the seventeenth century, on the organization of the studies -and on the discipline of the University. - -Conditions then differed so widely from those now in force that the -value of the memorandum is only historical, but notwithstanding this, -its interest is considerable. I have no reason to suppose that it was -formally brought before the regent or the non-regent house, and -possibly the plan never got beyond discussion by a few friends. I have -modernized the spelling, made the use of capitals uniform, allowed -myself to break paragraphs, and sometimes inserted punctuation or -altered it--otherwise the paper is as originally written. I give it -without further comment. - - -_Newton's Memorandum._ - -"Undergraduates to be instructed by a Tutor, a Humanity Lecturer, a -Greek Lecturer, a Philosophy Lecturer, and a Mathematic Lecturer. - -"The Tutor to read logic, ethics, the globes and principles of -geography and chronology in order to understand history, unless the -Lecturers have time for any of these things. - -"The Humanity and Greek Lecturers to set tasks in Latin and Greek -authors once a day to the first year, and once a week to the rest; and -to examine diligently and instruct briefly; and to punish by exercises -such faults as concern lectures; and to appoint the reading of the -best historians. - -"The Philosophy Lecturer to read first of things introductory to -natural philosophy--time, space, body, place, motion and its laws, -force, mechanical powers, gravity and its laws, hydrostatics, -projectiles solid and fluid, circular motions and the forces -relating to them. And then to read natural philosophy, beginning with -the general system of the world, and thence proceeding to the -particular constitution of this earth and the things therein--meteors, -elements, minerals, vegetables, animals, and ending with anatomy if he -have skill therein. Also to examine in logic and ethics. - -"The Mathematic Lecturer to read first some easy and useful practical -hings; then Euclid, spherics, the projections of the sphere, the -construction of maps, trigonometry, astronomy, optics, music, algebra, -etc. Also to examine and (if the Tutor be deficient) to instruct in -the principles of chronology and geography. - -"Several sciences which depend not on one another are all learnt in -less time together than successively, the mind being diverted and -recreated by the variety, and put more upon the stretch. And -therefore divers of these Lecturers may proceed together: suppose the -Tutor's [lectures] after morning chapel, the Greek or Philosophy -Lecturer's two hours after, and the Humanity and Mathematic -[Lecturers'] in the afternoon. The Tutor to accompany his pupils to -the philosophy and mathematic lectures, and to examine them the next -morning both in those lectures and in his own, and make them -understand where they hesitate. These two Lecturers to read five days -in the week and with the other two [Lecturers] to examine the sixth. -Each Lecturer to read the same day successively to two or three years -[_i.e._, to Freshmen, Junior Sophs, or Senior Sophs as the case may -be] under [their] several Tutors. Their lectures to begin with [the] -Michaelmas Term and continue till the Commencement [_i.e._ the end of -the Easter Term]: the Tutors to begin the Commencement before. The -Greek and Humanity Lecturers to set bigger tasks in the vacations than -in the reading-time, proportionally to the spare hours of the -students. - -"A Monitor to note those who miss lectures, and give their names to -the Humanity Lecturer, who shall punish them, not by pecuniary mulcts, -but by tasks [, such as] by making verses, themes, epistles, or -getting anything without book. All pecuniary mulcts of Undergraduates -to be abolished; and exercises, admonitions, recantations, and -expulsions (according to the nature of the crime) to succeed in their -room. - -"In the Long Vacation, between the Commencement and Michaelmas, the -Tutor shall take care that his Pupils read over all the last year's -lessons again by themselves, and at the end of the vacation they shall -be examined again, and those, who are at any time found not fit to go -on, turned down to the lectures of the year below, that they do not -retard the Lecturer and be an ill example to others. - -"The Lecturers to be chosen every three years, and the elections after -the first institution to be on this manner. All those who have at any -time been Lecturers shall choose four out of their number, one for -each office, and the Master and Seniors of the College shall choose -other four who have not yet executed the office, and those eight with -the Master shall, by balancing, choose four out their number. [There -shall be] no regard to seniority or anything but merit. The Lecturers -to choose yearly a Public Tutor, and to reprehend or displace him if -there be reason. This Tutor without a new election to take none but -those admitted in his year of office until their course of lectures be -gone through. No Private Tutor to take two years together. All sizars, -poor scholars, and scholars of the House to be under Public Tutors, -except Westminster scholars of Trinity College when the Tutor is of -another school. - -"For encouraging able and fit men to accept of the Readers' places, -their fellowships during their office shall be doubled by the -addition of four other fellowships kept vacant for the purpose, one, -for each, unless some other competent provision be made for any of -them. And because the Philosophy and Mathematic Lecturers' office is -laborious, for encouraging them to diligence none shall be compelled -to come to their lectures, but all that will be auditors shall offer -each of them a quarterly gratuity; suppose of 10s. the sizar, 12s. or -15s. the pensioner, and 20s. or 25s. the fellow-commoner. And to -encourage auditors those shall be preferred to scholarships and -fellowships which are best skilled in all sciences, _caeteris -paribus_, and shall have seniority of those that come not to lectures. -This institution to begin in the greater colleges, and be carried on -in the rest as men qualified and revenues can be had. In smaller -colleges the Mathematic Lecturer may be omitted, and only a power -granted the College of instituting one when they can. Also the Greek -Lecturer's office may be supplied by the Humanity Lecturer when it -shall be thought fit. A gratuity to be given by all the first year to -the Greek and Humanity Lecturers. - -"For securing the Tutor and making his office desirable by fit -persons, every student at his admission to deposit caution money in -the hands of the bursar of the College; suppose £10 or £12 the sizar, -£16 or £20 the pensioner, and £30 or £40 the fellow-commoner. And in -case any pupil at the end of any quarter be in his Tutor's debt, and -do not discharge it within six weeks after his receipt of the quarter -bill, the Bursar to discharge it, and return back the residue upon -demand, and the Tutor forthwith upon pain of forfeiting his office, to -send home the pupil. Yet may the pupil be received again with a new -supply of money. This institution to be universal. The Master and -Seniors to regulate the expenses of all under tuition by certain -limits common to them all, and the Senior Dean to read over and sign -all their quarter bills. Extravagant pupils, after one admonition, -to be sent away. - -"Fellow-commoners to perform all exercises in their courses, and to be -equally subject to their Tutors and Governors with other scholars and -alike punishable by exercises, and those who are resty or idle to be -sent away lest they spoil others by their bad example. They shall read -geography, chronology, and mathematics the first year. - -"All students who will be admitted to lectures in natural philosophy -to learn first geometry and mechanics. By mechanics I mean here the -demonstrative doctrine of forces and motions, including hydrostatics. -For without a judgment in these things a man can have none in -philosophy. - -"Whenever the major part of the Mathematic Lecturers in the University -shall desire [it] a Master [shall be appointed] to teach -fellow-commoners and others arithmetic and designing. The University -shall allow him £10 yearly out of their Common Chest, and he shall -observe the orders of the Mathematic Lecturers and be placed or -displaced by the major part of them at pleasure. - -"All graduates without exception found by the Proctors in taverns or -other drinking houses, unless with travellers at their inns, shall at -least have their names given in to the Vice-Chancellor, who shall -summon them to answer it before the next Consistory. - -"The Deans to visit the chambers of all undergraduates once at least -every week, upon pain of forfeiting 10s. to the Lecturers for every -omission. - -"Fasting nights have a shadow of religion without any substance. 'Tis -only supping more pleasantly out of the public hall. And this does -great mischief by sending young students to find suppers abroad, where -they get into company and grow debauched. Whether would it not be -better to license undergraduates to sup together in such places as the -Dean shall appoint, with a Monitor to note the names of the absent? - -"All these lectures to consist in extemporary explications of books in -such an easy, short, and clear manner as may be most profitable to the -auditors. And if any Lecturer or other person shall compose any -treatise which shall be preferred and used by the major part of the -Mathematic or Philosophic Lecturers, the University shall give the -author either £20, or if those Lecturers request it, £30, £40 or £50, -out of their Common Chest. - -"Commissioners to be appointed for some years to set on foot, inspect, -and amend the institution. - -"No oaths of office to be imposed on the Lecturers. I do not know a -greater abuse of religion than that sort of oaths: they being harder -to be kept than the Jewish Law, so that yearly absolutions have been -instituted. The papists, who believe such absolutions, might be -excused for instituting such oaths, but we have no such doctrine, and -yet continue their practices. Admonitions and pecuniary mulcts for -neglect of duty are less cruel punishments than the consequence of -perjury, and may be as effectual." - - -[Footnote 33: Camb. Univ. Library, Newton MSS. section viii, No. 5. -Add. 4005/6, A.] - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE HISTORY OF THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. - - -The Mathematical Tripos has played so prominent a part in the history -of education at Cambridge and of mathematics in England, that a sketch -of its development[34] may be interesting to general readers. - -So far as mathematics is concerned the history of the University -before Newton may be summed up very briefly. The University was -founded towards the end of the twelfth century. Throughout the middle -ages, the instruction given to students was organized on lines similar -to those current at Paris and Oxford, and to qualify for a degree it -was necessary to perform various exercises, and especially to keep a -number of _acts_ or to oppose acts kept by other students. An act -consisted in effect of a debate in Latin, thrown, at any rate in -later times, into syllogistic form. It was commenced by one student, -the _respondent_, stating some proposition, often propounded in the -form of a thesis, which was attacked by an _opponent_ or _opponents_, -the discussion being controlled by a senior graduate. The teaching was -largely in the hands of young graduates--every master of arts being -compelled to reside and teach for at least one year--though no doubt -colleges and private hostels supplemented this instruction in the case -of their own students. - -The reformation in England was largely the work of Cambridge divines, -and in the University the renaissance was warmly welcomed. In spite of -the disorder and confusion of the Tudor period, new studies and a -system of professional instruction were introduced. The earliest -lectureships created by the University seem to have been one in Latin -established in or before 1492 and one in mathematics established in or -before 1501: they mark the beginning of the system of teaching by -experts which has superseded the medieval system of compulsory -teaching by all regent masters. The fact that one of these -lectureships was in mathematics shows that as early as 1500 the -subject was regarded as important. Tunstall, subsequently the most -eminent English arithmetician of his time, migrated in 1496 from -Oxford to Cambridge, and most of the subsequent English -mathematicians of the Tudor period were at Cambridge; of these I may -mention Record (who migrated, probably about 1535, from Oxford), Dee, -Digges, Blundeville, Buckley, Billingsley, Hill, Bedwell, Hood, -Richard and John Harvey, Edward Wright, Briggs, and Oughtred. Under -the Elizabethan statutes of 1570, notwithstanding many disadvantages, -the mathematical school continued to grow. Horrox, Seth Ward, Foster, -Rooke, Gilbert Clerke, Pell, Wallis, Barrow, Dacres, and Morland may -be cited as prominent Cambridge mathematicians of the succeeding -century. - -Newton's mathematical career dates from 1665; his reputation, -abilities, and influence attracted general attention to the subject. -He created a school of mathematics and mathematical physics, among the -earliest members of which I note the names of Laughton, Samuel Clarke, -Craig, Flamsteed, Whiston, Saunderson, Jurin, Taylor, Cotes, and -Robert Smith. Since then Cambridge has been regarded as, in a special -sense, the home of English mathematicians, and from 1706 onwards we -have fairly complete accounts of the course of reading and work of -mathematical students. - -Until less than a century ago the form of the method of qualifying for -a degree remained substantially unaltered, but the subject-matter of -the discussions varied from time to time with the prevalent studies -of the place. - -After the renaissance some of the statutable exercises were "huddled," -that is, were reduced to a mere form. To huddle an act, the proctor -generally asked some question such as _Quid est nomen?_ to which the -answer usually expected was _Nescio_. In these exercises considerable -license was allowed, particularly if there were any play on the words -involved. For example, J. Brass, of Trinity, was accosted with the -question, _Quid est aes?_ to which he answered, _Nescio nisi finis -examinationis_. It should be added that retorts such as these were -only allowed in the pretence exercises, and a candidate who in the -actual examination was asked to give a definition of happiness and -replied, "An exemption from Payne"--that being the name of his -questioner--was plucked for want of discrimination in time and place. -In earlier years even the farce of huddling seems to have been -unnecessary, for it was said in 1675 that it was not uncommon for the -proctors to take "cautions for the performance of the statutable -exercises, and accept the forfeit of the money so deposited in lieu of -their performance." - -In medieval times acts had been usually kept on some scholastic -question or on a proposition taken from the _Sentences_. About the -end of the fifteenth century religious questions, such as the -interpretation of biblical texts, began to be introduced. Some fifty -or sixty years later the favourite subjects were drawn either from -dogmatic theology or from philosophy. In the seventeenth century the -questions were usually philosophical, but in the eighteenth century, -under the influence of the Newtonian school, a large proportion of -them were mathematical. - -Further details about these exercises and specimens of acts kept in -the eighteenth century are given in my _History of Mathematics at -Cambridge_. Here I will only say that they provided an admirable -training in the art of presenting an argument, and in dialectical -skill in attack and defence. The mental strain involved in keeping a -contested act was severe. De Morgan, describing his act kept in 1826, -wrote[35]: - - I was badgered for two hours with arguments given and answered in - Latin--or what we call Latin--against Newton's first section, - Lagrange's derived functions, and Locke on innate principles. And - though I took off everything, and was pronounced by the moderator to - have disputed _magno honore_, I never had such a strain of thought - in my life. For the inferior opponents were made as sharp as their - betters by their tutors, who kept lists of queer objections drawn - from all quarters. - -Had the language of the discussions been changed to English, as was -repeatedly urged from 1774 onwards, these exercises might have been -retained with advantage, but the barbarous Latin and the syllogistic -form in which they were carried on prejudiced their retention. - -About 1830 a custom arose for the respondent and opponents to meet -previously and arrange their arguments together. The discussions then -became an elaborate farce, and were a mere public performance of what -had been already rehearsed. Accordingly the moderators of 1839 took -the responsibility of abandoning them. This action was singularly -high-handed, since a report of 30 May 1838, had recommended that they -should be continued, and there was no reason why they should not have -been reformed and retained as a useful feature in the scheme of study. - -On the result of the acts, a list of those qualified to receive -degrees was drawn up. This list was not arranged strictly in order of -merit, because the proctors could insert names anywhere in it, but by -the beginning of the eighteenth century this power had become -restricted to the right reserved to the vice-chancellor, the senior -regent, and each proctor to place in the list one candidate anywhere -he liked--a right which continued to exist till 1828, though it was -not exercised after 1792. Except for the names of these "honorary -optimes," this final list was, until 1752, arranged in order of merit -into wranglers and senior optimes, junior optimes, and poll-men; -after 1752, the wranglers and senior optimes were placed in separate -classes. The bachelors on admission to their degrees took seniority -according to their order on this list. The title _wrangler_ is derived -from these contentious discussions; the title _optime_ from the -customary compliment given by the moderator to a successful disputant, -_Domine ..., optime disputasti_, or even _optime quidem disputasti_, -and the title of _poll-man_ from the description of this class as οἱ -πολλοί. - -The final exercises for the bachelor of arts degree were never -huddled, and until 1839 were carried out strictly. University -officials were responsible for approving the subject-matter of these -acts. Stupid men offered some irrefutable truism, but the ambitious -student courted reputation by affirming some paradox. Probably all -honour men kept acts, but poll-men were deemed to comply with the -regulations by keeping opponencies. The proctors were responsible for -presiding at these acts, or seeing that competent graduates did so. -In and after 1649 two examiners were specially appointed for this -purpose. In 1680[36] these examiners were appointed by the senate with -the title of moderator, and with the joint stipend of four shillings -for everyone graduating as a bachelor of arts during their year of -office. In 1688 the joint stipend of the moderators was fixed at £40 -a year. The moderators, like the proctors, were nominated by the -colleges in rotation. - -From the earliest times the proctors had the power of questioning a -candidate at the end of a disputation, and probably all candidates for -a degree attended the public schools on certain days to give an -opportunity to the proctors (or any master who liked to take part in -the examination) to examine them[37], though the opportunity was not -always used. Such examinations were conducted in Latin, and originally -different candidates attended on different days. Soon after 1710[38] -the moderators or proctors began the custom of summoning on one day in -January all candidates whom they proposed to question, and conducting -the examination in English and in public: the examination did not last -more than one day, and was partly on philosophy and partly on -mathematics. It was from this examination that the Mathematical Tripos -developed. - -This introduction of a regular oral examination seems to have been -mainly due to the fact that when, in 1710, George I gave the Ely -library to the University, it was decided to assign for its reception -the old senate-house--now the catalogue room in the library--and to -build a new room for the meetings of the senate. Pending the building -of the new senate-house the books were stored in the Schools, which -thus were rendered unavailable for keeping acts. In consequence of -this, considerable difficulty was found in arranging for all the -candidates to keep the full number of statutable exercises, and -obtaining opportunities to compare them one with another: hence the -introduction or extension of a supplementary oral examination. The -advantages of this examination as providing a ready means of testing -the knowledge and abilities of the candidates were so patent that it -was retained when the necessity for some system of the kind had passed -away, and finally it became systematized into an organized test to -which all questionists were subjected. - -In 1731 the University raised the joint stipend of the moderators to -£60 "in consideration of their additional trouble in the Lent Term." -This would seem to indicate that the senate-house examination had then -taken formal shape, and perhaps that a definite scheme for its conduct -had become customary. - -As long as the order of the list of those approved for degrees was -settled on the result of impressions derived from acts kept by the -different candidates at different times and on different subjects, it -was impossible to arrange the men in strict order of merit, nor was -much importance attached to the order. But, with the introduction of -an examination of all the candidates on one day, much closer attention -was paid to securing an accurate classification, and more confidence -felt in the published order. It seems to have been consequent on this -that in and after 1748 the final lists were regarded as authoritative -and important and that the names of the honorary optimes were -definitely indicated: the lists from this time appeared in the -_University Calendars_. The lists from 1748 to 1910, with the earlier -Ordines Senioritatis from 1499 to 1747, are printed in the _Historical -Register of the University_. - -Of the detailed history of the examination until the middle of the -eighteenth century we know nothing. From 1750 onwards, however, we -have more definite accounts of it. At this time, it would seem that -all the men from each college were taken together as a class, and -questions passed down by the proctors or moderators till they were -answered: but the examination remained entirely oral, and technically -was regarded as subsidiary to the discussions which had been -previously held in the schools. - -Each class contained men of very different abilities, and to meet -difficulties thus caused, a custom grew up by which every candidate -was liable to be taken aside to be questioned by any master of arts -who wished to do so, and this was regarded as an important part of the -examination. The examination now continued for two days and a half, -the subjects, as before, being mathematics and philosophy. At the -conclusion of the second day the moderators received the reports of -those masters of arts who had voluntarily taken part in the -examination, and provisionally settled the final list. The last -half-day was used in revising and rearranging the order of merit. - -Richard Cumberland has left an account of the tests to which he was -subjected when he took his bachelor degree in 1751. Clearly the -disputations still played an important part, and it is difficult to -say what weight was attached to the subsequent senate-house -examination; his reference to it is only of a general character. After -saying that he kept two acts and two opponencies he continued[39]: - - The last time I was called upon to keep an act in the schools I sent - in three questions to the Moderator, which he withstood as being all - mathematical, and required me to conform to the usage of proposing - one metaphysical question in the place of that, which I should think - fit to withdraw. This was ground I never liked to take, and I - appealed against his requisition: the act was accordingly put by - till the matter of right should be ascertained by the statutes of - the university, and in the result of that enquiry it was given for - me, and my question stood.... I yielded now to advice, and paid - attention to my health, till we were cited to the senate house to be - examined for our Bachelor's degree. It was hardly ever my lot during - that examination to enjoy any respite. I seemed an object singled - out as every man's mark, and was kept perpetually at the table under - the process of question and answer. - -It was found possible by means of the new examination to differentiate -the better men more accurately than before; and accordingly, in 1753, -as above stated, the first class was subdivided into two, called -respectively wranglers and senior optimes, a division which is still -maintained. - -The semi-official examination by masters of arts was regarded as the -more important part of the test, and the most eminent residents in the -University took part in it. Thus John Fenn, of Caius, 5th wrangler in -1761, wrote[40]: - - On the following Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, we sat in the - Senate-house for public examination; during this time I was - officially examined by the Proctors and Moderators, and had the - honour of being taken out for examination by Mr Abbot, the - celebrated mathematical tutor of St John's College, by the eminent - professor of mathematics Mr Waring, of Magdalene, and by Mr Jebb of - Peterhouse, a man thoroughly versed in the academical studies. - -This irregular examination by any master who chose to take part in it -constantly gave rise to accusations of partiality. - -In 1763 the traditional rules for the conduct of the examination took -more definite shape. Henceforth the examiners used the disputations -only as a means of classifying the men roughly. On the result of their -"acts," and probably partly also of their general reputation, the -candidates were divided into eight classes, each arranged in -alphabetical order. The subsequent position of the men in the class -was determined solely by the senate-house examination. The first two -classes comprised all who were expected to be wranglers, the next four -classes included the other candidates for honours, and the last two -classes consisted of poll-men only. Practically anyone placed in -either of the first two classes was allowed, if he wished, to take an -aegrotat senior optime, and thus escape all further examination: this -was called gulphing it. - -All the men from one college were no longer taken together, but each -class was examined separately and _vivâ voce_; and hence, since all -the students comprised in each class were of about equal attainments, -it was possible to make the examination more effective. Richard -Watson, of Trinity, claimed that this change was made by him when -acting as moderator in 1763. He said[41]: - - There was more room for partiality ... then [_i.e._ in 1759] than - there is now; and I attribute the change, in a great degree, to an - alteration which I introduced the first year I was moderator [_i.e._ - in 1763], and which has been persevered in ever since. At the time - of taking their Bachelor of Arts' degree, the young men are examined - in classes, and the classes are now formed according to the - abilities shown by individuals in the schools. By this arrangement, - persons of nearly equal merits are examined in the presence of each - other, and flagrant acts of partiality cannot take place. Before I - made this alteration, they were examined in classes, but the classes - consisted of members of the same College, and the best and worst - were often examined together. - -It is probable that before the examination in the senate-house began -a candidate, if manifestly placed in too low a class, was allowed the -privilege of challenging the class to which he was assigned. Perhaps -this began as a matter of favour, and was only granted in exceptional -cases, but a few years later it became a right which every candidate -could exercise; and I think that it is partly to its development that -the ultimate predominance of the tripos over the other exercises for -the degree is due. - -In the same year, 1763, it was decided that the relative position of -the senior and second wranglers, namely, Paley, of Christ's, and -Frere, of Caius, was to be decided by the senate-house examination and -not by the disputations. Henceforward distinction in that examination -was regarded as the most important honour open to undergraduates. - -In 1768 Robert Smith, of Trinity College, founded prizes for -mathematics and natural philosophy open to two commencing bachelors. -The examination followed immediately after the senate-house -examination, and the distinction, being much coveted, tended to -emphasize the mathematical side of the normal university education of -the best men. Since 1883 the prizes have been awarded on the result of -dissertations[42]. Additional prizes, awarded at the same time, and -associated with the name of Lord Rayleigh[43], were founded in 1909. - -Until about 1770, the senate-house examination had been oral, but it -began now to be the custom to dictate some or all of the questions and -to require answers to be written. Only one question was dictated at a -time, and a fresh one was not given out until some student had solved -that previously read: a custom which by causing perpetual -interruptions to take down new questions must have proved very -harassing. We are perhaps apt to think that an examination conducted -by written papers is so natural that the custom is of long -continuance, but I know no record of any in Europe earlier than the -eighteenth century. Until 1830 the questions for the Smith's prizes -were dictated. - -The following description of the senate-house examination as it -existed in 1772 was given by Jebb[44]: - - The moderators, some days before the arrival of the time prescribed - by the vice-chancellor, meet for the purpose of forming the students - into divisions of six, eight, or ten, according to their performance - in the schools, with a view to the ensuing examination. - - Upon the first of the appointed days, at eight o'clock in the - morning, the students enter the senate-house, preceded by a master - of arts from each college, who ... is called the "father" of the - college.... - - After the proctors have called over the names, each of the - moderators sends for a division of the students: they sit with him - round a table, with pens, ink, and paper, before them: he enters - upon his task of examination, and does not dismiss the set till the - hour is expired. This examination has now for some years been held - in the English language. - - The examination is varied according to the abilities of the - students. The moderator generally begins with proposing some - questions from the six books of Euclid, plain (_sic_) trigonometry, - and the first rules of algebra. If any person fails in an answer, - the question goes to the next. From the elements of mathematics, - a transition is made to the four branches of philosophy, viz. - mechanics, hydrostatics, apparent astronomy, and optics, as - explained in the works of Maclaurin, Cotes, Helsham, Hamilton, - Rutherforth, Keill, Long, Ferguson, and Smith. If the moderator - finds the set of questionists, under examination, capable of - answering him, he proceeds to the eleventh and twelfth books of - Euclid, conic sections, spherical trigonometry, the higher parts of - Algebra, and sir Isaac Newton's Principia; more particularly those - sections, which treat of the motion of bodies in eccentric and - revolving orbits; the mutual action of spheres, composed of - particles attracting each other according to various laws; the - theory of pulses, propagated through elastic mediums; and the - stupendous fabric of the world. Having closed the philosophical - examination, he sometimes asks a few questions in Locke's Essay on - the human understanding, Butler's Analogy, or Clarke's Attributes. - But as the highest academical distinctions are invariably given to - the best proficients in mathematics and natural philosophy, a very - superficial knowledge in morality and metaphysics will suffice. - - When the division under examination is one of the highest classes, - problems are also proposed, with which the student retires to a - distant part of the senate-house, and returns, with his solution - upon paper, to the moderator, who, at his leisure, compares it with - the solutions of other students, to whom the same problems have been - proposed. - - The extraction of roots, the arithmetic of surds, the invention of - divisers, the resolution of quadratic, cubic, and biquadratic - equations; together with the doctrine of fluxions, and its - application to the solution of questions "de maximis et minimis," - to the finding of areas, to the rectification of curves, the - investigation of the centers of gravity and oscillation, and to the - circumstances of bodies, agitated, according to various laws, by - centripetal forces, as unfolded, and exemplified, in the fluxional - treatises of Lyons, Saunderson, Simpson, Emerson, Maclaurin, and - Newton, generally form the subject matter of these problems. - - When the clock strikes nine, the questionists are dismissed to - breakfast: they return at half-past nine, and stay till eleven; they - go in again at half-past one, and stay till three; and, lastly, they - return at half-past three, and stay till five. - - The hours of attendance are the same upon the subsequent day. - - On the third day they are finally dismissed at eleven. - - During the hours of attendance, every division is twice examined in - form, once by each of the moderators, who are engaged for the whole - time in this employment. - - As the questionists are examined in divisions of only six or eight - at a time, but a small portion of the whole number is engaged, at - any particular hour, with the moderators; and, therefore, if there - were no further examination, much time would remain unemployed. - - But the moderator's inquiry into the merits of the candidates forms - the least material part of the examination. - - The "fathers" of the respective colleges, zealous for the credit of - the societies, of which they are the guardians, are incessantly - employed in examining those students, who appear most likely to - contest the palm of glory with their sons. - - This part of the process is as follows: - - The father of a college takes a student of a different college - aside, and, sometimes for an hour and an half together, strictly - examines him in every part of mathematics and philosophy, which he - professes to have read. - - After he hath, from this examination, formed an accurate idea of the - student's abilities and acquired knowledge, he makes a report of his - absolute or comparative merit to the moderators, and to every other - father who shall ask him the question. - - Besides the fathers, all masters of arts, and doctors, of whatever - faculty they be, have the liberty of examining whom they please; and - they also report the event of each trial, to every person who shall - make the inquiry. - - The moderators and fathers meet at breakfast, and at dinner. From - the variety of reports, taken in connection with their own - examination, the former are enabled, about the close of the second - day, so far to settle the comparative merits of the candidates, as - to agree upon the names of four-and-twenty, who to them appear most - deserving of being distinguished by marks of academical approbation. - - These four-and-twenty [wranglers and senior optimes] are recommended - to the proctors for their private examination; and, if approved by - them, and no reason appears against such placing of them from any - subsequent inquiry, their names are set down in two divisions, - according to that order, in which they deserve to stand; are - afterwards printed; and read over upon a solemn day, in the presence - of the vice-chancellor, and of the assembled university. - - The names of the twelve [junior optimes], who, in the course of the - examination, appear next in desert, are also printed, and are read - over, in the presence of the vice-chancellor, and of the assembled - university, upon a day subsequent to the former.... - - The students, who appear to have merited neither praise nor censure - [the poll-men], pass unnoticed: while those, who have taken no pains - to prepare themselves for the examination, and have appeared with - discredit in the schools, are distinguished by particular tokens of - disgrace. - -Jebb's statement about the number of wranglers and senior optimes is -only approximate. - -It may be added that it was now frankly recognized that the -examination was competitive[45]. Also that though it was open to any -member of the senate to take part in it, yet the determination of the -relative merit of the students was entirely in the hands of the -moderators[46]. Although the examination did not occupy more than -three days it must have been a severe physical trial to anyone who was -delicate. It was held in winter and in the senate-house: that building -was then noted for its draughts, and was not warmed in any way; and, -according to tradition, on one occasion the candidates on entering in -the morning found the ink frozen in the pots on their desks. - -The University was not altogether satisfied[47] with the regulations, -and in 1779[48] the scheme of examination was amended in various -respects. In particular the examination was extended to four days, -a third day being given up entirely to natural religion, moral -philosophy, and Locke's _Essay_. It was further announced[49] that a -candidate would not receive credit for advanced subjects unless he had -satisfied the examiners in Euclid's _Elements_ and elementary natural -philosophy. - -A system of brackets or "classes quam minimae" was now introduced. -Under this system the examiners issued on the morning of the fourth -day a provisional list of men who had obtained honours, with the names -of those of about equal merit bracketed, and that day was devoted to -arranging the names in each bracket in order of merit: the examiners -being given explicit authority to invite the assistance of others in -this work. Whether at this time a candidate could request to be -re-examined with the view of being moved from one bracket to another -is uncertain, but later this also was allowed. - -The number of examiners was also increased to four, the moderators of -one year becoming, as a matter of course, the examiners of the next. -Thus of the four examiners in each year, two had taken part in the -examination of the previous year, and the continuity of the system of -examination was maintained. The names of the moderators appear on the -tripos lists, but the names of the examiners were not printed on the -lists till some years later. - -The right of any master of arts to take part in the examination was -not affected, though henceforth it was exercised more sparingly, and I -believe was not insisted on after 1785. But it became a regular custom -for the moderators to invite particular residents to examine and -compare specified candidates: Milner, of Queens', was constantly asked -to assist in this way. - -It was not long before it became an established custom that a -candidate, who was dissatisfied with the class in which he had been -placed as the result of his disputations, might challenge it before -the examination began. This power seems to have been used but rarely; -it was, however, a recognition of the fact that a place in the tripos -list was to be determined by the senate-house examination alone, and -the examiners soon acquired the habit of settling the preliminary -classes without exclusive reference to the previous disputations. - -The earliest extant paper actually set in the senate-house, to which -we can with certainty refer, is a problem paper set in 1785 or 1786 by -W. Hodson, of Trinity, then a proctor. The autograph copy from which -he gave out the questions was luckily preserved, and is in the -library[50] of Trinity College. It must be almost the last problem -paper which was dictated, instead of being printed and given as a -whole to the candidates. The paper is as follows: - - 1. To determine the velocity with which a Body must be thrown, in - a direction parallel to the Horizon, so as to become a secondary - planet to the Earth; as also to describe a parabola, and never - return. - - 2. To demonstrate, supposing the force to vary as _1/D²_ how far a - body must fall both within and without the Circle to acquire the - Velocity with which a body revolves in a Circle. - - 3. Suppose a body to be turned (_sic_) upwards with the Velocity - with which it revolves in an Ellipse, how high will it ascend? The - same is asked supposing it to move in a parabola. - - 4. Suppose a force varying first as _1/D³_, secondly in a greater - ratio than _1/D²_ but less than _1/D³_, and thirdly in a less ratio - than _1/D²_, in each of these Cases to determine whether at all, and - where the body parting from the higher Apsid will come to the lower. - - 5. To determine in what situation of the moon's Apsid they go most - forwards, and in what situation of her Nodes the Nodes go most - backwards, and why? - - 6. In the cubic equation _x³ + qx + r = 0_ which wants the second - term; supposing _x = a + b_ and _3ab = -q_, to determine the value - of _x_. (_sic._) - - 7. To find the fluxion of _x^r × (y^n + z^m)^{1/q}_. - - 8. To find the fluent of _aẋ / (a + x)_. - - 9. To find the fluxion of the _m_^th power of the Logarithm of _x_. - - 10. Of right-angled Triangles containing a given Area to find that - whereof the sum of the two legs _AB + BC_ shall be the least - possible. [This and the two following questions are illustrated by - diagrams. The angle at _B_ is the right angle.] - - 11. To find the Surface of the Cone _ABC_. [The cone is a right one - on a circular base.] - - 12. To rectify the arc _DB_ of the semicircle _DBV_. - -In cases of equality in the senate-house examination, the acts were -still taken into account in settling the tripos order: and in 1786, -when the second, third, and fourth wranglers came out equal in the -examination, a memorandum was published that the second place was -given to that candidate who _dialectis magis est versatus_, and the -third place to that one who _in scholis sophistarum melius -disputavit_. - -At this time there were various intervals in the examination by the -moderators, and the examinations by the extraneous examiners took -place in these intervals. Those candidates who at any time were not -being examined occupied themselves with amusements, provided they were -not too boisterous and obvious: probably dice and cards played a large -part in them. Gunning in an amusing account of his examination in 1788 -talks of playing with a teetotum[51] on the Wednesday (when specified -works by Locke and Paley formed the subjects of examination), and says -this game "was carried on with great spirit ... by considerable -numbers during the whole of the examination." - -About this period, 1790, the custom of printing the problem papers was -introduced, but until 1828 the other papers continued to be dictated. -Since then all the papers have been printed. - -I insert here the following letter[52] from William Gooch, of Caius, -in which he described his examination in the senate-house in 1791. It -must be remembered that it is the letter of an undergraduate addressed -to his father and mother, and was not intended either for preservation -or publication: a fact which certainly does not detract from its -value. - - _Monday_ ¼ aft. 12. - - We have been examin'd this Morning in pure Mathematics & I've - hitherto kept just about even with Peacock which is much more than - I expected. We are going at 1 o'clock to be examin'd till 3 in - Philosophy. - - From 1 till 7 I did more than Peacock; But who did most at - Moderator's Rooms this Evening from 7 till 9, I don't know yet;--but - I did above three times as much as the Sen^r Wrangler last year, yet - I'm afraid not so much as Peacock. - - Between One & three o'Clock I wrote up 9 sheets of Scribbling Paper - so you may suppose I was pretty fully employ'd. - - _Tuesday Night._ - - I've been shamefully us'd by Lax to-day;--Tho' his anxiety for - Peacock must (of course) be very great, I never suspected that his - Partially (_sic_) w^d get the better of his Justice. I had - entertain'd too high an opinion of him to suppose it.--he gave - Peacock a long private Examination & then came to me (I hop'd) on - the same subject, but 'twas only to _Bully_ me as much as he - could,--whatever I said (tho' right) he tried to convert into - Nonsense by seeming to misunderstand me. However I don't entirely - dispair of being first, tho' you see Lax seems determin'd that I - shall not.--I had no Idea (before I went into the Senate-House) of - being able to contend at all with Peacock. - - _Wednesday evening._ - - Peacock & I are still in perfect Equilibrio & the Examiners - themselves can give no guess yet who is likely to be first;--a New - Examiner (Wood of St. John's, who is reckon'd the first - Mathematician in the University, for Waring doesn't reside) was - call'd solely to examine Peacock & me only.--but by this new Plan - nothing is yet determin'd.--So Wood is to examine us again to-morrow - morning. - - _Thursday evening._ - - Peacock is declar'd first & I second,--Smith of this Coll. is either - 8^th or 9^th & Lucas is either 10^th or 11^th.--Poor Quiz Carver is - one of the οἱ πολλοί;--I'm perfectly _satisfied_ that the Senior - Wranglership is Peacock's due, but _certainly_ not so very - undisputably as Lax pleases to represent it--I understand that _he_ - asserts 'twas 5 to 4 in Peacock's favor. Now Peacock & I have - explain'd to each other how we went on, & can _prove indisputably_ - that it wasn't 20 to 19 in his favor;--I _cannot_ therefore be - displeas'd for being plac'd second, tho' I'm provov'd (_sic_) with - Lax for his false report (so much beneath the Character of a - Gentleman.)-- - - N.B. it is my very _particular Request_ that you dont mention Lax's - behaviour to me to any one. - -Such was the form ultimately taken by the senate-house examination, a -form which it retained substantially without alteration for nearly -half-a-century. It soon became the sole test by which candidates were -judged. The University was not obliged to grant a degree to anyone who -performed the statutable exercises, and it was open to the senate to -refuse to pass a supplicat for a bachelor's degree in arts unless the -candidate had presented himself for the senate-house examination. In -1790 James Blackburn, of Trinity, a questionist of exceptional -abilities, was informed that in spite of his good disputations he -would not be allowed a degree unless he also satisfied the examiners -in the tripos. He accordingly solved one "very hard problem," though -in consequence of a dispute with the authorities he refused to attempt -any more[53]. - -Henceforth the examination was compulsory on all candidates pursuing -the normal course for the B.A. degree. In 1791 the University laid -down rules[54] for its conduct, so far as it concerned poll-men, -decreeing that those who passed were to be classified in four -divisions or classes, the names in each class to be arranged -alphabetically, but not to be printed on the official tripos lists. -The classes in the final lists must be distinguished from the eight -preliminary classes issued before the commencement of the examination. -The men in the first six preliminary classes were expected to take -honours; those in the seventh and eighth preliminary classes were -_primâ facie_ poll-men. - -In 1799 the moderators announced[55] that for the future they would -require every candidate to show a competent knowledge of the first -book of Euclid's _Elements_, arithmetic, vulgar and decimal fractions, -simple and quadratic equations, and selected books by Locke and Paley. -Paley's works seem to be held in esteem by modern divines, and his -_Evidences_, though not his _Philosophy_, still remains (1917) one of -the subjects of the Previous Examination, but his contemporaries -thought less highly of his writings, or at any rate of his philosophy. -Thus Best is quoted by Wordsworth[56] as saying of Paley's -_Philosophy_, "The tutors of Cambridge no doubt neutralize by their -judicious remarks, when they read it to their pupils, all that is -pernicious in its principles": so also Richard Watson, bishop of -Llandaff, in his anecdotal autobiography[57], says, in describing the -senate-house examination in which Paley was senior wrangler, that -Paley was afterwards known to the world by many excellent productions, -"though there are some ... principles in his philosophy which I by no -means approve." - -In 1800 the moderators extended to all men in the first four -preliminary classes the privilege of being allowed to attempt the -problem papers: hitherto this privilege had been confined to -candidates placed in the first two classes. Until 1828 the problem -papers were set in the evenings, and in the rooms of the moderator, -but many of the so-called problems were really pieces of bookwork or -easy riders. No problems were ever set to the men in the seventh and -eighth preliminary classes, which contained the poll-men. - -The _University Calendars_ date from 1796, and from 1802 to 1882 -inclusive contain the printed tripos papers of the previous January. -The papers from 1801 to 1820 and from 1838 to 1849 inclusive were also -published in separate volumes, which are to be found in most public -libraries. None of the bookwork papers of this time are now extant, -but it is believed that they contained few, if any, riders. In looking -at these papers to form an opinion of the knowledge current at the -time it is necessary to bear in mind that the text-books then in -circulation were far from satisfactory. - -The _Calendar_ of 1802 contains a diffuse account of the examination. -It commences as follows: - - On the Monday morning, a little before eight o'clock, the students, - generally about a hundred, enter the Senate-House, preceded by a - master of arts, who on this occasion is styled the father of the - College to which he belongs. On two pillars at the entrance of the - Senate-House are hung the classes and a paper denoting the hours of - examination of those who are thought most competent to contend for - honours. Immediately after the University clock has struck eight, - the names are called over, and the absentees, being marked, are - subject to certain fines. The classes to be examined are called - out, and proceed to their appointed tables, where they find pens, - ink, and paper provided in great abundance. In this manner, with the - utmost order and regularity, two-thirds of the young men are set to - work within less than five minutes after the clock has struck eight. - There are three chief tables, at which six examiners preside. At the - first, the senior moderator of the present year and the junior - moderator of the preceding year. At the second, the junior moderator - of the present, and the senior moderator of the preceding year. At - the third, two moderators of the year previous to the two last, or - two examiners appointed by the Senate. The two first tables are - chiefly allotted to the six first classes; the third, or largest, to - the οἱ πολλοί. - - The young men hear the propositions or questions delivered by the - examiners; they instantly apply themselves; demonstrate, prove, work - out and write down, fairly and legibly (otherwise their labour is of - little avail) the answers required. All is silence; nothing heard - save the voice of the examiners; or the gentle request of some one, - who may wish a repetition of the enunciation. It requires every - person to use the utmost dispatch; for as soon as ever the examiners - perceive anyone to have finished his paper and subscribed his name - to it another question is immediately given.... - - The examiners are not seated, but keep moving round the tables, both - to judge how matters proceed and to deliver their questions at - proper intervals. The examination, which embraces arithmetic, - algebra, fluxions, the doctrine of infinitesimals and increments, - geometry, trigonometry, mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, and - astronomy, in all their various gradations, is varied according to - circumstances: no one can anticipate a question, for in the course - of five minutes he may be dragged from Euclid to Newton, from the - humble arithmetic of Bonnycastle to the abstruse analytics of - Waring. While this examination is proceeding at the three tables - between the hours of eight and nine, printed problems are delivered - to each person of the first and second classes; these he takes with - him to any window he pleases, where there are pens, ink, and paper - prepared for his operations. - -The examination began at eight o'clock in the morning. At nine the -papers had to be given up, and half-an-hour was allowed for breakfast. -At half-past nine the candidates came back, and were examined in the -way described above till eleven, when the senate-house was again -cleared. An interval of two hours then took place. At one o'clock all -returned to be again examined. At three the senate-house was cleared -for half-an-hour, and, on the return of the candidates, the -examination was continued till five. At seven in the evening the first -four classes went to the senior moderator's rooms to solve problems. -They were finally dismissed for the day at nine, after eight hours of -examination. The work of Tuesday was similar to that of Monday: -Wednesday was partly devoted to logic and moral philosophy. - -At eight o'clock on Thursday morning a first list was published with -all candidates of about equal merits bracketed. Until nine o'clock a -candidate had the right to challenge anyone above him to an -examination to see which was the better. At nine a second list came -out, and a candidate's right of challenge was then confined to the -bracket immediately above his own. If he proved himself the equal of -or better than the man so challenged his name was transferred to the -upper bracket. To challenge and then to fail to substantiate the claim -to removal to a higher bracket was considered rather ridiculous. -Revised lists were published at eleven, three, and five, according to -the results of the examination during that day. At five the whole -examination ended. The proctors, moderators, and examiners then -retired to a room under the public library to prepare the list of -honours, which was sometimes settled in a few hours, but sometimes not -before two or three the next morning. The name of the senior wrangler -was generally announced at midnight, and the rest of the list the next -morning. In 1802 there were eighty-six candidates for honours, and -they were divided into fifteen brackets, the first and second brackets -containing each one name only, and the third bracket four names. - -It is clear from the above account that the competition fostered by -the examination had developed so much as to threaten to impair its -usefulness as guiding the studies of the men. On the other hand, there -can be no doubt that the carefully devised arrangements for obtaining -an accurate order of merit stimulated the best men to throw all their -energies into the work for the examination. It is easy to point out -the double-edged result of a strict order of merit. The problem before -the University was to retain its advantages while checking any abuses -to which it might lead. - -It was the privilege of the moderators to entertain the proctors and -some of the leading resident mathematicians the night before the issue -of the final list, and to communicate that list in confidence to their -guests. This pleasant custom survived till 1884. I revived the -practice in 1890 when acting as senior moderator, but it seems to have -now ceased. - -In 1806 Sir Frederick Pollock was senior wrangler, and in 1869 in -answer to an appeal from De Morgan for an account of the mathematical -study of men at the beginning of the century he wrote a letter[58] -which is sufficiently interesting to bear reproduction: - - I shall write in answer to your inquiry, _all_ about my books, - my study, and my degree, and leave you to settle all about the - proprieties which my letter may give rise to, as to egotism, - modesty, &c. The only books I read the first year were Wood's - _Algebra_ (as far as quadratic equations), Bonnycastle's ditto, - and _Euclid_ (Simpson's). In the second year I read Wood (beyond - quadratic equations), and Wood and Vince, for what they called the - _branches_. In the third year I read the _Jesuit's_ Newton and - Vince's _Fluxions_; these were all the _books_, but there were - certain MSS. floating about which I copied--which belonged to - Dealtry, second wrangler in Kempthorne's year. I have no doubt that - I had read less and seen fewer books than any senior wrangler of - about my time, or any period since; but what I knew I knew - thoroughly, and it was completely at my fingers' ends. I consider - that I was the last _geometrical_ and _fluxional_ senior wrangler; - I was not up to the _differential_ calculus, and never acquired it. - I went up to college with a knowledge of Euclid and algebra to - quadratic equations, nothing more; and I never read any second - year's lore during my first year, nor any third year's lore during - my second; my _forte_ was, that what I _did_ know I _could produce - at any moment with PERFECT accuracy_. I could repeat the first book - of Euclid word by word and letter by letter. During my first year - I was not a "_reading_" man (so called); I had no expectation of - honours or a fellowship, and I attended all the lectures on all - subjects--Harwood's anatomical, Wollaston's chemical, and Farish's - mechanical lectures--but the examination at the end of the first - year revealed to me my powers. I was not only in the first class, - but it was generally understood I was _first_ in the first class; - neither I nor anyone for me expected I should get in at all. Now, as - I had taken no pains to prepare (taking, however, marvellous pains - while the examination was going on), I knew better than anyone else - the value of my _examination qualities_ (great rapidity and perfect - accuracy); and I said to myself, "If you're not an ass, you'll be - senior wrangler"; and _I took to "reading" accordingly_. A curious - circumstance occurred when the Brackets came out in the Senate-house - declaring the result of the examination: I saw at the top the name - of Walter _bracketed alone_ (as he was); in the bracket below were - _Fiott_, _Hustler_, _Jephson_. I looked down and could not find my - own name till I got to Bolland, when my pride took fire, and I said, - "I must have beaten _that man_, so I will look up again"; and on - looking up carefully I found the nail had been passed through my - name, and I was at the top bracketed _alone_, even above Walter. You - may judge what my feelings were at this discovery; it is the only - instance of two such brackets, and it made my fortune--that is, made - me independent, and gave me an immense college reputation. It was - said I was more than half of the examination before anyone else. The - two moderators were Hornbuckle, of St John's, and Brown (Saint - Brown), of Trinity. The Johnian congratulated me. I said perhaps - I might be challenged; he said, "Well, if you are you're quite - safe--you may sit down and do nothing, and no one would get up to - you in a whole day." ... - - Latterly the Cambridge examinations seem to turn upon very different - matters from what prevailed in my time. I think a Cambridge - education has for its object to make good members of society--not - to extend science and make profound mathematicians. The tripos - questions in the Senate-house ought not to go beyond certain limits, - and geometry ought to be cultivated and encouraged much more than - it is. - -To this De Morgan replied: - - Your letter suggests much, because it gives possibility of answer. - The _branches_ of algebra of course mainly refer to the second part - of Wood, now called the theory of equations. Waring was his guide. - Turner--whom you must remember as head of Pembroke, senior wrangler - of 1767--told a young man in the hearing of my informant to be sure - and attend to quadratic equations. "It was a quadratic," said he, - "made me senior wrangler." It seems to me that the Cambridge - _revivers_ were [Woodhouse,] Waring, Paley, Vince, Milner. - - You had Dealtry's MSS. He afterwards published a very good book on - fluxions. He merged his mathematical fame in that of a Claphamite - Christian. It is something to know that the tutor's MS. was in vogue - in 1800-1806. - - Now--how did you get your conic sections? How much of Newton did you - read? From Newton direct, or from tutor's manuscript? - - Surely Fiott was our old friend Dr Lee. I missed being a pupil of - Hustler by a few weeks. He retired just before I went up in February - 1823. The echo of Hornbuckle's answer to you about the challenge has - lighted on Whewell, who, it is said, wanted to challenge Jacob, and - was answered that he could not beat [him] if he were to write the - whole day and the other wrote nothing. I do not believe that Whewell - would have listened to any such dissuasion. - - I doubt your being the last fluxional senior wrangler. So far as I - know, Gipps, Langdale, Alderson, Dicey, Neale, may contest this - point with you. - -The answer, dated 7 August 1869, of Sir Frederick Pollock to these -questions was as follows: - - You have put together as _revivers_ five very different men. - Woodhouse was better than Waring, who could not prove Wilson's - (Judge of C. P.) guess about the property of prime numbers; but - Woodhouse (I think) did prove it, and a beautiful proof it is. - Vince was a bungler, and I think utterly insensible of mathematical - beauty. - - Now for your questions. I did not get my conic sections from Vince. - I copied a MS. of Dealtry. I fell in love with the cone and its - sections, and everything about it. I have never forsaken my - favourite pursuit; I delighted in such problems as two spheres - touching each other and also the inside of a hollow cone, &c. As to - Newton, I read a good deal (men _now_ read nothing), but I read much - of the notes. I detected a blunder which nobody seemed to be aware - of. Tavel, tutor of Trinity, was not; and he argued very favourably - of me in consequence. The application of the Principia I got from - MSS. The blunder was this: in calculating the resistance of a globe - at the end of a cylinder oscillating in a resisting medium they had - forgotten to notice that there is a difference between the - resistance to a globe and a circle of the same diameter. - - The story of Whewell and Jacob cannot be true. Whewell was a very, - _very_ considerable man, I think not a _great_ man. I have no doubt - Jacob beat him in accuracy, but the supposed answer _cannot_ be - true; it is a mere echo of what actually passed between me and - Hornbuckle on the day the Tripos came out--for the truth of which I - vouch. I think the examiners are taking too _practical_ a turn; it - is a waste of time to calculate _actually_ a longitude by the help - of logarithmic tables and lunar observations. It would be a fault - not to know _how_, but a greater to be handy at it. - -A few minor changes in the senate-house examination were made in -1808[59]. A fifth day was added to the examination. Of the five days -thus given up to it three were devoted to mathematics, one to logic, -philosophy, and religion, and one to the arrangement of the brackets. -Apart from the evening paper the examination on each of the first -three days lasted six hours: of these eighteen hours, eleven were -assigned to bookwork and seven to problems. The problem papers were -set from six to ten in the evening. - -A letter from Whewell, dated 19 January 1816, thus describes his -examination in the senate-house[60]: - - Jacob. Whewell. Such is the order in which we are fixed after a - week's examination.... I had before been given to understand that a - great deal depended upon being able to write the greatest possible - quantity in the smallest time, but of the rapidity which was - actually necessary I had formed the most distant idea. I am upon no - occasion a quick writer, and upon subjects where I could not go on - without sometimes thinking a little I soon found myself considerably - behind. I was therefore surprised, and even astonished, to find - myself bracketed off, as it is called, in the second place; that is, - on the day when a new division of the classes is made for the - purpose of having a closer examination of the respective merits of - men who come pretty near to each other, I was not classed with - anybody, but placed alone in the second bracket. The man who is at - the head of the list is of Caius College, and was always expected to - be very high, though I do not know that anybody expected to see him - so decidedly superior as to be bracketed off by himself. - -The tendency to cultivate mechanical rapidity was a grave evil, and -lasted long after Whewell's time. According to rumour the highest -honours in 1845 were obtained by assiduous practice in writing[61]. - -The devotion of the Cambridge school to geometrical and fluxional -methods had led to its isolation from contemporary continental -mathematicians. Early in the nineteenth century the evil consequence -of this began to be recognized; and it was felt to be little less than -a scandal that the researches of Lagrange, Laplace, and Legendre were -unknown to many Cambridge mathematicians save by repute. An attempt to -explain the notation and methods of the calculus as used on the -continent was made by Woodhouse, later professor in the University, -who stands out as the apostle of the new movement. - -It is doubtful if Woodhouse could have brought analytical methods into -vogue by himself; but his views were enthusiastically adopted by three -students, Peacock, Babbage, and Herschel, who succeeded in carrying -out the reforms he had suggested. They created an Analytical Society -which Babbage explained was formed to advocate "the principles of pure -_d_-ism as opposed to the _dot_-age of the University." The character -of the instruction in mathematics at the University has at all times -largely depended on the text-books in use, and the importance of good -books of this class was emphasized by a traditional rule that -questions should not be set on a new subject in the tripos unless it -had been discussed in some treatise suitable and available for -Cambridge students[62]. Hence the importance attached to the -publication of the work on analytical trigonometry by Woodhouse in -1809, and of the works on the differential calculus issued by members -of the Analytical Society in 1816 and 1820. - -In 1817 Peacock, who was moderator, introduced the symbols for -differentiation into the papers set in the senate-house examination; -his colleague, however, continued to use the fluxional notation. -Peacock himself wrote on 17 March 1817 (_i.e._ shortly after the -examination) on the subject as follows[63]: - - I assure you ... that I shall never cease to exert myself to the - utmost in the cause of reform, and that I will never decline any - office which may increase my power to effect it. I am nearly certain - of being nominated to the office of Moderator in the year 1818-19, - and as I am an examiner in virtue of my office, for the next year I - shall pursue a course even more decided than hitherto, since I shall - feel that men have been prepared for the change, and will then be - enabled to have acquired a better system by the publication of - improved elementary books. I have considerable influence as a - lecturer, and I will not neglect it. It is by silent perseverance - only that we can hope to reduce the many-headed monster of - prejudice, and make the University answer her character as the - loving mother of good learning and science. - -In 1818 all candidates for honours, that is, all men in the first six -preliminary classes, were allowed to attempt the problems: this change -was made by the moderators. - -In 1819 Peacock, who was again moderator, induced his colleague to -adopt the new notation. It was employed in the next year by Whewell, -and in the following year by Peacock again. Henceforth the calculus -in its modern language and analytical methods were freely used, new -subjects were introduced, and for many years the examination provided -a mathematical training fairly abreast of the times. - -By this time the disputations had ceased to have any immediate effect -on a man's place in the tripos. Thus Whewell[64], writing about his -duties as moderator in 1820, said: - - You would get very exaggerated ideas of the importance attached to - it [an Act] if you were to trust Cumberland; I believe it was - formerly more thought of than it is now. It does not, at least - immediately, produce any effect on a man's place in the tripos, and - is therefore considerably less attended to than used to be the case, - and in most years is not very interesting after the five or six best - men: so that I look for a considerable exercise of, or rather demand - for, patience on my part. The other part of my duty in the Senate - House consists in manufacturing wranglers, senior optimes, etc. and - is, while it lasts, very laborious. - -Of the examination itself in this year he wrote as follows[65]: - - The examination in the Senate House begins to-morrow, and is rather - close work while it lasts. We are employed from seven in the morning - till five in the evening in giving out questions and receiving - written answers to them; and when that is over, we have to read over - all the papers which we have received in the course of the day, to - determine who have done best, which is a business that in numerous - years has often kept the examiners up the half of every night; but - this year is not particularly numerous. In addition to all this, the - examination is conducted in a building which happens to be a very - beautiful one, with a marble floor and a highly ornamented ceiling; - and as it is on the model of a Grecian temple, and as temples had no - chimneys, and as a stove or a fire of any kind might disfigure the - building, we are obliged to take the weather as it happens to be, - and when it is cold we have the full benefit of it--which is likely - to be the case this year. However, it is only a few days, and we - have done with it. - -A sketch of the examination in the previous year from the point of -view of an examinee was given by J.M.F. Wright[66], but there is -nothing of special interest in it. - -Sir George B. Airy[67] gave the following sketch of his recollections -of the reading and studies of undergraduates of his time and of the -tripos of 1823, in which he had been senior wrangler: - - At length arrived the Monday morning on which the examination for - the B.A. degree was to begin.... We were all marched in a body to - the Senate-House and placed in the hands of the Moderators. How the - "candidates for honours" were separated from the οἱ πολλοί I do not - know, I presume that the Acts and the Opponencies had something to - do with it. The honour candidates were divided into six groups: and - of these Nos. 1 and 2 (united), Nos. 3 and 4 (united), and Nos. 5 - and 6 (united), received the questions of one Moderator. No. 1, - Nos. 2 and 3 (united), Nos. 4 and 5 (united), and No. 6, received - those of the other Moderator. The Moderators were reversed on - alternate days. There were no printed question-papers: each examiner - had his bound manuscript of questions, and he read out his first - question; each of the examinees who thought himself able proceeded - to write out his answer, and then orally called out "Done." The - Moderator, as soon as he thought proper, proceeded with another - question. I think there was only one course of questions on each day - (terminating before 3 o'clock, for the Hall dinner). The examination - continued to Friday mid-day. On Saturday morning, about 8 o'clock, - the list of honours (manuscript) was nailed on the door of the - Senate House. - -It must be remembered that for students pursuing the normal course the -senate-house examination still provided the only avenue to a degree. -That examination involved a knowledge of the elements of moral -philosophy and theology, an acquaintance with the rules of formal -logic, and the power of reading and writing scholastic Latin, but -mathematics was the predominant subject, and this led to a certain -one-sidedness in education. The evil of this was generally recognized, -and in 1822 various reforms were introduced in the university -curriculum; in particular the Previous Examination was established for -students in their second year, the subjects being prescribed Greek and -Latin works, a Gospel, and Paley's _Evidences_. Set classical books -were introduced in the final examination of poll-men; and another -honour or tripos examination was established for classical students. -These alterations came into effect in 1824; and henceforth the -senate-house examination, so far as it related to mathematical -students, was known as the Mathematical Tripos. - -In 1827 the scheme of examination in the mathematical tripos was -revised. By regulations[68] which came into operation in January 1828, -four days, exclusive of the day of arranging the brackets, were -devoted to the examination; the number of hours of examination was -twenty-three, of which seven were assigned to problems. On the first -two days all the candidates had the same questions proposed to them, -inclusive of the evening problems, and the examination on those days -excluded the higher and more difficult parts of mathematics, in order, -in the words of the report, "that the candidates for honours may not -be induced to pursue the more abstruse and profound mathematics, to -the neglect of more elementary knowledge." Accordingly, only such -questions as could be solved without the aid of the differential -calculus were set on the first day, and those set on the second day -involved only its elementary applications. The classes were reduced -to four, determined as before by the exercises in the schools. - -The regulations of 1827 definitely prescribed that all the papers -should be printed. They are also noticeable as being the last which -gave the examiners power to ask _vivâ voce_ questions, though such -questions "were restricted to asking about propositions contained in -the mathematical works commonly in use at the University, or examples -and explanations of such propositions." It was further recommended -that no paper should contain more questions than well-prepared -students could be expected to answer within the time allowed for it, -but that if any candidate, before the end of the time, had answered -all the questions in the paper, the examiners might propose additional -questions _vivâ voce_. The power of granting honorary optime degrees -now ceased; it had already fallen into abeyance. Henceforth the -examination was conducted under definite rules, and I no longer -concern myself with its traditions. - -In the same year as these changes became effective the examination for -the poll degree was separated from the tripos with different sets of -papers and a different schedule of subjects[69]. It was, however, -still nominally considered as forming part of the senate-house -examination, and until 1858 those who obtained a poll degree were -arranged in four classes, described as fourth, fifth, sixth, and -seventh, as if in continuation of the junior optimes or third class of -the tripos. - -In the course henceforth ordained for the poll or ordinary degree, the -examination, later known as "the General," represents that part of the -old senate-house examination which was intended for the poll-men, but -gradually it was moved to an earlier period in the normal course taken -by the men. In 1851 admission to the classical tripos[70] was allowed -to others than those who passed the mathematical tripos, and this -provided another avenue to a degree entirely independent of the old -senate-house examination. In 1852 another set of examinations, at -first called "the Professor's Examinations," and now somewhat modified -and known as "the Specials," was instituted for all poll-men to take -before they could qualify for a degree. - -In 1858 the fiction that the poll examinations were part of the -senate-house examination was abandoned, and subsequently they have -been treated as providing an independent method of obtaining the -degree: thus now the mathematical tripos is the sole representative of -the old senate-house examination. Since 1858 numerous other ways of -obtaining a degree in arts have been established, and it is now -possible to graduate by showing proficiency in very special, or even -technical subjects. - -Further changes in the mathematical tripos were introduced in -1833[71]. The duration of the examination, before the issue of the -brackets, was extended to five days, and the number of hours of -examination on each day was fixed at five and a half: seven and a half -hours were assigned to problems. The examination on the first day was -confined to subjects that did not require the differential calculus, -and only the simplest applications of the calculus were permitted on -the second and third days. During the first four days of the -examination the same papers were set to all the candidates alike, but -on the fifth day the examination was conducted according to classes. -No reference was made to _vivâ voce_ questions, though permission was -reserved to re-examine candidates if it were found necessary: this -right remained in force till 1848, but in fact was never used. In -December 1834, a few unimportant details were amended. - -Mr Earnshaw, the senior moderator in 1836, informed me that he -believed that the tripos of that year was the earliest one in which -all the papers were marked, and that in previous years the examiners -had partly relied on their impression of the answers given. - -New regulations came into force[72] in 1839. The examination now -lasted for six days, and continued as before for five hours and a half -each day: eight and a half hours were assigned to problems. Throughout -the whole examination the same papers were set to all candidates, and -no reference was made to any preliminary classes. It was no doubt in -accordance with the spirit of these changes that the acts in the -schools should be abolished, but they were discontinued by the -moderators of 1839 without the authority of the senate. The -examination was for the future confined[73] to mathematics. - -In the same year in which the new scheme came into force a proposal to -reopen the subject was rejected on 6 March 1839. - -The difficulty of bringing professorial lectures into relation with -the needs of students has more than once been before the University. -The desirability of it was emphasized by a syndicate in February 1843, -which recommended conferences at stated intervals between the -mathematical professors and examiners. This report, which -foreshadowed the creation of a Mathematical Board, was rejected by the -senate on 31 March. - -A few years later the scheme of the examination was again -reconstructed by regulations[74] which came into effect in 1848. The -duration of the examination was extended to eight days. The -examination lasted in all forty-four and a half hours, twelve of which -were devoted to problems. The first three days were assigned to -specified elementary subjects; in the papers set on these days riders -were to be set as well as bookwork, but the methods of analytical -geometry and the calculus were excluded. After the first three days -there was a short interval, at the end of which the examiners issued a -list of those who had so acquitted themselves as to deserve -mathematical honours. Only those whose names were contained in this -list were admitted to the last five days of the examination, which was -devoted to the higher parts of mathematics. After the conclusion of -the examination the examiners, taking into account the whole eight -days, brought out the list arranged in order of merit. No provision -was made for any rearrangement of this list corresponding to the -examination of the brackets. The arrangements of 1848 remained in -force till 1873. - -In the same year as these regulations came into force, a Board of -Mathematical Studies (consisting of the mathematical professors, -with the moderators and examiners for the current year and the two -preceding years) was constituted[75] by the senate. From that time -forward their minutes supply a permanent record of the changes -gradually introduced into the tripos. I do not allude to subsequent -changes which only concern unimportant details of the examination. - -In May 1849, the board issued a report in which, after giving a review -of the past and existing state of the mathematical studies in the -University, they recommended that the mathematical theories of -electricity, magnetism, and heat should not be admitted as subjects of -examination. In the following year they issued a second report, in -which they recommended the omission of elliptic integrals, Laplace's -coefficients, capillary attraction, and the figure of the earth -considered as heterogeneous, as well as a definite limitation of -the questions in the lunar and planetary theories. In making these -recommendations the board were only recognizing what had become the -practice in the examination. - -I may, in passing, mention a curious attempt which was made in 1853 -and 1854 to assist candidates to estimate the relative difficulty of -the questions asked. This was effected by giving to the candidates, -at the same time as the examination paper, a slip of paper on which -the marks assigned for the bookwork and rider for each question were -printed. I mention the fact merely because these things are rapidly -forgotten and not because it is of any intrinsic value. I possess a -complete set of slips which came to me from Todhunter. - -In 1856 there was an amusing difference of opinion between the -vice-chancellor and the moderators. The vice-chancellor issued a -notice to say that for the convenience of the University he had -directed the tripos lists to be published at 8.0 a.m. as well as at -9.0 a.m., but when members of the senate arrived at 8.0 the moderators -said that the list should not be read until 9.0. - -Considerable changes in the scheme of examination were introduced in -1873. On 5 December 1865, the board had recommended the addition of -Laplace's coefficients and the figure of the earth considered as -heterogeneous as subjects of the examination; the report does not seem -to have been brought before the senate, but attention was called to -the fact that certain departments of mathematics and mathematical -physics found no place in the tripos schedules, and were neglected by -most students. Accordingly, a syndicate was appointed on 6 June 1867, -to consider the matter, and a scheme drawn up by them was approved in -1868[76] and came into effect in 1873. - -The new scheme of examination was framed on the same lines as that of -1848. The subjects in the first three days were left unchanged, but an -extra day was added, devoted to the elements of mathematical physics. -The essence of the modification was the greatly extended range of -subjects introduced into the schedule of subjects for the last five -days, and their arrangement in divisions; the total marks awarded to -the questions in each of the five divisions being approximately in a -proportion to the total marks assigned to the questions in the first -three days as 2, 1, 1, 1, 2/3 to 1 respectively. Under these -regulations the number of examiners was increased from four to five. - -The assignment of marks to groups of subjects was made under the -impression that the best candidates would concentrate their abilities -on a selection of subjects from the various divisions. But it was -found that, unless the questions were made extremely difficult, more -marks could be obtained by reading superficially all the subjects in -the five divisions than by attaining real proficiency in a few of the -higher ones: while the wide range of subjects rendered it practically -impossible to cover all the ground thoroughly in the time allowed. -The failure was so pronounced that in 1877 another syndicate was -appointed to consider the mathematical studies and examinations of the -University. They presented an elaborate scheme, but on 13 May 1878, -some of the most important parts of it were rejected; their subsequent -proposals, accepted on 21 November 1878 (by 62 to 49), represented a -compromise which pleased few members of the senate[77]. - -Under the new scheme which came into force in 1882 the tripos was -divided into two portions: the first portion was taken at the end of -the third year of residence, the range of subjects being practically -the same as in the regulations of 1848, and the result brought out in -the customary order of merit. The second portion was held in the -following January, and was open only to those who had been wranglers -in the preceding June. This portion was confined to higher mathematics -and appealed chiefly to specialists: the result was brought out in -three classes, each arranged in alphabetical order. The moderators and -examiners conducted the whole examination without any extraneous aid. - -In the next year or two further amendments were made[78], the second -part of the examination being moved to the June of the fourth year, -and thrown open to all men who had graduated in the tripos of the -previous June. At the same time the conduct of the examination in -part II was transferred to four examiners nominated by the board: this -put it largely under the control of the professors. The range of -subjects of part II was also greatly extended, and candidates were -encouraged to select only a few of them. It was further arranged that -part I might be taken at the end of a man's second year of residence, -though in that case it would not qualify for a degree. A student who -availed himself of this leave could take part II at the end either of -his third or of his fourth year as he pleased. - -The general effect of these changes was to destroy the homogeneity of -the tripos. Objections to the new scheme were soon raised. Especially, -it was said--whether rightly or wrongly--that part I contained too -many technical subjects to serve as a general educational training for -any save mathematicians; that the distinction of a high place in the -historic list produced on its results tended to prevent the best men -taking it in their second year, though by this time they had read -enough to be able to do so; and that part II was so constructed as to -appeal only to professional mathematicians, and thus the higher -branches of mathematics were neglected in the University by all save -a few specialists. - -Whatever value be attached to these opinions, the number of students -studying mathematics fell rapidly under the scheme of 1886. In 1899 -the board proposed[79] further changes. These seemed to some members -of the senate to be likely still further to decrease the number of men -who took up the subject as one of general education; and the two main -proposals were rejected, 15 February 1900 by votes of 151 to 130 and -161 to 129. - -A few years later, in 1907[80], the board brought forward another -scheme, proposing changes so sweeping as almost to destroy the -identity of the tripos. Under this the examination in part II was -abolished--a change on which all parties were agreed. There was -introduced an examination, called part I, confined to elementary -mathematics, which could be taken as early as the second term of -residence, and for which in certain cases of failure a student could -present himself again, but this, although an examination for honours, -did not qualify for a degree. In the new part II, taken normally at -the end of the third year of residence and qualifying for a degree, -candidates were given some option in the subjects of their -examination, and order of merit was abolished. The first examination -under this scheme was held in 1908. - -A remarkable feature in the history of the Cambridge mathematical -school is the fact that for nearly two hundred years most students -were accustomed to rely for preparation for it on work done with a -private tutor or "Coach." Towards the close of the seventeenth century -we first read of these "pupil-mongers" (among whom Laughton of Clare -was the most famous) who made it their business to prepare men for -their "acts." - -With the rise of the senate-house examination the importance of this -class of teachers increased, for success in that examination was -regarded as the crown of the academic course, and brought with it, in -the shape of a fellowship, an immediate competence with a reasonable -prospect of an assured career. It was the business of private tutors -to prepare their pupils for the examination, and among those who in -this way came to the front shortly after the middle of the eighteenth -century were Richard Watson, John Wilson whose name is still known by -its association with a proposition in the theory of numbers, and -Robert Thorp. The last named teacher was described, about 1761, as -being "of eminent use to young men in preparing them for the -Senate-House Examinations and peculiarly successful"; and it was added -that "one young man of no shining reputation with the assistance of -Mr Thorp's tuition had stood at the head of wranglers." - -In a grace of the senate, passed in 1781, it is stated that almost all -sophs then resorted to private tuition, and for more than a century -subsequently, the practice was well established. These were the men -who really directed the reading of the students. Even non-residents, -if reputed to be successful coaches, drew pupils. Thus John Dawson, a -medical practitioner at Sedbergh, regularly prepared pupils in the -vacations for the senate-house examination, and at least eleven of the -senior wranglers between 1781 and 1800 are known to have studied under -him. - -During the nineteenth century the system developed under two -remarkable teachers, William Hopkins, 1793-1866, and Edward John -Routh, 1831-1907, to whom the vast majority of the better known -Cambridge mathematicians of this century owed most of what they learnt -in their undergraduate days. Hopkins in the twenty-two years from -1828-49, had among his pupils one hundred and seventy-five wranglers, -of whom seventeen were senior, forty-four in one of the first three -places, and one hundred and eight in one of the first ten places. -So too Routh, in the thirty-one years from 1858-88, had between six -hundred and seven hundred pupils, most of whom became wranglers, -twenty-seven being senior in the tripos and forty-one Smith's -prizemen. To organize teaching on this scale demanded rare gifts. - -Perhaps it may be of interest to describe, by way of example, the -general features of Routh's system. He gave catechetical lectures -three times a week to classes of eight or ten men of approximately -equal knowledge and ability. The work to be done between two lectures -was heavy, and included the solution of some eight or nine fairly hard -examples on the subject of the lectures. Examination papers were also -constantly set on tripos lines (bookwork and riders), while there was -a weekly paper of problems set to all pupils alike. All papers sent up -were marked in public, the comments on them in class were generally -brief, and, to save time, solutions of the questions were circulated -in manuscript. Teaching also was supplemented by manuscripts on the -subjects. Finally to the more able students he was accustomed, shortly -before their tripos, to give memoirs or books for analyses and -commentaries. The course for the first three years and the two earlier -long vacations covered all the subjects of the examination--the last -long vacation and the first term of the fourth year were devoted to a -thorough revision. - -Under Hopkins and Routh there was no trace of what is called cramming; -they might say that a particular demonstration was so long that it -could not be required in the tripos, but none the less they expected -their pupils to master it. The system had faults, but it had the merit -of providing a systematic grounding in a wide field of subjects. The -effectiveness of teaching of this kind was dependent on intimate -constant personal intercourse, and the importance of this cannot be -overrated. The scandal of the system consisted in the fact that a man -was compelled to pay heavy fees to the University and his College for -instruction, and yet found it advantageous at his own expense to go -elsewhere to get it. - -During the last quarter of the nineteenth century college lecturers -began to share with the coaches the general direction of studies. -Post-graduate work was also to some extent brought under the influence -of professors and university lecturers--these not uncommonly -suggesting subjects for dissertations for fellowships, Smith's prizes, -etc. But the students thus influenced were not numerous, and it still -remains true that the majority of mathematical undergraduates are so -out of touch with the professors in the subject as to be unacquainted -even with their personal appearance. - -Such was the mathematical tripos and its history. Whatever its -demerits, it dominated the situation, and Cambridge mathematics and -mathematicians of the nineteenth century were the direct product of -the system it embodied. Judged by the output, I do not think it can -be said to have resulted in failure; and perhaps Cayley, Sylvester, -Adams, Green, Stokes, Kelvin, and Maxwell--to mention no others--were -none the worse for having been compelled to go through the course. - -The reconstitution in 1907 of the tripos, and the destruction of many -of its distinctive features must profoundly modify the future history -of mathematics at Cambridge, but forecasts on such a theme would be -useless. - -The curious origin of the term tripos has been repeatedly told, and an -account of it may fitly close this chapter. Formerly there were three -principal occasions on which questionists were admitted to the title -or degree of bachelor. The first of these was at the comitia priora, -held on Ash-Wednesday, for the best men in the year. The next was at -the comitia posteriora, which was held a few weeks later, and at which -any student who had distinguished himself in the quadragesimal -exercises subsequent to Ash-Wednesday had his seniority reserved to -him. Lastly, there was the comitia minora, for students who had in no -special way distinguished themselves. - -In the fifteenth century an important part in the ceremony on each of -these occasions was taken by a certain "ould bachilour," who sat upon -a three-legged stool or tripos before the proctors and tested the -abilities of the would-be graduates by arguing some question with the -"eldest son," who was selected from them as their representative. To -assist the latter in what might be an unequal contest his "father," -that is, the officer of his college who was to present him for his -degree, was allowed to come to his assistance. - -The discussion took place in Great St Mary's Church, and marked the -admission of the student to a position with new responsibilities, -while the season of Lent was chosen with a view to bring this into -prominence. The puritan party objected to the semi-ecclesiastical -character of the proceedings, and in the course of the sixteenth -century set themselves to bring the ceremony into disrepute. The part -played by the questionist now became purely formal, though a serious -debate still sometimes took place between the father of the senior -questionist and a regent master who represented the University: this, -however, came to be prefaced by a speech by the bachelor, who was now -called Mr Tripos, just as we speak of a judge as the bench, or of a -rower as an oar. Ultimately public opinion permitted Mr Tripos to say -pretty much what he pleased, so long as it was not dull and was -scandalous. The speeches he delivered or the verses he recited were -generally printed and preserved by the registrary, and were known as -the tripos verses: originally they referred to the subjects of the -disputations then propounded. The earliest copies now extant are those -for 1575. - -The university officials, to whom the personal criticisms in which -Mr Tripos indulged were by no means pleasing, repeatedly exhorted him -to remember "while exercising his privilege of humour, to be modest -withal." In 1710, says Mullinger[81], "the authorities after -condemning the excessive license of the tripos announced that the -comitia at Lent would in future be conducted in the Senate-House; and -all members of the University, of whatever order or degree, were -forbidden to assail or mock the disputants with scurrilous jokes or -unseemly witticisms. About the year 1747-8, the moderators initiated -the practice of printing the honour lists on the back of the sheets -containing the tripos verses, and after the year 1755 this became the -invariable practice. By virtue of this purely arbitrary connection -these lists themselves became known as the tripos; and eventually the -examination itself, of which they represented the results, also became -known by the same designation." - -Mr Tripos ceased to deliver his speech about 1750, but the issue of -tripos verses continued for nearly 150 years longer. During the latter -part of this time they consisted of four sets of verses, usually in -Latin, but occasionally in Greek, in which current topics in the -University were treated lightly or seriously as the writer thought -fit. They were written for the proctors and moderators by -undergraduates or commencing bachelors, each of whom was supposed to -receive a pair of white kid gloves in recognition of his labours. Thus -gradually the word tripos changed its meaning "from a thing of wood to -a man, from a man to a speech, from a speech to sets of verses, from -verses to a sheet of coarse foolscap paper, from a paper to a list of -names, and from a list of names to a system of examination[82]." - -In 1895 the proctors and moderators, without consulting the senate, -sent in no verses, and thus, in spite of widespread regret, an -interesting custom of many centuries standing was destroyed. In -defence of this action, it was said that the custom had never been -embodied in statute or ordinance, and thus was not obligatory, and -further that its continuance was not of material benefit to anybody. -Such arguments are not conclusive, and we may well regret the -disappearance of historic ties unless it can be shown that they cause -inconvenience, which of course in this case could not be asserted. - -By way of supplement to the foregoing account, I append a list of -those who have held or hold the various university mathematical chairs -and lectureships. - - The _Lucasian Professorship of Mathematics_ was founded in 1663 by - Henry Lucas. The successive occupants of the chair have been: Isaac - Barrow, 1664-1669; Isaac Newton, 1669-1702; William Whiston, - 1702-1711; Nicholas Saunderson (Sanderson), 1711-1739; John Colson, - 1739-1760; Edward Waring, 1760-1798; Isaac Milner, 1798-1820; Robert - Woodhouse, 1820-1822; Thomas Turton, 1822-1826; George Biddell Airy, - 1826-1828; Charles Babbage, 1828-1839; Joshua King, 1839-1849; - George Gabriel Stokes, 1849-1903; Joseph Larmor, 1903 _et seq._ - - The _Plumian Professorship of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy_ - was founded in 1704 by Thomas Plume. The successive occupants of the - chair have been: Roger Cotes, 1707-1716; Robert Smith, 1716-1760; - Anthony Shepherd, 1760-1796; Samuel Vince, 1796-1822; Robert - Woodhouse, 1822-1828; George Biddell Airy, 1828-1836; James Challis, - 1836-1883; George Howard Darwin, 1883-1912; Arthur Stanley - Eddington, 1913 _et seq._ - - The _Lowndean Professorship of Astronomy and Geometry_ was founded - in 1749 by Thomas Lowndes. The successive occupants of the chair - have been: Roger Long, 1750-1771; John Smith, 1771-1795; William - Lax, 1795-1836; George Peacock, 1836-1858; John Couch Adams, - 1858-1892; Robert Stawell Ball, 1892-1913; Henry Frederick Baker, - 1914 _et seq._ - - The _Sadleirian Professorship of Pure Mathematics_ was founded, in - 1863 from a benefaction given in 1710 by Lady Sadleir. The - successive occupants of the chair have been: Arthur Cayley, - 1863-1895; Andrew Russell Forsyth, 1895-1910; Ernest William Hobson, - 1910 _et seq._ - - The _Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics_ was founded in - 1871 by the University; the laboratory attached being built at the - expense of the then Chancellor, the Duke of Devonshire. The - successive occupants of the chair have been: James Clerk Maxwell, - 1871-1879; John William, Baron Rayleigh, 1879-1884; Joseph John - Thomson, 1884 _et seq._ - - The _Professorship of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics_, with - laboratories and shops attached, was founded by the University in - 1875. The successive occupants of the chair have been: James Stuart, - 1875-1890; James Alfred Ewing, 1890-1903; Bertram Hopkinson, 1903 - _et seq._ - - Five _Lectureships in Mathematics_ were created in 1882 under the - directions of Royal Commissioners, and subsequently two others (now - reduced to one other) tenable, if desired, with one of the above, - were founded. The successive holders have been: Joseph John Thomson, - 1884; Andrew Russell Forsyth, 1884-1895; William Herrick Macaulay, - 1884-1887; Richard Tetley Glazebrook, 1884-1898; Ernest William - Hobson, 1884-1910; Joseph Larmor, 1885-1903; Richard Pendlebury, - 1888-1901; Henry Frederick Baker, 1895-1914; Augustus Edward Hough - Love, 1898-1899; Hector Munro Macdonald, 1899-1904; Herbert William - Richmond, 1901 _et seq._; George Ballard Mathews, 1903-1905; James - Hopwood Jeans, 1904-1906, 1910-1912; John Gaston Leathem, 1905-1909; - Robert Alfred Herman, 1906 _et seq._; Edmund Taylor Whittaker, - 1905-1906; Thomas James I'Anson Bromwich, 1909 _et seq._; John - Hilton Grace, 1901 _et seq._; Godfrey Harold Hardy, 1914 _et seq._; - Arthur Berry, 1914 _et seq._ - - -[Footnote 34: The greater part of this chapter formerly appeared in my -_Mathematical Recreations and Essays_, but a few paragraphs on -"coaching" have been taken from a paper which I wrote for distribution -to those who attended the International Congress of Mathematicians -held in England in 1912. The subject is treated in Whewell's _Liberal -Education_, Cambridge, three parts, 1845, 1850, 1853; Wordsworth's -_Scholae Academicae_, Cambridge, 1877; my own _Origin and History of -the Mathematical Tripos_, Cambridge, 1880; Glaisher's Presidential -Address to the London Mathematical Society, _Transactions_, -vol. XVIII, 1886, pp. 4-38; and my _History of the Study of -Mathematics at Cambridge_, Cambridge, 1889.] - -[Footnote 35: _Budget of Paradoxes_, by A. De Morgan, London, 1872, -p. 305.] - -[Footnote 36: See grace of 25 October 1680.] - -[Footnote 37: _Ex. gr._ see De la Pryme's account of his graduation in -1694, _Surtees Society_, vol. LIV, 1870, p. 32.] - -[Footnote 38: W. Reneu, in his letters of 1708-10 describing the -course for the B.A. degree, makes no mention of the senate-house -examination, and I think it is a reasonable inference that it had not -then been established.] - -[Footnote 39: _Memoirs of Richard Cumberland_, London, 1806, -pp. 78-79.] - -[Footnote 40: Quoted by C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, -Cambridge, 1877, pp. 30-31.] - -[Footnote 41: _Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson_, London, 1817, -pp. 18-19.] - -[Footnote 42: See grace of 25 October 1883; and the _Cambridge -University Reporter_, 23 October 1883.] - -[Footnote 43: See grace of 11 February 1909, and the _Cambridge -University Reporter_, 8 December 1908.] - -[Footnote 44: _The Works of J. Jebb_, London, 1787, vol. II, -pp. 290-297.] - -[Footnote 45: "Emulation, which is the principle upon which the plan -is constructed." _The Works of J. Jebb_, London, 1787, vol. III, -p. 261.] - -[Footnote 46: _The Works of J. Jebb_, London, 1787, vol. III, p. 272.] - -[Footnote 47: See graces of 5 July 1773, and of 17 February 1774.] - -[Footnote 48: See graces of 19, 20 March 1779.] - -[Footnote 49: Notice issued by the vice-chancellor, dated 19 May -1779.] - -[Footnote 50: The _Challis Manuscripts_, III, 61. There are two copies -almost identical, one dated 1785, the other 1786. Probably the paper -printed in the text was set in 1786.] - -[Footnote 51: H. Gunning, _Reminiscences_, second edition, London, -1855, vol. I, p. 82.] - -[Footnote 52: C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, Cambridge, 1877, -pp. 322-323.] - -[Footnote 53: H. Gunning, _Reminiscences_, second edition, London, -1855, vol. I, p. 182.] - -[Footnote 54: See grace of 8 April 1791.] - -[Footnote 55: Communicated by the moderators to fathers of colleges on -18 January 1799, and agreed to by the latter.] - -[Footnote 56: C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, Cambridge, 1817, -p. 123.] - -[Footnote 57: _Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson_, London, 1817, -p. 19.] - -[Footnote 58: _Memoir of A. De Morgan_, London, 1882, pp. 387-392.] - -[Footnote 59: See graces, 15 December 1808.] - -[Footnote 60: S. Douglas, _Life of W. Whewell_, London, 1881, p. 20.] - -[Footnote 61: For a contemporary account of this, see C.A. Bristed, -_Five Years in an English University_, New York, 1852, pp. 233-239.] - -[Footnote 62: See _ex. gr._ the grace of 14 November 1827, referred to -below.] - -[Footnote 63: _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, London, 1859, -vol. IX, pp. 538-539.] - -[Footnote 64: _Whewell's Writings and Correspondence_, ed. Todhunter, -London, 1876, vol. II, p. 36.] - -[Footnote 65: S. Douglas, _Life of Whewell_, London, 1881, p. 56.] - -[Footnote 66: _Alma Mater_, London, 1827, vol. II, pp. 58-98.] - -[Footnote 67: See _Nature_, vol. XXXV, 24 February 1887, pp. 397-399. -See also his _Autobiography_, Cambridge, 1896, chapter ii.] - -[Footnote 68: See grace, 14 November 1827.] - -[Footnote 69: See grace, 21 May 1828, confirming a report of 27 March -1828.] - -[Footnote 70: See grace of 31 October 1849.] - -[Footnote 71: See grace of 6 April 1832.] - -[Footnote 72: See grace of 30 May 1838.] - -[Footnote 73: Under a badly-worded grace passed on 11 May 1842, on the -recommendation of a syndicate on theological studies, candidates for -mathematical honours were, after 1846, required to attend the poll -examination on Paley's _Moral Philosophy_, the new testament and -ecclesiastical history. This had not been the intention of the senate, -and on 14 March 1855, a grace was passed making this clear.] - -[Footnote 74: See grace of 13 May 1846, confirming a report of -23 March 1846.] - -[Footnote 75: See grace of 31 October 1848.] - -[Footnote 76: See grace of 2 June 1868. It was carried by a majority -of only five in a house of 75.] - -[Footnote 77: See graces of 17 May 1877; 29 May 1878; and 21 November -1878; and the _Cambridge University Reporter_, 2 April, 14 May, -4 June, 29 October, 12 November, and 26 November 1878.] - -[Footnote 78: See graces of 13 December 1883; 12 June 1884; -10 February 1885; 29 October 1885; and 1 June 1886.] - -[Footnote 79: See reports dated 7 November 1899, and 20 January 1900.] - -[Footnote 80: See the reports of the special board, _Cambridge -University Reporter_, 29 May and 20 November 1906, and the graces of -2 February 1907. The voting on the first grace was 776 placet and 644 -non-placet.] - -[Footnote 81: J.B. Mullinger, _The University of Cambridge_, -Cambridge, vol. I, 1873, pp. 175-176.] - -[Footnote 82: C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, Cambridge, 1877, -p. 21.] - - - - -INDEX - - Abbot, Wm, 263. - Acts, Scholastic, ch XV. - Adams, J.C, 311, 315. - Admonitions, Statutory, 221-4. - Airy, G.B, 173, 293, 315. - Alford, Hen, 174. - Allen, Thos, 34. - All Saints' Ch, Camb, 85. - Alston Tankard, The, 123. - Ambler, John, 224. - Amos, Andrew, 130, 140. - Analytical Society, 290. - Anne of Denmark, 117. - Ansill, Thos, 13. - Apprenticeship, 187, 189. - Arrington Vicarage, 11. - Artistic Treasures, ch VI. - Arts, Students in, 187, 188. - Ascham, Roger, 203. - Assessors, Trin. Coll, 127. - Assistant Tutors, 44. - Athletic Club, Trinity, 125, 126. - Athletic Clubs, 174. - Atterbury, Fras, 68. - Attractions, Theory, 229, 234, 235. - Auditors, Trin. Coll, ch VII. - Aykerod Cup, The, 120. - - Babbage, Chas, 290, 315. - Babington, Gervase, 57. - Backhouse, Jas, 42. - Bacon, Arth, 165. - Bacon, Fras, 108, 117, 165. - Baker, H.F, 315, 316. - Balfour, A.J, 112. - Ball, R.S, 315. - Balsham, Hugh de, 191. - Bancroft, Rich, 61, 62. - Bankes Ewer, The, 121. - Barnes, E.W, 43. - Barnes, J.W, 81. - Barrington Vicarage, 12. - Barrow, Isaac, 108, 109, 117, 150, 170, 171, 254, 315. - Beaumont, Robt, 92, 93, 94, 106. - Bedesmen, 18. - Bedwell, Thos, 254. - Bellot Tankard, The, 123. - Bennet, Bishop, 57. - Bennet Ewer, The, 121. - Bensley, Jas, 224. - Benson, E.W, 110, 111. - Bentley, Rich, 41, 67, 68, 98, 111, 134, 135, 172, 239. - Benton, Dan, 212. - Berry, Art, 316. - Best, H.D, 279. - Bill, Wm, 49, 88, 91, 92. - Billingsley, Hen, 254. - Birching, 199-208, 210-214. - Blackburn, Jas, 278. - Blakesley, J.W, 81. - Bland, Tobias, 214. - Blundeville, Thos, 254. - Board, Mathematical, 300, 301. - Boat Club, The, 124, 125, 174. - Bolland, Wm, 285. - Bonnycastle's _Algebra_, 281, 284. - Bottisham Vicarage, 11. - Boude, Wm, 15, 16. - Boxworth Rectory, 12. - Boyle Cup, The, 122. - Boys, Wm, 88. - Brackets, System of, 271-272, 282-288, 295, 300. - Brass, John, 255. - Bridges, Simon, 17. - Briggs, Hen, 254. - Briggs, Simon, 17. - Bristed, C.A, 174, 289. - Bromwich, T.J.I'A, 316. - Brooke, Rich, 128, 129, 131, 132. - Brown, John, 81, 286. - Browne, Galen, 223. - Browne, I. Hawkins, 110, 111. - Buckingham Ewer, The, 120. - Buckley, Wm, 254. - Bulaeus, 182. - Burcham, T.B, 81. - Burials in College, 103. - Burnand, F.C, 174. - Burnell, Edw, 128, 129, 130. - Busby Cup, The, 121. - Busby, Rich, 202. - Butler, H.M, 115, 175. - Butler, Miss, 100. - Butler's _Analogy_, 219, 268. - Byron, Lord, 109, 117. - - Calculus, The, 289-292. - Cambridge University, Beginnings of, ch XI. - Camden, Marquess of, 112. - Caroline, Queen, 138. - Cartwright, Thos, 93, 165. - Carus, Wm, 73, 74, 79, 81. - Carver, Chas, 277. - Cavendish Cup, The, 123. - Cavendish Professorship, 316. - Cayley, Art, 110, 111, 176, 311, 315. - Cecil, Sir Wm, 51. - Censer Boat, 87, 118. - Central Forces, ch XIII. - Challenge Plate, 124-126. - Challis, Jas, 315. - Challis MSS, 273. - Chantrey, Fras, 116. - Chapel Attendance, ch IV, 102. - Chapel, Compulsory, ch IV, 204, 206, 207. - Chapel, Trinity, ch V. - Charles I, 96, 168. - Charles II, 96, 107, 117. - Charrington, John, 115. - Cheadle Rectory, 12. - Cheke, John, 4, 5, 17, 191. - Chesterton Vicarage, 11. - Christ Church Westminsters, ch III. - Christopherson, John, 88, 91, 92. - Cipriani, G.B, 116. - Clairaut, A.C, 240. - Clarence, Duke of, 174. - Clark, J.W, 130, 143. - Clarke, Sam, 254. - Clarke's _Attributes_, 268. - Clarkson Cup, The, 120. - Classical Tripos, 295, 297. - Clerke, Gilbert, 254. - Coaches, Private, 307-310. - Coke, Edw, 111, 165. - Colleges, Early, 27, 191, 192. - Colson, John, 315. - Combination Rooms, 167. - Commencement-House, 153. - Commons, Out of, 216, 217, 219. - Confessions, 219, 221. - Conybeare, W.J, 76. - Conyers, Tobias, 212. - Corporal Punishments, 199-208, 210-215. - Cotes, Roger, 98, 172, 254, 267, 315. - Cotton, G.E.L, 76. - Cowley, Abraham, 66, 111, 169. - Cox, Rich, 202. - Craig, John, 254. - Cranworth, Lord, 173. - Creighton, Robt, 39. - Croyland Abbey, 91, 181. - Cumberland, Rich, 262. - - Dacres, Art, 254. - Damer Cup, The, 123. - Dance, Nath, 112. - Darwin, G.H, 315. - Dawson, John, 308. - Days, Loss of, 217. - Dealtry, Wm, 285, 286, 287. - Deans, College, 28, 206-8, 219-20. - De Aston, John, 155, 156, 160. - De Bagshot, John, 155, 156. - De Balsham, Hugh, 191. - De Berwick, Rich, 155. - De Beverley, Robt, 155, 160. - Declaratio Computi, 128. - De Croyland, Robt, 84, 85. - De Durnford, Nich, 155. - Dee, John, 254. - De Gretford, Hen, 155. - De Gretford, Ralph, 155. - De Hull, John, 155. - De Immeworth, John, 155. - De Kelsey, John, 155. - De Kingston, Edw, 155, 160. - De la Pryme, Abraham, 259. - De London, Phil, 155. - De Morgan, Aug, 256, 284, 286. - Denman, Geo, 130, 141. - De Nottingham, Walter, 155. - Derby, Henry Earl of, 110, 111. - De Rome, Nich, 155. - De Salisbury, John, 155. - De Salisbury, Rich, 155. - Descartes, René, 227, 236, 237. - De Stanton, Hervey, 87. - De Sutton, Hugh, 155. - De Torterold, Jas, 155. - De Torterold, John, 155. - Devereux, Robt, 108, 165. - Devonshire, Duke of, 316. - D'Ewes, Simon, 208. - De Winchester, David, 155, 160. - De Windsor, Thos, 155. - De Woodstock, John, 155. - Dialectici, 16. - Digges, Thos, 254. - Discipline, ch XII, 27, 32, 33. - Discommonsing, 216, 217, 219. - Dissizaring, 216, 217. - Distribucio Collegii, 13-22. - Dobson, Wm, 81. - Donaldson, J.W, 81. - Douglas, Stair, 288, 292. - Downing, Sir Geo, 131. - Draghswerd, Wm, 155. - Dryden, John, 111, 169, 219. - Duport, Jas, 40, 169. - Duport Salt, The, 121, 122. - - Early University History, ch XI. - Earnshaw, Sam, 298. - Eddington, A.S, 315. - Edward II, 84, 154. - Edward III, 84, 115, 117, 163. - Edward IV, 110. - Edward VI, 87, 115, 164. - Edward VII, 174. - Elizabeth of York, 106, 115. - Elizabeth, Queen, 48, 49, 90, 91, 92, 114, 115, 117, 144, 164, - 167, 168. - Ellethorpe, 213. - Ellis, Wm, 129, 130, 133. - Emerson, Wm, 268. - Euclid's _Elements_, 271, 279, 281. - Euler, Leonhard, 240. - Essex, Earl of, 108, 165. - Everett, Wm, 174. - Ewing, J.A, 316. - Eworth, Hans, 106, 115. - Expulsions, 221-224. - - Fairfax, Sir Thos, 97. - Fakenham Rectory, 11. - Farish, Wm, 285. - Fees, College, in 1570, 36-37. - Fellow-Commoners, 29, 34, 119. - Fellows, Election of, 30. - Fellowship Election in 1659, 39. - Felmersham Vicarage, 11. - Fenn, John, 263. - Ferguson, Jas, 267. - Field, Fred, 81. - Fines, 215-216. - Fiott (Lee), John, 285, 287. - Firebrace Cup, The, 122. - First Trinity Boat Club, 124, 125, 174. - Fitzgerald, Edw, 173. - Fitzgerald Tankard, The, 122. - Flamsteed, John, 230, 254. - Fletcher, Bishop, 57. - Fletcher, W.M, 43. - Flogging, 199-208, 210-214. - Fluxions, 289-292. - Foley Tankard, The, 123. - Forsyth, A.R, 315, 316. - Fort, John, 155. - Foster, Michael, 110, 111. - Foster, Sam, 254. - Foundation of Trinity, ch I. - Franciscan Monastery, 19, 184. - Frazer, Sir Jas, 170. - Frere, John, 265. - Fuller, Thos, 93. - - Galileo, 231, 232, 239. - Galton, Fras, 110, 111, 174. - Gating, 218-219. - General Examination, 297. - George I, 259. - George III, 107. - Gerrard, Mark, 115. - Glaisher, J.W.L, 252. - Glazebrook, R.T, 316. - Glomerels, 181, 189-191. - Gloucester, Duke of, 107, 112, 115. - Goad, Roger, 204. - Gooch, Wm, 276. - Goodman, Gabriel, 52. - Gordon, Douglas, 107. - Gouldesborough, Edw, 57. - Grace, J.H, 316. - Graham, Robt, 129, 136. - Grammar, Degrees in, 190, 191. - Grammarians, 15, 16, 17, 28, 181, 189-191. - Grammar School at Trinity, 15-17, 28, 30. - Grammatici, 15, 16, 17, 28. - Granby, Marquess of, 112, 113. - Gravitation, Law of, ch XIII. - Gray, 88. - Greaves Cup, The, 123. - Greaves, Wm, 129, 135, 136. - Greek Authors read in 1570, 37. - Green, Geo, 311. - Grendon Vicarage, 11. - Griffith, T, 133. - Griffon, John, 155. - Griffon, Thos, 155. - Grigson, Thos, 215. - Grote, John, 174. - Grundisburgh Rectory, 12. - Guilds, University, 188. - Gulphing, 264. - Gunning, Hen, 275, 278. - - Hacket, John, 61. - Halfhead, 223. - Halifax, Earl of, 110. - Hallam, A.H, 173. - Halley, Edmund, 228, 230. - Hamilton, Hugh, 267. - Hardy, G.H, 316. - Hare, J.C, 173. - Harman, Rich, 15. - Harvey, John, 254. - Harwood, Busick, 285. - Heath, J.M, 81. - Helsham, Rich, 267. - Henry I, 180. - Henry II, 180. - Henry VII, 106, 115. - Henry VIII, 3, 48, 106, 162, 167. - Herbert, Geo, 61, 169. - Herkomer, H. von, 109. - Herman, R.A, 316. - Herschel, John, 290. - Herschel, Wm, 240. - Hill, Thos, 254. - Hitch, Robt, 223. - Hobson, E.W, 315, 316. - Hodges, 213. - Hodson, Wm, 273. - Holbein, 106. - Hon. Optimes, 257, 261, 296. - Hood, Thos, 254. - Hooke, Robt, 228. - Hopkins, Wm, 308-310. - Hopkinson, B, 316. - Hornbuckle, T.W, 286, 287, 288. - Horrox, Jeremiah, 254. - Hort, F.J.A, 110, 111, 176. - Hostels, Private, 27, 29, 192, 193, 195, 198, 199. - Houghton, Lord, 173. - Howson, J.S, 76. - Huddling, 255, 258. - Hughes, Fras, 129, 132. - Humphrey Ewer, The, 120. - Husbands Cup, The, 122. - Hustler, J.D, 285. - Hutton, Archbishop, 57. - Huygens, Christian, 238. - Hydrodynamics, Theory of, 230, 235, 236. - - Impositions, 219-221. - Ireland, Rich, 59. - - Jacob, Edw, 287, 288, 289. - James I, 54, 64, 66, 114, 117, 168. - James II, 171. - Jeans, J.H, 316. - Jebb, John, 263, 267, 270, 271. - Jebb, R.C, 110, 111, 170, 176. - Jephson, Thos, 285. - Joachim, Joseph, 110. - John, King, 180. - Johnson, 212. - Jones, Thos, 110. - Jurin, Jas, 254. - - Kant, Immanuel, 242. - Keate, John, 202. - Keill, John, 267. - Kelvin, Lord, 311. - Kempthorne, John, 285. - Kent Ewer, The, 120. - Kepler's Problem, 234. - King, C.W, 75. - King, Joshua, 315. - King, John, 59. - Kinglake, A.W, 173. - King's Hall, 3, 9-11, 20, 84-86, 144, 154-160, 162, 163. - King's Scholars, _see_ King's Hall. - Kneller, Godfrey, 112. - Knight, Sam, 130, 137. - - Lagrange, J.L, 239, 240, 290. - Laplace, P.S, 241, 242, 290. - Larmor, Joseph, 315, 316. - Laszlö de Lombros, P.A, 112. - Latin Authors read in 1570, 37. - Laud, Wm, 94. - Laughton, Rich, 254, 307. - Laurence, R.V, 43. - Lawrence, Thos, 112. - Lax, Wm, 276, 315. - Least Resistance, Solid of, 236. - Leathem, J.G, 316. - Lecture-Rooms, College, 44, 45. - Lectures, College, 44-46. - Lectureships, Mathematical, 253, 316. - Lee (Fiott), John, 287. - Leg, Thos, 93. - Legendre, A.M, 290. - Lever, Thos, 24. - Library, Trinity, ch VIII, 104. - Lightfoot, J.B, 101, 110, 111, 115, 170, 176. - L'Isle, Denys, 129, 134, 135. - Locke's _Essay_, 268, 275, 279. - Lombard, Peter, 181. - Long, Roger, 267, 315. - Lonsdale, John, 112. - Loss of Days or Terms, 218. - Love, A.E.H, 316. - Lowndes, Thos, 315. - Lowndean Professorship, 315. - Lucas, Hen, 315. - Lucas, Rich, 277. - Lucasian Professorship, 315. - Lushington, E.L, 174. - Lyndhurst Cup, The, 123. - Lyndhurst, Lord, 173. - Lyons, Israel, 268. - - Macaulay, T.B, 117, 173. - Macaulay, W.H, 316. - Macclesfield, Earl of, 111. - Macdonald, H.M, 316. - Maclaurin, Colin, 267, 268. - Man, Henry, 17. - Mansel, W.L, 112, 217. - Martin, Fras, 81. - Martin, Theodore, 123. - Marvell, Andrew, 169. - Mary, Queen, 48, 88, 91, 108, 115, 164, 167. - Mary of Scotland, 115. - Mathematical Board, 300, 301. - Mathematical Tripos, ch XV. - Mathematics, Cambridge, ch XV. - Mathews, G.B, 316. - Maule, W.H, 173. - Maurice, F.D, 110, 111. - Maxwell, J. Clerk, 110, 111, 176, 311, 316. - Maydew, John, 17. - Mechanics, Theory of, 231-232. - Mechanism Professorship, 316. - Medieval Tutorial System, 27. - Medieval University, Beginnings of, ch XI. - Melbourne, Viscount, 110, 111. - Merit, Order of, in Examinations, 261, 307. - Mexborough Cup, The, 123. - Mey, Wm, 5. - Michael-House, 3, 11-13, 20, 86, 87, 162, 163. - Milner, Isaac, 272, 315. - Milnes, Monckton, 173. - Milton, John, 213. - Moderators, Mathematical, 258, 259, 260. - Monasteries at Cambridge, 180, 181, 184, 185. - Monks at University, 181, 185, 186, 187, 196. - Moreton, Albert, 53. - Morland, Sam, 254. - Moro, Antonio, 106, 108. - Motion, Laws of, 232. - Mullinger, J.B, 179, 188, 313. - Munro, H.A.J, 176. - Murray, Thos, 112. - - Nebular Hypothesis, 241, 242. - Neile, Rich, 59. - Nevile Cup, The, 119. - Nevile, Robt, 212. - Nevile, Thos, 53, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 114, 149, 166, 167, 168. - Nevile's Court, 151, 152. - Newton, Isaac, 108, 112, 116, 170, 244-251, 267, 268, 281, 284, - 287, 315. - Newton, John, 134. - Newton, Sam, 129, 132, 133, 134. - Newton's _Principia_, ch XIII. - Non-Regents, 183. - Northampton, Earl of, 62. - Numbers of Students, 41-44, 188. - - Offley, Chris, 223. - Opie, John, 112. - Opponencies, 253. - Optimes, ch XV. - Optimes, Honorary, 257, 261, 296. - Ordines Senioritatis, 261. - Orleans, University of, 182. - Orwell Rectory, 12. - Oughtred, Wm, 252. - - Paget, Sir Wm, 6. - Paley, Wm, 265, 275, 279, 299. - Parham, Peter, 213. - Paris, University of, 182, 252. - Parke, Jas, 130, 138, 139, 173. - Parker, Matthew, 4, 5, 6, 7. - Parker, Nich, 155. - Parker, Roger, 155. - Parne, Thos, 215. - Parr, Queen Katherine, 6, 7. - Paston, Clement, 201. - Paulet Tankard, The, 123. - Payne, 255. - Peacock, Geo, 55, 81, 173, 179, 180, 182, 189, 276, 277, 290, - 291, 315. - Pearson, John, 108, 111, 170. - Peckitt of York, 116. - Peile, John, 213. - Pell, John, 254. - Penalties, ch XII. - Pendlebury, Rich, 316. - Pensioners, 29, 31, 33, 34. - Pepys, Thos, 217. - Perry, Chas, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82. - Perry Plate, The, 124. - Pheasaunt Tankard, The, 123. - Philip of Spain, 108. - Physwick's Hostel, 86, 87. - Plate, College, ch VI. - Plume, Thos, 315. - Plumian Professorship, 315. - Poll-Men, _see_ ch XV. - Pollock, J.F, 173, 284, 287. - Porson, Rich, 114, 172. - Portraits, College, ch VI. - Pour, Nich, 155. - Pour, Rich, 155. - Pour, Wm, 155. - Pre-elections, 59, 60, 62, 64. - Prime and Ultimate Ratios, 232. - _Principia_ of Newton, ch XIII. - Prior, Matthew, 112. - Private Tutors, 307-310. - Professors' Examinations, 297. - Pull, Nich, 155. - - Raeburn, Hen, 109. - Raine, Matthew, 110. - Rait, R.S, 200. - Rashdall, Hastings, 179, 199, 220. - Ray, John, 169, 215. - Rayleigh, Lord, 316. - Rayleigh Prizes, 266. - Record, Robt, 254. - Redman, Bishop, 57. - Redman, John, 5, 9, 11, 13, 20, 24, 88, 92. - Regents, 183. - Religious Students, 27. - Remée, 107. - Reneu, Wm, 259. - Resisting Mediums, 235-236. - Respondents, 253. - Reynolds, Joshua, 107, 112. - Rhetoric, Degrees in, 190, 191. - Richard III, 110. - Richard, Duke of York, 110. - Richardson, John, 65, 66. - Richmond, H.W, 316. - Ring, Mrs, 112. - Rod, Punishment by, 199-208, 210-214. - Romney, Geo, 115. - Rooke, Laurence, 254. - Rose, C.L, 76. - Rosekin, Andrew, 155. - Roubiliac, L.F, 116. - Routh, E.J, 308-310. - Rud, Bishop, 57. - Rustication, 221-224. - Rutherford, Wm, 267. - - Sadleir, Lady, 315. - Sadleirian Professorship, 315. - St Mary's Ch, Camb, 11. - St Michael's Ch, Camb, 12, 87, 98, 101. - Salisbury, Earl of, 55, 62. - Sanderson, Nich, _see_ Saunderson. - Sandwich Cup, The, 122. - Saunderson, Nich, 254, 268, 315. - Scholars, Election of, 30, 31. - Scholefield, Jas, 173. - Scot, Major, 97. - Sedgwick, Adam, 81, 110, 111, 173. - Senate-House, 153, 260. - Senate-House Examination, ch XV. - Servant Students, 28. - Seymour, Queen Jane, 106. - Shaw-Lefevre, J.G, 130, 140, 141. - Shepherd, Anth, 315. - Shirley, Walsingham, 61, 223. - Sides, Tutorial, 42, 43. - Sidgwick, Hen, 110, 111, 176. - Simeon, Chas, 74, 112. - Simpson, Thos, 268, 284. - Sizars, 28. - Sloane Tankard, The, 123. - Smith, Elismar, 103. - Smith, John, 315. - Smith, Robt, 111, 172, 254, 265, 267, 315. - Smith, Thos, 4, 5. - Smith's Prizes, 266. - Solar System, ch XIII. - Solomon, Proverbs of, 203. - Somerset, Duke of, 112, 113, 114. - Sophia, Princess, 107, 108. - S.P.C.U. ch IV, 101. - Special Examinations, 297. - Spectrum Analysis, 242-243. - Spedding, Jas, 173. - Spicer, Robt, 129, 132. - Stangs, 214-215. - Statutes, Trinity, 1552, 30, 31. - " " 1554, 33. - " " 1560, 33, 34. - " " 1844, 35, 175, - " " 1861, 35, 175. - " " 1882, 35, 175. - Stephen, Leslie, 174. - Stevinus, Simon, 231. - Still, Bishop, 57. - Stocks, 214-215. - Stokes, G.G, 315. - Stuart, Bernard, 119, 124. - Stuart, Jas, 316. - Stuart, John, 119, 124. - Subsizars, 28. - Sussex, Duke of, 112. - Sylvester, J.J, 311. - - Tavel, G.F, 287. - Taylor, Brook, 254. - Taylor Tankard, The, 123. - Taylor, Tom, 174. - Tennyson, Alf, 108, 115, 117, 174. - Tennyson, Chas, 174. - Tennyson, Fred, 174. - Terms, loss of, 217. - Thackeray, W.M, 170, 173. - Thirlwall, Connop, 71, 72, 73, 83, 173. - Thompson, W.H, 81, 109, 114, 174, 175, 176. - Thomson, J.J, 316. - Thomson, Wm, 311. - Thorp, Thos, 73, 81, 307, 308. - Thorwaldsen, Bertel, 117. - Tindal, N.C, 76, 130, 137, 173. - Tisserand, F.T, 241. - Todhunter, Isaac, 302. - Treasures, College, ch VI. - Trench, R.C, 173. - Trentine Disputes, 188, 189. - Trinity Athletic Clubs, 124-126, 174. - Trinity College, Foundation, ch I. - Trinity College, History of, ch X. - Trinity College, Numbers at, 163. - Tripos, Mathematical, ch XV. - Tripos, Origin of Name, 311-314. - Trot, Warin, 160. - Tunstall, Cuthbert, 253. - Turner, Joseph, 286. - Turton, Thos, 315. - Tusser, Thos, 202, 210. - Tutorial System, ch II. - Tutors, College, ch II. - Tutors, Private, 45, 307-310. - - Udall, Nich, 202. - - Vanderbank, John, 108. - Vandyke, A, 119. - VanSittart, A.A, 130, 140. - Van Somer, Paul, 108. - Vaughan, C.J, 110, 111. - Verdon, Thos, 215. - Verney Cup, The, 122. - Vernon Tankard, The, 123. - Victoria, Queen, 69. - Vince, Sam, 284, 287, 315. - Vortices, Cartesian, 227, 230, 236, 237, 238. - - Wakefield, Thos, 17. - Walker, Rich, 99. - Walling, 218. - Wallis, John, 254. - Walpole, Horace, 107. - Walsh, B.D, 81. - Walter, Hen, 285, 286. - Ward, Seth, 254. - Waring, Edw, 263, 277, 281, 286, 287, 315. - Watson, Rich, 264, 279, 307. - Watts, G.F, 108. - Waves, 230, 236. - Wensleydale, Lord, 130, 138, 139, 173. - West, Robt, 93. - Westcott, B.F, 101, 110, 111, 176. - Westlake, John, 110, 111. - Westminster Gowns, 68. - Westminster Scholars, ch III, 248. - Westminster School, ch III. - Whetham, W.C.D, 43. - Whewell, Wm, 69, 72, 73, 81, 108, 110, 111, 117, 174, 175, 221, - 252, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292. - Whisson, Stephen, 42. - Whiston, Wm, 254, 315. - Whitgift, John, 36, 51, 93, 94, 165, 166, 210. - Whittaker, E.T, 316. - Wilkins, John, 40, 111, 112. - William I, 179. - Williams, Joshua, 138. - Willis and Clark, 143, 152. - Willis, Robt, 90. - Wilson, John, 287, 307. - Windows, Chapel, 91, 93, 102, 115, 116. - Winthrop, Adam, 128, 129, 130, 131. - Wollaston, F.J.H, 285. - Wood, Jas, 277, 284, 286. - Woodhouse, Robt, 286, 287, 290, 315. - Wordsworth, Chris (1), 71, 72, 73, 74, 81. - Wordsworth, Chris (2), 252, 263, 275, 279, 314. - Wordsworth, John, 81. - Wranglers, ch XV. - Wren, Chris, ch VIII, 228. - Wright, Edw, 254. - Wright, J.M.F, 100, 174, 219, 293. - - Yool, G.V, 130, 142. - York, Richard Duke of, 110. - - -CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J.B. 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