As captured February 7, 2025

10 files changed, 22434 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/old/54023-0.txt b/old/54023-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca4bcc7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,8888 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cambridge Papers, by Walter William Rouse Ball
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Cambridge Papers
+
+Author: Walter William Rouse Ball
+
+Release Date: January 19, 2017 [EBook #54023]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAMBRIDGE PAPERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Laura Wisewell, David Wilson and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (The
+original copy of this book was generously made available
+for scanning by the Department of Mathematics at the
+University of Glasgow.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CAMBRIDGE PAPERS.
+
+
+
+
+       MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited
+  LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA · MADRAS
+               MELBOURNE
+
+         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+      NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO
+         DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO
+
+   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.
+                TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+CAMBRIDGE PAPERS
+
+BY
+W.W. ROUSE BALL
+FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
+
+
+MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+ST MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON
+
+1918
+
+[_All rights reserved_]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This volume contains papers on some questions of local history put
+together, mostly for undergraduate societies and magazines, at various
+times during the last twenty-five years. I have included a memoir,
+written for a London Society, on Newton's _Principia_, a work that
+profoundly affected the development of University studies in the
+eighteenth century, and a chapter on the History of the Mathematical
+Tripos, which at one time appeared in my _Mathematical Recreations and
+Essays_, since these are concerned with Cambridge subjects.
+
+I print the papers, whether long or short, and whether read at length
+or, as was more often the case, curtailed in delivery, substantially
+in the form in which they were first written. This leaves allusions
+which bear evidence to their domestic origin, and involves, in those
+of them dealing with cognate subjects, some repetition of facts. If
+these are defects they could be removed only by rewriting much of what
+appears here; it seems to me preferable to let the essays stand in
+their original forms, save occasionally for the addition of a
+paragraph or sentence dealing with what has happened since they were
+first presented. The dates in the text are reckoned in the modern
+style, taking the year as beginning on the first day of January.
+
+  W.W. ROUSE BALL.
+  Trinity College, Cambridge.
+  _January, 1918._
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+                                                  PAGE
+  Preface                                            v
+
+    =Part I. Concerning Trinity College.=
+
+  Chapter I.    The Foundation of Trinity College    3
+  Chapter II.   The Tutorial System                 26
+  Chapter III.  The Westminster Scholars            48
+  Chapter IV.   The Society for the Prevention of
+                  Cruelty to Undergraduates         71
+  Chapter V.    The College Chapel                  84
+  Chapter VI.   Some College Treasures             104
+  Chapter VII.  The College Auditors               127
+  Chapter VIII. Wren's Designs for the Library     144
+  Chapter IX.   A Christmas Journey in 1319        154
+  Chapter X.    An Outline of the College Story    161
+
+    =Part II. Concerning the University.=
+
+  Chapter XI.   The Beginnings of the University   179
+  Chapter XII.  Discipline                         194
+  Chapter XIII. Newton's _Principia_               225
+  Chapter XIV.  Newton on University Studies       244
+  Chapter XV.   The Mathematical Tripos            252
+
+  Index                                            317
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+=Concerning Trinity College.=
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE FOUNDATION OF TRINITY COLLEGE.
+
+
+Trinity College was founded by Henry VIII in 1546. To obtain a site
+for it, he suppressed King's Hall and Michael-House, two medieval
+colleges which were built on or owned most of the ground now occupied
+by the Great Court, and with their revenues, largely augmented by
+property of dissolved monasteries, he endowed it. The scheme of the
+College and his objects in founding it are stated in his letters
+patent of 19 December 1546, and particulars of the income assigned by
+him to the foundation are set out in his charter of dotation dated
+24 December 1546. These documents have been printed[1] and are readily
+accessible, but the history of the events leading up to the foundation
+of the College is less generally known. I cannot promise that the
+story in itself is interesting but the material facts have never
+before been brought together[2] so its telling is justified.
+
+After the dissolution of the monastic houses, anxiety was felt in
+Cambridge and Oxford lest they should suffer a similar fate. The
+policy of the suppression of the two universities and the confiscation
+of their property was openly advocated by politicians at court, and
+naturally great alarm was felt when in 1544 an Act[3] was passed
+empowering the king to dissolve any college at either university, and
+appropriate its possessions.
+
+The universities were right in thinking that the danger was pressing,
+for Parker, who played a leading part in the affair, has put on
+record[4] the fact that after the passing of the Act certain courtiers
+importunately sued the king to have the possessions of both bodies
+surveyed, meaning afterwards to obtain the same on easy terms. In
+these circumstances the Cambridge authorities, says Strype, "looked
+about them and made all the friends they could at court to save
+themselves." In particular they urgently begged the aid of two of
+their professors, John Cheke, then acting as tutor to the prince of
+Wales, and Thomas Smith, then clerk to the queen's council. Here is
+the letter[5] of the senate to Smith on the subject:
+
+  Si tu is es, Clarissime Smithe, in quem Academia haec
+  Cantabrigiensis universas vires suas, universa pietatis jura
+  exercuerit, si tibi uni omnia doctrinae suae genera, omnia reipub.
+  ornamenta libentissime contulerit, si fructum gloriae suae in te uno
+  jactaverit, si spem salutis suae in te potissimum reposuerit: age
+  ergo, et mente ac cogitatione tua complectere, quid tu vicissim illi
+  debes, quid illa, quid literae, quid respublica, quid Deus ipse pro
+  tantis pietatis officiis, quibus sic dignitas tua efflorescit,
+  justissime requirit: Academia nil debet tibi, imo omnia sua in te
+  transfudit. Et propterea abs te non simpliciter petit beneficium,
+  sed merito repetit officium: nec unam aliquam causam tibi proponit,
+  sed sua omnia, et seipsam tibi committit. Nec sua necesse habet
+  aperire tibi consilia, quorum recessus et diverticula nosti
+  universa. Age igitur quod scis, et velis quod potes, et perfice
+  quod debes. Sic literis, academiae, reipublicae, et religioni; sic
+  Christo et Principi rem debitam et expectatam efficies. Jesus te
+  diutissime servet incolumem.
+
+Parker tells us that the London friends of the University, among whom
+Smith and Cheke were doubtless conspicuous, wisely took the line of
+welcoming an enquiry, but begged the king to avoid the expense of a
+costly investigation. Their representations were successful, and he
+issued a commission[6] dated 16 January 1546 to Matthew Parker (then
+vice-chancellor, and later archbishop of Canterbury), John Redman
+(warden of King's Hall, chaplain to the king, and later master of
+Trinity), and William Mey (president of Queens', and later
+archbishop-elect of York) to report to him on the revenues of the
+colleges and the numbers of students sustained therewith. The
+commissioners were capable and friendly.
+
+The king must have been impatient to know the facts, for in less than
+a week, on 21 January, he ordered Parker to come to Hampton Court with
+the report. Immediate compliance was impossible, but the command may
+well have stimulated the commissioners to act as rapidly as possible.
+In fact they obtained the services of eleven clerks from the Court of
+Augmentations in London, and at once set to work to collect
+information.
+
+The University was keenly alive to the risks it was incurring. To
+placate the king, the senate, on 13 February, put all its belongings
+at his service, and when forwarding a copy of the grace to Secretary
+Sir William Paget it reminded him of the value of the University to
+the state, and begged his protection. At the same time it addressed
+the queen, Katharine Parr, through Thomas Smith, imploring her
+advocacy.[7]
+
+The queen replied[8] on 26 February. After complaining that he had
+written to her in Latin, though he could equally well have expressed
+himself in the vulgar tongue, she discoursed at length on the duties
+of members of the University, and, saying that she was confident that
+her wishes in these respects would be fulfilled, she concluded her
+letter as follows:
+
+  I (according to your desires) have attempted my lord the King's
+  Majesty, for the establishment of your livelihood and possessions:
+  in which, notwithstanding his Majesty's property and interest,
+  through the consent of the high court of parliament, his Highness
+  being such a patron to good learning, doth tender you so much, that
+  he will rather advance learning and erect new occasion thereof than
+  [to] confound those your ancient and godly institutions, so that
+  learning may hereafter justly ascribe her very original whole
+  conservation and sure stay to our Sovereign Lord.
+
+This was good news, and things now moved rapidly. By the end of
+February the commissioners had drawn up a detailed report giving the
+information required. It is printed[9] at length in the _Cambridge
+Documents_, 1852, and occupies nearly 200 pages.
+
+The commissioners in person presented to the king at Hampton Court a
+brief summary of this report. We do not know the date of this
+interview, but conjecturally it may be put as being early in March.
+Parker has left[10] in his own handwriting a full account of their
+reception as follows:
+
+  In the end, the said commissioners resorted up to Hampton Court to
+  present to the King a brief summary written in a fair sheet of
+  vellum (which very book is yet reserved in the college of Corpus
+  Christi) describing the revenues, the reprises, the allowances, and
+  number and stipend of every College. Which book the King diligently
+  perused; and in a certain admiration said to certain of his lords
+  which stood by, that he thought he had not in his realm so many
+  persons so honestly maintained in living by so little land and rent:
+  and where he asked of us what it meant that the most part of
+  Colleges should seem to expend yearly more than their revenues
+  amounted to; we answered that it rose partly of fines for leases and
+  indentures of the farmers renewing their leases, partly of wood
+  sales: whereupon he said to the lords, that pity it were these lands
+  should be altered to make them worse; (at which words some were
+  grieved, for that they disappointed _lupos quosdam hiantes_). In
+  fine, we sued to the King's Majesty to be so gracious lord, that he
+  would favour us in the continuance of our possessions such as they
+  were, and that no man by his grace's letters should require to
+  permute with us to give us worse. He made answer and smiled, that he
+  could not but write for his servants and others, doing the service
+  for the realm in wars and other affairs, but he said he would put us
+  to our choice whether we should gratify them or no, and bade us hold
+  our own, for after his writing he would force us no further. With
+  which words we were well armed, and so departed.
+
+This important interview was followed by a rumour that it was Henry's
+intention to found at Cambridge a new and magnificent college to serve
+as an enduring record of his interest in learning, and perhaps the
+University may have taken the queen's letter as indicating what was
+coming. It is believed that Henry had long entertained vague ideas of
+the kind, but that the definite suggestion, which was encouraged by
+the queen, originated with Redman, who, as royal chaplain, had
+constant access to the king and considerable influence with him.
+
+The preparations for Henry's proposed foundation were made with
+extreme speed: a wise course in view of his failing health and
+variable temper. It was decided to take advantage of the Act of 1544
+and suppress King's Hall and Michael-House, using their grounds and
+adjoining property as the site of the new college. We have no
+reference to the appointment of commissioners for the business, though
+there is an allusion, quoted later, to receivers: perhaps the matter
+was left in the hands of the officials of the Court of Augmentations.
+Redman was the chief authority at Cambridge in the arrangements that
+had to be made there, and it was intended that he should be the first
+master of the new college when it was founded.
+
+The two Societies above mentioned were (save for Peterhouse) the
+oldest in the University. To Trinity men their history has, naturally,
+great interest, and I interpolate a few remarks on this and their
+position in 1546.
+
+The King's Scholars, normally thirty-two in number and of all ages
+from fourteen upwards, were established by Edward II under a warden in
+1317 and incorporated in 1337. They had for their original home a
+large house (King's Hall) situated on the grass plot and walk in front
+of the present chapel, and rapidly acquired all the adjacent land
+between the High Street (now known as Trinity Street) and the river,
+extending their buildings in various directions. Popular writers
+sometimes assert or assume that all medieval colleges were founded for
+poor students. That is not universally true. No condition of poverty
+was imposed on the scholars of King's Hall, nor was their life here
+penurious: they had a dining-hall, library, common room, chapel,
+kitchens, a brewery, a vineyard, a garden, and a staff of servants
+maintained by the Society, while a good many of them also kept their
+own private servants: they received a liberal allowance for daily
+commons, clothes and bedding were supplied from the royal wardrobe,
+and pocket-money was given to buy other things. They were appointed
+by the crown largely from among the families of court officials,
+nominations being restricted to those who knew Latin. After completing
+their course many of these students entered what we may call the
+higher civil service of the time in church or state.
+
+In the report of the commissioners, the annual income of King's Hall
+was returned as £214. 0s. 3d. and the expenses as £263. 16s. 7d.; and
+it was stated that at the time there were on its boards, a master,
+twenty-five graduate fellows, and seven undergraduate fellows,
+besides servants. The Society owned the patronage of the livings of
+Arrington, Bottisham, St Mary's Cambridge, Chesterton, Fakenham,
+Felmersham, and Grendon. According to the return, the normal annual
+expenditure of King's Hall, if all the scholars resided, required
+£182. 18s. 4d. for the emoluments of the warden and fellows (namely,
+£8. 13s. 4d. for the warden, £5. 10s. 0d. for each of twenty-five
+graduate fellows, and £5. 5s. 0d. for each of seven undergraduate
+fellows); £32. 2s. 0d. for the college servants (namely, the butler,
+barber, baker, brewer, laundress, cook, under-cook, and the warden's
+servant); £3. 1s. 4d. for the estate officers and quit-rents; £3. 19s.
+4d. for the expenses of the chapel services and the bible-clerk; £5.
+0s. 0d. for firing for the hall and kitchen; £5. 0s. 0d. for rushes
+for the hall; £5. 10s. 4d. for the exequies of the founder and the
+following refections; £29. 1s. 4d. for repairs and renewals; and £10
+for extraordinary expenses.
+
+The other College (Michael-House) whose buildings were transferred to
+Trinity was of a different type. It was founded by Hervey de Stanton
+in 1324 for a master and six secular clergy who wished to study in the
+University. Their original home was a large house on the site of the
+present combination room and the land round it; later they acquired
+all the property between Foul Lane and the river. At first the
+Society's means were barely sufficient for its needs, but in time it
+received many gifts, and the foundation was increased to a master and
+eight priests with chaplains and bible-clerks. It had an oratory in
+its House but did not need a chapel as it owned St Michael's Church;
+traces of this ownership will be noticed in the arrangement for stalls
+(to be occupied by members of the Society) in the choir, which is sunk
+below the level of the nave and chancel.
+
+In the report of the commissioners, the annual income of Michael-House
+was returned as £141. 13s. 1¾d. and its expenses as £143. 18s. 0d.;
+and it was stated that there were on its boards a master, eight
+fellows, and three chaplains, besides servants. Besides St Michael's
+Cambridge, the Society owned the patronage of the livings of
+Barrington, Boxworth, Cheadle, Grundisburgh, and Orwell. According to
+the return, the normal annual expenditure of Michael-House required a
+sum of £91. 10s. 8d. for the emoluments of the Society (namely, £7.
+6s. 8d. for the master, £47. 17s. 4d. for the six fellows on the
+original foundation, £11. 6s. 8d. for the two Illegh fellows, £15 for
+three chaplains, one of whom served Barrington, and £10 for four
+bible-clerks), £1 for the auditor, £6. 6s. 8d. for college servants
+(namely, the cook, butler, barber, and laundress), rather more than
+£17 for the exequies of benefactors, £1. 13s. 4d. for the
+commemoration refection, £20 for repairs, and £6. 6s. 8d. for
+extraordinary expenses. A clerical society like Michael-House had no
+difficulty in providing for due celebration of the exequies of its
+friends, and in fact more than twenty benefactors are mentioned by
+name as being thus commemorated every year. In 1544, the House,
+presumably with the object of averting its destruction, began to admit
+students resident elsewhere in the University, and in a couple of
+years no less than forty-eight students matriculated from it; the
+number of admissions must have exceeded this, but what was involved in
+such cases by admission is uncertain.
+
+A scheme containing a "first plott or proportion" for the new College
+was prepared for the king by the Court of Augmentations in London; it
+seems certain that this was worked out in collaboration with Redman.
+The clerk who drew it up was Thomas Ansill. The College, after its
+foundation, recognized its obligation to him in the matter and
+presented him to the vicarage of Barford which was and is in its gift.
+He preserved a copy of his scheme; this was purchased from his son by
+one of the fellows in 1611, and given to the College.
+
+The manuscript of the suggested scheme, to which Mr Bird first called
+my attention, is endorsed _Distribucio Collegii_ and headed "the
+proporcon diuised for Trinite College." It is undated, but in a later
+hand it is added that it was made Anno 37 Hen. 8, and therefore before
+22 April 1546. From internal evidence it must have been composed in or
+after March in that year, since those who graduated in that Lent term
+are described as being of the standing of the degrees then taken. Of
+those who graduated afterwards some are described correctly, others
+not so: doubtless Redman knew about the standing of the members of
+King's Hall and Michael-House, but he may well have made mistakes
+about the standing of some of the junior students of other colleges.
+If however we accept the endorsement as correct, we may fix the date
+of the composition of the plan as being in the early half of April,
+1546. This manuscript has not been printed, and I proceed to describe
+it.
+
+The object of the compilers of this scheme was to see what income
+would be required for the suggested new College, and to arrange how
+the income should be used; incidentally it reveals the general
+organization proposed. The constitution of the College, the various
+offices to be created, and the stipends intended are specified. In
+most cases the names of the proposed fellows, scholars, bedesmen, and
+servants are given, but generally the allocation of the proposed
+principal offices is not indicated and probably had not been then
+arranged. The names of the proposed fellows and scholars agree with
+those appointed later, though the order is not always the same, but
+the provisional list of bedesmen differs from that of those ultimately
+nominated.
+
+The _Distribucio_ begins with a statement of the names and suggested
+stipends of the master and fellows. The stipend of the master was to
+be £100 a year: that of each of the next fifteen fellows (one of those
+proposed being a doctor of divinity, ten bachelors of divinity, and
+four masters of arts) was to be £10 a year and £1 a year for livery:
+that of each of the next twenty-five fellows (twenty-two of those
+nominated being masters of arts and three bachelors of arts) was to be
+£8 a year; that of each of the next twenty fellows and scholars (seven
+of the nominees being bachelors of arts and thirteen junior scholars)
+was to be £6. 13s. 4d. a year. The names are given and agree with
+those in the letters patent of 19 December.
+
+There was to be a schoolmaster (Richard Harman) who was to have £20 a
+year, an usher of grammar (William Boude) who was to have £10 a year,
+and provision was made for forty childer grammarians, whose names are
+given, each of whom was to have £4 a year. This shows that it was
+intended that the foundation should include students in grammar, and
+the two teachers specially responsible for them were to be a
+schoolmaster and usher.
+
+The question arises whether it was intended to found a grammar-school
+connected with the College or whether these grammarians were what we
+should call undergraduate scholars or exhibitioners. The former view
+is the correct one, for the royal commissioners in May 1549 definitely
+asked[11] the College "to surrender the Grammar Schole." This was done
+and the school was then absorbed in the College. Probably at that time
+the distinction between boys at the grammar-school and junior
+undergraduates was not regarded as important--the term grammarian or
+grammaticus being commonly used for a junior undergraduate as well as
+a school-boy[12]. This indifference to the distinction between the two
+classes is illustrated by the fact that of the grammarian school-boys
+named in the _Distribucio_, ten were already matriculated members of
+the University, nine matriculated from Trinity shortly after its
+foundation, and of the others six matriculated in 1548 or 1549 which
+is not inconsistent with their having been students of the University
+in 1546.
+
+In 1547, the accounts include a particular payment for six boys of the
+grammar-school, and wages for one quarter for the schoolmaster and Mr
+Boude; thus showing that the school was then being carried on. In
+1548, the accounts specify forty-two grammatici, in addition to
+certain graduates and dialectici, as being in residence, but in this
+year there is no mention of a schoolmaster or an usher though possibly
+they may be included among the ten lectors for whom provision is made.
+In 1551 the grammatici appear as discipuli, and thenceforth the
+grammarians were treated as undergraduate scholars.
+
+The _Distribucio_ next goes on to enumerate seven readers. Three of
+these were to be public or university readers, of whom one (John
+Maydew) was to read in divinity, one (John Cheke) in Greek, and one
+(Thomas Wakefield) in Hebrew, each at £40 a year. The other four were
+to be fellows of the College, of whom one (Simon Bridges) was to read
+in divinity at £6. 13s. 4d. a year, two in philosophy at £5 a year
+each, and one in logic at £5 a year: such stipends to be in addition
+to their fellowship emoluments. It would seem that Bridges or Briggs
+declined to accept the nomination to a fellowship at Trinity and
+accordingly was not appointed to the office. Provision was also made
+for two under-readers in logic at £2. 3s. 4d. each. Next are mentioned
+two examiners in scholastic acts at £5 a year each; and two chaplains
+at £6. 13s. 4d. a year each, one (Henry Man) for the fellows and the
+other (unnamed) for the childer and bedesmen. I note that Henry Man
+occupied for many years rooms in the Great Court adjoining and on the
+west side of what is now known as the Queen's Gate.
+
+The next entry is that of twenty-four almsmen or bedesmen at £6 a year
+each; the names of all but one are given, but the list differs
+somewhat from that appearing in the account book of 1547 of those
+appointed when the College began work. The unnamed bedesman was the
+cook of Michael-House, and it is impossible not to wonder whether his
+inclusion in this list (which involved his retirement from the
+kitchens) was due to the memory of indifferent dinners eaten by Redman
+when a guest at the high table of that House.
+
+The _Distribucio_ then returns to the enumeration of the officers and
+servants of the College. There were to be two bursars at £4 a year
+each; a vice-master at £5 a year; two deans to direct disputations of
+divinity and philosophy, one at £4 a year, and the other at £3. 6s.
+8d. a year; eight bible-clerks, whose names are given, to serve the
+hall, choir and vestry, and to attend upon the curate when visiting,
+at £2. 13s. 4d. a year each; an organ-player at £6 a year and his
+commons; two butlers, the senior at £5 a year and the junior at £4 a
+year; a manciple at £6. 13s. 4d. a year; a master-cook at £6 a year;
+two under-cooks, one at £4 a year, and the other at £3. 6s. 8d. a
+year; and a turn-spit at £2 a year. There was also to be a barber at
+£5 a year; a laundress at £5 a year; a porter at £6 a year; a
+bricklayer at £4 a year; a carpenter at £4 a year; a mason at £4 a
+year; two stewards of lands at £5 a year each; an auditor for the
+lands at £10 a year; a receiver for the lands at £13. 6s. 8d.; and an
+attorney in the exchequer for the lands at £3. 6s. 8d. Allowance was
+to be made for the yearly distribution of alms to the amount of £20;
+and of another £20 to be spent on the mending of highways. The total
+expenditure contemplated amounts to £1286. At the end in another
+handwriting is added that allowance (amount unspecified) should be
+also made for wine and wax, riding, extraordinary charges, and
+repairs.
+
+It must have been in April, or early in May, 1546, that the
+commissioners, or other officials concerned, took possession of King's
+Hall and Michael-House and the ground adjacent thereto. They at once
+made arrangements to shut up Foul Lane which ran across the present
+Great Court, to purchase such part of that court as did not belong to
+King's Hall and Michael-House, and to enclose the site. Stone and
+other materials for the new work were taken from the church and
+cloisters of the dissolved Franciscan monastery which stood on the
+land now occupied by Sidney Sussex College, and in a survey, dated
+20 May 1546, those buildings are described as having been already
+partially demolished in order to provide "towards the building of the
+King's Majesty's new College."
+
+It is probable that during this time members of King's Hall and
+Michael-House were in residence, and possibly also some of the
+members-elect of Trinity College. The cost of the maintenance of the
+House and the expenses of the alterations must have been heavy, but in
+December 1546, the Court of Augmentations was ordered[13] "to pay Dr
+Redman of your new College in Cambridge £2000 towards the
+establishment and building of the same, and in recompense for revenues
+of their lands for a whole year ended Michaelmas last, because the
+rents were paid to your Majesty's receivers before they had out
+letters patent for their donation." We have no record of these
+expenses, but I conjecture that this grant allowed a clean start to be
+made from Michaelmas 1546.
+
+The members of the new College entered into possession of the
+buildings and began their academic life as members of Trinity College
+about Michaelmas 1546. The surrender of King's Hall and Michael-House
+to the king took place on 28 October, and arrangements were than made
+to pension the master and eight fellows of Michael-House and one
+fellow of King's Hall. Redman was appointed master of the new
+foundation.
+
+The original members of the Society were selected from the whole
+University with the addition of a few Oxonians: it is believed that
+all the nominees were favourable to the new learning and the
+protestant faith. Of the forty childer grammarians named in the
+_Distribucio_ all save one accepted the nomination; of these, six had
+been previously members of Michael-House, one a member of Pembroke,
+one of Peterhouse, one of St John's, and one of some unnamed College.
+Of the sixty students nominated to fellowships or scholarships in the
+letters patent, fourteen did not reside and presumably refused the
+nomination. Of the forty-six who accepted the office, thirty-six were
+graduates and ten were non-graduates. Of these thirty-six nominees,
+three came from Michael-House, one from King's Hall, two from
+Christ's, one from Corpus, one from King's, one from Pembroke, two
+from Peterhouse, one from Queens', one from St Catharine's, and three
+from St John's: of the colleges or hostels from which the remaining
+twenty had graduated, I can find no particulars. Of the ten
+non-graduates who accepted the office, one had been at Pembroke, one
+at Queens', two at St John's, and one at Trinity Hall: of the previous
+history of the remaining five I know nothing. Of the fourteen who did
+not reside and presumably declined the offer, eleven were graduates,
+of whom one had been at Corpus, one at King's, one at Pembroke, three
+at Queens', two at St John's, and two at Oxford, and of the remaining
+graduate I can find no particulars. Of the three non-graduates who did
+not accept the nomination, one had been at Michael-House, one at
+Oxford, and of the other I know nothing. It appears from the
+account-books that there were also still in residence a few
+students[14] who had been members of King's Hall and Michael-House: it
+was only courteous to give these deposed students the hospitality of
+the House, and they occupied a different position to the pensioners
+and fellow-commoners who later were admitted in considerable numbers.
+We cannot prove or disprove the presence at this time of other
+students, but it is most likely that at first there were no residents
+in College other than those mentioned above.
+
+The legal formalities connected with the surrender of the properties
+of King's Hall and Michael-House took a considerable time, and were
+not completed till 17 December 1546. The letters patent founding the
+College and the charter of dotation were signed a few days later[15].
+The actual endowment granted was valued at £1640 net a year, which
+must have been deemed ample to provide for the expenses and the
+maintenance of the House. Comparing this income and the estimated
+expenditure with those of King's Hall and Michael-House we gather how
+much more important than these colleges was the contemplated new
+foundation.
+
+Thus were King's Hall and Michael-House dissolved, but only to be
+merged in a new and nobler Society. The letters patent founding
+Trinity College state that Henry to the glory and honour of Almighty
+God and the Holy and Undivided Trinity, for the amplification and
+establishment of the Christian and true religion, the extirpation of
+heresy and false opinion, the increase and continuance of divine
+learning and all kinds of godliness, the knowledge of language, the
+education of youth in piety virtue discipline and learning, the relief
+of the poor and destitute, the prosperity of the Church of Christ, and
+the common good and happiness of his kingdom and subjects, founded and
+established a College of letters, sciences, philosophy; godliness, and
+sacred theology, for all time to endure. These are noble objects, and
+we may look back with honourable pride to the way in which Trinity
+College has on the whole carried out the intentions of its founder.
+
+The organization of the new College followed closely that outlined in
+the _Distribucio_. To meet the expenses already incurred during the
+Michaelmas term the Court of Augmentations[16] in January 1547 paid
+Redman £590 "towards the exhibition of King's Scholars in Cambridge."
+This was about one-third of the total intended income of the House,
+and presumably cleared matters up to 24 December 1546, when the
+College entered into possession of its endowments. If we may trust the
+sermon preached in London on 12 December 1550, by Thomas Lever,
+subsequently master of St John's College, Trinity had reason to regret
+the death of Henry in January 1547, for the preacher asserted that a
+substantial part of the intended endowment was appropriated by
+courtiers in London; I have never investigated what part (if any) of
+it was thus lost to the College.
+
+The first account-book of the new College covers the civil year 1547,
+but only certain selected items of income and expenditure appear
+therein. It shows total receipts of £786. 16s. 7d. and total payments
+of £799. 11s. 1½d. Most of the income is said to have come from the
+"Tower." I conjecture that rents, etc. were paid to the master who
+kept the college moneys in the treasury in the Tower, and the bursar
+in his book accounted only for such portion of it as was handed to
+him: of other sums received or paid on account of the Society, we
+have no particulars. In most cases the commons (though not the
+stipends or wages) paid to officers are set out, but up to Lady-Day
+instead of giving full details there is an entry of £52. 6s. 10d. paid
+to fellows and scholars for "the first quarter after the erection,
+besides stipends and wages." The account-book for the next year, 1548,
+is better kept. It shows total receipts of £531. 13s. 11½d. and total
+payments of £528. 12s. 8½d. In the accounts of this year are mentioned
+a master, fifty graduate fellows (of whom thirteen were bachelors),
+ten dialectici, forty-two grammarians, and eight bible-clerks. Entries
+appear of payments for commons to six former members of King's Hall
+and Michael-House, but of these only three seem to have been in
+regular residence. An examination of the early account-books allows us
+to see something of the development of the College, but a description
+of this would hardly come within the purview of this paper.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cambridge Documents_ issued by the Royal Commissioners,
+London, 1852, vol. III, pp. 365-410.]
+
+[Footnote 2: This was true some years ago when this paper was written,
+but since then I have given part of the story in a booklet on the
+King's Scholars and King's Hall which, at the request of the College,
+I wrote in 1917 for the meeting held to celebrate the six-hundredth
+anniversary of the execution by Edward II of the writ establishing
+those scholars in the University of Cambridge.]
+
+[Footnote 3: 37 Henry VIII, cap. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 4: _Correspondence of M. Parker_, Cambridge, 1852, p. 34.]
+
+[Footnote 5: _Life of T. Smith_ by J. Strype, Oxford, 1820,
+pp. 29-30.]
+
+[Footnote 6: _State Papers_, Domestic, 1546, vol. XXI, part i, no. 68.
+See also J. Lamb's _Documents_, London, 1838, pp. 58-59;
+_Correspondence of M. Parker_, Cambridge, 1852, p. 34.]
+
+[Footnote 7: _State Papers_, Domestic, 1546, part i, nos. 203, 204.]
+
+[Footnote 8: _Ecclesiastical Memorials_ by J. Strype, Oxford, 1882,
+vol. XI, part i, pp. 207-208; _Correspondence of M. Parker_, p. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 9: _Cambridge Documents_, vol. I, pp. 105-294.]
+
+[Footnote 10: _Correspondence of M. Parker_, pp. 35-36; J. Lamb's
+_Documents_, p. 59.]
+
+[Footnote 11: _State Papers_, Domestic, Edward VI, May 1549.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Senior undergraduates were then commonly termed
+dialectici.]
+
+[Footnote 13: _State Papers_, Domestic, 1546, no. 647 (25).]
+
+[Footnote 14: Three fellow-commoners had matriculated from King's Hall
+in 1544.]
+
+[Footnote 15: The charter of foundation, dated 19 December, and that
+of endowment, dated 24 December, are printed at length in the
+_Cambridge Documents_, vol. III, pp. 365-410.]
+
+[Footnote 16: C.H. Cooper, _Annals of Cambridge_, Cambridge, 1842,
+vol. I, p. 452.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE TUTORIAL SYSTEM.
+
+
+The word Tutor is used at Cambridge to describe an officer of a
+College who stands to his pupils in loco parentis; now-a-days he may,
+but does not necessarily, give direct instruction to them. The object
+of this chapter is to describe the development of the office in
+Trinity College.
+
+Trinity College was founded in 1546 by Henry VIII. It is, however,
+essential in dealing with its early history to bear in mind that it
+was founded in a pre-existing[17] University having well-established
+rules and customs. Nearly all the original members of Trinity had been
+educated at Cambridge, they were familiar with its traditions, and
+even the buildings they occupied were associated with the college life
+of earlier times. It was intended that the Society should promote the
+reformed religion and the new learning, but there is no reason to
+suppose that in establishing it, it was wished or proposed to alter
+the existing practice about the tuition, guidance, and care of the
+younger students.
+
+In the system in force in the University shortly before the
+foundation of Trinity, the students corresponding to our scholars and
+sizars lived in endowed colleges (of which eight were founded before
+1353 and seven between 1440 and 1520), most of those corresponding to
+our pensioners in unendowed private hostels (of which in the sixteenth
+century there were twenty-seven and in earlier times possibly a few
+more), and most of those belonging to religious orders in monasteries
+or monastic hostels. A student on admission to the University was
+apprenticed to some master of arts or doctor who directed the lad's
+studies until he took a master's degree. This graduate was known as
+the student's "master": in the case of a member of a college we may
+assume that the master was chosen from among the senior members of the
+House, though it is doubtful if this was necessarily so in the case of
+the hostels. The head of a college or hostel was responsible for the
+conduct and control of the lad in non-scholastic matters, but in
+colleges in later times this work was assigned to a dean. Thus for
+practical purposes a tutorial system already existed in the medieval
+system of apprenticeship and control.
+
+The royal scheme for Trinity College comprised a master, fifteen
+senior fellows, twenty-five middle fellows, twenty junior fellows (of
+whom, in 1546, thirteen were undergraduates), and forty grammarian
+school-boys. In addition to these, there were servant-students (known
+as sizars or subsizars), each being attached as gyp to a particular
+fellow, and receiving education, board, and lodging in lieu of money
+wages. There is nothing to show whether or not the presence of
+pensioners was contemplated.
+
+We have a list, apparently complete, of all the intended officers;
+tutors do not appear among them, though a schoolmaster and usher were
+provided for the grammarians. Hence it would seem that the relation
+between an apprenticed undergraduate and his master was regarded as
+personal, and that the latter was selected and paid by his pupil or
+pupil's guardian, and not by or through the College--I conjecture that
+this was the usual medieval practice. The deans are mentioned as
+officers of the College, and the discipline of the younger members was
+part of their business, though no doubt a lad's master or tutor
+assisted in enforcing it. The formal charter of foundation was given
+by Henry in December 1546, but the grammarians are not mentioned
+therein.
+
+During the next six years, 1546-1552, three important developments
+took place. First, the grammar-school side of the College was
+abandoned, and all boys then in the school were entered as scholars
+of the House; next, and perhaps consequent on the abolition of the
+school, a distinction between fellows and scholars was drawn; and
+finally, following the growing custom of other colleges, the
+admission of pensioners was definitely recognized as desirable, thus
+introducing a class of students below the standing of scholars. Before
+coming to the subject of tutors it will be well to add a word or two
+about the pensioners and scholars of these early days.
+
+With the upset of the medieval scheme of education the number of
+pensioners and fellow-commoners seeking admission to the University
+greatly decreased, and the reception of a limited number of them in
+the colleges fairly met the needs of the University. The private
+hostels were then no longer wanted and being unendowed disappeared.
+Thus when again, as soon happened, the number of would-be pensioners
+increased, it was necessary (unless new non-collegiate arrangements
+were made for their reception in the University) to admit them in
+larger numbers to the colleges. At Trinity a limit was, in theory,
+placed on the number of pensioners admissible, but not on that of
+fellow-commoners. A pensioner at Trinity, and I suppose also at other
+colleges, had to be qualified by learning and morals for admission,
+and I conceive further that his entry was conditional on his finding a
+fellow who would receive him. A pensioner or fellow-commoner had no
+rights, and resided only on such terms and as long as the College or
+the fellow receiving him willed. I believe that students of this class
+did not often stay here for more than three or four years unless in
+due course they became scholars.
+
+A most important question for the new College was how the supply of
+scholars and fellows should be provided. In King's Hall vacancies
+were filled by royal nomination, and boys came into residence as
+scholars-elect. We do not know what was proposed in 1546, but I think
+that, as far as entry to the grammar-school was concerned, nomination
+by the senior fellows was the most likely method to have been
+contemplated. The abandonment of the school and the enrolment of all
+its members as scholars of the House must however have raised the
+question in an acute form, and it was settled in or before 1552 by the
+establishment of an annual examination for the election of scholars.
+Probably from the first it was intended that the new fellows should be
+formally elected and admitted.
+
+The charter of 1546 contains a reference to statutes to be given later
+by the king. There was considerable delay in preparing these, and the
+liberty of action thus left to the Society seems to have been used
+unwisely, for the commissioners of 1549 reported that its state was
+"much out of order, governed at large and pleasure for want of
+statutes ... the fellows for the most part too bad."
+
+In November 1552 the College received the long-expected statutes by
+which it was to be governed: with their appearance we leave the field
+of conjecture and come to facts. The foundation as here described
+included a master, fifty fellows of the standing of master or doctor,
+and sixty bachelor and undergraduate scholars: provision was also made
+for student-servants or sizars. Vacancies in the roll of scholars were
+to be filled by an annual election held at Michaelmas on the result
+of a two days' examination. Bachelors of arts and those insane or
+suffering from contagious disease (a curious conjunction) were
+ineligible: also there could not, at any one time, be more than three
+scholars from any one county. The regulation that a bachelor was not
+eligible for election to a scholarship suggests that a candidate might
+be in residence as an undergraduate, though it does not exclude the
+candidature of those who were not already members of the House, but
+the custom (if it ever existed) of electing non-residents had died out
+before 1560. The admission of pensioners, not exceeding fifty-four in
+number, was definitely recognized in 1552: of these the master might
+take as his pupils four, and each fellow one. The pensioner which
+every fellow might thus receive was in addition to such scholars as
+had been assigned to him as pupils, but though scholars had tutors,
+the fellow responsible for a pensioner is not explicitly described as
+his tutor. It seems that an important part of the duty of a tutor was
+to see that all payments due to the college from his pupils were made
+punctually. Scholars, unlike pensioners, had definite rights.
+
+The following are some of the regulations:
+
+  Nemo ex discipulis sine tutore in collegio sit, qui fuerit,
+  expellatur. Pupilli tutoribus pareant, honorem paternum et
+  reverentiam exhibeant, quorum cura consumitur in illis informandis
+  et ad pietatem scientiamque instruendis. Tutores fideliter et
+  diligenter quae docenda sunt suos doceant, quae agenda instruant et
+  admoneant. Omnia pupillorum expensa tutores collegio praestent, et
+  singulis mensibus aes debitum pro se et suis quaestoribus solvant.
+  Quod ni fecerint, tantisper commeatu priventur dum pecunia
+  dissolvatur. Pupillus neque a tutore rejiciatur, neque tutorem suum
+  ubi velit mutet nisi legitima de causa a praeside et senatu
+  probanda; qui fecerit collegio excludatur.... In discipulis
+  eligendis praecipua ratio ingenii et inopiae sit, in quibus ut
+  quisque valet maxime ita ceteris proferatur. Eo adjungatur doctrinae
+  studium et mediocris jam profectus, et reliqui temporis spes illum
+  fore ad communem reipublicae posthac idoneum. Horum studium sit ut
+  vitae innocentiam cum doctrinae veritate conjungant, et in veritate
+  rerum inquirendi et honestate persequenda laborent.... Sic sint
+  grammaticis et studiis humanitatis instituti ut inquisitiones aulae
+  sustinere et domesticas exercitationes suscipere possint....
+  Pensionarii et studiorum socii in collegium recipiantur ...
+  provideatur ut neque praesidi plures quam quatuor neque singulis
+  sociis plures uno pensionario sint.
+
+Grave offences were punishable by expulsion, rustication, etc., and
+those who committed only "minor offences" were liable to penalties of
+extreme severity. Thus we read:
+
+  Quicunque in aliqua parte officii sui negligentior fuerit, et
+  aliquem e magistratibus bene admonentem non audiverit, aut
+  insolentem se ostenderit, si ephoebus sit verberibus sin ex ephoebis
+  excesserit decennali victu careat et uterque praeterea poenitentiam
+  declamatione tostetur.
+
+The text is corrupt, but the meaning is clear. A marginal note
+suggests the obvious correction that decemdiali should be read for
+decennali. The deans superintended, even if they did not inflict,
+corporal punishment when it was ordered.
+
+Another code of statutes was drawn up in 1554, but was never sealed,
+and thus did not become effective. I need not quote the text which, on
+tutorial matters, does not differ materially from that of 1560. The
+draft contains a clause to the effect that the master of the College
+was not to take more than four pensioners as his pupils, a fellow who
+was a master of arts or of some superior degree was not to take more
+than two, and no one else was to take a pensioner as a pupil. The word
+"two" however has been crossed out and "one" substituted. From this it
+would seem that the question of how many pensioners it was desirable
+to admit was already a matter of debate.
+
+In 1560 new statutes were granted to the College, and its constitution
+as then settled remained practically unaltered till 1861. In this
+code the foundation is described as including a master, sixty fellows,
+four chaplains, sixty-two scholars, and thirteen sizars or gyps,
+namely, three for the master and one for each of the ten senior
+fellows. Henceforth scholars were elected annually in the spring, from
+undergraduates already in residence. By a gracious provision, whose
+disappearance in 1861 I regret, it was ordered that forty of the
+scholarships should be specifically associated with the name of
+Henry VIII, twenty with that of queen Mary, and two with that of
+Thomas Allen as pre-eminent benefactors. Pensioners and subsizars were
+also admissible to the Society on conditions. If fellow-commoners
+dined at the high table, as seems likely, they may have been reckoned
+extra numerum. Every student under the degree of master of arts was
+required to have a tutor, thus regularizing the position of
+fellow-commoners, pensioners, sizars, and subsizars as members of the
+College, and bringing them under the same rule as scholars.
+
+The regulations in point are as follows:
+
+  Est ea quidem ineuntis aetatis imbecillitas ut provectiorum consilio
+  et prudentia necessario moderanda sit, et propterea statuimus et
+  volumus ut nemo ex baccalaureis, discipulis, pensionariis,
+  sisatoribus, et subsisatoribus tutore careat: qui autem caruerit,
+  nisi intra quindecim dies unum sibi paraverit, e collegio ejiciatur.
+  Pupilli tutoribus pareant, honoremque paternum ac reverentiam
+  deferant, quorum studium, labor, et diligentia in illis ad pietatem
+  et scientiam informandis ponitur. Tutores sedulo quae docenda sunt
+  doceant, quaeque etiam agenda instruant admoneantque. Omnia
+  pupillorum expensa tutores collegio praestent, et intra decem dies
+  cujusque mensis finiti aes debitum pro se ac suis omnibus senescallo
+  solvant. Quod ni fecerint, tantisper commeatu priventur dum pecunia
+  a se collegio debita dissolvatur. Cautumque esto ne pupillus
+  quispiam vel stipendium suum a thesaurariis recipiat vel rationem
+  pro se cum eisdem aliquando ineat, sed utrumque per tutorem semper
+  sub poena commeatus menstrui a dicto tutore collegio solvendi fieri
+  volumus.... Pensionarios ut studiorum socios in collegium
+  recipiendos statuimus; sitque in illis recipiendis ratio morum ac
+  doctrinae diligenter habita; magistris artium aut superioris gradus
+  unum, baccalaureis autem nullum omnino concedimus. Nemo illorum
+  admittatur nisi a decano seniore et primario lectore examinatus.
+
+In time, serious discrepancies between the statutes and the practice
+of the College grew up. Some, but not all, of these were removed in
+1844, when the statutes were revised. The sentence above quoted
+"magistris artium aut superioris gradus unum, baccalaureis autem
+nullum omnino concedimus" was then struck out.
+
+In 1861 new statutes were given to the College: these contain no
+mention of pensioners, but merely prescribe that no bachelor or
+undergraduate shall be without a tutor. The present statutes of 1882
+similarly direct that no member of the College in statu pupillari
+shall be without a tutor.
+
+Except by accident, we have no record before 1635 of the names of the
+tutors of the various students, but it is probable that at first the
+master regularly entered some undergraduates as his own pupils:
+certainly Whitgift did so, and so too did some of his successors. It
+seems most likely also that by 1560 it was already usual for the
+master to assign a student to that fellow who was to act as his tutor,
+though of course regard must always have been paid to the wishes of a
+parent or guardian in this matter. This remained the ordinary custom
+for perhaps two hundred years.
+
+Some information on tutorial affairs in the sixteenth century may be
+gathered from an account-book kept by Whitgift, covering parts of the
+years 1570 to 1576, and containing statements of the charges he made
+as tutor: the names of thirty-nine men are given. In the history of
+Trinity College which I wrote for my pupils some years ago, I
+published a few of these bills. I give here a few details illustrative
+of the many matters with which a tutor was then concerned.
+
+The payment made to him as tutor varied in different cases, but 6s.
+8d. a quarter for a sizar, 10s. for a pensioner, and 13s. 4d. for a
+fellow-commoner were usual sums. In a few cases there are records of
+an admission-fee to the College or a fee for entering into commons:
+the normal payment for this was 15s. for a pensioner, and 20s. for a
+fellow-commoner--there is no mention of any such charge in the case of
+a sizar. The cost of the silly ceremony by which the senior
+undergraduates initiated a freshman, known as his salting, was charged
+in the bills, and varied from 8d. for a sizar and 1s. 4d. for a
+pensioner to 4s. for a fellow-commoner. The charge for matriculation
+appears to have been 4d. for a sizar, 1s. for a pensioner, and 2s. for
+a fellow-commoner.
+
+Of course the cost of the purchase of books comes in most of the
+accounts. Aristotle, Plato, Sophocles, and Demosthenes constantly
+appear among Greek writers, Homer and Xenophon only once; Cicero,
+Caesar, Sallust, and Lucian occur often among the Latin authors, Livy
+only once. Euripides and Horace are noticeable by their absence. I
+have not observed any mathematical books. Works by Seton and Erasmus
+are frequently mentioned. Among English books we have a prayer-book
+charged at 1s., a service-book at 1s. 8d., a bible at 9s., and a
+testament at 2s. The charge for a bible in Latin was 7s. and for a new
+testament in Greek 2s. A Greek grammar cost 1s., 1s. 2d., or 1s. 4d.;
+a Hebrew grammar 1s. which seems cheap. Paper was charged 4d. by the
+quire and 2s. 6d. by the half-ream: the cost of a bundle of pens and
+an inkhorn was usually 4d. or 6d.
+
+Clothes appear to have been expensive, but naturally the cost varied
+widely according to the status of the student. Apparently at that time
+the wardrobes of men were fairly extensive: the prices of the various
+articles are set out in full. I hesitate to distinguish academic gowns
+from other robes, but the charge of 4s. to John Waring, a pensioner,
+for his gown and square cap, as also the charge of 2s. 6d. for making
+a gown and hood for Phillip Harrison, another pensioner, must, I
+think, be taken to refer to academic costumes. The cost of a surplice
+to Richard Therald, a sizar, was 4s., but to Henry Gates, a
+fellow-commoner, was as much as 11s. 7d.
+
+As to amusements, the richer students seem to have kept or hired
+horses at considerable cost. Horse-hire to London varied from 4s. to
+8s.; to Lincoln from 3s. 6d. to 4s. 8d. Bows and arrows constantly
+appear in the bills--the price of a bow ranging from 1s. 4d. to 3s.
+Tennis was another popular amusement of the day. The court stood on
+the site of the north end of the present library, and the keeper of
+the court was regarded as a college servant; there are no charges in
+connection with the bats, balls, or use of the court.
+
+It may be interesting to notice that coals were used regularly as well
+as wood: they were sold at 1s. 3d. a sack. Candles were charged at
+either 3d. or 4d. a pound. Among miscellaneous things 6d. was charged
+for an hour-glass; 4d. for a mouse-trap; 10d. for a scabbard for a
+rapier; and 10s. for a lute. A set of singing lessons cost 3s. and a
+set of dancing lessons 6s.
+
+Sickness appears to have been common. In general we have no record of
+the duration of illnesses, and the charges for doctors and chemists
+varied widely. The charge for plucking out one tooth seems to have
+been 1s. 4d., but for two teeth the dentist reduced his charge to 1s.
+a tooth.
+
+We get another aspect of student and tutorial affairs in the next
+century (in 1659) contained in a long letter from which I gave
+extracts in the history of the College to which I have already
+referred. Robert Creighton, pronounced Crickt-on, of Somersetshire, a
+Westminster boy and a scholar of the House, was then a candidate for a
+fellowship. At the time there were in residence a good many zealots,
+introduced into the Society under presbyterian or Cromwellian
+auspices, and one of these, a year senior to Creighton, was also a
+candidate for a fellowship. Just before the election some of the
+scholars were playing tennis in the college court when the ball by
+chance struck one of them in the eye. On this Creighton called out "Oh
+God, Oh God, the scholar's eye is stroke out," whereon his competitor
+accused him to the authorities as a profane person who took God's
+name in vain; and as confirmation added that he never came to the
+private prayer meetings of the students. By good luck the master was
+Wilkins, afterwards bishop of Chester, who owed his appointment more
+to the fact that he had married Cromwell's sister than to his devotion
+to the doctrines of the Independents. It is clear that he disapproved
+of the complaint, but he considered it prudent to summon a meeting of
+the seniority to hear the case and examine witnesses. Creighton's
+tutor, Duport (who gave us our large silver salt-cellar), spoke up for
+his pupil, and thereon the master said that the charge looked like
+malice, and it did not matter much if Creighton did neglect to go to
+the private prayer meetings of undergraduates since he never failed to
+go to chapel and to his tutor's lectures. He then proposed, if we may
+trust our authority, that the seniority should at once reject the
+informer and his friends, and elect to the vacant fellowships the
+accused and his friends, and so it was done. Such were elections then!
+
+It is satisfactory to add that public opinion in the College was
+against those who trumped up this ridiculous charge, and on the day
+after the election the following notice was found on the screens. "He
+that informed against Ds Creighton deserves to have his breech kickt
+on." An amusing glimpse of life under the Commonwealth. Note that the
+tutor gave lectures to his pupils, and from the tutorial point of
+view observe the esteem gained by regular attendance thereat.
+
+No obligation to take pupils seems ever to have been imposed on
+fellows, though a pupil once taken could not be transferred. This, and
+the fact that scholars were elected only from students already in
+residence, made it undesirable to retain any rule to the effect that a
+fellow should not have more than one pensioner as a pupil. Hence in
+time those who liked tutorial work and did it well were allowed to
+have more than one pensioner pupil, and gradually the bulk of the
+entries came to be made under a comparatively few tutors.
+
+The average annual entry of students at Trinity during the years 1551
+to 1600 was fifty-one, during the years 1601 to 1650 was fifty, and
+during the years 1651 to 1700 was thirty-nine. During the years 1701
+to 1750, it sank to twenty-seven: this diminution being partly due to
+the Bentley scandals. During the years 1751 to 1800 the average annual
+entry was thirty-seven, during the years 1801 to 1850 was one hundred
+and sixteen, during the years 1851 to 1900 was one hundred and
+seventy-four, and during the years 1901 to 1913 was one hundred and
+ninety-nine.
+
+Let us see how the men were divided among the tutors. From April to
+December 1635, twenty-eight students were admitted who were
+distributed among seventeen tutors, of whom eleven had only one pupil
+and none had more than four pupils. Taking every tenth year
+thenceforward, we find that in 1645, there were (excluding ten fellows
+intruded by order of parliament) fifty-seven entries; of these
+fifty-one were divided among ten tutors. In 1655, there were
+fifty-three normal entries divided among twelve tutors; in 1665,
+forty-three entries divided among six tutors; in 1675, forty-nine
+entries divided among twelve tutors; in 1685, thirty-four entries
+divided among five tutors; and in 1695, twenty-eight entries divided
+among four tutors. In 1705, there were twenty-nine entries, of these
+twenty-eight students were divided among three tutors. In 1715, there
+were fourteen entries divided among six tutors; in 1725, thirty-four
+entries divided among twelve tutors; in 1735, twenty-eight entries
+divided among six tutors; and in 1745, twenty-one entries divided
+among eight tutors.
+
+In 1755 there were only two fellows acting as tutors, namely
+S. Whisson and J. Backhouse. Thenceforth there were definite tutorial
+"sides," each under one tutor or joint tutors, a tutor being appointed
+to a side when a vacancy occurred; and every admission to the College
+being made on a designated side. In effect the work of a tutor was now
+regarded as being of a character which should occupy a man's whole
+energies, and it was generally held that a tutor, while he held
+office, had not, and ought not to have, leisure during term-time for
+independent work. From 1755 to 1822 there were two sides. In 1822 a
+third side was created. In 1872 one of the sides (being the lineal
+successor of Backhouse's side) was divided into two. These four sides
+are to-day designated in the college office by the letters _A_, _B_,
+_C_, _D_; side _A_ being that created in 1822, sides _B_ and _D_ being
+the two made out of the successor of Backhouse's side, and side _C_
+being the lineal successor of Whisson's side. [In the pre-war days of
+1914 side _A_ was under Dr Barnes, side _B_ under Mr Laurence, side
+_C_ under Mr Whetham, and side _D_ under Dr Fletcher.]
+
+Proceeding by decades in the same way as before, the entries on each
+of the two sides (denoted by _C_ and _BD_) which existed from 1755 to
+1822 were in 1755, nineteen and ten; in 1765, four and six; in 1775,
+twenty-one and twenty-four; in 1785, eighteen and twenty-nine; in
+1795, twenty-nine and seventeen; in 1805, forty-two and twenty-six;
+and in 1815, fifty-one and thirty-six. From 1822 to 1872 there were
+three sides (denoted by _C_, _BD_, _A_): the normal entries on these
+were in 1825, forty-two, fifty-five, forty-one; in 1835, forty,
+forty-five, fifty-three; in 1845, fifty, sixty-eight, forty-nine; in
+1855, fifty-three, forty-eight, fifty; and in 1865, fifty-eight,
+nineteen, sixty. Since 1872 there have been four sides (denoted by
+_C_, _B_, _D_, _A_) which were made approximately equal: the normal
+entries on these were in 1875, forty-one, forty, forty-four, forty; in
+1885, forty-nine, forty-four, forty-five, forty-eight; in 1895,
+forty-eight, thirty-eight, fifty, fifty-one; and in 1905, fifty,
+fifty-three, fifty, fifty-seven.
+
+Until 1755 the number of pupils in residence in any one term assigned
+to an individual tutor was not large, and a tutor interested in any
+particular aspect of a subject likely to be studied was generally
+available: hence it was usually possible for a tutor to give
+personally the teaching and guidance required by his pupils. There
+were then no lecture-rooms in College, so probably all instruction was
+given in the tutor's rooms and was informal in character. With the
+establishment in 1755 of sides, this system of teaching required
+modification, and in the course of the latter half of the eighteenth
+century it became the custom for a tutor to supplement his teaching by
+the services of another fellow or other fellows. These officers, known
+as Assistant-Tutors, were appointed and paid by individual tutors;
+they lectured regularly, took an important part in the life of the
+Society, and occupied a recognized position.
+
+A marked development of the system of formal lectures is indicated by
+the erection in 1835 of a block of four large and four medium-sized
+lecture-rooms. No other important changes were made for another thirty
+years, and until 1868 instruction remained normally organized by
+sides; indeed it was only by arrangement that lectures on one side
+were open to men on the other sides, though in fairness it must be
+added that an arrangement for throwing them open was made as a matter
+of course whenever it seemed desirable. The retention to so late a
+date of appointments by sides was due to the fact that the finances of
+the four sides were then kept as separate accounts.
+
+This scheme, clumsy and illogical though it was, might have worked
+fairly well as long as the great majority of honour men read nothing
+but mathematics, classics, and perhaps theology, but it was condemned
+by the fact that the authorities allowed it to be superseded in
+practice by an elaborate system of private tuition paid for by the
+individual students. With the introduction of new subjects (like law,
+history, and various branches of science) and the development of the
+corresponding triposes, it became necessary to recast the scheme of
+teaching if adequate college instruction on such subjects was to be
+provided. The earliest appointment of a college lecturer (as
+contrasted with an assistant-tutor nominally attached to a particular
+side) was made in 1868, his lectures being open to all students of
+the Society, and his stipend not charged on the funds of a particular
+side. This was soon followed by the placing of all educational
+appointments and finance in the hands of the College without regard to
+sides; and shortly afterwards the lecture-room accommodation was
+considerably extended.
+
+About this time a further step was taken by throwing most of the
+advanced lectures open to members of other colleges. Thus in a few
+years instruction by tutorial sides was replaced by college lectures
+and class-work, and then this, to a large extent, by teaching
+organized on a university basis, supplemented by individual and
+catechetical instruction in college: with this, the custom of using
+private tuition has largely disappeared. Ultimately the title of
+assistant-tutor was dropped; the last appointment under that title was
+made in 1885, but from about 1870 we may say that practically the
+duties of an assistant-tutor were those of a lecturer. Thenceforth
+tutors also took their share of lecturing on subjects connected with
+their own lines of study, and did not confine their instruction to
+their own pupils, though for a year or two lectures on elementary
+mathematics and classics to freshmen on each particular side survived
+as a historic curiosity. These changes led to the existing scheme
+under which tutorial and tuition duties are separated, and thus the
+giving of direct instruction to his pupils is not now necessarily
+part of the duties of a tutor.
+
+The sequence of tutors on each side has been published, and I am
+sorely tempted to add various anecdotes on the way in which some of
+these officers fulfilled their duties, but such additions lie outside
+the object of this essay.
+
+Of course during this long period there have been bad as well as good
+tutors, but I think everyone will admit that on the whole the system
+has worked well. Its special characteristic is a personal relation
+between the tutor and the pupil, materially strengthened by constant
+intercourse and by the fact that practically all the correspondence
+with the parents of the pupil passes through the hands of the tutor:
+experience shows that the tutorial influence has not been weakened by
+the fact that in most cases direct instruction is now given by other
+lecturers.
+
+
+[Footnote 17: The history of the University prior to 1546 covers some
+three centuries and a half, that is, about as long a period as has
+elapsed since 1546.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE WESTMINSTER SCHOLARS.
+
+
+The relations between Trinity College and Westminster School have
+always been of an intimate character. Under the Elizabethan statutes
+of the two foundations a limited number of boys from the school were
+entitled, if duly qualified, to election to scholarships at Trinity,
+and later an attempt was made to extend the privilege to fellowships.
+The whole matter is now one of ancient history, but it may be
+interesting to put on record some of the facts connected with it.
+
+The school at Westminster owes its foundation to queen Elizabeth. Of
+course the abbey is many centuries older, and in a sense so is the
+school, for a grammar-school (in addition to the choir-school) had
+been attached to the medieval monastery, though doubtless it existed
+only at the pleasure of the monks. When Henry VIII created the diocese
+of Westminster with the former abbey as its cathedral, he also
+established a school connected with it. The diocese soon disappeared,
+and later the church and buildings were given by queen Mary to the
+Benedictines. The arrangement made by Mary was in turn annulled by
+Elizabeth, who, shortly after her succession founded the collegiate
+Church of St Peter, divided into two branches, one ecclesiastical and
+the other scholastic, the whole being placed under the rule of the
+dean and chapter. Thus Elizabeth is rightly designated as the founder
+of the present school, though a link with the past has been preserved
+in the fact that the sequence of headmasters dates by custom from
+1540. The buildings were divided between the two sides of the College;
+for the scholastic side, one part of the monastic dormitory was made
+into a school-room, the granary was turned into a school dormitory,
+and the boys were allowed the use of the refectory for meals.
+
+The queen interested herself in the school she had established; its
+connection with particular colleges at the universities was suggested
+by the precedents of Winchester and Eton, and it was natural that she
+should desire to associate it closely with the Houses at Cambridge and
+Oxford which had been founded by her father. There is some reason to
+think that the details of the arrangement made were due to Bill, the
+first dean of Westminster, who was at the same time master of Trinity
+and provost of Eton; a fortunate pluralist!
+
+On 29 March 1560, Elizabeth gave new statutes to Trinity College,
+Cambridge, and in statute 13, dealing with the sixty-two scholars of
+the College, she directed as follows:
+
+  Sumantur autem potissimum et eligantur ex eorum numero, si modo
+  idonei et ceteris pares reperiantur qui Schola Regia Westmonasterii
+  educati ... sint.... Ex aliis regni partibus ac locis indifferenter
+  ad numerum supplendum qui maxime idonei videbuntur, semper sumantur.
+
+In June 1560, she gave statutes to the Collegiate Church at
+Westminster, and in statute 6, dealing with the forty scholars of the
+school, she directed that three scholars from the school should be
+elected annually to the foundation of Christ Church, Oxford, and three
+to that of Trinity College, Cambridge. It is said that the queen did
+not ratify these statutes. Be this as it may, in the following year,
+on 11 June 1561, she sent to Trinity College letters patent referring
+to the Westminster statutes as indicating her wishes in the matter,
+and expressing her desire that the Society should select as many
+scholars from Westminster as was possible. This then was the position
+in 1561, and it was recognised these letters were binding and
+conferred rights on duly qualified Westminster scholars.
+
+Throughout the three centuries of the existence of these rights,
+candidates usually preferred the Christ Church studentships, which,
+being tenable under certain conditions for life, were much more
+valuable than Trinity scholarships, since the latter ran out in less
+than seven years. Perhaps too the boys were attracted to Christ Church
+rather than to Trinity by the fact that there they formed a larger
+proportion of the whole Society than in Henry's foundation by the Cam.
+Further a boy elected to Christ Church entered sooner into the
+emoluments of his studentship than a boy elected to Trinity--the
+latter not being admitted to his scholarship until the next annual
+election of scholars which took place in the following spring, usually
+some six months after he had commenced residence.
+
+There were only forty scholars at Westminster and a provision for the
+election from them every year of six scholars to the two universities
+was more than ample. Thus in 1561 one scholar was elected to each
+university, during each of the six following years, 1562-67, two
+scholars were elected to each university, in 1568, six scholars were
+for the first time presented, and each university took three. In 1569
+the school again presented three boys for election at Trinity, but the
+master, Whitgift, refused to elect more than two, alleging that there
+were not vacancies in the House for more than that number. Thereon the
+scholar or his friends appealed to Sir William Cecil, the chancellor
+of the University. Correspondence ensued, but the Society refused to
+give way on the particular election. On the general question the
+College addressed a letter[18], dated 3 July 1569, to Cecil
+entreating him to interpose with the queen to lighten the burden
+imposed on Trinity by the royal statutes, and asserting that the
+Westminster scholars took up so many places as to act to the detriment
+of other and more worthy students. The crown assented to this
+proposal, and it was agreed that thenceforth three scholars should be
+chosen every third year, and not necessarily more than two in the
+other years.
+
+This arrangement lasted but a short time, for a year or two later,
+perhaps in 1575, Goodman, dean of Westminster, petitioned[19] the lord
+treasurer to confirm or re-enact the original statutes whereby three
+Westminster scholars were to be elected each year to each of the two
+universities. The petition was granted, and, I conjecture, was the
+occasion of the letters patent sent by the queen on 7 February 1576,
+to Trinity College, Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford, wherein she
+repeated and explained her former injunctions. In these letters she
+stated that Westminster scholars were not to be allowed to remain at
+the school after attaining the age of eighteen, and in regard to their
+coming to one of the universities she directed:
+
+  Quamvis cupimus plurimos e nostris Discipulis Westmonasterii ad
+  Academias in dicta Collegia quotannis promoveri, tamen ne incertus
+  sit omnino numerus, sex ad minimum, videlicet, tres in Ecclesiam
+  Christi Oxonii et tres in Collegium Trinitatis, singulis annis, si
+  aut tot loca vacua ... aut tot idonei e nostris Discipulis
+  Westmonasterii reperti fuerint, admitti volumus; Plures autem
+  optamus, si ita praefatis Electoribus commodum videbitur.
+
+In fact, however, the former custom of electing three scholars every
+third year and two scholars in each of the other years continued until
+1588 after which it became usual, though the custom was not
+invariable, to elect at least three scholars to each university each
+year. During the forty-seven years from 1561 to 1607 inclusive, one
+hundred and thirteen scholars in all were elected from Westminster to
+Trinity, of whom forty became fellows.
+
+In 1603 James I came to the throne. He interested himself in the
+school and was prepared to intervene in its interests or what he
+regarded as such. The earliest case of difficulty in the new reign
+occurred at the election in 1604 when the king directed the master of
+Trinity, Nevile, to whom in fact he was under some obligations, to
+take a boy, by name Albert Moreton, as one of the scholars of
+Trinity[20]. The boy was ignorant, and Nevile politely but definitely
+refused to accept him. The matter was not urged further, and though on
+some occasions later the Trinity electors consented under pressure to
+alter the order in which candidates were elected, their right to
+reject on the ground of ignorance was not again disputed. Three years
+later, the College was faced by a more serious question concerning its
+connection with Westminster.
+
+In 1607, James I addressed letters patent to Trinity College, in which
+after referring to the letters patent already mentioned, he ordered
+them to be strictly observed, and intimated that thereafter the
+scholars of Trinity should be taken chiefly from Westminster school if
+duly qualified. He then continued that he observed that the scholars
+who had been elected to Christ Church were notable for their learning
+and subsequent distinction, and regretted that this was not so in the
+case of the scholars elected to Trinity, a fact which he attributed to
+their want of succession to fellowships and to their leaving the
+University as soon as they had taken the degree of master. Accordingly
+he ordered that Westminster scholars at Trinity who had taken the
+bachelor's degree should, unless deficient in learning or good
+conduct, be promoted to fellowships in preference to other candidates.
+He further ordered that any Westminster scholar in the College, who
+had not been admitted to a fellowship before taking a master's degree,
+might remain resident an additional two years during which time he
+should be eligible to a fellowship, subject to lawful exceptions. The
+letters are dated 27 June 1607, but it would appear that they were not
+presented until September of that year.
+
+Deep resentment was felt at this order, for Trinity attached great
+importance to the desirability of electing as fellows the best
+candidates, though it was admitted that candidates from places where
+the House had property had statutable claims for special
+consideration. The College took immediate steps to protect itself, and
+in support of its position addressed to the chancellor of the
+University, the earl of Salisbury, a petition accompanied by a
+reasoned memorandum. These documents are not dated, but I think may be
+assigned to the Michaelmas term, 1607.
+
+The petition is briefly to beg the chancellor to assist the College in
+obtaining a review of the letters patent with the object of
+maintaining its ancient privileges and former liberties; the letters
+patent being said to be contrary to the intentions of its founder, and
+to its statutes[21]. The wording is humble and courtly.
+
+The memorandum that accompanied the petition is more outspoken. It is
+long, but it is so interesting that I shall venture to quote from or
+describe it at length. I conjecture that it was composed by Nevile.
+It contains fourteen assertions or arguments to the following effect:
+
+  1. It is inconvenient that so large a College as Trinity should be
+  restrained unto a particular School, and it can be easily shown that
+  other Schools have furnished Trinity with students of much better
+  hope and proof than Westminster hath done or is likely to do, for
+  the whole number of Westminster boys who are eligible to both
+  Universities are but forty, and there are seldom more than eight or
+  nine candidates for the six vacancies at the two Universities.
+
+  2. To alter or subvert the ancient liberties of one of the chiefest
+  Colleges in Christendom and to divert from the uses intended by his
+  Majesty's Predecessors a foundation like Trinity in order to satisfy
+  private humour or under the pretence of benefitting an ordinary
+  School is a great indignity to his Majesty's Sacred Person, Power,
+  and Prerogative.
+
+  3. The suggestion that boys coming to Trinity do not become Fellows,
+  Doctors, Deans, and Bishops as do boys entering Christ Church is
+  untrue, frivolous, and unfair: it is untrue, because, in fact, of
+  the existing sixty Fellows of the College, more than one-sixth have
+  come from Westminster, and at Trinity the custom is to prefer the
+  worthy: it is frivolous, for the fact of a man having once been at
+  school at Westminster is not the cause of his advancement to the
+  position of a Doctor, Dean, or Bishop: and it is unfair, "for
+  although Christ Church in Oxford be a most magnificent and royal
+  foundation, and hath bred in all ages as learned, wise, and worthy
+  prelates as the kingdom hath, yet Trinity College in Cambridge hath
+  had no less royal founders, and if we fail in our Westminster brood
+  (as otherwise I hope we do not) either the defect hath been in
+  themselves or else (which rather we suppose) it may be imputed to
+  those good means the other College hath, being also a Cathedral
+  Church and having Cannons both richly beneficed and highly dignified
+  which doth enable them to Doctorships, Deaneries, and Bishopricks--a
+  great blessing of God that our poor College wanteth."
+
+  4. "Howbeit in that kind of fruitfulness we also are not destitute
+  of God's gracious blessing; for ... besides Doctors in all faculties
+  to the number at the least of sixty, Deans to the number of eleven,
+  Publick Professors to the number of ten, the two Archbishops,
+  Canterbury and York, the most Reverend Fathers Whitgift and Hutton,
+  and seven other principal Prelates of this kingdom, namely, Fletcher
+  of London, Still of Bath and Wells, Babington of Worcester, Redman
+  of Norwich, Rud of St Davids, Bennet of Hereford, and Gouldesborough
+  of Gloucester, all of them simul et semel Bishops of this kingdom
+  ... are such a demonstrative instance as we think no other College
+  in either University can afford the like--and not one of these
+  chosen out of Westminster School."
+
+  5. "It is to be doubted whether there can be the like success if our
+  Elections out of a private School shall be indubitate and certain;
+  we rather think there can be no readier means to make Droanes and
+  Loyterers in Colleges, nor any worse prejudice or more deadly bane
+  unto learning and vertue, then when the rewards, and means thereof
+  are tyed to persons, times, and places, and made regular and
+  certain."
+
+  6. The proposal would do a grave injustice to other students who
+  might be men of great abilities.
+
+  7. The proposal would defeat the express wishes of Henry VIII,
+  Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, all of whom are to be reckoned as
+  founders as well as benefactors of Trinity College.
+
+  8 and 9. The proposal would be contrary to the existing statutes of
+  the College, and to the oaths taken by the Master and Fellows on
+  admission.
+
+  10. Preferences of this character are injurious to the particular
+  School, the College, and the whole University, and a constant source
+  of discord and contention.
+
+  11. "It is also against the Policy and common-wealth of a kingdom to
+  restrain and abridge places and preferments originally meant,
+  founded, and hitherto with good success employed for the common
+  benefit of that kingdom to a private School: for benefits and
+  privileges are to be amplified and not restrained; publick rewards
+  are not to be applied to private places, purposes, or respects."
+
+  12. Interference with the intentions and directions, of previous
+  benefactors is contrary to public policy, and tends to prevent
+  future benefactions.
+
+  13. This implies that Nevile had accepted the office of master of
+  Trinity College under promises which rendered it inequitable that
+  the college statutes should, during his tenure of the post, be
+  altered against his wishes, but it is stated that this argument,
+  though noted, is not to be pressed.
+
+  14. This raises some technical points, especially as to whether
+  statutes of a College given under the great seal can be varied by
+  letters patent without explicit reference to the clauses altered or
+  repealed.
+
+  The memorandum concludes with a request that the College may have
+  liberty to ask the opinion of the Judges on the questions raised,
+  and thus obtain the benefit of the king's "most equal just and
+  princely laws."
+
+The use of the personal pronoun in one or two cases and the reference
+in the thirteenth paragraph to Nevile suggest that the document was
+composed by him. I cannot find out anything about the result of the
+petition, but I conjecture that nothing came of it. Nevile however was
+not inclined to let the matter rest, and no doubt the esteem felt for
+him at court and his personal popularity were of great assistance to
+the Society in the negotiations that followed.
+
+It was a few months later, in May 1608, at the annual election of
+scholars at Westminster that Nevile took the next step in defence of
+the college position. The following account of the election is based
+on a paper preserved at Westminster:
+
+  The Master of Trinity College (Nevile) refused to take the oath
+  which was required, previously to the election, by the Law of the
+  land as well as by the local Statutes. He also refused to elect to
+  his College the three Scholars ordered by the Letters Patent of the
+  Crown. The oath however was taken by the Dean of Westminster (Neile)
+  and the Dean of Christ Church (King), as well as by their
+  assistants, and by the Master of the School (Ireland). The Dean of
+  Westminster then demanded, in writing, that the election should
+  proceed; when the Master of Trinity College referred to some
+  composition by which he stated he would be governed. To this the
+  Dean of Westminster replied, that he knew of no such composition,
+  and that, if it had existed, it was necessarily set aside by the
+  Letters Patent of Queen Elizabeth and of His Majesty; whereon the
+  Master of Trinity College observed, though with much protestation of
+  his loyalty, that he did not allow the validity of the Letters
+  Patent.
+
+  The other Electors, however, having agreed to proceed, the nine
+  Scholars who had been examined were called in to hear the Statute
+  read for the election to the two Colleges. The Master of Trinity
+  then said that he had not places enough vacant in his College. [In
+  fact in April he and the Seniority had filled up all scholarships
+  then vacant and pre-elected men to succeed to scholarships as
+  vacancies occurred.] To this it was replied, that the want of
+  vacancies had been occasioned by pre-elections of supernumerary
+  Scholars, that the words of the Statute were disjunctive, and there
+  was a clause commanding such Scholars to be received if they were
+  fit. The Master of Trinity College did not deny the fitness of the
+  candidates, but still refused to elect. In this wrangling the whole
+  morning was wasted.
+
+  At length they went to dinner. After this, a fear having been
+  expressed, that this "distraction" might become troublesome to their
+  friends, "perhaps to His Majesty," and "not without some obloquy" to
+  themselves, the Master of Trinity College proposed a private
+  settlement, naming October for it. The suggestion was favourably
+  received by the Electors other than the Dean of Westminster. The
+  latter however affirmed, that with his consent less than three
+  Scholars should never be taken by Trinity College and three by
+  Christ Church if the School produced so many fit Scholars: and as to
+  that part of the Letters Patent, which related to the election of
+  Westminster Scholars at Trinity College to Fellowships, he required
+  that they should be taken in preference to others, if their
+  qualifications were equal; stating at the same time, that the clause
+  declaring them eligible to Fellowships two years after their degree
+  of A.M. had arisen solely from the practice of pre-electing so many
+  Fellows, that for three or four years together no election took
+  place; and the Westminster Scholars at Trinity College were driven
+  out to seek a better fortune elsewhere. The Master of Trinity
+  College allowed that the practice of pre-elections was wrong; and it
+  was at length agreed that if this were discontinued, that part of
+  the King's Letters concerning the eligibility of Westminster
+  Scholars two years after their degree of A.M. should not be urged
+  against the local statute of Trinity College, _De Gradibus
+  Suscipiendis_. Thereupon the Master of Trinity College took for his
+  College as Scholars three candidates, to wit, Hacket, Shirley, and
+  Herbert.
+
+The three scholars so taken obtained fellowships in due course, Hacket
+became chaplain to James I, Charles I, and later to Charles II,
+suffered cruel persecution under the commonwealth, and at the
+restoration was made bishop of Lichfield: the Bishop's Hostel was
+erected at his cost. An incident in Shirley's career is chronicled
+below (see p. 223). Herbert was the well-known poet and divine. If the
+above account is reliable, and there is no reason to doubt its
+accuracy, the most important question in dispute, namely the
+preferential right of Westminsters to election to fellowships at
+Trinity, was left open. Nevile however had no intention to allow the
+matter to drop, and having made his protest at Westminster, he now
+secured the good services of his friend and Cambridge contemporary,
+Richard Bancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, who undertook to act as
+mediator in drawing up a "friendly and full" settlement of the
+question.
+
+An agreement, drafted I feel confident by Nevile, was submitted to the
+archbishop and, after he had made a few alterations, was accepted by
+the dean and chapter of Westminster. The seniority of Trinity College,
+on 5 September 1608, passed a minute that the matter "be referred to
+our Master against the 13^th of October," and the deed is so dated,
+but its execution must have been delayed since there is a minute of
+the seniority, 8 December 1608, ordering that the composition with
+Westminster should be engrossed and sealed at the audit so as to be
+delivered before 1 February 1609.
+
+The deed embodying this agreement was made between the dean and
+chapter of Westminster and Trinity College, and provided that the
+College should take yearly three scholars from Westminster School to
+be scholars of the College, and that there should be no pre-elections
+of supernumerary fellows to the prejudice of the Westminster scholars
+if deserving of fellowships. In consideration of these definite
+obligations the dean and chapter of Westminster agreed that the
+letters patent of 1607 should never be urged against the College by
+the dean and chapter or the schoolmaster or ushers or scholars of
+Westminster, and that the College should have such full power to elect
+fellows as had been previously enjoyed, excepting only the practice of
+pre-elections. To the deed is appended a statement that it was made
+with the privity and approbation of the archbishop of Canterbury, the
+earl of Salisbury (lord high treasurer of England and chancellor of
+the University of Cambridge), and of the earl of Northampton (the lord
+privy seal), all of whom signed it. This conclusion of the affair may
+be regarded as a personal triumph for Nevile.
+
+The arrangement was submitted to the king who in a letter directed to
+the College approved it, but required that the Westminster scholars
+each year should be granted seniority over other scholars of Trinity
+of their year and not be hindered by pre-elections: he did not however
+withdraw or rescind the previous letters patent. I have never seen the
+text of this letter but its contents are indisputable, and there are
+various subsequent references to it. The obligation to allow this
+seniority to the Westminster scholars was henceforth recognized by the
+College as binding on it.
+
+The advisers of Trinity seem to have been doubtful whether it would be
+admitted that this second letter implied the rescission of the letters
+of 1607, and since there was every reason to avoid raising the
+question whether royal letters or mandates could be set aside or
+modified by private arrangements, it was wise to let matters run on as
+long as the agreement of 1608 was carried out by the school
+authorities. There is however a memorandum, ascribed to January 1610
+in the State Papers, showing that "the recent grant by the King for
+the students of Trinity College, Cambridge, to be chosen from the
+Westminster scholars is prejudicial to the interests of Trinity,"
+which seems to imply that further negotiations took place. I have not
+seen the memorandum and know nothing more about this than here
+appears.
+
+During the sixteen years following this settlement, that is, from 1608
+to 1623 inclusive, fifty-eight scholars were elected from Westminster
+to Trinity, of whom sixteen became fellows.
+
+In 1623-24 a fresh dispute occurred. It would appear that while
+Trinity carried out its undertaking relating to the election of
+scholars from Westminster, it again began to pre-elect fellows with
+the object, it was said, of preventing any claim being made on behalf
+of the Westminster scholars in residence. Whether this was done in
+self-protection against unjustifiable claims or was a deliberate
+breach of the agreement of 1608 we do not know. An appeal to the crown
+on behalf of the school ensued, and on 7 September 1623, the king sent
+letters patent to the College as follows:
+
+  Trusty and well beloved we greet you well. Being much interested in
+  the prosperity and well-fare of that our College which is both our
+  immediate Foundation and the fairest in all our kingdoms, and
+  furnished, for the most part with the extracions of our own
+  free-school at Westminster, we cannot but be very sensible of any
+  alteration in the government of the same.
+
+  Whereas therefore we are given to understand that younger students
+  of that College have of late years been totally disheartened in
+  their studies by a new and unwarrantable device of pre-electing more
+  Fellows than there are places vacant at the time of that Election
+  and the Scholars of our own School (in whose loyalty and affection
+  we are so much interested from their cradles) strangely discouraged
+  and disgraced by being cast in their seniority behind all the
+  Scholars and Fellows in their several Elections though never so
+  exceeding in learning and education, we straightly will and require
+  you that from this time forward ye do forbear all manner of
+  pre-elections whatsoever as the pest and bane of all learning and
+  succession; and that also you bear that regard and respect to the
+  Scholars of that our own Royal School in giving them in all such
+  elections respect and precedency which we are informed they fully
+  deserve before all other of what country soever. Lastly, whereas we
+  are given to understand that heretofore a corrupt custom hath crept
+  into that our College of turning elections into particular
+  nominations of the Master and the several Seniors which smells
+  altogether of partialitie and corruption we do straightly will and
+  require you the said Master of our College of whom we conceive a
+  very good opinion, to see that hereafter all elections as well of
+  Scholars as of Fellows be done according to the local statutes of
+  your College and carried about with that pluralitie of voices
+  therein required.
+
+What reply (if any) the College made or could make I do not know, but
+presumably the answer was not satisfactory as these letters were
+followed by the appointment of royal commissioners to enquire into the
+Westminster elections. There is extant a letter from the master of
+Trinity (Richardson) dated 9 June 1624, to one of the commissioners,
+asking to be excused from attending the usual election of Westminster
+scholars, on account of poor health. Probably this was regarded as an
+impertinence, and he must have been reprimanded since we have a letter
+dated 26 June signed by the master and six of the senior fellows,
+deprecating the royal displeasure, offering the most humble
+submission, promising to obey in anything that his majesty might
+command, but begging that present compliance might not be drawn into
+an example against the College. Richardson and James I died in March
+1625, and the enquiry seems to have been then dropped.
+
+The election in 1636 was interesting. It is said that among the
+candidates was Cowley who had already written various poems and a
+comedy showing distinct ability. The story runs that the boy failed
+badly in grammar, and the Trinity electors, insisting that this was
+conclusive, rejected him as a Westminster scholar, but offered him an
+ordinary scholarship at Trinity, which he accepted. Against this are
+the fact that he had been entered at Trinity as a pensioner in April,
+a few weeks before the election at Westminster, and the improbability
+that the electors would have drawn such a distinction between
+Westminster and other scholars of the House. Still old-time anecdotes
+are not to be lightly rejected: at any rate Cowley came into residence
+in due course and was made a scholar in the same term as the four boys
+taken from Westminster by the electors, these five students being the
+only scholars elected by the College in 1637.
+
+During the seventy-seven years from 1624 to 1700 inclusive, three
+hundred and fifty-six scholars were elected from Westminster to
+Trinity, of whom one hundred and twenty-six became fellows. During the
+fifty years, 1701 to 1750, out of one hundred and eighty-seven
+Westminster scholars at Trinity sixty-two became fellows; during the
+fifty years, 1751 to 1800, out of one hundred and eighty, thirty
+became fellows; and during the fifty-six years, 1801 to 1856, out of
+one hundred and seventy, four became fellows. Throughout this long
+period the friendly relations between the College and the school
+suffered no change.
+
+In 1727 there was a curious echo of the controversy of 1607. A strange
+suggestion had been made, apparently with the tacit approval of the
+authorities of Westminster, that new statutes should be given to
+Trinity constituting the dean and chapter of Westminster Visitors of
+the College, and it was decided by the advocates of the movement to
+open the campaign by asking the dean of Westminster to call the
+attention of the master of Trinity (Bentley), to the "Letters Anno
+Quinto Jacobi Primi." Bentley replied on 5 March 1727, denied their
+validity and argued that even if originally valid, they could not be
+pressed after more than a century during which time "they had never
+been acted upon": he added that, if antiquated letters were still
+binding, there were various matters in which he had powers, whose
+exercise might prove singularly inconvenient to those who had raised
+the question. This was really conclusive, but further consideration
+had shown the inherent weakness or folly of the original idea, and the
+chapter was wise enough to proceed no further with the matter.
+
+Shortly afterwards, probably at the following election at Westminster,
+Bentley is said to have referred to the dean's communication, and
+remarked that the authority of the letters of 1607 would doubtless
+have seemed stronger, at any rate to the dean's predecessor
+(Atterbury), if not to the chapter, could they have been described as
+"Anno Primo Jacobi Tertii"--an irrelevant remark, but it carried a
+sting, for Atterbury's devotion to the cause of the Pretender was
+deeply resented by the government.
+
+From an unknown date until the early years of the nineteenth century,
+Westminster scholars at Trinity were allowed the privilege of wearing
+academic gowns of a cut different from those of other undergraduates
+and further distinguished by having on the sleeves a violet button
+with a silk loop. The gowns of all pensioners in the University were
+then black and (except for those worn by Westminsters) cut to a
+common pattern. The Westminster distinction was discontinued when the
+present system of different gowns for different Colleges was
+introduced.
+
+During the first half of the nineteenth century the numbers in the
+school fell seriously, and well-founded complaints were made about the
+standard of scholarship attained by the scholars elected to the
+universities. In 1856, as the result of negotiations, initiated by
+Whewell, the arrangements with Trinity were completely recast, and it
+was agreed on 5 December 1856 that the school should abandon the right
+of Westminster boys to election to scholarships at Trinity, and that
+in filling up open emoluments in Trinity, former Westminster boys
+should enjoy no preference. In consideration of this release, the
+Society undertook to establish at its own cost, exhibitions, not more
+than three to be awarded each year, for boys elected from the school
+who were otherwise qualified for admission to the College; every such
+exhibitioner, if so deserving, to be eligible for a college
+scholarship tenable with the exhibition. This was approved by the
+queen in council on 25 June 1857. It was further agreed that the
+Westminster exhibitioners were to be placed on the same footing as
+exhibitioners elected by open competition before commencing
+residence. The mode of election is settled by the school statutes, but
+it would seem that the Trinity electors have no right to demand
+intellectual attainments beyond those required at the time for
+admission to the College. The exhibitions are not now confined to
+scholars of the school.
+
+So ends the story of Westminster Scholars at Trinity College,
+Cambridge. During the two hundred and ninety-six years from 1561 to
+1856 inclusive, one thousand and sixty-four scholars had been elected
+from Westminster to Trinity (or say 3.6 a year), of whom two hundred
+and seventy-eight (or say one in four) had become fellows. In
+conclusion I may add that in 1869 in virtue of the powers given by the
+Public Schools Act, 1868, the dean and chapter of Westminster, the
+dean of Christ Church, Oxford, and the master of Trinity College,
+Cambridge, created a new Governing Body in whom the governance of the
+school has been since vested.
+
+
+[Footnote 18: See _Life of Whitgift_ by J. Strype, London, 1718,
+pp. 13, 14 and Appendix, pp. 7, 8.]
+
+[Footnote 19: _Life of Whitgift_ by J. Strype, London, 1718, Appendix,
+p. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 20: _State Papers_, Domestic, 1604, p. 185.]
+
+[Footnote 21: According to Dean Peacock, royal letters and orders, at
+variance with college statutes, were binding only if explicitly or
+tacitly accepted by the Society. That may have been technically
+correct, but it is very doubtful if Tudor or Stuart sovereigns would
+have admitted it.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY
+TO UNDERGRADUATES.
+
+
+This is an account of a famous struggle some eighty years ago between
+the authorities and the undergraduates of Trinity College on the
+subject of attendance at chapel. The story is not to the credit of the
+authorities, but, for what it is worth, here it is.
+
+There is a prelude to it concerned with a controversy in 1834 between
+Thirlwall, later the statesman-bishop of St David's, and Wordsworth,
+then master of the House, which raised the question of the
+advisability of compelling undergraduates to be present at religious
+services in College. At that time regular attendance at chapel was
+required--as for centuries previously it had been--from all students
+as a matter of discipline, and the rule in force on the subject was
+embodied in a college order of 22 April 1824, as follows:
+
+  Agreed by the Master and Seniors that every Undergraduate not having
+  an aegrotat or dormiat do attend Morning Chapel five times at the
+  least in every week, or four times at the least including Sunday;
+  and the same number of times in the Evening, under penalty that the
+  week in which anyone shall not have so attended be not reckoned
+  towards keeping the Term of such Undergraduate--unless such omission
+  be repaired by extra attendance the week following.
+
+Absentees were punished, and those who offended frequently were liable
+to expulsion.
+
+Until the era of the Reform Bill some regulation like this was
+accepted as a matter of course, but when, in that period of enquiry,
+all things were put to the proof, doubts as to its wisdom began to be
+voiced. In 1834 Thirlwall, then assistant-tutor to Whewell, in an open
+letter dated 21 May, while advocating the admission of dissenters to
+the University, lamented the constant repetition in college chapels of
+a mechanical service, believing the practice to be detrimental to the
+interests of religion: he further expressed the opinion that
+attendance at chapel services should be voluntary. He referred to a
+then recent statement by Wordsworth in which the latter had said "the
+alternative is not here between compulsory religion (as it is called)
+and any other religion, but between compulsory religion and no
+religion at all," and on this remarked:
+
+  I cannot indeed draw such delicate distinctions as my friend seems
+  to make in this passage; for as the epithet compulsory applied to
+  religion appears to me contradictory, the difference between a
+  compulsory religion and no religion at all is too subtle for my
+  grasp. But if for _religion_ we substitute the word _service_,
+  which would probably better express his meaning, then I should quite
+  agree with him, that, in this case, a voluntary service would soon
+  be changed into no service at all: that is, the persons who are now
+  compelled to attend, if they were left at liberty, would stay away.
+  And this is the very reason why I think it would be better that they
+  should be allowed to do so.
+
+The argument was amplified in a second letter dated 13 June. This was
+skilful enough as a piece of dialectics though hardly likely to
+convince opponents.
+
+That an officer of the college should express such views and in this
+way was regarded by Wordsworth as scandalous, and five days after the
+publication of the first letter, without asking for any explanation,
+he, with the consent or approval of Whewell and the two deans (Thorp
+and Carus), removed Thirlwall from his office of assistant-tutor. This
+arbitrary act was generally resented in the Society even by those who
+disagreed with Thirlwall or thought that he had been indiscreet in his
+advocacy; some too considered the act unstatutable, but Thirlwall
+refused to appeal to the Visitor, and shortly afterwards left
+Cambridge on his appointment, in November 1834, by the lord
+chancellor, to the important living of Kirby-under-dale in Yorkshire.
+
+Two years later, in 1836, while the matter was still a subject of
+debate, Carus was made senior dean. He was a kindly man, leader in
+the University of the school of thought associated with Simeon's name,
+but, whether rightly or wrongly, was regarded as unsympathetic by
+those who did not think as he did on religious questions. Carus
+detested the view taken by Thirlwall, and far from conciliating
+college opinion, which had been outraged by Wordsworth's action, urged
+the seniority (a Board consisting of the master and the eight senior
+resident fellows to which, under the Elizabethan statutes, the
+government of the College was entrusted) to re-draft the rule of 1824
+and make clear or stiffen the penalties for non-obedience. The
+seniority agreed, and on 7 February 1838, issued the following order:
+
+  Agreed by the Master and Seniors, that all Undergraduate Scholars,
+  and Foundation Sizars do attend Chapel eight times at the least in
+  every week, that is twice on Sunday and once every other day; the
+  Scholars, on pain of losing _ipso facto_ their statutable allowance
+  for Commons, and such additions as have since been made by the
+  College in the way of augmentation to the Commons, for every week
+  when there has been a failure of such attendance as is above
+  described; and the Sizars, on pain of incurring _ipso facto_ an
+  equivalent deduction in money from their allowances.
+
+  Agreed also, that a like attendance be required from all other
+  Undergraduates; and that in case of failure, the Parties so
+  offending be forthwith admonished by the Deans; and if, after such
+  admonition, irregularity be persisted in, notice be sent by the Dean
+  to the Tutor, that a warning from him also may timely be given:
+  after which, if both these means shall fail in producing regularity,
+  the offender shall be reported by the Dean to the Master (or, in his
+  absence, to the Vice-Master) to receive a formal admonition from
+  him, in the presence of the Dean, a record of which shall be
+  preserved: and finally, in all cases where such formal admonition
+  shall have been incurred three times, the offender shall _ipso
+  facto_ be removed from the College, either entirely, or for one or
+  more Terms, according to the circumstances of the case; a record of
+  this sentence being also preserved.
+
+  Authority is given to the Deans to grant occasional leave of
+  absence, on special application made previously, but not otherwise.
+  Also on any casual failure of attendance, it is allowed to Deans to
+  accept (in order to make up the deficiency) an equivalent attendance
+  on other days during the same week only; any failure on Sundays to
+  be compensated by attendance twice on other days.
+
+According to college tradition, which came to me from C.W. King, an
+undergraduate of the time, a deputation of scholars, who remonstrated
+on the severity of these sanctions, was informed by Carus that
+attendance at chapel was not so much a duty as a privilege, which was
+valued the most by those who were oldest and therefore best qualified
+to form an opinion on the subject--a boomerang argument which
+obviously was dangerous unless the fellows themselves attended chapel
+with the regularity desired from undergraduates.
+
+On this rebuff, certain students formed a Society for the Prevention
+of Cruelty to Undergraduates. Its founders issued a notice asking
+whether what was forced on undergraduates was practised by dons; and
+that facts might speak for themselves, they announced that they would
+issue marking-sheets showing the attendance week by week of the
+fellows in chapel. Copies of these marking-sheets were put
+(surreptitiously) on the college screens, sent to London clubs, and
+widely circulated. All efforts by the deans to discover the authors or
+the printer employed failed; I understand, however, that
+W.J. Conybeare, G.E.L. Cotton, J.S. Howson, C.L. Rose, and C.J. Tindal
+were its chief promoters, and that the printer was Metcalfe of
+9 Trinity Street. Copies of these marking-sheets are now very rare,
+but a few years ago one came into the market which I was fortunate
+enough to secure. It is bound in blue calf, stamped with the college
+arms having as supporters two undergraduates in knee breeches waving
+their caps, and with the motto _Nemo me impune lacessit_.
+
+The first sheet is for the week ending 17 February 1838, and shows the
+attendances, morning and evening, of the master and the eighteen
+fellows then in residence. Each of the two deans attended ten times,
+but they were in a peculiar position, for it was their duty, as the
+Society pointed out, to go twice a day and therefore fourteen times in
+each week. Only one of the other fellows, Perry, later bishop of
+Melbourne, complied with the rule imposed on undergraduates, four
+fellows went only once, and four not at all. To this sheet the Society
+appended the following note:
+
+  Does then this new regulation of the Master and Seniors proceed from
+  any religious motive? Do they practice (_sic_) what they force on
+  the Undergraduates? They are very regular in their attendance in
+  Hall, but why are their places vacant in Chapel?
+
+The next week showed a slight improvement in the attendances. The
+Society congratulated itself on this, and in some general remarks
+indicated what it expected from the fellows, copying these from the
+notices on the subject issued by Carus. It should be said that in the
+sheets those who were ill or away from Cambridge, were marked with an
+_aeg_ or _abs_, so any such explanation of the absence of the others
+from chapel was impossible.
+
+In the third week the improvement continued, and three fellows in
+addition to the master and the deans complied with the rule, but this
+was the high water-mark of attendance, and after all it did not come
+to much. The Society expressed its gratification at this, which it was
+pleased to treat as the result of its efforts, and at the same time
+issued the following notice:
+
+  A prize for general regularity, and good behaviour when in Chapel,
+  has been instituted by the Society, who are as anxious to reward
+  merit as they are to punish immorality. But whilst they thus wish
+  to instil into the minds of the Fellows those Religious feelings
+  which, owing to a bad education, they may possibly be without, the
+  Society most distinctly declare that they shall not be guided merely
+  by an outward show of religion. It is not, therefore, enough to go
+  merely eight times a week to Chapel, and when there to utter the
+  responses so loud as to attract attention, or otherwise disturb the
+  prayers of Undergraduates. Such conduct will at all times be
+  severely punished.... For convenience of those members of Trinity
+  College now residing in London, six copies of this publication are
+  sent weekly to each of the University Clubs there.
+
+In the fourth week, apart from the indefatigable Perry and the two
+deans, no one came up to the prescribed standard. On this result the
+Society remarked:
+
+  The Society regret much that during the last week great laxity has
+  prevailed among the Fellows in general with regard to their
+  attendance in Chapel. This is the more to be lamented, as they had
+  been for the two previous weeks so much more regular than usual.
+  This irregularity cannot proceed from ill health, for they have been
+  constantly to Hall, although they are not compelled to go there more
+  than five times in each week. The Society, however, still hopes that
+  in the ensuing week they will be able to make a more favourable
+  report both of their attendance in Chapel, as also of their good
+  conduct when there. As was before stated, any Fellow who shall,
+  owing to any wine-party, or other sufficient reason, be prevented
+  from attending, will be excused on sending a note previously to the
+  Secretary of the Society, and his absence will be counted as
+  presence. [The last seven words were a quotation from a note by
+  Carus.] It is agreed by the Master and Seniors that all
+  Undergraduates do go eight times at least each week! Why then do
+  they not set us a better example?
+
+These publications were widely disseminated and led to the production
+of a number of epigrams and lampoons which were scattered broadcast
+in the University. The Society appended to this sheet a note that its
+members had "_no connexion whatever_ with _any_ of those abusive and
+profane publications which have been so industriously circulated
+during the last two weeks."
+
+The sheet for the week ending 17 March, announced the success of the
+movement, though in this return only Carus and Perry came up to the
+standard. Appended to the sheet were the following notes:
+
+  The Society in laying the first list of this month before the
+  public, have much reason to be pleased with the success of the work
+  which they have undertaken, for they have been informed, on very
+  good authority, that the Cruelty System will not be continued more
+  than a week longer, but that the Master and Seniors have determined
+  to come to a new Agreement about Chapels.... If this should be the
+  case, the end which the Society had in view will be accomplished,
+  and the weekly publications will be discontinued, until called again
+  into life by some new act of Cruelty upon the much enduring
+  Undergraduates, but not otherwise. The Fellows have been very
+  irregular during the last week, in their attendance at Chapel; so
+  much so that only two of the whole number in residence have kept the
+  number, which the Undergraduates are compelled to keep, on pain of
+  being _ipso facto_ rusticated, either entirely, or for one or more
+  terms. And yet one Member of Trinity College was really sent away
+  during the past week (who had always been seven times each week
+  before) because he had the courage to object to compulsory
+  attendance at Chapel, especially from those men who had set him such
+  an example!
+
+In the course of the next week a printed notice appeared on the
+screens reducing the number of compulsory attendances in chapel to two
+on Sundays and four during the week. The paper, type, and setting look
+as if this were issued by the authorities. I have, however, seen a
+contemporary letter in which it is said that this notice was in fact a
+forgery: the suggestion being that the men were tired of the joke, and
+invented this way of terminating the episode. I cannot say whether the
+deans modified their rule, and the question of the genuineness of this
+notice must be left undecided. It is true that no extant minute of the
+seniority exists about any new regulation, but the records of the
+proceedings of that body are so imperfect that no conclusion can be
+drawn from this.
+
+The Society in publishing its last sheet, namely, that for the week
+ending 24 March, concluded with the following class list and notes:
+
+  The examination of the Fellows is now finished: and in arranging the
+  different classes the Secretary has attached to each person's name
+  his number of marks, in order to do away with any appearance of
+  favour shewn more to one than another, as is too often the case in
+  other Examinations.
+
+    =First Class.=
+    *Carus                        72
+     Perry                        66
+    *Barnes                       50
+
+    =Second Class.=
+     Heath                        42
+     Wordsworth Senior            38
+     Thorp                        35
+     Whewell                      34
+     Blakesley                    30
+
+    =Third Class.=
+     Peacock                      28
+     Thompson                     19
+     Brown                        17
+     Dobson                       13
+     Martin                       12
+
+    =Last Class.=
+     Wordsworth Junior             9
+     Sedgwick                      5
+     Field                         4
+     Donaldson                     3
+
+     Burcham                       0
+     Walsh                         0
+
+    * The two gentlemen marked with an asterisk are respectively
+    Senior and Junior Dean, whose duty it is to go twice every
+    day to Chapel.
+
+  The Prize Medal for regular attendance at chapel and good conduct
+  when there, has been awarded to Mr Perry, who has passed an
+  examination highly creditable to himself and family. He was only 18
+  marks below the highest number which he could possibly have gained.
+  It is, therefore, to be hoped Mr P. will be more regular and do
+  still better next term. With respect to the two Gentlemen who are
+  not classed, the Secretary need hardly say that he does not envy
+  them their feelings on the present occasion. In consequence of the
+  New Agreement, the Chapel Lists will _ipso facto_ be discontinued
+  for the future.
+
+In the above list the master is designated as Wordsworth Senior. The
+prize was awarded to Perry the future bishop, but instead of the
+promised medal he was given a bible. This was secured for the College
+in 1906, and now rests in our library. It is bound in calf, stamped
+with the arms and supporters assumed by the Society, and bears the
+inscription "From the Undergraduates of Trinity College to the Rev.
+Charles Perry, M.A., as a mark of affection and esteem for the good
+example which he set them and the _rest_ of the College by his
+constant attendance at Chapel." I have been informed that to each of
+the two fellows who did not attend at all there was sent a small bible
+with an inscription therein of the Society's hope that its presence
+among his books might in the future encourage him to perform tasks
+which he believed to be important even though he found them
+unpleasant.
+
+The doggerel verses to which I have alluded as appearing in connection
+with the struggle were, as far as I have seen them, poor stuff as
+literary productions, and some were highly improper. The author of one
+of the worst of them was discovered and expelled from the College,
+12 March 1838. I possess copies of four or five of these productions,
+their value consists entirely in giving us stories then current about
+dons and things academic--stories, I may add, which appear generally
+to have had no foundation in fact. The best set of verses, supposed to
+be addressed on Saturday evening by a man to his bedmaker, is a parody
+of Tennyson's _May Queen_. It begins: "You must mind and call me
+early--call me early, d'ye hear? For I in morning chapel to-morrow
+must appear," and on the whole runs easily. There is nothing in these
+squibs which deserves remembrance or needs any further notice here.
+
+There ends the story, and no comments on it or the actors in it are
+needed. It may be added as a postscript, that for a long time
+subsequent to this incident some attendance at chapel was required
+from all who had no good reason to ask for exemption, and that as time
+went on the requirements gradually grew less. The question of making
+attendance at chapel compulsory on those who have not yet fully
+attained years of discretion is admittedly difficult, and made more so
+by the fact that while such attendance is approved and rigorously
+imposed every day of the week at most public boarding schools on lads
+up to the age of eighteen or nineteen, it is regarded as unthinkable
+in the case of young graduates of twenty-one or so. Trinity College
+finally adopted the view advocated by Thirlwall, and to-day attendance
+at chapel services is voluntary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE COLLEGE CHAPEL.
+
+
+The College Chapel, as it appears to-day, is described in many of the
+guide-books which are pressed on the casual traveller in Cambridge. I
+am not here concerned with the accounts of it there given, for in this
+paper I intend to deal with little beyond its history and traditions.
+
+It is a matter of common knowledge that the present chapel was built
+under the auspices of the Tudor queens, Mary and Elizabeth, on the
+site of the old chapel of King's Hall. Let me begin by tracing briefly
+the history of these successive buildings, and their connection with
+college developments.
+
+King's Hall owed its origin to the establishment of scholars in the
+University of Cambridge by Edward II in 1317, and was put on a
+permanent footing by Edward III in 1337. The original home of the
+Society was a large two-storeyed house, built of wood and thatched,
+bought from Robert de Croyland, and situated on the ground now
+occupied by the walks and grass plot in front of the chapel. No chapel
+or oratory was connected with it, and the Society worshipped in All
+Saints' church which then stood on the green in Trinity Street facing
+our present chapel.
+
+In 1375 the College began the erection on the ground to the north and
+west of its house of a larger building comprising a cloister court
+with various extensions. The west side of this court, some hundred and
+twenty feet long, is still standing and faces the bowling green: the
+other three sides and the extensions have been destroyed. These
+buildings were of three storeys, built of stone, brick, or rubble, and
+tiled: they were finished about 1438, and the old mansion of Robert
+de Croyland was then pulled down. Into the inner quadrangle of this
+cloister court there projected from the middle of its western face a
+wooden erection some fifteen feet long by fifteen feet wide, built in
+1419-24 over what is now the junior combination room, and containing
+on its upper floor an oratory which opened on to a gallery over the
+cloisters on that side of the court. A list of the service-books,
+plate, copes and other vestments, altar-cloths, curtains, gold
+embroidery, etc., kept in this oratory in 1479 is given in my booklet
+of 1917 on King's Hall. The building was small and the Society
+continued to use All Saints' church for its more important services.
+
+The desirability of having a chapel large enough for all college
+purposes was obvious, and in 1464 the Society began the erection of
+such a building, on ground beyond the eastern extension of the
+cloister court. This new chapel, which covered part of the site of our
+present chapel, was about a hundred feet long and thirty feet broad,
+that is roughly half the length of and the same breadth as the present
+chapel: it was built of stones, squared and supplied ready for use,
+which according to Caius came from the large banqueting hall of the
+Castle then being pulled down and probably by purchase from King's
+College to whom these materials had been granted. It was wainscotted,
+and was fitted with stalls and carved woodwork; the high altar, like
+that of the older oratory, was of wood and the interior walls above
+the wainscotting were plastered and whitewashed; the sum spent
+suggests that the fittings were not elaborate. The work was finished
+in 1499, but probably the chapel was used from 1485 onwards: of course
+the plate, service-books, etc., were removed to it from the old
+oratory.
+
+Trinity College, on its foundation in 1546, naturally made use of this
+chapel, for it was the only one available on the site[22] of the new
+College. It is fairly certain that it was then fitted up with
+additional seats and probably redecorated: the provision of a new
+organ and a new lectern happen to be specifically mentioned.
+
+Edward VI ascended the throne in 1547, and barely had the interior of
+the chapel of King's Hall been adapted to the needs of the new
+foundation than the College was required to remove all popish traces
+from it. The altar and steps were taken down, and a communion table
+set up, most likely in the middle of the chapel. The books, copes,
+vestments, and altar ornaments which had come down from old times were
+sold: they realized no less than £140. 8s. 8d., and the magnitude of
+the sum obtained in such unfavourable conditions shows that the
+services must have been conducted with considerable pomp. There is
+to-day in the library a standing censer boat, ascribed to the end of
+the fourteenth century or the early years of the fifteenth century,
+with traces on it of its ancient gilding, but there is no record as to
+how or when it came to us. King's Hall did in fact own among its
+chapel vessels a "ship of silver" which probably means a censer boat,
+and it may be that this is the vessel in question. With this possible
+(but doubtful) exception all our medieval chapel plate has gone.
+
+When in 1553 Mary succeeded her brother, the Roman religion was
+restored, and the chapel again adapted to the old forms of worship.
+Perhaps remonstrance was made by the master, Bill, who had been
+appointed in 1551 on Redman's death and was a strong Anglican: at any
+rate he was deprived of his office. The expulsion was dramatic and
+apparently physical, for as he was sitting in his stall in the chapel
+two members of the House, Mr Boys and Mr Gray, approached and "removed
+him ... in a rude and insolent way." Declining any contest he retired
+to Bedfordshire, and was succeeded as master by Christopherson, the
+queen's chaplain and confessor.
+
+Mary recognized the interest taken by her father in Trinity and, in
+furtherance of his design, decided to rebuild the College on a
+comprehensive plan. She issued orders about this on 24 October 1554,
+and it was arranged in 1555 that the first large task undertaken in
+connection with it should be the erection of a new chapel. Preliminary
+work on this was commenced in 1556 and it was then expected that the
+building would be finished by the end of 1557, but by October of that
+year the walls were only half-way up: delays ensued and ten years
+elapsed before the building was completed. The old chapel was unroofed
+in 1561, and cannot, it would seem, have been used after that date: it
+is possible it was shut up in the course of 1557, but early in that
+year it was still in use, for the royal commissioners in January 1557
+complained of the absence of lights on the altar and of coals to cense
+the sacrament. During the years from the closing of the old chapel to
+1567 it is uncertain whether the services were held in College or in
+one of the town churches.
+
+It was originally intended that the new chapel should be a hundred and
+fifty-seven feet long and thirty-three feet broad, the east end being
+flush with the street frontage of the Great Gate. The roof was to be
+curved, open, and relieved with fretwork and oak pendants. There was
+to be an east window, a west window, eleven windows on the south side,
+and twelve on the north side from which it follows that it was to be
+a detached building save for its abutment on staircase E in the Great
+Court.
+
+It was designed to contain two rows of stalls made after the pattern
+of those at King's College, sixty-eight in the upper row with
+misereres, divided by pillars, and with double crests above, and a
+lower row of stalls not so divided. Unfortunately the contractor got
+into money difficulties and sold much of the timber which had been
+bought for the intended roof and stalls, causing the work to fall into
+arrear.
+
+After the accession of Elizabeth, changes in the plans of the new
+chapel were made, the length being increased to two hundred and five
+feet, thus making it project beyond the east side of the Great Court.
+In 1564 the walls of the building were finished and plastered, and
+the date 1564 cut on the east gable together with the text from the
+Vulgate, Matthew xxi. 13, _Domus mea domus orationis vocabitur_, which
+in the authorized version runs: "My house shall be called the house of
+prayer" and is followed by the clause "but ye have made it a den of
+thieves." Wags have sometimes continued the inscription by adding the
+second clause on the chapel either of Trinity or of St John's as their
+inclinations led them. The roof, put on in 1565, is of a style earlier
+than this date, and Willis came to the conclusion that it is the
+actual roof of the old chapel of King's Hall supplemented by
+additional timber to fit it for the larger building: I like to think
+that we still worship under the roof which sheltered our predecessors
+more than four centuries ago.
+
+In the year last mentioned, 1565, the stones for the pavement were
+brought from Croyland Abbey and maybe some are still there. In the
+next year the interior fittings were taken in hand, and the organ
+screen erected. In the following year, 1567, the windows were glazed
+with white glass bearing inscriptions, coats of arms, and heraldic
+badges such as the fleur-de-lys, portcullis, and rose: the organ (a
+small instrument) and the pulpit were moved from the old chapel, and
+the stalls put in. It would seem that the wainscotting and wall-seats
+in the present antechapel are of this date, and possibly came from
+King's Hall. Moving from west to east in the completed building there
+were in succession an antechapel sixty-five feet long, an organ-screen
+eight feet deep, the chapel seats along some seventy feet, a space of
+twenty-four feet, the communion table, and a space of thirty-six feet
+free of encumbrances. The work was finished by Michaelmas, 1567. There
+is no record of the building having been consecrated.
+
+Mary died in 1558, and on 20 November, the Sunday following the
+proclamation of Elizabeth, Bill, the former master of the College,
+preached at St Paul's Cross in London; the next Sunday, his successor
+Christopherson preached there. Probably the men disliked one another,
+and certainly took different views of the position. Some scandal was
+caused, an the upshot of the affair was that Christopherson was sent
+to prison, while Bill returned to Cambridge, restored to the
+mastership.
+
+Bill, a discreet courtier, was a favourite at court, and held, under
+Elizabeth's favour, the provostship of Eton and the deanery of
+Westminster together with the mastership of Trinity; it was probably
+due to his influence that Elizabeth in 1560 issued a commission to
+procure materials and labour for completing the chapel which had been
+begun on her sister's initiative. Baker praised his prudence and
+temper while master, and added that "if he has shown any frailties or
+failings here, allowances must be made for difficult times and potent
+courtiers that are not easily resisted." In my opinion the services to
+the College of its first three masters, Redman, Bill, and
+Christopherson, were of the greatest value, and have hardly received
+that recognition from posterity which they deserve.
+
+On Bill's death, the crown offered the mastership to Beaumont, a
+calvinist whose views were more pronounced than Cecil supposed at the
+time of the appointment. Beaumont sympathized with the puritan party,
+whose numbers in the University were now rapidly increasing, but did
+little to guide them or to check their intolerance which constantly
+offended public opinion.
+
+The description of the windows in the new chapel does not suggest that
+figures or catholic symbols appeared thereon, but, none the less, the
+"malcontents" thought them objectionable and in November 1565, broke
+"all the windows wherein did appear superstition." In the same term
+occurred the famous surplice disturbance[23]. The puritans objected to
+the use of the surplice in chapel on Sundays, Saints' days, and their
+eves, and on a certain "Sunday (in Dr Whitgift's absence), Mr
+Cartwright and two of his adherents made three sermons on one day in
+the chapel so vehemently inveighing against the ceremonies of the
+church that at evening prayer all the scholars save three [together
+with one of the chaplains] (viz. Dr Leg, Mr West, Whitaker's tutor,
+and the chaplain) cast off their surplices as an abominable relic of
+superstition"--a curious illustration of how little the calvinists
+esteemed the value of academic discipline unless they exercised it
+themselves. The organization of this demonstration was attributed to
+Cartwright, their leader in the University and a fellow of the
+College; it was probably due to the disapproval of his conduct in this
+and similar matters that shortly afterwards he went out of residence
+for two or more years.
+
+Beaumont died in 1567 and at his request was buried "with no vain
+jangling of bells nor any other popish ceremonies" in the new chapel,
+his being the first interment in it. He is commemorated by a carving
+(somewhat difficult to detect) of his face on the tenth principal in
+the chapel roof reckoned from the east end--it is lettered _R. B. Mr._
+He was succeeded by Whitgift and the result of the subsequent bitter
+struggle between him and the puritans settled the constitution and
+policy of the University till the middle of the nineteenth century,
+but the battle was mainly fought in the senate-house and in London,
+and is not specially connected with our chapel.
+
+Alterations to the organ were made in 1594, and elaborate hangings
+placed in the organ loft in 1604. Thenceforward repairs and
+reconstructions of the organ followed one another every few years. The
+history of the instrument has been published in pamphlet form, and I
+shall not again refer to its successive enlargements. The west window
+was blocked up about this time owing to the removal of King Edward's
+Tower to its present position.
+
+There is an account of college doings in chapel in 1635 in the
+following memorandum sent to Laud, and endorsed by him as embodying
+matter which he intended to examine during an intended visit to
+Cambridge in September 1636.
+
+  In Trinity College, they have been long noted to be negligent of the
+  chapel and of prayers in it; the best come but seldom, and by their
+  example the rest make small account of service. In some tutors'
+  chambers (who have three or four score pupils), the private prayers
+  are longer and louder by far at night than they are at Chapel in the
+  evening. Some fellows are there, who scarce see the inside of the
+  chapel thrice in a year, nor public hall, nor St Mary's Church, and
+  (they say) impugn all.
+
+  A quire is there founded for Sundays and holydays, but the quiremen
+  are so negligent and unskilful, that, unless it be an anthem, they
+  often sing the hymns no otherwise than in the common psalmerie tune.
+  And to mend the matter, they have divers dry choristers (as they
+  call them), such as never could and never meane to sing a note, and
+  yet enjoy, and are put in to take the benefit of those places
+  professedly. They have a large chapel, and yet the boyes rows of
+  pews are placed just in the middle of the chapel, before and behind
+  the Communion-table, which some there are about to reform.
+
+  They lean, or sit, or kneele at prayers, everyone in a several
+  posture as he pleases. At the name of Jesus few will bow, and when
+  the creed is repeated, many of the boyes, by some men's directions,
+  turn towards the west door. Their surplices and song-books, and
+  other furniture for divine service, is very mean. The cloth that
+  lies upon the table not worth 14d. He that executes, steps over the
+  exhortation and begins, _Wherefore I pray and beseech you, &c._ They
+  use no Litany for the most part, but in Lent only, and in Lent only
+  upon Sundays, and when they say it, it is at the Communion-table.
+  They repeat not the Creed after the Gospel, and instead of the
+  _Magnificat_ and the _Nunc Dimittis_, they will at pleasure
+  (sometimes when the quiremen are present) sing the 23rd or some
+  other riming Psalm.... They have lately taken advice, and are about
+  mending their chapel, if it holds.
+
+  Fellows ... (when of the degree of M.A.) and fellow-commoners, take
+  themselves generally to have a privilege to miss prayers, as well as
+  the public table of the hall. From hence it comes to pass, that so
+  many of that ranke are to be founde at those times, either in
+  taverns and towne-houses, or at some other pleasant imployments,
+  where they please.
+
+Whether all this was true or not we cannot say, but at any rate in the
+following year, 1636, the College spent a considerable sum on
+alterations and decorations in the chapel. The communion table was
+removed to the east end and the ground there raised, a pavement of
+stone and marble laid down, the walls were panelled, and rich hangings
+provided. Charles I, with his son the prince of Wales, visited the
+chapel in March 1642, and was much pleased therewith: we read at this
+time of candlesticks, tapers, and a crucifix on the altar; other
+references show that the ritual was high.
+
+The next year 1643 saw a great change, for the parliamentary party
+secured control of the town and district. The order compelling the use
+of the surplice on certain days was now rescinded, and under Dowsing
+the chapel was purged, the altar steps levelled, the altar taken away,
+and a wooden communion table without rails set up in the middle of the
+chapel; the organ and hangings were removed; and certain figures,
+painted on the walls at the east end whitewashed. The zealots did not
+think the reforms had gone far enough, but no other changes were
+forced on the College, and a few months later the Society made a money
+present "to some of Major Scot's souldiers who defended the chappell
+from the rudenesse of the rest." A few years later, on 12 March 1647,
+Sir Thomas Fairfax then in command of the district came, and was
+received "in great state ... in the Chapel, he was presented with a
+rich bible, and in the hall with a sumptuous banquet"--a pleasant
+combination.
+
+At the restoration, the original altar of 1643 was recovered and
+replaced at the east end, a screen of rich mosaic work erected behind
+it, and as far as practicable the chapel restored to its former
+appearance. Doubtless, however, practices continued which to-day would
+strike us as unseemly, for I notice that in 1665 "it was agreed that
+Dod have the place of keeping the dogs out of the chapel."
+
+In the early years of the eighteenth century the condition of the
+fabric caused anxiety; after only a little more than a century's wear
+the roof was found to be in a dangerous condition, and a portion of
+one of the external walls in danger of falling. It was determined to
+place the building, inside as well as outside, in thorough repair.
+Work began in 1706 and was nearly thirty years in progress. The
+fellows and a few friends subscribed a large part of the cost, and the
+rest was paid out of corporate income. In the plan adopted, which is
+associated with the names of Bentley and Cotes, the east window was
+blocked, and the present stalls, baldachino, organ-screen, and
+wainscotting erected: the design of the latter is excellent of its
+kind, though not altogether suited to the architecture of the
+building. Some of the old stalls are said to have been removed to
+St Michael's church, and the tradition may be accepted as probable.
+Later in the century, 1787-88, the roof was painted in white and gold.
+
+The number of residents in College in the early half of this century
+was small, and probably the chapel was in regular use during most of
+its restoration. A trivial incident at this time afforded some
+amusement. Complaints had been made that Bentley--an illustrious
+scholar, genuinely interested in promoting learning, but as master of
+Trinity arrogant, unscrupulous, and dishonest--never went to chapel
+though required to do so by the statutes. This was true enough, and he
+determined to silence his critics by appearing again. But so long had
+he been absent that the door of his stall had got fixed and could not
+be opened till the lock had been wrenched off.
+
+Prof. Hughes has called my attention to some unpublished notes[24] by
+a friendly visitor about the chapel services on Saturday and Sunday
+evenings in the fourth decade of the eighteenth century. The writer
+says that interpolated in the evening prayers were elaborate musical
+performances sometimes involving two symphonies[25] and two anthems
+in which the choir, organ, and six violins took part; he also repeats
+more than once that the building was crowded [by strangers] and the
+noise so great that little of the service could be heard. Thus, to
+quote one instance, under date of 28 May 1738, he writes:
+
+  This evening I was at Trinity Colledge Chapple where there was so
+  great a crowd that nothing could be heard of the whole service, I
+  could see the Readers lips go, but, not so much as heare the least
+  sound of his voice, and when Dr Walker read the 2d Leason could I
+  only heare the sound of his voice but not to distinguish one word.
+  There was great difference in the Musick part from what used to be,
+  for the symphony was first by the Organ and then by 6 violins in
+  3 parts to all which the Organ was the base. After the reading the
+  first and 2nd Lessons, 3 men sang the [blank] to which the Choire
+  was the Corus. Before the Prayer for the King there was another
+  Symphony by the Organ, & Violins, and the Anthem was Sung by one
+  man, to which the choir was likewise the chorus.
+
+Throughout most of the eighteenth century, a good many of the fellows
+resident in Cambridge held livings in the vicinity. They were
+accustomed to ride out on Sunday to their cures, hold services, and
+return home to a comfortable supper the same evening, but in general
+neglected their parishes during the rest of the week. Thus if a
+parishioner died, the funeral was deferred till the following Sunday;
+and if a marriage-service was to be held in the village, it had to
+wait for a free Sunday. In these circumstances the bride and
+bridegroom often settled the matter by coming into Cambridge for the
+ceremony, and during the first half of this century our chapel was
+constantly borrowed for such marriage services; after the Marriage Act
+of 26 George II, cap. 33, this use of it became illegal unless a
+special license were obtained. Since that Act, it has been used only
+once for such a purpose, namely, for the marriage of Miss Butler on
+18 December 1901.
+
+Coming to the nineteenth century, we have numerous notes about the
+chapel and the services. At the beginning of this period the author of
+_Alma Mater_ (J.M.F. Wright, who commenced residence in 1817) gives an
+unfavourable account of the services, saying that they were gabbled
+through as fast as possible amid a great deal of talking. The first
+part of this statement may be correct, but as to the second probably
+conversation was rare, and such as took place, though not condemned by
+public opinion, was subdued and was held only in recesses, one of
+which was known as iniquity corner. In fact, we may take it that the
+vast majority of the undergraduates acted as gentlemen though they
+attended chapel reluctantly and merely as a matter of discipline.
+Attendance was required at seven o'clock in the morning, not a
+convenient hour, albeit considerably later than that usual in Tudor
+times.
+
+In 1831 the fabric was again thoroughly repaired, the roof
+redecorated, certain stalls elevated, desks at the east end
+constructed, and a new scheme of lighting by candelabra introduced. A
+few years later, in 1838, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
+Undergraduates concerned themselves with marking the attendance of
+fellows in chapel. That incident I have described elsewhere.
+
+In 1867-75 the building was again thoroughly overhauled, the south
+side faced with stone, a porch, a new vestry, and a choir-room built,
+the organ screen moved a few feet westward, the walls and roof
+painted, gilding used freely on the panelling, the windows filled with
+stained glass, backed benches and kneeling stools introduced for
+undergraduates, and the building lighted with gas. During part of the
+time occupied by this restoration, the College used St Michael's
+church as its chapel.
+
+According to the scheme of decoration, adopted on the advice of
+Lightfoot and Westcott, if we proceed eastwards up the chapel we are
+supposed to note, in order, the frescoes on the walls (which
+represent old testament heroes and teachers) and paintings on the roof
+(which illustrate the Benedicite), leading up through Jewish history
+to the birth of Christ, and then, returning westward, to have
+suggested to us, by the successive windows, the historical development
+of Christianity and the growth of learning particularly in the
+University and College. A man might worship many years in the chapel
+before he discovered this design.
+
+The panels in the sacrarium are replaced by intarsia work in which all
+the woods used are of their natural colours. The sixteenth-century
+silver cross on the communion table came from Spain. The wrought-iron
+gas standards here and through the chapel are also worthy of note;
+fortunately they were allowed to remain when the electric light was
+introduced. All this, as well as the scheme of decoration of the
+antechapel, is described in guide-books with more or less accuracy.
+
+Probably the services were never rendered more effectively than in the
+years following this restoration. Attendance on Sunday evening was
+required unless absentees could urge conscientious or other good
+reasons for exemption, but a large proportion of those who might have
+obtained exemption did, in fact, take part in the Sunday services.
+More benches were placed in the chapel than are there now, and the
+building, with every seat occupied and everyone (save a few
+privileged visitors) in a surplice, presented a most impressive scene.
+Electric light was introduced in 1893, and has added much to the
+comfort of congregations in winter evenings.
+
+In former days members of the Society who died in College were not
+infrequently buried in the chapel--a shocking thing to permit in a
+building in constant use, though sanctioned by the custom of many
+centuries. There are a good many tombstones scattered over the floor,
+and copies of all the inscriptions have been published. I wonder how
+many members of the Society know that among those here buried is one
+woman, bearing the strange Christian name of Elismar. The last
+interment in the chapel took place in October 1886, and further
+burials are now forbidden unless sanctioned by the Home Office.
+
+The building has always been used for various secular purposes, such
+as elections to scholarships and fellowships; the admission of
+scholars, fellows, and officers; the affixing of the College seal to
+documents, and the delivery of declamations by students. Within recent
+years lectures in the antechapel and an oration in the chapel have
+been delivered. I believe the view that a church or chapel is intended
+only for the performance of religious services is modern and
+unwarranted by history: at any rate our records give no authority for
+it.
+
+
+[Footnote 22: On the site acquired for the College were situated the
+buildings of King's Hall, Michael-House, Physwick's Hostel, and some
+private hostels or boarding houses. Members of private hostels used
+their parish churches. All the students in Physwick's Hostel were
+members of Gonville Hall, and used the chapel of that Hall. The
+members of Michael-House used St Michael's church: this House had been
+founded in 1324 by Hervey de Stanton for a master and six fellows, who
+if not priests at the time of admission, had to take orders within one
+year; and later two more fellows, three chaplains, and four bible
+clerks were added to the foundation, which was intended for secular
+clergy studying in the University. The church of St Michael was
+appropriated to it, and rebuilt by its founder for use as its chapel.
+The fellows had in their House an oratory, and in March 1393, the
+bishop of Ely granted them leave to build a chapel, but their history
+and convenience alike made them wish to continue to use St Michael's
+church as their regular chapel.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Fuller's _History of Cambridge_, reprint 1840, p. 265.
+Fuller mistakenly assigned the disturbance to 1566-67 instead of
+1565-66.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Since published in the _Proceedings_ of the Cambridge
+Antiquarian Society, 22 May 1916, vol. XX, pp. 114-116.]
+
+[Footnote 25: When I first came into residence a survival of this
+interpolated symphony existed in a long organ solo which preceded the
+anthem.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+SOME COLLEGE TREASURES.
+
+
+Those who live among beautiful surroundings and in constant touch with
+works of art are often apt to take their privileges for granted.
+Members of Trinity are proud of the buildings of the College and the
+grounds in which they are placed, and most of us know something of
+their history and characteristic features. But with our art treasures
+there is less general acquaintance, and so perhaps it may not be out
+of place to jot down a few notes on some of them--chiefly pictures and
+plate--in which I take pleasure.
+
+Of the contents of the library I say nothing, for a volume would be
+needed to describe them even briefly. The illuminated manuscripts and
+the early printed books attract most attention, but there are numerous
+other subjects in which the library must be ranked among the most
+important in Great Britain. I have often been told by undergraduates
+that they have never been in the building except once when they signed
+the Admission Book. That is true enough of some men, but those who are
+interested in rare and famous books and yet never visit the Library
+neglect exceptional opportunities.
+
+Of oil portraits--in all nearly two hundred--of former members of
+the College, we own a valuable collection, and they illustrate in a
+remarkable way how many distinguished men have been educated here.
+Identification is easy as labels are placed on most of the pictures.
+Unfortunately we have no gallery in which they can be shown. Some are
+put in the hall, some in the master's lodge, some in the combination
+room, and some in the library, lecture-rooms, etc. Those in the lodge
+are set off well, but the others are not hung to advantage.
+
+About twenty-five years ago a proposal was made to raise subscriptions
+for an art gallery to be built along the edge of the river starting
+from the present north end of the library and extending over the land
+now occupied by the master's stables and the end of his garden. At
+that time the proposal did not receive much favour, but now I
+sometimes wonder if we were wise in putting the plan on one side.
+Certainly we have more canvasses than we can exhibit satisfactorily.
+The hall, too, would look a more dignified apartment if the pictures,
+except for one or two on the dais, were taken away: recently their
+temporary removal was necessitated by repairs to the woodwork, and the
+improvement in the appearance of the room was noticeable. The general
+effect of such a clearance may be judged by a visit to the hall of the
+Middle Temple in London. The dimensions of the body of that hall are
+the same as ours, but instead of pictures on the side walls, each
+small oak panel bears an armorial shield: these harmonise well with
+the architectural lines of the building. Where, as is the case with
+our neighbours at St John's, the panelling is low and there is above
+it a big stretch of stone or painted wall, pictures add to the effect,
+but this is not the case where the panelling is high.
+
+Of all our pictures I suppose the one which attracts most attention is
+that of Henry VIII which hangs over the dais at the north end of the
+hall: it was given us by Robert Beaumont, who held the mastership from
+1561 to 1567. The artist was Hans Eworth, a Dutchman who lived in
+London circ. 1543-75, and worked with or under the influence of
+Antonio Moro: the portrait was taken from or founded on that of the
+king in the fresco painted by Holbein in 1537 on a wall of the privy
+chamber in Whitehall palace. This fresco, which was destroyed in the
+fire of 1698 and till then deservedly treated as one of the art
+treasures of London, contained portraits of Henry VII and Henry VIII
+with their queens, Elizabeth of York and Jane Seymour. Holbein's
+studies for the heads of the two kings have been preserved, and are at
+Chatsworth and Munich. Most of the extant portraits of Henry VIII are
+copied from or founded on this fresco. Signs of deterioration in the
+fresco were noticeable in the reign of Charles II, and by his orders
+it was copied by Remée, a French painter then resident in London. The
+original fresco was on each side of and above a fireplace or window.
+Instead of depicting this, the artist represented this space as
+occupied by a pedestal containing an inscription: his delineation of
+the faces of the sovereigns is poor, but he has preserved Holbein's
+general design. Two copies of the reproduction are extant, one of
+which is in the royal collection and the other at Petworth.
+
+Hardly less notable than the presentation of our founder, and far more
+valuable, is the charming portrait by Joshua Reynolds of the duke of
+Gloucester (1776-1834) as a boy: the duke was a cousin of George III
+and afterwards chancellor of the University. Reynolds wrote in his
+diary that the boy sat for his portrait in March 1780 when he was four
+years old, and that the finished picture was delivered in January
+1788--the charge for it being a hundred guineas. Horace Walpole
+praised it, but thought it "washy," an opinion not shared by modern
+critics who esteem it one of Reynolds's masterpieces. The picture was
+left to the College in 1843 by the will of the duke's sister, the
+Princess Sophia, with a request that it should be hung in the hall.
+The legacy was due to the good offices of a freshman of the time--the
+Hon. Douglas Gordon, son of George, fourth earl of Aberdeen. He
+described the circumstances attending the gift as follows:
+
+  When I went up to Trinity in 1842, I used to see a great deal of the
+  princess.... [I was then] a freshman full of admiration for my
+  College of which I used to boast. One day the old princess shewed me
+  the picture, ... and asked if I thought it would look well in the
+  Hall. On my saying what a boon it would be, she very graciously said
+  "You can tell Mr Whewell that I will leave it to the College through
+  you, and I hope you will see this picture placed in a good
+  position." At her death I took it down to Trinity where I was still
+  an undergraduate.
+
+The portrait of queen Mary on the other side of the dais is a Spanish
+copy of Antonio Moro's famous picture which hangs in Madrid. The
+original is said to have been given to Philip after his engagement to
+her; it presents her as a woman of strong character but far from
+beautiful. When the marriage took place, it was unkindly said by a
+Spanish courtier that whatever were the faults of his master, it must
+at least be admitted that he recognized the obligation of a gentleman
+to keep his word.
+
+Of other pictures in the hall those of Tennyson (1809-92) painted in
+1890 by G.F. Watts, of the earl of Essex (1566-1601) painted in 1590,
+of Isaac Newton (1642-1727) painted in 1725 by John Vanderbank, and of
+Francis Bacon (1561-1626) copied from Van Somer's portrait in Gray's
+Inn are specially noticeable. Newton and Barrow (together with
+Pearson who is mentioned below) played a leading part in the
+intellectual life in the University towards the close of the
+seventeenth century, but I need not talk here about this. Barrow, who
+was a mathematician and divine, had a ready wit. When, previous to his
+admission to holy orders, he was examined on his faith, the dialogue
+is said to have been as follows:--Chaplain: _Quid est fides?_ Barrow:
+_Quod non vides._ Chaplain: _Quid est spes?_ Barrow: _Magna res._
+Chaplain: _Quid est caritas?_ Barrow: _Magna raritas._ On which his
+questioner retired in dudgeon, and reported that there was a candidate
+for ordination who would only give him "rhyming answers to moral
+questions": but the bishop had the sense to recognize that truths can
+be expressed in rhyme as well as in prose, and Barrow was ordained.
+
+A very pleasing picture is that reputed to be of Byron: this looks
+like a Raeburn, though it is ascribed to Thomas Lawrence: its history
+is doubtful, but the absence of any peculiarity in the ear is _prima
+facie_ evidence that it is not of Byron. Another striking portrait is
+that of W.H. Thompson (1810-1886) painted in 1881 by Hubert
+von Herkomer. When Thompson saw the completed portrait of himself, he
+is said to have remarked, "Do I really look as if I held the world so
+cheap" and in a print of it in the house of one of my friends, this is
+inscribed on the frame. I ought also to call attention to the window
+portrait of Richard, duke of York (1411-60), the father of Edward IV
+and Richard III, which probably comes to us from King's Hall.
+
+Among other paintings, which at present hang on the hall panelling,
+are portraits of the following famous members of our College:--Edward
+White Benson (1829-96) archbishop of Canterbury, Isaac Hawkins Browne
+(1706-60), Arthur Cayley (1821-95), the earl of Derby (1826-93),
+Michael Foster (1836-1907), Francis Galton (1822-1911), the earl of
+Halifax (1661-1715), Fenton John Anthony Hort (1828-92), Richard
+Claverhouse Jebb (1841-1905), Joseph Joachim (1831-1907) the musician,
+Thomas Jones (1756-1807), Joseph Barber Lightfoot (1828-89) bishop of
+Durham, Frederick Denison Maurice (1805-72), James Clerk Maxwell
+(1831-79), viscount Melbourne (1779-1849), Matthew Raine (1760-1811),
+Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873), Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900), Charles John
+Vaughan (1816-97), Brooke Foss Westcott (1825-1901) bishop of Durham,
+John Westlake (1828-1908), and William Whewell (1794-1866).
+
+Of these, Raine, Jones, Halifax and Hawkins Browne lived in the
+eighteenth century. The last-named is known to fame through having
+caused a change in the family reigning in the two Sicilies. In fact,
+coming to Naples in his travels he danced at a court ceremony "with
+such inconceivable alacrity and vigour" as to provoke universal
+amusement and amazement: in particular the queen's laughter was so
+immoderate that a miscarriage ensued. On such events may the histories
+of dynasties and empires turn! He is described on this occasion as
+pirouetting in a "dress of volcano silk with lava buttons": perhaps it
+is in this costume that he is depicted on our walls. Having related
+this anecdote I must in fairness add that he was a poet of
+considerable ability, a good talker in an age when the standard of
+conversation was high, and an excellent judge of wine. Most of the
+portraits are, however, of celebrities of the Victorian age. Of these,
+Melbourne and Derby were politicians; Benson, Hort, Lightfoot,
+Vaughan, and Westcott represent the church; Westlake was a lawyer;
+Jebb a scholar; Maurice and Sidgwick represent ethical philosophy;
+while Cayley, Foster, Galton, Maxwell, Sedgwick, and Whewell, were men
+of science.
+
+Among the canvasses above the panelling are portraits of Richard
+Bentley (1662-1742) the scholar, Edward Coke (1549-1634) the lord
+chief justice, Cowley (1618-67) the poet, John Dryden (1631-1701) the
+poet, the earl of Macclesfield (1666-1732), John Pearson (1613-86)
+bishop of Chester, Robert Smith (1689-1768) the mathematician, and
+John Wilkins (1614-72) bishop of Chester. Wilkins is now almost
+unknown but he wrote some interesting books, notably one on the
+ciphers employed in the civil war of the seventeenth century. Another
+work of his on the possibility of a journey to the moon, provoked the
+duchess of Newcastle to ask him where she could find a place to bait
+if she tried the journey: "Madam," said he, "of all the people in the
+world I least expected that question from you, who have built so many
+castles in the air that you may lie every night in one of your own."
+
+The pictures in the large combination room of Isaac Newton by Thomas
+Murray, and of Matthew Prior (1664-1721) by Godfrey Kneller are good:
+the former came to us from a descendant (Mrs Ring) of Newton's
+favourite niece, and its history is given in a letter from Charles
+Simeon to Mansel, master of the College at the time of the gift. The
+other canvasses are too big for a private apartment, but the portraits
+of the "proud" duke of Somerset (1662-1748) by Nathaniel Dance, the
+marquess of Granby (1721-70) by Joshua Reynolds, the duke of
+Gloucester by John Opie, the marquess of Camden (1759-1840) by Thomas
+Lawrence, the duke of Grafton (1760-1844) also by Lawrence, and the
+duke of Sussex (1773-1843) by James Lonsdale, are of some repute: to
+these there was added in 1915 a portrait of Arthur J. Balfour by
+P.A. Laszlö de Lombros.
+
+Of the peers mentioned above the names of Granby and Somerset are
+still well known. Granby fought in the Culloden campaign, was colonel
+of the blues (horse guards) at Minden, 1759; commander of the British
+contingent in the campaigns of 1760, 1761, and 1762; and in 1766
+became commander-in-chief of the army. Delighting in danger, which
+even when in supreme command he deliberately sought, brave to a fault,
+an excellent cavalry leader, rich and lavishly generous, he was the
+idol of the public, and witnesses to his popularity remain in the
+numerous public-houses scattered far and wide over England which bear
+his name and arms. Somerset was of a very different type, being a
+stupid man whose power was chiefly derived from his enormous landed
+possessions. To the Somerset properties he added, by his marriage with
+the sole heiress of the earls of Northumberland, the great estates of
+the Percies. He held the chancellorship of the University for the
+extraordinary term of sixty years. His title of the "proud duke"
+commemorates only his arrogance, and was derived from the fact that
+even to speak to anyone in a menial position was regarded by him as a
+condescension. His servants were trained to understand his wishes by
+signs, and numerous footmen surrounded him when in the streets so as
+to avoid the risk that any people of the lower classes should approach
+or address him. Perhaps the best known of the stories of his
+pretensions refers to his remark to his second wife who once called
+his attention to something by touching him with her fan (or according
+to another version kissed him without asking his leave), "Madam," said
+he, drawing himself apart, "my first wife never dared to take such a
+liberty, and she was a Percy." As another illustration of his
+character I may add that he deprived one of his daughters of £20,000
+because she had sat down in his presence without asking his leave.
+
+In the lodge there are numerous portraits of former masters of the
+College, and obviously this is the proper place for such a collection.
+It is not complete, twelve past masters being unrepresented, but
+portraits of two of these (namely Wilkins and Pearson) hang in the
+hall. The most notable picture in this series is that of Nevile, which
+is properly given the place of honour over the mantelpiece in the
+dining room which he built. He holds a paper in his right hand, and
+I like to think that this is intended to suggest the letter which
+Elizabeth on her death-bed entrusted to him to take to Scotland,
+informing James VI of that kingdom that she designated him as her
+successor. In this room too are portraits of Porson and Thompson with
+whose memories so many excellent academic stories are associated, but
+I must not linger over these. In the drawing room the most striking
+portraits are those of queen Elizabeth by Mark Gerrard, the duke of
+Gloucester (1776-1834) in his undergraduate robes by George Romney,
+and queen Mary probably by Hans Eworth. The painted panels in the
+entrance hall often escape attention, but are worth looking at,
+especially in the case of the portraits of Edward III, Henry VII,
+Elizabeth of York, Mary of Scotland, Edward VI, and queen Mary. The
+collection of portraits, formed by Dr Butler, of Trinity men who have
+held judicial appointments is also interesting, but is not generally
+accessible to visitors.
+
+The pictures in the lecture-rooms and on the walls of the staircase
+leading to them form a sort of overflow collection, and though of
+unequal merit, a few are worth attention. There are also some pictures
+of merit in the library among which I note in particular portraits of
+Tennyson and Lightfoot.
+
+The engravings of former members of the College placed in the small
+combination room will repay study. There are at present between one
+hundred and fifty and two hundred here, but there are many more in
+portfolios in the library. Several of these have been acquired in
+recent years through the generosity and knowledge of John Charrington.
+
+The painted glass in the hall shows numerous coats of arms, and anyone
+acquainted with heraldry will find here a rich field of study. The
+windows could have been filled over and over again with the arms of
+former famous members of the College, but the matter has been managed
+in a haphazard way, and many distinguished sons of the House are
+unrepresented. In spite of some bad glass the collection is
+interesting. Perhaps however any further account of it here would be
+more technical than would be justified in a paper like this. Of other
+glass in the College, the windows in the chapel are typical of the art
+of 1870, and are only moderately satisfactory. The window at the south
+end of the library, executed in 1775, was made by Peckitt of York,
+after a design by Cipriani: it illustrates some curious points in the
+history of the art of stained glass, but the design is impossible, and
+the scheme of colour atrocious.
+
+Sculpture, unless it is absolutely first rate, does not represent a
+man as well as portraiture. The number of pieces of statuary of the
+first class in Great Britain is small, and in the possession of such
+pieces the College is extraordinarily fortunate. The statue of Newton,
+with its proud inscription "Newton qui genus humanum ingenio
+superavit," in the antechapel by Roubiliac--"the marble index of a
+mind for ever voyaging through strange seas of thought alone"--is of
+the highest merit. It was described by Chantrey as "the noblest of
+English statues," and I have never seen any modern piece of statuary
+anywhere which can be ranked superior to it: the man lives and almost
+moves. Thorwaldsen's statue of Byron, rejected by the authorities of
+Westminster Abbey on account of his alleged atheistical opinions,
+which stands in the library, and that of Bacon in the antechapel may
+also be reckoned among examples of first-class statuary. Of these
+three pieces two are by foreigners. There are also in the antechapel
+statues of Barrow, Macaulay, Whewell, and Tennyson, and in the library
+a large number of busts. The statues of Edward III on the clock tower,
+of Henry VIII, James I, Anne of Denmark, and Prince Charles on the
+great gate, and of queen Elizabeth on the queen's gate are
+interesting, though not to be reckoned as works of art.
+
+Old Silver Plate has a peculiar beauty. We have some fine specimens
+though they are fewer and later than from our history we should
+expect. Most of the pieces are kept in the butteries, and can be seen
+by visitors. Twice a year anyone entering the hall will see the junior
+bursar there with all the plate spread before him checking it by his
+lists, a pretty spectacle which always suggests to me the picture of
+the king "in his counting house counting out his money," and formerly
+in "May-week" typical pieces were set out on show in the hall.
+
+We have a catalogue of the plate--a large and valuable
+collection--owned by King's Hall in the fifteenth century, and we may
+reasonably suppose that this, as well as the plate belonging to
+Michael-House, came in due course to us; all this has gone with the
+possible, but doubtful, exception of a censer boat now in the library.
+We know also that some plate was given us in Tudor and early Stuart
+times: of this, only five pieces remained to us at the restoration. I
+take it however that until well into the eighteenth century people
+were accustomed to regard plate, other than pieces of historic
+interest, as a convenient way of keeping portable wealth in a form
+which could be easily turned into coin, and its dispersion in times of
+emergency when money was wanted is not surprising.
+
+It was customary for noblemen and fellow-commoners to present plate to
+the House when they completed their academic career: their
+caution-money being commonly employed for or towards the purpose.
+After the restoration, thanks to this graceful practice, our
+possessions of this kind grew rapidly. Unfortunately a good many of
+our pieces were lost through two burglaries, one in 1795 and the other
+in 1798; for instance, no less than fifty-five drinking cups some of
+great beauty were then taken. During the eighteenth century, in
+colleges and throughout the country, large numbers of "standing
+pieces" of plate were melted down, and the metal used to make spoons
+and forks; this accounts for the disappearance of some of our
+treasures of an earlier date. Until 1870 new pieces continued to be
+added in large numbers: in that year the College abolished the general
+admission of noblemen and fellow-commoners, holding that distinctions
+of rank were undesirable in academic life; and since then our
+collection has increased only by special gifts or by purchase.
+
+Of our pre-commonwealth plate the oldest pieces are two silver-gilt
+flagons, dated 1607-08, given us in 1636 by John and Bernard Stuart,
+sons of the duke of Lennox, then about sixteen and fourteen years old.
+There is in the small combination room a charming print of Vandyke's
+portrait of the brothers: both boys were killed during the Civil War,
+John at Edgehill and Bernard at Rowton Heath. Whistles are placed in
+the handles of these flagons, so they must have been originally
+intended for secular use, but they have been included, as far back as
+our records go, among the communion plate: perhaps the spouts were
+added when the vessels were placed in the chapel. Our next earliest
+piece is the handsome cup, dated 1615-16, given us by Nevile probably
+in 1615: it was originally silver-gilt. The fourth of these pieces is
+a bursarial rose-water basin and ewer dated 1635-36. We owe it to
+Ambrose Aykerod who was bursar in that year: his arms are engraved on
+the cup, and the inscriptions on it refer to vows and pledges by him
+which are now inexplicable. The only other early piece which survived
+the Civil War was a cup given by John Clarkson between 1610 and 1620
+and known from its inscription "Pauper Johannes Dictus Cognomine
+Clarkson Hunc Cyathum Dono Gratuito Dedit" as the "Pauper Joan Pot":
+this was stolen in 1798. Clarkson had matriculated as a sizar in 1553,
+obtained a scholarship in due course, and graduated B.A. in 1560.
+
+Apart from the four pieces mentioned above, the most striking objects
+in our collection are the rose-water basins and ewers, the Duport
+standing salt, the standing or loving cups, the tankards, and the
+punch-bowls.
+
+We have several notable rose-water basins and ewers. The earliest of
+these is the set given by the earl of Kent in 1662 to commemorate the
+passing of the Act of Uniformity. The date is given by a quaint double
+chronogram: and the central inscription Νιψον ανομηματα μη μοναν οψιν
+reads alike forwards and backwards. Another beautiful set is that
+given by the duke of Buckingham in 1671, the circumference of the
+basin being over seven feet. The visitor should also notice a set of
+1740 bequeathed by David Humphrey, and a set of 1748 given by William
+John Bankes. Another set consists of a basin of 1716 given by John
+Bennet, with a graceful ewer probably made about 1675. This ewer must
+have been originally a "standing cup" since a whistle is placed in the
+handle, but a spout was added between 1789 and 1810 with the intention
+of turning it into a flagon: on it are engraved the Trinity and
+Westminster arms, and in an early catalogue it is called the Busby
+cup: its donor is unknown.
+
+There is a curious custom at the high table connected with these
+dishes. At the end of dinner on ordinary nights, before grace is said,
+a rose-water dish with an empty ewer is placed before the fellow
+sitting at the head of each table. I conjecture that this dates from a
+time when napkins and forks were unknown, and diners were accustomed
+to rinse their hands in water before rising from the table. Now the
+appearance of the empty ewer is only a sign that dinner is over. At
+feasts the ewer contains rose-water which is poured into the dish and
+passed round the table.
+
+We have a fine specimen of a standing salt in a piece associated with
+the name of James Duport. Its breadth is nearly ten inches, and its
+height, without the handles, seven inches. It was these massive salts,
+and not "trencher salts," that were originally used to divide the
+company into those that sat above and below the salt; and in the
+middle ages the standing salt was generally the most valued single
+piece in the house and the chief ornament on the table. The medieval
+specimens usually have a cover to protect the salt, and the handles in
+specimens like ours are said to have been introduced for a similar
+reason, as a napkin can be twisted round them so as to cover the salt,
+and thus save it from dust. Our specimen bears the inscription εχετε
+εν εαυτοις ἁλας και ειρηνευετε εν αλληλοις, together with a statement
+that it was given by Duport. Probably his gift was made in 1665, when
+he left the College on his appointment as master of Magdalene. The
+piece, however, bears the hall-mark 1733-34; here, and in some other
+cases, it would seem that the original piece was exchanged for a new
+one, perhaps when repairs were required, and it was the custom in such
+circumstances to engrave the old inscription on the new piece of
+plate.
+
+In spite of our losses at the end of the eighteenth century some fine
+drinking cups and covers still remain in our possession. Notable among
+these is one of 1691-92 given by Charles and George Firebrace, one of
+1697-98 given by Henry Boyle, and one of 1711-12 given by John Verney.
+We have also a cup and cover of 1726 given by the earl of Sandwich,
+another of 1729 given by Samuel Husbands, another of 1763 given by
+John Damer, another of 1771 given by George Augustus Henry Cavendish,
+another of 1776 given by William Greaves, and another of 1780 given by
+the earl of Mexborough. To these I may add the Lyndhurst silver-gilt
+cup and cover of 1876-77 given by Sir Theodore Martin. All these are
+fine specimens of silversmith's work, and can be used at feasts as
+loving cups, with the ceremonial customary to such drinking.
+
+The tankards with lids form another striking group of plate, but the
+larger ones which contain three quarts or more must be regarded as
+being decorative rather than useful. Conspicuous among these pieces is
+one, probably made about 1670, given by Thomas Taylor, one of 1698-99
+given by Peter Pheasaunt, one of 1699-1700 given by Thomas Alston, one
+of 1700-01 given by Thomas Bellot, one of 1739-40 given by Thomas
+Foley, one of 1746-47 given by Francis Vernon, one of 1751-52 given by
+Charles Paulet, one of 1757-58 given by Edward Fitzgerald, and one of
+1762-63 given by Hans Sloane. There is also a fine collection of ale
+plate. Of the smaller tankards, stoups, and drinking cups there are
+innumerable specimens. I will not dwell longer over our other pieces.
+Suffice it is to say that of punch-bowls there are three or four fine
+specimens of the eighteenth century, as also various snuff-boxes,
+silver trays, etc. Of candlesticks there are between two and three
+hundred, many of them beautiful pieces of work. Of ordinary domestic
+plate the stock is large.
+
+There is also a good deal of plate which has been given or assigned
+for use in the lodge: this includes the Perry silver-gilt dessert
+service. In the chapel plate besides the flagons already mentioned
+there are two silver-gilt patens of 1661-62, associated in the early
+catalogues with the names of John and Bernard Stuart; also an
+alms-dish of 1673, and an altar cross given in 1894 and said to be of
+Spanish renaissance work.
+
+I add some particulars of thirteen challenge pieces of plate owned
+by the Boat and Athletic Clubs: of these, five belong to the First
+Trinity Boat Club, and eight to the Athletic Club. These pieces are of
+recent make and their chief interest comes from the inscribed names of
+the successive holders.
+
+Trinity men will recollect that there are various races arranged each
+year by the First Trinity Boat Club, the winners of which receive pots
+or other prizes, and that in five of these events, the winners, in
+addition to receiving the special prizes, hold challenge pieces on
+which are engraved the names of past winners. These challenge pieces
+are: A two-handled silver chased cup and stand (hall-mark 1836), held
+by the winner of a sculling race (the Macnaughten Sculls) rowed in
+the Michaelmas Term, open to all members of the Club who have not
+previously won it or the University Colquhoun Sculls. A two-handled
+silver cup and stand (hall-mark probably 1857 or 1858), which came to
+the club from the now defunct Second Trinity Boat Club, held by the
+winner of a sculling race (the Baines Sculls) rowed in the Lent Term,
+open to all members who have not previously won it or the Macnaughten
+Sculls or the University Colquhoun Sculls. Silver oars (hall-mark
+1860) held by the winners of a pair-oared race (the Wyatt Pairs) rowed
+in the Michaelmas Term, open to all members who have not previously
+won it or the University Magdalene Pairs. Silver oars (hall-mark 1861)
+which came to the Club from Second Trinity, held by the winners of a
+pair-oared race (the Dodington Pairs) rowed in the Lent Term, open to
+all members who have not previously won it or the Wyatt Pairs or the
+University Magdalene Pairs. Silver Sculls (hall-mark 1897) held by the
+winners of a double sculling race (the Taxis Sculls) rowed in the
+Easter Term, open to all members who have not previously won it or the
+University Magdalene pairs.
+
+Similarly among the sports arranged each year by the Trinity Athletic
+Club are seven events, the winners of which in addition to receiving
+special prizes, hold challenge pieces of plate on which are engraved
+the names of past winners. These challenge pieces are: A half-fluted
+silver bowl and plinth (hall-mark 1887) held by the winner of the mile
+race. A half-fluted silver bowl and plinth (hall-mark 1899) held by
+the winner of the half-mile race. A silver chased claret jug with
+handle (hall-mark 1886) held by the winner of the quarter-mile race.
+Four silver candlesticks (hall-mark 1899) held by the winner of the
+hundred yards race. A two-handled half-fluted silver cup (hall-mark
+1888) held by the winner of the hurdles race. A two-handled silver
+bowl (hall-mark 1896) held by the winner of the long jump. A silver
+salver (hall-mark 1896) held by the winner of the high jump. Finally
+there is a two-handled silver chased cup and plinth (hall-mark 1892)
+held by the man who scores most marks in the various events.
+
+It may be thought that I have occupied too much space in giving bare
+lists of pieces of plate, but the shapes of some of the pieces are so
+good and the surface of old silver, when carefully tended, has such a
+beautiful texture that I believe it may be worth calling the attention
+of any interested in such things to some of our possessions of this
+kind. Only societies and families with continuous records dating from
+a distant past can show such collections.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE COLLEGE AUDITORS.
+
+
+There is no reference in our earliest college statutes--those of
+1552--to an Auditor, but the extant accounts show that the office
+existed from the foundation of the College in 1546. Definite
+regulations for the appointment were proposed in the draft statutes of
+1554, and were embodied in the statutes of 1560. By these the auditor
+was made one of the statutable officers of the Society: the post was
+held for long periods, and it was not permissible to perform the
+duties by proxy. The statute in question was re-enacted in 1844. By
+the statutes of 1861 the office was made annual, and tenable only
+during pleasure. It remains annual under the present statutes, but a
+definite proviso was inserted in 1882 that it is not tenable by a
+fellow or officer of the House, and a clause was introduced providing
+for the appointment from among the fellows of an Assessor or Assessors
+who should be present during the audit.
+
+From the foundation of the College, its financial year ran from
+Michaelmas to Michaelmas, and the audit of each year was concluded in
+the following December. At first the annual honorarium of the auditor
+seems to have been £10 with an allowance of £2 for travelling
+expenses, stationery, etc., but before the end of the sixteenth
+century it had been reduced to £5, with an augmentation of £3. 6s. 8d.
+and some allowances.
+
+The form of the _declaratio computi_ was much as at present, and
+generally, with but small variations, it takes the form now
+stereotyped "and so the said A. B. Senior (or Junior) Bursar upon the
+foot of this his account for one whole year ending Michaelmas ...
+oweth unto the College the sum of...." In some cases, and notably in
+the seventeenth century, the sums include fractions of a penny, even
+as small as one thirty-second part thereof. Presumably the audit was
+always followed by a "feast," as still remains the custom.
+
+Of the occupants of the office from 1546 to 1618 the information in
+the college books is incomplete. The only auditors previous to 1618
+whose names I have noticed, with the years in which they held office,
+are Edward Burnell, 1553, 1561, 1563 and 1564; Adam Winthrop, 1606;
+and Richard Brooke, 1614. I have not, however, read the account-books
+through from cover to cover, and it may be that there are references
+which have escaped me. Luckily Winthrop's diary and some memoranda
+from 1595 to 1621 are extant, and contain references to a few earlier
+dates. From these we can take our continuous record back to the year
+ending Michaelmas 1593, when he was auditor. He resigned in 1610, and
+was succeeded by Brooke. Brooke was acting in 1615, and had commons in
+1616, and I have no doubt acted in 1617. From 1618 onwards we can,
+from one source or another, make out the names of those who held the
+office. The handwritings of the earlier auditors have marked
+characteristics. They suggest that there was one auditor from 1547 to
+1552, another from 1553 to 1578, who must have been Edward Burnell,
+another from 1579 to 1591, and another from 1592 to 1609, who must
+have been Adam Winthrop. But I present these as mere surmises, and I
+do not attempt to go back beyond 1593.
+
+Our roll then is as follows. From 1547 to 1592 we cannot definitely
+say more than that Edward Burnell was auditor for a period which
+included the years 1553 to 1564, for no doubt his tenure was unbroken.
+From 1593 the sequence runs thus:
+
+Adam Winthrop, 1593 (or earlier) to 1609; Richard Brooke, 1610 to
+1617; Robert Spicer, 1618 to 1628; Francis Hughes, 1629 to 1668;
+Samuel Newton, 1669 to 1717, Newton resigned in 1674, and thereon he
+and William Ellis were appointed to the office, with remainder to the
+survivor of them, but apparently William Ellis never acted; Denys
+L'Isle, 1718 to 1726; William Greaves, 1727 to 1778; Robert Graham,
+1779 to 1791; Samuel Knight, 1792 to 1811; Nicholas Conyngham Tindal,
+1812 to 1825; James Parke, 1826 to 1828; Andrew Amos, 1829 to 1836;
+John George Shaw-Lefevre, 1837 to 1851; George Denman, 1852 to 1862;
+George Valentine Yool, 1863 to 1869; Augustus Arthur VanSittart, 1870
+to 1881; John Willis Clark, 1882 to 1908. Since 1908 the office has
+been held by a professional accountant. The dates given indicate the
+ends of the audit year: thus the audit of 1669 was for the year
+1668-69. It will be noticed that during the three hundred and sixteen
+years from 1593 to 1908, there were, if we omit William Ellis, only
+seventeen auditors, giving an average tenure of more than eighteen
+years. Of these seventeen auditors at least eleven have been lawyers
+and four ultimately rose to the Bench. I add a few biographical notes
+on these auditors.
+
+Of Edward Burnell, the earliest holder of the office whose name I have
+given, I know nothing. His successor Adam Winthrop, 1548-1623, the son
+of a prominent London merchant and reformer, had been admitted as a
+fellow-commoner at Magdalene in 1567, and had left the University
+without a degree. He had been called to the bar, but did not practise,
+and was content to fill the rôle of a well-to-do country squire. He
+was an intimate friend of Still, master of Trinity from 1577 to 1593,
+whose sister he married in 1574, and whose wife was his connection by
+marriage. I conjecture that he owed the office to Still's influence.
+Winthrop was a fair scholar, an indifferent poet, and somewhat of a
+pedant. His tomb is at Groton, Suffolk. More than one of his
+descendants were distinguished. In particular his son, John,
+1588-1649, who was admitted to Trinity College in 1602, was the
+founder of the well-known American family of this name; and his
+great-great-grandson, Sir George Downing was the founder of Downing
+College.
+
+Winthrop seems to have done the whole of the audit work at the end of
+the Michaelmas term of each year. Thus in 1601 he wrote:
+
+  The ivth of Decemb. I ridde to Cambride & beganne the Auditt the 7th
+  beinge Monday. The xiiijth of Decembre I returned from the Auditt &
+  did see the Sonne in the Eclips about 12 of the Clock at noone.
+
+Perhaps his resignation was made at the suggestion of the College, for
+early in 1610 he wrote:
+
+  Dr Meriton came to speake with me about the resignation of my office
+  in Trinity College to Mr Brookes.... I surrendered my Auditorship in
+  Trinitye College to the Mr fellows & schollers before a pub.
+  notary.... I dyned at Dr Meriton's in Hadley & received of him xxlb
+  for my Auditorshippe.... Mr Rich. Brooke the nue Auditor of Trinity
+  College was at my house in Groton to whom I dd. divers paper books &
+  Roles touchinge his Office.
+
+Of the next three auditors I can discover very little. Richard Brooke
+was appointed in 1610. The following conclusion of 8 June 1615, seems
+to refer to him, "concluded that Mr Brookes in regard of his paines
+taken divers times for the Colledge that he shoulde ... have given him
+Twentye pounds," and during his visits in the following year be
+allowed commons. We may assume that he held office till the end of
+1617. A Richard Brookes had entered at Queens' as a fellow-commoner in
+1587, but whether he was the subsequent auditor there is nothing to
+show. In 1618 we have the copy of the appointment of Robert Spicer. He
+held office till the end of 1628, since a conclusion of 3 June 1629,
+appointed in his place Francis Hughes. Hughes, who held the office
+till his death in October 1669, was admitted a scholar in 1616,
+graduated M.A. in 1623, was one of the esquire-bedells, and occupied
+rooms in College at the time of his death.
+
+The next occupant of the office was Samuel Newton, 1629-1718, a
+prominent attorney in the town and mayor in 1671. He was not a member
+of the University. His diary from 1662 to 1717 preserved in the
+library of Downing College, contains an account of his election to the
+post in the chapel by the master and seniors, he being present in the
+antechapel. He attended next day in his gown, was sworn to the
+faithful discharge of his duties, and signed the roll of college
+officers. He proved thoroughly efficient. For his services at the
+audit in 1669 he received the fee of £5 with the customary
+augmentation of £3. 6s. 8d., a sum of £6. 13s. 4d. for engrossing the
+audit rolls, which henceforth were kept excellently, a sum of £1 for
+preparing a book of arrears, and a sum of £1. 2s. 8d. for stationery.
+He also received from the junior bursar, billets of wood of the value
+of 6s. 8d.; from the steward, a "warp of lyng" of the value of 6s.
+8d.; from the manciple, a "coller of brawne, also a dish of wild fowle
+or 6s. 8d."; and from the brewhouse, "2 barrels of strong beere."
+
+In 1674 Newton surrendered his patent of appointment as auditor, but
+he was immediately reappointed jointly with his cousin, William Ellis,
+with remainder to the survivor of them. They were at the same time
+appointed on the same conditions to the office of college registrar,
+then vacant by the death of a Mr T. Griffith. According to Newton's
+diary, William Ellis proceeded M.A. in 1670, but his name does not
+appear in the list of graduati, unless indeed he is the Wm Ellis who
+received the degree _per lit. reg._ in 1671. The college account-books
+continued to be signed by Newton, and I have not noticed in them
+evidence that Ellis ever took any part in the audit. The Society's
+solicitors and attorneys have frequently acted as registrars, and it
+may be that Ellis was in partnership with Newton, and was for that
+reason made with him joint auditor and registrar.
+
+Samuel Newton died in 1718 in his ninetieth year. For the three years,
+1715, 1716, and 1717, the books were audited by John Newton,
+presumably his son or grandson, as his deputy. No doubt the
+arrangement was made in consequence of the failing health of the old
+gentleman whose signature in 1714 was very shaky. The appointment of a
+deputy was invalid under the statute, but it must have been made with
+the approval of Bentley, and perhaps of the seniority. At any rate
+John Newton conducted the audit, and signed the books as deputy
+auditor.
+
+Newton was succeeded in 1718 as auditor and registrar by Denys L'Isle.
+L'Isle had been a fellow-commoner of Trinity Hall, admitted in 1712,
+graduated LL.B. in 1715, who had gone down and in 1716 taken his name
+off the books. He was a vigorous and not too scrupulous barrister. He
+owed his appointment to Bentley, and he showed "extraordinary activity
+and zeal in promoting all" his benefactor's "wishes and interests" and
+represented him in some of his disputes. Whatever view may be taken of
+Bentley's character, no one can justify his conduct in regard to the
+college finances. A notable scandal occurred in the audit of 1722. In
+the accounts of that year large sums were charged to the College for
+works at the lodge and other sums spent by the master which had not
+been sanctioned by the Society. Undoubtedly the charges were illegal,
+but Bentley and L'Isle refused to allow the accounts to be examined by
+the seniority. In fact in this, as in other matters, L'Isle had no
+scruple in screening Bentley from the consequences of acts which were
+neither legal nor honourable.
+
+L'Isle died in 1727, and was succeeded as auditor, steward of the
+courts, and registrar by William Greaves. Greaves had in 1719 migrated
+to Clare, Cambridge, from Brasenose, Oxford; he graduated B.A. in
+1720, and in 1722 was elected at Clare to a fellowship which he held
+till 1742. He was a barrister and an able man: he too owed his office
+to Bentley, and acted as his counsel in many of his tortuous
+proceedings. Through Bentley's influence Greaves had in 1726 been made
+commissary of the University, an office which he held till 1778. The
+letters patent to the office of college auditor were made out for the
+term of his life, but a question having been raised as to whether this
+was statutable, he surrendered them, and the College granted new
+patents for the term of fifty years if he should live so long. I
+suppose he was duly admitted to the office, for probably an acute
+lawyer would have seen to this, but there is no record of the fact in
+our books.
+
+Greaves seems to have performed his duties as auditor in an
+honourable manner. After the audit of 1778, he surrendered his office
+at the close of fifty years' tenure of it: he then received a present
+of plate from the College, with their thanks for his long and faithful
+services. Six years later he made a donation to the Society of £100 to
+found an annual prize for an essay on the character of King William
+the Third. After nearly a century it was said that the essayists had
+exhausted the subject, and in 1882 the College got leave to substitute
+for it one connected with the history of the British Empire.
+
+Robert Graham, 1744-1836, a lawyer of note, succeeded Greaves. Graham
+had graduated as third wrangler in 1766, and in the following year had
+been elected to a fellowship. He held the office till after the audit
+of 1791. He was made a baron of the exchequer in 1799, and proved a
+singularly inefficient judge. He retired from the bench in 1827.
+
+Graham's chief distinction is said to have been his urbanity, and at
+the Bar it was currently believed that no one but his sempstress had
+power to ruffle his equanimity. He was somewhat pompous, and an
+adventure of his at the assizes at Newcastle afforded much amusement
+to his contemporaries. There, on one occasion just before charging the
+grand jury, he tumbled, unnoticed, into the river from the garden of
+the house where he lodged, but luckily was hauled out by some passing
+watermen. The rough remedies of the quay-side failed to restore
+consciousness, and the bystanders, supposing he was drowned, carted
+him to a dead-house, where he was stripped and laid out. The coroner's
+jury, summoned with unusual celerity, had viewed the body, and were
+considering their verdict when, to their surprise he showed signs of
+life and came to himself. His position was not altogether dignified,
+but realizing at once that it is always incumbent on a judge to move
+in state, he was by his directions fetched from the mortuary in the
+sheriff's carriage, with the trumpeters, and usual ceremonial.
+
+Of Graham's successor, Samuel Knight, 1755-1829, I know little. He had
+been admitted as a pensioner in 1772, became a fellow-commoner in
+1774, and graduated in the poll in 1776. Apparently he had no special
+qualifications for the post beyond being a pleasant member of society.
+He resigned in 1812, and died in 1829.
+
+After Knight's resignation, the post was offered to Nicholas Conyngham
+Tindal, 1776-1846, a lawyer of distinction. He had graduated in 1799
+as eighth wrangler, was a Chancellor's medalist, and had been elected
+to a fellowship in 1801, which, as he did not take orders, he had
+vacated in due course in accordance with the provisions of the
+Elizabethan statutes. The plan of offering the post to a
+distinguished past fellow now became the custom, and all the auditors
+hereafter mentioned were past fellows of the college.
+
+Tindal was one of the counsel for queen Caroline; he is celebrated in
+the history of the courts for having secured to a criminal client the
+right of wager of battle, which had long fallen into disuse but had
+not been abolished by statute. He was member for the University from
+1827 to 1829 in which year he was made chief justice of the Common
+Pleas; he held that office till his death in 1846. Though not
+specially successful as an advocate, he had a profound knowledge of
+law and was an excellent judge. His enormous dimensions are
+commemorated in a print in my possession with the inscription "Judges
+of A Size," representing him standing by Joshua Williams one of his
+colleagues on assize, who was very diminutive; probably this is an
+ancient joke.
+
+The next auditor was James Parke, 1782-1868, a lawyer of even greater
+distinction. He had graduated in 1803 as fifth wrangler, and had been
+Craven scholar, Browne's medalist and Chancellor's medalist. In 1804
+he had been elected to a fellowship. He was one of the counsel briefed
+against queen Caroline. He was made a judge in 1828, and of course
+then resigned the office of auditor, which he thus held for only three
+years.
+
+Parke had a profound knowledge of the common law, and admired, and was
+a rigid adherent of, ancient forms and customs. The fact was well
+known, and led to a curious scene, when on one occasion, while giving
+a judgment, he fainted. Cold water and smelling salts were applied
+without success, whereon a somewhat malicious colleague brought from
+an adjacent room an ancient volume of reports, black with the dust of
+ages, and banged it under the nostrils of the judge. It may have been
+a coincidence, but Parke at once revived, and in a few minutes was
+able to proceed with the business in hand.
+
+At one time when Parke was trying a criminal case the prisoner
+confessed his crime to his advocate, who thereupon (most improperly)
+acquainted the judge with the fact and asked his advice. Parke rebuked
+the barrister for informing him of the prisoner's guilt, but added
+that counsel was not the less bound to defend his client to the best
+of his ability. The case has been often cited, and states the practice
+of the bar; it being of course assumed that nothing is said or done
+for the defence which an honourable man might not say or do.
+
+Parke's subsequent career served to settle a constitutional question
+of great importance. In 1856 he was created Baron Wensleydale with a
+life peerage. It was decided that the power of the crown to create
+life peerages had been lost by disuse. He was then made a baron with
+the usual remainder in tail male.
+
+Parke was followed as auditor by Andrew Amos, 1791-1860, also a lawyer
+of distinction. He had graduated as fifth wrangler in 1813, and in
+1815 had been elected to a fellowship. He was appointed auditor in
+1829. He had a large arbitration practice, acted on the Criminal Law
+Commission, and was professor of English Law in London. In 1837 he was
+appointed legal member of the Indian Council, and on his departure for
+the East had to resign his office in the college. On the first vacancy
+after his return to England, he was, in 1848, elected Downing
+Professor of Laws in Cambridge, and occupied the chair until his
+death.
+
+Amos was succeeded by John George Shaw-Lefevre, 1797-1879.
+Shaw-Lefevre had been senior wrangler and first Smith's prize man in
+1818, and had been elected to a fellowship in the following year. Like
+his predecessors he was a barrister, but most of his time was taken up
+with duties connected with public departments. He settled the county
+divisions under the Reform Act of 1832, and was a member of numerous
+Commissions, notably those connected with compensation for the
+abolition of slavery, with the Poor Law Act, with the creation of
+South Australia, with ecclesiastical affairs, and with the Indian
+Civil Service: till 1875 he was busily engaged in public affairs. He
+stood unsuccessfully for parliament in the university contest of 1847.
+He resigned the auditorship after the audit of 1851. His tenure of the
+post is commemorated by his gift of the chandelier which hangs in the
+large combination room.
+
+The next auditor was the Hon. George Denman, 1819-1896, also a lawyer.
+Denman had been senior classic in 1842, and had been elected to a
+fellowship in the following year. He had always kept up his connection
+with the College, where he had numerous friends. He became auditor in
+1852. Like his predecessor he stood unsuccessfully for parliament as a
+representative of the University: this was in 1856. Subsequently he
+was appointed counsel to the University. He entered parliament in
+1859, and owing to press of work gave up his college office at the
+close of the audit of 1862. After a distinguished legal career he was
+raised in 1872 to the bench. He was a good scholar, had a fine
+presence, and to the end of his life was popular with all classes of
+Cambridge society.
+
+If I may trust my memory Denman told me that among his annual
+perquisites as auditor was a case of audit ale, and that on one
+occasion he gave it to Livingstone who he knew would appreciate it.
+The case travelled with the explorer through Africa, and as long as
+the ale lasted glasses of it were circulated, to the great
+satisfaction of the natives, whenever solemn treaties were ratified.
+
+The next holder of the office was George Valentine Yool, 1829-1897,
+a chancery barrister, who had been third wrangler and second Smith's
+prizeman in 1851, and had been elected to a fellowship in 1853. Yool
+took but little part in public affairs. He was appointed auditor in
+1863, and gave up the office at the end of 1869.
+
+After Yool's resignation the College reverted to its former practice,
+and appointed as auditor a resident, Augustus Arthur VanSittart.
+VanSittart had been bracketed senior classic in 1847, and had been
+elected to a fellowship in the following year. After once standing
+unsuccessfully for parliament, he devoted himself to literary work,
+and among other things collected and collated the various readings of
+the New Testament. His annual speech at the audit feast, wherein he
+gave a witty sketch of the more interesting developments of academic
+life during the preceding year, was one of the features of the time,
+and served somewhat the same purpose as the Tripos verses of earlier
+ages. He held the office till his death in the spring of 1882. He was
+wealthy, and a most generous benefactor of the Fitzwilliam Museum and
+other Cambridge institutions.
+
+On VanSittart's death the post was given to John Willis Clark,
+1833-1910. Clark had come up to Trinity in 1852, obtained a first
+class in the classical tripos, 1856, and was elected to a fellowship
+in 1858. He made his home in Cambridge, and his unceasing activities
+in zoological, library, and theatrical matters are chronicled in the
+local records. He completed the _Architectural History of the
+University_--a permanent and invaluable record of Cambridge
+history--which had been commenced by his uncle, and wrote on various
+library and antiquarian subjects. He held the registraryship of the
+University from 1891 to his death in 1910.
+
+Clark vacated the office of auditor in 1908, and since then the
+College has appointed to the post a professional accountant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+WREN'S DESIGNS FOR THE COLLEGE LIBRARY.
+
+
+In 1914 the College obtained an interesting series of photographs of
+Wren's original drawings and plans for our library in Nevile's Court.
+They will well repay inspection by those who are interested in our
+history or in architecture.
+
+The present library is the third building assigned by Trinity for the
+purpose. During the first half-century of its existence the Society
+used the library[26] of King's Hall, a good first-floor room, some
+twenty feet long by ten feet broad, which had been built in 1416-21
+near the north-west corner of the cloister court of that House. This
+room was connected with the old oratory of King's Hall by a gallery
+over the west cloister.
+
+Soon after the foundation of Trinity the provision of a larger library
+was contemplated, and in the order (about providing building materials
+for the chapel) of queen Elizabeth of 1560, it is said that its
+erection had been already begun. In fact however it was then only
+under discussion.
+
+[Illustration: Wren's Second Design for the College Library.
+Exterior.]
+
+[Illustration: Wren's First Design for the College Library. Exterior.]
+
+[Illustration: Wren's First Design for the College Library. Interior.]
+
+[Illustration: Wren's Design for a Senate House.]
+
+Our predecessors, in their arrangements for the "reconcination" or
+rebuilding of the Great Court, naturally attached great
+importance to not interfering with King Edward's Tower which had long
+been the chief entrance to King's Hall and then stood near the present
+sundial. A suggested way of working this Tower into the scheme of the
+court is shown on the plan which hangs on the staircase leading to the
+library annexe; in this, a block one hundred feet long and thirty-four
+feet broad, was to be built over an open colonnade running eastwards
+from the Tower and ending in front of and a few yards from the Great
+Gate. The first floor of this block might have been used for the new
+library; or alternatively it might have been used for chambers, and
+the new library built elsewhere, for instance, as was suggested, on
+the site of the range of chambers which now stretches from the chapel
+to the turret staircase adjoining the lodge.
+
+Neither of these proposals was then adopted, and our second library
+was not erected till Nevile, between 1594 and 1600, took the matter in
+hand. He provided for it a room seventy-five feet long and thirty feet
+broad on the second floor of the range connecting the Clock Tower and
+the lodge; it has since been converted into chambers.
+
+Less than a century after Nevile's library was finished, the Society
+again found it necessary to provide more book accommodation, and the
+result is the impressive and excellently designed building which
+stands on the west side of Nevile's Court. According to tradition, its
+erection, commenced in February 1676, was due to Barrow, then master
+of the College, who in the previous year had pressed the other heads
+of Houses to provide a room worthy of the University for its meetings,
+and urged that it should be of the best. Such schemes are expensive
+and cannot be effected without public spirit. Caution, it is said,
+carried the day, whereon Barrow, piqued at this faint-heartedness,
+declared that he would go to Trinity, "lay out the foundations of a
+building to enlarge his back court, and close it with a stately
+library, which should be more magnificent and costly than what he had
+proposed.... And he was as good as his word, for that very afternoon
+he ... staked out the very foundation upon which the building now
+stands."
+
+The story may be substantially true, for the long-cherished idea of
+building a university theatre and library was then in the hands of a
+syndicate: on the other hand the extant speech of Barrow in which he
+put forward his policy was not delivered till the Easter term 1676,
+and Wren's designs for such a building are referred to the year 1678
+and indicate that the scheme had not been then abandoned. But whether
+the anecdote be true or not, we may take it that the erection of our
+library was due to Barrow's initiative, and that he personally raised
+a considerable sum towards its cost.
+
+Sir Christopher Wren, a warm personal friend of Barrow, was selected
+as the architect, and placed his services at the disposal of the
+College without remuneration. His original drawings are included in a
+collection of his designs preserved at All Souls' College, Oxford,
+and by the kindness of that Society we have been allowed to take
+photographs of the plans which concern us. These relate to two plans
+for our library and one for a university commencement-house. The two
+plans for Trinity were made not later than 1675; they may have been
+submitted as alternatives, but there is a tradition that the second
+design was prepared only after the first had been rejected.
+
+Nevile's Court, as now arranged, contains three staircases on each of
+its sides, is closed on the east by the hall and small combination
+room block, and on the west by the library. In 1675 only two of the
+staircases on each side had been built, and the western ends of these
+were connected by a blank wall pierced in the middle by a gate, which
+is believed to have been later removed, stone by stone, and finally
+placed as the entrance to the College at the bottom of Trinity lane,
+where it now stands. Beyond this wall and between it and the river was
+the college tennis court. The land between Nevile's Court and the
+river was selected as the site of the library.
+
+Wren's first design shows a double cylindrical shell about sixty-five
+feet across inside and ninety feet high, surmounted by a dome and
+entered through a six-columned Ionic portico facing Nevile's Court. On
+the ground floor was a lobby round which were stone seats. Above this
+the inside of the inner cylindrical shell was lined with bookshelves,
+and for convenience of approach there were three galleries. The room
+was lighted by windows in the dome and a superimposed lantern. The
+east side of the portico was half-way between the western ends of the
+court, and these ends were connected with the body of the library by
+low curved walls surmounted by iron rails. This building is described
+as "a very beautiful and most commodious model," but it strikes the
+ordinary layman as poor in design, and I do not think that all Wren's
+genius could have made it other than unsatisfactory. Why it was
+rejected we do not know, but few will doubt that the decision was
+wise.
+
+Wren's second or alternative design, which was adopted, shows a lofty
+oblong room about one hundred and fifty feet long by thirty-eight feet
+broad supported on a colonnade. Several of his drawings for this were
+engraved for the _Architectural History of Cambridge_ by Willis and
+Clark, but the photographic reproductions of the originals--some with
+Wren's notes attached--which are now available have an interest of
+their own. A careful study will show details which were subsequently
+modified. The present library was placed to the west of the court as
+then built, and the rows of chambers on each side were extended to
+meet it. It is well-known that the shelves, cases, benches, tables,
+and book-rests now used were designed by Wren, and his drawings for
+them are reproduced in this series of photographs. The removal of all
+the bookcases except those fixed against the walls would enable us to
+judge the appearance intended by Wren. How fine the effect must have
+been, may be gathered from the plate in Le Keux's _Memorials_ or the
+engraving in the _University Almanack_ of 1852.
+
+Among Wren's plans is also one for "a Theatre or Commencement-House
+with a Library annexed, according to an Intention for the University
+of Cambridge, about the year 1678, but not executed." Whether this
+represents a sketch of the general plan which it is said that Barrow
+had suggested to the heads of Houses in 1675 it is impossible to say.
+The erection of a building on these lines might have been costly, but
+the result would have been a valuable addition to the architecture of
+Cambridge.
+
+I published in the _Trinity Magazine_ in 1914 the elevations of our
+library according to Wren's two plans and of his suggested
+Commencement or Senate House. I reprint these here (see above,
+pp. 145-148), but add nothing more as it is intended shortly to
+reproduce in book-form various drawings on the subject made by Wren.
+
+
+[Footnote 26: There was an earlier library in King's Hall but we do
+not know where it was situated.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+A CHRISTMAS JOURNEY IN 1319.
+
+
+In the Record Office in London are preserved some money accounts[27]
+concerned with a visit of the scholars of King's Hall to York at
+Christmas in the year 13 Edward II, that is, in 1319. The following
+analysis gives the route followed by one section of the party and the
+expenses of the journey: it is a valuable record of the method and
+cost of travelling in medieval times.
+
+By way of preamble, I may say that the origin of King's Hall is to be
+found in the establishment at Cambridge, in 1317, by Edward II, of a
+body of Scholars or King's Children; that they were regarded as part
+of the royal household; and that the nominations to the office of
+warden and to scholarships were reserved to the king. King's Hall
+was dissolved in 1546, and its buildings and property assigned by
+Henry VIII to Trinity College.
+
+Early in December 1319, the warden and scholars were ordered to spend
+the coming Christmas with the court, then at York, and the sheriff of
+Cambridgeshire was directed to provide for their journey. During the
+preceding Michaelmas term thirty-three members of the House had been
+in residence, and all of them went to York.
+
+The names of the members of the House in 1319 are immaterial to our
+story, but I venture to give them, for these students lived here
+nearly six centuries ago, and doubtless had hopes, plans, and
+ambitions at bottom much the same as we have. They were, in order of
+seniority, John de Bagshot the warden, Nicholas de Durnford, Nicholas
+de Rome, David de Winchester, William Pour, Richard Pour, Nicholas
+Pour, John de Aston, John de Torterold, James de Torterold, Robert
+de Immeworth, Thomas de Windsor, Walter de Nottingham, Roger Parker,
+John de Kelsey, John de Hull, Edward de Kingston, Hugh de Sutton,
+Philip de London, John de Salisbury, Richard de Salisbury, Robert
+de Beverley, John Fort, Ralph de Gretford, Henry de Gretford, Nicholas
+Parker, Nicholas Pull, Richard de Berwick, Andrew Rosekin, Thomas
+Griffon, John Griffon, William Draghswerd, and John de Woodstock. It
+will be noticed that some of the students are designated by surnames
+which were already coming into use and some by place names: the latter
+show from what a wide area the scholars were drawn.
+
+For the purpose of travelling the Society was divided into two
+sections, both of which started from Cambridge on Thursday[28],
+20 December. One party, comprising the warden, John de Bagshot, and
+six of the scholars, went on horseback, and arrived at York on
+Christmas eve. Their journey thus occupied five days and they covered
+about thirty-five miles a day; of it we have no particulars, save that
+the warden paid £1. 3s. 4d. for the hire in Cambridge of seven
+hackneys, and was allowed £1. 9s. 2d. for the other expenses, namely
+10d. a day for each member of the party. The remaining twenty-six
+scholars travelled under the care of one of their number, John
+de Aston, and arrived at York on 28 December. They took with them
+seven and a half lengths of cloth with the furs thereto belonging, and
+four grooms, but whether the grooms went the whole way is not clear.
+It is with this nine days' journey that I here deal.
+
+The cloth and furs which had been purchased on behalf of the crown
+from merchants at Bury were valuable. The former was red in colour
+(_de blodes mixto_) and had cost £21. 2s. 6d.: the latter comprised
+twenty-one lamb skins, bought for £2. 19s. 6d. and six budge skins,
+bought for £1. The carriage of these goods must have been a serious
+hindrance to rapid travelling.
+
+The first two days, Thursday and Friday, 20 and 21 December, were
+occupied in the journey from Cambridge to Spalding. This was made in
+two hired boats (with the services of six men), for which the charge
+was 5s. On 20 December, the travellers paid 2d. for porterage of their
+goods to the boats at Cambridge, 1s. 7d. for bread, 2s. for beer, 1s.
+for herrings, 1s. 4d. for hard fish and codlings, and 4d. for fuel. On
+21 December they paid 1s. 5d. for bread, 2s. 2d. for beer, 1s. 7d. for
+herrings and other fish, 3d. for cheese, 2d. for porterage from the
+boats at Spalding, 5½d. for fuel and candles, and 8d. for beds at
+Spalding.
+
+On Saturday, 22 December, they travelled to Boston. On this day, they
+paid 2s. for hiring two carts for carrying the cloth and fourteen of
+the scholars, and 3s. for twelve hackneys for the rest of the party.
+They also spent 1s. 4d. for bread, 1s. 11d. for beer, 2s. 3d. for
+herrings and other fish, 5d. for fuel and candles, and 8d. for beds
+at Boston.
+
+The next two days, Sunday and Monday, 23 and 24 December, were
+occupied in the journey to Lincoln which was performed in a single
+large boat. On 23 December, they paid 5s. for the hire of this boat,
+4d. for straw to spread on it, 2d. for porterage to the boat, 1s. 6d.
+for bread, 2s. 7d. for beer, 2s. 4d. for meat, 1s. 6¾d. for eight
+hens, and 6d. for fuel. On 24 December, they paid 1s. 2d. for bread,
+2s. for beer, 2s. 1d. for herrings and other fish, 9d. for eels, 3d.
+for porterage from the boat at Lincoln, 6½d. for fuel and candles, and
+8d. for beds at Lincoln.
+
+Tuesday, being Christmas Day, was spent quietly at Lincoln. Their
+expenses for the day were 1s. 4d. for bread, 2s. 1d. for beer, 2s. 3d.
+for meat, 1s. 1¼d. for five hens, 7½d. for candles and fuel, and 8d.
+for beds.
+
+On Wednesday, 26 December, the party travelled to Torksey, making the
+journey in two boats hired at Lincoln. On this day, they paid 2s. 8d.
+for the hire of the boats, 3d. for porterage to the boats, 1s. 8d. for
+bread, 2s. 3d. for beer, 2s. 1d. for meat, 7d. for eggs, 4d. for fuel
+and candles, and 8d. for beds at Torksey.
+
+The next two days, Thursday and Friday, 27 and 28 December, were
+occupied in the journey from Torksey to York, which was made in a
+large boat hired at Torksey. On 27 December, they paid 6s. for the
+hire of this boat, 2d. for porterage to the boat at Torksey, 1s. 7d.
+for bread, 2s. 6d. for beer, 1s. 10d. for meat. On 28 December, they
+paid 1s. for bread, 1s. 5d. for beer, 1s. 4d. for herrings and other
+fish, and 2d. for porterage of their goods at York.
+
+The total cost of the journey came to £4. 5s. 8½d., and this was
+repaid to the warden from the royal exchequer on 31 December. On the
+opposite page is a summary of the daily expenditure described above.
+
+                  |Dec. |Dec.  |Dec. |Dec.  |Dec.  |Dec.  |Dec. |Dec. |Dec.
+                  |  20.|   21.|  22.|   23.|   24.|   25.|  26.|  27.|  28.
+                  |s. d.|s. d. |s. d.|s. d. |s. d. |s. d. |s. d.|s. d.|s. d.
+  Hire of Boats   | 5  0| ...  | ... | 5  0 | ...  | ...  | 2  8| 6  0| ...
+  Straw           | ... | ...  | ... |    4 | ...  | ...  | ... | ... | ...
+  Porterage       |    2|    2 | ... |    2 |    3 | ...  |    3|    2|    2
+  Hire of Carts   | ... | ...  | 2  0| ...  | ...  | ...  | ... | ... | ...
+  Hire of Hackneys| ... | ...  | 3  0| ...  | ...  | ...  | ... | ... | ...
+  Bread           | 1  7| 1  5 | 1  4| 1  6 | 1  2 | 1  4 | 1  8| 1  7| 1  0
+  Beer            | 2  0| 2  2 | 1 11| 2  7 | 2  0 | 2  1 | 2  3| 2  6| 1  5
+  Hard Fish, etc. | 1  4| ...  | ... | ...  | ...  | ...  | ... | ... | ...
+  Herrings, etc.  | 1  0| 1  7 | 2  3| ...  | 2  1 | ...  | ... | ... | 1  4
+  Eels            | ... | ...  | ... | ...  |    9 | ...  | ... | ... | ...
+  Meat            | ... | ...  | ... | 2  4 | ...  | 2  3 | 2  1| 1 10| ...
+  Hens            | ... | ...  | ... | 1  6¾| ...  | 1  1¼| ... | ... | ...
+  Eggs            | ... | ...  | ... | ...  | ...  | ...  |    7| ... | ...
+  Cheese          | ... |    3 | ... | ...  | ...  | ...  | ... | ... | ...
+  Fuel and Candles|    4|    5½|    5|    6 |    6½|    7½|    4| ... | ...
+  Beds            | ... |    8 |    8| ...  |    8 |    8 |    8| ... | ...
+                  |-----|------|-----|------|------|------|-----|-----|-----
+                  |11  5| 6  8½|11  7|13 11¾| 7  5½| 8  0¾|10  6|12  1| 3 11
+
+There are no records of the expenses of the Society during the time
+the members were at York; but presumably while there, they were
+treated as members of the royal household. Their visit, however, was
+not devoid of incident since a warrant was issued against one of them,
+Robert de Beverley, for having joined with the prior of the preaching
+friars of Pontefract in an assault on a certain William Hardy: the
+student was left behind at York, and there disappears from our
+history. Two other members of the House, Edward de Kingston and David
+de Winchester, were also left in the city, of whom probably at least
+one was concerned in this disturbance. One new member, Warin Trot, was
+admitted at York. These changes reduced the numbers to thirty-one. Of
+these thirty-one members, twenty-one, under the guidance of John
+de Aston, came back to Cambridge on the festival of St Fabian and
+St Sebastian (_i.e._ 20 January), while the warden and the remaining
+nine scholars, among whom Trot was included, arrived on 9 February,
+and from these dates their stipends in Cambridge during the Lent Term,
+1320, were reckoned.
+
+Why the king summoned the members of the House to York at so
+considerable cost I cannot say, but I think the detailed statement of
+how most of them travelled and their expenses on the journey are
+interesting.
+
+
+[Footnote 27: _Exchequer Accounts_, 552/10.]
+
+[Footnote 28: In my original paper the days of the week were given
+incorrectly.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+AN OUTLINE OF THE COLLEGE STORY[29].
+
+
+I have been asked to take you round Trinity College to-morrow, and by
+way of preface to say to-night something about its history. The first
+of these tasks, to anyone who lives here, is not difficult, but it is
+far from easy to give, in forty minutes, a sketch of a history
+covering centuries of academic life and involving references to the
+lives of many distinguished scholars and men of affairs. If I confined
+myself to an account of the buildings the problem would be simpler,
+but though they must form the chief topic of our talk to-morrow, I
+would prefer to-day to say something about the growth of the College.
+On these lines then I proceed, though necessarily in an incomplete
+way, to state the outline of our story.
+
+2. Trinity College was founded in 1546, just about half-way back in
+the history of the University. Of those pre-Trinity days I will only
+say that the University arose about the end of the twelfth century,
+and that it was nearly a hundred years after its establishment before
+the first college was founded. Colleges were erected for the benefit
+of selected scholars who were maintained at the expense of the
+foundation, and throughout the middle ages, most of the students lived
+in Private Hostels. In Tudor times undergraduates who paid their own
+expenses were admitted to colleges, and finally, every student was
+required to be a member of one of these Houses: the peculiar
+collegiate character of Oxford and Cambridge dates from this change.
+I need hardly add that women were not (and are not) admissible as
+members of the University, and that in former days teachers and
+students alike were unmarried.
+
+3. Towards the close of his reign, Henry VIII determined to found a
+college at Cambridge which should promote his views on religion and
+the new learning. He decided to use for the purpose the buildings and
+land occupied or owned by two of the chief medieval colleges, King's
+Hall and Michael-House. Accordingly, under parliamentary powers, he
+compelled those Societies to surrender to him their charters and
+possessions, purchased such small parts of our present Great Court as
+did not belong to them, and gave all this property to his new college
+together with large revenues from religious houses which he had
+recently dissolved. The proceedings were high-handed, but we may say
+that the result justified him. It is believed that, during these
+proceedings, the university careers of a few of the students, at any
+rate of King's Hall, were not interrupted, and that thus our academic
+life runs without a break from the days of Edward II to the present
+time. Most of the buildings of Michael-House have now disappeared, but
+our connection with King's Hall is still evident through the remains
+of its Cloister Court, our Great Gate which bears an inscription
+commemorating the permanent establishment of King's Hall by
+Edward III, and our Clock Tower on which is a statue of that monarch.
+To this group of buildings we must first direct attention to-morrow.
+
+4. Trinity was far larger than the colleges to whose buildings and
+property it succeeded. Of course it has had ups and downs in its
+career, but it has generally occupied and still occupies a predominant
+position in the University. Thus in 1564, its residents numbered three
+hundred and six out of a total of one thousand two hundred and
+sixty-seven in the University, while last October [1905], it had five
+hundred and sixty-eight undergraduates out of a total of two thousand
+eight hundred and thirty-five in the University, and two hundred
+resident graduates out of one thousand and five in the University: we
+now confine our normal entry to under two hundred a year, and as long
+as this is so, our numbers cannot exceed a certain limit which we
+have long reached, so, as the University grows, the percentage of
+students on our boards decreases. The College has always recognized
+that it was its duty to be a centre of learning as well as one of
+higher education, and thanks to its traditions and the large number of
+resident fellows, it has been able to fulfil this double duty.
+
+5. For the first few years after its foundation, Trinity was occupied
+in settling the many problems which arise in a new foundation. As far
+as accommodation went, the buildings of King's Hall and Michael-House
+were connected, and sufficed for immediate needs. Naturally the
+protestant character of the foundation given by Henry was emphasized
+by the advisers of Edward VI, the altar in the chapel being removed
+and a communion table set up in Huguenot fashion in the middle of the
+building. Queen Mary increased the foundation, and took a warm
+interest in its affairs; of course the Roman service was then
+restored. Under Elizabeth the Anglican services were resumed, and she
+completed the erection of the present chapel which had been begun by
+her sister: it stands to-day externally much in its original form,
+though the interior scheme of decoration is different. We may leave
+till to-morrow the description of it and college doings connected
+therewith. This first chapter of our history ends in 1560 when the
+constitution of the College was definitely established in a form
+which remained practically unaltered till 1861.
+
+6. The next decade was critical. Many of those who had adopted the
+reformed religion desired further changes on presbyterian lines, and
+Cambridge, which had taken so prominent a part in the reformation, was
+their chief intellectual stronghold. Their leader was Cartwright, a
+fellow of Trinity, and their chief opponent was Whitgift, the master
+of the College: thus a contest of national importance was mixed up
+with college politics and carried on partly within the college walls.
+Whitgift's powers as master were large, and he strained them to the
+utmost to remove from the House those who opposed him; times, however,
+were revolutionary and public opinion condoned and even approved his
+actions. At any rate victory remained with him and his party in the
+College, the University, and the State, and the position of the Church
+of England between Rome and Geneva is that for which he fought.
+
+7. Whitgift acted as tutor to some of the students, among whom were
+Francis Bacon and his brother Anthony: you will see the portrait of
+the former (as also that of Whitgift) to-morrow, together with those
+of his contemporaries, Edward Coke subsequently the great lawyer, and
+Robert Devereux earl of Essex the ill-fated favourite of Elizabeth.
+By a happy accident some of Whitgift's tutorial ledgers have been
+preserved, and we have in them details of the expenditure of his
+pupils, which, combined with information from other sources, enables
+us to give a fairly complete account of their daily work, prayers,
+meals, and amusements[30]. A usual age for commencing residence was
+fifteen or sixteen, and it would seem that students then (though of
+course subject in many things to reasonable restraints) were allowed
+that liberty of action which in my opinion is, even though sometimes
+misused, an essential feature of university education as opposed to
+the control of the pupil's doings in every hour of the day which is
+common in many schools. In 1577 Whitgift accepted a bishopric: an
+eloquent farewell sermon preached in College from 2 Corinthians,
+chapter 13, verse 2, revealed sincere affection for the place and
+moved his audience, "insomuch that there were scarce any drie eyes to
+be found amongst the whole number." He left the House prosperous and
+of high repute.
+
+8. In 1593 Nevile was appointed master, and took in hand the needed
+reconstruction of the buildings. It had from the first been
+recognized that the site offered opportunities for the erection of
+buildings worthy of the reputation of the College, and he realized how
+much the effect would depend on making the court large, and above all
+on keeping the chamber frontage only two storeys high with attics
+above. The Great Court as it stands to-day is his creation; the only
+obvious defect in it is the ugly block built in the south-west corner
+in 1770 to replace Nevile's set of combination rooms which had an
+elevation agreeing generally with that of the master's lodge, but
+enriched by a large projecting trefoil oriel. The hall, kitchens,
+combination rooms, and lodge form another group of buildings to which
+we must pay attention to-morrow: the first two of these are in the
+form left by Nevile. The blazoned glass in the hall and our collection
+of pictures in these rooms, especially the portraits of Henry VIII,
+Mary, and Elizabeth, all of whom have played an important part in our
+history, will well repay your study. Nevile also built, at his own
+cost, part of the court situated on the west side of the hall. This
+too we shall see to-morrow on our way to the library: in his day, the
+court was closed on the river side by a low wall, in the middle of
+which stood the stone gateway now used as the entrance to the College
+from Trinity Lane, and beyond this wall were the tennis courts and
+paddocks.
+
+9. The prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I, came to the College to
+inspect these alterations, and he was followed later by James I. These
+visits are commemorated by the statues of James, his wife, and Charles
+placed on the west side of the Great Gate. The king was so pleased
+with his entertainment that he repeated his visit on three subsequent
+occasions. Of Nevile, one of his contemporaries wrote, "He never had
+his like for a splendid courteous and bounteous gentleman," and the
+College still gratefully honours his memory. He was trusted and
+esteemed by Elizabeth, and when dying she selected him to carry to
+Scotland the fateful letter in which she nominated James I to succeed
+her. If you go into the dining room of the lodge you will see Nevile's
+portrait, hung in the place of honour over the mantelpiece,
+representing him as holding this letter in one hand.
+
+10. You must not think that under Nevile's rule the energies of the
+College were wholly directed to material ends. In a memorandum of 1607
+on the use of college emoluments for students, he was able to say that
+of the higher church officials of the day, eleven deans, seven
+bishops, and the two archbishops, were drawn from Trinity. In academic
+distinctions, in legal appointments, and in statesmanship its records
+were equally satisfactory: so the College was worthily maintaining its
+tradition of service in church and state. Under his immediate
+successors the College entered on a period of steady prosperity. In
+the next generation, however, the shadows of the civil disturbances of
+the seventeenth century began to fall; theological disputes increased,
+scholarship in other subjects received but scanty attention, and a
+general slackness in intellectual pursuits was visible, though it is
+fair to say that among the students of the time were three or four who
+later deservedly acquired reputation as poets. Among the latter I
+particularize George Herbert, Abraham Cowley, and Andrew Marvell;
+Dryden entered a few years later.
+
+11. On the outbreak of civil war the town was occupied by the
+parliamentary forces, troops were quartered in the College, and a good
+deal of damage done to the fabric. In 1644 a large number of the
+fellows were expelled, their places being filled by zealots of but
+slight education. It may be put to the credit of a few who were left,
+notably Duport and Ray, that in this time of stress they devoted
+themselves to maintaining the standard of scholarship. On the
+restoration such of the expelled fellows as were still alive and
+unmarried resumed office. They decided that there should be no
+retaliations, and that all those nominated to fellowships under the
+commonwealth should be allowed to remain, provided only they did not
+preach in the chapel unless they were members of the Church of
+England: that was a noble reply to the wrongs suffered.
+
+12. The College took pride in resuming at once its position in the
+world of letters and science, and the following years are famous for
+the work of Pearson and Barrow, two great divines of the time, and
+above all of Isaac Newton. The influence of the last-named philosopher
+on the studies and intellectual life of Cambridge was far reaching.
+His discoveries in pure mathematics, mechanics, physics, and dynamical
+astronomy were of the utmost importance, and made Cambridge the centre
+of mathematical work in England. I will show you to-morrow the rooms
+he occupied and in which he wrote his famous _Principia_. The
+staircase on which these rooms are situated has had other
+distinguished occupants: the rooms on the ground floor on the
+right-hand side on entering it were occupied by Thackeray, and
+subsequently by the late astronomer-royal; those on the opposite side
+by Macaulay; the rooms on the first floor next the gate which once had
+been occupied by Isaac Newton, were used later by Lightfoot, the
+theologian, and Jebb, the Greek scholar; and those on the opposite
+side by Sir James Frazer, who has done so much to investigate the
+beliefs of primitive man. This is an interesting group of men, but in
+fact there are few rooms in College which have not been inhabited at
+some time by those who have made their names famous.
+
+13. Barrow held the mastership from 1673 to 1677. On his initiative
+the College erected, on the west side of Nevile's Court, the
+magnificent library which is now stored with literary treasures. This
+is another building to which we must pay attention to-morrow, and with
+it we may associate the adjoining chambers. From the close of the
+seventeenth century onwards we can describe life in College,
+especially among undergraduates, in considerable detail. The usual age
+of entry had risen to seventeen or eighteen. To the dons the College
+offered a comfortable home until an opportunity occurred of taking a
+college living, and it must be admitted that some were beginning to be
+content to consider it as nothing more. Materials for the history of
+the time and the following century have been published by Christopher
+Wordsworth.
+
+14. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, the number of
+entries fell; this was attributed, and no doubt correctly, to the rise
+to office in College of those fellows appointed by mandatory letters
+from James II--he having filled every fellowship that became vacant
+during his reign. The history of the Society during the early years of
+the eighteenth century may be dismissed with the briefest notice, for
+college energies were largely occupied by domestic disputes, and the
+number of residents still further decreased: these misfortunes were
+mainly due to the scandals inseparably associated with the name of
+Bentley. Bentley held the mastership from 1700 to 1742: his critical
+work can hardly be over-praised, but his career here was marked by
+malversations and many dishonourable transactions. The only scholars
+of the time I need mention are Cotes and Robert Smith who were
+mathematicians of repute. The latter of these scholars, when master,
+did something to restore orderly government and discipline.
+
+15. It was not until near the close of the century that the College
+recovered from the taint of Bentley's misrule, and scholarship again
+flourished within our walls: among the residents of the time was
+Porson, whose wit and conversation must have been delightful features
+of the High Table of his day--he lived in K 5, Great Court.
+Mathematics now afforded the chief avenue to distinction, but some
+acquaintance with classics and moral philosophy was also obligatory.
+This period is famous for the number of eminent judges educated in the
+College: the strict training in formal logic and geometry required for
+success in the mathematical tripos being especially favourable to
+legal work. Out of eleven such Trinity judges of the time the names
+of Tindal, Pollock, Maule, Lyndhurst, Wensleydale, and Cranworth are
+still remembered. Socially, manners were generally coarser than at any
+time during the previous century or than later; though the revival of
+religion under the influence of Simeon did something to ameliorate
+matters.
+
+16. Unlike its predecessor the nineteenth century was one of unbroken
+progress in college achievements and reputation. Near its commencement
+two internal changes of some importance were introduced in the
+imposition of an entrance examination test and of a limit to the
+number of those admitted. None the less our numbers increased, and in
+1823-25, another court (the New Court) was built on the south side of
+that erected by Nevile. At this time, conspicuous among the resident
+fellows were Sedgwick the geologist, Peacock the mathematician,
+Scholefield, Hare, and Thirlwall, Macaulay the historian, and Airy the
+astronomer: it would be difficult to exaggerate their influence on the
+intellectual life of the College and University. The undergraduate
+society a few years later also numbered a group of men of exceptional
+power, notably Trench afterwards archbishop of Dublin, Thackeray,
+Fitzgerald, Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton), Spedding, Arthur Hallam,
+Kinglake the historian, the three Tennysons (Alfred, Charles, and
+Frederick), and Thompson; while a little later came Alford,
+Lushington, Grote, Tom Taylor, Burnand, and Francis Galton. Materials
+left by these men, and books like J.M.F. Wright's _Alma Mater_,
+C.A. Bristed's _Five years in an English University_, Leslie Stephen's
+_Sketches from Cambridge by a Don_, and W. Everett's _On the Cam_,
+give us full information of college life during the middle of the
+century. In connection with the social life of the early half of the
+nineteenth century I should note that athletic clubs now began to be
+formed--the First Trinity Boat Club, constituted in 1825, being the
+earliest. These societies led to the formulation of definite rules for
+various forms of sport, and to much more attention being paid to
+out-door games. The subsequent growth of organized recreations of this
+kind, increasingly developed in recent years, will strike the future
+historian as one of the outstanding features of the last century.
+
+17. In 1840 Whewell was appointed master. He was of commanding
+abilities and exercised extraordinary influence: to him more than to
+any other single individual is due that development of scientific
+studies at Cambridge which has been so marked in the recent history of
+the University. Under him, the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII,
+was entered at the College, and later showed his appreciation of its
+influence by sending his eldest son, the duke of Clarence, here.
+Whewell erected at his own cost the two courts on the east side of
+Trinity Street, the rents being used to encourage the study of
+International Law in the University. During his mastership the old
+order began to crumble, and new ideals of education, study, and
+research arose. The Elizabethan statutes were replaced by transitional
+statutes in 1844 and 1861, and these in turn were replaced by others
+in 1882, under which the College is now governed.
+
+18. Whewell died in 1866, and was succeeded as master by Thompson, and
+he in 1886 by Butler. With their masterships we come to the affairs of
+to-day. The 1882 statutes opened a new chapter in our history;
+restrictions on the marriage of fellows were removed, and successful
+teachers thus encouraged to remain in residence; incidentally, this
+created a new social atmosphere. In this and other ways the conditions
+of academic life were considerably changed. We need not, however, shun
+a comparison with older times: if you want to see how freely Trinity
+during the late Victorian period spent itself in the public service
+look down any list of judges, bishops, statesmen, colonial governors,
+and civil servants of the time, and in all you will find many Trinity
+men conspicuous. Confining ourselves strictly to academic work in
+Cambridge and to those who have now [1906] passed away, I may mention
+the names of Clerk Maxwell in physics, of Cayley in mathematics, of
+Munro and Jebb in classics, of Thompson in Greek philosophy, of
+Sidgwick in ethics, and of Westcott, Lightfoot, and Hort in theology:
+all of these were fellows of the College, and professors in the
+University.
+
+19. This is a bare summary of a complex story. Of the spirit that
+actuates the College, of all that makes it a living Society, I have
+said little. In truth, these are incapable of analysis. The charm that
+the place perennially exercises on those who, generation after
+generation, make it their home, the affection it inspires, are
+intangible: they exist, there are but few members of the House who
+have not felt them, and perhaps that is all I need say on this aspect
+of our history.
+
+
+[Footnote 29: A paper read to a party of north-country students
+visiting the College in 1906.]
+
+[Footnote 30: On some of the items in Whitgift's tutorial ledgers, see
+above, chapter ii, pp. 36-39: the bills are printed at length in
+volumes 32 and 33 of the _British Magazine_, 1847, 1848. Other
+information on the daily life of students of the time is given in the
+statutes of 1560. An interesting list of the outfit and furniture in
+the rooms of a fellow-commoner in 1577 was printed by C.H. Cooper,
+_Annals of Cambridge_, vol. II, pp. 352-356.]
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+=Concerning the University.=
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+The problems connected with the beginnings of the University of
+Cambridge and the conditions of life in its early days have always
+interested me. Much is uncertain and open to various readings[31], but
+the following is a summary of the story, as it appears to me.
+
+First, as to the site of the University. About the end of the eleventh
+century, Cambridge was little more than a village concentrated round
+St Peter's church, having separate hamlets in its vicinity, one near
+St Benet's church and the other at Newnham: at that time there was
+nothing to suggest the likelihood of its being chosen by students as
+a place where they might live and work in security. During the next
+century, however, it became of considerable importance. This was due
+to several causes. The chief of these were the castle erected in it
+by William the Conqueror to overawe the fen-men; its geographical
+location which gave it command of the river passage by which most of
+the traffic between the midlands and the counties of Norfolk and
+Suffolk went; its position as a port of entry for small sea-going
+vessels coming from Lynn, of which a relic still survives in a bonded
+warehouse on the banks of the Cam; its vicinity to Sturbridge common
+on which came to be held one of the chief annual fairs in the kingdom;
+and lastly the establishment here of the large monastic Houses of the
+Augustin Canons, of the Brethren of St John's Hospital, and of the
+Nuns of St Rhadegund: it would seem also that it became[32], maybe
+under the authority of the secular canons of St Giles, the seat of a
+grammar-school or schools. By 1200 the town had spread from castle-end
+to where Christ's, Peterhouse, and Queens' now stand, and along the
+east side of the river there were numerous small wharves, locally
+known as hythes. The writs of Henry I and Henry II and the charter of
+John bear witness to its importance in their reigns, but later this
+tended to diminish relatively to other towns.
+
+The Universities of Cambridge and Oxford were initiated near the end
+of the twelfth century, both arising in towns free from disorder and
+where accommodation for students was obtainable. It was a time when
+men of scholarly tastes, especially those resident in religious
+houses, were conscious of their ignorance of recent developments in
+theology as set out by Peter Lombard and in canon law, and were keen
+to study these subjects and scholastic logic. Schools to meet these
+needs arose in Cambridge and Oxford and became permanent. Like centres
+of instruction were established in other places, but for one reason or
+another did not survive long as degree-granting corporations.
+
+It is not known whether the University of Cambridge began with a few
+teachers taking up their residence in the town, giving instruction,
+and attracting students and other teachers, or whether it started
+ready-made by a migration of a body of discontented teachers and
+students from some existing school. I believe the former view to be
+correct. If so, we may reasonably assume that a considerable
+proportion of the earliest adult students were previously living in
+monastic houses here or in the neighbouring fenland monasteries at
+Ely, Peterborough, or Croyland. It has been suggested that at first
+the lectures were given in the local grammar-schools: this is
+probable, and would fit in with the secular organization of the
+University and the fact that boys learning Latin grammar (glomerels)
+were reckoned among its students. Probably the movement was started
+with the sanction and direct encouragement of the bishop of Ely,
+certainly it was not directly monastic, and more likely the teachers
+were secular clerks and not monks. I conjecture that at first the
+lecturers were strangers to the locality, but this in no way implies
+that a fragment of another university, students as well as teachers,
+migrated here as an organized body.
+
+Whatever the origin of the University, its members organized
+themselves for mutual aid and protection as a _Studium_ on the model
+of that at Paris, with which it seems later to have been frequently
+in touch. If we may trust ancient traditions quoted by Bulaeus and
+Peacock, the early University had also some connection with the
+studium of Orleans: this is possible but speculative. Bologna
+represented another type of organization which, however, was not
+adopted anywhere in England. The University of Cambridge existed in
+working order in 1209, and in my opinion its origin may be safely
+assigned to some time in the previous twenty years.
+
+Of its external history during the century following its organization
+we know little: we read of its chancellor in 1225, of French students
+coming to it in 1229, of special privileges conferred by the crown in
+1231 and 1251, of its recognition by the pope in 1233, and finally of
+a papal grant in 1318--exceptional in extent--of all rights which were
+or could be enjoyed by any university in Christendom. Oxford went
+through somewhat similar stages. The two universities were closely
+connected, and by 1333 their position had become so firmly established
+that they agreed not to recognize any other studium in the kingdom,
+and in fact after that year no other university was established in
+England until less than a century ago.
+
+Originally the main source of university authority was the body of
+active teachers (regents) acting with the concurrence of the
+chancellor who represented the bishop of Ely; their grouping in
+faculties was an obvious development, and probably took place early in
+the thirteenth century. Resident graduates who had ceased to teach
+(non-regents) were allowed a voice on matters of property, rights, and
+privileges. The establishment of monasteries and colleges with
+administrative officers tended to retain in residence graduates who
+were not lecturing; through them the house of non-regents grew in
+power, and finally in many questions obtained concurrent jurisdiction
+with that of the regents--the result was a very complex constitution.
+At first the University had no buildings of its own; the regent and
+non-regent houses met in St Benet's or St Mary's church, and lectures
+were given wherever accommodation could be obtained. After this
+digression I return to the position of the students in the early
+University.
+
+Numerous monasteries were established in Cambridge during the
+thirteenth century, and from this I infer that the number of members
+of the religious Orders studying in the University steadily increased
+during that century. Of monastic Houses in Cambridge previous to the
+foundation of the University I have already mentioned those of the
+Augustin Canons, founded in connection with St Giles' church, about
+1092, and moved in 1112 to Barnwell where their priory became in time
+one of the largest conventual buildings in England, and of the Austin
+Brethren of Frost's or St John's Hospital, built about 1135 on ground
+now occupied by St John's College. Shortly after the organization of
+a studium in the town, five important Orders established Houses here.
+These were the Franciscan or Grey Friars, who, from their first home
+situated near the present Divinity Schools and used from 1224 to 1294,
+removed in 1294 to a site now occupied by Sidney Sussex College, where
+their church was one of the conspicuous architectural features of
+medieval Cambridge; the Dominican or Black Friars, who built in 1274
+on ground now occupied by Emmanuel College; the Carmelite or White
+Friars, who, having previously lived in houses at Chesterton and
+Newnham, removed in 1290 to a site now occupied by Queens' and King's
+Colleges; the Augustine Friars, who built, about 1290, a home on or
+near ground now occupied by the university examination halls and
+lecture rooms, in the basement of which some fragments of the old
+friary may be found; and the Sempringham or White Canons, who about
+1290 obtained possession of St Edmund's Priory which had been built
+before 1278 near the Trumpington Gate. The Houses of the Bethlehem
+Friars, opened in 1257, of the Friars of the Sack, opened in 1258, and
+of the Friars of St Mary, opened in 1273, were suppressed in 1307, and
+probably were never important foundations. I believe that the presence
+in Cambridge of these great establishments, always housing a certain
+number of students, gave stability to the nascent University, and
+tended to prevent its dissipation in times of stress: this is a point
+in our early history which is sometimes overlooked. Students from
+Houses of the Benedictine or Black Monks were also sent to Cambridge,
+but until 1428 they seem to have had no special home of their own: in
+that year the Order built for them a hostel known as Buckingham House
+which now forms part of the first court of Magdalene College.
+
+These conventual Houses were outside town and university authority,
+but their wealth and position made them influential. Striking evidence
+of this is afforded by the facts that they secured to their members
+the right to proceed direct to degrees in divinity without graduating
+in arts--a privilege not granted to students in law or medicine--and
+that at every congregation of the University the senior religious
+doctor present could veto the offer of any grace and so block all
+business. These privileges suggest that monastic students were the
+dominant class in the early days of the University. They were,
+however, naturally distrusted by other students, for admittedly they
+owed allegiance to outside bodies, and no man can serve two masters.
+By the end of the thirteenth century the monastic movement had spent
+its force, and thenceforth the religious students took a constantly
+decreasing share in university activities; of course they disappeared
+at the reformation, when the monasteries throughout the country were
+suppressed.
+
+I come next to the question of the secular students in arts, most or
+all of whom would be clerks in major or minor orders. Rejecting the
+migration theory of the origin of the University, I do not suppose
+that in its earliest days these secular students were numerous, for
+the vicinity cannot have provided many such men, but as soon as the
+University acquired reputation as a centre of higher teaching they
+would be attracted to it from a wide area, and their numbers would
+be increased by many glomerels who would continue their course as
+students in arts. In the course of the thirteenth century these
+secular students became strong enough to assert themselves against the
+position and privileges assumed by the religious students, and after
+that century graces were constantly passed (_ex. gr._ in 1303) to
+prevent monastic interference in academic affairs, or (as in 1369) to
+limit the number of monastic graduates.
+
+A non-graduate student in arts was, before admission, expected to
+know Latin, and, on admission, apprenticed to a master or doctor who
+acted as a tutor in scholastic matters: in 1276 this system of
+apprenticeship was made compulsory. The full medieval course lasted
+several years. Students who entered as boys stayed, if they took the
+full course, till they were grown men, gradually taking up teaching as
+part of their course of study. The bachelors may have assisted in the
+education of the younger arts students and of the glomerels who are
+mentioned below, but normally instruction in the arts course was given
+by masters, and in the higher faculties by doctors. The degree of
+master was a license to teach, and newly created masters were required
+to teach and to reside for two years (or later at least one year) for
+that purpose. This pre-reformation scheme is in marked contrast to the
+modern plan where the students enter as young men, all of about the
+same age, with a normal course lasting three years or so, and with
+their studies sharply differentiated from those of a limited number
+of post-graduate and research students and of a separate body of
+teachers. Mullinger estimated that during the medieval period the
+number of resident regents varied from one hundred to two hundred, and
+the number of students (apparently exclusive of monastic students)
+never exceeded two thousand of whom the great majority were of humble
+birth; no doubt there were wide variations in the numbers at different
+times.
+
+The history of Guilds in the University cannot be given with any
+certainty. It may be that in the early years of the University most
+secular students and teachers from any particular locality were
+associated together as a guild, and perhaps every student on arrival
+was expected to join his local guild, and through it become a member
+of the University. The guilds imposed on their members definite rules
+for their conduct in relation to one another, and enforced such
+regulations by means of money fines, refusal of assistance, and in
+extreme cases expulsion. The relations between the members of
+different guilds were, however, often unfriendly or worse; in
+particular there was constant friction between the guilds connected
+with localities north and south of the Trent. It has been suggested
+that at one time one of the proctors represented the cis-trentine
+guilds and the other the trans-trentine guilds: this seems to have
+been the case at Oxford, but there is no evidence of such a custom at
+Cambridge where, according to Peacock, these trentine disputes were
+less violent than at the sister University.
+
+We may take it that the master to whom a secular non-graduate student
+was apprenticed looked after his studies, and probably officers of the
+guild to which he belonged looked after him when sick or maltreated.
+In other matters, however, he was left to take care of himself, and
+thus was constantly liable to extortion. To meet this evil, the
+University early obtained powers enabling it to settle, without
+consulting the citizens, various local matters such as the prices of
+lodging and food.
+
+Besides students in arts there was also another class of secular
+students consisting of boys, known as glomerels (grammarians) and
+rhetoricians, who were under a special officer of the University
+called the master of glomery. I conjecture that originally these were
+the boys at the local grammar-schools, that after the foundation of
+the University such boys were regularly treated as glomerel members of
+it, and that for this reason we hear nothing more of the local
+grammar-schools which had at first supplied them: most students of
+this type must have lived at home and come from the town or immediate
+neighbourhood. I suppose that in later times the number of glomerels
+was swollen by the entry among them of students who had come to
+Cambridge, and were found to be ignorant of Latin grammar, and so
+inadmissible to the arts faculty.
+
+The chief study of a glomerel was Latin grammar, and on attaining
+reasonable proficiency in it he could change over to the arts faculty
+if he wished. If a student continued in the glomerel faculty, the
+degree of master in grammar (or rhetoric) was open to him, but in
+processions of the University, such graduates took a lower place than
+students in arts, and their inferior position was emphasized by a
+statute which, while regulating the attendance of regents at the
+funeral of a regent master or student in arts, stated that graduates
+and scholars in grammar were not entitled to such recognition--_Illis
+tantummodo exceptis, qui artem solam docent vel audiunt grammaticam,
+ad quorum exequias nisi ex devotione non veniant supradicti_.
+
+The ceremony of graduation in grammar has often been described: it
+involved the beating openly in the schools of a shrewd boy obtained by
+the university officers for the purpose, and the presentation to the
+new master of a ferule: this suggests that the course was regarded as
+a training for a schoolmaster's career, it also facilitated admission
+to orders. As time passed, the glomerels, originally forming a large
+and important section of the University here and at Oxford, decreased
+in numbers, and in the latter half of the fifteenth century they
+ceased to be of much importance in academic life. The faculty of
+rhetoric was constituted on similar lines to that of grammar, and
+practically treated as part of it. The last degrees in rhetoric and
+grammar of which we have notice were conferred in 1493 and 1548
+respectively: probably the office of master of glomery fell into
+disuse about the beginning of the sixteenth century, though it is
+possible that it was held by Sir John Cheke as late as 1547.
+
+The evils consequent on allowing inexperienced students, some of whom
+were quite young, to fend for themselves in all matters outside the
+schools were obvious, and it was not long before steps were taken to
+improve matters by the foundation of colleges and the licensing of
+private hostels.
+
+Colleges were designed for selected scholars partly to provide
+assistance for them, and partly to protect them from pressure to join
+a monastic Order: the advantages offered being shelter, a common
+sitting room properly warmed, regular meals, the use of books, and
+general supervision. The earliest attempt to provide aid and
+protection of this kind for certain scholars was made, about 1275,
+by Hugh de Balsham, who arranged for their reception as members of
+Frost's Hospital; but there were constant quarrels between the two
+sides of the House, and in 1284 he dissolved the union and moved the
+secular students to a building (Peterhouse) of their own. Other
+similar foundations were soon created: the King's Scholars (later
+incorporated as King's Hall) in 1317, Michael-House in 1324, Clare in
+1325, Pembroke in 1347, Gonville in 1348, Trinity Hall in 1350, and
+Corpus Christi in 1352. Every new college that was established
+provided fresh definite ties with the locality, and rendered less
+likely the break-up of the University and the scattering of its
+members--a serious risk to which in early days it was always subject.
+Then came an interval of nearly a hundred years, but in the fifteenth
+century the collegiate movement recommenced, and we have the
+foundation of God's House in 1439, of King's in 1441, of Queens' in
+1448 and 1465, of St Catharine's in 1473, and of Jesus in 1496. In the
+sixteenth century we have the larger and more ambitious foundations of
+Christ's in 1505, St John's in 1511, Magdalene in 1519, Trinity in
+1546, Emmanuel in 1584, and Sidney Sussex in 1596.
+
+The colleges were intended for picked scholars. In the course of the
+fourteenth century the problem of the care of other students was taken
+up, and they were forbidden to live in lodgings selected by themselves
+and under no external supervision. To provide for them, the University
+licensed private hostels which were managed by masters of arts on
+lines somewhat similar to boarding houses in public schools to-day.
+Thenceforth throughout the middle ages the majority of undergraduates
+resided in these hostels. Caius gave the names and sites of
+twenty-seven private hostels which he had known and all of which
+closed their doors during his life, the last in 1540: Fuller
+enumerated thirty-four hostels and two "inns" while his editor
+mentioned fourteen other hostels, but some of these certainly ought
+not to be included under the term. Perhaps we may say that the number
+open at anyone time rarely exceeded thirty or fell short of twenty:
+some were cheap, some expensive; some were well managed, others not
+so. After the development of these hostels the guilds decreased in
+importance, and finally disappeared.
+
+With the establishment of colleges and private hostels the University
+was fairly launched on its career in a form which lasted till the
+middle half of the sixteenth century. My object was to state how, in
+my opinion, it originally took shape, and I do not propose here to
+follow its history further.
+
+
+[Footnote 31: Most of the known facts are given in Mullinger's
+excellent histories, Peacock's _Observations on the Statutes_, and
+Rashdall's _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_--but all the
+views of the last-named writer are not universally accepted.]
+
+[Footnote 32: See _passim_ G. Peacock, _Observations on the Statutes_,
+London, 1841, p. xxxv.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+DISCIPLINE.
+
+
+This paper contains some extracts from my notebooks on the way in
+which university and college discipline was maintained in former days
+at Cambridge. The records on the subject are scanty, but I think the
+facts are worth putting together in a connected form. There is no
+reason to suppose that the practices of different colleges varied
+materially, and if in the later period I have taken examples from the
+records of Trinity it is only because I have had easier access to
+them.
+
+In the history of university discipline and social customs abrupt
+changes are not to be expected, and none such are noticeable in the
+transition from the medieval period, _circ._ 1200 to 1525, through
+the renaissance, _circ._ 1525 to 1640, and the period of stagnation,
+_circ._ 1660 to 1820, to the present age of reconstruction and
+extension. I begin naturally with discipline in medieval Cambridge.
+
+In the early days of the University the students lodged in the town
+and were of all ages from twelve or thirteen upwards. Except in
+strictly academic matters, there was little or no supervision of their
+conduct, and, outside the schools, grave disorders were common; the
+University, however, claimed power, when it chose, to take cognizance
+of all offences contrary to good manners, and at any rate in later
+days did so in serious cases. The regulations at Cambridge and Oxford
+were so similar that we may fairly draw illustrations from either
+University, and the records of the chancellor's court at Oxford in the
+fifteenth century show that fines, imprisonment, and, in extreme
+cases, expulsion were customary penalties for serious offences against
+university regulations and customs. I have no doubt that earlier
+records, if extant, would be of the same general character.
+
+The first college to be founded at Cambridge was Peterhouse which took
+its final form in 1284, and during the next century several other
+similar Houses were established: these societies were intended for
+selected scholars. The problem of the control of other students was
+met in the course of the fourteenth century by preventing them from
+living in private lodgings chosen by themselves, and thenceforth,
+throughout the middle ages, those who came from a distance were
+generally required to reside in private hostels run by masters of arts
+on lines somewhat similar to boarding houses in public schools to-day.
+Besides the lay and secular students accommodated in colleges, private
+hostels, and at their homes, there were also in the medieval
+University a considerable number of "religious" students who were
+housed in monasteries or monastic hostels. Some of the colleges in
+later medieval times received as paying members a few wealthy
+pensioners, parochial priests in middle life, and even monks from
+distant convents, but probably the number of such favoured students
+was never large. With the establishment of colleges and the
+organization of private hostels discipline improved; inside their
+walls as well as in the monastic hostels it is probable that order was
+well maintained, but outside them, at least among the students at
+private hostels, discipline was left to the university authorities who
+did little or nothing in the matter.
+
+The colleges took seriously their responsibilities for discipline, and
+all things contrary to good manners and morals were prohibited. For
+the gravest offences, such as contumacy, crimes of violence, and
+heresy, expulsion was usually ordered. Among less serious
+delinquencies, explicitly forbidden and therefore we may assume not
+unknown, were bringing strangers into the house, sleeping out, and
+absence without leave; using insulting language, drunkenness,
+gambling, and frequenting taverns; keeping company with loose women;
+throwing missiles and carrying arms; and the keeping of dogs, hawks,
+falcons, and ferrets. In the regulations of many colleges, a course
+of study was indicated, and directions given that idleness was to be
+punished. Regular attendance at religious exercises was assumed, and
+was explicitly directed on certain occasions: I suppose that students
+performed such duties without much external pressure, and I know no
+record of the infliction of any penalty in early times for
+non-attendance. In the middle ages Latin was the language generally
+enforced, though occasionally French was permitted; this remained the
+rule until the seventeenth century. Conversation during dinner and
+supper was forbidden in many colleges, and of course was impossible in
+those cases where some book was then read aloud. At King's College,
+jumping and ball throwing, and at Clare College meetings in bedrooms
+for feasting and talking were also forbidden. At a somewhat later date
+Caius ordered his students to be in bed by eight o'clock at night, but
+they made up for this by rising very early in the morning. In general
+the punishment for minor faults was left to the discretion of the
+authorities. This was only reasonable, for a medieval college was a
+mixed community of lads and men, the members being of all ages from
+about fourteen or fifteen upwards; and rules enforced on boys of
+fourteen could not be applied to men of twenty-three or twenty-four,
+who were in fact already taking part in the teaching of the junior
+scholars.
+
+For all members, the ultimate penalty for the gravest offences was
+expulsion. For less serious misconduct, fines, restrictions on the
+food supplied, impositions, and confinement within the walls, are
+believed to have been common penalties, at any rate for adolescents;
+but, as I explain below, I think that corporal punishment was
+constantly inflicted on non-adults in lieu of a fine, which indeed
+boys would have had considerable difficulty in paying. As far as the
+younger students and the bachelors at colleges were concerned the
+extant regulations in regard to their exercises, amusements, incomings
+and outgoings, suggest that they were treated much like the junior and
+senior boys in a rather strict public school in the first half of the
+nineteenth century; and perhaps the senior graduate members were
+treated somewhat like residents in colleges at the same period.
+
+Membership of a college was a privilege confined, in general, to
+scholars specially nominated, and no doubt the standards of work and
+discipline there were higher than in the private hostels. Naturally we
+know less of life in these hostels, but it is likely that disciplinary
+rules were originally made by or with the approval of the elder
+residents, and that the normal discipline in them was of the same
+general character as that exercised in colleges, though, as the
+members paid for themselves, money fines were possible and usual
+penalties, especially in the case of the older members. There must
+have been more variety in the discipline of hostels than of colleges,
+and we may safely say that some hostels were well conducted, others
+not so.
+
+It is possible that finally the University claimed the right to
+examine and supervise the internal regulations of the hostels. A set
+of rules, thus enforced on an unendowed hall at Oxford in the
+fifteenth century, has been discovered and printed by Rashdall: they
+do not differ much from those usual at a college, except that some of
+the penalties specified are pecuniary, and that the principal was
+given explicit permission, if he wished, to flog a student, even
+though the lad's own master (_i.e._ the master to whom he had been
+apprenticed) had certified that he had already corrected him or was
+willing to do so.
+
+Was corporal punishment commonly used in medieval times? Until
+recently it was accepted without argument that this was the case; and
+certainly in the fifteenth century and later when we get detailed
+information on the subject, the younger students were subject to it.
+Rashdall, however, has argued that the absence of its mention in
+earlier times implies that the birch was unknown in the ordinary
+university regulations till towards the end of the sixteenth century
+or later, though he admits in various places that glomerels were
+liable to it: his authority is accepted by Rait. It is true that in
+the statutes given in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
+birching is not mentioned explicitly, but, since the punishments for
+petty offences are rarely specified in detail, this proves nothing. In
+the fifteenth century corporal punishment is mentioned as a recognized
+penalty. For instance, the statutes given by Henry VI to King's
+College, Cambridge, prescribed that scholars and young fellows might
+be punished by stripes, and a year or two later, the statutes of
+Magdalen College, Oxford, directed that the demies should be subject
+to flogging. In later regulations of various colleges, to some of
+which I refer below, whipping is mentioned as a recognized punishment,
+but often as one to which only the younger students were liable.
+
+I have already argued that in medieval colleges discipline must have
+varied according to the age of the offender, and I conjecture that
+adults were never regularly subject to corporal punishment, but that
+boys were always so, and that the use of the rod was regarded as
+needing no explicit statutable authority. Its employment was no
+strange thing, for adult offenders against the law, apprentices, and
+boys at school, were all flogged at times. And what else, it has been
+well asked, could the authorities do with a troublesome boy of
+fourteen? In general a fine was impossible for he had no
+pocket-money. Most of the colleges were designed for poor scholars,
+and in such foundations usually the allowance for commons was so small
+that without risk to health any reduction for more than a day or two
+was difficult; little leisure was allowed for recreation or exercise,
+and thus heavy impositions were impossible; and confinement to the
+precincts of the House was so common that gating was no punishment. A
+lad of seventeen or eighteen had more liberty and privileges, and in
+general on reaching that age was as safe from the chance of corporal
+punishment as was a boy of the same age at a public school fifty years
+ago.
+
+Somewhat similar arguments apply to the private hostels, and the
+regulations of an unendowed hall at Oxford, to which I have already
+referred, show that the use of the rod or birch was recognized there.
+If as I suppose is likely, Clement Paston was at a private hostel, we
+have a definite instance of the similar use of the rod at Cambridge,
+for among the Paston letters is one dated 28 January 1458 from Dame
+Agnes Paston, about her boy, Clement, in which she says "prey
+Grenefeld to send me feythfully word by wrytyn who (how) Clement
+Paston hathe do his dever i lerning. And if he hathe nought do well,
+nor wyll nought amend, prey him that he wyll trewly belassch (_i.e._
+flog) him tyll he wyll amend, and so ded the last Maystur and ye best,
+that ev' he hadd at Cambrege." Clement was born in 1442, so he was
+then fifteen years old.
+
+I asserted above that school-boys in the middle ages were liable to
+the birch or cane. I suppose this will not be questioned, but by way
+of parenthesis I add that this liability seems to have been a
+well-established practice for centuries. It goes back to classical
+times for in the schools of Rome the less serious offences were
+punished by the cane applied to the hand, and graver faults by the
+birch applied to the back; and there is a curious fresco at
+Herculaneum of the application of the latter to a boy, horsed by one
+schoolfellow and with his feet held by another. The royal whipping
+boys in the courts of Western Europe remind us that, at least
+vicariously, princes were subject to this discipline as well as
+commoners.
+
+In more recent times the deeds of Busby and Keate at Westminster and
+Eton respectively are preserved in tradition, while the reputation of
+Udall at an earlier time, _circ._ 1530, may be gathered from the
+remarks of Thomas Tusser, a choirboy at St Paul's Cathedral, who
+subsequently went to Eton: Tusser says, "From Paul's I went, to Eton
+sent, To learn straightways the Latin phrase Where fifty-three stripes
+giv'n to me, at once I had. For faults but small, or none at all, It
+came to pass thus beat I was." The similar vigour of Udall's
+successor, Cox, is mentioned by Ascham. In short, the old saw: "Spare
+the rod, and spoil the child, Solomon said in accents mild, Be it boy
+or be it maid, Whip 'em and wallop 'em Solomon said" represented the
+current belief and practice of former days; though the dictum
+attributed to that king is stronger than the passage in Proverbs,
+xiii, 24 warrants.
+
+In the sixteenth century the colleges opened their doors to the
+admission of pensioners and fellow-commoners. Collegiate teaching and
+arrangements were superior to those of the private hostels, and before
+the middle of the century the latter had disappeared: their revival
+was rendered impossible by a regulation that membership of the
+University should be confined to those who were members of a college.
+Shortly afterwards it became the custom not to require residence for
+degrees after the baccalaureate, and thus a course limited to three or
+four years became usual for the average student. These changes were of
+far-reaching importance.
+
+In the course of this century new statutes were given to the
+University and colleges, and subsequently we possess records, fairly
+complete, of the domestic life of students. Early in the following
+century, the average age of entry began to rise, and before its close,
+it had become common for students to defer entry until about seventeen
+years old.
+
+University decrees regulating the conduct of students in many matters
+now appear, notably one in 1595 by Goad, then vice-chancellor, which
+gives a summary of what was expected. Expulsion, suspension from
+degrees, and refusal of leave to graduate until after a specified
+time, were normal punishments for serious offences, for trivial
+misconduct fines are now constantly prescribed, and physical
+punishments for non-adults are also directed in many cases.
+
+In colleges, the Tudor statutes generally enjoined good conduct on all
+students. The regulations about the punishment of offences were mostly
+concerned with grave matters for which admonitions, and finally
+expulsions, were the recognized punishments. Penalties for the
+non-performance of religious exercises now appear: thus, at Christ's
+College, Cambridge, and at Balliol College, Oxford, whipping was
+prescribed as a penalty for absence from chapel, though probably
+restricted to the younger students; so too at Peterhouse, students
+over eighteen who were absent from prayers were to be fined, while
+younger students so offending were to be deprived of dinner, and if
+persistent in their neglect flogged in hall.
+
+As in medieval times, the authorities were generally left a free hand
+in settling the regulations for the maintenance of normal discipline.
+Probably fines, impositions, restrictions on the food supplied, and
+gatings continued to be ordinarily used. Reading the bible aloud at
+meal times in hall, dining apart on bread and water, and being
+deprived of commons, are definitely mentioned in the 1520 statutes of
+St John's College, Cambridge, as possible penalties; similarly at
+Corpus Christi College, Oxford, being compelled to eat alone at a
+small table in the middle of the hall and restriction to bread and
+water are specified as suitable punishments.
+
+The use of the birch was now constantly prescribed, though probably
+in practice always confined to lads. Thus, at Christ's College,
+Cambridge, a whipping for lads and a fine for adults; and at
+Brasenose, Oxford, a fine or a flogging, at the discretion of the
+principal, were statutable punishments for various faults, including
+at the latter College the making of odious comparisons in
+conversation. At other Houses too, for instance, at Corpus Christi,
+Oxford, Wolsey (Christ Church), Oxford, Trinity College, Cambridge,
+and Gonville and Caius, Cambridge, the use of the cane or birch is
+sanctioned in the case of lads. I have no doubt this was also the
+general rule in earlier days, and nothing in the Tudor codes indicates
+that any material change was made in the existing practice, but on the
+whole I conjecture that the regulations were more humane, and I am
+inclined to think, contrary to Rashdall's view, that discipline was
+less severe after the renaissance than before it. In colleges the
+deans were and are the chief officers responsible for discipline; in
+the University, the proctors.
+
+A part of the fifth chapter of the Trinity statutes of 1560 relating
+to the office of deans may be summarized as indicating what was then
+customary, or at any rate desired, in the matter of chapel attendance
+and in certain questions of petty discipline. The statute, which is in
+Latin, is to the following effect:
+
+  In every community regard should be paid to correctness of morals
+  and general probity of life, accordingly there shall be two deans to
+  give their sedulous attention to these objects; at least one of such
+  deans shall be a bachelor of divinity and chosen from the eight
+  senior fellows, and the other, a master of arts or a bachelor of
+  divinity.
+
+  The deans shall provide for the fitting performance of public
+  worship; see that all fellows, scholars, pensioners, sizars, and
+  subsizars attend on Saints' days and Sundays at morning and evening
+  prayers, the litany, the communion, and sermons; and see that the
+  same persons are on other days regularly present at prayers between
+  five and six o'clock in the morning. Every fellow who is absent
+  shall be fined three half-pence, and if he comes in late or goes out
+  early, one half-penny. The fine for a bachelor scholar who is absent
+  shall be one penny, and for one who comes in late or goes out early,
+  one half-penny. Every undergraduate scholar, and every pensioner,
+  sizar, and subsizar who is absent shall, if his age exceeds eighteen
+  years be fined one half-penny, and if he comes in late or goes out
+  early, one farthing; but if such student has not attained this age,
+  he shall be chastised with rods in the hall on the following
+  Friday. Those are to be deemed as coming late who at evening prayers
+  arrive after the first psalm; at morning prayers, after the
+  _Venite_; at the Litany, after the words _O Holy Blessed and
+  Glorious Trinity_; and at the communion service after the recital of
+  the commandments: anyone who, during service, remains in the
+  antechapel is to be punished as if he had been absent.
+
+  Each week on Friday, at seven o'clock in the evening, the deans
+  shall chastise non-adult offenders. All scholars (bachelors
+  excepted), pensioners, sizars, and subsizars shall be present during
+  the infliction of such corporal punishment, and anyone who does not
+  answer to his name when called, and does not stay until all the
+  punishments are finished, shall, if an adult, be fined one penny,
+  and if non-adult be flogged on the next day.
+
+  Each week on Thursday, the deans shall appoint two monitors from
+  among the bachelor scholars for noting offences of bachelors; and
+  six monitors [from among the undergraduate scholars], two for noting
+  offences of undergraduates at public worship, and four for noting
+  those who fail to speak Latin: the monitors shall prepare lists of
+  all who offend in these particulars. The deans shall also appoint
+  each week six scholars and four sizars for service at the fellows'
+  table, and one sizar for the organ.
+
+  In order to ensure the decorous celebration of public worship, the
+  deans shall bring with them to the first vespers of every festival
+  a written schedule of the duties of everyone concerned in that
+  festival, and shall further appoint an inquisitor who shall remind
+  everyone of the duty so assigned to him. Anyone who shall fail in
+  such duty shall, if a non-adult, be whipt, and, if an adult, be
+  fined fourpence.
+
+  One half of all fines inflicted shall go to the College, the other
+  half shall be kept by the deans.
+
+The Tudor statutes generally remained in force till the middle of the
+nineteenth century, though in time the practices of the colleges came
+to differ materially from what was there directed. Briefly we may say
+that in the sixteenth century the standard of medieval discipline and
+study sank; but in the early years of the seventeenth century things
+improved until the civil disturbances threw academic work into
+confusion. With the establishment of the commonwealth the age of entry
+rose, and thus the use of corporal and puerile punishments died out,
+and with the disappearance of boys as members of the University, rules
+intended only for young lads became obsolete and inoperative. Most of
+the students henceforth were adolescent. The few who were younger were
+dealt with like school-boys, but the comparison is rather with
+school-boys of recent years than with those of their own period.
+
+As far back as Sir Simon D'Ewes's time--and he entered Cambridge in
+1618--the majority of the students were regarded as responsible, and
+capable of conducting themselves rationally. They reflected the
+virtues and foibles of their time, but they were a select class, and
+compare favourably in manners and morals with their contemporaries
+elsewhere. Almost without exception they speak warmly of their
+development in college from lads to young men, of friendships formed
+with their elders as well as their contemporaries, of the abiding
+influence of the place, and of their affection for it.
+
+From the restoration to the regency was a period of stagnation.
+Discipline deteriorated, and if we may trust contemporary accounts
+drunkenness and immorality were far from uncommon. No doubt there were
+always some residents who maintained high traditions and ideals, but
+on the whole the records of the social life prevalent then at
+Cambridge and Oxford make but sorry reading.
+
+The sixteenth century codes indicate lofty aims, but statutes and
+rules are not always observed literally, and it may be thought that
+those mentioned represented only old customs, perhaps already
+obsolete, or what was deemed desirable but was not enforced. It may be
+well then to turn to contemporary evidence, to regulations passed on
+specific occasions, and to records of definite punishments--though we
+can expect the latter to have been preserved only in grave cases, and
+cannot hope to learn from them much about discipline in petty matters.
+
+Contemporary evidence would serve us best if we could get it, but the
+diarists and letter-writers are mostly silent on the subject. From
+this, however, I conclude that generally the disciplinary regulations
+were thought sensible. Life in the University may have been hard and
+probably was so, but I do not believe that discipline was
+unreasonable. All the evidence is to the contrary. Thus the
+above-mentioned Tusser, a student of no special brilliancy, who
+entered at Trinity Hall in the early half of the sixteenth century
+speaks thankfully of leaving school, and says: "To Cambridge thence
+... I got at last, There joy I felt, there trim I dwelt, There heaven
+from hell, I shifted well, With learned men, a number then, the time I
+passed."
+
+Coming now to definite punishments, I mention successively corporal
+punishments, such as birching, the use of the stocks, and stanging;
+fines, direct and indirect; deprivation of days or standing; gatings;
+impositions; declaratory confessions; and rustications and expulsions.
+
+_Birching, Flogging._ Birching remained a recognized punishment for
+the younger students in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but I
+think that in practice it was not often inflicted except on boys. One
+or two examples of orders directing it will suffice.
+
+On 8 May 1572, the Vice-Chancellor, Whitgift, issued an order which is
+so detailed that I write it at length. Here it is:
+
+  If any scholar shall go into any river, pool, or other water in the
+  county of Cambridge; by day or night, to swim or wash, he shall, if
+  under the degree of bachelor of arts, for the first offence be
+  sharply and severely whipped publicly in the common hall of the
+  College in which he dwells, in the presence of all the fellows,
+  scholars, and others dwelling in the College, and on the next day
+  shall be again openly whipped in the public school, where he was or
+  ought to be an auditor, before all the auditors, by one of the
+  proctors or some other assigned by the Vice-Chancellor, and for the
+  second offence every such delinquent shall be expelled his College
+  and the University for ever. But if he shall be a bachelor of arts,
+  then for the first offence he shall be put in the stocks for a whole
+  day, in the common hall of his College, and shall, before he is
+  liberated, pay 10s towards the commons of the College, and for the
+  second offence shall be expelled his College and the University. And
+  if he shall be a master of arts, or bachelor of law, physic or
+  music, or of superior degree, he shall be severely punished, at the
+  judgment and discretion of the Master of his College.
+
+From this it is clear that at that time undergraduates, even of mature
+age, were liable to be flogged as a part of the ordinary discipline of
+the University and College, but probably it was unusual to inflict the
+penalty.
+
+Thirty years later, after the disturbances of 20 February 1607,
+following the performance of a comedy in King's College, an order was
+issued that thereafter every ringleader in any similar disturbances
+should be banished from the University: and every less responsible
+offender should, if a graduate, pay for the harm done, be suspended
+from his degree, and for one year refused leave to take a further
+degree; and if a non-graduate should for one year be refused leave to
+graduate, and further, if non-adult, be corrected in the schools by
+the rod, and, if adult, make an open confession of his guilt in the
+schools: also the offender if not a scholar should be set in the
+stocks at the bull ring in the market place. Here, it will be noticed,
+the punishment by the rod is restricted to those non-adulti.
+
+In a list of punishments inflicted at Corpus Christi College in 1622,
+quoted by Lamb, admonitions, fines, suspensions, and whippings are
+mentioned. Even as late as 1648 there is a record of "Benton per
+Tutorem suum Magistrum Johnson virgis castigandis."
+
+In 1648 an undergraduate bible-clerk of Peterhouse, age about
+seventeen, Tobias Conyers by name was "corrected publicly"--which,
+I take it, means flogged--for toasting the king. But times were
+abnormal, and if Conyers ventured into the stirring field of politics,
+he had to take the consequences.
+
+The liability to a flogging still existed after the restoration.
+Thus in the _Poor Scholar_, by R. Nevile, London, 1662, there are
+references to it in Act ii, Scene 6, and Act v, Scene 4, as being
+still in use in colleges though whether adults were so liable is
+uncertain. If the author's statements refer to contemporary matters
+and are trustworthy it would seem that the punishment was then
+common, the culprits being mounted on barrels, and the flogging
+inflicted at the butteries. The birch was also still occasionally used
+in university discipline, for on 20 March 1674, the vice-chancellor
+ordered Ellethorpe of St John's, and Hodges of Sidney Sussex to be
+whipped for having been rude to the junior proctor, Peter Parham, of
+Caius College: neither of the offenders had matriculated.
+
+These references provide the strongest evidence with which I am
+acquainted for the assertions that flogging was a usual punishment at
+Cambridge during the seventeenth century. There is a widely spread
+tradition that when at Christ's College, Milton was flogged, but Peile
+has shown that there is no satisfactory evidence for it, and it is
+intrinsically improbable. In a disciplinary order of Corpus Christi
+College in 1684, the only punishments mentioned are discommonsings,
+admonitions, rustications, deprivation of seniority, and refusal of
+college testimonials, so, comparing this with the orders of 1622 and
+1648 which I have quoted above, perhaps we may take it that the use of
+the rod there had become obsolete.
+
+The above extracts are sufficient to show that corporal punishment was
+recognized under the Elizabethan codes, though it seems probable that
+public opinion was against its use, unless the students were quite
+young; perhaps this was always the practice, and thus, as the age of
+entry rose, the use of the birch died out. Incepting bachelors and
+senior students were usually punished for serious offences by
+deferring their admission to degrees, loss of terms, or rustication:
+being adult, they were in effect regarded as not subject to corporal
+punishment.
+
+_Stocks. Stangs._ A couple of other physical punishments--ignominious
+and sometimes painful--may be mentioned in passing.
+
+One of these was confinement in Stocks. To this allusion has already
+been made in the orders of 1572 and 1607. Another instance is to be
+found in the records of Corpus Christi College, where about 1580, one
+of the students, Tobias Bland, who had libelled the master, was
+compelled to confess his fault publicly, next put in the stocks, and
+then expelled. In the old dining hall of Trinity College there were
+stocks in the minstrel's gallery, but there is no evidence that they
+were re-erected when the hall was rebuilt in 1605; perhaps the
+punishment was then becoming unusual, though against this may be set
+the fact that there are references to the college stocks in 1610 at
+King's, in 1625 at Christ's, and in 1642 at Emmanuel. The stocks at
+King's and Emmanuel, like those at Trinity, were in the hall.
+Allusions to their use are rare. The punishment continued to be
+inflicted after the restoration, for on 10 April 1680, Thomas Grigson,
+who had been rude to the junior proctor, Thomas Verdon of St John's
+College, was ordered to be "sett fast in the stocks, by the heeles for
+one whole houre, which was presently effected by the Constable of
+Saint Bennett's Parish in Cambridge." He had partially atoned for his
+offence by begging pardon on his knees, and so escaped a worse
+punishment.
+
+The Stang was a wooden pole on which the luckless culprit was tied,
+and carried ignominiously through the courts of his college. In John
+Ray's _Collection of English Words not Generally Used_, London, 1674,
+it is said that the "word is still used in some colleges in the
+University of Cambridge; to stang scholars in Christmas, being to
+cause them to ride on a colt-staff or pole for missing of chappel."
+References to the place where the pole was kept occur in the
+account-books of Trinity, St John's, Queens', and Christ's. In Parne's
+unpublished manuscript history of Trinity College, allusion is made to
+stanging as though at the beginning of the eighteenth century it had
+become recently obsolete. From his language it would seem also that
+undergraduates themselves inflicted the punishment on those of their
+members who declined to take part in the Christmas revelries.
+
+_Fines._ Pecuniary fines have been used to enforce discipline from
+the earliest times by the University as well as by the colleges: after
+the renaissance, the increasing age and means of students made fines a
+suitable penalty for many of the less serious offences, such as
+participation in forbidden amusements, visits to places out of bounds,
+walking across the grass in college courts, smoking in public places,
+the failure to wear academic dress when required, non-attendance at
+lectures, chapel, hall, etc. Probably grave misconduct was punished
+otherwise, or by fines combined with additional penalties. A fine, if
+heavy, presses unequally on men of different means; and thus a system
+of fines on a fixed scale cannot be regarded as equitable. Fines are
+still used as penalties for the infraction of rules.
+
+_Discommonsing. Dissizaring._ To be put out of commons was a
+well-recognized penalty, applicable chiefly to scholars and sizars,
+part of whose emolument consisted of a right to dine in hall and, in
+some cases, to have commons (bread, butter, and beer) to a limited
+amount each day. To deprive such a student of the right to dine in
+hall or of his commons was equivalent to a pecuniary fine, and in the
+case of a poor scholar might be a severe, though not a satisfactory,
+punishment; probably a modicum of bread and beer was supplied to
+students even when discommonsed. In some comments, published in 1768,
+on university education at Cambridge, discommonsing is described as
+"one of the most idle and anile punishments ... inflicted rather on
+the parent than on the young man, who being prohibited to eat in Hall
+is driven to purchase a dinner at a tavern or coffee house."
+
+Here is an example of an order of discommonsing at Trinity in the
+seventeenth century: "Agreed that Cassill should be punisht a monthes
+commons.... Agreed at the same time that Pepys besides a monthes
+commons, should have an admonition and pay the charges of the
+chirurgion for the healinge Cassil's head w^h he broke with a key."
+(Conclusion, 1 August 1643.) Its preservation is due to the fact that
+Pepys' punishment was combined with an admonition, and evidence that
+an admonition had been given might be required if subsequently a
+question of expulsion arose. The culprit in question was Thomas Pepys
+(B.A. 1645) and not the Samuel of immortal memory.
+
+In 1815, Mansel, master of Trinity and bishop of Bristol, was
+accustomed to put men out of sizings and commons if they appeared in
+hall in trousers instead of knee breeches, and it would seem then that
+to be put out of sizings further deprived the student of obtaining
+private supplies from the college kitchens. Half a century ago the
+penalty was still in use at Trinity, being imposed on scholars in
+waiting, who failed to appear after hall to say grace.
+
+_Loss of Days._ To qualify for a degree and for an emolument, it is
+and has been generally necessary to keep a certain number of days by
+residence in each of certain specified terms. At one time a common
+form of punishment was to cancel a certain number of days already
+kept. Thus the student would be obliged to stay at Cambridge for so
+many additional days to make up for the requisite number which had to
+be kept in the course of that term. In the seventeenth century the
+authorities went further and sometimes cancelled terms that had been
+kept. I believe this form of punishment has long been obsolete.
+
+_Gating. Walling._ Continuous confinement within the walls of the
+college (walling) or confinement during certain hours (gating) was
+another form of punishment. A case of walling occurred at one of the
+smaller colleges in Cambridge in 1872, but I know of no more recent
+instance. Gating is still in force. It causes some social
+inconvenience. As far as it goes, it promotes regular hours and
+economy, and it has no indirect ill-effects. Accordingly it serves
+well to mark dissatisfaction and act as a warning.
+
+Here is an old-time example from the records of Trinity, 19 July 1652,
+of the infliction of this and other penalties interesting from the
+name of the scholar on whom it was inflicted:
+
+  Agreed that Dryden be put out of commons for a fortnight at least,
+  and that he goe not out of the colledg during the time aforesaid,
+  excepting to sermons, without express leave of the master or
+  vice-master; and that at the end of the fortnight he read a
+  confession of his crime, in the hall, at the dinner time; at the
+  three fellowes tables.
+
+His offence was disobedience to the vice-master, and his contumacy in
+submitting himself to discipline.
+
+_Impositions._ Another tolerably obvious punishment was the setting of
+impositions. The imposition might be the learning of lines by heart or
+the delivery of a declamation on some given subject, or the production
+in writing of so many lines of a classical work or of an analysis of
+some book. Impositions in writing were constantly done vicariously,
+and if so, the punishment was little more than a fine: apparently this
+abuse of the practice was well known.
+
+The tasks set were very heavy. In the _Gradus_, 1803, the learning by
+heart of the first book of the _Iliad_ is mentioned as a possible,
+though very severe imposition. Similarly, according to J.M.F. Wright,
+a thousand lines of Homer would have been regarded in 1815 as an
+unusually sharp punishment, but such as might have been given in lieu
+of rustication. Other impositions mentioned are the learning by heart
+of a satire of Juvenal, and the production of an analysis of Butler's
+_Analogy_.
+
+At Trinity the deans were provided with long sheets of paper on which
+were printed in double columns forms such as the following:
+
+  ... to transcribe ... lines of Virgil's Aeneid, beginning at line
+  ... book ..., and to deliver it to the Junior Dean after morning
+  Chapel on Tuesday.
+
+  ... to transcribe ... lines of Homer's Iliad, beginning at line ...
+  book ..., and to deliver it to the Senior Dean after Morning Chapel
+  on Thursday.
+
+  ... to repeat ... lines of ... by order of the Junior (or Senior)
+  Dean.
+
+These were filled up by the deans, cut off, and distributed by the
+chapel-clerk to the men concerned. Customarily in Trinity the senior
+dean gave impositions from the _Iliad_ to be delivered on a Thursday,
+an the junior dean from the _Aeneid_ to be delivered on a Tuesday.
+Forms for putting men out of commons, and admonishing them were
+printed in the same way on sheets, to be used as occasions arose.
+
+Impositions were set at Trinity as late as 1830, but I believe the
+custom had died out before 1840, though I am told it was still used in
+certain Cambridge colleges as late as 1855. At Oxford the practice
+continued rather later and indeed at a few colleges seems to have been
+in force till near the close of the nineteenth century, for Rashdall,
+writing in 1895, speaks of the practice as having been in force there
+until recently.
+
+A century ago there seems to have been a sort of recognized scale of
+penalties for cutting lectures or chapel. First, a reprimand was given
+at an interview or sent in writing by a servant; second, an imposition
+was set; third the offender was deprived of commons and sizings. If
+these steps were ineffective, the matter might be regarded as a
+serious offence against college discipline, and lead to "hauling" by
+the tutor, a gating, an interview with the master, a formal
+admonition, and in extreme cases to rustication.
+
+The theory of these petty punishments was set out by Whewell in his
+_Principles of English University Education_, 1837. A punishment,
+according to him, was to be regarded as the visible expression of
+college dissatisfaction with certain conduct: as an infliction it
+might be slight, but it emphasized the discontent expressed, and acted
+as a definite warning. He suggested a most severe scale; namely, for
+the first offence, forfeiture of one month's commons; for the second,
+of three months' commons; and for the third, expulsion; but there is
+no reason to think that this was ever the practice.
+
+_Confessions._ A public confession was another form of punishment once
+used: I believe that this ceased to be employed by the middle of the
+eighteenth century.
+
+_Statutory Admonitions. Rustication. Expulsion._ For the graver
+offences, a statutory admonition, rustication (temporary removal from
+the college), or expulsion were reserved.
+
+A formal admonition was intended to act as a serious warning, and it
+served as a statutory prelude to expulsion. For this reason it was
+usually recorded, and in former times an additional sting was added by
+compelling the culprit to make also a public or written confession of
+his fault. Admonitions are not very common in the records of Trinity:
+some thirty or forty occur in the sixteenth and seventeenth century,
+only a few in the eighteenth century, and they are rare in the
+nineteenth century save for a few relating to irregularity of
+attendances at chapel or lectures. The last admonition at Trinity was
+given in 1881, shortly before the new statutes of 1882 became
+operative. Here are typical instances of the record of admonitions.
+
+  Whereas heretofore I have received an admonition from the Master of
+  the College for my lewd and outrageous behaviour within the same,
+  and have since that time for like rioting and swaggering in the Town
+  received another admonition from him before the Vice-Master of the
+  College and my Tutor and also therewith all public correction, if
+  these admonitions together with due punishment do not work
+  reformation in me hereafter, I do likewise willingly acknowledge
+  that I am incorrigible and worthy for the next like offence to be
+  expelled the College. Galen Browne. Circ. 1601. [Browne was elected
+  to a scholarship in 1602, and graduated B.A. and M.A. in due course,
+  so presumably he amended his ways.]
+
+  Whereas I have very unadvisedly and rashly stricken one Mr Halfhead,
+  a College servant, to the shedding of blood, I do acknowledge myself
+  to have received an admonition for that fault tending to expulsion.
+  Thomas Shirley, 22 February, 1621. [Halfhead was the manciple.
+  Shirley was a fellow and master of arts, so the offence was the more
+  serious, but perhaps the provocation was great. Shirley was
+  subsequently junior bursar and tutor.]
+
+  I, Christopher Offley, do confess that often time and many ways I
+  have offended against the Statute _de Modestia Morum_ to the
+  displeasure of God, hurt to myself, the evil example of others, and
+  discredit of the College, and also have broken mine oath taken when
+  I was preferred scholar in unreverent behaviour towards some of the
+  fellows and specially in giving scandalous and contumelious speeches
+  to Mr Hitch, being the Minister and Fellow of this College for which
+  misdemeanors and undutiful carriage I am unfainedly sorry and
+  heartily desire forgiveness both of God, and him, or any other whom
+  I have offended, and confess I have received a just admonition of
+  the Master and Seniors by setting my date to this writing. Circ.
+  1622. [Offley graduated B.A., 1624, and M.A., 1627, so presumably he
+  amended his ways.]
+
+  Whereas we whose names are underwritten, on the fourth of April
+  last, were guilty of grave irregularity and misbehaviour by
+  insulting the Vice-Master, the Dean, and other officers of the
+  College and thereby gave just offence to the Society, we do profess
+  ourselves heartily sorry for the same and acknowledge the lenity of
+  the Master and Dean in suffering us to return so soon from
+  rustication. And we do hereby engage to be strictly observant of our
+  duty for the future and take this as our first admonition in order
+  to expulsion. James Bensley, John Ambler. 29 May, 1754. [Bensley
+  graduated in due course and was elected to a fellowship: Ambler did
+  not graduate.]
+
+  Ordered that ..., for irregular attendance at lectures and neglect
+  of impositions, be admonished a second time previous to rustication
+  or expulsion. 29 May, 1844.
+
+Temporary or permanent removal from the College were penalties
+reserved for the gravest offences. They are still recognized as
+possible punishments. The fact that there are but few records of the
+infliction of these extreme penalties indicates how easily discipline
+has always been maintained.
+
+My readers may well think that the results of these notes are somewhat
+scanty, but if that nation is happy which has no history, surely
+universities and colleges are to be congratulated whose records of
+punishment are so few. To sum up the matter, the general effect left
+on my mind is that most of the common offences were due only to
+youthful exuberance of spirits and not to deliberate mischief making;
+and that the rules and sanctions, judged by the standard of their
+time, have been neither harsh nor unreasonable, and have usually been
+approved by public opinion in the University.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+NEWTON'S _PRINCIPIA_.
+
+
+Newton's _Principia_ is one of the few scientific books which has
+sensibly affected the methods of scientific research and the ideas of
+men about the universe. It is on this aspect of the subject I propose,
+in this paper, to make a few remarks. The work itself is a classic in
+the history of mathematics: the exposition of the subject, the
+enunciation of the principle of prime and ultimate ratios, the
+creation of mechanics as a science resting on experiments, and the
+theory of universal gravitation with concrete applications to the
+solar system, make it a masterpiece. Here I avoid all technicalities,
+and confine myself to a general description of its genesis and
+contents and the reason why its publication affected scientific
+thought and methods.
+
+Newton's exposition arose from an investigation of the cause of the
+motion of the planets round the sun, and this in due course led to the
+enunciation and establishment of the Newtonian theory of attraction.
+The origin of this theory has been often told, but will bear
+repetition. The fundamental idea occurred to Newton in 1665 or 1666,
+shortly after he had taken his degree at Cambridge, when, as he wrote
+later, "I was in the prime, of my age for invention, and minded
+Mathematicks and Philosophy more than at any time since." His
+reasoning was as follows. He knew that gravity extended to the highest
+hills, he saw no reason why it should cease to act at greater heights,
+accordingly he believed that it would be found in operation as far as
+the moon, and he suspected that it might be the force which retained
+that body in its path round the earth.
+
+This hypothesis he verified thus. If a stone is allowed to fall near
+the surface of the earth, the attraction of the earth causes it to
+move through sixteen feet in one second: also Kepler's Laws, if
+accurate and applicable, involve the conclusion that the attraction
+of the earth on a distant body varies inversely as the square of its
+distance from the earth. Now the radius of the earth and the distance
+of the moon were known to Newton, and therefore, on this hypothesis,
+he could find the magnitude of the earth's attraction on the moon.
+Further, assuming that the moon moved in a circle, he could calculate
+the force required to retain it in its orbit. At this time his
+estimate of the radius of the earth was inaccurate, and, when he made
+the calculation, he found that this force was rather greater than the
+earth's attraction on the moon. The discrepancy did not shake his
+faith in his theory, but he conjectured that the moon's motion was
+also affected by other influences, such for example, as the effect of
+a resisting medium which might itself be in motion as supposed by
+Descartes in his hypothetical vortices.
+
+In 1679 Newton knew with approximate correctness the value of the
+radius of the earth. He repeated his calculations, and found the
+results to be in accordance with his former hypothesis. He then
+proceeded to the general theory of the motion of a particle under a
+force directed to a fixed point, and showed that the vector to the
+particle would sweep over equal areas in equal times. He also proved
+that, if a particle describes an ellipse under a force directed to a
+focus, the law must be that of the inverse square of the distance from
+the focus, and conversely, that the orbit of a particle projected in
+free space under the influence of such a force must be a conic. The
+application to the solar system was obvious, since Kepler had shown
+that the planets describe ellipses with the sun in one focus, and that
+the vectors from the sun to them sweep over equal areas in equal
+times. This investigation was made for his own satisfaction and was
+not published at the time. In it he treated the solar bodies as if
+they were particles, and he must have realized that the results could
+be taken as being only approximately correct.
+
+In 1684 the subject of the planetary orbits was discussed in London
+by Halley, Hooke, and Wren. They were aware that, if Kepler's
+conclusions were correct, the attraction of the sun or earth on a
+distant external particle must vary inversely as the square of the
+distance, but they could not determine the orbit of a particle
+subjected to the action of a central force of this kind. It was
+suggested that Newton might be able to assist them. Accordingly in
+August, Halley went to Cambridge for a talk on the subject, and then
+found that Newton had solved the problem some five years previously,
+and that the path was necessarily a conic. At Halley's request Newton
+wrote out the substance of his argument, and sent it to London.
+
+Halley at once realized the importance of the communication, and later
+in the autumn returned to Cambridge to urge Newton to prosecute the
+theory further. He found that Newton had already done something in the
+matter, the results being contained in a manuscript which he saw.
+Probably this reference is to the holograph manuscript, still
+preserved in the University Library at Cambridge, of Newton's lectures
+in the Michaelmas Term, which served as the basis of his memoir sent
+to the Royal Society a few months later. The great value of these
+investigations was recognized, and Newton was persuaded to attack the
+more general problem. His results are given in the _Principia_.
+
+As yet Newton had dealt with the problem as if the sun and the planets
+might be regarded as heavy masses concentrated at their centres.
+Clearly at the best this was only an approximation, though considering
+the enormous distances involved it was not unreasonable. In January or
+February, 1685, he considered the question of the attraction of bodies
+of finite size, and found, to his surprise and gratification, that
+a sphere or spherical shell attracts an external particle as if
+condensed into a heavy mass at its centre. Hence the results he had
+already proved for the relative motion of particles were true for the
+solar system, save for small errors due partly to the fact that the
+bodies were not perfectly spherical and partly to disturbances caused
+by the planets attracting one another. It was no longer a question of
+rough approximation: the problem was reducible to mathematical
+analysis, subject to the introduction of minute corrections, which,
+given the necessary observations, could be calculated very closely.
+This was a new discovery of first-rate importance, and initiated the
+modern theory of attractions.
+
+The first book of the _Principia_ was finished before the summer of
+1685. It deals with the motion of particles or bodies in free space
+either in known orbits or under the action of known forces. In it
+the law of attraction is generalized into the statement that every
+particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force which
+varies directly as the product of their masses and inversely as the
+square of the distance between them. Thus gravitation was brought into
+the domain of Science.
+
+The second book was completed by the summer of 1686. It treats of
+motion in a resisting medium and of various problems connected with
+waves. At the end of it, it is shown that the Cartesian theory of
+vortices is inconsistent with the laws of motion, and necessarily
+leads to incorrect results. This book opened another world to the
+application of mathematics and, in effect, created the science of
+hydrodynamics.
+
+The third book was finished in March 1687. In this, the theorems
+previously established are applied to the chief phenomena of the
+universe, and briefly we may say that all the facts then known about
+the solar system and, in particular, the motion of the moon with its
+various inequalities, the figure of the earth, and the phenomena of
+the tides, were shown to be in accord with the theory. Much of the
+material for these calculations was collected by Flamsteed and Halley.
+
+The _Principia_, as I have said, is a classic. Like other books to
+which that compliment is paid, it is rarely read: indeed, I doubt
+whether there are a dozen men in Cambridge who have glanced all
+through it, even in a cursory manner. When I was an undergraduate the
+course for the Tripos involved five sections (1, 2, 3, 9, and 11) of
+the first book, but now, probably with good reason, even this slight
+acquaintance with the work is no longer required, and to-day the
+character of these investigations is unfamiliar to most
+mathematicians, while the fact that it is written in Latin tends to
+diminish the number of its readers. I will, then, with your
+permission, describe briefly its frame-work.
+
+First, however, let me remark on how different was the knowledge of
+mathematics, even among experts, at the time it was written from
+that current to-day. In the geometry of the circle and conics
+mathematicians were familiar with the methods of Greek science, and in
+their application Newton was unrivalled among his contemporaries, but
+outside geometry methods of investigation were far to seek. Analysis
+had been but little developed; algebraic notation had only recently
+taken definite form; trigonometry was still used mainly as an adjunct
+to astronomy; analytical geometry had been invented by Descartes, but
+no text-books on it of modern type were available; while nothing about
+the calculus had been published. Mechanics, however, had recently been
+treated as a science--statics by Stevinus and dynamics by Galileo--and
+this paved the way for Newton's investigations. In particular,
+Galileo had established principles which foreshadowed the first two
+laws of motion, and had deduced formulae in linear motion like
+_v² = 2fs_, _s = ½ft²_, and in circular motion like _f = v²/r_.
+
+Newton prefaced the _Principia_ by explaining that the earliest
+problems in natural philosophy which attract attention are connected
+with the phenomena of motion, and it was with motion that the book
+dealt. To discuss motion effectively, it was necessary to give
+precision to the language used, and accordingly he propounded
+definitions of mass, momentum, inertia, and so on, which have settled
+the language of the subject. He next enunciated his three well-known
+laws of motion, and described the experiments on which he based them.
+He followed this up by deducing rules for the composition and
+resolution of forces, and discussed relative motion.
+
+This preliminary matter is followed by the first book, concerned with
+the motion of bodies in an unresisting medium. It is divided into
+fourteen sections containing ninety-eight propositions with various
+interpolated lemmas, corollaries, and scholia.
+
+The first section is on the method of prime and ultimate ratios, by
+the use of which Newton was able, in effect, to integrate. He applied
+this to the curvature and the areas of curves, and proved that, at
+the very beginning of the motion of a body from rest under any force,
+the space described is proportional to the force and the square of the
+time.
+
+The second section is concerned with the motion of a particle under a
+central force. It contains the well-known propositions that if the
+force is central the area swept out by the vector to the centre is
+proportional to the time, and conversely that if such area is
+proportional to the time the particle is acted on by a central force.
+Newton further discussed particular cases of circular, elliptic, and
+spiral motion. In the third section he dealt with motion in a conic
+under a central force to the focus, showed that in this case the force
+must vary inversely as the square of the distance, and conversely that
+if a particle be projected from any point in any direction with any
+velocity under such a force it must describe a conic about the centre
+of force as a focus, and that in such elliptic orbits the periodic
+times are in the sesquiplicate ratio of the major axes of the
+ellipses. He also explained how to treat the problem if disturbing
+forces are introduced. These two sections solved the problem of
+planetary motion if the planets could be treated as particles and did
+not disturb one another's motions.
+
+The fourth and fifth sections are given up to the proof of certain
+geometrical propositions in conics required for subsequent
+discussions: in particular the construction of a conic when a focus
+and three other conditions or when five points on it or five tangents
+to it are given.
+
+In the sixth section Newton returned to the problem of the motion of a
+particle in an ellipse under a central force to a focus, and discussed
+how to determine the position of the particle at any given time.
+(Kepler's Problem.)
+
+The seventh and eighth sections are devoted to the motion of a
+particle under a central force which is any function of the distance.
+The geometrical treatment of these problems is ingenious, but
+necessarily more involved than when modern analysis is used.
+
+In the ninth section Newton dealt with the motion of particles in
+orbits which are revolving about the centre of force, and on the
+motion of the apses of such orbits: this introduced the theory of
+disturbing forces. The tenth section is concerned with constrained
+motion, and particularly with the motion of pendulums. The eleventh
+section deals with the motion of particles under their mutual
+attractions and incidentally with the problem of three bodies. These
+three sections afford a notable illustration of Newton's analytical
+powers.
+
+The twelfth and thirteenth sections deal with the attraction under
+various laws of force of spherical bodies, circular laminae, and
+solids of revolution. These sections brought the problem of the solar
+system, consisting of solid bodies of finite size and approximately
+spherical in form, into the domain of mathematics, and led up to the
+generalization that all particles of matter attract one another with a
+force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
+proportional to the square of the distance between them, from which
+law it would seem that all the known phenomena of the motions of the
+solar system can be deduced.
+
+The fourteenth section is concerned with the motion of minute
+corpuscles, with applications to the corpuscular theory of light.
+
+The second book is devoted to the discussion of the motion of bodies
+in resisting mediums: there are fifty-three propositions besides
+lemmas, scholia, etc.
+
+In the first section, Newton considered the motion of a particle or
+sphere moving in a medium whose resistance varies as the velocity of
+the particle: in the second section the resistance is assumed to vary
+as the square of the velocity: and in the third section the resistance
+is supposed to consist of two terms, one varying as the velocity and
+the other as the square of the velocity. The fourth section is on
+spiral motion caused by resistance of the medium.
+
+The fifth section deals with the density and pressure of liquids and
+gases at rest (Hydrostatics).
+
+The sixth section treats of the motion of pendulums in a resisting
+medium; and the seventh section is concerned with the motion of
+fluids, and the resistance they offer to the motion of projectiles.
+The latter section contains the celebrated statement of the form of
+the solid of least resistance, whose demonstration proved a puzzle to
+mathematicians until the invention of the calculus of variations.
+Newton's solution is in the Portsmouth papers, and elsewhere I have
+published it: it involves the use of fluxions, and it is probable that
+it was his failure to translate this demonstration into geometrical
+language that led him to give the result without a proof.
+
+The eighth section deals with the motion of waves with applications to
+the theory of sound and the undulatory theory of light; and the ninth
+section deals with vortices; it is here shown that the theory of
+vortices suggested by Descartes to explain the motion of the solar
+system is untenable.
+
+This book created the theory of hydrodynamics. Much of it is
+incomplete, but it is astonishing that Newton proved as much as he
+did; of course to-day no one would suggest that the best way of
+attacking these problems is by Newtonian geometrical methods.
+
+The third book contains the practical application of the propositions
+in the two earlier books to the solar system. I need not describe this
+in detail. In order to justify this application, Newton commenced by
+laying down four rules which have since been accepted as binding in
+scientific investigations. These, as given in the third edition, are
+to the following effect: (1) We are not to assume more causes than are
+sufficient and necessary for the explanation of observed facts.
+(2) Hence, as far as possible, similar effects must be assigned to the
+same cause; for instance, the fall of stones in Europe and America.
+(3) Properties common to all bodies within reach of our experiments
+are to be assumed as pertaining to all bodies; for instance,
+extension. (4) Propositions in science obtained by a wide induction
+are to be regarded as exactly or approximately true, until phenomena
+or experiments show that they may be corrected or are liable to
+exceptions. The substance of these rules is now accepted as the basis
+of scientific investigation. Their formal enunciation here serves as a
+landmark in the history of thought.
+
+As soon as the Copernican view of the solar system was accepted, it
+was natural for men to seek to explain the reason why the planets
+moved as they did. Descartes, in 1644, had suggested that the
+explanation might be found in the existence of vortices in space. This
+conjecture, although based on arbitrary assumptions, and in fact
+untenable, played an important part in the history of the subject,
+for it accustomed men to think that planetary phenomena might be
+explicable by the same laws as are found to be true on the earth.
+That this was so was established by Newton in his _Principia_, where
+all the motions of the solar system were made to depend on one
+assumption as to the law of attraction. The question whether this law
+could itself be deduced from some more fundamental assumption was
+raised by Newton, but he could not devise a satisfactory hypothesis.
+It has been discussed again and again since his time, and the problem
+is still unsolved.
+
+Newton's conclusions were immediately accepted in Britain, and very
+rapidly by the leading mathematicians in Europe: indeed Huygens came
+expressly from Holland in order to make the personal acquaintance of
+a writer whose work promised to revolutionize the history of science.
+The refutation of the Cartesian hypothesis ran, however, counter to
+the sentiments and wishes of a certain number of philosophers, and
+some few years elapsed before the truth of the gravitation theory was
+universally admitted, but it would be ungracious to dwell further on
+this. In Britain the work exercised a profound influence in philosophy
+as well as in science, and educated men of all schools of thought
+acquainted themselves with the general line of Newton's reasoning and
+his deductions.
+
+That men of science and philosophers should have approved Newton's
+theory is not surprising, but it is somewhat curious that it excited
+so little opposition among theologians. Galileo's discoveries of
+hills, vales, and (supposed) seas on the moon and planets had already
+suggested that life might exist there, and in the popular (but
+illogical) view this involved the idea of the existence of beings with
+spiritual and intellectual faculties not unlike those of men. Newton's
+results seemed to show that there was nothing in the nature of things
+to differentiate the earth from the other planets, and therefore
+considerably strengthened the view that life might be found on them.
+It might well be asked whether such life, and indeed whether the
+mechanism of the solar system as expounded by Newton, was in
+accordance with Scripture. That these difficulties were not pressed
+against Newton's conclusions is, I think, attributable to the fact
+that his theory was explicitly concerned only with non-organic matter.
+His own opinion was that the extension of the reign of law was an
+additional argument in favour of a divine creation: this view, set out
+at the end of the _Principia_ and in his five letters to Bentley in
+1692-93, was generally accepted by the leaders of religious thought in
+Britain.
+
+Lagrange more than once remarked that Newton was not only the greatest
+mathematician of former days, but the most fortunate, since, as there
+is but one universe, it can happen to but one man in the world's
+history to be the interpreter of its laws. It is true that Newton
+applied his theory only to the solar system for which alone he had the
+necessary data, but after the publication of the _Principia_, no one
+doubted that gravity extended to the most distant regions of space.
+The work of Sir William Herschel and that of all later astronomers on
+binary and other systems rests on this hypothesis.
+
+The influence of the _Principia_ on dynamical astronomy has been
+permanent. It is not too much to say that when it was published, the
+theory, as there set out, had outstripped observation, but during the
+succeeding century large numbers of new facts were collected, and
+applications of the theory to new problems were made, notably by
+Clairaut, Euler, and Lagrange. All these researches tended to confirm
+it.
+
+The demonstrations in the _Principia_ are expressed in the language of
+classical geometry, and, though unnecessarily concise and difficult,
+their correctness is unimpeachable. That Newton could carry his
+calculations so far with the limited mathematics then at his command
+is not the least wonderful part of the performance, but it is the
+prerogative of genius to get great results with but scanty equipment.
+
+Newton's methods, which even in the seventeenth century were archaic,
+became in time quite out of date. This reason, the growth of the
+subject, and the development of analysis made it desirable to expound
+dynamical astronomy afresh. Towards the end of the eighteenth century
+the task was undertaken by Laplace in his _Mécanique Céleste_. This is
+far more than the translation of the _Principia_ into the language of
+modern analysis, for it greatly extends the theory of some branches of
+the subject which had been left incomplete by Newton, either on
+account of his not having the requisite analysis at his command or
+because the necessary facts were not available. Laplace acknowledged
+his debt to Newton, and expressed his deliberate opinion that the
+_Principia_ was pre-eminent over every previous production of human
+genius--"so near the gods, man cannot nearer go." A century later a
+fresh exposition of the subject embodying the discoveries of the
+nineteenth century was given by F.F. Tisserand in his _Mécanique
+Céleste_; this presents the subject in its modern form.
+
+Newton had applied his theory to the solar system as it existed, and
+had not investigated its origin. We owe to Laplace the enunciation of
+a hypothesis as to its evolution. According to this conjecture, the
+solar system originated in a quantity of incandescent gas rotating
+round an axis through its centre of mass. Laplace assumed that as this
+gas cooled, it would contract, and that successive rings would break
+off from its outer edge; these rings in their turn would cool, and
+finally condense into the planets with their satellites; while the sun
+represents the central core which would be left. Recent investigations
+show that this cannot be taken as correct without numerous
+modifications. Moreover every extension of our knowledge requires the
+introduction of alterations in the hypothesis, and this clearly
+suggests that the conjecture is untenable. It played, however, a
+useful part in its day, as suggesting a common origin for all members
+of the system. Perhaps I ought to add that a nebular origin had been
+previously outlined by Kant, who had also suggested meteoric
+aggregations and tidal friction as agents concerned, but these were
+little more than vague conjectures.
+
+The _Principia_ convinced its readers that the laws of mechanics,
+discovered by experiment on the earth, were operative throughout the
+solar system. It was reserved for the nineteenth century to extend the
+reign of law to other celestial phenomena. Newton and his successors
+had proved that the law of gravity extends through all parts of space
+where observations are possible. That the sun, stars, and planets are
+constituted of similar materials was generally believed; and this has
+now been confirmed by the use of the spectroscope which has enabled us
+to calculate the temperature of gaseous stars, and specify the
+chemical elements comprised in them. Thus the composition of
+far-distant suns has been reduced to problems to be settled in our
+laboratories. The scientific world, however, in admitting the validity
+of the theory of universal gravity had implicitly accepted the
+principle that the reign of law, as investigated on the earth, extends
+throughout the universe. Thus the daring which permits us, living on a
+medium-sized planet attached to one of the smaller suns, to analyse
+the universe is, I venture to say, the direct outcome of the genius of
+Newton as displayed in his _Principia_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ISAAC NEWTON ON UNIVERSITY STUDIES.
+
+
+Among the Portsmouth papers in the University Library at Cambridge[33]
+is a memorandum by Isaac Newton, drawn up, I conjecture, towards the
+close of the seventeenth century, on the organization of the studies
+and on the discipline of the University.
+
+Conditions then differed so widely from those now in force that the
+value of the memorandum is only historical, but notwithstanding this,
+its interest is considerable. I have no reason to suppose that it was
+formally brought before the regent or the non-regent house, and
+possibly the plan never got beyond discussion by a few friends. I have
+modernized the spelling, made the use of capitals uniform, allowed
+myself to break paragraphs, and sometimes inserted punctuation or
+altered it--otherwise the paper is as originally written. I give it
+without further comment.
+
+
+_Newton's Memorandum._
+
+"Undergraduates to be instructed by a Tutor, a Humanity Lecturer, a
+Greek Lecturer, a Philosophy Lecturer, and a Mathematic Lecturer.
+
+"The Tutor to read logic, ethics, the globes and principles of
+geography and chronology in order to understand history, unless the
+Lecturers have time for any of these things.
+
+"The Humanity and Greek Lecturers to set tasks in Latin and Greek
+authors once a day to the first year, and once a week to the rest; and
+to examine diligently and instruct briefly; and to punish by exercises
+such faults as concern lectures; and to appoint the reading of the
+best historians.
+
+"The Philosophy Lecturer to read first of things introductory to
+natural philosophy--time, space, body, place, motion and its laws,
+force, mechanical powers, gravity and its laws, hydrostatics,
+projectiles solid and fluid, circular motions and the forces
+relating to them. And then to read natural philosophy, beginning with
+the general system of the world, and thence proceeding to the
+particular constitution of this earth and the things therein--meteors,
+elements, minerals, vegetables, animals, and ending with anatomy if he
+have skill therein. Also to examine in logic and ethics.
+
+"The Mathematic Lecturer to read first some easy and useful practical
+hings; then Euclid, spherics, the projections of the sphere, the
+construction of maps, trigonometry, astronomy, optics, music, algebra,
+etc. Also to examine and (if the Tutor be deficient) to instruct in
+the principles of chronology and geography.
+
+"Several sciences which depend not on one another are all learnt in
+less time together than successively, the mind being diverted and
+recreated by the variety, and put more upon the stretch. And
+therefore divers of these Lecturers may proceed together: suppose the
+Tutor's [lectures] after morning chapel, the Greek or Philosophy
+Lecturer's two hours after, and the Humanity and Mathematic
+[Lecturers'] in the afternoon. The Tutor to accompany his pupils to
+the philosophy and mathematic lectures, and to examine them the next
+morning both in those lectures and in his own, and make them
+understand where they hesitate. These two Lecturers to read five days
+in the week and with the other two [Lecturers] to examine the sixth.
+Each Lecturer to read the same day successively to two or three years
+[_i.e._, to Freshmen, Junior Sophs, or Senior Sophs as the case may
+be] under [their] several Tutors. Their lectures to begin with [the]
+Michaelmas Term and continue till the Commencement [_i.e._ the end of
+the Easter Term]: the Tutors to begin the Commencement before. The
+Greek and Humanity Lecturers to set bigger tasks in the vacations than
+in the reading-time, proportionally to the spare hours of the
+students.
+
+"A Monitor to note those who miss lectures, and give their names to
+the Humanity Lecturer, who shall punish them, not by pecuniary mulcts,
+but by tasks [, such as] by making verses, themes, epistles, or
+getting anything without book. All pecuniary mulcts of Undergraduates
+to be abolished; and exercises, admonitions, recantations, and
+expulsions (according to the nature of the crime) to succeed in their
+room.
+
+"In the Long Vacation, between the Commencement and Michaelmas, the
+Tutor shall take care that his Pupils read over all the last year's
+lessons again by themselves, and at the end of the vacation they shall
+be examined again, and those, who are at any time found not fit to go
+on, turned down to the lectures of the year below, that they do not
+retard the Lecturer and be an ill example to others.
+
+"The Lecturers to be chosen every three years, and the elections after
+the first institution to be on this manner. All those who have at any
+time been Lecturers shall choose four out of their number, one for
+each office, and the Master and Seniors of the College shall choose
+other four who have not yet executed the office, and those eight with
+the Master shall, by balancing, choose four out their number. [There
+shall be] no regard to seniority or anything but merit. The Lecturers
+to choose yearly a Public Tutor, and to reprehend or displace him if
+there be reason. This Tutor without a new election to take none but
+those admitted in his year of office until their course of lectures be
+gone through. No Private Tutor to take two years together. All sizars,
+poor scholars, and scholars of the House to be under Public Tutors,
+except Westminster scholars of Trinity College when the Tutor is of
+another school.
+
+"For encouraging able and fit men to accept of the Readers' places,
+their fellowships during their office shall be doubled by the
+addition of four other fellowships kept vacant for the purpose, one,
+for each, unless some other competent provision be made for any of
+them. And because the Philosophy and Mathematic Lecturers' office is
+laborious, for encouraging them to diligence none shall be compelled
+to come to their lectures, but all that will be auditors shall offer
+each of them a quarterly gratuity; suppose of 10s. the sizar, 12s. or
+15s. the pensioner, and 20s. or 25s. the fellow-commoner. And to
+encourage auditors those shall be preferred to scholarships and
+fellowships which are best skilled in all sciences, _caeteris
+paribus_, and shall have seniority of those that come not to lectures.
+This institution to begin in the greater colleges, and be carried on
+in the rest as men qualified and revenues can be had. In smaller
+colleges the Mathematic Lecturer may be omitted, and only a power
+granted the College of instituting one when they can. Also the Greek
+Lecturer's office may be supplied by the Humanity Lecturer when it
+shall be thought fit. A gratuity to be given by all the first year to
+the Greek and Humanity Lecturers.
+
+"For securing the Tutor and making his office desirable by fit
+persons, every student at his admission to deposit caution money in
+the hands of the bursar of the College; suppose £10 or £12 the sizar,
+£16 or £20 the pensioner, and £30 or £40 the fellow-commoner. And in
+case any pupil at the end of any quarter be in his Tutor's debt, and
+do not discharge it within six weeks after his receipt of the quarter
+bill, the Bursar to discharge it, and return back the residue upon
+demand, and the Tutor forthwith upon pain of forfeiting his office, to
+send home the pupil. Yet may the pupil be received again with a new
+supply of money. This institution to be universal. The Master and
+Seniors to regulate the expenses of all under tuition by certain
+limits common to them all, and the Senior Dean to read over and sign
+all their quarter bills. Extravagant pupils, after one admonition,
+to be sent away.
+
+"Fellow-commoners to perform all exercises in their courses, and to be
+equally subject to their Tutors and Governors with other scholars and
+alike punishable by exercises, and those who are resty or idle to be
+sent away lest they spoil others by their bad example. They shall read
+geography, chronology, and mathematics the first year.
+
+"All students who will be admitted to lectures in natural philosophy
+to learn first geometry and mechanics. By mechanics I mean here the
+demonstrative doctrine of forces and motions, including hydrostatics.
+For without a judgment in these things a man can have none in
+philosophy.
+
+"Whenever the major part of the Mathematic Lecturers in the University
+shall desire [it] a Master [shall be appointed] to teach
+fellow-commoners and others arithmetic and designing. The University
+shall allow him £10 yearly out of their Common Chest, and he shall
+observe the orders of the Mathematic Lecturers and be placed or
+displaced by the major part of them at pleasure.
+
+"All graduates without exception found by the Proctors in taverns or
+other drinking houses, unless with travellers at their inns, shall at
+least have their names given in to the Vice-Chancellor, who shall
+summon them to answer it before the next Consistory.
+
+"The Deans to visit the chambers of all undergraduates once at least
+every week, upon pain of forfeiting 10s. to the Lecturers for every
+omission.
+
+"Fasting nights have a shadow of religion without any substance. 'Tis
+only supping more pleasantly out of the public hall. And this does
+great mischief by sending young students to find suppers abroad, where
+they get into company and grow debauched. Whether would it not be
+better to license undergraduates to sup together in such places as the
+Dean shall appoint, with a Monitor to note the names of the absent?
+
+"All these lectures to consist in extemporary explications of books in
+such an easy, short, and clear manner as may be most profitable to the
+auditors. And if any Lecturer or other person shall compose any
+treatise which shall be preferred and used by the major part of the
+Mathematic or Philosophic Lecturers, the University shall give the
+author either £20, or if those Lecturers request it, £30, £40 or £50,
+out of their Common Chest.
+
+"Commissioners to be appointed for some years to set on foot, inspect,
+and amend the institution.
+
+"No oaths of office to be imposed on the Lecturers. I do not know a
+greater abuse of religion than that sort of oaths: they being harder
+to be kept than the Jewish Law, so that yearly absolutions have been
+instituted. The papists, who believe such absolutions, might be
+excused for instituting such oaths, but we have no such doctrine, and
+yet continue their practices. Admonitions and pecuniary mulcts for
+neglect of duty are less cruel punishments than the consequence of
+perjury, and may be as effectual."
+
+
+[Footnote 33: Camb. Univ. Library, Newton MSS. section viii, No. 5.
+Add. 4005/6, A.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE HISTORY OF THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS.
+
+
+The Mathematical Tripos has played so prominent a part in the history
+of education at Cambridge and of mathematics in England, that a sketch
+of its development[34] may be interesting to general readers.
+
+So far as mathematics is concerned the history of the University
+before Newton may be summed up very briefly. The University was
+founded towards the end of the twelfth century. Throughout the middle
+ages, the instruction given to students was organized on lines similar
+to those current at Paris and Oxford, and to qualify for a degree it
+was necessary to perform various exercises, and especially to keep a
+number of _acts_ or to oppose acts kept by other students. An act
+consisted in effect of a debate in Latin, thrown, at any rate in
+later times, into syllogistic form. It was commenced by one student,
+the _respondent_, stating some proposition, often propounded in the
+form of a thesis, which was attacked by an _opponent_ or _opponents_,
+the discussion being controlled by a senior graduate. The teaching was
+largely in the hands of young graduates--every master of arts being
+compelled to reside and teach for at least one year--though no doubt
+colleges and private hostels supplemented this instruction in the case
+of their own students.
+
+The reformation in England was largely the work of Cambridge divines,
+and in the University the renaissance was warmly welcomed. In spite of
+the disorder and confusion of the Tudor period, new studies and a
+system of professional instruction were introduced. The earliest
+lectureships created by the University seem to have been one in Latin
+established in or before 1492 and one in mathematics established in or
+before 1501: they mark the beginning of the system of teaching by
+experts which has superseded the medieval system of compulsory
+teaching by all regent masters. The fact that one of these
+lectureships was in mathematics shows that as early as 1500 the
+subject was regarded as important. Tunstall, subsequently the most
+eminent English arithmetician of his time, migrated in 1496 from
+Oxford to Cambridge, and most of the subsequent English
+mathematicians of the Tudor period were at Cambridge; of these I may
+mention Record (who migrated, probably about 1535, from Oxford), Dee,
+Digges, Blundeville, Buckley, Billingsley, Hill, Bedwell, Hood,
+Richard and John Harvey, Edward Wright, Briggs, and Oughtred. Under
+the Elizabethan statutes of 1570, notwithstanding many disadvantages,
+the mathematical school continued to grow. Horrox, Seth Ward, Foster,
+Rooke, Gilbert Clerke, Pell, Wallis, Barrow, Dacres, and Morland may
+be cited as prominent Cambridge mathematicians of the succeeding
+century.
+
+Newton's mathematical career dates from 1665; his reputation,
+abilities, and influence attracted general attention to the subject.
+He created a school of mathematics and mathematical physics, among the
+earliest members of which I note the names of Laughton, Samuel Clarke,
+Craig, Flamsteed, Whiston, Saunderson, Jurin, Taylor, Cotes, and
+Robert Smith. Since then Cambridge has been regarded as, in a special
+sense, the home of English mathematicians, and from 1706 onwards we
+have fairly complete accounts of the course of reading and work of
+mathematical students.
+
+Until less than a century ago the form of the method of qualifying for
+a degree remained substantially unaltered, but the subject-matter of
+the discussions varied from time to time with the prevalent studies
+of the place.
+
+After the renaissance some of the statutable exercises were "huddled,"
+that is, were reduced to a mere form. To huddle an act, the proctor
+generally asked some question such as _Quid est nomen?_ to which the
+answer usually expected was _Nescio_. In these exercises considerable
+license was allowed, particularly if there were any play on the words
+involved. For example, J. Brass, of Trinity, was accosted with the
+question, _Quid est aes?_ to which he answered, _Nescio nisi finis
+examinationis_. It should be added that retorts such as these were
+only allowed in the pretence exercises, and a candidate who in the
+actual examination was asked to give a definition of happiness and
+replied, "An exemption from Payne"--that being the name of his
+questioner--was plucked for want of discrimination in time and place.
+In earlier years even the farce of huddling seems to have been
+unnecessary, for it was said in 1675 that it was not uncommon for the
+proctors to take "cautions for the performance of the statutable
+exercises, and accept the forfeit of the money so deposited in lieu of
+their performance."
+
+In medieval times acts had been usually kept on some scholastic
+question or on a proposition taken from the _Sentences_. About the
+end of the fifteenth century religious questions, such as the
+interpretation of biblical texts, began to be introduced. Some fifty
+or sixty years later the favourite subjects were drawn either from
+dogmatic theology or from philosophy. In the seventeenth century the
+questions were usually philosophical, but in the eighteenth century,
+under the influence of the Newtonian school, a large proportion of
+them were mathematical.
+
+Further details about these exercises and specimens of acts kept in
+the eighteenth century are given in my _History of Mathematics at
+Cambridge_. Here I will only say that they provided an admirable
+training in the art of presenting an argument, and in dialectical
+skill in attack and defence. The mental strain involved in keeping a
+contested act was severe. De Morgan, describing his act kept in 1826,
+wrote[35]:
+
+  I was badgered for two hours with arguments given and answered in
+  Latin--or what we call Latin--against Newton's first section,
+  Lagrange's derived functions, and Locke on innate principles. And
+  though I took off everything, and was pronounced by the moderator to
+  have disputed _magno honore_, I never had such a strain of thought
+  in my life. For the inferior opponents were made as sharp as their
+  betters by their tutors, who kept lists of queer objections drawn
+  from all quarters.
+
+Had the language of the discussions been changed to English, as was
+repeatedly urged from 1774 onwards, these exercises might have been
+retained with advantage, but the barbarous Latin and the syllogistic
+form in which they were carried on prejudiced their retention.
+
+About 1830 a custom arose for the respondent and opponents to meet
+previously and arrange their arguments together. The discussions then
+became an elaborate farce, and were a mere public performance of what
+had been already rehearsed. Accordingly the moderators of 1839 took
+the responsibility of abandoning them. This action was singularly
+high-handed, since a report of 30 May 1838, had recommended that they
+should be continued, and there was no reason why they should not have
+been reformed and retained as a useful feature in the scheme of study.
+
+On the result of the acts, a list of those qualified to receive
+degrees was drawn up. This list was not arranged strictly in order of
+merit, because the proctors could insert names anywhere in it, but by
+the beginning of the eighteenth century this power had become
+restricted to the right reserved to the vice-chancellor, the senior
+regent, and each proctor to place in the list one candidate anywhere
+he liked--a right which continued to exist till 1828, though it was
+not exercised after 1792. Except for the names of these "honorary
+optimes," this final list was, until 1752, arranged in order of merit
+into wranglers and senior optimes, junior optimes, and poll-men;
+after 1752, the wranglers and senior optimes were placed in separate
+classes. The bachelors on admission to their degrees took seniority
+according to their order on this list. The title _wrangler_ is derived
+from these contentious discussions; the title _optime_ from the
+customary compliment given by the moderator to a successful disputant,
+_Domine ..., optime disputasti_, or even _optime quidem disputasti_,
+and the title of _poll-man_ from the description of this class as οἱ
+πολλοί.
+
+The final exercises for the bachelor of arts degree were never
+huddled, and until 1839 were carried out strictly. University
+officials were responsible for approving the subject-matter of these
+acts. Stupid men offered some irrefutable truism, but the ambitious
+student courted reputation by affirming some paradox. Probably all
+honour men kept acts, but poll-men were deemed to comply with the
+regulations by keeping opponencies. The proctors were responsible for
+presiding at these acts, or seeing that competent graduates did so.
+In and after 1649 two examiners were specially appointed for this
+purpose. In 1680[36] these examiners were appointed by the senate with
+the title of moderator, and with the joint stipend of four shillings
+for everyone graduating as a bachelor of arts during their year of
+office. In 1688 the joint stipend of the moderators was fixed at £40
+a year. The moderators, like the proctors, were nominated by the
+colleges in rotation.
+
+From the earliest times the proctors had the power of questioning a
+candidate at the end of a disputation, and probably all candidates for
+a degree attended the public schools on certain days to give an
+opportunity to the proctors (or any master who liked to take part in
+the examination) to examine them[37], though the opportunity was not
+always used. Such examinations were conducted in Latin, and originally
+different candidates attended on different days. Soon after 1710[38]
+the moderators or proctors began the custom of summoning on one day in
+January all candidates whom they proposed to question, and conducting
+the examination in English and in public: the examination did not last
+more than one day, and was partly on philosophy and partly on
+mathematics. It was from this examination that the Mathematical Tripos
+developed.
+
+This introduction of a regular oral examination seems to have been
+mainly due to the fact that when, in 1710, George I gave the Ely
+library to the University, it was decided to assign for its reception
+the old senate-house--now the catalogue room in the library--and to
+build a new room for the meetings of the senate. Pending the building
+of the new senate-house the books were stored in the Schools, which
+thus were rendered unavailable for keeping acts. In consequence of
+this, considerable difficulty was found in arranging for all the
+candidates to keep the full number of statutable exercises, and
+obtaining opportunities to compare them one with another: hence the
+introduction or extension of a supplementary oral examination. The
+advantages of this examination as providing a ready means of testing
+the knowledge and abilities of the candidates were so patent that it
+was retained when the necessity for some system of the kind had passed
+away, and finally it became systematized into an organized test to
+which all questionists were subjected.
+
+In 1731 the University raised the joint stipend of the moderators to
+£60 "in consideration of their additional trouble in the Lent Term."
+This would seem to indicate that the senate-house examination had then
+taken formal shape, and perhaps that a definite scheme for its conduct
+had become customary.
+
+As long as the order of the list of those approved for degrees was
+settled on the result of impressions derived from acts kept by the
+different candidates at different times and on different subjects, it
+was impossible to arrange the men in strict order of merit, nor was
+much importance attached to the order. But, with the introduction of
+an examination of all the candidates on one day, much closer attention
+was paid to securing an accurate classification, and more confidence
+felt in the published order. It seems to have been consequent on this
+that in and after 1748 the final lists were regarded as authoritative
+and important and that the names of the honorary optimes were
+definitely indicated: the lists from this time appeared in the
+_University Calendars_. The lists from 1748 to 1910, with the earlier
+Ordines Senioritatis from 1499 to 1747, are printed in the _Historical
+Register of the University_.
+
+Of the detailed history of the examination until the middle of the
+eighteenth century we know nothing. From 1750 onwards, however, we
+have more definite accounts of it. At this time, it would seem that
+all the men from each college were taken together as a class, and
+questions passed down by the proctors or moderators till they were
+answered: but the examination remained entirely oral, and technically
+was regarded as subsidiary to the discussions which had been
+previously held in the schools.
+
+Each class contained men of very different abilities, and to meet
+difficulties thus caused, a custom grew up by which every candidate
+was liable to be taken aside to be questioned by any master of arts
+who wished to do so, and this was regarded as an important part of the
+examination. The examination now continued for two days and a half,
+the subjects, as before, being mathematics and philosophy. At the
+conclusion of the second day the moderators received the reports of
+those masters of arts who had voluntarily taken part in the
+examination, and provisionally settled the final list. The last
+half-day was used in revising and rearranging the order of merit.
+
+Richard Cumberland has left an account of the tests to which he was
+subjected when he took his bachelor degree in 1751. Clearly the
+disputations still played an important part, and it is difficult to
+say what weight was attached to the subsequent senate-house
+examination; his reference to it is only of a general character. After
+saying that he kept two acts and two opponencies he continued[39]:
+
+  The last time I was called upon to keep an act in the schools I sent
+  in three questions to the Moderator, which he withstood as being all
+  mathematical, and required me to conform to the usage of proposing
+  one metaphysical question in the place of that, which I should think
+  fit to withdraw. This was ground I never liked to take, and I
+  appealed against his requisition: the act was accordingly put by
+  till the matter of right should be ascertained by the statutes of
+  the university, and in the result of that enquiry it was given for
+  me, and my question stood.... I yielded now to advice, and paid
+  attention to my health, till we were cited to the senate house to be
+  examined for our Bachelor's degree. It was hardly ever my lot during
+  that examination to enjoy any respite. I seemed an object singled
+  out as every man's mark, and was kept perpetually at the table under
+  the process of question and answer.
+
+It was found possible by means of the new examination to differentiate
+the better men more accurately than before; and accordingly, in 1753,
+as above stated, the first class was subdivided into two, called
+respectively wranglers and senior optimes, a division which is still
+maintained.
+
+The semi-official examination by masters of arts was regarded as the
+more important part of the test, and the most eminent residents in the
+University took part in it. Thus John Fenn, of Caius, 5th wrangler in
+1761, wrote[40]:
+
+  On the following Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, we sat in the
+  Senate-house for public examination; during this time I was
+  officially examined by the Proctors and Moderators, and had the
+  honour of being taken out for examination by Mr Abbot, the
+  celebrated mathematical tutor of St John's College, by the eminent
+  professor of mathematics Mr Waring, of Magdalene, and by Mr Jebb of
+  Peterhouse, a man thoroughly versed in the academical studies.
+
+This irregular examination by any master who chose to take part in it
+constantly gave rise to accusations of partiality.
+
+In 1763 the traditional rules for the conduct of the examination took
+more definite shape. Henceforth the examiners used the disputations
+only as a means of classifying the men roughly. On the result of their
+"acts," and probably partly also of their general reputation, the
+candidates were divided into eight classes, each arranged in
+alphabetical order. The subsequent position of the men in the class
+was determined solely by the senate-house examination. The first two
+classes comprised all who were expected to be wranglers, the next four
+classes included the other candidates for honours, and the last two
+classes consisted of poll-men only. Practically anyone placed in
+either of the first two classes was allowed, if he wished, to take an
+aegrotat senior optime, and thus escape all further examination: this
+was called gulphing it.
+
+All the men from one college were no longer taken together, but each
+class was examined separately and _vivâ voce_; and hence, since all
+the students comprised in each class were of about equal attainments,
+it was possible to make the examination more effective. Richard
+Watson, of Trinity, claimed that this change was made by him when
+acting as moderator in 1763. He said[41]:
+
+  There was more room for partiality ... then [_i.e._ in 1759] than
+  there is now; and I attribute the change, in a great degree, to an
+  alteration which I introduced the first year I was moderator [_i.e._
+  in 1763], and which has been persevered in ever since. At the time
+  of taking their Bachelor of Arts' degree, the young men are examined
+  in classes, and the classes are now formed according to the
+  abilities shown by individuals in the schools. By this arrangement,
+  persons of nearly equal merits are examined in the presence of each
+  other, and flagrant acts of partiality cannot take place. Before I
+  made this alteration, they were examined in classes, but the classes
+  consisted of members of the same College, and the best and worst
+  were often examined together.
+
+It is probable that before the examination in the senate-house began
+a candidate, if manifestly placed in too low a class, was allowed the
+privilege of challenging the class to which he was assigned. Perhaps
+this began as a matter of favour, and was only granted in exceptional
+cases, but a few years later it became a right which every candidate
+could exercise; and I think that it is partly to its development that
+the ultimate predominance of the tripos over the other exercises for
+the degree is due.
+
+In the same year, 1763, it was decided that the relative position of
+the senior and second wranglers, namely, Paley, of Christ's, and
+Frere, of Caius, was to be decided by the senate-house examination and
+not by the disputations. Henceforward distinction in that examination
+was regarded as the most important honour open to undergraduates.
+
+In 1768 Robert Smith, of Trinity College, founded prizes for
+mathematics and natural philosophy open to two commencing bachelors.
+The examination followed immediately after the senate-house
+examination, and the distinction, being much coveted, tended to
+emphasize the mathematical side of the normal university education of
+the best men. Since 1883 the prizes have been awarded on the result of
+dissertations[42]. Additional prizes, awarded at the same time, and
+associated with the name of Lord Rayleigh[43], were founded in 1909.
+
+Until about 1770, the senate-house examination had been oral, but it
+began now to be the custom to dictate some or all of the questions and
+to require answers to be written. Only one question was dictated at a
+time, and a fresh one was not given out until some student had solved
+that previously read: a custom which by causing perpetual
+interruptions to take down new questions must have proved very
+harassing. We are perhaps apt to think that an examination conducted
+by written papers is so natural that the custom is of long
+continuance, but I know no record of any in Europe earlier than the
+eighteenth century. Until 1830 the questions for the Smith's prizes
+were dictated.
+
+The following description of the senate-house examination as it
+existed in 1772 was given by Jebb[44]:
+
+  The moderators, some days before the arrival of the time prescribed
+  by the vice-chancellor, meet for the purpose of forming the students
+  into divisions of six, eight, or ten, according to their performance
+  in the schools, with a view to the ensuing examination.
+
+  Upon the first of the appointed days, at eight o'clock in the
+  morning, the students enter the senate-house, preceded by a master
+  of arts from each college, who ... is called the "father" of the
+  college....
+
+  After the proctors have called over the names, each of the
+  moderators sends for a division of the students: they sit with him
+  round a table, with pens, ink, and paper, before them: he enters
+  upon his task of examination, and does not dismiss the set till the
+  hour is expired. This examination has now for some years been held
+  in the English language.
+
+  The examination is varied according to the abilities of the
+  students. The moderator generally begins with proposing some
+  questions from the six books of Euclid, plain (_sic_) trigonometry,
+  and the first rules of algebra. If any person fails in an answer,
+  the question goes to the next. From the elements of mathematics,
+  a transition is made to the four branches of philosophy, viz.
+  mechanics, hydrostatics, apparent astronomy, and optics, as
+  explained in the works of Maclaurin, Cotes, Helsham, Hamilton,
+  Rutherforth, Keill, Long, Ferguson, and Smith. If the moderator
+  finds the set of questionists, under examination, capable of
+  answering him, he proceeds to the eleventh and twelfth books of
+  Euclid, conic sections, spherical trigonometry, the higher parts of
+  Algebra, and sir Isaac Newton's Principia; more particularly those
+  sections, which treat of the motion of bodies in eccentric and
+  revolving orbits; the mutual action of spheres, composed of
+  particles attracting each other according to various laws; the
+  theory of pulses, propagated through elastic mediums; and the
+  stupendous fabric of the world. Having closed the philosophical
+  examination, he sometimes asks a few questions in Locke's Essay on
+  the human understanding, Butler's Analogy, or Clarke's Attributes.
+  But as the highest academical distinctions are invariably given to
+  the best proficients in mathematics and natural philosophy, a very
+  superficial knowledge in morality and metaphysics will suffice.
+
+  When the division under examination is one of the highest classes,
+  problems are also proposed, with which the student retires to a
+  distant part of the senate-house, and returns, with his solution
+  upon paper, to the moderator, who, at his leisure, compares it with
+  the solutions of other students, to whom the same problems have been
+  proposed.
+
+  The extraction of roots, the arithmetic of surds, the invention of
+  divisers, the resolution of quadratic, cubic, and biquadratic
+  equations; together with the doctrine of fluxions, and its
+  application to the solution of questions "de maximis et minimis,"
+  to the finding of areas, to the rectification of curves, the
+  investigation of the centers of gravity and oscillation, and to the
+  circumstances of bodies, agitated, according to various laws, by
+  centripetal forces, as unfolded, and exemplified, in the fluxional
+  treatises of Lyons, Saunderson, Simpson, Emerson, Maclaurin, and
+  Newton, generally form the subject matter of these problems.
+
+  When the clock strikes nine, the questionists are dismissed to
+  breakfast: they return at half-past nine, and stay till eleven; they
+  go in again at half-past one, and stay till three; and, lastly, they
+  return at half-past three, and stay till five.
+
+  The hours of attendance are the same upon the subsequent day.
+
+  On the third day they are finally dismissed at eleven.
+
+  During the hours of attendance, every division is twice examined in
+  form, once by each of the moderators, who are engaged for the whole
+  time in this employment.
+
+  As the questionists are examined in divisions of only six or eight
+  at a time, but a small portion of the whole number is engaged, at
+  any particular hour, with the moderators; and, therefore, if there
+  were no further examination, much time would remain unemployed.
+
+  But the moderator's inquiry into the merits of the candidates forms
+  the least material part of the examination.
+
+  The "fathers" of the respective colleges, zealous for the credit of
+  the societies, of which they are the guardians, are incessantly
+  employed in examining those students, who appear most likely to
+  contest the palm of glory with their sons.
+
+  This part of the process is as follows:
+
+  The father of a college takes a student of a different college
+  aside, and, sometimes for an hour and an half together, strictly
+  examines him in every part of mathematics and philosophy, which he
+  professes to have read.
+
+  After he hath, from this examination, formed an accurate idea of the
+  student's abilities and acquired knowledge, he makes a report of his
+  absolute or comparative merit to the moderators, and to every other
+  father who shall ask him the question.
+
+  Besides the fathers, all masters of arts, and doctors, of whatever
+  faculty they be, have the liberty of examining whom they please; and
+  they also report the event of each trial, to every person who shall
+  make the inquiry.
+
+  The moderators and fathers meet at breakfast, and at dinner. From
+  the variety of reports, taken in connection with their own
+  examination, the former are enabled, about the close of the second
+  day, so far to settle the comparative merits of the candidates, as
+  to agree upon the names of four-and-twenty, who to them appear most
+  deserving of being distinguished by marks of academical approbation.
+
+  These four-and-twenty [wranglers and senior optimes] are recommended
+  to the proctors for their private examination; and, if approved by
+  them, and no reason appears against such placing of them from any
+  subsequent inquiry, their names are set down in two divisions,
+  according to that order, in which they deserve to stand; are
+  afterwards printed; and read over upon a solemn day, in the presence
+  of the vice-chancellor, and of the assembled university.
+
+  The names of the twelve [junior optimes], who, in the course of the
+  examination, appear next in desert, are also printed, and are read
+  over, in the presence of the vice-chancellor, and of the assembled
+  university, upon a day subsequent to the former....
+
+  The students, who appear to have merited neither praise nor censure
+  [the poll-men], pass unnoticed: while those, who have taken no pains
+  to prepare themselves for the examination, and have appeared with
+  discredit in the schools, are distinguished by particular tokens of
+  disgrace.
+
+Jebb's statement about the number of wranglers and senior optimes is
+only approximate.
+
+It may be added that it was now frankly recognized that the
+examination was competitive[45]. Also that though it was open to any
+member of the senate to take part in it, yet the determination of the
+relative merit of the students was entirely in the hands of the
+moderators[46]. Although the examination did not occupy more than
+three days it must have been a severe physical trial to anyone who was
+delicate. It was held in winter and in the senate-house: that building
+was then noted for its draughts, and was not warmed in any way; and,
+according to tradition, on one occasion the candidates on entering in
+the morning found the ink frozen in the pots on their desks.
+
+The University was not altogether satisfied[47] with the regulations,
+and in 1779[48] the scheme of examination was amended in various
+respects. In particular the examination was extended to four days,
+a third day being given up entirely to natural religion, moral
+philosophy, and Locke's _Essay_. It was further announced[49] that a
+candidate would not receive credit for advanced subjects unless he had
+satisfied the examiners in Euclid's _Elements_ and elementary natural
+philosophy.
+
+A system of brackets or "classes quam minimae" was now introduced.
+Under this system the examiners issued on the morning of the fourth
+day a provisional list of men who had obtained honours, with the names
+of those of about equal merit bracketed, and that day was devoted to
+arranging the names in each bracket in order of merit: the examiners
+being given explicit authority to invite the assistance of others in
+this work. Whether at this time a candidate could request to be
+re-examined with the view of being moved from one bracket to another
+is uncertain, but later this also was allowed.
+
+The number of examiners was also increased to four, the moderators of
+one year becoming, as a matter of course, the examiners of the next.
+Thus of the four examiners in each year, two had taken part in the
+examination of the previous year, and the continuity of the system of
+examination was maintained. The names of the moderators appear on the
+tripos lists, but the names of the examiners were not printed on the
+lists till some years later.
+
+The right of any master of arts to take part in the examination was
+not affected, though henceforth it was exercised more sparingly, and I
+believe was not insisted on after 1785. But it became a regular custom
+for the moderators to invite particular residents to examine and
+compare specified candidates: Milner, of Queens', was constantly asked
+to assist in this way.
+
+It was not long before it became an established custom that a
+candidate, who was dissatisfied with the class in which he had been
+placed as the result of his disputations, might challenge it before
+the examination began. This power seems to have been used but rarely;
+it was, however, a recognition of the fact that a place in the tripos
+list was to be determined by the senate-house examination alone, and
+the examiners soon acquired the habit of settling the preliminary
+classes without exclusive reference to the previous disputations.
+
+The earliest extant paper actually set in the senate-house, to which
+we can with certainty refer, is a problem paper set in 1785 or 1786 by
+W. Hodson, of Trinity, then a proctor. The autograph copy from which
+he gave out the questions was luckily preserved, and is in the
+library[50] of Trinity College. It must be almost the last problem
+paper which was dictated, instead of being printed and given as a
+whole to the candidates. The paper is as follows:
+
+  1. To determine the velocity with which a Body must be thrown, in
+  a direction parallel to the Horizon, so as to become a secondary
+  planet to the Earth; as also to describe a parabola, and never
+  return.
+
+  2. To demonstrate, supposing the force to vary as _1/D²_ how far a
+  body must fall both within and without the Circle to acquire the
+  Velocity with which a body revolves in a Circle.
+
+  3. Suppose a body to be turned (_sic_) upwards with the Velocity
+  with which it revolves in an Ellipse, how high will it ascend? The
+  same is asked supposing it to move in a parabola.
+
+  4. Suppose a force varying first as _1/D³_, secondly in a greater
+  ratio than _1/D²_ but less than _1/D³_, and thirdly in a less ratio
+  than _1/D²_, in each of these Cases to determine whether at all, and
+  where the body parting from the higher Apsid will come to the lower.
+
+  5. To determine in what situation of the moon's Apsid they go most
+  forwards, and in what situation of her Nodes the Nodes go most
+  backwards, and why?
+
+  6. In the cubic equation _x³ + qx + r = 0_ which wants the second
+  term; supposing _x = a + b_ and _3ab = -q_, to determine the value
+  of _x_. (_sic._)
+
+  7. To find the fluxion of _x^r × (y^n + z^m)^{1/q}_.
+
+  8. To find the fluent of _aẋ / (a + x)_.
+
+  9. To find the fluxion of the _m_^th power of the Logarithm of _x_.
+
+  10. Of right-angled Triangles containing a given Area to find that
+  whereof the sum of the two legs _AB + BC_ shall be the least
+  possible. [This and the two following questions are illustrated by
+  diagrams. The angle at _B_ is the right angle.]
+
+  11. To find the Surface of the Cone _ABC_. [The cone is a right one
+  on a circular base.]
+
+  12. To rectify the arc _DB_ of the semicircle _DBV_.
+
+In cases of equality in the senate-house examination, the acts were
+still taken into account in settling the tripos order: and in 1786,
+when the second, third, and fourth wranglers came out equal in the
+examination, a memorandum was published that the second place was
+given to that candidate who _dialectis magis est versatus_, and the
+third place to that one who _in scholis sophistarum melius
+disputavit_.
+
+At this time there were various intervals in the examination by the
+moderators, and the examinations by the extraneous examiners took
+place in these intervals. Those candidates who at any time were not
+being examined occupied themselves with amusements, provided they were
+not too boisterous and obvious: probably dice and cards played a large
+part in them. Gunning in an amusing account of his examination in 1788
+talks of playing with a teetotum[51] on the Wednesday (when specified
+works by Locke and Paley formed the subjects of examination), and says
+this game "was carried on with great spirit ... by considerable
+numbers during the whole of the examination."
+
+About this period, 1790, the custom of printing the problem papers was
+introduced, but until 1828 the other papers continued to be dictated.
+Since then all the papers have been printed.
+
+I insert here the following letter[52] from William Gooch, of Caius,
+in which he described his examination in the senate-house in 1791. It
+must be remembered that it is the letter of an undergraduate addressed
+to his father and mother, and was not intended either for preservation
+or publication: a fact which certainly does not detract from its
+value.
+
+  _Monday_ ¼ aft. 12.
+
+  We have been examin'd this Morning in pure Mathematics & I've
+  hitherto kept just about even with Peacock which is much more than
+  I expected. We are going at 1 o'clock to be examin'd till 3 in
+  Philosophy.
+
+  From 1 till 7 I did more than Peacock; But who did most at
+  Moderator's Rooms this Evening from 7 till 9, I don't know yet;--but
+  I did above three times as much as the Sen^r Wrangler last year, yet
+  I'm afraid not so much as Peacock.
+
+  Between One & three o'Clock I wrote up 9 sheets of Scribbling Paper
+  so you may suppose I was pretty fully employ'd.
+
+  _Tuesday Night._
+
+  I've been shamefully us'd by Lax to-day;--Tho' his anxiety for
+  Peacock must (of course) be very great, I never suspected that his
+  Partially (_sic_) w^d get the better of his Justice. I had
+  entertain'd too high an opinion of him to suppose it.--he gave
+  Peacock a long private Examination & then came to me (I hop'd) on
+  the same subject, but 'twas only to _Bully_ me as much as he
+  could,--whatever I said (tho' right) he tried to convert into
+  Nonsense by seeming to misunderstand me. However I don't entirely
+  dispair of being first, tho' you see Lax seems determin'd that I
+  shall not.--I had no Idea (before I went into the Senate-House) of
+  being able to contend at all with Peacock.
+
+  _Wednesday evening._
+
+  Peacock & I are still in perfect Equilibrio & the Examiners
+  themselves can give no guess yet who is likely to be first;--a New
+  Examiner (Wood of St. John's, who is reckon'd the first
+  Mathematician in the University, for Waring doesn't reside) was
+  call'd solely to examine Peacock & me only.--but by this new Plan
+  nothing is yet determin'd.--So Wood is to examine us again to-morrow
+  morning.
+
+  _Thursday evening._
+
+  Peacock is declar'd first & I second,--Smith of this Coll. is either
+  8^th or 9^th & Lucas is either 10^th or 11^th.--Poor Quiz Carver is
+  one of the οἱ πολλοί;--I'm perfectly _satisfied_ that the Senior
+  Wranglership is Peacock's due, but _certainly_ not so very
+  undisputably as Lax pleases to represent it--I understand that _he_
+  asserts 'twas 5 to 4 in Peacock's favor. Now Peacock & I have
+  explain'd to each other how we went on, & can _prove indisputably_
+  that it wasn't 20 to 19 in his favor;--I _cannot_ therefore be
+  displeas'd for being plac'd second, tho' I'm provov'd (_sic_) with
+  Lax for his false report (so much beneath the Character of a
+  Gentleman.)--
+
+  N.B. it is my very _particular Request_ that you dont mention Lax's
+  behaviour to me to any one.
+
+Such was the form ultimately taken by the senate-house examination, a
+form which it retained substantially without alteration for nearly
+half-a-century. It soon became the sole test by which candidates were
+judged. The University was not obliged to grant a degree to anyone who
+performed the statutable exercises, and it was open to the senate to
+refuse to pass a supplicat for a bachelor's degree in arts unless the
+candidate had presented himself for the senate-house examination. In
+1790 James Blackburn, of Trinity, a questionist of exceptional
+abilities, was informed that in spite of his good disputations he
+would not be allowed a degree unless he also satisfied the examiners
+in the tripos. He accordingly solved one "very hard problem," though
+in consequence of a dispute with the authorities he refused to attempt
+any more[53].
+
+Henceforth the examination was compulsory on all candidates pursuing
+the normal course for the B.A. degree. In 1791 the University laid
+down rules[54] for its conduct, so far as it concerned poll-men,
+decreeing that those who passed were to be classified in four
+divisions or classes, the names in each class to be arranged
+alphabetically, but not to be printed on the official tripos lists.
+The classes in the final lists must be distinguished from the eight
+preliminary classes issued before the commencement of the examination.
+The men in the first six preliminary classes were expected to take
+honours; those in the seventh and eighth preliminary classes were
+_primâ facie_ poll-men.
+
+In 1799 the moderators announced[55] that for the future they would
+require every candidate to show a competent knowledge of the first
+book of Euclid's _Elements_, arithmetic, vulgar and decimal fractions,
+simple and quadratic equations, and selected books by Locke and Paley.
+Paley's works seem to be held in esteem by modern divines, and his
+_Evidences_, though not his _Philosophy_, still remains (1917) one of
+the subjects of the Previous Examination, but his contemporaries
+thought less highly of his writings, or at any rate of his philosophy.
+Thus Best is quoted by Wordsworth[56] as saying of Paley's
+_Philosophy_, "The tutors of Cambridge no doubt neutralize by their
+judicious remarks, when they read it to their pupils, all that is
+pernicious in its principles": so also Richard Watson, bishop of
+Llandaff, in his anecdotal autobiography[57], says, in describing the
+senate-house examination in which Paley was senior wrangler, that
+Paley was afterwards known to the world by many excellent productions,
+"though there are some ... principles in his philosophy which I by no
+means approve."
+
+In 1800 the moderators extended to all men in the first four
+preliminary classes the privilege of being allowed to attempt the
+problem papers: hitherto this privilege had been confined to
+candidates placed in the first two classes. Until 1828 the problem
+papers were set in the evenings, and in the rooms of the moderator,
+but many of the so-called problems were really pieces of bookwork or
+easy riders. No problems were ever set to the men in the seventh and
+eighth preliminary classes, which contained the poll-men.
+
+The _University Calendars_ date from 1796, and from 1802 to 1882
+inclusive contain the printed tripos papers of the previous January.
+The papers from 1801 to 1820 and from 1838 to 1849 inclusive were also
+published in separate volumes, which are to be found in most public
+libraries. None of the bookwork papers of this time are now extant,
+but it is believed that they contained few, if any, riders. In looking
+at these papers to form an opinion of the knowledge current at the
+time it is necessary to bear in mind that the text-books then in
+circulation were far from satisfactory.
+
+The _Calendar_ of 1802 contains a diffuse account of the examination.
+It commences as follows:
+
+  On the Monday morning, a little before eight o'clock, the students,
+  generally about a hundred, enter the Senate-House, preceded by a
+  master of arts, who on this occasion is styled the father of the
+  College to which he belongs. On two pillars at the entrance of the
+  Senate-House are hung the classes and a paper denoting the hours of
+  examination of those who are thought most competent to contend for
+  honours. Immediately after the University clock has struck eight,
+  the names are called over, and the absentees, being marked, are
+  subject to certain fines. The classes to be examined are called
+  out, and proceed to their appointed tables, where they find pens,
+  ink, and paper provided in great abundance. In this manner, with the
+  utmost order and regularity, two-thirds of the young men are set to
+  work within less than five minutes after the clock has struck eight.
+  There are three chief tables, at which six examiners preside. At the
+  first, the senior moderator of the present year and the junior
+  moderator of the preceding year. At the second, the junior moderator
+  of the present, and the senior moderator of the preceding year. At
+  the third, two moderators of the year previous to the two last, or
+  two examiners appointed by the Senate. The two first tables are
+  chiefly allotted to the six first classes; the third, or largest, to
+  the οἱ πολλοί.
+
+  The young men hear the propositions or questions delivered by the
+  examiners; they instantly apply themselves; demonstrate, prove, work
+  out and write down, fairly and legibly (otherwise their labour is of
+  little avail) the answers required. All is silence; nothing heard
+  save the voice of the examiners; or the gentle request of some one,
+  who may wish a repetition of the enunciation. It requires every
+  person to use the utmost dispatch; for as soon as ever the examiners
+  perceive anyone to have finished his paper and subscribed his name
+  to it another question is immediately given....
+
+  The examiners are not seated, but keep moving round the tables, both
+  to judge how matters proceed and to deliver their questions at
+  proper intervals. The examination, which embraces arithmetic,
+  algebra, fluxions, the doctrine of infinitesimals and increments,
+  geometry, trigonometry, mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, and
+  astronomy, in all their various gradations, is varied according to
+  circumstances: no one can anticipate a question, for in the course
+  of five minutes he may be dragged from Euclid to Newton, from the
+  humble arithmetic of Bonnycastle to the abstruse analytics of
+  Waring. While this examination is proceeding at the three tables
+  between the hours of eight and nine, printed problems are delivered
+  to each person of the first and second classes; these he takes with
+  him to any window he pleases, where there are pens, ink, and paper
+  prepared for his operations.
+
+The examination began at eight o'clock in the morning. At nine the
+papers had to be given up, and half-an-hour was allowed for breakfast.
+At half-past nine the candidates came back, and were examined in the
+way described above till eleven, when the senate-house was again
+cleared. An interval of two hours then took place. At one o'clock all
+returned to be again examined. At three the senate-house was cleared
+for half-an-hour, and, on the return of the candidates, the
+examination was continued till five. At seven in the evening the first
+four classes went to the senior moderator's rooms to solve problems.
+They were finally dismissed for the day at nine, after eight hours of
+examination. The work of Tuesday was similar to that of Monday:
+Wednesday was partly devoted to logic and moral philosophy.
+
+At eight o'clock on Thursday morning a first list was published with
+all candidates of about equal merits bracketed. Until nine o'clock a
+candidate had the right to challenge anyone above him to an
+examination to see which was the better. At nine a second list came
+out, and a candidate's right of challenge was then confined to the
+bracket immediately above his own. If he proved himself the equal of
+or better than the man so challenged his name was transferred to the
+upper bracket. To challenge and then to fail to substantiate the claim
+to removal to a higher bracket was considered rather ridiculous.
+Revised lists were published at eleven, three, and five, according to
+the results of the examination during that day. At five the whole
+examination ended. The proctors, moderators, and examiners then
+retired to a room under the public library to prepare the list of
+honours, which was sometimes settled in a few hours, but sometimes not
+before two or three the next morning. The name of the senior wrangler
+was generally announced at midnight, and the rest of the list the next
+morning. In 1802 there were eighty-six candidates for honours, and
+they were divided into fifteen brackets, the first and second brackets
+containing each one name only, and the third bracket four names.
+
+It is clear from the above account that the competition fostered by
+the examination had developed so much as to threaten to impair its
+usefulness as guiding the studies of the men. On the other hand, there
+can be no doubt that the carefully devised arrangements for obtaining
+an accurate order of merit stimulated the best men to throw all their
+energies into the work for the examination. It is easy to point out
+the double-edged result of a strict order of merit. The problem before
+the University was to retain its advantages while checking any abuses
+to which it might lead.
+
+It was the privilege of the moderators to entertain the proctors and
+some of the leading resident mathematicians the night before the issue
+of the final list, and to communicate that list in confidence to their
+guests. This pleasant custom survived till 1884. I revived the
+practice in 1890 when acting as senior moderator, but it seems to have
+now ceased.
+
+In 1806 Sir Frederick Pollock was senior wrangler, and in 1869 in
+answer to an appeal from De Morgan for an account of the mathematical
+study of men at the beginning of the century he wrote a letter[58]
+which is sufficiently interesting to bear reproduction:
+
+  I shall write in answer to your inquiry, _all_ about my books,
+  my study, and my degree, and leave you to settle all about the
+  proprieties which my letter may give rise to, as to egotism,
+  modesty, &c. The only books I read the first year were Wood's
+  _Algebra_ (as far as quadratic equations), Bonnycastle's ditto,
+  and _Euclid_ (Simpson's). In the second year I read Wood (beyond
+  quadratic equations), and Wood and Vince, for what they called the
+  _branches_. In the third year I read the _Jesuit's_ Newton and
+  Vince's _Fluxions_; these were all the _books_, but there were
+  certain MSS. floating about which I copied--which belonged to
+  Dealtry, second wrangler in Kempthorne's year. I have no doubt that
+  I had read less and seen fewer books than any senior wrangler of
+  about my time, or any period since; but what I knew I knew
+  thoroughly, and it was completely at my fingers' ends. I consider
+  that I was the last _geometrical_ and _fluxional_ senior wrangler;
+  I was not up to the _differential_ calculus, and never acquired it.
+  I went up to college with a knowledge of Euclid and algebra to
+  quadratic equations, nothing more; and I never read any second
+  year's lore during my first year, nor any third year's lore during
+  my second; my _forte_ was, that what I _did_ know I _could produce
+  at any moment with PERFECT accuracy_. I could repeat the first book
+  of Euclid word by word and letter by letter. During my first year
+  I was not a "_reading_" man (so called); I had no expectation of
+  honours or a fellowship, and I attended all the lectures on all
+  subjects--Harwood's anatomical, Wollaston's chemical, and Farish's
+  mechanical lectures--but the examination at the end of the first
+  year revealed to me my powers. I was not only in the first class,
+  but it was generally understood I was _first_ in the first class;
+  neither I nor anyone for me expected I should get in at all. Now, as
+  I had taken no pains to prepare (taking, however, marvellous pains
+  while the examination was going on), I knew better than anyone else
+  the value of my _examination qualities_ (great rapidity and perfect
+  accuracy); and I said to myself, "If you're not an ass, you'll be
+  senior wrangler"; and _I took to "reading" accordingly_. A curious
+  circumstance occurred when the Brackets came out in the Senate-house
+  declaring the result of the examination: I saw at the top the name
+  of Walter _bracketed alone_ (as he was); in the bracket below were
+  _Fiott_, _Hustler_, _Jephson_. I looked down and could not find my
+  own name till I got to Bolland, when my pride took fire, and I said,
+  "I must have beaten _that man_, so I will look up again"; and on
+  looking up carefully I found the nail had been passed through my
+  name, and I was at the top bracketed _alone_, even above Walter. You
+  may judge what my feelings were at this discovery; it is the only
+  instance of two such brackets, and it made my fortune--that is, made
+  me independent, and gave me an immense college reputation. It was
+  said I was more than half of the examination before anyone else. The
+  two moderators were Hornbuckle, of St John's, and Brown (Saint
+  Brown), of Trinity. The Johnian congratulated me. I said perhaps
+  I might be challenged; he said, "Well, if you are you're quite
+  safe--you may sit down and do nothing, and no one would get up to
+  you in a whole day." ...
+
+  Latterly the Cambridge examinations seem to turn upon very different
+  matters from what prevailed in my time. I think a Cambridge
+  education has for its object to make good members of society--not
+  to extend science and make profound mathematicians. The tripos
+  questions in the Senate-house ought not to go beyond certain limits,
+  and geometry ought to be cultivated and encouraged much more than
+  it is.
+
+To this De Morgan replied:
+
+  Your letter suggests much, because it gives possibility of answer.
+  The _branches_ of algebra of course mainly refer to the second part
+  of Wood, now called the theory of equations. Waring was his guide.
+  Turner--whom you must remember as head of Pembroke, senior wrangler
+  of 1767--told a young man in the hearing of my informant to be sure
+  and attend to quadratic equations. "It was a quadratic," said he,
+  "made me senior wrangler." It seems to me that the Cambridge
+  _revivers_ were [Woodhouse,] Waring, Paley, Vince, Milner.
+
+  You had Dealtry's MSS. He afterwards published a very good book on
+  fluxions. He merged his mathematical fame in that of a Claphamite
+  Christian. It is something to know that the tutor's MS. was in vogue
+  in 1800-1806.
+
+  Now--how did you get your conic sections? How much of Newton did you
+  read? From Newton direct, or from tutor's manuscript?
+
+  Surely Fiott was our old friend Dr Lee. I missed being a pupil of
+  Hustler by a few weeks. He retired just before I went up in February
+  1823. The echo of Hornbuckle's answer to you about the challenge has
+  lighted on Whewell, who, it is said, wanted to challenge Jacob, and
+  was answered that he could not beat [him] if he were to write the
+  whole day and the other wrote nothing. I do not believe that Whewell
+  would have listened to any such dissuasion.
+
+  I doubt your being the last fluxional senior wrangler. So far as I
+  know, Gipps, Langdale, Alderson, Dicey, Neale, may contest this
+  point with you.
+
+The answer, dated 7 August 1869, of Sir Frederick Pollock to these
+questions was as follows:
+
+  You have put together as _revivers_ five very different men.
+  Woodhouse was better than Waring, who could not prove Wilson's
+  (Judge of C. P.) guess about the property of prime numbers; but
+  Woodhouse (I think) did prove it, and a beautiful proof it is.
+  Vince was a bungler, and I think utterly insensible of mathematical
+  beauty.
+
+  Now for your questions. I did not get my conic sections from Vince.
+  I copied a MS. of Dealtry. I fell in love with the cone and its
+  sections, and everything about it. I have never forsaken my
+  favourite pursuit; I delighted in such problems as two spheres
+  touching each other and also the inside of a hollow cone, &c. As to
+  Newton, I read a good deal (men _now_ read nothing), but I read much
+  of the notes. I detected a blunder which nobody seemed to be aware
+  of. Tavel, tutor of Trinity, was not; and he argued very favourably
+  of me in consequence. The application of the Principia I got from
+  MSS. The blunder was this: in calculating the resistance of a globe
+  at the end of a cylinder oscillating in a resisting medium they had
+  forgotten to notice that there is a difference between the
+  resistance to a globe and a circle of the same diameter.
+
+  The story of Whewell and Jacob cannot be true. Whewell was a very,
+  _very_ considerable man, I think not a _great_ man. I have no doubt
+  Jacob beat him in accuracy, but the supposed answer _cannot_ be
+  true; it is a mere echo of what actually passed between me and
+  Hornbuckle on the day the Tripos came out--for the truth of which I
+  vouch. I think the examiners are taking too _practical_ a turn; it
+  is a waste of time to calculate _actually_ a longitude by the help
+  of logarithmic tables and lunar observations. It would be a fault
+  not to know _how_, but a greater to be handy at it.
+
+A few minor changes in the senate-house examination were made in
+1808[59]. A fifth day was added to the examination. Of the five days
+thus given up to it three were devoted to mathematics, one to logic,
+philosophy, and religion, and one to the arrangement of the brackets.
+Apart from the evening paper the examination on each of the first
+three days lasted six hours: of these eighteen hours, eleven were
+assigned to bookwork and seven to problems. The problem papers were
+set from six to ten in the evening.
+
+A letter from Whewell, dated 19 January 1816, thus describes his
+examination in the senate-house[60]:
+
+  Jacob. Whewell. Such is the order in which we are fixed after a
+  week's examination.... I had before been given to understand that a
+  great deal depended upon being able to write the greatest possible
+  quantity in the smallest time, but of the rapidity which was
+  actually necessary I had formed the most distant idea. I am upon no
+  occasion a quick writer, and upon subjects where I could not go on
+  without sometimes thinking a little I soon found myself considerably
+  behind. I was therefore surprised, and even astonished, to find
+  myself bracketed off, as it is called, in the second place; that is,
+  on the day when a new division of the classes is made for the
+  purpose of having a closer examination of the respective merits of
+  men who come pretty near to each other, I was not classed with
+  anybody, but placed alone in the second bracket. The man who is at
+  the head of the list is of Caius College, and was always expected to
+  be very high, though I do not know that anybody expected to see him
+  so decidedly superior as to be bracketed off by himself.
+
+The tendency to cultivate mechanical rapidity was a grave evil, and
+lasted long after Whewell's time. According to rumour the highest
+honours in 1845 were obtained by assiduous practice in writing[61].
+
+The devotion of the Cambridge school to geometrical and fluxional
+methods had led to its isolation from contemporary continental
+mathematicians. Early in the nineteenth century the evil consequence
+of this began to be recognized; and it was felt to be little less than
+a scandal that the researches of Lagrange, Laplace, and Legendre were
+unknown to many Cambridge mathematicians save by repute. An attempt to
+explain the notation and methods of the calculus as used on the
+continent was made by Woodhouse, later professor in the University,
+who stands out as the apostle of the new movement.
+
+It is doubtful if Woodhouse could have brought analytical methods into
+vogue by himself; but his views were enthusiastically adopted by three
+students, Peacock, Babbage, and Herschel, who succeeded in carrying
+out the reforms he had suggested. They created an Analytical Society
+which Babbage explained was formed to advocate "the principles of pure
+_d_-ism as opposed to the _dot_-age of the University." The character
+of the instruction in mathematics at the University has at all times
+largely depended on the text-books in use, and the importance of good
+books of this class was emphasized by a traditional rule that
+questions should not be set on a new subject in the tripos unless it
+had been discussed in some treatise suitable and available for
+Cambridge students[62]. Hence the importance attached to the
+publication of the work on analytical trigonometry by Woodhouse in
+1809, and of the works on the differential calculus issued by members
+of the Analytical Society in 1816 and 1820.
+
+In 1817 Peacock, who was moderator, introduced the symbols for
+differentiation into the papers set in the senate-house examination;
+his colleague, however, continued to use the fluxional notation.
+Peacock himself wrote on 17 March 1817 (_i.e._ shortly after the
+examination) on the subject as follows[63]:
+
+  I assure you ... that I shall never cease to exert myself to the
+  utmost in the cause of reform, and that I will never decline any
+  office which may increase my power to effect it. I am nearly certain
+  of being nominated to the office of Moderator in the year 1818-19,
+  and as I am an examiner in virtue of my office, for the next year I
+  shall pursue a course even more decided than hitherto, since I shall
+  feel that men have been prepared for the change, and will then be
+  enabled to have acquired a better system by the publication of
+  improved elementary books. I have considerable influence as a
+  lecturer, and I will not neglect it. It is by silent perseverance
+  only that we can hope to reduce the many-headed monster of
+  prejudice, and make the University answer her character as the
+  loving mother of good learning and science.
+
+In 1818 all candidates for honours, that is, all men in the first six
+preliminary classes, were allowed to attempt the problems: this change
+was made by the moderators.
+
+In 1819 Peacock, who was again moderator, induced his colleague to
+adopt the new notation. It was employed in the next year by Whewell,
+and in the following year by Peacock again. Henceforth the calculus
+in its modern language and analytical methods were freely used, new
+subjects were introduced, and for many years the examination provided
+a mathematical training fairly abreast of the times.
+
+By this time the disputations had ceased to have any immediate effect
+on a man's place in the tripos. Thus Whewell[64], writing about his
+duties as moderator in 1820, said:
+
+  You would get very exaggerated ideas of the importance attached to
+  it [an Act] if you were to trust Cumberland; I believe it was
+  formerly more thought of than it is now. It does not, at least
+  immediately, produce any effect on a man's place in the tripos, and
+  is therefore considerably less attended to than used to be the case,
+  and in most years is not very interesting after the five or six best
+  men: so that I look for a considerable exercise of, or rather demand
+  for, patience on my part. The other part of my duty in the Senate
+  House consists in manufacturing wranglers, senior optimes, etc. and
+  is, while it lasts, very laborious.
+
+Of the examination itself in this year he wrote as follows[65]:
+
+  The examination in the Senate House begins to-morrow, and is rather
+  close work while it lasts. We are employed from seven in the morning
+  till five in the evening in giving out questions and receiving
+  written answers to them; and when that is over, we have to read over
+  all the papers which we have received in the course of the day, to
+  determine who have done best, which is a business that in numerous
+  years has often kept the examiners up the half of every night; but
+  this year is not particularly numerous. In addition to all this, the
+  examination is conducted in a building which happens to be a very
+  beautiful one, with a marble floor and a highly ornamented ceiling;
+  and as it is on the model of a Grecian temple, and as temples had no
+  chimneys, and as a stove or a fire of any kind might disfigure the
+  building, we are obliged to take the weather as it happens to be,
+  and when it is cold we have the full benefit of it--which is likely
+  to be the case this year. However, it is only a few days, and we
+  have done with it.
+
+A sketch of the examination in the previous year from the point of
+view of an examinee was given by J.M.F. Wright[66], but there is
+nothing of special interest in it.
+
+Sir George B. Airy[67] gave the following sketch of his recollections
+of the reading and studies of undergraduates of his time and of the
+tripos of 1823, in which he had been senior wrangler:
+
+  At length arrived the Monday morning on which the examination for
+  the B.A. degree was to begin.... We were all marched in a body to
+  the Senate-House and placed in the hands of the Moderators. How the
+  "candidates for honours" were separated from the οἱ πολλοί I do not
+  know, I presume that the Acts and the Opponencies had something to
+  do with it. The honour candidates were divided into six groups: and
+  of these Nos. 1 and 2 (united), Nos. 3 and 4 (united), and Nos. 5
+  and 6 (united), received the questions of one Moderator. No. 1,
+  Nos. 2 and 3 (united), Nos. 4 and 5 (united), and No. 6, received
+  those of the other Moderator. The Moderators were reversed on
+  alternate days. There were no printed question-papers: each examiner
+  had his bound manuscript of questions, and he read out his first
+  question; each of the examinees who thought himself able proceeded
+  to write out his answer, and then orally called out "Done." The
+  Moderator, as soon as he thought proper, proceeded with another
+  question. I think there was only one course of questions on each day
+  (terminating before 3 o'clock, for the Hall dinner). The examination
+  continued to Friday mid-day. On Saturday morning, about 8 o'clock,
+  the list of honours (manuscript) was nailed on the door of the
+  Senate House.
+
+It must be remembered that for students pursuing the normal course the
+senate-house examination still provided the only avenue to a degree.
+That examination involved a knowledge of the elements of moral
+philosophy and theology, an acquaintance with the rules of formal
+logic, and the power of reading and writing scholastic Latin, but
+mathematics was the predominant subject, and this led to a certain
+one-sidedness in education. The evil of this was generally recognized,
+and in 1822 various reforms were introduced in the university
+curriculum; in particular the Previous Examination was established for
+students in their second year, the subjects being prescribed Greek and
+Latin works, a Gospel, and Paley's _Evidences_. Set classical books
+were introduced in the final examination of poll-men; and another
+honour or tripos examination was established for classical students.
+These alterations came into effect in 1824; and henceforth the
+senate-house examination, so far as it related to mathematical
+students, was known as the Mathematical Tripos.
+
+In 1827 the scheme of examination in the mathematical tripos was
+revised. By regulations[68] which came into operation in January 1828,
+four days, exclusive of the day of arranging the brackets, were
+devoted to the examination; the number of hours of examination was
+twenty-three, of which seven were assigned to problems. On the first
+two days all the candidates had the same questions proposed to them,
+inclusive of the evening problems, and the examination on those days
+excluded the higher and more difficult parts of mathematics, in order,
+in the words of the report, "that the candidates for honours may not
+be induced to pursue the more abstruse and profound mathematics, to
+the neglect of more elementary knowledge." Accordingly, only such
+questions as could be solved without the aid of the differential
+calculus were set on the first day, and those set on the second day
+involved only its elementary applications. The classes were reduced
+to four, determined as before by the exercises in the schools.
+
+The regulations of 1827 definitely prescribed that all the papers
+should be printed. They are also noticeable as being the last which
+gave the examiners power to ask _vivâ voce_ questions, though such
+questions "were restricted to asking about propositions contained in
+the mathematical works commonly in use at the University, or examples
+and explanations of such propositions." It was further recommended
+that no paper should contain more questions than well-prepared
+students could be expected to answer within the time allowed for it,
+but that if any candidate, before the end of the time, had answered
+all the questions in the paper, the examiners might propose additional
+questions _vivâ voce_. The power of granting honorary optime degrees
+now ceased; it had already fallen into abeyance. Henceforth the
+examination was conducted under definite rules, and I no longer
+concern myself with its traditions.
+
+In the same year as these changes became effective the examination for
+the poll degree was separated from the tripos with different sets of
+papers and a different schedule of subjects[69]. It was, however,
+still nominally considered as forming part of the senate-house
+examination, and until 1858 those who obtained a poll degree were
+arranged in four classes, described as fourth, fifth, sixth, and
+seventh, as if in continuation of the junior optimes or third class of
+the tripos.
+
+In the course henceforth ordained for the poll or ordinary degree, the
+examination, later known as "the General," represents that part of the
+old senate-house examination which was intended for the poll-men, but
+gradually it was moved to an earlier period in the normal course taken
+by the men. In 1851 admission to the classical tripos[70] was allowed
+to others than those who passed the mathematical tripos, and this
+provided another avenue to a degree entirely independent of the old
+senate-house examination. In 1852 another set of examinations, at
+first called "the Professor's Examinations," and now somewhat modified
+and known as "the Specials," was instituted for all poll-men to take
+before they could qualify for a degree.
+
+In 1858 the fiction that the poll examinations were part of the
+senate-house examination was abandoned, and subsequently they have
+been treated as providing an independent method of obtaining the
+degree: thus now the mathematical tripos is the sole representative of
+the old senate-house examination. Since 1858 numerous other ways of
+obtaining a degree in arts have been established, and it is now
+possible to graduate by showing proficiency in very special, or even
+technical subjects.
+
+Further changes in the mathematical tripos were introduced in
+1833[71]. The duration of the examination, before the issue of the
+brackets, was extended to five days, and the number of hours of
+examination on each day was fixed at five and a half: seven and a half
+hours were assigned to problems. The examination on the first day was
+confined to subjects that did not require the differential calculus,
+and only the simplest applications of the calculus were permitted on
+the second and third days. During the first four days of the
+examination the same papers were set to all the candidates alike, but
+on the fifth day the examination was conducted according to classes.
+No reference was made to _vivâ voce_ questions, though permission was
+reserved to re-examine candidates if it were found necessary: this
+right remained in force till 1848, but in fact was never used. In
+December 1834, a few unimportant details were amended.
+
+Mr Earnshaw, the senior moderator in 1836, informed me that he
+believed that the tripos of that year was the earliest one in which
+all the papers were marked, and that in previous years the examiners
+had partly relied on their impression of the answers given.
+
+New regulations came into force[72] in 1839. The examination now
+lasted for six days, and continued as before for five hours and a half
+each day: eight and a half hours were assigned to problems. Throughout
+the whole examination the same papers were set to all candidates, and
+no reference was made to any preliminary classes. It was no doubt in
+accordance with the spirit of these changes that the acts in the
+schools should be abolished, but they were discontinued by the
+moderators of 1839 without the authority of the senate. The
+examination was for the future confined[73] to mathematics.
+
+In the same year in which the new scheme came into force a proposal to
+reopen the subject was rejected on 6 March 1839.
+
+The difficulty of bringing professorial lectures into relation with
+the needs of students has more than once been before the University.
+The desirability of it was emphasized by a syndicate in February 1843,
+which recommended conferences at stated intervals between the
+mathematical professors and examiners. This report, which
+foreshadowed the creation of a Mathematical Board, was rejected by the
+senate on 31 March.
+
+A few years later the scheme of the examination was again
+reconstructed by regulations[74] which came into effect in 1848. The
+duration of the examination was extended to eight days. The
+examination lasted in all forty-four and a half hours, twelve of which
+were devoted to problems. The first three days were assigned to
+specified elementary subjects; in the papers set on these days riders
+were to be set as well as bookwork, but the methods of analytical
+geometry and the calculus were excluded. After the first three days
+there was a short interval, at the end of which the examiners issued a
+list of those who had so acquitted themselves as to deserve
+mathematical honours. Only those whose names were contained in this
+list were admitted to the last five days of the examination, which was
+devoted to the higher parts of mathematics. After the conclusion of
+the examination the examiners, taking into account the whole eight
+days, brought out the list arranged in order of merit. No provision
+was made for any rearrangement of this list corresponding to the
+examination of the brackets. The arrangements of 1848 remained in
+force till 1873.
+
+In the same year as these regulations came into force, a Board of
+Mathematical Studies (consisting of the mathematical professors,
+with the moderators and examiners for the current year and the two
+preceding years) was constituted[75] by the senate. From that time
+forward their minutes supply a permanent record of the changes
+gradually introduced into the tripos. I do not allude to subsequent
+changes which only concern unimportant details of the examination.
+
+In May 1849, the board issued a report in which, after giving a review
+of the past and existing state of the mathematical studies in the
+University, they recommended that the mathematical theories of
+electricity, magnetism, and heat should not be admitted as subjects of
+examination. In the following year they issued a second report, in
+which they recommended the omission of elliptic integrals, Laplace's
+coefficients, capillary attraction, and the figure of the earth
+considered as heterogeneous, as well as a definite limitation of
+the questions in the lunar and planetary theories. In making these
+recommendations the board were only recognizing what had become the
+practice in the examination.
+
+I may, in passing, mention a curious attempt which was made in 1853
+and 1854 to assist candidates to estimate the relative difficulty of
+the questions asked. This was effected by giving to the candidates,
+at the same time as the examination paper, a slip of paper on which
+the marks assigned for the bookwork and rider for each question were
+printed. I mention the fact merely because these things are rapidly
+forgotten and not because it is of any intrinsic value. I possess a
+complete set of slips which came to me from Todhunter.
+
+In 1856 there was an amusing difference of opinion between the
+vice-chancellor and the moderators. The vice-chancellor issued a
+notice to say that for the convenience of the University he had
+directed the tripos lists to be published at 8.0 a.m. as well as at
+9.0 a.m., but when members of the senate arrived at 8.0 the moderators
+said that the list should not be read until 9.0.
+
+Considerable changes in the scheme of examination were introduced in
+1873. On 5 December 1865, the board had recommended the addition of
+Laplace's coefficients and the figure of the earth considered as
+heterogeneous as subjects of the examination; the report does not seem
+to have been brought before the senate, but attention was called to
+the fact that certain departments of mathematics and mathematical
+physics found no place in the tripos schedules, and were neglected by
+most students. Accordingly, a syndicate was appointed on 6 June 1867,
+to consider the matter, and a scheme drawn up by them was approved in
+1868[76] and came into effect in 1873.
+
+The new scheme of examination was framed on the same lines as that of
+1848. The subjects in the first three days were left unchanged, but an
+extra day was added, devoted to the elements of mathematical physics.
+The essence of the modification was the greatly extended range of
+subjects introduced into the schedule of subjects for the last five
+days, and their arrangement in divisions; the total marks awarded to
+the questions in each of the five divisions being approximately in a
+proportion to the total marks assigned to the questions in the first
+three days as 2, 1, 1, 1, 2/3 to 1 respectively. Under these
+regulations the number of examiners was increased from four to five.
+
+The assignment of marks to groups of subjects was made under the
+impression that the best candidates would concentrate their abilities
+on a selection of subjects from the various divisions. But it was
+found that, unless the questions were made extremely difficult, more
+marks could be obtained by reading superficially all the subjects in
+the five divisions than by attaining real proficiency in a few of the
+higher ones: while the wide range of subjects rendered it practically
+impossible to cover all the ground thoroughly in the time allowed.
+The failure was so pronounced that in 1877 another syndicate was
+appointed to consider the mathematical studies and examinations of the
+University. They presented an elaborate scheme, but on 13 May 1878,
+some of the most important parts of it were rejected; their subsequent
+proposals, accepted on 21 November 1878 (by 62 to 49), represented a
+compromise which pleased few members of the senate[77].
+
+Under the new scheme which came into force in 1882 the tripos was
+divided into two portions: the first portion was taken at the end of
+the third year of residence, the range of subjects being practically
+the same as in the regulations of 1848, and the result brought out in
+the customary order of merit. The second portion was held in the
+following January, and was open only to those who had been wranglers
+in the preceding June. This portion was confined to higher mathematics
+and appealed chiefly to specialists: the result was brought out in
+three classes, each arranged in alphabetical order. The moderators and
+examiners conducted the whole examination without any extraneous aid.
+
+In the next year or two further amendments were made[78], the second
+part of the examination being moved to the June of the fourth year,
+and thrown open to all men who had graduated in the tripos of the
+previous June. At the same time the conduct of the examination in
+part II was transferred to four examiners nominated by the board: this
+put it largely under the control of the professors. The range of
+subjects of part II was also greatly extended, and candidates were
+encouraged to select only a few of them. It was further arranged that
+part I might be taken at the end of a man's second year of residence,
+though in that case it would not qualify for a degree. A student who
+availed himself of this leave could take part II at the end either of
+his third or of his fourth year as he pleased.
+
+The general effect of these changes was to destroy the homogeneity of
+the tripos. Objections to the new scheme were soon raised. Especially,
+it was said--whether rightly or wrongly--that part I contained too
+many technical subjects to serve as a general educational training for
+any save mathematicians; that the distinction of a high place in the
+historic list produced on its results tended to prevent the best men
+taking it in their second year, though by this time they had read
+enough to be able to do so; and that part II was so constructed as to
+appeal only to professional mathematicians, and thus the higher
+branches of mathematics were neglected in the University by all save
+a few specialists.
+
+Whatever value be attached to these opinions, the number of students
+studying mathematics fell rapidly under the scheme of 1886. In 1899
+the board proposed[79] further changes. These seemed to some members
+of the senate to be likely still further to decrease the number of men
+who took up the subject as one of general education; and the two main
+proposals were rejected, 15 February 1900 by votes of 151 to 130 and
+161 to 129.
+
+A few years later, in 1907[80], the board brought forward another
+scheme, proposing changes so sweeping as almost to destroy the
+identity of the tripos. Under this the examination in part II was
+abolished--a change on which all parties were agreed. There was
+introduced an examination, called part I, confined to elementary
+mathematics, which could be taken as early as the second term of
+residence, and for which in certain cases of failure a student could
+present himself again, but this, although an examination for honours,
+did not qualify for a degree. In the new part II, taken normally at
+the end of the third year of residence and qualifying for a degree,
+candidates were given some option in the subjects of their
+examination, and order of merit was abolished. The first examination
+under this scheme was held in 1908.
+
+A remarkable feature in the history of the Cambridge mathematical
+school is the fact that for nearly two hundred years most students
+were accustomed to rely for preparation for it on work done with a
+private tutor or "Coach." Towards the close of the seventeenth century
+we first read of these "pupil-mongers" (among whom Laughton of Clare
+was the most famous) who made it their business to prepare men for
+their "acts."
+
+With the rise of the senate-house examination the importance of this
+class of teachers increased, for success in that examination was
+regarded as the crown of the academic course, and brought with it, in
+the shape of a fellowship, an immediate competence with a reasonable
+prospect of an assured career. It was the business of private tutors
+to prepare their pupils for the examination, and among those who in
+this way came to the front shortly after the middle of the eighteenth
+century were Richard Watson, John Wilson whose name is still known by
+its association with a proposition in the theory of numbers, and
+Robert Thorp. The last named teacher was described, about 1761, as
+being "of eminent use to young men in preparing them for the
+Senate-House Examinations and peculiarly successful"; and it was added
+that "one young man of no shining reputation with the assistance of
+Mr Thorp's tuition had stood at the head of wranglers."
+
+In a grace of the senate, passed in 1781, it is stated that almost all
+sophs then resorted to private tuition, and for more than a century
+subsequently, the practice was well established. These were the men
+who really directed the reading of the students. Even non-residents,
+if reputed to be successful coaches, drew pupils. Thus John Dawson, a
+medical practitioner at Sedbergh, regularly prepared pupils in the
+vacations for the senate-house examination, and at least eleven of the
+senior wranglers between 1781 and 1800 are known to have studied under
+him.
+
+During the nineteenth century the system developed under two
+remarkable teachers, William Hopkins, 1793-1866, and Edward John
+Routh, 1831-1907, to whom the vast majority of the better known
+Cambridge mathematicians of this century owed most of what they learnt
+in their undergraduate days. Hopkins in the twenty-two years from
+1828-49, had among his pupils one hundred and seventy-five wranglers,
+of whom seventeen were senior, forty-four in one of the first three
+places, and one hundred and eight in one of the first ten places.
+So too Routh, in the thirty-one years from 1858-88, had between six
+hundred and seven hundred pupils, most of whom became wranglers,
+twenty-seven being senior in the tripos and forty-one Smith's
+prizemen. To organize teaching on this scale demanded rare gifts.
+
+Perhaps it may be of interest to describe, by way of example, the
+general features of Routh's system. He gave catechetical lectures
+three times a week to classes of eight or ten men of approximately
+equal knowledge and ability. The work to be done between two lectures
+was heavy, and included the solution of some eight or nine fairly hard
+examples on the subject of the lectures. Examination papers were also
+constantly set on tripos lines (bookwork and riders), while there was
+a weekly paper of problems set to all pupils alike. All papers sent up
+were marked in public, the comments on them in class were generally
+brief, and, to save time, solutions of the questions were circulated
+in manuscript. Teaching also was supplemented by manuscripts on the
+subjects. Finally to the more able students he was accustomed, shortly
+before their tripos, to give memoirs or books for analyses and
+commentaries. The course for the first three years and the two earlier
+long vacations covered all the subjects of the examination--the last
+long vacation and the first term of the fourth year were devoted to a
+thorough revision.
+
+Under Hopkins and Routh there was no trace of what is called cramming;
+they might say that a particular demonstration was so long that it
+could not be required in the tripos, but none the less they expected
+their pupils to master it. The system had faults, but it had the merit
+of providing a systematic grounding in a wide field of subjects. The
+effectiveness of teaching of this kind was dependent on intimate
+constant personal intercourse, and the importance of this cannot be
+overrated. The scandal of the system consisted in the fact that a man
+was compelled to pay heavy fees to the University and his College for
+instruction, and yet found it advantageous at his own expense to go
+elsewhere to get it.
+
+During the last quarter of the nineteenth century college lecturers
+began to share with the coaches the general direction of studies.
+Post-graduate work was also to some extent brought under the influence
+of professors and university lecturers--these not uncommonly
+suggesting subjects for dissertations for fellowships, Smith's prizes,
+etc. But the students thus influenced were not numerous, and it still
+remains true that the majority of mathematical undergraduates are so
+out of touch with the professors in the subject as to be unacquainted
+even with their personal appearance.
+
+Such was the mathematical tripos and its history. Whatever its
+demerits, it dominated the situation, and Cambridge mathematics and
+mathematicians of the nineteenth century were the direct product of
+the system it embodied. Judged by the output, I do not think it can
+be said to have resulted in failure; and perhaps Cayley, Sylvester,
+Adams, Green, Stokes, Kelvin, and Maxwell--to mention no others--were
+none the worse for having been compelled to go through the course.
+
+The reconstitution in 1907 of the tripos, and the destruction of many
+of its distinctive features must profoundly modify the future history
+of mathematics at Cambridge, but forecasts on such a theme would be
+useless.
+
+The curious origin of the term tripos has been repeatedly told, and an
+account of it may fitly close this chapter. Formerly there were three
+principal occasions on which questionists were admitted to the title
+or degree of bachelor. The first of these was at the comitia priora,
+held on Ash-Wednesday, for the best men in the year. The next was at
+the comitia posteriora, which was held a few weeks later, and at which
+any student who had distinguished himself in the quadragesimal
+exercises subsequent to Ash-Wednesday had his seniority reserved to
+him. Lastly, there was the comitia minora, for students who had in no
+special way distinguished themselves.
+
+In the fifteenth century an important part in the ceremony on each of
+these occasions was taken by a certain "ould bachilour," who sat upon
+a three-legged stool or tripos before the proctors and tested the
+abilities of the would-be graduates by arguing some question with the
+"eldest son," who was selected from them as their representative. To
+assist the latter in what might be an unequal contest his "father,"
+that is, the officer of his college who was to present him for his
+degree, was allowed to come to his assistance.
+
+The discussion took place in Great St Mary's Church, and marked the
+admission of the student to a position with new responsibilities,
+while the season of Lent was chosen with a view to bring this into
+prominence. The puritan party objected to the semi-ecclesiastical
+character of the proceedings, and in the course of the sixteenth
+century set themselves to bring the ceremony into disrepute. The part
+played by the questionist now became purely formal, though a serious
+debate still sometimes took place between the father of the senior
+questionist and a regent master who represented the University: this,
+however, came to be prefaced by a speech by the bachelor, who was now
+called Mr Tripos, just as we speak of a judge as the bench, or of a
+rower as an oar. Ultimately public opinion permitted Mr Tripos to say
+pretty much what he pleased, so long as it was not dull and was
+scandalous. The speeches he delivered or the verses he recited were
+generally printed and preserved by the registrary, and were known as
+the tripos verses: originally they referred to the subjects of the
+disputations then propounded. The earliest copies now extant are those
+for 1575.
+
+The university officials, to whom the personal criticisms in which
+Mr Tripos indulged were by no means pleasing, repeatedly exhorted him
+to remember "while exercising his privilege of humour, to be modest
+withal." In 1710, says Mullinger[81], "the authorities after
+condemning the excessive license of the tripos announced that the
+comitia at Lent would in future be conducted in the Senate-House; and
+all members of the University, of whatever order or degree, were
+forbidden to assail or mock the disputants with scurrilous jokes or
+unseemly witticisms. About the year 1747-8, the moderators initiated
+the practice of printing the honour lists on the back of the sheets
+containing the tripos verses, and after the year 1755 this became the
+invariable practice. By virtue of this purely arbitrary connection
+these lists themselves became known as the tripos; and eventually the
+examination itself, of which they represented the results, also became
+known by the same designation."
+
+Mr Tripos ceased to deliver his speech about 1750, but the issue of
+tripos verses continued for nearly 150 years longer. During the latter
+part of this time they consisted of four sets of verses, usually in
+Latin, but occasionally in Greek, in which current topics in the
+University were treated lightly or seriously as the writer thought
+fit. They were written for the proctors and moderators by
+undergraduates or commencing bachelors, each of whom was supposed to
+receive a pair of white kid gloves in recognition of his labours. Thus
+gradually the word tripos changed its meaning "from a thing of wood to
+a man, from a man to a speech, from a speech to sets of verses, from
+verses to a sheet of coarse foolscap paper, from a paper to a list of
+names, and from a list of names to a system of examination[82]."
+
+In 1895 the proctors and moderators, without consulting the senate,
+sent in no verses, and thus, in spite of widespread regret, an
+interesting custom of many centuries standing was destroyed. In
+defence of this action, it was said that the custom had never been
+embodied in statute or ordinance, and thus was not obligatory, and
+further that its continuance was not of material benefit to anybody.
+Such arguments are not conclusive, and we may well regret the
+disappearance of historic ties unless it can be shown that they cause
+inconvenience, which of course in this case could not be asserted.
+
+By way of supplement to the foregoing account, I append a list of
+those who have held or hold the various university mathematical chairs
+and lectureships.
+
+  The _Lucasian Professorship of Mathematics_ was founded in 1663 by
+  Henry Lucas. The successive occupants of the chair have been: Isaac
+  Barrow, 1664-1669; Isaac Newton, 1669-1702; William Whiston,
+  1702-1711; Nicholas Saunderson (Sanderson), 1711-1739; John Colson,
+  1739-1760; Edward Waring, 1760-1798; Isaac Milner, 1798-1820; Robert
+  Woodhouse, 1820-1822; Thomas Turton, 1822-1826; George Biddell Airy,
+  1826-1828; Charles Babbage, 1828-1839; Joshua King, 1839-1849;
+  George Gabriel Stokes, 1849-1903; Joseph Larmor, 1903 _et seq._
+
+  The _Plumian Professorship of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy_
+  was founded in 1704 by Thomas Plume. The successive occupants of the
+  chair have been: Roger Cotes, 1707-1716; Robert Smith, 1716-1760;
+  Anthony Shepherd, 1760-1796; Samuel Vince, 1796-1822; Robert
+  Woodhouse, 1822-1828; George Biddell Airy, 1828-1836; James Challis,
+  1836-1883; George Howard Darwin, 1883-1912; Arthur Stanley
+  Eddington, 1913 _et seq._
+
+  The _Lowndean Professorship of Astronomy and Geometry_ was founded
+  in 1749 by Thomas Lowndes. The successive occupants of the chair
+  have been: Roger Long, 1750-1771; John Smith, 1771-1795; William
+  Lax, 1795-1836; George Peacock, 1836-1858; John Couch Adams,
+  1858-1892; Robert Stawell Ball, 1892-1913; Henry Frederick Baker,
+  1914 _et seq._
+
+  The _Sadleirian Professorship of Pure Mathematics_ was founded, in
+  1863 from a benefaction given in 1710 by Lady Sadleir. The
+  successive occupants of the chair have been: Arthur Cayley,
+  1863-1895; Andrew Russell Forsyth, 1895-1910; Ernest William Hobson,
+  1910 _et seq._
+
+  The _Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics_ was founded in
+  1871 by the University; the laboratory attached being built at the
+  expense of the then Chancellor, the Duke of Devonshire. The
+  successive occupants of the chair have been: James Clerk Maxwell,
+  1871-1879; John William, Baron Rayleigh, 1879-1884; Joseph John
+  Thomson, 1884 _et seq._
+
+  The _Professorship of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics_, with
+  laboratories and shops attached, was founded by the University in
+  1875. The successive occupants of the chair have been: James Stuart,
+  1875-1890; James Alfred Ewing, 1890-1903; Bertram Hopkinson, 1903
+  _et seq._
+
+  Five _Lectureships in Mathematics_ were created in 1882 under the
+  directions of Royal Commissioners, and subsequently two others (now
+  reduced to one other) tenable, if desired, with one of the above,
+  were founded. The successive holders have been: Joseph John Thomson,
+  1884; Andrew Russell Forsyth, 1884-1895; William Herrick Macaulay,
+  1884-1887; Richard Tetley Glazebrook, 1884-1898; Ernest William
+  Hobson, 1884-1910; Joseph Larmor, 1885-1903; Richard Pendlebury,
+  1888-1901; Henry Frederick Baker, 1895-1914; Augustus Edward Hough
+  Love, 1898-1899; Hector Munro Macdonald, 1899-1904; Herbert William
+  Richmond, 1901 _et seq._; George Ballard Mathews, 1903-1905; James
+  Hopwood Jeans, 1904-1906, 1910-1912; John Gaston Leathem, 1905-1909;
+  Robert Alfred Herman, 1906 _et seq._; Edmund Taylor Whittaker,
+  1905-1906; Thomas James I'Anson Bromwich, 1909 _et seq._; John
+  Hilton Grace, 1901 _et seq._; Godfrey Harold Hardy, 1914 _et seq._;
+  Arthur Berry, 1914 _et seq._
+
+
+[Footnote 34: The greater part of this chapter formerly appeared in my
+_Mathematical Recreations and Essays_, but a few paragraphs on
+"coaching" have been taken from a paper which I wrote for distribution
+to those who attended the International Congress of Mathematicians
+held in England in 1912. The subject is treated in Whewell's _Liberal
+Education_, Cambridge, three parts, 1845, 1850, 1853; Wordsworth's
+_Scholae Academicae_, Cambridge, 1877; my own _Origin and History of
+the Mathematical Tripos_, Cambridge, 1880; Glaisher's Presidential
+Address to the London Mathematical Society, _Transactions_,
+vol. XVIII, 1886, pp. 4-38; and my _History of the Study of
+Mathematics at Cambridge_, Cambridge, 1889.]
+
+[Footnote 35: _Budget of Paradoxes_, by A. De Morgan, London, 1872,
+p. 305.]
+
+[Footnote 36: See grace of 25 October 1680.]
+
+[Footnote 37: _Ex. gr._ see De la Pryme's account of his graduation in
+1694, _Surtees Society_, vol. LIV, 1870, p. 32.]
+
+[Footnote 38: W. Reneu, in his letters of 1708-10 describing the
+course for the B.A. degree, makes no mention of the senate-house
+examination, and I think it is a reasonable inference that it had not
+then been established.]
+
+[Footnote 39: _Memoirs of Richard Cumberland_, London, 1806,
+pp. 78-79.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Quoted by C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_,
+Cambridge, 1877, pp. 30-31.]
+
+[Footnote 41: _Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson_, London, 1817,
+pp. 18-19.]
+
+[Footnote 42: See grace of 25 October 1883; and the _Cambridge
+University Reporter_, 23 October 1883.]
+
+[Footnote 43: See grace of 11 February 1909, and the _Cambridge
+University Reporter_, 8 December 1908.]
+
+[Footnote 44: _The Works of J. Jebb_, London, 1787, vol. II,
+pp. 290-297.]
+
+[Footnote 45: "Emulation, which is the principle upon which the plan
+is constructed." _The Works of J. Jebb_, London, 1787, vol. III,
+p. 261.]
+
+[Footnote 46: _The Works of J. Jebb_, London, 1787, vol. III, p. 272.]
+
+[Footnote 47: See graces of 5 July 1773, and of 17 February 1774.]
+
+[Footnote 48: See graces of 19, 20 March 1779.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Notice issued by the vice-chancellor, dated 19 May
+1779.]
+
+[Footnote 50: The _Challis Manuscripts_, III, 61. There are two copies
+almost identical, one dated 1785, the other 1786. Probably the paper
+printed in the text was set in 1786.]
+
+[Footnote 51: H. Gunning, _Reminiscences_, second edition, London,
+1855, vol. I, p. 82.]
+
+[Footnote 52: C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, Cambridge, 1877,
+pp. 322-323.]
+
+[Footnote 53: H. Gunning, _Reminiscences_, second edition, London,
+1855, vol. I, p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 54: See grace of 8 April 1791.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Communicated by the moderators to fathers of colleges on
+18 January 1799, and agreed to by the latter.]
+
+[Footnote 56: C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, Cambridge, 1817,
+p. 123.]
+
+[Footnote 57: _Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson_, London, 1817,
+p. 19.]
+
+[Footnote 58: _Memoir of A. De Morgan_, London, 1882, pp. 387-392.]
+
+[Footnote 59: See graces, 15 December 1808.]
+
+[Footnote 60: S. Douglas, _Life of W. Whewell_, London, 1881, p. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 61: For a contemporary account of this, see C.A. Bristed,
+_Five Years in an English University_, New York, 1852, pp. 233-239.]
+
+[Footnote 62: See _ex. gr._ the grace of 14 November 1827, referred to
+below.]
+
+[Footnote 63: _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, London, 1859,
+vol. IX, pp. 538-539.]
+
+[Footnote 64: _Whewell's Writings and Correspondence_, ed. Todhunter,
+London, 1876, vol. II, p. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 65: S. Douglas, _Life of Whewell_, London, 1881, p. 56.]
+
+[Footnote 66: _Alma Mater_, London, 1827, vol. II, pp. 58-98.]
+
+[Footnote 67: See _Nature_, vol. XXXV, 24 February 1887, pp. 397-399.
+See also his _Autobiography_, Cambridge, 1896, chapter ii.]
+
+[Footnote 68: See grace, 14 November 1827.]
+
+[Footnote 69: See grace, 21 May 1828, confirming a report of 27 March
+1828.]
+
+[Footnote 70: See grace of 31 October 1849.]
+
+[Footnote 71: See grace of 6 April 1832.]
+
+[Footnote 72: See grace of 30 May 1838.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Under a badly-worded grace passed on 11 May 1842, on the
+recommendation of a syndicate on theological studies, candidates for
+mathematical honours were, after 1846, required to attend the poll
+examination on Paley's _Moral Philosophy_, the new testament and
+ecclesiastical history. This had not been the intention of the senate,
+and on 14 March 1855, a grace was passed making this clear.]
+
+[Footnote 74: See grace of 13 May 1846, confirming a report of
+23 March 1846.]
+
+[Footnote 75: See grace of 31 October 1848.]
+
+[Footnote 76: See grace of 2 June 1868. It was carried by a majority
+of only five in a house of 75.]
+
+[Footnote 77: See graces of 17 May 1877; 29 May 1878; and 21 November
+1878; and the _Cambridge University Reporter_, 2 April, 14 May,
+4 June, 29 October, 12 November, and 26 November 1878.]
+
+[Footnote 78: See graces of 13 December 1883; 12 June 1884;
+10 February 1885; 29 October 1885; and 1 June 1886.]
+
+[Footnote 79: See reports dated 7 November 1899, and 20 January 1900.]
+
+[Footnote 80: See the reports of the special board, _Cambridge
+University Reporter_, 29 May and 20 November 1906, and the graces of
+2 February 1907. The voting on the first grace was 776 placet and 644
+non-placet.]
+
+[Footnote 81: J.B. Mullinger, _The University of Cambridge_,
+Cambridge, vol. I, 1873, pp. 175-176.]
+
+[Footnote 82: C. Wordsworth, _Scholae Academicae_, Cambridge, 1877,
+p. 21.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  Abbot, Wm, 263.
+  Acts, Scholastic, ch XV.
+  Adams, J.C, 311, 315.
+  Admonitions, Statutory, 221-4.
+  Airy, G.B, 173, 293, 315.
+  Alford, Hen, 174.
+  Allen, Thos, 34.
+  All Saints' Ch, Camb, 85.
+  Alston Tankard, The, 123.
+  Ambler, John, 224.
+  Amos, Andrew, 130, 140.
+  Analytical Society, 290.
+  Anne of Denmark, 117.
+  Ansill, Thos, 13.
+  Apprenticeship, 187, 189.
+  Arrington Vicarage, 11.
+  Artistic Treasures, ch VI.
+  Arts, Students in, 187, 188.
+  Ascham, Roger, 203.
+  Assessors, Trin. Coll, 127.
+  Assistant Tutors, 44.
+  Athletic Club, Trinity, 125, 126.
+  Athletic Clubs, 174.
+  Atterbury, Fras, 68.
+  Attractions, Theory, 229, 234, 235.
+  Auditors, Trin. Coll, ch VII.
+  Aykerod Cup, The, 120.
+
+  Babbage, Chas, 290, 315.
+  Babington, Gervase, 57.
+  Backhouse, Jas, 42.
+  Bacon, Arth, 165.
+  Bacon, Fras, 108, 117, 165.
+  Baker, H.F, 315, 316.
+  Balfour, A.J, 112.
+  Ball, R.S, 315.
+  Balsham, Hugh de, 191.
+  Bancroft, Rich, 61, 62.
+  Bankes Ewer, The, 121.
+  Barnes, E.W, 43.
+  Barnes, J.W, 81.
+  Barrington Vicarage, 12.
+  Barrow, Isaac, 108, 109, 117, 150, 170, 171, 254, 315.
+  Beaumont, Robt, 92, 93, 94, 106.
+  Bedesmen, 18.
+  Bedwell, Thos, 254.
+  Bellot Tankard, The, 123.
+  Bennet, Bishop, 57.
+  Bennet Ewer, The, 121.
+  Bensley, Jas, 224.
+  Benson, E.W, 110, 111.
+  Bentley, Rich, 41, 67, 68, 98, 111, 134, 135, 172, 239.
+  Benton, Dan, 212.
+  Berry, Art, 316.
+  Best, H.D, 279.
+  Bill, Wm, 49, 88, 91, 92.
+  Billingsley, Hen, 254.
+  Birching, 199-208, 210-214.
+  Blackburn, Jas, 278.
+  Blakesley, J.W, 81.
+  Bland, Tobias, 214.
+  Blundeville, Thos, 254.
+  Board, Mathematical, 300, 301.
+  Boat Club, The, 124, 125, 174.
+  Bolland, Wm, 285.
+  Bonnycastle's _Algebra_, 281, 284.
+  Bottisham Vicarage, 11.
+  Boude, Wm, 15, 16.
+  Boxworth Rectory, 12.
+  Boyle Cup, The, 122.
+  Boys, Wm, 88.
+  Brackets, System of, 271-272, 282-288, 295, 300.
+  Brass, John, 255.
+  Bridges, Simon, 17.
+  Briggs, Hen, 254.
+  Briggs, Simon, 17.
+  Bristed, C.A, 174, 289.
+  Bromwich, T.J.I'A, 316.
+  Brooke, Rich, 128, 129, 131, 132.
+  Brown, John, 81, 286.
+  Browne, Galen, 223.
+  Browne, I. Hawkins, 110, 111.
+  Buckingham Ewer, The, 120.
+  Buckley, Wm, 254.
+  Bulaeus, 182.
+  Burcham, T.B, 81.
+  Burials in College, 103.
+  Burnand, F.C, 174.
+  Burnell, Edw, 128, 129, 130.
+  Busby Cup, The, 121.
+  Busby, Rich, 202.
+  Butler, H.M, 115, 175.
+  Butler, Miss, 100.
+  Butler's _Analogy_, 219, 268.
+  Byron, Lord, 109, 117.
+
+  Calculus, The, 289-292.
+  Cambridge University, Beginnings of, ch XI.
+  Camden, Marquess of, 112.
+  Caroline, Queen, 138.
+  Cartwright, Thos, 93, 165.
+  Carus, Wm, 73, 74, 79, 81.
+  Carver, Chas, 277.
+  Cavendish Cup, The, 123.
+  Cavendish Professorship, 316.
+  Cayley, Art, 110, 111, 176, 311, 315.
+  Cecil, Sir Wm, 51.
+  Censer Boat, 87, 118.
+  Central Forces, ch XIII.
+  Challenge Plate, 124-126.
+  Challis, Jas, 315.
+  Challis MSS, 273.
+  Chantrey, Fras, 116.
+  Chapel Attendance, ch IV, 102.
+  Chapel, Compulsory, ch IV, 204, 206, 207.
+  Chapel, Trinity, ch V.
+  Charles I, 96, 168.
+  Charles II, 96, 107, 117.
+  Charrington, John, 115.
+  Cheadle Rectory, 12.
+  Cheke, John, 4, 5, 17, 191.
+  Chesterton Vicarage, 11.
+  Christ Church Westminsters, ch III.
+  Christopherson, John, 88, 91, 92.
+  Cipriani, G.B, 116.
+  Clairaut, A.C, 240.
+  Clarence, Duke of, 174.
+  Clark, J.W, 130, 143.
+  Clarke, Sam, 254.
+  Clarke's _Attributes_, 268.
+  Clarkson Cup, The, 120.
+  Classical Tripos, 295, 297.
+  Clerke, Gilbert, 254.
+  Coaches, Private, 307-310.
+  Coke, Edw, 111, 165.
+  Colleges, Early, 27, 191, 192.
+  Colson, John, 315.
+  Combination Rooms, 167.
+  Commencement-House, 153.
+  Commons, Out of, 216, 217, 219.
+  Confessions, 219, 221.
+  Conybeare, W.J, 76.
+  Conyers, Tobias, 212.
+  Corporal Punishments, 199-208, 210-215.
+  Cotes, Roger, 98, 172, 254, 267, 315.
+  Cotton, G.E.L, 76.
+  Cowley, Abraham, 66, 111, 169.
+  Cox, Rich, 202.
+  Craig, John, 254.
+  Cranworth, Lord, 173.
+  Creighton, Robt, 39.
+  Croyland Abbey, 91, 181.
+  Cumberland, Rich, 262.
+
+  Dacres, Art, 254.
+  Damer Cup, The, 123.
+  Dance, Nath, 112.
+  Darwin, G.H, 315.
+  Dawson, John, 308.
+  Days, Loss of, 217.
+  Dealtry, Wm, 285, 286, 287.
+  Deans, College, 28, 206-8, 219-20.
+  De Aston, John, 155, 156, 160.
+  De Bagshot, John, 155, 156.
+  De Balsham, Hugh, 191.
+  De Berwick, Rich, 155.
+  De Beverley, Robt, 155, 160.
+  Declaratio Computi, 128.
+  De Croyland, Robt, 84, 85.
+  De Durnford, Nich, 155.
+  Dee, John, 254.
+  De Gretford, Hen, 155.
+  De Gretford, Ralph, 155.
+  De Hull, John, 155.
+  De Immeworth, John, 155.
+  De Kelsey, John, 155.
+  De Kingston, Edw, 155, 160.
+  De la Pryme, Abraham, 259.
+  De London, Phil, 155.
+  De Morgan, Aug, 256, 284, 286.
+  Denman, Geo, 130, 141.
+  De Nottingham, Walter, 155.
+  Derby, Henry Earl of, 110, 111.
+  De Rome, Nich, 155.
+  De Salisbury, John, 155.
+  De Salisbury, Rich, 155.
+  Descartes, René, 227, 236, 237.
+  De Stanton, Hervey, 87.
+  De Sutton, Hugh, 155.
+  De Torterold, Jas, 155.
+  De Torterold, John, 155.
+  Devereux, Robt, 108, 165.
+  Devonshire, Duke of, 316.
+  D'Ewes, Simon, 208.
+  De Winchester, David, 155, 160.
+  De Windsor, Thos, 155.
+  De Woodstock, John, 155.
+  Dialectici, 16.
+  Digges, Thos, 254.
+  Discipline, ch XII, 27, 32, 33.
+  Discommonsing, 216, 217, 219.
+  Dissizaring, 216, 217.
+  Distribucio Collegii, 13-22.
+  Dobson, Wm, 81.
+  Donaldson, J.W, 81.
+  Douglas, Stair, 288, 292.
+  Downing, Sir Geo, 131.
+  Draghswerd, Wm, 155.
+  Dryden, John, 111, 169, 219.
+  Duport, Jas, 40, 169.
+  Duport Salt, The, 121, 122.
+
+  Early University History, ch XI.
+  Earnshaw, Sam, 298.
+  Eddington, A.S, 315.
+  Edward II, 84, 154.
+  Edward III, 84, 115, 117, 163.
+  Edward IV, 110.
+  Edward VI, 87, 115, 164.
+  Edward VII, 174.
+  Elizabeth of York, 106, 115.
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 48, 49, 90, 91, 92, 114, 115, 117, 144, 164,
+    167, 168.
+  Ellethorpe, 213.
+  Ellis, Wm, 129, 130, 133.
+  Emerson, Wm, 268.
+  Euclid's _Elements_, 271, 279, 281.
+  Euler, Leonhard, 240.
+  Essex, Earl of, 108, 165.
+  Everett, Wm, 174.
+  Ewing, J.A, 316.
+  Eworth, Hans, 106, 115.
+  Expulsions, 221-224.
+
+  Fairfax, Sir Thos, 97.
+  Fakenham Rectory, 11.
+  Farish, Wm, 285.
+  Fees, College, in 1570, 36-37.
+  Fellow-Commoners, 29, 34, 119.
+  Fellows, Election of, 30.
+  Fellowship Election in 1659, 39.
+  Felmersham Vicarage, 11.
+  Fenn, John, 263.
+  Ferguson, Jas, 267.
+  Field, Fred, 81.
+  Fines, 215-216.
+  Fiott (Lee), John, 285, 287.
+  Firebrace Cup, The, 122.
+  First Trinity Boat Club, 124, 125, 174.
+  Fitzgerald, Edw, 173.
+  Fitzgerald Tankard, The, 122.
+  Flamsteed, John, 230, 254.
+  Fletcher, Bishop, 57.
+  Fletcher, W.M, 43.
+  Flogging, 199-208, 210-214.
+  Fluxions, 289-292.
+  Foley Tankard, The, 123.
+  Forsyth, A.R, 315, 316.
+  Fort, John, 155.
+  Foster, Michael, 110, 111.
+  Foster, Sam, 254.
+  Foundation of Trinity, ch I.
+  Franciscan Monastery, 19, 184.
+  Frazer, Sir Jas, 170.
+  Frere, John, 265.
+  Fuller, Thos, 93.
+
+  Galileo, 231, 232, 239.
+  Galton, Fras, 110, 111, 174.
+  Gating, 218-219.
+  General Examination, 297.
+  George I, 259.
+  George III, 107.
+  Gerrard, Mark, 115.
+  Glaisher, J.W.L, 252.
+  Glazebrook, R.T, 316.
+  Glomerels, 181, 189-191.
+  Gloucester, Duke of, 107, 112, 115.
+  Goad, Roger, 204.
+  Gooch, Wm, 276.
+  Goodman, Gabriel, 52.
+  Gordon, Douglas, 107.
+  Gouldesborough, Edw, 57.
+  Grace, J.H, 316.
+  Graham, Robt, 129, 136.
+  Grammar, Degrees in, 190, 191.
+  Grammarians, 15, 16, 17, 28, 181, 189-191.
+  Grammar School at Trinity, 15-17, 28, 30.
+  Grammatici, 15, 16, 17, 28.
+  Granby, Marquess of, 112, 113.
+  Gravitation, Law of, ch XIII.
+  Gray, 88.
+  Greaves Cup, The, 123.
+  Greaves, Wm, 129, 135, 136.
+  Greek Authors read in 1570, 37.
+  Green, Geo, 311.
+  Grendon Vicarage, 11.
+  Griffith, T, 133.
+  Griffon, John, 155.
+  Griffon, Thos, 155.
+  Grigson, Thos, 215.
+  Grote, John, 174.
+  Grundisburgh Rectory, 12.
+  Guilds, University, 188.
+  Gulphing, 264.
+  Gunning, Hen, 275, 278.
+
+  Hacket, John, 61.
+  Halfhead, 223.
+  Halifax, Earl of, 110.
+  Hallam, A.H, 173.
+  Halley, Edmund, 228, 230.
+  Hamilton, Hugh, 267.
+  Hardy, G.H, 316.
+  Hare, J.C, 173.
+  Harman, Rich, 15.
+  Harvey, John, 254.
+  Harwood, Busick, 285.
+  Heath, J.M, 81.
+  Helsham, Rich, 267.
+  Henry I, 180.
+  Henry II, 180.
+  Henry VII, 106, 115.
+  Henry VIII, 3, 48, 106, 162, 167.
+  Herbert, Geo, 61, 169.
+  Herkomer, H. von, 109.
+  Herman, R.A, 316.
+  Herschel, John, 290.
+  Herschel, Wm, 240.
+  Hill, Thos, 254.
+  Hitch, Robt, 223.
+  Hobson, E.W, 315, 316.
+  Hodges, 213.
+  Hodson, Wm, 273.
+  Holbein, 106.
+  Hon. Optimes, 257, 261, 296.
+  Hood, Thos, 254.
+  Hooke, Robt, 228.
+  Hopkins, Wm, 308-310.
+  Hopkinson, B, 316.
+  Hornbuckle, T.W, 286, 287, 288.
+  Horrox, Jeremiah, 254.
+  Hort, F.J.A, 110, 111, 176.
+  Hostels, Private, 27, 29, 192, 193, 195, 198, 199.
+  Houghton, Lord, 173.
+  Howson, J.S, 76.
+  Huddling, 255, 258.
+  Hughes, Fras, 129, 132.
+  Humphrey Ewer, The, 120.
+  Husbands Cup, The, 122.
+  Hustler, J.D, 285.
+  Hutton, Archbishop, 57.
+  Huygens, Christian, 238.
+  Hydrodynamics, Theory of, 230, 235, 236.
+
+  Impositions, 219-221.
+  Ireland, Rich, 59.
+
+  Jacob, Edw, 287, 288, 289.
+  James I, 54, 64, 66, 114, 117, 168.
+  James II, 171.
+  Jeans, J.H, 316.
+  Jebb, John, 263, 267, 270, 271.
+  Jebb, R.C, 110, 111, 170, 176.
+  Jephson, Thos, 285.
+  Joachim, Joseph, 110.
+  John, King, 180.
+  Johnson, 212.
+  Jones, Thos, 110.
+  Jurin, Jas, 254.
+
+  Kant, Immanuel, 242.
+  Keate, John, 202.
+  Keill, John, 267.
+  Kelvin, Lord, 311.
+  Kempthorne, John, 285.
+  Kent Ewer, The, 120.
+  Kepler's Problem, 234.
+  King, C.W, 75.
+  King, Joshua, 315.
+  King, John, 59.
+  Kinglake, A.W, 173.
+  King's Hall, 3, 9-11, 20, 84-86, 144, 154-160, 162, 163.
+  King's Scholars, _see_ King's Hall.
+  Kneller, Godfrey, 112.
+  Knight, Sam, 130, 137.
+
+  Lagrange, J.L, 239, 240, 290.
+  Laplace, P.S, 241, 242, 290.
+  Larmor, Joseph, 315, 316.
+  Laszlö de Lombros, P.A, 112.
+  Latin Authors read in 1570, 37.
+  Laud, Wm, 94.
+  Laughton, Rich, 254, 307.
+  Laurence, R.V, 43.
+  Lawrence, Thos, 112.
+  Lax, Wm, 276, 315.
+  Least Resistance, Solid of, 236.
+  Leathem, J.G, 316.
+  Lecture-Rooms, College, 44, 45.
+  Lectures, College, 44-46.
+  Lectureships, Mathematical, 253, 316.
+  Lee (Fiott), John, 287.
+  Leg, Thos, 93.
+  Legendre, A.M, 290.
+  Lever, Thos, 24.
+  Library, Trinity, ch VIII, 104.
+  Lightfoot, J.B, 101, 110, 111, 115, 170, 176.
+  L'Isle, Denys, 129, 134, 135.
+  Locke's _Essay_, 268, 275, 279.
+  Lombard, Peter, 181.
+  Long, Roger, 267, 315.
+  Lonsdale, John, 112.
+  Loss of Days or Terms, 218.
+  Love, A.E.H, 316.
+  Lowndes, Thos, 315.
+  Lowndean Professorship, 315.
+  Lucas, Hen, 315.
+  Lucas, Rich, 277.
+  Lucasian Professorship, 315.
+  Lushington, E.L, 174.
+  Lyndhurst Cup, The, 123.
+  Lyndhurst, Lord, 173.
+  Lyons, Israel, 268.
+
+  Macaulay, T.B, 117, 173.
+  Macaulay, W.H, 316.
+  Macclesfield, Earl of, 111.
+  Macdonald, H.M, 316.
+  Maclaurin, Colin, 267, 268.
+  Man, Henry, 17.
+  Mansel, W.L, 112, 217.
+  Martin, Fras, 81.
+  Martin, Theodore, 123.
+  Marvell, Andrew, 169.
+  Mary, Queen, 48, 88, 91, 108, 115, 164, 167.
+  Mary of Scotland, 115.
+  Mathematical Board, 300, 301.
+  Mathematical Tripos, ch XV.
+  Mathematics, Cambridge, ch XV.
+  Mathews, G.B, 316.
+  Maule, W.H, 173.
+  Maurice, F.D, 110, 111.
+  Maxwell, J. Clerk, 110, 111, 176, 311, 316.
+  Maydew, John, 17.
+  Mechanics, Theory of, 231-232.
+  Mechanism Professorship, 316.
+  Medieval Tutorial System, 27.
+  Medieval University, Beginnings of, ch XI.
+  Melbourne, Viscount, 110, 111.
+  Merit, Order of, in Examinations, 261, 307.
+  Mexborough Cup, The, 123.
+  Mey, Wm, 5.
+  Michael-House, 3, 11-13, 20, 86, 87, 162, 163.
+  Milner, Isaac, 272, 315.
+  Milnes, Monckton, 173.
+  Milton, John, 213.
+  Moderators, Mathematical, 258, 259, 260.
+  Monasteries at Cambridge, 180, 181, 184, 185.
+  Monks at University, 181, 185, 186, 187, 196.
+  Moreton, Albert, 53.
+  Morland, Sam, 254.
+  Moro, Antonio, 106, 108.
+  Motion, Laws of, 232.
+  Mullinger, J.B, 179, 188, 313.
+  Munro, H.A.J, 176.
+  Murray, Thos, 112.
+
+  Nebular Hypothesis, 241, 242.
+  Neile, Rich, 59.
+  Nevile Cup, The, 119.
+  Nevile, Robt, 212.
+  Nevile, Thos, 53, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 114, 149, 166, 167, 168.
+  Nevile's Court, 151, 152.
+  Newton, Isaac, 108, 112, 116, 170, 244-251, 267, 268, 281, 284,
+    287, 315.
+  Newton, John, 134.
+  Newton, Sam, 129, 132, 133, 134.
+  Newton's _Principia_, ch XIII.
+  Non-Regents, 183.
+  Northampton, Earl of, 62.
+  Numbers of Students, 41-44, 188.
+
+  Offley, Chris, 223.
+  Opie, John, 112.
+  Opponencies, 253.
+  Optimes, ch XV.
+  Optimes, Honorary, 257, 261, 296.
+  Ordines Senioritatis, 261.
+  Orleans, University of, 182.
+  Orwell Rectory, 12.
+  Oughtred, Wm, 252.
+
+  Paget, Sir Wm, 6.
+  Paley, Wm, 265, 275, 279, 299.
+  Parham, Peter, 213.
+  Paris, University of, 182, 252.
+  Parke, Jas, 130, 138, 139, 173.
+  Parker, Matthew, 4, 5, 6, 7.
+  Parker, Nich, 155.
+  Parker, Roger, 155.
+  Parne, Thos, 215.
+  Parr, Queen Katherine, 6, 7.
+  Paston, Clement, 201.
+  Paulet Tankard, The, 123.
+  Payne, 255.
+  Peacock, Geo, 55, 81, 173, 179, 180, 182, 189, 276, 277, 290,
+    291, 315.
+  Pearson, John, 108, 111, 170.
+  Peckitt of York, 116.
+  Peile, John, 213.
+  Pell, John, 254.
+  Penalties, ch XII.
+  Pendlebury, Rich, 316.
+  Pensioners, 29, 31, 33, 34.
+  Pepys, Thos, 217.
+  Perry, Chas, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82.
+  Perry Plate, The, 124.
+  Pheasaunt Tankard, The, 123.
+  Philip of Spain, 108.
+  Physwick's Hostel, 86, 87.
+  Plate, College, ch VI.
+  Plume, Thos, 315.
+  Plumian Professorship, 315.
+  Poll-Men, _see_ ch XV.
+  Pollock, J.F, 173, 284, 287.
+  Porson, Rich, 114, 172.
+  Portraits, College, ch VI.
+  Pour, Nich, 155.
+  Pour, Rich, 155.
+  Pour, Wm, 155.
+  Pre-elections, 59, 60, 62, 64.
+  Prime and Ultimate Ratios, 232.
+  _Principia_ of Newton, ch XIII.
+  Prior, Matthew, 112.
+  Private Tutors, 307-310.
+  Professors' Examinations, 297.
+  Pull, Nich, 155.
+
+  Raeburn, Hen, 109.
+  Raine, Matthew, 110.
+  Rait, R.S, 200.
+  Rashdall, Hastings, 179, 199, 220.
+  Ray, John, 169, 215.
+  Rayleigh, Lord, 316.
+  Rayleigh Prizes, 266.
+  Record, Robt, 254.
+  Redman, Bishop, 57.
+  Redman, John, 5, 9, 11, 13, 20, 24, 88, 92.
+  Regents, 183.
+  Religious Students, 27.
+  Remée, 107.
+  Reneu, Wm, 259.
+  Resisting Mediums, 235-236.
+  Respondents, 253.
+  Reynolds, Joshua, 107, 112.
+  Rhetoric, Degrees in, 190, 191.
+  Richard III, 110.
+  Richard, Duke of York, 110.
+  Richardson, John, 65, 66.
+  Richmond, H.W, 316.
+  Ring, Mrs, 112.
+  Rod, Punishment by, 199-208, 210-214.
+  Romney, Geo, 115.
+  Rooke, Laurence, 254.
+  Rose, C.L, 76.
+  Rosekin, Andrew, 155.
+  Roubiliac, L.F, 116.
+  Routh, E.J, 308-310.
+  Rud, Bishop, 57.
+  Rustication, 221-224.
+  Rutherford, Wm, 267.
+
+  Sadleir, Lady, 315.
+  Sadleirian Professorship, 315.
+  St Mary's Ch, Camb, 11.
+  St Michael's Ch, Camb, 12, 87, 98, 101.
+  Salisbury, Earl of, 55, 62.
+  Sanderson, Nich, _see_ Saunderson.
+  Sandwich Cup, The, 122.
+  Saunderson, Nich, 254, 268, 315.
+  Scholars, Election of, 30, 31.
+  Scholefield, Jas, 173.
+  Scot, Major, 97.
+  Sedgwick, Adam, 81, 110, 111, 173.
+  Senate-House, 153, 260.
+  Senate-House Examination, ch XV.
+  Servant Students, 28.
+  Seymour, Queen Jane, 106.
+  Shaw-Lefevre, J.G, 130, 140, 141.
+  Shepherd, Anth, 315.
+  Shirley, Walsingham, 61, 223.
+  Sides, Tutorial, 42, 43.
+  Sidgwick, Hen, 110, 111, 176.
+  Simeon, Chas, 74, 112.
+  Simpson, Thos, 268, 284.
+  Sizars, 28.
+  Sloane Tankard, The, 123.
+  Smith, Elismar, 103.
+  Smith, John, 315.
+  Smith, Robt, 111, 172, 254, 265, 267, 315.
+  Smith, Thos, 4, 5.
+  Smith's Prizes, 266.
+  Solar System, ch XIII.
+  Solomon, Proverbs of, 203.
+  Somerset, Duke of, 112, 113, 114.
+  Sophia, Princess, 107, 108.
+  S.P.C.U. ch IV, 101.
+  Special Examinations, 297.
+  Spectrum Analysis, 242-243.
+  Spedding, Jas, 173.
+  Spicer, Robt, 129, 132.
+  Stangs, 214-215.
+  Statutes, Trinity, 1552, 30, 31.
+      "        "     1554, 33.
+      "        "     1560, 33, 34.
+      "        "     1844, 35, 175,
+      "        "     1861, 35, 175.
+      "        "     1882, 35, 175.
+  Stephen, Leslie, 174.
+  Stevinus, Simon, 231.
+  Still, Bishop, 57.
+  Stocks, 214-215.
+  Stokes, G.G, 315.
+  Stuart, Bernard, 119, 124.
+  Stuart, Jas, 316.
+  Stuart, John, 119, 124.
+  Subsizars, 28.
+  Sussex, Duke of, 112.
+  Sylvester, J.J, 311.
+
+  Tavel, G.F, 287.
+  Taylor, Brook, 254.
+  Taylor Tankard, The, 123.
+  Taylor, Tom, 174.
+  Tennyson, Alf, 108, 115, 117, 174.
+  Tennyson, Chas, 174.
+  Tennyson, Fred, 174.
+  Terms, loss of, 217.
+  Thackeray, W.M, 170, 173.
+  Thirlwall, Connop, 71, 72, 73, 83, 173.
+  Thompson, W.H, 81, 109, 114, 174, 175, 176.
+  Thomson, J.J, 316.
+  Thomson, Wm, 311.
+  Thorp, Thos, 73, 81, 307, 308.
+  Thorwaldsen, Bertel, 117.
+  Tindal, N.C, 76, 130, 137, 173.
+  Tisserand, F.T, 241.
+  Todhunter, Isaac, 302.
+  Treasures, College, ch VI.
+  Trench, R.C, 173.
+  Trentine Disputes, 188, 189.
+  Trinity Athletic Clubs, 124-126, 174.
+  Trinity College, Foundation, ch I.
+  Trinity College, History of, ch X.
+  Trinity College, Numbers at, 163.
+  Tripos, Mathematical, ch XV.
+  Tripos, Origin of Name, 311-314.
+  Trot, Warin, 160.
+  Tunstall, Cuthbert, 253.
+  Turner, Joseph, 286.
+  Turton, Thos, 315.
+  Tusser, Thos, 202, 210.
+  Tutorial System, ch II.
+  Tutors, College, ch II.
+  Tutors, Private, 45, 307-310.
+
+  Udall, Nich, 202.
+
+  Vanderbank, John, 108.
+  Vandyke, A, 119.
+  VanSittart, A.A, 130, 140.
+  Van Somer, Paul, 108.
+  Vaughan, C.J, 110, 111.
+  Verdon, Thos, 215.
+  Verney Cup, The, 122.
+  Vernon Tankard, The, 123.
+  Victoria, Queen, 69.
+  Vince, Sam, 284, 287, 315.
+  Vortices, Cartesian, 227, 230, 236, 237, 238.
+
+  Wakefield, Thos, 17.
+  Walker, Rich, 99.
+  Walling, 218.
+  Wallis, John, 254.
+  Walpole, Horace, 107.
+  Walsh, B.D, 81.
+  Walter, Hen, 285, 286.
+  Ward, Seth, 254.
+  Waring, Edw, 263, 277, 281, 286, 287, 315.
+  Watson, Rich, 264, 279, 307.
+  Watts, G.F, 108.
+  Waves, 230, 236.
+  Wensleydale, Lord, 130, 138, 139, 173.
+  West, Robt, 93.
+  Westcott, B.F, 101, 110, 111, 176.
+  Westlake, John, 110, 111.
+  Westminster Gowns, 68.
+  Westminster Scholars, ch III, 248.
+  Westminster School, ch III.
+  Whetham, W.C.D, 43.
+  Whewell, Wm, 69, 72, 73, 81, 108, 110, 111, 117, 174, 175, 221,
+    252, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292.
+  Whisson, Stephen, 42.
+  Whiston, Wm, 254, 315.
+  Whitgift, John, 36, 51, 93, 94, 165, 166, 210.
+  Whittaker, E.T, 316.
+  Wilkins, John, 40, 111, 112.
+  William I, 179.
+  Williams, Joshua, 138.
+  Willis and Clark, 143, 152.
+  Willis, Robt, 90.
+  Wilson, John, 287, 307.
+  Windows, Chapel, 91, 93, 102, 115, 116.
+  Winthrop, Adam, 128, 129, 130, 131.
+  Wollaston, F.J.H, 285.
+  Wood, Jas, 277, 284, 286.
+  Woodhouse, Robt, 286, 287, 290, 315.
+  Wordsworth, Chris (1), 71, 72, 73, 74, 81.
+  Wordsworth, Chris (2), 252, 263, 275, 279, 314.
+  Wordsworth, John, 81.
+  Wranglers, ch XV.
+  Wren, Chris, ch VIII, 228.
+  Wright, Edw, 254.
+  Wright, J.M.F, 100, 174, 219, 293.
+
+  Yool, G.V, 130, 142.
+  York, Richard Duke of, 110.
+
+
+CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J.B. PEACE, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+
+
+
+WORKS BY W.W. ROUSE BALL.
+
+
+  _A History of Trinity College, Cambridge._
+      Pp. xiv+183. Price 3s net. Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+  _Trinity College, Cambridge_ (in the College Monographs Series).
+      Pp. xiv+107. Price 2s net. J.M. Dent & Co.
+
+  _A History of the First Trinity Boat Club._
+      Pp. 190. Price 5s net. Bowes & Bowes.
+
+  _A History of the Study of Mathematics at Cambridge._
+      Pp. xvi+264. Price 6s. Cambridge University Press.
+
+  _An Essay on the Genesis, Contents, and History of
+    Newton's Principia._
+      Pp. x+175. Price 6s net. Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+  _A History of Mathematics._
+      Sixth Edition. Pp. xxiv+522. Price 12s 6d net.
+        Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+  _A Primer of the History of Mathematics._
+      Fourth Edition. Pp. iv+149. Price 2s 6d net.
+        Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+  _Mathematical Recreations and Essays._
+      Seventh Edition. Pp. xvi+492. Price 10s 6d net.
+        Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+
+Both "primâ facie" and "prima facie" retained in line with the author's
+inconsistent usage. Hyphenation of commonwealth/common-wealth not
+regularised because the latter form occurs only within a quote from a
+seventeenth-century source.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Cambridge Papers, by Walter William Rouse Ball
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAMBRIDGE PAPERS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 54023-0.txt or 54023-0.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/0/2/54023/
+
+Produced by Laura Wisewell, David Wilson and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (The
+original copy of this book was generously made available
+for scanning by the Department of Mathematics at the
+University of Glasgow.)
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
+be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
+law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
+so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
+States without permission and without paying copyright
+royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
+of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
+concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
+and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
+specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
+eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
+for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
+performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
+away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
+not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
+trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
+
+START: FULL LICENSE
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
+Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+
+1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
+destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
+possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
+Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
+by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
+person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
+1.E.8.
+
+1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
+paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
+agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
+Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
+of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
+works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
+States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
+United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
+claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
+displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
+all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
+that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
+free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
+works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
+Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
+comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
+same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
+you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
+in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
+check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
+agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
+distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
+other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
+representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
+country outside the United States.
+
+1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
+immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
+prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
+on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
+performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
+
+  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
+  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
+  are located before using this ebook.
+
+1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
+derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
+contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
+copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
+the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
+redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
+either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
+obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
+additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
+will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
+posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
+beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
+any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
+to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
+other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
+version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
+(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
+to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
+of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
+Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
+full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+provided that
+
+* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
+  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
+  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
+  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
+  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
+  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
+  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
+  Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
+  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
+  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
+  works.
+
+* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
+  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
+  receipt of the work.
+
+* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
+are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
+from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
+Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
+Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
+contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
+or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
+intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
+other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
+cannot be read by your equipment.
+
+1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
+with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
+with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
+lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
+or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
+opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
+the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
+without further opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
+OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
+damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
+violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
+agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
+limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
+unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
+remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
+accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
+production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
+including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
+the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
+or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
+additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
+Defect you cause.
+
+Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
+computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
+exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
+from people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
+generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
+Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
+www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
+U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
+mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
+volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
+locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
+Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
+date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
+official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+
+    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+    Chief Executive and Director
+    gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
+DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
+state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
+donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
+freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
+distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
+volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
+the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
+necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
+edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
+facility: www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/old/54023-0.zip b/old/54023-0.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40ed24a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-0.zip
diff --git a/old/54023-h.zip b/old/54023-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5136487
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-h.zip
diff --git a/old/54023-h/54023-h.htm b/old/54023-h/54023-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a512eb5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-h/54023-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,13546 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="eng" lang="eng">
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+<title>Cambridge Papers, by W.W. Rouse Ball—A Project Gutenberg eBook</title>
+<link rel="coverpage" href="images/epubcover.jpg" />
+
+<style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+
+p {text-align: justify;
+   margin-top: 0;
+}
+
+div.halftitle, div.titlepage, div.publisher, div.partpage {
+  page-break-after: always;
+  margin: 3em auto 6em auto;
+  padding-top: 3em;
+  text-align: center;
+}
+div.halftitle {page-break-before: always; }
+div.publisher p {
+  text-align: center;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  line-height: 1.7;
+  padding-top: 0.33em;
+}
+div.publisher small {font-size: 65%; }
+div.publisher img {padding-bottom: 1em; }
+div.titlepage p.h2 {
+  font-size: 160%;
+  font-weight: bold;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: center;
+}
+div.titlepage p.byline {
+  font-size: 125%;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: center;
+  word-spacing: 0.25em;
+  line-height: 1.6;
+  margin: 6em auto;
+}
+div.titlepage small {font-size: 65%; }
+div.titlepage p.published {
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: center;
+  padding-top: 6em;
+  line-height: 1.4;
+}
+div.titlepage small.smaller {font-size: 50%; }
+div.partpage {
+  font-size: large;
+  line-height: 1.8;
+}
+div.chap {
+  margin: 0 auto;
+  padding: 2em 0;
+  clear: both;
+  font-size: medium;
+  max-width: 40em;
+  page-break-after: always;
+}
+div.plate {
+  page-break-after: always;
+  page-break-inside: avoid;
+  margin: 3em auto;
+  padding: 3em 0;
+  text-align: center;
+  font-size: 85%;
+  line-height: 1.8;
+}
+div.plate img {
+ border: thin solid black;
+}
+div.index { /* note the volume of links causes the index source size
+               to blow out after processing by ebookmaker, leading
+               to awkaward chunking if we make the whole index a
+               single <div>. Hence we enclose each letter-group in
+               an index <div> to provide better choices of chunks */
+  max-width: 20em;
+  margin: 0 auto;
+}
+div.index p {
+  text-align: left;
+  margin: 0 0 0.15em 2em;
+  text-indent:-2em;
+  font-size: 85%;
+  word-spacing: 0.25em;
+}
+div.index p.letter {
+  padding-top: 0.5em;
+}
+div.index span.spacer {visibility: hidden; }
+#indexend {
+  margin: 12em auto 2em auto;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: center;
+  page-break-after: always;
+}
+div.printed {
+  padding-top: 0.25em;
+  border-top: medium solid black;
+  display: inline-block;
+  text-align: center;
+}
+
+h1 {
+  font-weight: bold;
+  text-align: center;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  margin: 6em auto;
+  line-height: 2;
+  font-size: 175%;
+  letter-spacing: 0.2em;
+  word-spacing: 0.25em;
+}
+h2 { /* ebookmaker adds
+    page-break-before: always;
+    padding-top: 1em;
+    */
+  font-weight: normal;
+  text-align: center;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  margin: 6em auto 1em auto;
+  line-height: 1.8;
+  font-size: 120%;
+  word-spacing: 0.25em;
+}
+div.partpage span.h2 {
+  font-variant: normal;
+  font-family: 'Old English Text MT', 'Canterbury', 'UnifrakturCook', serif;
+}
+h3 {
+  font-weight: normal;
+  text-align: center;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  font-size: medium;
+  font-style: italic;
+}
+div.runin { /* work-around because "h3 {display: run-in;}" is not supported */
+  text-align: justify;
+}
+div.runin h3 {
+  font-weight: normal;
+  font-size: medium;
+  text-align: left;
+  display: inline;
+  padding-right: 1em;
+  word-spacing: 0.33em;
+}
+div.runin p {
+  text-indent: 0;
+  display: inline;
+}
+p.h3 {page-break-after: avoid; }
+
+blockquote {
+  font-size: 90%;
+}
+
+/* drop caps */
+div.chap p.drop-cap, div.chap p.drop-cap-preface {
+  text-indent: -0.1em;
+}
+div.chap p.drop-cap-A {
+  text-indent: -0.4em;
+}
+div.chap p.drop-cap:first-letter,
+div.chap p.drop-cap-A:first-letter {
+  margin: 0.15em 0.1em 0 0;
+  font-size: 275%;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  line-height: 0.85em;
+  float: left;
+}
+div.chap p.drop-cap-preface:first-letter {
+  margin: 0.1em 0.1em 0 0;
+  font-size: 275%;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  line-height: 0.9em;
+  float: left;
+}
+div.chap p.signature {
+  text-align: right;
+  padding: 1em 2em 2em 0;
+}
+div.adverts {
+  max-width: 27em;
+  margin: 0 auto;
+}
+div.adverts p.adverttitle {
+  margin: 0.85em 0 0.15em 2em;
+  text-indent: -2em;
+}
+div.adverts p.advert {
+  margin: 0 0 0.15em 6em;
+  text-indent: -2em;
+  font-size: 90%;
+  text-align: left;
+  word-spacing: 1em;
+}
+div.sigblock {
+  margin: 1em 2em;
+  text-align: center;
+  display: inline-block;
+}
+
+div.toc {
+  margin: 3em auto;
+  page-break-after: always;
+}
+#toc {margin: auto; }
+#toc th {
+  text-align: right;
+  font-weight: normal;
+  font-size: x-small;
+}
+#toc td {
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: left;
+  vertical-align: top;
+  font-size: medium;
+  font-variant: small-caps;
+  padding-bottom: 0.25em;
+}
+#toc td.chapnum {
+  text-align: left;
+  padding-right: 0.5em;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+#toc td.chappg {
+  text-align: right;
+  padding-left: 3em;
+  vertical-align: bottom;
+}
+#toc td.part {
+  padding-top: 1em;
+  text-align: center;
+  font-size: large;
+  font-variant: normal;
+  font-family: 'Old English Text MT', 'Canterbury', 'UnifrakturCook', serif;
+}
+#toc td.index {
+  padding-top: 0.5em;
+  text-align: left;
+  padding-right: 0.5em;
+}
+
+div.chap4 {
+  margin: 1em auto;
+  page-break-inside: avoid;
+  text-align: center;
+  max-width: 50%;
+}
+#chap4 {margin: auto; }
+#chap4 th {
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: center;
+  vertical-align: top;
+  font-variant: small-caps;
+  padding-bottom: 0.25em;
+}
+#chap4 td {
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: left;
+  vertical-align: top;
+  padding-bottom: 0.25em;
+}
+#chap4 td.marks {
+  text-align: right;
+  padding-left: 3em;
+  vertical-align: bottom;
+}
+#chap4fn {
+  text-align: justify;
+  border-top: thin solid silver;
+  text-indent: 0;
+}
+div.chap9 {
+  margin: 1em auto;
+  page-break-inside: avoid;
+  font-size: 85%;
+}
+#chap9 {
+  margin: auto;
+  border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+#chap9 th {
+  text-align: center;
+  font-size: 75%;
+  font-weight: normal;
+}
+#chap9 th.nix {width: 0.2em; }
+#chap9 tr.h2 > th {
+  text-align: right;
+  padding-right: 0.33em;
+}
+#chap9 tr.h2 > th.pence {
+  text-align: center;
+  padding-right: 0.33em;
+}
+#chap9 tr.h2 > th.nix {
+  padding-right: 0;
+}
+#chap9 td {
+  text-align: right;
+  padding-right: 0.33em;
+  width: 0.75em;
+  vertical-align: bottom;
+}
+#chap9 tr.firstrow > td {padding-top: 0.25em; }
+#chap9 td.stuff {
+  text-align: left;
+  padding-right: 1em;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+#chap9 td.nix {
+  text-align: center;
+  padding-right:0;
+  width: auto;
+}
+#chap9 td.pence {
+  padding-right: 0;
+  padding-left: 0.167em;
+}
+#chap9 tr.totalrow > td {
+  border-top: thin solid black;
+  border-bottom: double black;
+}
+#chap9 tr.totalrow > td.stuff,
+#chap9 tr.totalrow > td.nix {
+  border: 0;
+}
+div.footnotes {
+  margin: 1em auto;
+  padding: 0 0 0 2em;
+}
+div.footnotes p {
+  font-size: 85%;
+}
+
+hr.ww {
+  width: 100%;
+  height: 0.25em;
+  margin: 1em auto; }
+
+/* links */
+a:link {
+  color: blue;
+  background-color: inherit;
+  text-decoration: none;
+}
+a:visited {
+  color: blue;
+  background-color: inherit;
+  text-decoration: none;
+}
+a:hover {
+  color: red;
+  background-color: inherit;
+}
+a:focus {
+  outline: #ffee66 solid 2px;
+  color: inherit;
+  background-color: #ffee66;
+}
+
+/* page numbers */
+span.pagenum {
+  font-size: x-small;
+  font-family: serif;
+  font-variant: normal;
+  font-style: normal;
+  font-weight: normal;
+  line-height: 1.2;
+  letter-spacing: 0;
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: left;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: .05em 0.5em;
+}
+
+/* for transcriber's note at the end
+   and cover note at the start */
+div.tnote, div.covernote {
+  padding: 1em;
+  margin: 6em auto 3em auto;
+  font-family: serif;
+  page-break-after: always;
+  border: 1px dashed;
+}
+div.tnote p, div.covernote p {
+  text-indent: 0;
+  margin-top: .5em;
+  font-size: small;
+  text-align: left;
+}
+div.tnote h2, div.covernote h2 {
+  text-indent: 0;
+  text-align: left;
+  font-size: large;
+  font-style: normal;
+  font-weight: bold;
+  padding: 0.75em 0 0 0;
+  margin: 0 auto;
+  line-height: 1;
+  letter-spacing: 0;
+}
+div.covernote {display: none; visibility: hidden; }
+
+span.maths {
+  padding: 0 0.33em;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.parnumber {padding-right: 0.33em; }
+
+.ns {display: none; visibility: hidden; }
+em, cite {font-style: italic; }
+span.nw {
+  white-space: nowrap;
+  word-spacing: normal; }
+.smc {font-variant: small-caps; }
+.uc {text-transform: uppercase; }
+.allsc {
+  font-variant: small-caps;
+  text-transform: lowercase;
+  }
+
+@media print {
+  a:link {
+    color: black;
+    background-color: inherit;
+    text-decoration: none;
+  }
+  a:visited {
+    color: black;
+    background-color: inherit;
+    text-decoration: none;
+  }
+  body {
+    margin-right: 0;
+    margin-left: 0;
+  }
+  h1 {padding: 6em 0; }
+  h3 {margin: 0.5em 0 0.15em 0; }
+  div.chap p {
+    margin: 0 0 0.15em 0;
+    text-indent: 2em;
+  }
+  div.runin {margin: 0 0 0.15em 0; }
+  div.runin h3 {padding-left: 2em; }
+  blockquote {margin: 0.85em 0 1em 0; }
+  div.footnotes {
+    border-top: thin solid black;
+    padding-top: 0.33em;
+  }
+  span.pagenum {
+    display: none;
+    visibility: hidden;
+  }
+}
+@media screen {
+  body {
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+  }
+  div.chap p {
+    margin: 0.5em 0 0.75em 0;
+    text-indent: 0;
+  }
+  div.footnotes {
+    background-color: #eeeeee;
+    border: thin solid black;
+    padding: 1.5em 2em;
+  }
+  div.footnotes p {
+    margin: 0 0 0.25em 0;
+  }
+  div.runin {margin: 0.5em 0 0.75em 0; }
+  div.runin h3 {text-indent: 0; }
+  span.pagenum {
+    border-top: thin solid silver;
+    border-bottom: thin solid silver;
+    display: inline;
+    visibility: visible;
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 1%;
+  }
+}
+@media print, screen {
+  /* specify image widths only, so if scaled subject to max-width, aspect ratio is preserved */
+  #logo {width: 250px; } /* height: 72px; */
+  #illo1 {width: 833px; } /* height: 500px; */
+  #illo2 {width: 501px; } /* height: 500px; */
+  #illo3 {width: 492px; } /* height: 500px; */
+  #illo4 {width: 872px; } /* height: 500px; */
+}
+/* overrides for epub */
+/* explicit overrides for styles defined in @media screen
+   because Kindle thinks it's a screen device */
+@media handheld{
+  body {
+    margin-left: 2%;
+    margin-right: 2%;
+  }
+  span.pagenum, hr.ww {
+    display: none;
+    visibility: hidden;
+  }
+  div.chap p {
+    margin: 0 0 0.15em 0;
+    text-indent: 2em;
+  }
+  div.chap p.drop-cap,
+  div.chap p.drop-cap-A,
+  div.chap p.drop-cap-preface {
+    text-indent: 0;
+  }
+  div.chap p.drop-cap:first-letter,
+  div.chap p.drop-cap-A:first-letter,
+  div.chap p.drop-cap-preface:first-letter {
+    float: none;
+    margin: 0;
+    font-size: 100%;
+    line-height: normal;
+  }
+  div.chap p.drop-cap > span.allsc,
+  div.chap p.drop-cap-A > span.allsc {
+    text-transform: none;
+  }
+  div.footnotes {
+    background-color: transparent;
+    border-top: thin solid black;
+    border-right: none;
+    border-bottom: none;
+    border-left: none;
+    padding: 0.33em 0 0 2em;
+  }
+  div.footnotes p {
+    margin: 0 0 0.25em 0;
+  }
+  div.runin {margin: 0 0 0.15em 0; }
+  div.runin h3 {text-indent: 2em; }
+  div.plate {max-width: 100%; }
+  div.covernote {display: block; visibility: visible; }
+}
+
+div.chap p.noindent {text-indent: 0; }
+
+
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cambridge Papers, by Walter William Rouse Ball
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Cambridge Papers
+
+Author: Walter William Rouse Ball
+
+Release Date: January 19, 2017 [EBook #54023]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAMBRIDGE PAPERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Laura Wisewell, David Wilson and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (The
+original copy of this book was generously made available
+for scanning by the Department of Mathematics at the
+University of Glasgow.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr class="ww" />
+<div class="covernote">
+<h2 title="">Transcriber’s Note</h2>
+
+<p>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="halftitle">
+<h1 title="CAMBRIDGE PAPERS"><a name="png.001" id="png.001" href="#png.001"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>i<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CAMBRIDGE PAPERS.</h1>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="publisher">
+<p><a name="png.002" id="png.002" href="#png.002"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>ii<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>
+ <img id="logo" src="images/macmillan.jpg"
+  alt="McM&amp;Co" title="Publisher's device" /></p>
+<p><span class="smc">MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited</span><br
+ /><small>LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA · MADRAS<br
+ />MELBOURNE</small></p>
+<p>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br
+ /><small>NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO<br
+ />DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO</small></p>
+<p><span class="smc">THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.</span><br
+ /><small>TORONTO</small></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+<p class="h2"><a name="png.003" id="png.003" href="#png.003"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>iii<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CAMBRIDGE PAPERS</p>
+
+<p class="byline"><small>BY</small><br
+ />W. W. ROUSE BALL<br
+ /><small class="smaller">FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.</small></p>
+
+<p class="published">MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED<br
+ />ST MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON<br
+ />1918<br
+ /><small>[<i>All rights reserved</i>]</small></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="chap">
+<h2 title="Preface"><a name="png.005" id="png.005" href="#png.005"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>v<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap-preface"><span class="uc">This</span> volume contains papers on some questions
+of local history put together, mostly for undergraduate
+societies and magazines, at various times
+during the last twenty-five years. I have included a
+memoir, written for a London Society, on Newton’s
+<cite>Principia</cite>, a work that profoundly affected the development
+of University studies in the eighteenth
+century, and a chapter on the History of the
+Mathematical Tripos, which at one time appeared
+in my <cite>Mathematical Recreations and Essays</cite>, since
+these are concerned with Cambridge subjects.</p>
+
+<p>I print the papers, whether long or short, and
+whether read at length or, as was more often the
+case, curtailed in delivery, substantially in the
+form in which they were first written. This leaves
+allusions which bear evidence to their domestic
+origin, and involves, in those of them dealing with
+cognate subjects, some repetition of facts. If these
+are defects they could be removed only by rewriting
+much of what appears here; it seems to me preferable
+to let the essays stand in their original forms,
+save occasionally for the addition of a paragraph or
+<a name="png.006" id="png.006" href="#png.006"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>vi<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>sentence dealing with what has happened since they
+were first presented. The dates in the text are
+reckoned in the modern style, taking the year as
+beginning on the first day of January.</p>
+
+<p class="signature">W. W. ROUSE BALL.</p>
+
+<div class="sigblock">
+<small><span class="smc">Trinity College, Cambridge.</span><br
+ /><i>January</i>, 1918.</small>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="toc">
+<h2 title="Contents"><a name="png.007" id="png.007" href="#png.007"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>vii<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<table id="toc" summary="Contents">
+  <tr>
+    <th>&nbsp;</th>
+    <th>&nbsp;</th>
+    <th>PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Preface</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.005">v</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="part" colspan="3"><b>Part I.  Concerning Trinity College.</b></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter I.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.011">The Foundation of Trinity College</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.011">3</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter II.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.034">The Tutorial System</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.034">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter III.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.056">The Westminster Scholars</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.056">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter IV.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.079">The Society for the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Undergraduates</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.079">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter V.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.092">The College Chapel</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.092">84</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter VI.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.112">Some College Treasures</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.112">104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter VII.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.135">The College Auditors</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.135">127</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter VIII.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.152">Wren’s Designs for the Library</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.152">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter IX.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.162">A Christmas Journey in 1319</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.162">154</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter X.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.169">An Outline of the College Story</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.169">161</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="part" colspan="3"><b>Part II.  Concerning the University.</b></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter XI.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.187">The Beginnings of the University</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.187">179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter XII.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.202">Discipline</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.202">194</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter XIII.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.233">Newton’s <cite>Principia</cite></a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.233">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter XIV.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.252">Newton on University Studies</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.252">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">Chapter XV.</td>
+    <td><a href="#png.260">The Mathematical Tripos</a></td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.260">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="index">Index</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="chappg"><a href="#png.325">317</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="partpage">
+
+<big><a name="png.009" id="png.009" href="#png.009"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>1<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>PART I.<br
+ /><span class="h2">Concerning Trinity College.</span></big>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+<h2 title="I. The Foundation of Trinity College"><a name="png.011" id="png.011" href="#png.011"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>3<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER I.<br
+ /><small>THE FOUNDATION OF TRINITY COLLEGE.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">Trinity College</span> was founded by Henry VIII
+in 1546. To obtain a site for it, he suppressed
+King’s Hall and Michael-House, two medieval
+colleges which were built on or owned most
+of the ground now occupied by the Great Court, and
+with their revenues, largely augmented by property
+of dissolved monasteries, he endowed it. The scheme
+of the College and his objects in founding it are stated
+in his letters patent of 19 December 1546, and particulars
+of the income assigned by him to the foundation
+are set out in his charter of dotation dated
+24 December 1546. These documents have been
+printed<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn1" id="fna1" name="fna1">1</a></sup> and are readily accessible, but the history
+of the events leading up to the foundation of the
+College is less generally known. I cannot promise
+that the story in itself is interesting but the material
+facts have never before been brought together<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn2" id="fna2" name="fna2">2</a></sup> so
+its telling is justified.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.012" id="png.012" href="#png.012"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>4<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>After the dissolution of the monastic houses,
+anxiety was felt in Cambridge and Oxford lest they
+should suffer a similar fate. The policy of the suppression
+of the two universities and the confiscation
+of their property was openly advocated by politicians
+at court, and naturally great alarm was felt
+when in 1544 an Act<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn3" id="fna3" name="fna3">3</a></sup> was passed empowering the
+king to dissolve any college at either university,
+and appropriate its possessions.</p>
+
+<p>The universities were right in thinking that the
+danger was pressing, for Parker, who played a
+leading part in the affair, has put on record<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn4" id="fna4" name="fna4">4</a></sup> the
+fact that after the passing of the Act certain courtiers
+importunately sued the king to have the possessions
+of both bodies surveyed, meaning afterwards
+to obtain the same on easy terms. In these circumstances
+the Cambridge authorities, says Strype,
+“looked about them and made all the friends they
+could at court to save themselves.” In particular
+they urgently begged the aid of two of their professors,
+John Cheke, then acting as tutor to the
+prince of Wales, and Thomas Smith, then clerk to
+the queen’s council. Here is the letter<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn5" id="fna5" name="fna5">5</a></sup> of the
+senate to Smith on the subject:</p>
+
+<blockquote xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">
+<p>Si tu is es, Clarissime Smithe, in quem Academia haec
+Cantabrigiensis universas vires suas, universa pietatis jura
+<a name="png.013" id="png.013" href="#png.013"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>5<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>exercuerit, si tibi uni omnia doctrinae suae genera, omnia
+reipub. ornamenta libentissime contulerit, si fructum gloriae
+suae in te uno jactaverit, si spem salutis suae in te
+potissimum reposuerit: age ergo, et mente ac cogitatione
+tua complectere, quid tu vicissim illi debes, quid illa, quid
+literae, quid respublica, quid Deus ipse pro tantis pietatis
+officiis, quibus sic dignitas tua efflorescit, justissime requirit:
+Academia nil debet tibi, imo omnia sua in te transfudit.
+Et propterea abs te non simpliciter petit beneficium, sed
+merito repetit officium: nec unam aliquam causam tibi proponit,
+sed sua omnia, et seipsam tibi committit. Nec sua
+necesse habet aperire tibi consilia, quorum recessus et diverticula
+nosti universa. Age igitur quod scis, et velis quod
+potes, et perfice quod debes. Sic literis, academiae, reipublicae,
+et religioni; sic Christo et Principi rem debitam et expectatam
+efficies. Jesus te diutissime servet incolumem.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Parker tells us that the London friends of the
+University, among whom Smith and Cheke were
+doubtless conspicuous, wisely took the line of welcoming
+an enquiry, but begged the king to avoid
+the expense of a costly investigation. Their representations
+were successful, and he issued a commission<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn6" id="fna6" name="fna6">6</a></sup>
+dated 16 January 1546 to Matthew Parker
+(then vice-chancellor, and later archbishop of Canterbury),
+John Redman (warden of King’s Hall,
+chaplain to the king, and later master of Trinity),
+and William Mey (president of Queens’, and later
+archbishop-elect of York) to report to him on the
+<a name="png.014" id="png.014" href="#png.014"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>6<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>revenues of the colleges and the numbers of students
+sustained therewith. The commissioners were capable
+and friendly.</p>
+
+<p>The king must have been impatient to know the
+facts, for in less than a week, on 21 January, he
+ordered Parker to come to Hampton Court with the
+report. Immediate compliance was impossible, but
+the command may well have stimulated the commissioners
+to act as rapidly as possible. In fact
+they obtained the services of eleven clerks from the
+Court of Augmentations in London, and at once set
+to work to collect information.</p>
+
+<p>The University was keenly alive to the risks it
+was incurring. To placate the king, the senate,
+on 13 February, put all its belongings at his service,
+and when forwarding a copy of the grace to Secretary
+Sir William Paget it reminded him of the value
+of the University to the state, and begged his protection.
+At the same time it addressed the queen,
+Katharine Parr, through Thomas Smith, imploring
+her advocacy.<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn7" id="fna7" name="fna7">7</a></sup></p>
+
+<p>The queen replied<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn8" id="fna8" name="fna8">8</a></sup> on 26 February. After
+complaining that he had written to her in Latin,
+though he could equally well have expressed himself
+in the vulgar tongue, she discoursed at length on the
+duties of members of the University, and, saying that
+<a name="png.015" id="png.015" href="#png.015"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>7<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>she was confident that her wishes in these respects
+would be fulfilled, she concluded her letter as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>I (according to your desires) have attempted my lord
+the King’s Majesty, for the establishment of your livelihood
+and possessions: in which, notwithstanding his Majesty’s
+property and interest, through the consent of the high court
+of parliament, his Highness being such a patron to good
+learning, doth tender you so much, that he will rather advance
+learning and erect new occasion thereof than [to]
+confound those your ancient and godly institutions, so that
+learning may hereafter justly ascribe her very original whole
+conservation and sure stay to our Sovereign Lord.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>This was good news, and things now moved
+rapidly. By the end of February the commissioners
+had drawn up a detailed report giving the information
+required. It is printed<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn9" id="fna9" name="fna9">9</a></sup> at length in the
+<cite>Cambridge Documents</cite>, 1852, and occupies nearly
+200 pages.</p>
+
+<p>The commissioners in person presented to the
+king at Hampton Court a brief summary of this
+report. We do not know the date of this interview,
+but conjecturally it may be put as being early in
+March. Parker has left<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn10" id="fna10" name="fna10">10</a></sup> in his own handwriting a
+full account of their reception as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>In the end, the said commissioners resorted up to
+Hampton Court to present to the King a brief summary
+written in a fair sheet of vellum (which very book is yet
+<a name="png.016" id="png.016" href="#png.016"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>8<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>reserved in the college of Corpus Christi) describing the
+revenues, the reprises, the allowances, and number and stipend
+of every College. Which book the King diligently
+perused; and in a certain admiration said to certain of his
+lords which stood by, that he thought he had not in his
+realm so many persons so honestly maintained in living by
+so little land and rent: and where he asked of us what it
+meant that the most part of Colleges should seem to expend
+yearly more than their revenues amounted to; we answered
+that it rose partly of fines for leases and indentures of the
+farmers renewing their leases, partly of wood sales: whereupon
+he said to the lords, that pity it were these lands
+should be altered to make them worse; (at which words some
+were grieved, for that they disappointed <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">lupos quosdam
+hiantes</i>). In fine, we sued to the King’s Majesty to be so
+gracious lord, that he would favour us in the continuance
+of our possessions such as they were, and that no man by
+his grace’s letters should require to permute with us to give
+us worse. He made answer and smiled, that he could not
+but write for his servants and others, doing the service for
+the realm in wars and other affairs, but he said he would
+put us to our choice whether we should gratify them or no,
+and bade us hold our own, for after his writing he would
+force us no further. With which words we were well armed,
+and so departed.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>This important interview was followed by a
+rumour that it was Henry’s intention to found at
+Cambridge a new and magnificent college to serve
+as an enduring record of his interest in learning,
+and perhaps the University may have taken the
+queen’s letter as indicating what was coming. It is
+believed that Henry had long entertained vague
+<a name="png.017" id="png.017" href="#png.017"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>9<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>ideas of the kind, but that the definite suggestion,
+which was encouraged by the queen, originated with
+Redman, who, as royal chaplain, had constant access
+to the king and considerable influence with him.</p>
+
+<p>The preparations for Henry’s proposed foundation
+were made with extreme speed: a wise course in
+view of his failing health and variable temper. It
+was decided to take advantage of the Act of 1544
+and suppress King’s Hall and Michael-House, using
+their grounds and adjoining property as the site of
+the new college. We have no reference to the appointment
+of commissioners for the business, though
+there is an allusion, quoted later, to receivers: perhaps
+the matter was left in the hands of the officials
+of the Court of Augmentations. Redman was the
+chief authority at Cambridge in the arrangements
+that had to be made there, and it was intended that
+he should be the first master of the new college when
+it was founded.</p>
+
+<p>The two Societies above mentioned were (save
+for Peterhouse) the oldest in the University. To
+Trinity men their history has, naturally, great interest,
+and I interpolate a few remarks on this and
+their position in 1546.</p>
+
+<p>The King’s Scholars, normally thirty-two in
+number and of all ages from fourteen upwards, were
+established by Edward II under a warden in 1317
+and incorporated in 1337. They had for their
+<a name="png.018" id="png.018" href="#png.018"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>10<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>original home a large house (King’s Hall) situated
+on the grass plot and walk in front of the present
+chapel, and rapidly acquired all the adjacent land
+between the High Street (now known as Trinity
+Street) and the river, extending their buildings
+in various directions. Popular writers sometimes
+assert or assume that all medieval colleges were
+founded for poor students. That is not universally
+true. No condition of poverty was imposed on the
+scholars of King’s Hall, nor was their life here penurious:
+they had a dining-hall, library, common room,
+chapel, kitchens, a brewery, a vineyard, a garden,
+and a staff of servants maintained by the Society,
+while a good many of them also kept their own
+private servants: they received a liberal allowance
+for daily commons, clothes and bedding were supplied
+from the royal wardrobe, and pocket-money was
+given to buy other things. They were appointed
+by the crown largely from among the families of
+court officials, nominations being restricted to those
+who knew Latin. After completing their course
+many of these students entered what we may call
+the higher civil service of the time in church or state.</p>
+
+<p>In the report of the commissioners, the annual
+income of King’s Hall was returned as <i>£</i>214. 0<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>
+and the expenses as <i>£</i>263. 16<i>s.</i> 7<i>d.</i>; and it was
+stated that at the time there were on its boards,
+a master, twenty-five graduate fellows, and seven
+<a name="png.019" id="png.019" href="#png.019"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>11<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>undergraduate fellows, besides servants. The Society
+owned the patronage of the livings of Arrington,
+Bottisham, St Mary’s Cambridge, Chesterton, Fakenham,
+Felmersham, and Grendon. According to
+the return, the normal annual expenditure of King’s
+Hall, if all the scholars resided, required <i>£</i>182. 18<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>
+for the emoluments of the warden and fellows (namely,
+<i>£</i>8. 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for the warden, <i>£</i>5. 10<i>s.</i> 0<i>d.</i> for each of
+twenty-five graduate fellows, and <i>£</i>5. 5<i>s.</i> 0<i>d.</i> for each
+of seven undergraduate fellows); <i>£</i>32. 2<i>s.</i> 0<i>d.</i> for the
+college servants (namely, the butler, barber, baker,
+brewer, laundress, cook, under-cook, and the warden’s
+servant); <i>£</i>3. 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for the estate officers and quit-rents;
+<i>£</i>3. 19<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for the expenses of the chapel services
+and the bible-clerk; <i>£</i>5. 0<i>s.</i> 0<i>d.</i> for firing for the
+hall and kitchen; <i>£</i>5. 0<i>s.</i> 0<i>d.</i> for rushes for the hall;
+<i>£</i>5. 10<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for the exequies of the founder and the
+following refections; <i>£</i>29. 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for repairs and
+renewals; and <i>£</i>10 for extraordinary expenses.</p>
+
+<p>The other College (Michael-House) whose buildings
+were transferred to Trinity was of a different
+type. It was founded by Hervey de Stanton in
+1324 for a master and six secular clergy who wished
+to study in the University. Their original home
+was a large house on the site of the present combination
+room and the land round it; later they
+acquired all the property between Foul Lane and
+the river. At first the Society’s means were barely
+<a name="png.020" id="png.020" href="#png.020"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>12<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span>s</a>ufficient for its needs, but in time it received many
+gifts, and the foundation was increased to a master
+and eight priests with chaplains and bible-clerks.
+It had an oratory in its House but did not need a
+chapel as it owned St Michael’s Church; traces of
+this ownership will be noticed in the arrangement
+for stalls (to be occupied by members of the Society)
+in the choir, which is sunk below the level of the
+nave and chancel.</p>
+
+<p>In the report of the commissioners, the annual
+income of Michael-House was returned as <i>£</i>141. 13<i>s.</i> 1¾<i>d.</i>
+and its expenses as <i>£</i>143. 18<i>s.</i> 0<i>d.</i>; and it was stated
+that there were on its boards a master, eight fellows,
+and three chaplains, besides servants. Besides
+St Michael’s Cambridge, the Society owned the
+patronage of the livings of Barrington, Boxworth,
+Cheadle, Grundisburgh, and Orwell. According to
+the return, the normal annual expenditure of
+Michael-House required a sum of <i>£</i>91. 10<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for
+the emoluments of the Society (namely, <i>£</i>7. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>
+for the master, <i>£</i>47. 17<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for the six fellows
+on the original foundation, <i>£</i>11. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for the
+two Illegh fellows, <i>£</i>15 for three chaplains, one of
+whom served Barrington, and <i>£</i>10 for four bible-clerks),
+<i>£</i>1 for the auditor, <i>£</i>6. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for college
+servants (namely, the cook, butler, barber, and
+laundress), rather more than <i>£</i>17 for the exequies
+of benefactors, <i>£</i>1. 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for the commemoration
+<a name="png.021" id="png.021" href="#png.021"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>13<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>refection, <i>£</i>20 for repairs, and <i>£</i>6. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for extraordinary
+expenses. A clerical society like Michael-House
+had no difficulty in providing for due
+celebration of the exequies of its friends, and in
+fact more than twenty benefactors are mentioned
+by name as being thus commemorated every year.
+In 1544, the House, presumably with the object of
+averting its destruction, began to admit students
+resident elsewhere in the University, and in a couple
+of years no less than forty-eight students matriculated
+from it; the number of admissions must have
+exceeded this, but what was involved in such cases
+by admission is uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>A scheme containing a “first plott or proportion”
+for the new College was prepared for the king
+by the Court of Augmentations in London; it seems
+certain that this was worked out in collaboration
+with Redman. The clerk who drew it up was
+Thomas Ansill. The College, after its foundation,
+recognized its obligation to him in the matter and
+presented him to the vicarage of Barford which was
+and is in its gift. He preserved a copy of his scheme;
+this was purchased from his son by one of the fellows
+in 1611, and given to the College.</p>
+
+<p>The manuscript of the suggested scheme, to
+which Mr Bird first called my attention, is endorsed
+<cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Distribucio Collegii</cite> and headed “the proporcon
+diuised for Trinite College.” It is undated,
+<a name="png.022" id="png.022" href="#png.022"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>14<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>but in a later hand it is added that it was made
+Anno 37 Hen. 8, and therefore before 22 April 1546.
+From internal evidence it must have been composed
+in or after March in that year, since those who
+graduated in that Lent term are described as being
+of the standing of the degrees then taken. Of
+those who graduated afterwards some are described
+correctly, others not so: doubtless Redman knew
+about the standing of the members of King’s Hall
+and Michael-House, but he may well have made
+mistakes about the standing of some of the junior
+students of other colleges. If however we accept
+the endorsement as correct, we may fix the date
+of the composition of the plan as being in the early
+half of April, 1546. This manuscript has not been
+printed, and I proceed to describe it.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the compilers of this scheme was
+to see what income would be required for the suggested
+new College, and to arrange how the income
+should be used; incidentally it reveals the general
+organization proposed. The constitution of the
+College, the various offices to be created, and the
+stipends intended are specified. In most cases
+the names of the proposed fellows, scholars, bedesmen,
+and servants are given, but generally the
+allocation of the proposed principal offices is not
+indicated and probably had not been then arranged.
+The names of the proposed fellows and scholars
+<a name="png.023" id="png.023" href="#png.023"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>15<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>agree with those appointed later, though the order
+is not always the same, but the provisional list of
+bedesmen differs from that of those ultimately
+nominated.</p>
+
+<p>The <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Distribucio</cite> begins with a statement of the
+names and suggested stipends of the master and
+fellows. The stipend of the master was to be <i>£</i>100
+a year: that of each of the next fifteen fellows (one
+of those proposed being a doctor of divinity, ten
+bachelors of divinity, and four masters of arts) was
+to be <i>£</i>10 a year and <i>£</i>1 a year for livery: that of
+each of the next twenty-five fellows (twenty-two of
+those nominated being masters of arts and three
+bachelors of arts) was to be <i>£</i>8 a year; that of each
+of the next twenty fellows and scholars (seven of
+the nominees being bachelors of arts and thirteen
+junior scholars) was to be <i>£</i>6. 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> a year. The
+names are given and agree with those in the letters
+patent of 19 December.</p>
+
+<p>There was to be a schoolmaster (Richard Harman)
+who was to have <i>£</i>20 a year, an usher of
+grammar (William Boude) who was to have <i>£</i>10 a
+year, and provision was made for forty childer
+grammarians, whose names are given, each of whom
+was to have <i>£</i>4 a year. This shows that it was intended
+that the foundation should include students
+in grammar, and the two teachers specially responsible
+for them were to be a schoolmaster and usher.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.024" id="png.024" href="#png.024"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>16<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>The question arises whether it was intended to
+found a grammar-school connected with the College
+or whether these grammarians were what we should
+call undergraduate scholars or exhibitioners. The
+former view is the correct one, for the royal commissioners
+in May 1549 definitely asked<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn11" id="fna11" name="fna11">11</a></sup> the College
+“to surrender the Grammar Schole.” This was done
+and the school was then absorbed in the College.
+Probably at that time the distinction between boys
+at the grammar-school and junior undergraduates
+was not regarded as important—the term grammarian
+or grammaticus being commonly used for
+a junior undergraduate as well as a school-boy<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn12" id="fna12" name="fna12">12</a></sup>.
+This indifference to the distinction between the two
+classes is illustrated by the fact that of the grammarian
+school-boys named in the <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Distribucio</cite>, ten
+were already matriculated members of the University,
+nine matriculated from Trinity shortly after its
+foundation, and of the others six matriculated in
+1548 or 1549 which is not inconsistent with their
+having been students of the University in 1546.</p>
+
+<p>In 1547, the accounts include a particular payment
+for six boys of the grammar-school, and wages
+for one quarter for the schoolmaster and Mr Boude;
+thus showing that the school was then being
+carried on. In 1548, the accounts specify forty-two
+<a name="png.025" id="png.025" href="#png.025"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>17<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>grammatici, in addition to certain graduates and
+dialectici, as being in residence, but in this year there
+is no mention of a schoolmaster or an usher though
+possibly they may be included among the ten
+lectors for whom provision is made. In 1551 the
+grammatici appear as discipuli, and thenceforth
+the grammarians were treated as undergraduate
+scholars.</p>
+
+<p>The <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Distribucio</cite> next goes on to enumerate seven
+readers. Three of these were to be public or university
+readers, of whom one (John Maydew) was
+to read in divinity, one (John Cheke) in Greek, and
+one (Thomas Wakefield) in Hebrew, each at <i>£</i>40
+a year. The other four were to be fellows of the
+College, of whom one (Simon Bridges) was to read
+in divinity at <i>£</i>6. 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> a year, two in philosophy
+at <i>£</i>5 a year each, and one in logic at <i>£</i>5 a year:
+such stipends to be in addition to their fellowship
+emoluments. It would seem that Bridges
+or Briggs declined to accept the nomination to a
+fellowship at Trinity and accordingly was not appointed
+to the office. Provision was also made for
+two under-readers in logic at <i>£</i>2. 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> each. Next
+are mentioned two examiners in scholastic acts at
+<i>£</i>5 a year each; and two chaplains at <i>£</i>6. 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> a
+year each, one (Henry Man) for the fellows and the
+other (unnamed) for the childer and bedesmen.
+I note that Henry Man occupied for many years
+<a name="png.026" id="png.026" href="#png.026"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>18<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>rooms in the Great Court adjoining and on the west
+side of what is now known as the Queen’s Gate.</p>
+
+<p>The next entry is that of twenty-four almsmen
+or bedesmen at <i>£</i>6 a year each; the names of all
+but one are given, but the list differs somewhat
+from that appearing in the account book of 1547
+of those appointed when the College began work.
+The unnamed bedesman was the cook of Michael-House,
+and it is impossible not to wonder whether
+his inclusion in this list (which involved his retirement
+from the kitchens) was due to the memory of
+indifferent dinners eaten by Redman when a guest
+at the high table of that House.</p>
+
+<p>The <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Distribucio</cite> then returns to the enumeration
+of the officers and servants of the College. There
+were to be two bursars at <i>£</i>4 a year each; a vice-master
+at <i>£</i>5 a year; two deans to direct disputations
+of divinity and philosophy, one at <i>£</i>4 a year,
+and the other at <i>£</i>3. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> a year; eight bible-clerks,
+whose names are given, to serve the hall,
+choir and vestry, and to attend upon the curate
+when visiting, at <i>£</i>2. 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> a year each; an organ-player
+at <i>£</i>6 a year and his commons; two butlers,
+the senior at <i>£</i>5 a year and the junior at <i>£</i>4 a year;
+a manciple at <i>£</i>6. 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> a year; a master-cook at
+<i>£</i>6 a year; two under-cooks, one at <i>£</i>4 a year, and
+the other at <i>£</i>3. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> a year; and a turn-spit at
+<i>£</i>2 a year. There was also to be a barber at <i>£</i>5
+<a name="png.027" id="png.027" href="#png.027"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>19<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>a year; a laundress at <i>£</i>5 a year; a porter at <i>£</i>6
+a year; a bricklayer at <i>£</i>4 a year; a carpenter at <i>£</i>4
+a year; a mason at <i>£</i>4 a year; two stewards of lands
+at <i>£</i>5 a year each; an auditor for the lands at <i>£</i>10
+a year; a receiver for the lands at <i>£</i>13. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; and
+an attorney in the exchequer for the lands at
+<i>£</i>3. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> Allowance was to be made for the
+yearly distribution of alms to the amount of <i>£</i>20;
+and of another <i>£</i>20 to be spent on the mending of
+highways. The total expenditure contemplated
+amounts to <i>£</i>1286. At the end in another handwriting
+is added that allowance (amount unspecified)
+should be also made for wine and wax, riding, extraordinary
+charges, and repairs.</p>
+
+<p>It must have been in April, or early in May,
+1546, that the commissioners, or other officials concerned,
+took possession of King’s Hall and Michael-House
+and the ground adjacent thereto. They at
+once made arrangements to shut up Foul Lane
+which ran across the present Great Court, to purchase
+such part of that court as did not belong to
+King’s Hall and Michael-House, and to enclose the
+site. Stone and other materials for the new work
+were taken from the church and cloisters of the
+dissolved Franciscan monastery which stood on the
+land now occupied by Sidney Sussex College, and
+in a survey, dated 20 May 1546, those buildings
+are described as having been already partially
+<a name="png.028" id="png.028" href="#png.028"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>20<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>demolished in order to provide “towards the building
+of the King’s Majesty’s new College.”</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that during this time members of
+King’s Hall and Michael-House were in residence,
+and possibly also some of the members-elect of
+Trinity College. The cost of the maintenance of
+the House and the expenses of the alterations must
+have been heavy, but in December 1546, the Court
+of Augmentations was ordered<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn13" id="fna13" name="fna13">13</a></sup> “to pay Dr Redman
+of your new College in Cambridge <i>£</i>2000 towards
+the establishment and building of the same, and
+in recompense for revenues of their lands for a
+whole year ended Michaelmas last, because the
+rents were paid to your Majesty’s receivers before
+they had out letters patent for their donation.”
+We have no record of these expenses, but I conjecture
+that this grant allowed a clean start to be
+made from Michaelmas 1546.</p>
+
+<p>The members of the new College entered into
+possession of the buildings and began their academic
+life as members of Trinity College about Michaelmas
+1546. The surrender of King’s Hall and Michael-House
+to the king took place on 28 October, and
+arrangements were than made to pension the master
+and eight fellows of Michael-House and one fellow
+of King’s Hall. Redman was appointed master of
+the new foundation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.029" id="png.029" href="#png.029"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>21<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>The original members of the Society were selected
+from the whole University with the addition
+of a few Oxonians: it is believed that all the nominees
+were favourable to the new learning and the protestant
+faith. Of the forty childer grammarians
+named in the <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Distribucio</cite> all save one accepted the
+nomination; of these, six had been previously
+members of Michael-House, one a member of Pembroke,
+one of Peterhouse, one of St John’s, and
+one of some unnamed College. Of the sixty
+students nominated to fellowships or scholarships
+in the letters patent, fourteen did not reside and
+presumably refused the nomination. Of the forty-six
+who accepted the office, thirty-six were graduates
+and ten were non-graduates. Of these
+thirty-six nominees, three came from Michael-House,
+one from King’s Hall, two from Christ’s, one
+from Corpus, one from King’s, one from Pembroke,
+two from Peterhouse, one from Queens’, one from
+St Catharine’s, and three from St John’s: of the
+colleges or hostels from which the remaining twenty
+had graduated, I can find no particulars. Of the
+ten non-graduates who accepted the office, one had
+been at Pembroke, one at Queens’, two at St John’s,
+and one at Trinity Hall: of the previous history of
+the remaining five I know nothing. Of the fourteen
+who did not reside and presumably declined the
+offer, eleven were graduates, of whom one had been
+<a name="png.030" id="png.030" href="#png.030"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>22<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>at Corpus, one at King’s, one at Pembroke, three at
+Queens’, two at St John’s, and two at Oxford, and
+of the remaining graduate I can find no particulars.
+Of the three non-graduates who did not accept the
+nomination, one had been at Michael-House, one at
+Oxford, and of the other I know nothing. It appears
+from the account-books that there were also
+still in residence a few students<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn14" id="fna14" name="fna14">14</a></sup> who had been
+members of King’s Hall and Michael-House: it was
+only courteous to give these deposed students the
+hospitality of the House, and they occupied a
+different position to the pensioners and fellow-commoners
+who later were admitted in considerable
+numbers. We cannot prove or disprove the presence
+at this time of other students, but it is most
+likely that at first there were no residents in College
+other than those mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>The legal formalities connected with the surrender
+of the properties of King’s Hall and Michael-House
+took a considerable time, and were not completed
+till 17 December 1546. The letters patent
+founding the College and the charter of dotation
+were signed a few days later<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn15" id="fna15" name="fna15">15</a></sup>. The actual endowment
+granted was valued at <i>£</i>1640 net a year,
+<a name="png.031" id="png.031" href="#png.031"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>23<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>which must have been deemed ample to provide
+for the expenses and the maintenance of the House.
+Comparing this income and the estimated expenditure
+with those of King’s Hall and Michael-House
+we gather how much more important than these
+colleges was the contemplated new foundation.</p>
+
+<p>Thus were King’s Hall and Michael-House dissolved,
+but only to be merged in a new and nobler
+Society. The letters patent founding Trinity College
+state that Henry to the glory and honour of
+Almighty God and the Holy and Undivided Trinity,
+for the amplification and establishment of the
+Christian and true religion, the extirpation of
+heresy and false opinion, the increase and continuance
+of divine learning and all kinds of godliness,
+the knowledge of language, the education of
+youth in piety virtue discipline and learning, the
+relief of the poor and destitute, the prosperity of
+the Church of Christ, and the common good and
+happiness of his kingdom and subjects, founded and
+established a College of letters, sciences, philosophy;
+godliness, and sacred theology, for all time to endure.
+These are noble objects, and we may look back with
+honourable pride to the way in which Trinity College
+has on the whole carried out the intentions of its
+founder.</p>
+
+<p>The organization of the new College followed
+closely that outlined in the <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Distribucio</cite>. To meet
+<a name="png.032" id="png.032" href="#png.032"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>24<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the expenses already incurred during the Michaelmas
+term the Court of Augmentations<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn16" id="fna16" name="fna16">16</a></sup> in January
+1547 paid Redman <i>£</i>590 “towards the exhibition of
+King’s Scholars in Cambridge.” This was about
+one-third of the total intended income of the House,
+and presumably cleared matters up to 24 December
+1546, when the College entered into possession of
+its endowments. If we may trust the sermon
+preached in London on 12 December 1550, by
+Thomas Lever, subsequently master of St John’s
+College, Trinity had reason to regret the death of
+Henry in January 1547, for the preacher asserted
+that a substantial part of the intended endowment
+was appropriated by courtiers in London; I have
+never investigated what part (if any) of it was thus
+lost to the College.</p>
+
+<p>The first account-book of the new College covers
+the civil year 1547, but only certain selected items
+of income and expenditure appear therein. It
+shows total receipts of <i>£</i>786. 16<i>s.</i> 7<i>d.</i> and total payments
+of <i>£</i>799. 11<i>s.</i> 1½<i>d.</i> Most of the income is said
+to have come from the “Tower.” I conjecture
+that rents, etc. were paid to the master who kept
+the college moneys in the treasury in the Tower,
+and the bursar in his book accounted only for such
+portion of it as was handed to him: of other sums
+<a name="png.033" id="png.033" href="#png.033"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>25<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>received or paid on account of the Society, we have
+no particulars. In most cases the commons (though
+not the stipends or wages) paid to officers are set
+out, but up to Lady-Day instead of giving full details
+there is an entry of <i>£</i>52. 6<i>s.</i> 10<i>d.</i> paid to fellows
+and scholars for “the first quarter after the erection,
+besides stipends and wages.” The account-book
+for the next year, 1548, is better kept. It shows
+total receipts of <i>£</i>531. 13<i>s.</i> 11½<i>d.</i> and total payments
+of <i>£</i>528. 12<i>s.</i> 8½<i>d.</i> In the accounts of this year are
+mentioned a master, fifty graduate fellows (of whom
+thirteen were bachelors), ten dialectici, forty-two
+grammarians, and eight bible-clerks. Entries appear
+of payments for commons to six former
+members of King’s Hall and Michael-House, but of
+these only three seem to have been in regular residence.
+An examination of the early account-books
+allows us to see something of the development of
+the College, but a description of this would hardly
+come within the purview of this paper.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna1" id="fn1" name="fn1" title="Back">1</a> <cite>Cambridge Documents</cite> issued by the Royal Commissioners,
+London, 1852, vol. III, pp. 365–410.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna2" id="fn2" name="fn2" title="Back">2</a> This was true some years ago when this paper was written, but
+since then I have given part of the story in a booklet on the King’s
+Scholars and King’s Hall which, at the request of the College, I wrote
+in 1917 for the meeting held to celebrate the six-hundredth anniversary
+of the execution by Edward II of the writ establishing those
+scholars in the University of Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna3" id="fn3" name="fn3" title="Back">3</a> 37 Henry VIII, cap. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna4" id="fn4" name="fn4" title="Back">4</a> <cite>Correspondence of M. Parker</cite>, Cambridge, 1852, p. 34.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna5" id="fn5" name="fn5" title="Back">5</a> <cite>Life of T. Smith</cite> by J. Strype, Oxford, 1820, pp. 29–30.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna6" id="fn6" name="fn6" title="Back">6</a> <cite>State Papers</cite>, Domestic, 1546, vol. <span class="allsc">XXI</span>, part i, no. 68. See also
+J. Lamb’s <cite>Documents</cite>, London, 1838, pp. 58–59; <cite>Correspondence of
+M. Parker</cite>, Cambridge, 1852, p. 34.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna7" id="fn7" name="fn7" title="Back">7</a> <cite>State Papers</cite>, Domestic, 1546, part i, nos. 203, 204.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna8" id="fn8" name="fn8" title="Back">8</a> <cite>Ecclesiastical Memorials</cite> by J. Strype, Oxford, 1882, vol. XI,
+part i, pp. 207–208; <cite>Correspondence of M. Parker</cite>, p. 36.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna9" id="fn9" name="fn9" title="Back">9</a> <cite>Cambridge Documents</cite>, vol. I, pp. 105–294.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna10" id="fn10" name="fn10" title="Back">10</a> <cite>Correspondence of M. Parker</cite>, pp. 35–36; J. Lamb’s <cite>Documents</cite>,
+p. 59.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna11" id="fn11" name="fn11" title="Back">11</a> <cite>State Papers</cite>, Domestic, Edward VI, May 1549.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna12" id="fn12" name="fn12" title="Back">12</a> Senior undergraduates were then commonly termed dialectici.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna13" id="fn13" name="fn13" title="Back">13</a> <cite>State Papers</cite>, Domestic, 1546, no. 647 (25).</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna14" id="fn14" name="fn14" title="Back">14</a> Three fellow-commoners had matriculated from King’s Hall in
+1544.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna15" id="fn15" name="fn15" title="Back">15</a> The charter of foundation, dated 19 December, and that of
+endowment, dated 24 December, are printed at length in the
+<cite>Cambridge Documents</cite>, vol. <span class="allsc">III</span>, pp. 365–410.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna16" id="fn16" name="fn16" title="Back">16</a> C. H. Cooper, <cite>Annals of Cambridge</cite>, Cambridge, 1842, vol. <span class="allsc">I</span>,
+p. 452.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+<h2 title="II. The Tutorial System"><a name="png.034" id="png.034" href="#png.034"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>26<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER II.<br
+ /><small>THE TUTORIAL SYSTEM.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">The</span> word Tutor is used at Cambridge to describe
+an officer of a College who stands to his
+pupils in loco parentis; now-a-days he may, but
+does not necessarily, give direct instruction to them.
+The object of this chapter is to describe the development
+of the office in Trinity College.</p>
+
+<p>Trinity College was founded in 1546 by Henry VIII.
+It is, however, essential in dealing with its early
+history to bear in mind that it was founded in a pre-existing<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn17" id="fna17" name="fna17">17</a></sup>
+University having well-established rules
+and customs. Nearly all the original members of
+Trinity had been educated at Cambridge, they were
+familiar with its traditions, and even the buildings
+they occupied were associated with the college life
+of earlier times. It was intended that the Society
+should promote the reformed religion and the new
+learning, but there is no reason to suppose that in
+establishing it, it was wished or proposed to alter
+the existing practice about the tuition, guidance,
+and care of the younger students.</p>
+
+<p>In the system in force in the University shortly
+<a name="png.035" id="png.035" href="#png.035"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>27<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>before the foundation of Trinity, the students corresponding
+to our scholars and sizars lived in endowed
+colleges (of which eight were founded before 1353 and
+seven between 1440 and 1520), most of those corresponding
+to our pensioners in unendowed private
+hostels (of which in the sixteenth century there were
+twenty-seven and in earlier times possibly a few
+more), and most of those belonging to religious
+orders in monasteries or monastic hostels. A student
+on admission to the University was apprenticed to
+some master of arts or doctor who directed the
+lad’s studies until he took a master’s degree. This
+graduate was known as the student’s “master”:
+in the case of a member of a college we may assume
+that the master was chosen from among the senior
+members of the House, though it is doubtful if this
+was necessarily so in the case of the hostels. The
+head of a college or hostel was responsible for the
+conduct and control of the lad in non-scholastic
+matters, but in colleges in later times this work
+was assigned to a dean. Thus for practical purposes
+a tutorial system already existed in the
+medieval system of apprenticeship and control.</p>
+
+<p>The royal scheme for Trinity College comprised
+a master, fifteen senior fellows, twenty-five middle
+fellows, twenty junior fellows (of whom, in 1546,
+thirteen were undergraduates), and forty grammarian
+school-boys. In addition to these, there were
+<a name="png.036" id="png.036" href="#png.036"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>28<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>servant-students (known as sizars or subsizars), each
+being attached as gyp to a particular fellow, and
+receiving education, board, and lodging in lieu of
+money wages. There is nothing to show whether or
+not the presence of pensioners was contemplated.</p>
+
+<p>We have a list, apparently complete, of all the
+intended officers; tutors do not appear among them,
+though a schoolmaster and usher were provided for
+the grammarians. Hence it would seem that the
+relation between an apprenticed undergraduate and
+his master was regarded as personal, and that the
+latter was selected and paid by his pupil or pupil’s
+guardian, and not by or through the College—I conjecture
+that this was the usual medieval practice.
+The deans are mentioned as officers of the College,
+and the discipline of the younger members was part
+of their business, though no doubt a lad’s master or
+tutor assisted in enforcing it. The formal charter
+of foundation was given by Henry in December
+1546, but the grammarians are not mentioned
+therein.</p>
+
+<p>During the next six years, 1546–1552, three important
+developments took place. First, the grammar-school
+side of the College was abandoned, and
+all boys then in the school were entered as scholars
+of the House; next, and perhaps consequent on the
+abolition of the school, a distinction between fellows
+and scholars was drawn; and finally, following the
+<a name="png.037" id="png.037" href="#png.037"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>29<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>growing custom of other colleges, the admission of
+pensioners was definitely recognized as desirable,
+thus introducing a class of students below the
+standing of scholars. Before coming to the subject
+of tutors it will be well to add a word or two about
+the pensioners and scholars of these early days.</p>
+
+<p>With the upset of the medieval scheme of education
+the number of pensioners and fellow-commoners
+seeking admission to the University greatly
+decreased, and the reception of a limited number
+of them in the colleges fairly met the needs of the
+University. The private hostels were then no
+longer wanted and being unendowed disappeared.
+Thus when again, as soon happened, the number
+of would-be pensioners increased, it was necessary
+(unless new non-collegiate arrangements were made
+for their reception in the University) to admit them
+in larger numbers to the colleges.<!-- TN: period invisible in scan --> At Trinity a limit
+was, in theory, placed on the number of pensioners
+admissible, but not on that of fellow-commoners.
+A pensioner at Trinity, and I suppose also at other
+colleges, had to be qualified by learning and morals
+for admission, and I conceive further that his entry
+was conditional on his finding a fellow who would
+receive him. A pensioner or fellow-commoner had
+no rights, and resided only on such terms and as
+long as the College or the fellow receiving him
+willed. I believe that students of this class did not
+<a name="png.038" id="png.038" href="#png.038"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>30<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>often stay here for more than three or four years
+unless in due course they became scholars.</p>
+
+<p>A most important question for the new College
+was how the supply of scholars and fellows should
+be provided. In King’s Hall vacancies were filled
+by royal nomination, and boys came into residence
+as scholars-elect. We do not know what was proposed
+in 1546, but I think that, as far as entry
+to the grammar-school was concerned, nomination
+by the senior fellows was the most likely method
+to have been contemplated. The abandonment of
+the school and the enrolment of all its members
+as scholars of the House must however have raised
+the question in an acute form, and it was settled
+in or before 1552 by the establishment of an annual
+examination for the election of scholars. Probably
+from the first it was intended that the new
+fellows should be formally elected and admitted.</p>
+
+<p>The charter of 1546 contains a reference to
+statutes to be given later by the king. There was
+considerable delay in preparing these, and the
+liberty of action thus left to the Society seems to
+have been used unwisely, for the commissioners of
+1549 reported that its state was “much out of
+order, governed at large and pleasure for want of
+statutes ... the fellows for the most part too
+bad.”</p>
+
+<p>In November 1552 the College received the long-expected
+<a name="png.039" id="png.039" href="#png.039"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>31<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>statutes by which it was to be governed:
+with their appearance we leave the field of conjecture
+and come to facts. The foundation as here
+described included a master, fifty fellows of the
+standing of master or doctor, and sixty bachelor
+and undergraduate scholars: provision was also made
+for student-servants or sizars. Vacancies in the roll
+of scholars were to be filled by an annual election
+held at Michaelmas on the result of a two days’
+examination. Bachelors of arts and those insane
+or suffering from contagious disease (a curious conjunction)
+were ineligible: also there could not, at
+any one time, be more than three scholars from any
+one county. The regulation that a bachelor was
+not eligible for election to a scholarship suggests
+that a candidate might be in residence as an undergraduate,
+though it does not exclude the candidature
+of those who were not already members of the
+House, but the custom (if it ever existed) of electing
+non-residents had died out before 1560. The admission
+of pensioners, not exceeding fifty-four in
+number, was definitely recognized in 1552: of these
+the master might take as his pupils four, and each
+fellow one. The pensioner which every fellow
+might thus receive was in addition to such scholars
+as had been assigned to him as pupils, but though
+scholars had tutors, the fellow responsible for a
+pensioner is not explicitly described as his tutor.
+<a name="png.040" id="png.040" href="#png.040"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>32<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>It seems that an important part of the duty of a
+tutor was to see that all payments due to the
+college from his pupils were made punctually.
+Scholars, unlike pensioners, had definite rights.</p>
+
+<p>The following are some of the regulations:</p>
+
+<blockquote xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">
+<p>Nemo ex discipulis sine tutore in collegio sit, qui fuerit,
+expellatur. Pupilli tutoribus pareant, honorem paternum
+et reverentiam exhibeant, quorum cura consumitur in illis
+informandis et ad pietatem scientiamque instruendis. Tutores
+fideliter et diligenter quae docenda sunt suos doceant,
+quae agenda instruant et admoneant. Omnia pupillorum
+expensa tutores collegio praestent, et singulis mensibus aes
+debitum pro se et suis quaestoribus solvant. Quod ni fecerint,
+tantisper commeatu priventur dum pecunia dissolvatur.
+Pupillus neque a tutore rejiciatur, neque tutorem
+suum ubi velit mutet nisi legitima de causa a praeside et
+senatu probanda; qui fecerit collegio <span class="nw">excludatur....</span> In discipulis
+eligendis praecipua ratio ingenii et inopiae sit, in
+quibus ut quisque valet maxime ita ceteris proferatur. Eo
+adjungatur doctrinae studium et mediocris jam profectus,
+et reliqui temporis spes illum fore ad communem reipublicae
+posthac idoneum. Horum studium sit ut vitae innocentiam
+cum doctrinae veritate conjungant, et in veritate rerum
+inquirendi et honestate persequenda <span class="nw">laborent....</span> Sic sint
+grammaticis et studiis humanitatis instituti ut inquisitiones
+aulae sustinere et domesticas exercitationes suscipere <span class="nw">possint....</span>
+Pensionarii et studiorum socii in collegium recipiantur ...
+provideatur ut neque praesidi plures quam quatuor neque
+singulis sociis plures uno pensionario sint.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Grave offences were punishable by expulsion,
+rustication, etc., and those who committed only
+<a name="png.041" id="png.041" href="#png.041"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>33<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>“minor offences” were liable to penalties of extreme
+severity. Thus we read:</p>
+
+<blockquote xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">
+<p>Quicunque in aliqua parte officii sui negligentior fuerit,
+et aliquem e magistratibus bene admonentem non audiverit,
+aut insolentem se ostenderit, si ephoebus sit verberibus sin
+ex ephoebis excesserit decennali victu careat et uterque
+praeterea poenitentiam declamatione tostetur.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">The text is corrupt, but the meaning is clear. A
+marginal note suggests the obvious correction that
+decemdiali should be read for decennali. The deans
+superintended, even if they did not inflict, corporal
+punishment when it was ordered.</p>
+
+<p>Another code of statutes was drawn up in 1554,
+but was never sealed, and thus did not become
+effective. I need not quote the text which, on
+tutorial matters, does not differ materially from
+that of 1560. The draft contains a clause to the
+effect that the master of the College was not to take
+more than four pensioners as his pupils, a fellow
+who was a master of arts or of some superior degree
+was not to take more than two, and no one else
+was to take a pensioner as a pupil. The word
+“two” however has been crossed out and “one”
+substituted. From this it would seem that the
+question of how many pensioners it was desirable
+to admit was already a matter of debate.</p>
+
+<p>In 1560 new statutes were granted to the
+College, and its constitution as then settled remained
+<a name="png.042" id="png.042" href="#png.042"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>34<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>practically unaltered till 1861. In this code the
+foundation is described as including a master,
+sixty fellows, four chaplains, sixty-two scholars,
+and thirteen sizars or gyps, namely, three for the
+master and one for each of the ten senior fellows.
+Henceforth scholars were elected annually in the
+spring, from undergraduates already in residence.
+By a gracious provision, whose disappearance in
+1861 I regret, it was ordered that forty of the
+scholarships should be specifically associated with
+the name of Henry VIII, twenty with that of queen
+Mary, and two with that of Thomas Allen as pre-eminent
+benefactors. Pensioners and subsizars were
+also admissible to the Society on conditions. If
+fellow-commoners dined at the high table, as seems
+likely, they may have been reckoned extra numerum.
+Every student under the degree of master
+of arts was required to have a tutor, thus regularizing
+the position of fellow-commoners, pensioners,
+sizars, and subsizars as members of the College,
+and bringing them under the same rule as
+scholars.</p>
+
+<p>The regulations in point are as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">
+<p>Est ea quidem ineuntis aetatis imbecillitas ut provectiorum
+consilio et prudentia necessario moderanda sit, et
+propterea statuimus et volumus ut nemo ex baccalaureis,
+discipulis, pensionariis, sisatoribus, et subsisatoribus tutore
+careat: qui autem caruerit, nisi intra quindecim dies unum
+sibi paraverit, e collegio ejiciatur. Pupilli tutoribus pareant,
+<a name="png.043" id="png.043" href="#png.043"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>35<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>honoremque paternum ac reverentiam deferant, quorum
+studium, labor, et diligentia in illis ad pietatem et scientiam
+informandis ponitur. Tutores sedulo quae docenda sunt
+doceant, quaeque etiam agenda instruant admoneantque.
+Omnia pupillorum expensa tutores collegio praestent, et intra
+decem dies cujusque mensis finiti aes debitum pro se ac suis
+omnibus senescallo solvant. Quod ni fecerint, tantisper commeatu
+priventur dum pecunia a se collegio debita dissolvatur.
+Cautumque esto ne pupillus quispiam vel stipendium suum
+a thesaurariis recipiat vel rationem pro se cum eisdem aliquando
+ineat, sed utrumque per tutorem semper sub poena
+commeatus menstrui a dicto tutore collegio solvendi fieri
+<span class="nw">volumus....</span> Pensionarios ut studiorum socios in collegium
+recipiendos statuimus; sitque in illis recipiendis ratio morum
+ac doctrinae diligenter habita; magistris artium aut superioris
+gradus unum, baccalaureis autem nullum omnino concedimus.
+Nemo illorum admittatur nisi a decano seniore
+et primario lectore examinatus.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>In time, serious discrepancies between the statutes
+and the practice of the College grew up. Some,
+but not all, of these were removed in 1844, when
+the statutes were revised. The sentence above
+quoted “magistris artium aut superioris gradus
+unum, baccalaureis autem nullum omnino concedimus”
+was then struck out.</p>
+
+<p>In 1861 new statutes were given to the College:
+these contain no mention of pensioners, but merely
+prescribe that no bachelor or undergraduate shall
+be without a tutor. The present statutes of 1882
+similarly direct that no member of the College in
+statu pupillari shall be without a tutor.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.044" id="png.044" href="#png.044"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>36<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Except by accident, we have no record before
+1635 of the names of the tutors of the various
+students, but it is probable that at first the master
+regularly entered some undergraduates as his own
+pupils: certainly Whitgift did so, and so too did
+some of his successors. It seems most likely also
+that by 1560 it was already usual for the master
+to assign a student to that fellow who was to act
+as his tutor, though of course regard must always
+have been paid to the wishes of a parent or guardian
+in this matter. This remained the ordinary custom
+for perhaps two hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>Some information on tutorial affairs in the sixteenth
+century may be gathered from an account-book
+kept by Whitgift, covering parts of the years
+1570 to 1576, and containing statements of the
+charges he made as tutor: the names of thirty-nine
+men are given. In the history of Trinity
+College which I wrote for my pupils some years ago,
+I published a few of these bills. I give here a few
+details illustrative of the many matters with
+which a tutor was then concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The payment made to him as tutor varied in
+different cases, but 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> a quarter for a sizar,
+10<i>s.</i> for a pensioner, and 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for a fellow-commoner
+were usual sums. In a few cases there are
+records of an admission-fee to the College or a fee
+for entering into commons: the normal payment
+<a name="png.045" id="png.045" href="#png.045"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>37<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>for this was 15<i>s.</i> for a pensioner, and 20<i>s.</i> for a
+fellow-commoner—there is no mention of any such
+charge in the case of a sizar. The cost of the silly
+ceremony by which the senior undergraduates initiated
+a freshman, known as his salting, was charged
+in the bills, and varied from 8<i>d.</i> for a sizar and
+1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for a pensioner to 4<i>s.</i> for a fellow-commoner.
+The charge for matriculation appears to have been
+4<i>d.</i> for a sizar, 1<i>s.</i> for a pensioner, and 2<i>s.</i> for a
+fellow-commoner.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the cost of the purchase of books
+comes in most of the accounts. Aristotle, Plato,
+Sophocles, and Demosthenes constantly appear
+among Greek writers, Homer and Xenophon only
+once; Cicero, Caesar, Sallust, and Lucian occur
+often among the Latin authors, Livy only once.
+Euripides and Horace are noticeable by their absence.
+I have not observed any mathematical
+books. Works by Seton and Erasmus are frequently
+mentioned. Among English books we have
+a prayer-book charged at 1<i>s.</i>, a service-book at
+1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>, a bible at 9<i>s.</i>, and a testament at 2<i>s.</i> The
+charge for a bible in Latin was 7<i>s.</i> and for a new
+testament in Greek 2<i>s.</i> A Greek grammar cost 1<i>s.</i>,
+1<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i>, or 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>; a Hebrew grammar 1<i>s.</i> which
+seems cheap. Paper was charged 4<i>d.</i> by the quire
+and 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> by the half-ream: the cost of a bundle
+of pens and an inkhorn was usually 4<i>d.</i> or 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="png.046" id="png.046" href="#png.046"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>38<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Clothes appear to have been expensive, but
+naturally the cost varied widely according to the
+status of the student. Apparently at that time
+the wardrobes of men were fairly extensive: the
+prices of the various articles are set out in full.
+I hesitate to distinguish academic gowns from other
+robes, but the charge of 4<i>s.</i> to John Waring, a
+pensioner, for his gown and square cap, as also the
+charge of 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> for making a gown and hood for
+Phillip Harrison, another pensioner, must, I think,
+be taken to refer to academic costumes. The cost
+of a surplice to Richard Therald, a sizar, was 4<i>s.</i>,
+but to Henry Gates, a fellow-commoner, was as
+much as 11<i>s.</i> 7<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p>As to amusements, the richer students seem to
+have kept or hired horses at considerable cost.
+Horse-hire to London varied from 4<i>s.</i> to 8<i>s.</i>;
+to Lincoln from 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> to 4<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> Bows and
+arrows constantly appear in the bills—the price of
+a bow ranging from 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> to 3<i>s.</i> Tennis was
+another popular amusement of the day. The court
+stood on the site of the north end of the present
+library, and the keeper of the court was regarded
+as a college servant; there are no charges in connection
+with the bats, balls, or use of the court.</p>
+
+<p>It may be interesting to notice that coals were
+used regularly as well as wood: they were sold at
+1<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> a sack. Candles were charged at either
+<a name="png.047" id="png.047" href="#png.047"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>39<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>3<i>d.</i> or 4<i>d.</i> a pound. Among miscellaneous things
+6<i>d.</i> was charged for an hour-glass; 4<i>d.</i> for a mouse-trap;
+10<i>d.</i> for a scabbard for a rapier; and 10<i>s.</i> for
+a lute. A set of singing lessons cost 3<i>s.</i> and a set
+of dancing lessons 6<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p>Sickness appears to have been common. In
+general we have no record of the duration of illnesses,
+and the charges for doctors and chemists
+varied widely. The charge for plucking out one
+tooth seems to have been 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, but for two teeth
+the dentist reduced his charge to 1<i>s.</i> a tooth.</p>
+
+<p>We get another aspect of student and tutorial
+affairs in the next century (in 1659) contained in a
+long letter from which I gave extracts in the history of
+the College to which I have already referred. Robert
+Creighton, pronounced Crickt-on, of Somersetshire,
+a Westminster boy and a scholar of the House, was
+then a candidate for a fellowship. At the time there
+were in residence a good many zealots, introduced
+into the Society under presbyterian or Cromwellian
+auspices, and one of these, a year senior to Creighton,
+was also a candidate for a fellowship. Just
+before the election some of the scholars were playing
+tennis in the college court when the ball by chance
+struck one of them in the eye. On this Creighton
+called out “Oh God, Oh God, the scholar’s eye is
+stroke out,” whereon his competitor accused him
+to the authorities as a profane person who took
+<a name="png.048" id="png.048" href="#png.048"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>40<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>God’s name in vain; and as confirmation added that
+he never came to the private prayer meetings of
+the students. By good luck the master was Wilkins,
+afterwards bishop of Chester, who owed his
+appointment more to the fact that he had married
+Cromwell’s sister than to his devotion to the doctrines
+of the Independents. It is clear that he disapproved
+of the complaint, but he considered it
+prudent to summon a meeting of the seniority to
+hear the case and examine witnesses. Creighton’s
+tutor, Duport (who gave us our large silver salt-cellar),
+spoke up for his pupil, and thereon the
+master said that the charge looked like malice,
+and it did not matter much if Creighton did neglect
+to go to the private prayer meetings of undergraduates
+since he never failed to go to chapel and
+to his tutor’s lectures. He then proposed, if we may
+trust our authority, that the seniority should at
+once reject the informer and his friends, and elect
+to the vacant fellowships the accused and his friends,
+and so it was done. Such were elections then!</p>
+
+<p>It is satisfactory to add that public opinion in
+the College was against those who trumped up this
+ridiculous charge, and on the day after the election
+the following notice was found on the screens.
+“He that informed against Ds Creighton deserves to
+have his breech kickt on.” An amusing glimpse of
+life under the Commonwealth. Note that the tutor
+<a name="png.049" id="png.049" href="#png.049"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>41<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>gave lectures to his pupils, and from the tutorial
+point of view observe the esteem gained by regular
+attendance thereat.</p>
+
+<p>No obligation to take pupils seems ever to have
+been imposed on fellows, though a pupil once taken
+could not be transferred. This, and the fact that
+scholars were elected only from students already in
+residence, made it undesirable to retain any rule
+to the effect that a fellow should not have more
+than one pensioner as a pupil. Hence in time those
+who liked tutorial work and did it well were allowed
+to have more than one pensioner pupil, and gradually
+the bulk of the entries came to be made under
+a comparatively few tutors.</p>
+
+<p>The average annual entry of students at Trinity
+during the years 1551 to 1600 was fifty-one, during
+the years 1601 to 1650 was fifty, and during the
+years 1651 to 1700 was thirty-nine. During the
+years 1701 to 1750, it sank to twenty-seven: this
+diminution being partly due to the Bentley scandals.
+During the years 1751 to 1800 the average
+annual entry was thirty-seven, during the years
+1801 to 1850 was one hundred and sixteen, during
+the years 1851 to 1900 was one hundred and seventy-four,
+and during the years 1901 to 1913 was one
+hundred and ninety-nine.</p>
+
+<p>Let us see how the men were divided among the
+tutors. From April to December 1635, twenty-eight
+<a name="png.050" id="png.050" href="#png.050"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>42<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>students were admitted who were distributed
+among seventeen tutors, of whom eleven had only
+one pupil and none had more than four pupils.
+Taking every tenth year thenceforward, we find that
+in 1645, there were (excluding ten fellows intruded
+by order of parliament) fifty-seven entries; of these
+fifty-one were divided among ten tutors. In 1655,
+there were fifty-three normal entries divided among
+twelve tutors; in 1665, forty-three entries divided
+among six tutors; in 1675, forty-nine entries divided
+among twelve tutors; in 1685, thirty-four entries
+divided among five tutors; and in 1695, twenty-eight
+entries divided among four tutors. In 1705, there
+were twenty-nine entries, of these twenty-eight
+students were divided among three tutors. In 1715,
+there were fourteen entries divided among six tutors;
+in 1725, thirty-four entries divided among twelve
+tutors; in 1735, twenty-eight entries divided among
+six tutors; and in 1745, twenty-one entries divided
+among eight tutors.</p>
+
+<p>In 1755 there were only two fellows acting as
+tutors, namely S. Whisson and J. Backhouse.
+Thenceforth there were definite tutorial “sides,”
+each under one tutor or joint tutors, a tutor being
+appointed to a side when a vacancy occurred; and
+every admission to the College being made on a designated
+side. In effect the work of a tutor was now
+regarded as being of a character which should occupy
+<a name="png.051" id="png.051" href="#png.051"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>43<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>a man’s whole energies, and it was generally held that
+a tutor, while he held office, had not, and ought not
+to have, leisure during term-time for independent
+work. From 1755 to 1822 there were two sides. In
+1822 a third side was created. In 1872 one of the
+sides (being the lineal successor of Backhouse’s side)
+was divided into two. These four sides are to-day
+designated in the college office by the letters <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>,
+<i>D</i>; side <i>A</i> being that created in 1822, sides <i>B</i> and <i>D</i>
+being the two made out of the successor of Backhouse’s
+side, and side <i>C</i> being the lineal successor
+of Whisson’s side. [In the pre-war days of 1914
+side <i>A</i> was under Dr Barnes, side <i>B</i> under Mr
+Laurence, side <i>C</i> under Mr Whetham, and side <i>D</i>
+under Dr Fletcher.]</p>
+
+<p>Proceeding by decades in the same way as
+before, the entries on each of the two sides (denoted
+by <i>C</i> and <i>BD</i>) which existed from 1755 to 1822 were
+in 1755, nineteen and ten; in 1765, four and six;
+in 1775, twenty-one and twenty-four; in 1785,
+eighteen and twenty-nine; in 1795, twenty-nine and
+seventeen; in 1805, forty-two and twenty-six; and
+in 1815, fifty-one and thirty-six. From 1822 to
+1872 there were three sides (denoted by <i>C</i>, <i>BD</i>, <i>A</i>):
+the normal entries on these were in 1825, forty-two,
+fifty-five, forty-one; in 1835, forty, forty-five, fifty-three;
+in 1845, fifty, sixty-eight, forty-nine; in 1855,
+fifty-three, forty-eight, fifty; and in 1865, fifty-eight,
+<a name="png.052" id="png.052" href="#png.052"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>44<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>nineteen, sixty. Since 1872 there have been four
+sides (denoted by <i>C</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>A</i>) which were made
+approximately equal: the normal entries on these
+were in 1875, forty-one, forty, forty-four, forty; in
+1885, forty-nine, forty-four, forty-five, forty-eight;
+in 1895, forty-eight, thirty-eight, fifty, fifty-one; and
+in 1905, fifty, fifty-three, fifty, fifty-seven.</p>
+
+<p>Until 1755 the number of pupils in residence in
+any one term assigned to an individual tutor was
+not large, and a tutor interested in any particular
+aspect of a subject likely to be studied was generally
+available: hence it was usually possible for a tutor
+to give personally the teaching and guidance required
+by his pupils. There were then no lecture-rooms
+in College, so probably all instruction was
+given in the tutor’s rooms and was informal in
+character. With the establishment in 1755 of
+sides, this system of teaching required modification,
+and in the course of the latter half of the eighteenth
+century it became the custom for a tutor to supplement
+his teaching by the services of another fellow
+or other fellows. These officers, known as Assistant-Tutors,
+were appointed and paid by individual
+tutors; they lectured regularly, took an important
+part in the life of the Society, and occupied a recognized
+position.</p>
+
+<p>A marked development of the system of formal
+lectures is indicated by the erection in 1835 of a
+<a name="png.053" id="png.053" href="#png.053"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>45<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>block of four large and four medium-sized lecture-rooms.
+No other important changes were made
+for another thirty years, and until 1868 instruction
+remained normally organized by sides; indeed it
+was only by arrangement that lectures on one side
+were open to men on the other sides, though in
+fairness it must be added that an arrangement for
+throwing them open was made as a matter of course
+whenever it seemed desirable. The retention to so
+late a date of appointments by sides was due to the
+fact that the finances of the four sides were then
+kept as separate accounts.</p>
+
+<p>This scheme, clumsy and illogical though it was,
+might have worked fairly well as long as the great
+majority of honour men read nothing but mathematics,
+classics, and perhaps theology, but it was
+condemned by the fact that the authorities allowed
+it to be superseded in practice by an elaborate
+system of private tuition paid for by the individual
+students. With the introduction of new
+subjects (like law, history, and various branches of
+science) and the development of the corresponding
+triposes, it became necessary to recast the scheme
+of teaching if adequate college instruction on such
+subjects was to be provided. The earliest appointment
+of a college lecturer (as contrasted with an
+assistant-tutor nominally attached to a particular
+side) was made in 1868, his lectures being open to all
+<a name="png.054" id="png.054" href="#png.054"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>46<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>students of the Society, and his stipend not charged
+on the funds of a particular side. This was soon
+followed by the placing of all educational appointments
+and finance in the hands of the College without
+regard to sides; and shortly afterwards the lecture-room
+accommodation was considerably extended.</p>
+
+<p>About this time a further step was taken by
+throwing most of the advanced lectures open to
+members of other colleges. Thus in a few years
+instruction by tutorial sides was replaced by college
+lectures and class-work, and then this, to a large
+extent, by teaching organized on a university basis,
+supplemented by individual and catechetical instruction
+in college: with this, the custom of using
+private tuition has largely disappeared. Ultimately
+the title of assistant-tutor was dropped; the
+last appointment under that title was made in 1885,
+but from about 1870 we may say that practically
+the duties of an assistant-tutor were those of a
+lecturer. Thenceforth tutors also took their share
+of lecturing on subjects connected with their own
+lines of study, and did not confine their instruction
+to their own pupils, though for a year or two lectures
+on elementary mathematics and classics to freshmen
+on each particular side survived as a historic curiosity.
+These changes led to the existing scheme
+under which tutorial and tuition duties are separated,
+and thus the giving of direct instruction to
+<a name="png.055" id="png.055" href="#png.055"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>47<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>his pupils is not now necessarily part of the duties
+of a tutor.</p>
+
+<p>The sequence of tutors on each side has been
+published, and I am sorely tempted to add various
+anecdotes on the way in which some of these officers
+fulfilled their duties, but such additions lie outside
+the object of this essay.</p>
+
+<p>Of course during this long period there have
+been bad as well as good tutors, but I think everyone
+will admit that on the whole the system has
+worked well. Its special characteristic is a personal
+relation between the tutor and the pupil, materially
+strengthened by constant intercourse and by the
+fact that practically all the correspondence with
+the parents of the pupil passes through the hands
+of the tutor: experience shows that the tutorial
+influence has not been weakened by the fact that
+in most cases direct instruction is now given by
+other lecturers.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna17" id="fn17" name="fn17" title="Back">17</a> The history of the University prior to 1546 covers some three
+centuries and a half, that is, about as long a period as has elapsed
+since 1546.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+<h2 title="III. The Westminster Scholars"><a name="png.056" id="png.056" href="#png.056"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>48<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER III.<br
+ /><small>THE WESTMINSTER SCHOLARS.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">The</span> relations between Trinity College and Westminster
+School have always been of an intimate
+character. Under the Elizabethan statutes
+of the two foundations a limited number of boys
+from the school were entitled, if duly qualified, to
+election to scholarships at Trinity, and later an
+attempt was made to extend the privilege to fellowships.
+The whole matter is now one of ancient
+history, but it may be interesting to put on record
+some of the facts connected with it.</p>
+
+<p>The school at Westminster owes its foundation
+to queen Elizabeth. Of course the abbey
+is many centuries older, and in a sense so is the
+school, for a grammar-school (in addition to the
+choir-school) had been attached to the medieval
+monastery, though doubtless it existed only at the
+pleasure of the monks. When Henry VIII created
+the diocese of Westminster with the former abbey
+as its cathedral, he also established a school connected
+with it. The diocese soon disappeared, and
+later the church and buildings were given by queen
+Mary to the Benedictines. The arrangement made
+<a name="png.057" id="png.057" href="#png.057"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>49<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>by Mary was in turn annulled by Elizabeth, who,
+shortly after her succession founded the collegiate
+Church of St Peter, divided into two branches, one
+ecclesiastical and the other scholastic, the whole
+being placed under the rule of the dean and chapter.
+Thus Elizabeth is rightly designated as the founder
+of the present school, though a link with the past
+has been preserved in the fact that the sequence of
+headmasters dates by custom from 1540. The
+buildings were divided between the two sides of the
+College; for the scholastic side, one part of the
+monastic dormitory was made into a school-room,
+the granary was turned into a school dormitory,
+and the boys were allowed the use of the refectory
+for meals.</p>
+
+<p>The queen interested herself in the school she
+had established; its connection with particular
+colleges at the universities was suggested by the
+precedents of Winchester and Eton, and it was
+natural that she should desire to associate it closely
+with the Houses at Cambridge and Oxford which
+had been founded by her father. There is some
+reason to think that the details of the arrangement
+made were due to Bill, the first dean of Westminster,
+who was at the same time master of Trinity and
+provost of Eton; a fortunate pluralist!</p>
+
+<p>On 29 March 1560, Elizabeth gave new statutes
+to Trinity College, Cambridge, and in statute 13,
+<a name="png.058" id="png.058" href="#png.058"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>50<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>dealing with the sixty-two scholars of the College,
+she directed as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">
+<p>Sumantur autem potissimum et eligantur ex eorum
+numero, si modo idonei et ceteris pares reperiantur qui
+Schola Regia Westmonasterii educati ... <span class="nw">sint....</span> Ex aliis
+regni partibus ac locis indifferenter ad numerum supplendum
+qui maxime idonei videbuntur, semper sumantur.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">In June 1560, she gave statutes to the Collegiate
+Church at Westminster, and in statute 6, dealing
+with the forty scholars of the school, she directed
+that three scholars from the school should be elected
+annually to the foundation of Christ Church,
+Oxford, and three to that of Trinity College, Cambridge.
+It is said that the queen did not ratify these
+statutes. Be this as it may, in the following year,
+on 11 June 1561, she sent to Trinity College letters
+patent referring to the Westminster statutes as
+indicating her wishes in the matter, and expressing
+her desire that the Society should select as many
+scholars from Westminster as was possible. This
+then was the position in 1561, and it was
+recognised these letters were binding and conferred
+rights on duly qualified Westminster scholars.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the three centuries of the existence
+of these rights, candidates usually preferred the
+Christ Church studentships, which, being tenable
+under certain conditions for life, were much more
+valuable than Trinity scholarships, since the latter
+<a name="png.059" id="png.059" href="#png.059"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>51<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>ran out in less than seven years. Perhaps too the
+boys were attracted to Christ Church rather than to
+Trinity by the fact that there they formed a larger
+proportion of the whole Society than in Henry’s
+foundation by the Cam. Further a boy elected to
+Christ Church entered sooner into the emoluments
+of his studentship than a boy elected to Trinity—the
+latter not being admitted to his scholarship
+until the next annual election of scholars which took
+place in the following spring, usually some six
+months after he had commenced residence.</p>
+
+<p>There were only forty scholars at Westminster
+and a provision for the election from them every
+year of six scholars to the two universities was
+more than ample. Thus in 1561 one scholar was
+elected to each university, during each of the six
+following years, 1562–67, two scholars were elected
+to each university, in 1568, six scholars were for
+the first time presented, and each university took
+three. In 1569 the school again presented three
+boys for election at Trinity, but the master,
+Whitgift, refused to elect more than two, alleging
+that there were not vacancies in the House for
+more than that number. Thereon the scholar or
+his friends appealed to Sir William Cecil, the chancellor
+of the University. Correspondence ensued,
+but the Society refused to give way on the particular
+election. On the general question the College
+<a name="png.060" id="png.060" href="#png.060"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>52<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>addressed a letter<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn18" id="fna18" name="fna18">18</a></sup>, dated 3 July 1569, to Cecil
+entreating him to interpose with the queen to lighten
+the burden imposed on Trinity by the royal statutes,
+and asserting that the Westminster scholars
+took up so many places as to act to the detriment of
+other and more worthy students. The crown assented
+to this proposal, and it was agreed that thenceforth
+three scholars should be chosen every third year, and
+not necessarily more than two in the other years.</p>
+
+<p>This arrangement lasted but a short time, for a
+year or two later, perhaps in 1575, Goodman, dean
+of Westminster, petitioned<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn19" id="fna19" name="fna19">19</a></sup> the lord treasurer to
+confirm or re-enact the original statutes whereby
+three Westminster scholars were to be elected each
+year to each of the two universities. The petition
+was granted, and, I conjecture, was the occasion of
+the letters patent sent by the queen on 7 February
+1576, to Trinity College, Cambridge, and Christ
+Church, Oxford, wherein she repeated and explained
+her former injunctions. In these letters she stated
+that Westminster scholars were not to be allowed to
+remain at the school after attaining the age of
+eighteen, and in regard to their coming to one of
+the universities she directed:</p>
+
+<blockquote xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">
+<p>Quamvis cupimus plurimos e nostris Discipulis Westmonasterii
+ad Academias in dicta Collegia quotannis
+<a name="png.061" id="png.061" href="#png.061"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>53<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>promoveri, tamen ne incertus sit omnino numerus, sex ad
+minimum, videlicet, tres in Ecclesiam Christi Oxonii et
+tres in Collegium Trinitatis, singulis annis, si aut tot loca
+vacua ... aut tot idonei e nostris Discipulis Westmonasterii
+reperti fuerint, admitti volumus; Plures autem
+optamus, si ita praefatis Electoribus commodum videbitur.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>In fact, however, the former custom of electing
+three scholars every third year and two scholars in
+each of the other years continued until 1588 after
+which it became usual, though the custom was not
+invariable, to elect at least three scholars to each
+university each year. During the forty-seven years
+from 1561 to 1607 inclusive, one hundred and
+thirteen scholars in all were elected from Westminster
+to Trinity, of whom forty became fellows.</p>
+
+<p>In 1603 James I came to the throne. He interested
+himself in the school and was prepared to
+intervene in its interests or what he regarded as
+such. The earliest case of difficulty in the new
+reign occurred at the election in 1604 when the
+king directed the master of Trinity, Nevile, to whom
+in fact he was under some obligations, to take a
+boy, by name Albert Moreton, as one of the scholars
+of Trinity<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn20" id="fna20" name="fna20">20</a></sup>. The boy was ignorant, and Nevile
+politely but definitely refused to accept him. The
+matter was not urged further, and though on some
+occasions later the Trinity electors consented under
+<a name="png.062" id="png.062" href="#png.062"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>54<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>pressure to alter the order in which candidates were
+elected, their right to reject on the ground of ignorance
+was not again disputed. Three years later,
+the College was faced by a more serious question
+concerning its connection with Westminster.</p>
+
+<p>In 1607, James I addressed letters patent to
+Trinity College, in which after referring to the letters
+patent already mentioned, he ordered them to be
+strictly observed, and intimated that thereafter
+the scholars of Trinity should be taken chiefly from
+Westminster school if duly qualified. He then continued
+that he observed that the scholars who had
+been elected to Christ Church were notable for their
+learning and subsequent distinction, and regretted
+that this was not so in the case of the scholars
+elected to Trinity, a fact which he attributed to
+their want of succession to fellowships and to their
+leaving the University as soon as they had taken the
+degree of master. Accordingly he ordered that
+Westminster scholars at Trinity who had taken the
+bachelor’s degree should, unless deficient in learning
+or good conduct, be promoted to fellowships in preference
+to other candidates. He further ordered
+that any Westminster scholar in the College, who
+had not been admitted to a fellowship before taking
+a master’s degree, might remain resident an additional
+two years during which time he should be
+eligible to a fellowship, subject to lawful exceptions.
+<a name="png.063" id="png.063" href="#png.063"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>55<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>The letters are dated 27 June 1607, but it would
+appear that they were not presented until September
+of that year.</p>
+
+<p>Deep resentment was felt at this order, for
+Trinity attached great importance to the desirability
+of electing as fellows the best candidates,
+though it was admitted that candidates from places
+where the House had property had statutable
+claims for special consideration. The College took
+immediate steps to protect itself, and in support of
+its position addressed to the chancellor of the University,
+the earl of Salisbury, a petition accompanied
+by a reasoned memorandum. These documents
+are not dated, but I think may be assigned
+to the Michaelmas term, 1607.</p>
+
+<p>The petition is briefly to beg the chancellor to
+assist the College in obtaining a review of the
+letters patent with the object of maintaining its
+ancient privileges and former liberties; the letters
+patent being said to be contrary to the intentions
+of its founder, and to its statutes<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn21" id="fna21" name="fna21">21</a></sup>. The wording
+is humble and courtly.</p>
+
+<p>The memorandum that accompanied the petition
+is more outspoken. It is long, but it is so interesting
+that I shall venture to quote from or describe it at
+<a name="png.064" id="png.064" href="#png.064"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>56<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>length. I conjecture that it was composed by
+Nevile. It contains fourteen assertions or arguments
+to the following effect:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><span class="parnumber">1.</span> It is inconvenient that so large a College as Trinity
+should be restrained unto a particular School, and it can
+be easily shown that other Schools have furnished Trinity
+with students of much better hope and proof than Westminster
+hath done or is likely to do, for the whole number
+of Westminster boys who are eligible to both Universities
+are but forty, and there are seldom more than eight or nine
+candidates for the six vacancies at the two Universities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">2.</span> To alter or subvert the ancient liberties of one of
+the chiefest Colleges in Christendom and to divert from the
+uses intended by his Majesty’s Predecessors a foundation
+like Trinity in order to satisfy private humour or under
+the pretence of benefitting an ordinary School is a great
+indignity to his Majesty’s Sacred Person, Power, and
+Prerogative.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">3.</span> The suggestion that boys coming to Trinity do not
+become Fellows, Doctors, Deans, and Bishops as do boys
+entering Christ Church is untrue, frivolous, and unfair: it
+is untrue, because, in fact, of the existing sixty Fellows of
+the College, more than one-sixth have come from Westminster,
+and at Trinity the custom is to prefer the worthy:
+it is frivolous, for the fact of a man having once been at
+school at Westminster is not the cause of his advancement
+to the position of a Doctor, Dean, or Bishop: and it is unfair,
+“for although Christ Church in Oxford be a most magnificent
+and royal foundation, and hath bred in all ages as learned,
+wise, and worthy prelates as the kingdom hath, yet
+Trinity College in Cambridge hath had no less royal
+founders, and if we fail in our Westminster brood (as
+otherwise I hope we do not) either the defect hath been
+<a name="png.065" id="png.065" href="#png.065"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>57<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>in themselves or else (which rather we suppose) it may
+be imputed to those good means the other College hath,
+being also a Cathedral Church and having Cannons both
+richly beneficed and highly dignified which doth enable
+them to Doctorships, Deaneries, and Bishopricks—a great
+blessing of God that our poor College wanteth.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">4.</span> “Howbeit in that kind of fruitfulness we also are not
+destitute of God’s gracious blessing; for ... besides Doctors
+in all faculties to the number at the least of sixty, Deans to
+the number of eleven, Publick Professors to the number of
+ten, the two Archbishops, Canterbury and York, the most
+Reverend Fathers Whitgift and Hutton, and seven other
+principal Prelates of this kingdom, namely, Fletcher of
+London, Still of Bath and Wells, Babington of Worcester,
+Redman of Norwich, Rud of St Davids, Bennet of Hereford,
+and Gouldesborough of Gloucester, all of them simul et
+semel Bishops of this kingdom ... are such a demonstrative
+instance as we think no other College in either University
+can afford the like—and not one of these chosen out of
+Westminster School.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">5.</span> “It is to be doubted whether there can be the like
+success if our Elections out of a private School shall be
+indubitate and certain; we rather think there can be no
+readier means to make Droanes and Loyterers in Colleges,
+nor any worse prejudice or more deadly bane unto learning
+and vertue, then when the rewards, and means thereof are
+tyed to persons, times, and places, and made regular and
+certain.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">6.</span> The proposal would do a grave injustice to other
+students who might be men of great abilities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">7.</span> The proposal would defeat the express wishes of
+Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, all of whom
+are to be reckoned as founders as well as benefactors of
+Trinity College.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber"><a name="png.066" id="png.066" href="#png.066"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>58<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>8 and 9.</span> The proposal would be contrary to the existing
+statutes of the College, and to the oaths taken by the Master
+and Fellows on admission.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">10.</span> Preferences of this character are injurious to the
+particular School, the College, and the whole University,
+and a constant source of discord and contention.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">11.</span> “It is also against the Policy and common-wealth of
+a kingdom to restrain and abridge places and preferments
+originally meant, founded, and hitherto with good success
+employed for the common benefit of that kingdom to a
+private School: for benefits and privileges are to be
+amplified and not restrained; publick rewards are not to
+be applied to private places, purposes, or respects.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">12.</span> Interference with the intentions and directions, of
+previous benefactors is contrary to public policy, and tends
+to prevent future benefactions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">13.</span> This implies that Nevile had accepted the office of
+master of Trinity College under promises which rendered it
+inequitable that the college statutes should, during his tenure
+of the post, be altered against his wishes, but it is stated that
+this argument, though noted, is not to be pressed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">14.</span> This raises some technical points, especially as to
+whether statutes of a College given under the great seal
+can be varied by letters patent without explicit reference
+to the clauses altered or repealed.</p>
+
+<p>The memorandum concludes with a request that the
+College may have liberty to ask the opinion of the Judges
+on the questions raised, and thus obtain the benefit of the
+king’s “most equal just and princely laws.”</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The use of the personal pronoun in one or two
+cases and the reference in the thirteenth paragraph
+to Nevile suggest that the document was composed
+by him. I cannot find out anything about the result
+<a name="png.067" id="png.067" href="#png.067"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>59<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>of the petition, but I conjecture that nothing came of
+it. Nevile however was not inclined to let the matter
+rest, and no doubt the esteem felt for him at court
+and his personal popularity were of great assistance
+to the Society in the negotiations that followed.</p>
+
+<p>It was a few months later, in May 1608, at
+the annual election of scholars at Westminster that
+Nevile took the next step in defence of the college
+position. The following account of the election is
+based on a paper preserved at Westminster:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The Master of Trinity College (Nevile) refused to take
+the oath which was required, previously to the election, by
+the Law of the land as well as by the local Statutes. He also
+refused to elect to his College the three Scholars ordered by
+the Letters Patent of the Crown. The oath however was
+taken by the Dean of Westminster (Neile) and the Dean of
+Christ Church (King), as well as by their assistants, and by
+the Master of the School (Ireland). The Dean of Westminster
+then demanded, in writing, that the election should
+proceed; when the Master of Trinity College referred to some
+composition by which he stated he would be governed. To
+this the Dean of Westminster replied, that he knew of no
+such composition, and that, if it had existed, it was necessarily
+set aside by the Letters Patent of Queen Elizabeth
+and of His Majesty; whereon the Master of Trinity College
+observed, though with much protestation of his loyalty,
+that he did not allow the validity of the Letters Patent.</p>
+
+<p>The other Electors, however, having agreed to proceed,
+the nine Scholars who had been examined were called in to
+hear the Statute read for the election to the two Colleges.
+The Master of Trinity then said that he had not places
+<a name="png.068" id="png.068" href="#png.068"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>60<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>enough vacant in his College. [In fact in April he and the
+Seniority had filled up all scholarships then vacant and pre-elected
+men to succeed to scholarships as vacancies occurred.]
+To this it was replied, that the want of vacancies
+had been occasioned by pre-elections of supernumerary
+Scholars, that the words of the Statute were disjunctive,
+and there was a clause commanding such Scholars to be
+received if they were fit. The Master of Trinity College did
+not deny the fitness of the candidates, but still refused to
+elect. In this wrangling the whole morning was wasted.</p>
+
+<p>At length they went to dinner. After this, a fear having
+been expressed, that this “distraction” might become troublesome
+to their friends, “perhaps to His Majesty,” and “not
+without some obloquy” to themselves, the Master of Trinity
+College proposed a private settlement, naming October for
+it. The suggestion was favourably received by the Electors
+other than the Dean of Westminster. The latter however
+affirmed, that with his consent less than three Scholars
+should never be taken by Trinity College and three by Christ
+Church if the School produced so many fit Scholars: and
+as to that part of the Letters Patent, which related to the
+election of Westminster Scholars at Trinity College to
+Fellowships, he required that they should be taken in preference
+to others, if their qualifications were equal; stating
+at the same time, that the clause declaring them eligible to
+Fellowships two years after their degree of A.M. had arisen
+solely from the practice of pre-electing so many Fellows,
+that for three or four years together no election took place;
+and the Westminster Scholars at Trinity College were driven
+out to seek a better fortune elsewhere. The Master of
+Trinity College allowed that the practice of pre-elections
+was wrong; and it was at length agreed that if this were
+discontinued, that part of the King’s Letters concerning the
+eligibility of Westminster Scholars two years after their
+<a name="png.069" id="png.069" href="#png.069"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>61<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>degree of A.M. should not be urged against the local statute
+of Trinity College, <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">De Gradibus Suscipiendis</cite>. Thereupon
+the Master of Trinity College took for his College as Scholars
+three candidates, to wit, Hacket, Shirley, and Herbert.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The three scholars so taken obtained fellowships
+in due course, Hacket became chaplain to James I,
+Charles I, and later to Charles II, suffered cruel
+persecution under the commonwealth, and at the
+restoration was made bishop of Lichfield: the
+Bishop’s Hostel was erected at his cost. An incident
+in Shirley’s career is chronicled below (see p. 223).
+Herbert was the well-known poet and divine. If the
+above account is reliable, and there is no reason to
+doubt its accuracy, the most important question
+in dispute, namely the preferential right of Westminsters
+to election to fellowships at Trinity, was left
+open. Nevile however had no intention to allow the
+matter to drop, and having made his protest at Westminster,
+he now secured the good services of his
+friend and Cambridge contemporary, Richard Bancroft,
+archbishop of Canterbury, who undertook to
+act as mediator in drawing up a “friendly and full”
+settlement of the question.</p>
+
+<p>An agreement, drafted I feel confident by Nevile,
+was submitted to the archbishop and, after he had
+made a few alterations, was accepted by the dean
+and chapter of Westminster. The seniority of
+Trinity College, on 5 September 1608, passed a
+<a name="png.070" id="png.070" href="#png.070"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>62<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>minute that the matter “be referred to our Master
+against the 13<sup>th</sup> of October,” and the deed is so
+dated, but its execution must have been delayed
+since there is a minute of the seniority, 8 December
+1608, ordering that the composition with Westminster
+should be engrossed and sealed at the audit
+so as to be delivered before 1 February 1609.</p>
+
+<p>The deed embodying this agreement was made
+between the dean and chapter of Westminster and
+Trinity College, and provided that the College
+should take yearly three scholars from Westminster
+School to be scholars of the College, and that there
+should be no pre-elections of supernumerary fellows
+to the prejudice of the Westminster scholars if deserving
+of fellowships. In consideration of these
+definite obligations the dean and chapter of Westminster
+agreed that the letters patent of 1607 should
+never be urged against the College by the dean and
+chapter or the schoolmaster or ushers or scholars
+of Westminster, and that the College should have
+such full power to elect fellows as had been previously
+enjoyed, excepting only the practice of pre-elections.
+To the deed is appended a statement
+that it was made with the privity and approbation
+of the archbishop of Canterbury, the earl of Salisbury
+(lord high treasurer of England and chancellor
+of the University of Cambridge), and of the earl of
+Northampton (the lord privy seal), all of whom signed
+<a name="png.071" id="png.071" href="#png.071"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>63<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>it. This conclusion of the affair may be regarded
+as a personal triumph for Nevile.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement was submitted to the king
+who in a letter directed to the College approved it,
+but required that the Westminster scholars each
+year should be granted seniority over other scholars
+of Trinity of their year and not be hindered by pre-elections:
+he did not however withdraw or rescind
+the previous letters patent. I have never seen the
+text of this letter but its contents are indisputable,
+and there are various subsequent references to it.
+The obligation to allow this seniority to the Westminster
+scholars was henceforth recognized by the
+College as binding on it.</p>
+
+<p>The advisers of Trinity seem to have been doubtful
+whether it would be admitted that this second
+letter implied the rescission of the letters of 1607,
+and since there was every reason to avoid raising the
+question whether royal letters or mandates could be
+set aside or modified by private arrangements, it was
+wise to let matters run on as long as the agreement of
+1608 was carried out by the school authorities. There
+is however a memorandum, ascribed to January 1610
+in the State Papers, showing that “the recent grant
+by the King for the students of Trinity College,
+Cambridge, to be chosen from the Westminster
+scholars is prejudicial to the interests of Trinity,”
+which seems to imply that further negotiations took
+<a name="png.072" id="png.072" href="#png.072"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>64<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>place. I have not seen the memorandum and know
+nothing more about this than here appears.</p>
+
+<p>During the sixteen years following this settlement,
+that is, from 1608 to 1623 inclusive, fifty-eight
+scholars were elected from Westminster to
+Trinity, of whom sixteen became fellows.</p>
+
+<p>In 1623–24 a fresh dispute occurred. It would
+appear that while Trinity carried out its undertaking
+relating to the election of scholars from Westminster,
+it again began to pre-elect fellows with the object,
+it was said, of preventing any claim being made on
+behalf of the Westminster scholars in residence.
+Whether this was done in self-protection against
+unjustifiable claims or was a deliberate breach of
+the agreement of 1608 we do not know. An appeal
+to the crown on behalf of the school ensued, and on
+7 September 1623, the king sent letters patent to
+the College as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Trusty and well beloved we greet you well. Being much
+interested in the prosperity and well-fare of that our College
+which is both our immediate Foundation and the fairest in
+all our kingdoms, and furnished, for the most part with the
+extracions of our own free-school at Westminster, we cannot
+but be very sensible of any alteration in the government of
+the same.</p>
+
+<p>Whereas therefore we are given to understand that
+younger students of that College have of late years been
+totally disheartened in their studies by a new and unwarrantable
+device of pre-electing more Fellows than there
+are places vacant at the time of that Election and the
+<a name="png.073" id="png.073" href="#png.073"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>65<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Scholars of our own School (in whose loyalty and affection
+we are so much interested from their cradles) strangely discouraged
+and disgraced by being cast in their seniority
+behind all the Scholars and Fellows in their several Elections
+though never so exceeding in learning and education, we
+straightly will and require you that from this time forward
+ye do forbear all manner of pre-elections whatsoever as the
+pest and bane of all learning and succession; and that also
+you bear that regard and respect to the Scholars of that our
+own Royal School in giving them in all such elections respect
+and precedency which we are informed they fully deserve
+before all other of what country soever. Lastly, whereas we
+are given to understand that heretofore a corrupt custom
+hath crept into that our College of turning elections into
+particular nominations of the Master and the several Seniors
+which smells altogether of partialitie and corruption we do
+straightly will and require you the said Master of our College
+of whom we conceive a very good opinion, to see that
+hereafter all elections as well of Scholars as of Fellows
+be done according to the local statutes of your College
+and carried about with that pluralitie of voices therein
+required.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>What reply (if any) the College made or could
+make I do not know, but presumably the answer
+was not satisfactory as these letters were followed by
+the appointment of royal commissioners to enquire
+into the Westminster elections. There is extant
+a letter from the master of Trinity (Richardson)
+dated 9 June 1624, to one of the commissioners,
+asking to be excused from attending the usual
+election of Westminster scholars, on account of
+<a name="png.074" id="png.074" href="#png.074"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>66<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>poor health. Probably this was regarded as an
+impertinence, and he must have been reprimanded
+since we have a letter dated 26 June signed by the
+master and six of the senior fellows, deprecating
+the royal displeasure, offering the most humble
+submission, promising to obey in anything that his
+majesty might command, but begging that present
+compliance might not be drawn into an example
+against the College. Richardson and James I died
+in March 1625, and the enquiry seems to have been
+then dropped.</p>
+
+<p>The election in 1636 was interesting. It is said
+that among the candidates was Cowley who had
+already written various poems and a comedy showing
+distinct ability. The story runs that the boy failed
+badly in grammar, and the Trinity electors, insisting
+that this was conclusive, rejected him as a Westminster
+scholar, but offered him an ordinary scholarship
+at Trinity, which he accepted. Against this
+are the fact that he had been entered at Trinity as a
+pensioner in April, a few weeks before the election at
+Westminster, and the improbability that the electors
+would have drawn such a distinction between Westminster
+and other scholars of the House. Still old-time
+anecdotes are not to be lightly rejected: at any
+rate Cowley came into residence in due course and
+was made a scholar in the same term as the four boys
+taken from Westminster by the electors, these five
+<a name="png.075" id="png.075" href="#png.075"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>67<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>students being the only scholars elected by the
+College in 1637.</p>
+
+<p>During the seventy-seven years from 1624 to
+1700 inclusive, three hundred and fifty-six scholars
+were elected from Westminster to Trinity, of
+whom one hundred and twenty-six became fellows.
+During the fifty years, 1701 to 1750, out of one
+hundred and eighty-seven Westminster scholars at
+Trinity sixty-two became fellows; during the fifty
+years, 1751 to 1800, out of one hundred and eighty,
+thirty became fellows; and during the fifty-six years,
+1801 to 1856, out of one hundred and seventy, four
+became fellows. Throughout this long period the
+friendly relations between the College and the school
+suffered no change.</p>
+
+<p>In 1727 there was a curious echo of the controversy
+of 1607. A strange suggestion had been
+made, apparently with the tacit approval of the
+authorities of Westminster, that new statutes
+should be given to Trinity constituting the dean
+and chapter of Westminster Visitors of the College,
+and it was decided by the advocates of the movement
+to open the campaign by asking the dean of
+Westminster to call the attention of the master of
+Trinity (Bentley), to the “Letters Anno Quinto
+Jacobi Primi.” Bentley replied on 5 March 1727,
+denied their validity and argued that even if originally
+valid, they could not be pressed after more
+<a name="png.076" id="png.076" href="#png.076"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>68<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>than a century during which time “they had never
+been acted upon”: he added that, if antiquated
+letters were still binding, there were various matters
+in which he had powers, whose exercise might
+prove singularly inconvenient to those who had
+raised the question. This was really conclusive,
+but further consideration had shown the inherent
+weakness or folly of the original idea, and the
+chapter was wise enough to proceed no further
+with the matter.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly afterwards, probably at the following
+election at Westminster, Bentley is said to have referred
+to the dean’s communication, and remarked
+that the authority of the letters of 1607 would
+doubtless have seemed stronger, at any rate to
+the dean’s predecessor (Atterbury), if not to the
+chapter, could they have been described as “Anno
+Primo Jacobi Tertii”—an irrelevant remark, but
+it carried a sting, for Atterbury’s devotion to the
+cause of the Pretender was deeply resented by the
+government.</p>
+
+<p>From an unknown date until the early years
+of the nineteenth century, Westminster scholars at
+Trinity were allowed the privilege of wearing academic
+gowns of a cut different from those of other
+undergraduates and further distinguished by having
+on the sleeves a violet button with a silk loop. The
+gowns of all pensioners in the University were then
+<a name="png.077" id="png.077" href="#png.077"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>69<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>black and (except for those worn by Westminsters)
+cut to a common pattern. The Westminster distinction
+was discontinued when the present system
+of different gowns for different Colleges was introduced.</p>
+
+<p>During the first half of the nineteenth century
+the numbers in the school fell seriously, and well-founded
+complaints were made about the standard
+of scholarship attained by the scholars elected to
+the universities. In 1856, as the result of negotiations,
+initiated by Whewell, the arrangements with
+Trinity were completely recast, and it was agreed
+on 5 December 1856 that the school should abandon
+the right of Westminster boys to election to scholarships
+at Trinity, and that in filling up open emoluments
+in Trinity, former Westminster boys should
+enjoy no preference. In consideration of this release,
+the Society undertook to establish at its
+own cost, exhibitions, not more than three to be
+awarded each year, for boys elected from the
+school who were otherwise qualified for admission
+to the College; every such exhibitioner, if so
+deserving, to be eligible for a college scholarship
+tenable with the exhibition. This was approved by
+the queen in council on 25 June 1857. It was further
+agreed that the Westminster exhibitioners were to
+be placed on the same footing as exhibitioners
+elected by open competition before commencing
+<a name="png.078" id="png.078" href="#png.078"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>70<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>residence. The mode of election is settled by the
+school statutes, but it would seem that the Trinity
+electors have no right to demand intellectual attainments
+beyond those required at the time for admission
+to the College. The exhibitions are not now
+confined to scholars of the school.</p>
+
+<p>So ends the story of Westminster Scholars at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. During the two hundred
+and ninety-six years from 1561 to 1856 inclusive,
+one thousand and sixty-four scholars had
+been elected from Westminster to Trinity (or say
+3.6 a year), of whom two hundred and seventy-eight
+(or say one in four) had become fellows. In conclusion
+I may add that in 1869 in virtue of the
+powers given by the Public Schools Act, 1868, the
+dean and chapter of Westminster, the dean of
+Christ Church, Oxford, and the master of Trinity
+College, Cambridge, created a new Governing Body
+in whom the governance of the school has been since
+vested.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna18" id="fn18" name="fn18" title="Back">18</a> See <cite>Life of Whitgift</cite> by J. Strype, London, 1718, pp. 13, 14
+and Appendix, pp. 7, 8.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna19" id="fn19" name="fn19" title="Back">19</a> <cite>Life of Whitgift</cite> by J. Strype, London, 1718, Appendix, p. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna20" id="fn20" name="fn20" title="Back">20</a> <cite>State Papers</cite>, Domestic, 1604, p. 185.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna21" id="fn21" name="fn21" title="Back">21</a> According to Dean Peacock, royal letters and orders, at variance
+with college statutes, were binding only if explicitly or tacitly accepted
+by the Society. That may have been technically correct, but it is
+very doubtful if Tudor or Stuart sovereigns would have admitted it.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+<h2 title="IV. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
+to Undergraduates"><a name="png.079" id="png.079" href="#png.079"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>71<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER IV.<br
+ /><small>THE SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY
+TO UNDERGRADUATES.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">This</span> is an account of a famous struggle some
+eighty years ago between the authorities and
+the undergraduates of Trinity College on the subject
+of attendance at chapel. The story is not to the
+credit of the authorities, but, for what it is worth,
+here it is.</p>
+
+<p>There is a prelude to it concerned with a controversy
+in 1834 between Thirlwall, later the statesman-bishop
+of St David’s, and Wordsworth, then
+master of the House, which raised the question of
+the advisability of compelling undergraduates to be
+present at religious services in College. At that
+time regular attendance at chapel was required—as
+for centuries previously it had been—from all
+students as a matter of discipline, and the rule in
+force on the subject was embodied in a college order
+of 22 April 1824, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Agreed by the Master and Seniors that every Undergraduate
+not having an aegrotat or dormiat do attend
+Morning Chapel five times at the least in every week, or
+four times at the least including Sunday; and the same
+number of times in the Evening, under penalty that the
+week in which anyone shall not have so attended be not
+<a name="png.080" id="png.080" href="#png.080"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>72<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>reckoned towards keeping the Term of such Undergraduate—unless
+such omission be repaired by extra attendance the
+week following.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">Absentees were punished, and those who offended
+frequently were liable to expulsion.</p>
+
+<p>Until the era of the Reform Bill some regulation
+like this was accepted as a matter of course, but
+when, in that period of enquiry, all things were put
+to the proof, doubts as to its wisdom began to be
+voiced. In 1834 Thirlwall, then assistant-tutor to
+Whewell, in an open letter dated 21 May, while
+advocating the admission of dissenters to the University,
+lamented the constant repetition in college
+chapels of a mechanical service, believing the
+practice to be detrimental to the interests of religion:
+he further expressed the opinion that attendance
+at chapel services should be voluntary.
+He referred to a then recent statement by Wordsworth
+in which the latter had said “the alternative
+is not here between compulsory religion (as it is
+called) and any other religion, but between compulsory
+religion and no religion at all,” and on
+this remarked:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>I cannot indeed draw such delicate distinctions as my
+friend seems to make in this passage; for as the epithet
+compulsory applied to religion appears to me contradictory,
+the difference between a compulsory religion and no religion
+at all is too subtle for my grasp. But if for <em>religion</em> we substitute
+<a name="png.081" id="png.081" href="#png.081"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>73<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the word <em>service</em>, which would probably better express
+his meaning, then I should quite agree with him, that, in
+this case, a voluntary service would soon be changed into
+no service at all: that is, the persons who are now compelled
+to attend, if they were left at liberty, would stay away.
+And this is the very reason why I think it would be better
+that they should be allowed to do so.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">The argument was amplified in a second letter
+dated 13 June. This was skilful enough as a piece
+of dialectics though hardly likely to convince opponents.</p>
+
+<p>That an officer of the college should express such
+views and in this way was regarded by Wordsworth
+as scandalous, and five days after the publication
+of the first letter, without asking for any explanation,
+he, with the consent or approval of Whewell
+and the two deans (Thorp and Carus), removed
+Thirlwall from his office of assistant-tutor. This
+arbitrary act was generally resented in the Society
+even by those who disagreed with Thirlwall or
+thought that he had been indiscreet in his advocacy;
+some too considered the act unstatutable,
+but Thirlwall refused to appeal to the Visitor, and
+shortly afterwards left Cambridge on his appointment,
+in November 1834, by the lord chancellor,
+to the important living of Kirby-under-dale in
+Yorkshire.</p>
+
+<p>Two years later, in 1836, while the matter was
+still a subject of debate, Carus was made senior dean.
+<a name="png.082" id="png.082" href="#png.082"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>74<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>He was a kindly man, leader in the University of
+the school of thought associated with Simeon’s name,
+but, whether rightly or wrongly, was regarded as
+unsympathetic by those who did not think as he
+did on religious questions. Carus detested the view
+taken by Thirlwall, and far from conciliating college
+opinion, which had been outraged by Wordsworth’s
+action, urged the seniority (a Board consisting of
+the master and the eight senior resident fellows to
+which, under the Elizabethan statutes, the government
+of the College was entrusted) to re-draft the
+rule of 1824 and make clear or stiffen the penalties
+for non-obedience. The seniority agreed, and on
+7 February 1838, issued the following order:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Agreed by the Master and Seniors, that all Undergraduate
+Scholars, and Foundation Sizars do attend Chapel
+eight times at the least in every week, that is twice on
+Sunday and once every other day; the Scholars, on pain of
+losing <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">ipso facto</i> their statutable allowance for Commons,
+and such additions as have since been made by the College
+in the way of augmentation to the Commons, for every
+week when there has been a failure of such attendance as
+is above described; and the Sizars, on pain of incurring <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">ipso
+facto</i> an equivalent deduction in money from their allowances.</p>
+
+<p>Agreed also, that a like attendance be required from all
+other Undergraduates; and that in case of failure, the Parties
+so offending be forthwith admonished by the Deans; and
+if, after such admonition, irregularity be persisted in, notice
+be sent by the Dean to the Tutor, that a warning from him
+<a name="png.083" id="png.083" href="#png.083"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>75<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>also may timely be given: after which, if both these means
+shall fail in producing regularity, the offender shall be reported
+by the Dean to the Master (or, in his absence, to the
+Vice-Master) to receive a formal admonition from him, in
+the presence of the Dean, a record of which shall be preserved:
+and finally, in all cases where such formal admonition shall
+have been incurred three times, the offender shall <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">ipso facto</i>
+be removed from the College, either entirely, or for one or
+more Terms, according to the circumstances of the case; a
+record of this sentence being also preserved.</p>
+
+<p>Authority is given to the Deans to grant occasional leave
+of absence, on special application made previously, but not
+otherwise. Also on any casual failure of attendance, it is
+allowed to Deans to accept (in order to make up the deficiency)
+an equivalent attendance on other days during the
+same week only; any failure on Sundays to be compensated
+by attendance twice on other days.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>According to college tradition, which came to me
+from C. W. King, an undergraduate of the time, a
+deputation of scholars, who remonstrated on the
+severity of these sanctions, was informed by Carus
+that attendance at chapel was not so much a duty
+as a privilege, which was valued the most by those
+who were oldest and therefore best qualified to form
+an opinion on the subject—a boomerang argument
+which obviously was dangerous unless the fellows
+themselves attended chapel with the regularity
+desired from undergraduates.</p>
+
+<p>On this rebuff, certain students formed a Society
+for the Prevention of Cruelty to Undergraduates.
+<a name="png.084" id="png.084" href="#png.084"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>76<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Its founders issued a notice asking whether what was
+forced on undergraduates was practised by dons;
+and that facts might speak for themselves, they announced
+that they would issue marking-sheets showing
+the attendance week by week of the fellows in
+chapel. Copies of these marking-sheets were put
+(surreptitiously) on the college screens, sent to
+London clubs, and widely circulated. All efforts by
+the deans to discover the authors or the printer
+employed failed; I understand, however, that
+W. J. Conybeare, G. E. L. Cotton, J. S. Howson,
+C. L. Rose, and C. J. Tindal were its chief promoters,
+and that the printer was Metcalfe of 9 Trinity
+Street. Copies of these marking-sheets are now
+very rare, but a few years ago one came into the
+market which I was fortunate enough to secure.
+It is bound in blue calf, stamped with the college
+arms having as supporters two undergraduates in
+knee breeches waving their caps, and with the motto
+<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Nemo me impune lacessit</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first sheet is for the week ending 17 February
+1838, and shows the attendances, morning
+and evening, of the master and the eighteen fellows
+then in residence. Each of the two deans attended
+ten times, but they were in a peculiar position, for it
+was their duty, as the Society pointed out, to go
+twice a day and therefore fourteen times in each
+week. Only one of the other fellows, Perry, later
+<a name="png.085" id="png.085" href="#png.085"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>77<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>bishop of Melbourne, complied with the rule imposed
+on undergraduates, four fellows went only
+once, and four not at all. To this sheet the Society
+appended the following note:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Does then this new regulation of the Master and Seniors
+proceed from any religious motive? Do they practice (<i>sic</i>)
+what they force on the Undergraduates? They are very
+regular in their attendance in Hall, but why are their places
+vacant in Chapel?</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The next week showed a slight improvement in
+the attendances. The Society congratulated itself
+on this, and in some general remarks indicated what
+it expected from the fellows, copying these from
+the notices on the subject issued by Carus. It
+should be said that in the sheets those who were ill
+or away from Cambridge, were marked with an <i>aeg</i>
+or <i>abs</i>, so any such explanation of the absence of
+the others from chapel was impossible.</p>
+
+<p>In the third week the improvement continued,
+and three fellows in addition to the master and the
+deans complied with the rule, but this was the high
+water-mark of attendance, and after all it did not
+come to much. The Society expressed its gratification
+at this, which it was pleased to treat as the
+result of its efforts, and at the same time issued the
+following notice:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>A prize for general regularity, and good behaviour when
+in Chapel, has been instituted by the Society, who are as
+anxious to reward merit as they are to punish immorality.
+<a name="png.086" id="png.086" href="#png.086"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>78<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>But whilst they thus wish to instil into the minds of the
+Fellows those Religious feelings which, owing to a bad education,
+they may possibly be without, the Society most distinctly
+declare that they shall not be guided merely by an
+outward show of religion. It is not, therefore, enough to
+go merely eight times a week to Chapel, and when there to
+utter the responses so loud as to attract attention, or otherwise
+disturb the prayers of Undergraduates. Such conduct
+will at all times be severely <span class="nw">punished....</span> For convenience
+of those members of Trinity College now residing in London,
+six copies of this publication are sent weekly to each of the
+University Clubs there.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>In the fourth week, apart from the indefatigable
+Perry and the two deans, no one came up to the
+prescribed standard. On this result the Society
+remarked:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The Society regret much that during the last week great
+laxity has prevailed among the Fellows in general with
+regard to their attendance in Chapel. This is the more to
+be lamented, as they had been for the two previous weeks
+so much more regular than usual. This irregularity cannot
+proceed from ill health, for they have been constantly to
+Hall, although they are not compelled to go there more
+than five times in each week. The Society, however, still
+hopes that in the ensuing week they will be able to make a
+more favourable report both of their attendance in Chapel,
+as also of their good conduct when there. As was before
+stated, any Fellow who shall, owing to any wine-party, or
+other sufficient reason, be prevented from attending, will
+be excused on sending a note previously to the Secretary of
+the Society, and his absence will be counted as presence.
+[The last seven words were a quotation from a note by
+<a name="png.087" id="png.087" href="#png.087"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>79<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Carus.] It is agreed by the Master and Seniors that all
+Undergraduates do go eight times at least each week! Why
+then do they not set us a better example?</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>These publications were widely disseminated
+and led to the production of a number of epigrams
+and lampoons which were scattered broadcast in
+the University. The Society appended to this
+sheet a note that its members had “<em>no connexion
+whatever</em> with <em>any</em> of those abusive and profane
+publications which have been so industriously circulated
+during the last two weeks.”</p>
+
+<p>The sheet for the week ending 17 March, announced
+the success of the movement, though in
+this return only Carus and Perry came up to the
+standard. Appended to the sheet were the following
+notes:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The Society in laying the first list of this month before
+the public, have much reason to be pleased with the success
+of the work which they have undertaken, for they have
+been informed, on very good authority, that the Cruelty
+System will not be continued more than a week longer, but
+that the Master and Seniors have determined to come to a
+new Agreement about <span class="nw">Chapels....</span> If this should be the case,
+the end which the Society had in view will be accomplished,
+and the weekly publications will be discontinued, until called
+again into life by some new act of Cruelty upon the much
+enduring Undergraduates, but not otherwise. The Fellows
+have been very irregular during the last week, in their attendance
+at Chapel; so much so that only two of the whole
+number in residence have kept the number, which the
+<a name="png.088" id="png.088" href="#png.088"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>80<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Undergraduates are compelled to keep, on pain of being <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">ipso
+facto</i> rusticated, either entirely, or for one or more terms.
+And yet one Member of Trinity College was really sent away
+during the past week (who had always been seven times
+each week before) because he had the courage to object to
+compulsory attendance at Chapel, especially from those
+men who had set him such an example!</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>In the course of the next week a printed notice
+appeared on the screens reducing the number of
+compulsory attendances in chapel to two on Sundays
+and four during the week. The paper, type,
+and setting look as if this were issued by the authorities.
+I have, however, seen a contemporary letter in
+which it is said that this notice was in fact a forgery:
+the suggestion being that the men were tired of the
+joke, and invented this way of terminating the episode.
+I cannot say whether the deans modified their
+rule, and the question of the genuineness of this
+notice must be left undecided. It is true that no
+extant minute of the seniority exists about any new
+regulation, but the records of the proceedings of that
+body are so imperfect that no conclusion can be drawn
+from this.</p>
+
+<p>The Society in publishing its last sheet, namely,
+that for the week ending 24 March, concluded with
+the following class list and notes:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The examination of the Fellows is now finished: and in
+arranging the different classes the Secretary has attached
+to each person’s name his number of marks, in order to do
+<a name="png.089" id="png.089" href="#png.089"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>81<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>away with any appearance of favour shewn more to one
+than another, as is too often the case in other Examinations.</p>
+
+<div class="chap4">
+<table id="chap4" summary="Order of Merit">
+<tr>
+  <th colspan="2">First Class.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>*Carus</td>
+  <td class="marks">72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Perry</td>
+  <td class="marks">66</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>*Barnes</td>
+  <td class="marks">50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <th colspan="2">Second Class.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Heath</td>
+  <td class="marks">42</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Wordsworth Senior</td>
+  <td class="marks">38</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Thorp</td>
+  <td class="marks">35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Whewell</td>
+  <td class="marks">34</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Blakesley</td>
+  <td class="marks">30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <th colspan="2">Third Class.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Peacock</td>
+  <td class="marks">28</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Thompson</td>
+  <td class="marks">19</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Brown</td>
+  <td class="marks">17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Dobson</td>
+  <td class="marks">13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Martin</td>
+  <td class="marks">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <th colspan="2">Last Class.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Wordsworth Junior</td>
+  <td class="marks">9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Sedgwick</td>
+  <td class="marks">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Field</td>
+  <td class="marks">4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Donaldson</td>
+  <td class="marks">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <th colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Burcham</td>
+  <td class="marks">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Walsh</td>
+  <td class="marks">0</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p id="chap4fn">* The two gentlemen marked
+with an asterisk are respectively
+Senior and Junior Dean, whose
+duty it is to go twice every day
+to Chapel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Prize Medal for regular attendance at chapel and
+good conduct when there, has been awarded to Mr Perry,
+who has passed an examination highly creditable to himself
+and family. He was only 18 marks below the highest
+number which he could possibly have gained. It is, therefore,
+to be hoped Mr P. will be more regular and do still
+better next term. With respect to the two Gentlemen who
+are not classed, the Secretary need hardly say that he does
+not envy them their feelings on the present occasion. In
+consequence of the New Agreement, the Chapel Lists will
+<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">ipso facto</i> be discontinued for the future.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>In the above list the master is designated as
+Wordsworth Senior. The prize was awarded to
+Perry the future bishop, but instead of the promised
+medal he was given a bible. This was secured for
+the College in 1906, and now rests in our library.
+It is bound in calf, stamped with the arms and
+<a name="png.090" id="png.090" href="#png.090"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>82<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>supporters assumed by the Society, and bears the
+inscription “From the Undergraduates of Trinity
+College to the Rev. Charles Perry, M.A., as a
+mark of affection and esteem for the good example
+which he set them and the <em>rest</em> of the
+College by his constant attendance at Chapel.”
+I have been informed that to each of the two fellows
+who did not attend at all there was sent a small
+bible with an inscription therein of the Society’s
+hope that its presence among his books might in
+the future encourage him to perform tasks which he
+believed to be important even though he found
+them unpleasant.</p>
+
+<p>The doggerel verses to which I have alluded as
+appearing in connection with the struggle were, as
+far as I have seen them, poor stuff as literary productions,
+and some were highly improper. The
+author of one of the worst of them was discovered
+and expelled from the College, 12 March 1838.
+I possess copies of four or five of these productions,
+their value consists entirely in giving us stories then
+current about dons and things academic—stories,
+I may add, which appear generally to have had no
+foundation in fact. The best set of verses, supposed
+to be addressed on Saturday evening by a man to
+his bedmaker, is a parody of Tennyson’s <cite>May Queen</cite>.
+It begins: “You must mind and call me early—call
+me early, d’ye hear? For I in morning chapel to-morrow
+<a name="png.091" id="png.091" href="#png.091"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>83<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>must appear,” and on the whole runs easily.
+There is nothing in these squibs which deserves remembrance
+or needs any further notice here.</p>
+
+<p>There ends the story, and no comments on it or
+the actors in it are needed. It may be added as a
+postscript, that for a long time subsequent to this
+incident some attendance at chapel was required
+from all who had no good reason to ask for exemption,
+and that as time went on the requirements
+gradually grew less. The question of making attendance
+at chapel compulsory on those who have
+not yet fully attained years of discretion is admittedly
+difficult, and made more so by the fact that
+while such attendance is approved and rigorously
+imposed every day of the week at most public boarding
+schools on lads up to the age of eighteen or nineteen,
+it is regarded as unthinkable in the case of
+young graduates of twenty-one or so. Trinity
+College finally adopted the view advocated by
+Thirlwall, and to-day attendance at chapel services
+is voluntary.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="V. The College Chapel"><a name="png.092" id="png.092" href="#png.092"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>84<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER V.<br
+ /><small>THE COLLEGE CHAPEL.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">The</span> College Chapel, as it appears to-day, is
+described in many of the guide-books which
+are pressed on the casual traveller in Cambridge.
+I am not here concerned with the accounts of it
+there given, for in this paper I intend to deal with
+little beyond its history and traditions.</p>
+
+<p>It is a matter of common knowledge that the
+present chapel was built under the auspices of the
+Tudor queens, Mary and Elizabeth, on the site
+of the old chapel of King’s Hall. Let me begin
+by tracing briefly the history of these successive
+buildings, and their connection with college
+developments.</p>
+
+<p>King’s Hall owed its origin to the establishment
+of scholars in the University of Cambridge by Edward
+II in 1317, and was put on a permanent footing
+by Edward III in 1337. The original home of
+the Society was a large two-storeyed house, built
+of wood and thatched, bought from Robert de Croyland,
+and situated on the ground now occupied
+by the walks and grass plot in front of the chapel.
+No chapel or oratory was connected with it, and the
+<a name="png.093" id="png.093" href="#png.093"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>85<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Society worshipped in All Saints’ church which
+then stood on the green in Trinity Street facing
+our present chapel.</p>
+
+<p>In 1375 the College began the erection on the
+ground to the north and west of its house of a
+larger building comprising a cloister court with
+various extensions. The west side of this court,
+some hundred and twenty feet long, is still
+standing and faces the bowling green: the other
+three sides and the extensions have been destroyed.
+These buildings were of three storeys,
+built of stone, brick, or rubble, and tiled: they were
+finished about 1438, and the old mansion of Robert
+de Croyland was then pulled down. Into the inner
+quadrangle of this cloister court there projected
+from the middle of its western face a wooden
+erection some fifteen feet long by fifteen feet wide,
+built in 1419–24 over what is now the junior combination
+room, and containing on its upper floor
+an oratory which opened on to a gallery over the
+cloisters on that side of the court. A list of the
+service-books, plate, copes and other vestments,
+altar-cloths, curtains, gold embroidery, etc., kept in
+this oratory in 1479 is given in my booklet of 1917 on
+King’s Hall. The building was small and the Society
+continued to use All Saints’ church for its more
+important services.</p>
+
+<p>The desirability of having a chapel large enough
+<a name="png.094" id="png.094" href="#png.094"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>86<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>for all college purposes was obvious, and in 1464 the
+Society began the erection of such a building,
+on ground beyond the eastern extension of the
+cloister court. This new chapel, which covered
+part of the site of our present chapel, was about
+a hundred feet long and thirty feet broad, that is
+roughly half the length of and the same breadth
+as the present chapel: it was built of stones, squared
+and supplied ready for use, which according to
+Caius came from the large banqueting hall of the
+Castle then being pulled down and probably by
+purchase from King’s College to whom these materials
+had been granted. It was wainscotted, and
+was fitted with stalls and carved woodwork; the
+high altar, like that of the older oratory, was of
+wood and the interior walls above the wainscotting
+were plastered and whitewashed; the sum spent
+suggests that the fittings were not elaborate. The
+work was finished in 1499, but probably the chapel
+was used from 1485 onwards: of course the plate,
+service-books, etc., were removed to it from the
+old oratory.</p>
+
+<p>Trinity College, on its foundation in 1546,
+naturally made use of this chapel, for it was the
+only one available on the site<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn22" id="fna22" name="fna22">22</a></sup> of the new College.
+<a name="png.095" id="png.095" href="#png.095"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>87<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>It is fairly certain that it was then fitted up with
+additional seats and probably redecorated<!-- TN: hyphen removed -->: the
+provision of a new organ and a new lectern happen
+to be specifically mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Edward VI ascended the throne in 1547, and
+barely had the interior of the chapel of King’s Hall
+been adapted to the needs of the new foundation
+than the College was required to remove all popish
+traces from it. The altar and steps were taken
+down, and a communion table set up, most likely
+in the middle of the chapel. The books, copes,
+vestments, and altar ornaments which had come
+down from old times were sold: they realized no
+less than <i>£</i>140. 8<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>, and the magnitude of the
+sum obtained in such unfavourable conditions shows
+that the services must have been conducted with
+considerable pomp. There is to-day in the library
+a standing censer boat, ascribed to the end of
+the fourteenth century or the early years of the
+<a name="png.096" id="png.096" href="#png.096"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>88<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>fifteenth century, with traces on it of its ancient
+gilding, but there is no record as to how or when it
+came to us. King’s Hall did in fact own among its
+chapel vessels a “ship of silver” which probably
+means a censer boat, and it may be that this is the
+vessel in question. With this possible (but doubtful)
+exception all our medieval chapel plate has gone.</p>
+
+<p>When in 1553 Mary succeeded her brother, the
+Roman religion was restored, and the chapel again
+adapted to the old forms of worship. Perhaps remonstrance
+was made by the master, Bill, who had
+been appointed in 1551 on Redman’s death and
+was a strong Anglican: at any rate he was deprived
+of his office. The expulsion was dramatic and apparently
+physical, for as he was sitting in his stall
+in the chapel two members of the House, Mr Boys
+and Mr Gray, approached and “removed him ... in
+a rude and insolent way.” Declining any contest
+he retired to Bedfordshire, and was succeeded as
+master by Christopherson, the queen’s chaplain and
+confessor.</p>
+
+<p>Mary recognized the interest taken by her father
+in Trinity and, in furtherance of his design, decided
+to rebuild the College on a comprehensive plan.
+She issued orders about this on 24 October 1554,
+and it was arranged in 1555 that the first large task
+undertaken in connection with it should be the
+erection of a new chapel. Preliminary work on this
+<a name="png.097" id="png.097" href="#png.097"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>89<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>was commenced in 1556 and it was then expected
+that the building would be finished by the end of
+1557, but by October of that year the walls were
+only half-way up: delays ensued and ten years
+elapsed before the building was completed. The
+old chapel was unroofed in 1561, and cannot, it
+would seem, have been used after that date: it is
+possible it was shut up in the course of 1557, but
+early in that year it was still in use, for the royal
+commissioners in January 1557 complained of the
+absence of lights on the altar and of coals to cense
+the sacrament. During the years from the closing
+of the old chapel to 1567 it is uncertain whether
+the services were held in College or in one of the
+town churches.</p>
+
+<p>It was originally intended that the new chapel
+should be a hundred and fifty-seven feet long and
+thirty-three feet broad, the east end being flush
+with the street frontage of the Great Gate. The
+roof was to be curved, open, and relieved with fretwork
+and oak pendants. There was to be an east
+window, a west window, eleven windows on the
+south side, and twelve on the north side from which
+it follows that it was to be a detached building save
+for its abutment on staircase E in the Great Court.</p>
+
+<p>It was designed to contain two rows of stalls made
+after the pattern of those at King’s College, sixty-eight
+in the upper row with misereres, divided by
+<a name="png.098" id="png.098" href="#png.098"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>90<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>pillars, and with double crests above, and a lower
+row of stalls not so divided. Unfortunately the
+contractor got into money difficulties and sold much
+of the timber which had been bought for the intended
+roof and stalls, causing the work to fall into
+arrear.</p>
+
+<p>After the accession of Elizabeth, changes in the
+plans of the new chapel were made, the length being
+increased to two hundred and five feet, thus making
+it project beyond the east side of the Great Court.
+In 1564 the walls of the building were finished and
+plastered, and the date 1564 cut on the east gable
+together with the text from the Vulgate, Matthew
+xxi. 13, <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Domus mea domus orationis vocabitur</i>, which
+in the authorized version runs: “My house shall be
+called the house of prayer” and is followed by the
+clause “but ye have made it a den of thieves.”
+Wags have sometimes continued the inscription by
+adding the second clause on the chapel either of
+Trinity or of St John’s as their inclinations led them.
+The roof, put on in 1565, is of a style earlier than
+this date, and Willis came to the conclusion that it
+is the actual roof of the old chapel of King’s Hall
+supplemented by additional timber to fit it for the
+larger building: I like to think that we still worship
+under the roof which sheltered our predecessors
+more than four centuries ago.</p>
+
+<p>In the year last mentioned, 1565, the stones
+<a name="png.099" id="png.099" href="#png.099"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>91<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>for the pavement were brought from Croyland
+Abbey and maybe some are still there. In the
+next year the interior fittings were taken in hand,
+and the organ screen erected. In the following year,
+1567, the windows were glazed with white glass
+bearing inscriptions, coats of arms, and heraldic
+badges such as the fleur-de-lys, portcullis, and rose:
+the organ (a small instrument) and the pulpit were
+moved from the old chapel, and the stalls put in.
+It would seem that the wainscotting and wall-seats
+in the present antechapel are of this date, and possibly
+came from King’s Hall. Moving from west to
+east in the completed building there were in succession
+an antechapel sixty-five feet long, an organ-screen
+eight feet deep, the chapel seats along some
+seventy feet, a space of twenty-four feet, the communion
+table, and a space of thirty-six feet free of
+encumbrances. The work was finished by Michaelmas,
+1567. There is no record of the building having
+been consecrated.</p>
+
+<p>Mary died in 1558, and on 20 November, the
+Sunday following the proclamation of Elizabeth,
+Bill, the former master of the College, preached at
+St Paul’s Cross in London; the next Sunday, his
+successor Christopherson preached there. Probably
+the men disliked one another, and certainly
+took different views of the position. Some scandal
+was caused, an the upshot of the affair was that
+<a name="png.100" id="png.100" href="#png.100"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>92<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Christopherson was sent to prison, while Bill returned
+to Cambridge, restored to the mastership.</p>
+
+<p>Bill, a discreet courtier, was a favourite at
+court, and held, under Elizabeth’s favour, the provostship
+of Eton and the deanery of Westminster
+together with the mastership of Trinity; it was probably
+due to his influence that Elizabeth in 1560
+issued a commission to procure materials and labour
+for completing the chapel which had been begun on
+her sister’s initiative. Baker praised his prudence
+and temper while master, and added that “if he
+has shown any frailties or failings here, allowances
+must be made for difficult times and potent
+courtiers that are not easily resisted.” In my
+opinion the services to the College of its first three
+masters, Redman, Bill, and Christopherson, were
+of the greatest value, and have hardly received
+that recognition from posterity which they deserve.</p>
+
+<p>On Bill’s death, the crown offered the mastership
+to Beaumont, a calvinist whose views were more
+pronounced than Cecil supposed at the time of the
+appointment. Beaumont sympathized with the
+puritan party, whose numbers in the University
+were now rapidly increasing, but did little to guide
+them or to check their intolerance which constantly
+offended public opinion.</p>
+
+<p>The description of the windows in the new chapel
+does not suggest that figures or catholic symbols
+<a name="png.101" id="png.101" href="#png.101"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>93<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>appeared thereon, but, none the less, the “malcontents”
+thought them objectionable and in November
+1565, broke “all the windows wherein did
+appear superstition.” In the same term occurred
+the famous surplice disturbance<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn23" id="fna23" name="fna23">23</a></sup>. The puritans
+objected to the use of the surplice in chapel on
+Sundays, Saints’ days, and their eves, and on a
+certain “Sunday (in Dr Whitgift’s absence), Mr
+Cartwright and two of his adherents made three
+sermons on one day in the chapel so vehemently
+inveighing against the ceremonies of the church
+that at evening prayer all the scholars save three
+[together with one of the chaplains] (viz. Dr Leg,
+Mr West, Whitaker’s tutor, and the chaplain) cast
+off their surplices as an abominable relic of superstition”—a
+curious illustration of how little the
+calvinists esteemed the value of academic discipline
+unless they exercised it themselves. The organization
+of this demonstration was attributed to Cartwright,
+their leader in the University and a fellow of the
+College; it was probably due to the disapproval of his
+conduct in this and similar matters that shortly afterwards
+he went out of residence for two or more years.</p>
+
+<p>Beaumont died in 1567 and at his request was
+buried “with no vain jangling of bells nor any other
+popish ceremonies” in the new chapel, his being
+<a name="png.102" id="png.102" href="#png.102"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>94<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the first interment in it. He is commemorated by
+a carving (somewhat difficult to detect) of his face
+on the tenth principal in the chapel roof reckoned
+from the east end—it is lettered <i>R. B. Mr.</i> He was
+succeeded by Whitgift and the result of the subsequent
+bitter struggle between him and the puritans
+settled the constitution and policy of the University
+till the middle of the nineteenth century, but the
+battle was mainly fought in the senate-house and
+in London, and is not specially connected with our
+chapel.</p>
+
+<p>Alterations to the organ were made in 1594,
+and elaborate hangings placed in the organ loft
+in 1604. Thenceforward repairs and reconstructions
+of the organ followed one another every few
+years. The history of the instrument has been published
+in pamphlet form, and I shall not again refer
+to its successive enlargements. The west window
+was blocked up about this time owing to the removal
+of King Edward’s Tower to its present
+position.</p>
+
+<p>There is an account of college doings in chapel
+in 1635 in the following memorandum sent to Laud,
+and endorsed by him as embodying matter which
+he intended to examine during an intended visit to
+Cambridge in September 1636.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>In Trinity College, they have been long noted to be
+negligent of the chapel and of prayers in it; the best come
+<a name="png.103" id="png.103" href="#png.103"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>95<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>but seldom, and by their example the rest make small account
+of service. In some tutors’ chambers (who have three
+or four score pupils), the private prayers are longer and
+louder by far at night than they are at Chapel in the evening.
+Some fellows are there, who scarce see the inside of the
+chapel thrice in a year, nor public hall, nor St Mary’s Church,
+and (they say) impugn all.</p>
+
+<p>A quire is there founded for Sundays and holydays, but
+the quiremen are so negligent and unskilful, that, unless it
+be an anthem, they often sing the hymns no otherwise than
+in the common psalmerie tune. And to mend the matter,
+they have divers dry choristers (as they call them), such as
+never could and never meane to sing a note, and yet enjoy,
+and are put in to take the benefit of those places professedly.
+They have a large chapel, and yet the boyes rows of pews
+are placed just in the middle of the chapel, before and behind
+the Communion-table, which some there are about to reform.</p>
+
+<p>They lean, or sit, or kneele at prayers, everyone in
+a several posture as he pleases. At the name of Jesus few
+will bow, and when the creed is repeated, many of the
+boyes, by some men’s directions, turn towards the west
+door. Their surplices and song-books, and other furniture
+for divine service, is very mean. The cloth that lies upon
+the table not worth 14d. He that executes, steps over the
+exhortation and begins, <i>Wherefore I pray and beseech you, &amp;c.</i>
+They use no Litany for the most part, but in Lent
+only, and in Lent only upon Sundays, and when they say
+it, it is at the Communion-table. They repeat not the Creed
+after the Gospel, and instead of the <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Magnificat</cite> and the <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Nunc
+Dimittis</cite>, they will at pleasure (sometimes when the quiremen
+are present) sing the 23rd or some other riming <span class="nw">Psalm....</span>
+They have lately taken advice, and are about mending their
+chapel, if it holds.</p>
+
+<p>Fellows ... (when of the degree of M.A.) and fellow-commoners,
+<a name="png.104" id="png.104" href="#png.104"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>96<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>take themselves generally to have a privilege to
+miss prayers, as well as the public table of the hall. From
+hence it comes to pass, that so many of that ranke are to be
+founde at those times, either in taverns and towne-houses, or
+at some other pleasant imployments, where they please.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Whether all this was true or not we cannot say,
+but at any rate in the following year, 1636, the
+College spent a considerable sum on alterations and
+decorations in the chapel. The communion table
+was removed to the east end and the ground there
+raised, a pavement of stone and marble laid down,
+the walls were panelled, and rich hangings provided.
+Charles I, with his son the prince of Wales, visited
+the chapel in March 1642, and was much pleased
+therewith: we read at this time of candlesticks,
+tapers, and a crucifix on the altar; other references
+show that the ritual was high.</p>
+
+<p>The next year 1643 saw a great change, for the
+parliamentary party secured control of the town
+and district. The order compelling the use of the
+surplice on certain days was now rescinded, and
+under Dowsing the chapel was purged, the altar
+steps levelled, the altar taken away, and a wooden
+communion table without rails set up in the middle
+of the chapel; the organ and hangings were removed;
+and certain figures, painted on the walls
+at the east end whitewashed. The zealots did
+not think the reforms had gone far enough, but
+<a name="png.105" id="png.105" href="#png.105"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>97<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>no other changes were forced on the College, and
+a few months later the Society made a money
+present “to some of Major Scot’s souldiers who
+defended the chappell from the rudenesse of the
+rest.” A few years later, on 12 March 1647, Sir
+Thomas Fairfax then in command of the district
+came, and was received “in great state ... in the
+Chapel, he was presented with a rich bible, and in
+the hall with a sumptuous banquet”—a pleasant
+combination.</p>
+
+<p>At the restoration, the original altar of 1643
+was recovered and replaced at the east end, a screen
+of rich mosaic work erected behind it, and as far as
+practicable the chapel restored to its former appearance.
+Doubtless, however, practices continued which
+to-day would strike us as unseemly, for I notice that
+in 1665 “it was agreed that Dod have the place of
+keeping the dogs out of the chapel.”</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the eighteenth century the
+condition of the fabric caused anxiety; after only
+a little more than a century’s wear the roof was
+found to be in a dangerous condition, and a portion
+of one of the external walls in danger of falling.
+It was determined to place the building, inside as
+well as outside, in thorough repair. Work began in
+1706 and was nearly thirty years in progress. The
+fellows and a few friends subscribed a large part of
+the cost, and the rest was paid out of corporate
+<a name="png.106" id="png.106" href="#png.106"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>98<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>income. In the plan adopted, which is associated
+with the names of Bentley and Cotes, the east
+window was blocked, and the present stalls, baldachino,
+organ-screen, and wainscotting erected: the
+design of the latter is excellent of its kind, though
+not altogether suited to the architecture of the
+building. Some of the old stalls are said to have been
+removed to St Michael’s church, and the tradition
+may be accepted as probable. Later in the century,
+1787–88, the roof was painted in white and gold.</p>
+
+<p>The number of residents in College in the early
+half of this century was small, and probably the
+chapel was in regular use during most of its restoration.
+A trivial incident at this time afforded some
+amusement. Complaints had been made that
+Bentley—an illustrious scholar, genuinely interested
+in promoting learning, but as master of Trinity
+arrogant, unscrupulous, and dishonest—never went
+to chapel though required to do so by the statutes.
+This was true enough, and he determined to silence
+his critics by appearing again. But so long had
+he been absent that the door of his stall had got
+fixed and could not be opened till the lock had been
+wrenched off.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. Hughes has called my attention to some
+unpublished notes<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn24" id="fna24" name="fna24">24</a></sup> by a friendly visitor about the
+<a name="png.107" id="png.107" href="#png.107"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>99<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>chapel services on Saturday and Sunday evenings
+in the fourth decade of the eighteenth century.
+The writer says that interpolated in the evening
+prayers were elaborate musical performances sometimes
+involving two symphonies<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn25" id="fna25" name="fna25">25</a></sup> and two anthems
+in which the choir, organ, and six violins took part;
+he also repeats more than once that the building was
+crowded [by strangers] and the noise so great that
+little of the service could be heard. Thus, to quote
+one instance, under date of 28 May 1738, he writes:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>This evening I was at Trinity Colledge Chapple where
+there was so great a crowd that nothing could be heard of
+the whole service, I could see the Readers lips go, but, not
+so much as heare the least sound of his voice, and when
+Dr Walker read the 2d Leason could I only heare the sound
+of his voice but not to distinguish one word. There was
+great difference in the Musick part from what used to be,
+for the symphony was first by the Organ and then by 6
+violins in 3 parts to all which the Organ was the base. After
+the reading the first and 2nd Lessons, 3 men sang the [blank]
+to which the Choire was the Corus. Before the Prayer for
+the King there was another Symphony by the Organ, &amp;
+Violins, and the Anthem was Sung by one man, to which
+the choir was likewise the chorus.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Throughout most of the eighteenth century, a
+good many of the fellows resident in Cambridge held
+livings in the vicinity. They were accustomed to
+ride out on Sunday to their cures, hold services,
+<a name="png.108" id="png.108" href="#png.108"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>100<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>and return home to a comfortable supper the same
+evening, but in general neglected their parishes
+during the rest of the week. Thus if a parishioner
+died, the funeral was deferred till the following
+Sunday; and if a marriage-service was to be held
+in the village, it had to wait for a free Sunday.
+In these circumstances the bride and bridegroom
+often settled the matter by coming into Cambridge
+for the ceremony, and during the first half of this
+century our chapel was constantly borrowed for
+such marriage services; after the Marriage Act of
+26 George II, cap. 33, this use of it became illegal
+unless a special license were obtained. Since that
+Act, it has been used only once for such a purpose,
+namely, for the marriage of Miss Butler on 18 December
+1901.</p>
+
+<p>Coming to the nineteenth century, we have
+numerous notes about the chapel and the services.
+At the beginning of this period the author of <cite>Alma
+Mater</cite> (J. M. F. Wright, who commenced residence
+in 1817) gives an unfavourable account of the
+services, saying that they were gabbled through as
+fast as possible amid a great deal of talking. The
+first part of this statement may be correct, but as to
+the second probably conversation was rare, and such
+as took place, though not condemned by public
+opinion, was subdued and was held only in recesses,
+one of which was known as iniquity corner. In fact,
+<a name="png.109" id="png.109" href="#png.109"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>101<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>we may take it that the vast majority of the undergraduates
+acted as gentlemen though they attended
+chapel reluctantly and merely as a matter of
+discipline. Attendance was required at seven o’clock
+in the morning, not a convenient hour, albeit considerably
+later than that usual in Tudor times.</p>
+
+<p>In 1831 the fabric was again thoroughly repaired,
+the roof redecorated, certain stalls elevated,
+desks at the east end constructed, and a new scheme
+of lighting by candelabra introduced. A few years
+later, in 1838, the Society for the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Undergraduates concerned themselves
+with marking the attendance of fellows in chapel.
+That incident I have described elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>In 1867–75 the building was again thoroughly
+overhauled, the south side faced with stone, a
+porch, a new vestry, and a choir-room built, the
+organ screen moved a few feet westward, the walls
+and roof painted, gilding used freely on the panelling,
+the windows filled with stained glass, backed benches
+and kneeling stools introduced for undergraduates,
+and the building lighted with gas. During part of
+the time occupied by this restoration, the College
+used St Michael’s church as its chapel.</p>
+
+<p>According to the scheme of decoration, adopted
+on the advice of Lightfoot and Westcott, if we
+proceed eastwards up the chapel we are supposed
+to note, in order, the frescoes on the walls (which
+<a name="png.110" id="png.110" href="#png.110"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>102<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>represent old testament heroes and teachers) and
+paintings on the roof (which illustrate the Benedicite),
+leading up through Jewish history to the
+birth of Christ, and then, returning westward, to
+have suggested to us, by the successive windows,
+the historical development of Christianity and the
+growth of learning particularly in the University
+and College. A man might worship many years in
+the chapel before he discovered this design.</p>
+
+<p>The panels in the sacrarium are replaced by
+intarsia work in which all the woods used are of
+their natural colours. The sixteenth-century silver
+cross on the communion table came from Spain.
+The wrought-iron gas standards here and through
+the chapel are also worthy of note; fortunately
+they were allowed to remain when the electric light
+was introduced. All this, as well as the scheme
+of decoration of the antechapel, is described in
+guide-books with more or less accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the services were never rendered more
+effectively than in the years following this restoration.
+Attendance on Sunday evening was required
+unless absentees could urge conscientious or other
+good reasons for exemption, but a large proportion
+of those who might have obtained exemption did,
+in fact, take part in the Sunday services. More
+benches were placed in the chapel than are there
+now, and the building, with every seat occupied and
+<a name="png.111" id="png.111" href="#png.111"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>103<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>everyone (save a few privileged visitors) in a surplice,
+presented a most impressive scene. Electric light
+was introduced in 1893, and has added much to the
+comfort of congregations in winter evenings.</p>
+
+<p>In former days members of the Society who died
+in College were not infrequently buried in the
+chapel—a shocking thing to permit in a building in
+constant use, though sanctioned by the custom of
+many centuries. There are a good many tombstones
+scattered over the floor, and copies of all the
+inscriptions have been published. I wonder how
+many members of the Society know that among
+those here buried is one woman, bearing the strange
+Christian name of Elismar. The last interment in
+the chapel took place in October 1886, and further
+burials are now forbidden unless sanctioned by the
+Home Office.</p>
+
+<p>The building has always been used for various
+secular purposes, such as elections to scholarships
+and fellowships; the admission of scholars, fellows,
+and officers; the affixing of the College seal to documents,
+and the delivery of declamations by students.
+Within recent years lectures in the antechapel
+and an oration in the chapel have been delivered.
+I believe the view that a church or chapel is intended
+only for the performance of religious services
+is modern and unwarranted by history: at any
+rate our records give no authority for it.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna22" id="fn22" name="fn22" title="Back">22</a> On the site acquired for the College were situated the buildings
+of King’s Hall, Michael-House, Physwick’s Hostel, and some private
+hostels or boarding houses. Members of private hostels used their
+parish churches. All the students in Physwick’s Hostel were members
+of Gonville Hall, and used the chapel of that Hall. The
+members of Michael-House used St Michael’s church: this House
+had been founded in 1324 by Hervey de Stanton for a master and
+six fellows, who if not priests at the time of admission, had to take
+orders within one year; and later two more fellows, three chaplains,
+and four bible clerks were added to the foundation, which was intended
+for secular clergy studying in the University. The church of
+St Michael was appropriated to it, and rebuilt by its founder for use
+as its chapel. The fellows had in their House an oratory, and in
+March 1393, the bishop of Ely granted them leave to build a chapel,
+but their history and convenience alike made them wish to continue
+to use St Michael’s church as their regular chapel.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna23" id="fn23" name="fn23" title="Back">23</a> Fuller’s <cite>History of Cambridge</cite>, reprint 1840, p. 265. Fuller
+mistakenly assigned the disturbance to 1566–67 instead of 1565–66.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna24" id="fn24" name="fn24" title="Back">24</a> Since published in the <cite>Proceedings</cite> of the Cambridge Antiquarian
+Society, 22 May 1916, vol. <span class="allsc">XX</span>, pp. 114–116.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna25" id="fn25" name="fn25" title="Back">25</a> When I first came into residence a survival of this interpolated
+symphony existed in a long organ solo which preceded the anthem.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+<h2 title="VI. Some College Treasures"><a name="png.112" id="png.112" href="#png.112"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>104<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER VI.<br
+ /><small>SOME COLLEGE TREASURES.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">Those</span> who live among beautiful surroundings
+and in constant touch with works of art are
+often apt to take their privileges for granted.
+Members of Trinity are proud of the buildings of
+the College and the grounds in which they are
+placed, and most of us know something of their
+history and characteristic features. But with our
+art treasures there is less general acquaintance, and
+so perhaps it may not be out of place to jot down a
+few notes on some of them—chiefly pictures and
+plate—in which I take pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Of the contents of the library I say nothing, for
+a volume would be needed to describe them even
+briefly. The illuminated manuscripts and the early
+printed books attract most attention, but there are
+numerous other subjects in which the library must
+be ranked among the most important in Great
+Britain. I have often been told by undergraduates
+that they have never been in the building except
+once when they signed the Admission Book. That
+is true enough of some men, but those who are interested
+in rare and famous books and yet never
+visit the Library neglect exceptional opportunities.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.113" id="png.113" href="#png.113"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>105<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Of oil portraits—in all nearly two hundred—of
+former members of the College, we own a valuable
+collection, and they illustrate in a remarkable way
+how many distinguished men have been educated
+here. Identification is easy as labels are placed on
+most of the pictures. Unfortunately we have no
+gallery in which they can be shown. Some are put
+in the hall, some in the master’s lodge, some in the
+combination room, and some in the library, lecture-rooms,
+etc. Those in the lodge are set off well, but
+the others are not hung to advantage.</p>
+
+<p>About twenty-five years ago a proposal was made
+to raise subscriptions for an art gallery to be built
+along the edge of the river starting from the present
+north end of the library and extending over the
+land now occupied by the master’s stables and the
+end of his garden. At that time the proposal did
+not receive much favour, but now I sometimes
+wonder if we were wise in putting the plan on one
+side. Certainly we have more canvasses than we
+can exhibit satisfactorily. The hall, too, would
+look a more dignified apartment if the pictures,
+except for one or two on the dais, were taken
+away: recently their temporary removal was necessitated
+by repairs to the woodwork, and the improvement
+in the appearance of the room was
+noticeable. The general effect of such a clearance
+may be judged by a visit to the hall of the Middle
+<a name="png.114" id="png.114" href="#png.114"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>106<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Temple in London. The dimensions of the body
+of that hall are the same as ours, but instead of
+pictures on the side walls, each small oak panel
+bears an armorial shield: these harmonise well with
+the architectural lines of the building. Where, as
+is the case with our neighbours at St John’s, the
+panelling is low and there is above it a big stretch
+of stone or painted wall, pictures add to the effect,
+but this is not the case where the panelling is high.</p>
+
+<p>Of all our pictures I suppose the one which
+attracts most attention is that of Henry VIII which
+hangs over the dais at the north end of the hall: it
+was given us by Robert Beaumont, who held the
+mastership from 1561 to 1567. The artist was Hans
+Eworth, a Dutchman who lived in London circ.
+1543–75, and worked with or under the influence of
+Antonio Moro: the portrait was taken from or
+founded on that of the king in the fresco painted
+by Holbein in 1537 on a wall of the privy chamber
+in Whitehall palace. This fresco, which was destroyed
+in the fire of 1698 and till then deservedly
+treated as one of the art treasures of London, contained
+portraits of Henry VII and Henry VIII with
+their queens, Elizabeth of York and Jane Seymour.
+Holbein’s studies for the heads of the two kings
+have been preserved, and are at Chatsworth and
+Munich. Most of the extant portraits of Henry VIII
+are copied from or founded on this fresco. Signs
+<a name="png.115" id="png.115" href="#png.115"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>107<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>of deterioration in the fresco were noticeable in the
+reign of Charles II, and by his orders it was copied
+by Remée, a French painter then resident in London.
+The original fresco was on each side of and above
+a fireplace or window. Instead of depicting this,
+the artist represented this space as occupied by a
+pedestal containing an inscription: his delineation
+of the faces of the sovereigns is poor, but he has
+preserved Holbein’s general design. Two copies of
+the reproduction are extant, one of which is in the
+royal collection and the other at Petworth.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly less notable than the presentation of
+our founder, and far more valuable, is the charming
+portrait by Joshua Reynolds of the duke of Gloucester
+(1776–1834) as a boy: the duke was a cousin
+of George III and afterwards chancellor of the
+University. Reynolds wrote in his diary that the
+boy sat for his portrait in March 1780 when he was
+four years old, and that the finished picture was
+delivered in January 1788—the charge for it being
+a hundred guineas. Horace Walpole praised it,
+but thought it “washy,” an opinion not shared by
+modern critics who esteem it one of Reynolds’s
+masterpieces. The picture was left to the College
+in 1843 by the will of the duke’s sister, the Princess
+Sophia, with a request that it should be hung in
+the hall. The legacy was due to the good offices of
+a freshman of the time—the Hon. Douglas Gordon,
+<a name="png.116" id="png.116" href="#png.116"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>108<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>son of George, fourth earl of Aberdeen. He described
+the circumstances attending the gift as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>When I went up to Trinity in 1842, I used to see a
+great deal of the <span class="nw">princess....</span> [I was then] a freshman full
+of admiration for my College of which I used to boast.
+One day the old princess shewed me the picture, ... and
+asked if I thought it would look well in the Hall. On my
+saying what a boon it would be, she very graciously said
+“You can tell Mr Whewell that I will leave it to the College
+through you, and I hope you will see this picture placed in
+a good position.” At her death I took it down to Trinity
+where I was still an undergraduate.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The portrait of queen Mary on the other side
+of the dais is a Spanish copy of Antonio Moro’s
+famous picture which hangs in Madrid. The
+original is said to have been given to Philip after
+his engagement to her; it presents her as a woman
+of strong character but far from beautiful. When
+the marriage took place, it was unkindly said by
+a Spanish courtier that whatever were the faults of
+his master, it must at least be admitted that he
+recognized the obligation of a gentleman to keep
+his word.</p>
+
+<p>Of other pictures in the hall those of Tennyson
+(1809–92) painted in 1890 by G. F. Watts, of the
+earl of Essex (1566–1601) painted in 1590, of Isaac
+Newton (1642–1727) painted in 1725 by John
+Vanderbank, and of Francis Bacon (1561–1626)
+copied from Van Somer’s portrait in Gray’s Inn are
+<a name="png.117" id="png.117" href="#png.117"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>109<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>specially noticeable. Newton and Barrow (together
+with Pearson who is mentioned below) played a
+leading part in the intellectual life in the University
+towards the close of the seventeenth century, but
+I need not talk here about this. Barrow, who was
+a mathematician and divine, had a ready wit. When,
+previous to his admission to holy orders, he was
+examined on his faith, the dialogue is said to have
+been as follows:—Chaplain: <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Quid est fides?</i> Barrow:
+<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Quod non vides.</i> Chaplain: <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Quid est spes?</i> Barrow:
+<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Magna res.</i> Chaplain: <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Quid est caritas?</i> Barrow:
+<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Magna raritas.</i> On which his questioner retired in
+dudgeon, and reported that there was a candidate
+for ordination who would only give him “rhyming
+answers to moral questions”: but the bishop had
+the sense to recognize that truths can be expressed in
+rhyme as well as in prose, and Barrow was ordained.</p>
+
+<p>A very pleasing picture is that reputed to be
+of Byron: this looks like a Raeburn, though it is
+ascribed to Thomas Lawrence: its history is doubtful,
+but the absence of any peculiarity in the ear is
+<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">prima facie</i> evidence that it is not of Byron. Another
+striking portrait is that of W. H. Thompson (1810–1886)
+painted in 1881 by Hubert von Herkomer.
+When Thompson saw the completed portrait of
+himself, he is said to have remarked, “Do I really
+look as if I held the world so cheap” and in a print
+of it in the house of one of my friends, this is inscribed
+<a name="png.118" id="png.118" href="#png.118"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>110<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>on the frame. I ought also to call attention to the
+window portrait of Richard, duke of York (1411–60),
+the father of Edward IV and Richard III, which
+probably comes to us from King’s Hall.</p>
+
+<p>Among other paintings, which at present hang
+on the hall panelling, are portraits of the following
+famous members of our College:—Edward White
+Benson (1829–96) archbishop of Canterbury, Isaac
+Hawkins Browne (1706–60), Arthur Cayley (1821–95),
+the earl of Derby (1826–93), Michael Foster
+(1836–1907), Francis Galton (1822–1911), the earl
+of Halifax (1661–1715), Fenton John Anthony
+Hort (1828–92), Richard Claverhouse Jebb (1841–1905),
+Joseph Joachim (1831–1907) the musician,
+Thomas Jones (1756–1807), Joseph Barber Lightfoot
+(1828–89) bishop of Durham, Frederick Denison
+Maurice (1805–72), James Clerk Maxwell (1831–79),
+viscount Melbourne (1779–1849), Matthew Raine
+(1760–1811), Adam Sedgwick (1785–1873), Henry
+Sidgwick (1838–1900), Charles John Vaughan (1816–97),
+Brooke Foss Westcott (1825–1901) bishop of
+Durham, John Westlake (1828–1908), and William
+Whewell (1794–1866).</p>
+
+<p>Of these, Raine, Jones, Halifax and Hawkins
+Browne lived in the eighteenth century. The last-named
+is known to fame through having caused a
+change in the family reigning in the two Sicilies.
+In fact, coming to Naples in his travels he danced
+<a name="png.119" id="png.119" href="#png.119"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>111<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>at a court ceremony “with such inconceivable alacrity
+and vigour” as to provoke universal amusement
+and amazement: in particular the queen’s
+laughter was so immoderate that a miscarriage ensued.
+On such events may the histories of dynasties
+and empires turn! He is described on this occasion
+as pirouetting in a “dress of volcano silk
+with lava buttons”: perhaps it is in this costume
+that he is depicted on our walls. Having related
+this anecdote I must in fairness add that he was
+a poet of considerable ability, a good talker in an
+age when the standard of conversation was high, and
+an excellent judge of wine. Most of the portraits
+are, however, of celebrities of the Victorian age.
+Of these, Melbourne and Derby were politicians;
+Benson, Hort, Lightfoot, Vaughan, and Westcott
+represent the church; Westlake was a lawyer; Jebb
+a scholar; Maurice and Sidgwick represent ethical
+philosophy; while Cayley, Foster, Galton, Maxwell,
+Sedgwick, and Whewell, were men of science.</p>
+
+<p>Among the canvasses above the panelling are
+portraits of Richard Bentley (1662–1742) the scholar,
+Edward Coke (1549–1634) the lord chief justice,
+Cowley (1618–67) the poet, John Dryden (1631–1701)
+the poet, the earl of Macclesfield (1666–1732),
+John Pearson (1613–86) bishop of Chester, Robert
+Smith (1689–1768) the mathematician, and John
+Wilkins (1614–72) bishop of Chester. Wilkins is
+<a name="png.120" id="png.120" href="#png.120"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>112<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>now almost unknown but he wrote some interesting
+books, notably one on the ciphers employed in the
+civil war of the seventeenth century. Another work
+of his on the possibility of a journey to the moon,
+provoked the duchess of Newcastle to ask him where
+she could find a place to bait if she tried the journey:
+“Madam,” said he, “of all the people in the world
+I least expected that question from you, who have
+built so many castles in the air that you may lie
+every night in one of your own.”</p>
+
+<p>The pictures in the large combination room of
+Isaac Newton by Thomas Murray, and of Matthew
+Prior (1664–1721) by Godfrey Kneller are good:
+the former came to us from a descendant (Mrs
+Ring) of Newton’s favourite niece, and its history
+is given in a letter from Charles Simeon to Mansel,
+master of the College at the time of the gift. The
+other canvasses are too big for a private apartment,
+but the portraits of the “proud” duke of
+Somerset (1662–1748) by Nathaniel Dance, the
+marquess of Granby (1721–70) by Joshua Reynolds,
+the duke of Gloucester by John Opie, the
+marquess of Camden (1759–1840) by Thomas Lawrence,
+the duke of Grafton (1760–1844) also by
+Lawrence, and the duke of Sussex (1773–1843) by
+James Lonsdale, are of some repute: to these there
+was added in 1915 a portrait of Arthur J. Balfour
+by P. A. Laszlö de Lombros.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.121" id="png.121" href="#png.121"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>113<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Of the peers mentioned above the names of
+Granby and Somerset are still well known. Granby
+fought in the Culloden campaign, was colonel of the
+blues (horse guards) at Minden, 1759; commander of
+the British contingent in the campaigns of 1760, 1761,
+and 1762; and in 1766 became commander-in-chief
+of the army. Delighting in danger, which even when
+in supreme command he deliberately sought, brave
+to a fault, an excellent cavalry leader, rich and
+lavishly generous, he was the idol of the public,
+and witnesses to his popularity remain in the
+numerous public-houses scattered far and wide over
+England which bear his name and arms. Somerset
+was of a very different type, being a stupid man
+whose power was chiefly derived from his enormous
+landed possessions. To the Somerset properties he
+added, by his marriage with the sole heiress of the
+earls of Northumberland, the great estates of the
+Percies. He held the chancellorship of the University
+for the extraordinary term of sixty years.
+His title of the “proud duke” commemorates only
+his arrogance, and was derived from the fact that
+even to speak to anyone in a menial position was
+regarded by him as a condescension. His servants
+were trained to understand his wishes by signs,
+and numerous footmen surrounded him when in
+the streets so as to avoid the risk that any people
+of the lower classes should approach or address him.
+<a name="png.122" id="png.122" href="#png.122"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>114<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Perhaps the best known of the stories of his pretensions
+refers to his remark to his second wife
+who once called his attention to something by
+touching him with her fan (or according to another
+version kissed him without asking his leave),
+“Madam,” said he, drawing himself apart, “my
+first wife never dared to take such a liberty, and
+she was a Percy.” As another illustration of his
+character I may add that he deprived one of his
+daughters of <i>£</i>20,000 because she had sat down in
+his presence without asking his leave.</p>
+
+<p>In the lodge there are numerous portraits of
+former masters of the College, and obviously this
+is the proper place for such a collection. It is not
+complete, twelve past masters being unrepresented,
+but portraits of two of these (namely Wilkins and
+Pearson) hang in the hall. The most notable
+picture in this series is that of Nevile, which is properly
+given the place of honour over the mantelpiece
+in the dining room which he built. He holds
+a paper in his right hand, and I like to think that
+this is intended to suggest the letter which Elizabeth
+on her death-bed entrusted to him to take to
+Scotland, informing James VI of that kingdom that
+she designated him as her successor. In this room
+too are portraits of Porson and Thompson with
+whose memories so many excellent academic stories
+are associated, but I must not linger over these. In
+<a name="png.123" id="png.123" href="#png.123"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>115<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the drawing room the most striking portraits are
+those of queen Elizabeth by Mark Gerrard, the duke
+of Gloucester (1776–1834) in his undergraduate
+robes by George Romney, and queen Mary probably
+by Hans Eworth. The painted panels in the
+entrance hall often escape attention, but are worth
+looking at, especially in the case of the portraits of
+Edward III, Henry VII, Elizabeth of York, Mary
+of Scotland, Edward VI, and queen Mary. The
+collection of portraits, formed by Dr Butler, of
+Trinity men who have held judicial appointments
+is also interesting, but is not generally accessible
+to visitors.</p>
+
+<p>The pictures in the lecture-rooms and on the
+walls of the staircase leading to them form a sort
+of overflow collection, and though of unequal merit,
+a few are worth attention. There are also some
+pictures of merit in the library among which I note
+in particular portraits of Tennyson and Lightfoot.</p>
+
+<p>The engravings of former members of the College
+placed in the small combination room will repay
+study. There are at present between one hundred
+and fifty and two hundred here, but there are many
+more in portfolios in the library. Several of these
+have been acquired in recent years through the
+generosity and knowledge of John Charrington.</p>
+
+<p>The painted glass in the hall shows numerous
+coats of arms, and anyone acquainted with heraldry
+<a name="png.124" id="png.124" href="#png.124"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>116<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>will find here a rich field of study. The windows
+could have been filled over and over again with the
+arms of former famous members of the College, but
+the matter has been managed in a haphazard way,
+and many distinguished sons of the House are unrepresented.
+In spite of some bad glass the collection
+is interesting. Perhaps however any further
+account of it here would be more technical than
+would be justified in a paper like this. Of other
+glass in the College, the windows in the chapel are
+typical of the art of 1870, and are only moderately
+satisfactory. The window at the south end of the
+library, executed in 1775, was made by Peckitt
+of York, after a design by Cipriani: it illustrates
+some curious points in the history of the art of
+stained glass, but the design is impossible, and the
+scheme of colour atrocious.</p>
+
+<p>Sculpture, unless it is absolutely first rate, does
+not represent a man as well as portraiture. The
+number of pieces of statuary of the first class in
+Great Britain is small, and in the possession of such
+pieces the College is extraordinarily fortunate. The
+statue of Newton, with its proud inscription “Newton
+qui genus humanum ingenio superavit,” in
+the antechapel by Roubiliac—“the marble index
+of a mind for ever voyaging through strange
+seas of thought alone”—is of the highest merit.
+It was described by Chantrey as “the noblest of
+<a name="png.125" id="png.125" href="#png.125"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>117<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>English statues,” and I have never seen any
+modern piece of statuary anywhere which can be
+ranked superior to it: the man lives and almost
+moves. Thorwaldsen’s statue of Byron, rejected
+by the authorities of Westminster Abbey on account
+of his alleged atheistical opinions, which stands in
+the library, and that of Bacon in the antechapel
+may also be reckoned among examples of first-class
+statuary. Of these three pieces two are by foreigners.
+There are also in the antechapel statues
+of Barrow, Macaulay, Whewell, and Tennyson, and
+in the library a large number of busts. The statues
+of Edward III on the clock tower, of Henry VIII,
+James I, Anne of Denmark, and Prince Charles on
+the great gate, and of queen Elizabeth on the
+queen’s gate are interesting, though not to be
+reckoned as works of art.</p>
+
+<p>Old Silver Plate has a peculiar beauty. We
+have some fine specimens though they are fewer
+and later than from our history we should expect.
+Most of the pieces are kept in the butteries, and
+can be seen by visitors. Twice a year anyone
+entering the hall will see the junior bursar there
+with all the plate spread before him checking it by
+his lists, a pretty spectacle which always suggests
+to me the picture of the king “in his counting house
+counting out his money,” and formerly in “May-week”
+typical pieces were set out on show in the hall.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.126" id="png.126" href="#png.126"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>118<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>We have a catalogue of the plate—a large and
+valuable collection—owned by King’s Hall in the
+fifteenth century, and we may reasonably suppose
+that this, as well as the plate belonging to Michael-House,
+came in due course to us; all this has gone
+with the possible, but doubtful, exception of a
+censer boat now in the library. We know also that
+some plate was given us in Tudor and early Stuart
+times: of this, only five pieces remained to us at
+the restoration. I take it however that until well
+into the eighteenth century people were accustomed
+to regard plate, other than pieces of historic
+interest, as a convenient way of keeping portable
+wealth in a form which could be easily turned into
+coin, and its dispersion in times of emergency when
+money was wanted is not surprising.</p>
+
+<p>It was customary for noblemen and fellow-commoners
+to present plate to the House when they
+completed their academic career: their caution-money
+being commonly employed for or towards
+the purpose. After the restoration, thanks to this
+graceful practice, our possessions of this kind grew
+rapidly. Unfortunately a good many of our pieces
+were lost through two burglaries, one in 1795 and
+the other in 1798; for instance, no less than fifty-five
+drinking cups some of great beauty were then
+taken. During the eighteenth century, in colleges
+and throughout the country, large numbers of
+<a name="png.127" id="png.127" href="#png.127"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>119<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>“standing pieces” of plate were melted down, and
+the metal used to make spoons and forks; this
+accounts for the disappearance of some of our
+treasures of an earlier date. Until 1870 new
+pieces continued to be added in large numbers: in
+that year the College abolished the general admission
+of noblemen and fellow-commoners, holding
+that distinctions of rank were undesirable in academic
+life; and since then our collection has
+increased only by special gifts or by purchase.</p>
+
+<p>Of our pre-commonwealth plate the oldest pieces
+are two silver-gilt flagons, dated 1607–08, given us
+in 1636 by John and Bernard Stuart, sons of the
+duke of Lennox, then about sixteen and fourteen
+years old. There is in the small combination room
+a charming print of Vandyke’s portrait of the
+brothers: both boys were killed during the Civil
+War, John at Edgehill and Bernard at Rowton
+Heath. Whistles are placed in the handles of these
+flagons, so they must have been originally intended
+for secular use, but they have been included, as far
+back as our records go, among the communion plate:
+perhaps the spouts were added when the vessels
+were placed in the chapel. Our next earliest piece
+is the handsome cup, dated 1615–16, given us by
+Nevile probably in 1615: it was originally silver-gilt.
+The fourth of these pieces is a bursarial rose-water
+basin and ewer dated 1635–36. We owe it to Ambrose
+<a name="png.128" id="png.128" href="#png.128"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>120<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Aykerod who was bursar in that year: his arms are
+engraved on the cup, and the inscriptions on it
+refer to vows and pledges by him which are now
+inexplicable. The only other early piece which survived
+the Civil War was a cup given by John Clarkson
+between 1610 and 1620 and known from its
+inscription “Pauper Johannes Dictus Cognomine
+Clarkson Hunc Cyathum Dono Gratuito Dedit”
+as the “Pauper Joan Pot”: this was stolen in 1798.
+Clarkson had matriculated as a sizar in 1553, obtained
+a scholarship in due course, and graduated
+B.A. in 1560.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the four pieces mentioned above, the
+most striking objects in our collection are the rose-water
+basins and ewers, the Duport standing salt,
+the standing or loving cups, the tankards, and the
+punch-bowls.</p>
+
+<p>We have several notable rose-water basins and
+ewers. The earliest of these is the set given by the
+earl of Kent in 1662 to commemorate the passing of
+the Act of Uniformity. The date is given by a
+quaint double chronogram: and the central inscription
+<span title="[Greek: Nipson anomêmata mê monan opsin]"
+ xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">Νιψον ανομηματα μη μοναν οψιν</span> reads alike
+forwards and backwards. Another beautiful set is
+that given by the duke of Buckingham in 1671, the
+circumference of the basin being over seven feet.
+The visitor should also notice a set of 1740 bequeathed by
+David Humphrey, and a set of 1748
+<a name="png.129" id="png.129" href="#png.129"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>121<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>given by William John Bankes. Another set consists
+of a basin of 1716 given by John Bennet, with
+a graceful ewer probably made about 1675. This
+ewer must have been originally a “standing cup”
+since a whistle is placed in the handle, but a spout
+was added between 1789 and 1810 with the intention
+of turning it into a flagon: on it are engraved
+the Trinity and Westminster arms, and in an early
+catalogue it is called the Busby cup: its donor is
+unknown.</p>
+
+<p>There is a curious custom at the high table connected
+with these dishes. At the end of dinner on
+ordinary nights, before grace is said, a rose-water
+dish with an empty ewer is placed before the fellow
+sitting at the head of each table. I conjecture that
+this dates from a time when napkins and forks were
+unknown, and diners were accustomed to rinse their
+hands in water before rising from the table. Now
+the appearance of the empty ewer is only a sign
+that dinner is over. At feasts the ewer contains
+rose-water which is poured into the dish and passed
+round the table.</p>
+
+<p>We have a fine specimen of a standing salt in
+a piece associated with the name of James Duport.
+Its breadth is nearly ten inches, and its height,
+without the handles, seven inches. It was these
+massive salts, and not “trencher salts,” that were
+originally used to divide the company into those
+<a name="png.130" id="png.130" href="#png.130"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>122<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>that sat above and below the salt; and in the middle
+ages the standing salt was generally the most valued
+single piece in the house and the chief ornament on
+the table. The medieval specimens usually have
+a cover to protect the salt, and the handles in specimens
+like ours are said to have been introduced for
+a similar reason, as a napkin can be twisted round
+them so as to cover the salt, and thus save it from
+dust. Our specimen bears the inscription
+<span title="[Greek: echete en eautois halas kai eirêneuete en allêlois]"
+ xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">εχετε εν εαυτοις ἁλας και ειρηνευετε εν αλληλοις</span>, together
+with a statement that it was given by Duport.
+Probably his gift was made in 1665, when he left
+the College on his appointment as master of
+Magdalene. The piece, however, bears the hall-mark
+1733–34; here, and in some other cases, it would
+seem that the original piece was exchanged for a
+new one, perhaps when repairs were required,
+and it was the custom in such circumstances to
+engrave the old inscription on the new piece of
+plate.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of our losses at the end of the eighteenth
+century some fine drinking cups and covers still
+remain in our possession. Notable among these is
+one of 1691–92 given by Charles and George Firebrace,
+one of 1697–98 given by Henry Boyle, and one
+of 1711–12 given by John Verney. We have also
+a cup and cover of 1726 given by the earl of Sandwich,
+another of 1729 given by Samuel Husbands,
+<a name="png.131" id="png.131" href="#png.131"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>123<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>another of 1763 given by John Damer, another of
+1771 given by George Augustus Henry Cavendish,
+another of 1776 given by William Greaves, and
+another of 1780 given by the earl of Mexborough.
+To these I may add the Lyndhurst silver-gilt cup
+and cover of 1876–77 given by Sir Theodore Martin.
+All these are fine specimens of silversmith’s work,
+and can be used at feasts as loving cups, with the
+ceremonial customary to such drinking.</p>
+
+<p>The tankards with lids form another striking
+group of plate, but the larger ones which contain
+three quarts or more must be regarded as being
+decorative rather than useful. Conspicuous among
+these pieces is one, probably made about 1670, given
+by Thomas Taylor, one of 1698–99 given by Peter
+Pheasaunt, one of 1699–1700 given by Thomas
+Alston, one of 1700–01 given by Thomas Bellot,
+one of 1739–40 given by Thomas Foley, one of
+1746–47 given by Francis Vernon, one of 1751–52
+given by Charles Paulet, one of 1757–58 given by
+Edward Fitzgerald, and one of 1762–63 given by
+Hans Sloane. There is also a fine collection of ale
+plate. Of the smaller tankards, stoups, and drinking
+cups there are innumerable specimens. I will
+not dwell longer over our other pieces. Suffice it
+is to say that of punch-bowls there are three or four
+fine specimens of the eighteenth century, as also
+various snuff-boxes, silver trays, etc. Of candlesticks
+<a name="png.132" id="png.132" href="#png.132"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>124<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>there are between two and three hundred,
+many of them beautiful pieces of work. Of ordinary
+domestic plate the stock is large.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a good deal of plate which has been
+given or assigned for use in the lodge: this includes
+the Perry silver-gilt dessert service. In the chapel
+plate besides the flagons already mentioned there
+are two silver-gilt patens of 1661–62, associated in
+the early catalogues with the names of John and
+Bernard Stuart; also an alms-dish of 1673, and an
+altar cross given in 1894 and said to be of Spanish
+renaissance work.</p>
+
+<p>I add some particulars of thirteen challenge
+pieces of plate owned by the Boat and Athletic
+Clubs: of these, five belong to the First Trinity
+Boat Club, and eight to the Athletic Club. These
+pieces are of recent make and their chief interest
+comes from the inscribed names of the successive
+holders.</p>
+
+<p>Trinity men will recollect that there are various
+races arranged each year by the First Trinity Boat
+Club, the winners of which receive pots or other
+prizes, and that in five of these events, the winners,
+in addition to receiving the special prizes, hold challenge
+pieces on which are engraved the names of
+past winners. These challenge pieces are: A two-handled
+silver chased cup and stand (hall-mark
+1836), held by the winner of a sculling race (the
+<a name="png.133" id="png.133" href="#png.133"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>125<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Macnaughten Sculls) rowed in the Michaelmas Term,
+open to all members of the Club who have not
+previously won it or the University Colquhoun
+Sculls. A two-handled silver cup and stand (hall-mark
+probably 1857 or 1858), which came to the
+club from the now defunct Second Trinity Boat
+Club, held by the winner of a sculling race (the
+Baines Sculls) rowed in the Lent Term, open to
+all members who have not previously won it or
+the Macnaughten Sculls or the University Colquhoun
+Sculls. Silver oars (hall-mark 1860) held by the
+winners of a pair-oared race (the Wyatt Pairs)
+rowed in the Michaelmas Term, open to all members
+who have not previously won it or the University
+Magdalene Pairs. Silver oars (hall-mark 1861)
+which came to the Club from Second Trinity, held
+by the winners of a pair-oared race (the Dodington
+Pairs) rowed in the Lent Term, open to all members
+who have not previously won it or the Wyatt Pairs
+or the University Magdalene Pairs. Silver Sculls
+(hall-mark 1897) held by the winners of a double
+sculling race (the Taxis Sculls) rowed in the Easter
+Term, open to all members who have not previously
+won it or the University Magdalene pairs.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly among the sports arranged each year
+by the Trinity Athletic Club are seven events, the
+winners of which in addition to receiving special
+prizes, hold challenge pieces of plate on which are
+<a name="png.134" id="png.134" href="#png.134"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>126<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>engraved the names of past winners. These challenge
+pieces are: A half-fluted silver bowl and plinth
+(hall-mark 1887) held by the winner of the mile
+race. A half-fluted silver bowl and plinth (hall-mark
+1899) held by the winner of the half-mile
+race. A silver chased claret jug with handle (hall-mark
+1886) held by the winner of the quarter-mile
+race. Four silver candlesticks (hall-mark 1899) held
+by the winner of the hundred yards race. A two-handled
+half-fluted silver cup (hall-mark 1888) held
+by the winner of the hurdles race. A two-handled
+silver bowl (hall-mark 1896) held by the winner of
+the long jump. A silver salver (hall-mark 1896)
+held by the winner of the high jump. Finally there
+is a two-handled silver chased cup and plinth (hall-mark
+1892) held by the man who scores most marks
+in the various events.</p>
+
+<p>It may be thought that I have occupied too
+much space in giving bare lists of pieces of plate,
+but the shapes of some of the pieces are so good and
+the surface of old silver, when carefully tended,
+has such a beautiful texture that I believe it may
+be worth calling the attention of any interested in
+such things to some of our possessions of this kind.
+Only societies and families with continuous records
+dating from a distant past can show such collections.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+<h2 title="VII. The College Auditors"><a name="png.135" id="png.135" href="#png.135"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>127<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER VII.<br
+ /><small>THE COLLEGE AUDITORS.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">There</span> is no reference in our earliest college
+statutes—those of 1552—to an Auditor, but
+the extant accounts show that the office existed from
+the foundation of the College in 1546. Definite regulations
+for the appointment were proposed in the
+draft statutes of 1554, and were embodied in the
+statutes of 1560. By these the auditor was made
+one of the statutable officers of the Society: the
+post was held for long periods, and it was not permissible
+to perform the duties by proxy. The
+statute in question was re-enacted in 1844. By the
+statutes of 1861 the office was made annual, and
+tenable only during pleasure. It remains annual
+under the present statutes, but a definite proviso
+was inserted in 1882 that it is not tenable by a
+fellow or officer of the House, and a clause was
+introduced providing for the appointment from
+among the fellows of an Assessor or Assessors who
+should be present during the audit.</p>
+
+<p>From the foundation of the College, its financial
+year ran from Michaelmas to Michaelmas, and the
+audit of each year was concluded in the following
+December. At first the annual honorarium of the
+<a name="png.136" id="png.136" href="#png.136"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>128<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>auditor seems to have been <i>£</i>10 with an allowance
+of <i>£</i>2 for travelling expenses, stationery, etc., but
+before the end of the sixteenth century it had been
+reduced to <i>£</i>5, with an augmentation of <i>£</i>3. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>
+and some allowances.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">declaratio computi</i> was much as
+at present, and generally, with but small variations,
+it takes the form now stereotyped “and so the said
+A. B. Senior (or Junior) Bursar upon the foot of
+this his account for one whole year ending Michaelmas
+... oweth unto the College the sum <span class="nw">of....”</span>
+In some cases, and notably in the seventeenth
+century, the sums include fractions of a penny,
+even as small as one thirty-second part thereof.
+Presumably the audit was always followed by a
+“feast,” as still remains the custom.</p>
+
+<p>Of the occupants of the office from 1546 to 1618
+the information in the college books is incomplete.
+The only auditors previous to 1618 whose names
+I have noticed, with the years in which they held
+office, are Edward Burnell, 1553, 1561, 1563 and
+1564; Adam Winthrop, 1606; and Richard Brooke,
+1614. I have not, however, read the account-books
+through from cover to cover, and it may be
+that there are references which have escaped me.
+Luckily Winthrop’s diary and some memoranda from
+1595 to 1621 are extant, and contain references to
+a few earlier dates. From these we can take our
+<a name="png.137" id="png.137" href="#png.137"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>129<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>continuous record back to the year ending Michaelmas
+1593, when he was auditor. He resigned in 1610,
+and was succeeded by Brooke. Brooke was acting
+in 1615, and had commons in 1616, and I have no
+doubt acted in 1617. From 1618 onwards we can,
+from one source or another, make out the names of
+those who held the office. The handwritings of
+the earlier auditors have marked characteristics.
+They suggest that there was one auditor from 1547
+to 1552, another from 1553 to 1578, who must have
+been Edward Burnell, another from 1579 to 1591,
+and another from 1592 to 1609, who must have been
+Adam Winthrop. But I present these as mere
+surmises, and I do not attempt to go back beyond
+1593.</p>
+
+<p>Our roll then is as follows. From 1547 to 1592
+we cannot definitely say more than that Edward
+Burnell was auditor for a period which included the
+years 1553 to 1564, for no doubt his tenure was
+unbroken. From 1593 the sequence runs thus:</p>
+
+<p>Adam Winthrop, 1593 (or earlier) to 1609; Richard
+Brooke, 1610 to 1617; Robert Spicer, 1618 to 1628;
+Francis Hughes, 1629 to 1668; Samuel Newton,
+1669 to 1717, Newton resigned in 1674, and thereon
+he and William Ellis were appointed to the office,
+with remainder to the survivor of them, but
+apparently William Ellis never acted; Denys L’Isle,
+1718 to 1726; William Greaves, 1727 to 1778; Robert
+<a name="png.138" id="png.138" href="#png.138"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>130<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Graham, 1779 to 1791; Samuel Knight, 1792 to 1811;
+Nicholas Conyngham Tindal, 1812 to 1825; James
+Parke, 1826 to 1828; Andrew Amos, 1829 to 1836;
+John George Shaw-Lefevre, 1837 to 1851; George
+Denman, 1852 to 1862; George Valentine Yool, 1863
+to 1869; Augustus Arthur VanSittart, 1870 to 1881;
+John Willis Clark, 1882 to 1908. Since 1908 the
+office has been held by a professional accountant.
+The dates given indicate the ends of the audit year:
+thus the audit of 1669 was for the year 1668–69. It
+will be noticed that during the three hundred and
+sixteen years from 1593 to 1908, there were, if we
+omit William Ellis, only seventeen auditors, giving
+an average tenure of more than eighteen years.
+Of these seventeen auditors at least eleven have
+been lawyers and four ultimately rose to the Bench.
+I add a few biographical notes on these auditors.</p>
+
+<p>Of Edward Burnell, the earliest holder of the
+office whose name I have given, I know nothing.
+His successor Adam Winthrop, 1548–1623, the son
+of a prominent London merchant and reformer,
+had been admitted as a fellow-commoner at Magdalene
+in 1567, and had left the University without
+a degree. He had been called to the bar, but did
+not practise, and was content to fill the rôle of a
+well-to-do country squire. He was an intimate
+friend of Still, master of Trinity from 1577 to 1593,
+whose sister he married in 1574, and whose wife
+<a name="png.139" id="png.139" href="#png.139"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>131<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>was his connection by marriage. I conjecture that
+he owed the office to Still’s influence. Winthrop
+was a fair scholar, an indifferent poet, and somewhat
+of a pedant. His tomb is at Groton, Suffolk.
+More than one of his descendants were distinguished.
+In particular his son, John, 1588–1649, who was
+admitted to Trinity College in 1602, was the founder
+of the well-known American family of this name;
+and his great-great-grandson, Sir George Downing
+was the founder of Downing College.</p>
+
+<p>Winthrop seems to have done the whole of the
+audit work at the end of the Michaelmas term of
+each year. Thus in 1601 he wrote:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The ivth of Decemb. I ridde to Cambride &amp; beganne the
+Auditt the 7th beinge Monday. The xiiijth of Decembre I
+returned from the Auditt &amp; did see the Sonne in the Eclips
+about 12 of the Clock at noone.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">Perhaps his resignation was made at the suggestion
+of the College, for early in 1610 he wrote:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Dr Meriton came to speake with me about the resignation
+of my office in Trinity College to Mr <span class="nw">Brookes....</span>
+I surrendered my Auditorship in Trinitye College to the Mr
+fellows &amp; schollers before a pub. <span class="nw">notary....</span> I dyned at Dr
+Meriton’s in Hadley &amp; received of him xxlb for my <span class="nw">Auditorshippe....</span>
+Mr Rich. Brooke the nue Auditor of Trinity
+College was at my house in Groton to whom I dd. divers
+paper books &amp; Roles touchinge his Office.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Of the next three auditors I can discover very
+little. Richard Brooke was appointed in 1610.
+<a name="png.140" id="png.140" href="#png.140"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>132<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>The following conclusion of 8 June 1615, seems to
+refer to him, “concluded that Mr Brookes in regard
+of his paines taken divers times for the Colledge
+that he shoulde ... have given him Twentye
+pounds,” and during his visits in the following
+year be allowed commons. We may assume that
+he held office till the end of 1617. A Richard
+Brookes had entered at Queens’ as a fellow-commoner
+in 1587, but whether he was the subsequent
+auditor there is nothing to show. In 1618 we have
+the copy of the appointment of Robert Spicer.
+He held office till the end of 1628, since a conclusion
+of 3 June 1629, appointed in his place Francis
+Hughes. Hughes, who held the office till his death
+in October 1669, was admitted a scholar in 1616,
+graduated M.A. in 1623, was one of the esquire-bedells,
+and occupied rooms in College at the time
+of his death.</p>
+
+<p>The next occupant of the office was Samuel
+Newton, 1629–1718, a prominent attorney in the
+town and mayor in 1671. He was not a member
+of the University. His diary from 1662 to 1717
+preserved in the library of Downing College, contains
+an account of his election to the post in the
+chapel by the master and seniors, he being present
+in the antechapel. He attended next day in his
+gown, was sworn to the faithful discharge of his
+duties, and signed the roll of college officers. He
+<a name="png.141" id="png.141" href="#png.141"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>133<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>proved thoroughly efficient. For his services at the
+audit in 1669 he received the fee of <i>£</i>5 with the customary
+augmentation of <i>£</i>3. 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>, a sum of <i>£</i>6. 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>
+for engrossing the audit rolls, which henceforth
+were kept excellently, a sum of <i>£</i>1 for preparing a
+book of arrears, and a sum of <i>£</i>1. 2<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for stationery.
+He also received from the junior bursar,
+billets of wood of the value of 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; from the
+steward, a “warp of lyng” of the value of 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>;
+from the manciple, a “coller of brawne, also a dish
+of wild fowle or 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>”; and from the brewhouse,
+“2 barrels of strong beere.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1674 Newton surrendered his patent of appointment
+as auditor, but he was immediately reappointed
+jointly with his cousin, William Ellis,
+with remainder to the survivor of them. They
+were at the same time appointed on the same conditions
+to the office of college registrar, then vacant
+by the death of a Mr T. Griffith. According to
+Newton’s diary, William Ellis proceeded M.A. in
+1670, but his name does not appear in the list of
+graduati, unless indeed he is the Wm Ellis who received
+the degree <i>per lit. reg.</i> in 1671. The college
+account-books continued to be signed by Newton,
+and I have not noticed in them evidence that Ellis
+ever took any part in the audit. The Society’s
+solicitors and attorneys have frequently acted as
+registrars, and it may be that Ellis was in partnership
+<a name="png.142" id="png.142" href="#png.142"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>134<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>with Newton, and was for that reason made
+with him joint auditor and registrar.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel Newton died in 1718 in his ninetieth
+year. For the three years, 1715, 1716, and 1717,
+the books were audited by John Newton, presumably
+his son or grandson, as his deputy. No doubt
+the arrangement was made in consequence of the
+failing health of the old gentleman whose signature
+in 1714 was very shaky. The appointment of a
+deputy was invalid under the statute, but it must
+have been made with the approval of Bentley, and
+perhaps of the seniority. At any rate John Newton
+conducted the audit, and signed the books as deputy
+auditor.</p>
+
+<p>Newton was succeeded in 1718 as auditor and
+registrar by Denys L’Isle. L’Isle had been a fellow-commoner
+of Trinity Hall, admitted in 1712, graduated
+LL.B. in 1715, who had gone down and in
+1716 taken his name off the books. He was a
+vigorous and not too scrupulous barrister. He
+owed his appointment to Bentley, and he showed
+“extraordinary activity and zeal in promoting all”
+his benefactor’s “wishes and interests” and represented
+him in some of his disputes. Whatever view
+may be taken of Bentley’s character, no one can
+justify his conduct in regard to the college finances.
+A notable scandal occurred in the audit of 1722. In
+the accounts of that year large sums were charged
+<a name="png.143" id="png.143" href="#png.143"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>135<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>to the College for works at the lodge and other sums
+spent by the master which had not been sanctioned
+by the Society. Undoubtedly the charges were
+illegal, but Bentley and L’Isle refused to allow the
+accounts to be examined by the seniority. In fact
+in this, as in other matters, L’Isle had no scruple in
+screening Bentley from the consequences of acts
+which were neither legal nor honourable.</p>
+
+<p>L’Isle died in 1727, and was succeeded as auditor,
+steward of the courts, and registrar by William
+Greaves. Greaves had in 1719 migrated to Clare,
+Cambridge, from Brasenose, Oxford; he graduated
+B.A. in 1720, and in 1722 was elected at Clare to a
+fellowship which he held till 1742. He was a barrister
+and an able man: he too owed his office to
+Bentley, and acted as his counsel in many of his
+tortuous proceedings. Through Bentley’s influence
+Greaves had in 1726 been made commissary of the
+University, an office which he held till 1778. The
+letters patent to the office of college auditor were
+made out for the term of his life, but a question
+having been raised as to whether this was statutable,
+he surrendered them, and the College granted
+new patents for the term of fifty years if he should
+live so long. I suppose he was duly admitted to the
+office, for probably an acute lawyer would have seen
+to this, but there is no record of the fact in our books.</p>
+
+<p>Greaves seems to have performed his duties as
+<a name="png.144" id="png.144" href="#png.144"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>136<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>auditor in an honourable manner. After the audit
+of 1778, he surrendered his office at the close of fifty
+years’ tenure of it: he then received a present of plate
+from the College, with their thanks for his long and
+faithful services. Six years later he made a donation
+to the Society of <i>£</i>100 to found an annual prize
+for an essay on the character of King William the
+Third. After nearly a century it was said that the
+essayists had exhausted the subject, and in 1882
+the College got leave to substitute for it one connected
+with the history of the British Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Graham, 1744–1836, a lawyer of note,
+succeeded Greaves. Graham had graduated as
+third wrangler in 1766, and in the following year
+had been elected to a fellowship. He held the
+office till after the audit of 1791. He was made
+a baron of the exchequer in 1799, and proved a
+singularly inefficient judge. He retired from the
+bench in 1827.</p>
+
+<p>Graham’s chief distinction is said to have been
+his urbanity, and at the Bar it was currently believed
+that no one but his sempstress had power to
+ruffle his equanimity. He was somewhat pompous,
+and an adventure of his at the assizes at Newcastle
+afforded much amusement to his contemporaries.
+There, on one occasion just before charging the
+grand jury, he tumbled, unnoticed, into the river
+from the garden of the house where he lodged, but
+<a name="png.145" id="png.145" href="#png.145"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>137<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>luckily was hauled out by some passing watermen.
+The rough remedies of the quay-side failed to restore
+consciousness, and the bystanders, supposing
+he was drowned, carted him to a dead-house, where
+he was stripped and laid out. The coroner’s jury,
+summoned with unusual celerity, had viewed the
+body, and were considering their verdict when, to
+their surprise he showed signs of life and came to
+himself. His position was not altogether dignified,
+but realizing at once that it is always incumbent on
+a judge to move in state, he was by his directions
+fetched from the mortuary in the sheriff’s carriage,
+with the trumpeters, and usual ceremonial.</p>
+
+<p>Of Graham’s successor, Samuel Knight, 1755–1829,
+I know little. He had been admitted as a
+pensioner in 1772, became a fellow-commoner in
+1774, and graduated in the poll in 1776. Apparently
+he had no special qualifications for the post
+beyond being a pleasant member of society. He
+resigned in 1812, and died in 1829.</p>
+
+<p>After Knight’s resignation, the post was offered
+to Nicholas Conyngham Tindal, 1776–1846, a lawyer
+of distinction. He had graduated in 1799 as eighth
+wrangler, was a Chancellor’s medalist, and had been
+elected to a fellowship in 1801, which, as he did not
+take orders, he had vacated in due course in accordance
+with the provisions of the Elizabethan statutes.
+The plan of offering the post to a distinguished
+<a name="png.146" id="png.146" href="#png.146"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>138<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>past fellow now became the custom, and all the
+auditors hereafter mentioned were past fellows of
+the college.</p>
+
+<p>Tindal was one of the counsel for queen Caroline;
+he is celebrated in the history of the courts for
+having secured to a criminal client the right of
+wager of battle, which had long fallen into disuse
+but had not been abolished by statute. He was
+member for the University from 1827 to 1829 in
+which year he was made chief justice of the Common
+Pleas; he held that office till his death in 1846.
+Though not specially successful as an advocate, he
+had a profound knowledge of law and was an excellent
+judge. His enormous dimensions are commemorated
+in a print in my possession with the
+inscription “Judges of A Size,” representing him
+standing by Joshua Williams one of his colleagues
+on assize, who was very diminutive; probably this
+is an ancient joke.</p>
+
+<p>The next auditor was James Parke, 1782–1868,
+a lawyer of even greater distinction. He had
+graduated in 1803 as fifth wrangler, and had been
+Craven scholar, Browne’s medalist and Chancellor’s
+medalist. In 1804 he had been elected to a fellowship.
+He was one of the counsel briefed against
+queen Caroline. He was made a judge in 1828,
+and of course then resigned the office of auditor,
+which he thus held for only three years.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.147" id="png.147" href="#png.147"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>139<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Parke had a profound knowledge of the common
+law, and admired, and was a rigid adherent of,
+ancient forms and customs. The fact was well
+known, and led to a curious scene, when on one occasion,
+while giving a judgment, he fainted. Cold
+water and smelling salts were applied without
+success, whereon a somewhat malicious colleague
+brought from an adjacent room an ancient volume
+of reports, black with the dust of ages, and banged
+it under the nostrils of the judge. It may have
+been a coincidence, but Parke at once revived, and
+in a few minutes was able to proceed with the
+business in hand.</p>
+
+<p>At one time when Parke was trying a criminal
+case the prisoner confessed his crime to his advocate,
+who thereupon (most improperly) acquainted the
+judge with the fact and asked his advice. Parke
+rebuked the barrister for informing him of the
+prisoner’s guilt, but added that counsel was not the
+less bound to defend his client to the best of his
+ability. The case has been often cited, and states
+the practice of the bar; it being of course assumed
+that nothing is said or done for the defence which
+an honourable man might not say or do.</p>
+
+<p>Parke’s subsequent career served to settle a
+constitutional question of great importance. In
+1856 he was created Baron Wensleydale with a life
+peerage. It was decided that the power of the
+<a name="png.148" id="png.148" href="#png.148"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>140<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>crown to create life peerages had been lost by disuse.
+He was then made a baron with the usual remainder
+in tail male.</p>
+
+<p>Parke was followed as auditor by Andrew Amos,
+1791–1860, also a lawyer of distinction. He had
+graduated as fifth wrangler in 1813, and in 1815
+had been elected to a fellowship. He was appointed
+auditor in 1829. He had a large arbitration practice,
+acted on the Criminal Law Commission, and
+was professor of English Law in London. In 1837
+he was appointed legal member of the Indian
+Council, and on his departure for the East had to
+resign his office in the college. On the first vacancy
+after his return to England, he was, in 1848, elected
+Downing Professor of Laws in Cambridge, and
+occupied the chair until his death.</p>
+
+<p>Amos was succeeded by John George Shaw-Lefevre,
+1797–1879. Shaw-Lefevre had been senior
+wrangler and first Smith’s prize man in 1818, and had
+been elected to a fellowship in the following year.
+Like his predecessors he was a barrister, but most
+of his time was taken up with duties connected with
+public departments. He settled the county divisions
+under the Reform Act of 1832, and was a
+member of numerous Commissions, notably those
+connected with compensation for the abolition of
+slavery, with the Poor Law Act, with the creation of
+South Australia, with ecclesiastical affairs, and with
+<a name="png.149" id="png.149" href="#png.149"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>141<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the Indian Civil Service: till 1875 he was busily
+engaged in public affairs. He stood unsuccessfully
+for parliament in the university contest of 1847.
+He resigned the auditorship after the audit of 1851.
+His tenure of the post is commemorated by his gift
+of the chandelier which hangs in the large combination
+room.</p>
+
+<p>The next auditor was the Hon. George Denman,
+1819–1896, also a lawyer. Denman had been
+senior classic in 1842, and had been elected to a
+fellowship in the following year. He had always
+kept up his connection with the College, where
+he had numerous friends. He became auditor in
+1852. Like his predecessor he stood unsuccessfully
+for parliament as a representative of the University:
+this was in 1856. Subsequently he was
+appointed counsel to the University. He entered
+parliament in 1859, and owing to press of work gave
+up his college office at the close of the audit of 1862.
+After a distinguished legal career he was raised in
+1872 to the bench. He was a good scholar, had a
+fine presence, and to the end of his life was popular
+with all classes of Cambridge society.</p>
+
+<p>If I may trust my memory Denman told me that
+among his annual perquisites as auditor was a case
+of audit ale, and that on one occasion he gave it to
+Livingstone who he knew would appreciate it. The
+case travelled with the explorer through Africa,
+<a name="png.150" id="png.150" href="#png.150"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>142<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>and as long as the ale lasted glasses of it were circulated,
+to the great satisfaction of the natives,
+whenever solemn treaties were ratified.</p>
+
+<p>The next holder of the office was George Valentine
+Yool, 1829–1897, a chancery barrister, who had
+been third wrangler and second Smith’s prizeman
+in 1851, and had been elected to a fellowship in 1853.
+Yool took but little part in public affairs. He was
+appointed auditor in 1863, and gave up the office
+at the end of 1869.</p>
+
+<p>After Yool’s resignation the College reverted to
+its former practice, and appointed as auditor a
+resident, Augustus Arthur VanSittart. VanSittart
+had been bracketed senior classic in 1847, and had
+been elected to a fellowship in the following year.
+After once standing unsuccessfully for parliament,
+he devoted himself to literary work, and among
+other things collected and collated the various
+readings of the New Testament. His annual speech
+at the audit feast, wherein he gave a witty sketch
+of the more interesting developments of academic
+life during the preceding year, was one of the
+features of the time, and served somewhat the same
+purpose as the Tripos verses of earlier ages. He
+held the office till his death in the spring of 1882.
+He was wealthy, and a most generous benefactor
+of the Fitzwilliam Museum and other Cambridge
+institutions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.151" id="png.151" href="#png.151"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>143<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>On VanSittart’s death the post was given to
+John Willis Clark, 1833–1910. Clark had come up
+to Trinity in 1852, obtained a first class in the
+classical tripos, 1856, and was elected to a fellowship
+in 1858. He made his home in Cambridge, and his
+unceasing activities in zoological, library, and theatrical
+matters are chronicled in the local records.
+He completed the <cite>Architectural History of the
+University</cite>—a permanent and invaluable record of
+Cambridge history—which had been commenced by
+his uncle, and wrote on various library and antiquarian
+subjects. He held the registraryship of
+the University from 1891 to his death in 1910.</p>
+
+<p>Clark vacated the office of auditor in 1908, and
+since then the College has appointed to the post a
+professional accountant.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="VIII. Wren’s Designs for the College Library"><a name="png.152" id="png.152" href="#png.152"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>144<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br
+ /><small>WREN’S DESIGNS FOR THE COLLEGE LIBRARY.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">In</span> 1914 the College obtained an interesting series
+of photographs of Wren’s original drawings and
+plans for our library in Nevile’s Court. They will
+well repay inspection by those who are interested
+in our history or in architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The present library is the third building assigned
+by Trinity for the purpose. During the first half-century
+of its existence the Society used the library<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn26" id="fna26" name="fna26">26</a></sup>
+of King’s Hall, a good first-floor room, some twenty
+feet long by ten feet broad, which had been built
+in 1416–21 near the north-west corner of the cloister
+court of that House. This room was connected with
+the old oratory of King’s Hall by a gallery over the
+west cloister.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the foundation of Trinity the provision
+of a larger library was contemplated, and in
+the order (about providing building materials for
+the chapel) of queen Elizabeth of 1560, it is said
+that its erection had been already begun. In fact
+however it was then only under discussion.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="plate">
+<a name="png.153" id="png.153" href="#png.153"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>145<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a><img src="images/illo1.jpg" id="illo1"
+ alt="Elevation and floor plans for rectangular library building in classical style with many arched windows" title=""
+ /><br
+ />Wren’s Second Design for the College Library. Exterior.
+</div>
+<div class="plate">
+<a name="png.154" id="png.154" href="#png.154"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>146<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a><img src="images/illo2.jpg" id="illo2"
+ alt="Elevation of circular classical building dominated by domed roof" title=""
+ /><br
+ />Wren’s First Design for the College Library. Exterior.
+</div>
+<div class="plate">
+<a name="png.155" id="png.155" href="#png.155"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>147<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a><img src="images/illo3.jpg" id="illo3"
+ alt="Cross-section through four-storey, domed circular library" title=""
+ /><br
+ />Wren’s First Design for the College Library. Interior.
+</div>
+<div class="plate">
+<a name="png.156" id="png.156" href="#png.156"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>148<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a><img src="images/illo4.jpg" id="illo4"
+ alt="Elevation of elaborate four-storey classical building" title=""
+ /><br
+ />Wren’s Design for a Senate House.
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap"><!-- note not actually a new chapter -->
+<p>Our predecessors, in their arrangements for the
+“reconcination” or rebuilding of the Great Court,
+<a name="png.157" id="png.157" href="#png.157"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>149<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>naturally attached great importance to not interfering
+with King Edward’s Tower which had long
+been the chief entrance to King’s Hall and then
+stood near the present sundial. A suggested way
+of working this Tower into the scheme of the court
+is shown on the plan which hangs on the staircase
+leading to the library annexe; in this, a block one
+hundred feet long and thirty-four feet broad, was
+to be built over an open colonnade running eastwards
+from the Tower and ending in front of and
+a few yards from the Great Gate. The first floor of
+this block might have been used for the new library;
+or alternatively it might have been used for chambers,
+and the new library built elsewhere, for instance, as
+was suggested, on the site of the range of chambers
+which now stretches from the chapel to the turret
+staircase adjoining the lodge.</p>
+
+<p>Neither of these proposals was then adopted,
+and our second library was not erected till Nevile,
+between 1594 and 1600, took the matter in hand.
+He provided for it a room seventy-five feet long and
+thirty feet broad on the second floor of the range
+connecting the Clock Tower and the lodge; it has
+since been converted into chambers.</p>
+
+<p>Less than a century after Nevile’s library was
+finished, the Society again found it necessary to
+provide more book accommodation, and the result
+is the impressive and excellently designed building
+<a name="png.158" id="png.158" href="#png.158"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>150<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>which stands on the west side of Nevile’s Court.
+According to tradition, its erection, commenced in
+February 1676, was due to Barrow, then master of
+the College, who in the previous year had pressed
+the other heads of Houses to provide a room worthy
+of the University for its meetings, and urged that
+it should be of the best. Such schemes are expensive
+and cannot be effected without public
+spirit. Caution, it is said, carried the day, whereon
+Barrow, piqued at this faint-heartedness, declared
+that he would go to Trinity, “lay out the foundations
+of a building to enlarge his back court, and
+close it with a stately library, which should be
+more magnificent and costly than what he had
+<span class="nw">proposed....</span> And he was as good as his word, for
+that very afternoon he ... staked out the very
+foundation upon which the building now stands.”</p>
+
+<p>The story may be substantially true, for the long-cherished
+idea of building a university theatre and
+library was then in the hands of a syndicate: on the
+other hand the extant speech of Barrow in which he
+put forward his policy was not delivered till the
+Easter term 1676, and Wren’s designs for such a
+building are referred to the year 1678 and indicate
+that the scheme had not been then abandoned. But
+whether the anecdote be true or not, we may take
+it that the erection of our library was due to
+Barrow’s initiative, and that he personally raised
+a considerable sum towards its cost.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.159" id="png.159" href="#png.159"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>151<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Sir Christopher Wren, a warm personal friend
+of Barrow, was selected as the architect, and placed
+his services at the disposal of the College without
+remuneration. His original drawings are included
+in a collection of his designs preserved at All Souls’
+College, Oxford, and by the kindness of that Society
+we have been allowed to take photographs of the
+plans which concern us. These relate to two plans for
+our library and one for a university commencement-house.
+The two plans for Trinity were made not later
+than 1675; they may have been submitted as alternatives,
+but there is a tradition that the second design
+was prepared only after the first had been rejected.</p>
+
+<p>Nevile’s Court, as now arranged, contains three
+staircases on each of its sides, is closed on the east
+by the hall and small combination room block, and
+on the west by the library. In 1675 only two of
+the staircases on each side had been built, and the
+western ends of these were connected by a blank
+wall pierced in the middle by a gate, which is believed
+to have been later removed, stone by stone,
+and finally placed as the entrance to the College at
+the bottom of Trinity lane, where it now stands.
+Beyond this wall and between it and the river was the
+college tennis court. The land between Nevile’s Court
+and the river was selected as the site of the library.</p>
+
+<p>Wren’s first design shows a double cylindrical
+shell about sixty-five feet across inside and ninety
+<a name="png.160" id="png.160" href="#png.160"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>152<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>feet high, surmounted by a dome and entered
+through a six-columned Ionic portico facing Nevile’s
+Court. On the ground floor was a lobby round
+which were stone seats. Above this the inside of
+the inner cylindrical shell was lined with bookshelves,
+and for convenience of approach there were
+three galleries. The room was lighted by windows
+in the dome and a superimposed lantern. The
+east side of the portico was half-way between the
+western ends of the court, and these ends were connected
+with the body of the library by low curved
+walls surmounted by iron rails. This building is
+described as “a very beautiful and most commodious
+model,” but it strikes the ordinary layman as poor
+in design, and I do not think that all Wren’s genius
+could have made it other than unsatisfactory. Why
+it was rejected we do not know, but few will doubt
+that the decision was wise.</p>
+
+<p>Wren’s second or alternative design, which was
+adopted, shows a lofty oblong room about one
+hundred and fifty feet long by thirty-eight feet
+broad supported on a colonnade. Several of his
+drawings for this were engraved for the <cite>Architectural
+History of Cambridge</cite> by Willis and Clark, but the
+photographic reproductions of the originals—some
+with Wren’s notes attached—which are now available
+have an interest of their own. A careful study
+will show details which were subsequently modified.
+The present library was placed to the west of the
+<a name="png.161" id="png.161" href="#png.161"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>153<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>court as then built, and the rows of chambers on each
+side were extended to meet it. It is well-known that
+the shelves, cases, benches, tables, and book-rests
+now used were designed by Wren, and his drawings
+for them are reproduced in this series of photographs.
+The removal of all the bookcases except those fixed
+against the walls would enable us to judge the appearance
+intended by Wren. How fine the effect
+must have been, may be gathered from the plate
+in Le Keux’s <cite>Memorials</cite> or the engraving in the
+<cite>University Almanack</cite> of 1852.</p>
+
+<p>Among Wren’s plans is also one for “a Theatre
+or Commencement-House with a Library annexed,
+according to an Intention for the University of
+Cambridge, about the year 1678, but not executed.”
+Whether this represents a sketch of the general
+plan which it is said that Barrow had suggested to
+the heads of Houses in 1675 it is impossible to say.
+The erection of a building on these lines might have
+been costly, but the result would have been a
+valuable addition to the architecture of Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>I published in the <cite>Trinity Magazine</cite> in 1914 the
+elevations of our library according to Wren’s two
+plans and of his suggested Commencement or Senate
+House. I reprint these here (see above, pp. 145–148),
+but add nothing more as it is intended shortly to
+reproduce in book-form various drawings on the
+subject made by Wren.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna26" id="fn26" name="fn26" title="Back">26</a> There was an earlier library in King’s Hall but we do not know
+where it was situated.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="IX. A Christmas Journey in 1319"><a name="png.162" id="png.162" href="#png.162"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>154<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER IX.<br
+ /><small>A CHRISTMAS JOURNEY IN 1319.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">In</span> the Record Office in London are preserved some
+money accounts<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn27" id="fna27" name="fna27">27</a></sup> concerned with a visit of the
+scholars of King’s Hall to York at Christmas in the
+year 13 Edward II, that is, in 1319. The following
+analysis gives the route followed by one section of
+the party and the expenses of the journey: it is a
+valuable record of the method and cost of travelling
+in medieval times.</p>
+
+<p>By way of preamble, I may say that the origin
+of King’s Hall is to be found in the establishment at
+Cambridge, in 1317, by Edward II, of a body of
+Scholars or King’s Children; that they were regarded
+as part of the royal household; and that the
+nominations to the office of warden and to scholarships
+were reserved to the king. King’s Hall was
+dissolved in 1546, and its buildings and property
+assigned by Henry VIII to Trinity College.</p>
+
+<p>Early in December 1319, the warden and scholars
+were ordered to spend the coming Christmas with
+the court, then at York, and the sheriff of Cambridgeshire
+was directed to provide for their journey.
+During the preceding Michaelmas term thirty-three
+<a name="png.163" id="png.163" href="#png.163"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>155<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>members of the House had been in residence, and
+all of them went to York.</p>
+
+<p>The names of the members of the House in 1319
+are immaterial to our story, but I venture to give
+them, for these students lived here nearly six centuries
+ago, and doubtless had hopes, plans, and ambitions
+at bottom much the same as we have. They
+were, in order of seniority, John de Bagshot the
+warden, Nicholas de Durnford, Nicholas de Rome,
+David de Winchester, William Pour, Richard Pour,
+Nicholas Pour, John de Aston, John de Torterold,
+James de Torterold, Robert de Immeworth, Thomas
+de Windsor, Walter de Nottingham, Roger Parker,
+John de Kelsey, John de Hull, Edward de Kingston,
+Hugh de Sutton, Philip de London, John de Salisbury,
+Richard de Salisbury, Robert de Beverley,
+John Fort, Ralph de Gretford, Henry de Gretford,
+Nicholas Parker, Nicholas Pull, Richard de Berwick,
+Andrew Rosekin, Thomas Griffon, John Griffon,
+William Draghswerd, and John de Woodstock. It
+will be noticed that some of the students are designated
+by surnames which were already coming into
+use and some by place names: the latter show from
+what a wide area the scholars were drawn.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of travelling the Society was
+divided into two sections, both of which started
+from Cambridge on Thursday<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn28" id="fna28" name="fna28">28</a></sup>, 20 December. One
+<a name="png.164" id="png.164" href="#png.164"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>156<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>party, comprising the warden, John de Bagshot,
+and six of the scholars, went on horseback, and
+arrived at York on Christmas eve. Their journey thus
+occupied five days and they covered about thirty-five
+miles a day; of it we have no particulars, save
+that the warden paid <i>£</i>1. 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for the hire in
+Cambridge of seven hackneys, and was allowed
+<i>£</i>1. 9<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> for the other expenses, namely 10<i>d.</i> a day
+for each member of the party. The remaining
+twenty-six scholars travelled under the care of one
+of their number, John de Aston, and arrived at York
+on 28 December. They took with them seven and
+a half lengths of cloth with the furs thereto belonging,
+and four grooms, but whether the grooms went
+the whole way is not clear. It is with this nine
+days’ journey that I here deal.</p>
+
+<p>The cloth and furs which had been purchased
+on behalf of the crown from merchants at Bury were
+valuable. The former was red in colour (<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">de blodes
+mixto</i>) and had cost <i>£</i>21. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>: the latter comprised
+twenty-one lamb skins, bought for <i>£</i>2. 19<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>
+and six budge skins, bought for <i>£</i>1. The carriage
+of these goods must have been a serious hindrance
+to rapid travelling.</p>
+
+<p>The first two days, Thursday and Friday, 20 and
+21 December, were occupied in the journey from
+Cambridge to Spalding. This was made in two
+hired boats (with the services of six men), for which
+<a name="png.165" id="png.165" href="#png.165"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>157<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the charge was 5<i>s.</i> On 20 December, the travellers
+paid 2<i>d.</i> for porterage of their goods to the boats at
+Cambridge, 1<i>s.</i> 7<i>d.</i> for bread, 2<i>s.</i> for beer, 1<i>s.</i> for
+herrings, 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for hard fish and codlings, and 4<i>d.</i>
+for fuel. On 21 December they paid 1<i>s.</i> 5<i>d.</i> for
+bread, 2<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> for beer, 1<i>s.</i> 7<i>d.</i> for herrings and other
+fish, 3<i>d.</i> for cheese, 2<i>d.</i> for porterage from the boats
+at Spalding, 5½<i>d.</i> for fuel and candles, and 8<i>d.</i> for
+beds at Spalding.</p>
+
+<p>On Saturday, 22 December, they travelled to
+Boston. On this day, they paid 2<i>s.</i> for hiring two
+carts for carrying the cloth and fourteen of the
+scholars, and 3<i>s.</i> for twelve hackneys for the rest of
+the party. They also spent 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for bread,
+1<i>s.</i> 11<i>d.</i> for beer, 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> for herrings and other fish,
+5<i>d.</i> for fuel and candles, and 8<i>d.</i> for beds at Boston.</p>
+
+<p>The next two days, Sunday and Monday, 23 and
+24 December, were occupied in the journey to Lincoln
+which was performed in a single large boat. On
+23 December, they paid 5<i>s.</i> for the hire of this boat,
+4<i>d.</i> for straw to spread on it, 2<i>d.</i> for porterage to the
+boat, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> for bread, 2<i>s.</i> 7<i>d.</i> for beer, 2<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for meat,
+1<i>s.</i> 6¾<i>d.</i> for eight hens, and 6<i>d.</i> for fuel. On 24 December,
+they paid 1<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> for bread, 2<i>s.</i> for beer, 2<i>s.</i> 1<i>d.</i>
+for herrings and other fish, 9<i>d.</i> for eels, 3<i>d.</i> for porterage
+from the boat at Lincoln, 6½<i>d.</i> for fuel and
+candles, and 8<i>d.</i> for beds at Lincoln.</p>
+
+<p>Tuesday, being Christmas Day, was spent quietly
+<a name="png.166" id="png.166" href="#png.166"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>158<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>at Lincoln. Their expenses for the day were 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>
+for bread, 2<i>s.</i> 1<i>d.</i> for beer, 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> for meat, 1<i>s.</i> 1¼<i>d.</i>
+for five hens, 7½<i>d.</i> for candles and fuel, and 8<i>d.</i> for
+beds.</p>
+
+<p>On Wednesday, 26 December, the party travelled
+to Torksey, making the journey in two boats
+hired at Lincoln. On this day, they paid 2<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>
+for the hire of the boats, 3<i>d.</i> for porterage to the
+boats, 1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for bread, 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> for beer, 2<i>s.</i> 1<i>d.</i> for
+meat, 7<i>d.</i> for eggs, 4<i>d.</i> for fuel and candles, and 8<i>d.</i>
+for beds at Torksey.</p>
+
+<p>The next two days, Thursday and Friday, 27 and
+28 December, were occupied in the journey from
+Torksey to York, which was made in a large boat
+hired at Torksey. On 27 December, they paid 6<i>s.</i>
+for the hire of this boat, 2<i>d.</i> for porterage to the boat
+at Torksey, 1<i>s.</i> 7<i>d.</i> for bread, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> for beer, 1<i>s.</i> 10<i>d.</i>
+for meat. On 28 December, they paid 1<i>s.</i> for bread,
+1<i>s.</i> 5<i>d.</i> for beer, 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> for herrings and other fish,
+and 2<i>d.</i> for porterage of their goods at York.</p>
+
+<p>The total cost of the journey came to <i>£</i>4. 5<i>s.</i> 8½<i>d.</i>,
+and this was repaid to the warden from the royal
+exchequer on 31 December. On the opposite page
+is a summary of the daily expenditure described
+above.</p>
+
+
+<div class="chap9">
+<a name="png.167" id="png.167" href="#png.167"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>159<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>
+<table id="chap9" summary="Daily expenditure">
+<tr>
+  <th> </th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 20.</th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 21.</th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 22.</th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 23.</th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 24.</th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 25.</th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 26.</th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 27.</th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Dec. 28.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr class="h2">
+  <th> </th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th><th class="nix"></th>
+  <th><i>s.</i></th><th class="pence" colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th>
+</tr>
+<tr class="firstrow">
+  <td class="stuff">Hire of Boats</td>
+  <td>  5</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td> </td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td> </td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td> </td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  5</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td> </td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td> </td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td> </td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  8</td><td> </td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  6</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td> </td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td> </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Straw</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     4</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Porterage</td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     2</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    2</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     2</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    3</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     3</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     2</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    2</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Hire of Carts</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Hire of Hackneys</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  3</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Bread</td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence">  7</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 1</td><td class="pence">  5</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence">  4</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence">  6</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 1</td><td class="pence">  2</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 1</td><td class="pence">  4</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence">  8</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence">  7</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 1</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Beer</td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 2</td><td class="pence">  2</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence"> 11</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  7</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 2</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 2</td><td class="pence">  1</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  3</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  6</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 1</td><td class="pence">  5</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Hard Fish, etc.</td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence">  4</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Herrings, etc.</td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 1</td><td class="pence">  7</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  3</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 2</td><td class="pence">  1</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 1</td><td class="pence">  4</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Eels</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    9</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Meat</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  4</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 2</td><td class="pence">  3</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  2</td><td class="pence">  1</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence"> 10</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Hens</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td>  1</td><td class="pence">  6</td><td>¾</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 1</td><td class="pence">  1</td><td>¼</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Eggs</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     7</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Cheese</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    3</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Fuel and Candles</td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     4</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    5</td><td>½</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     5</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     6</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    6</td><td>½</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    7</td><td>½</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     4</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="stuff">Beds</td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    8</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     8</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    8</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">    8</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td></td><td class="pence">     8</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td class="nix" colspan="2">...</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="totalrow">
+  <td class="stuff"> </td>
+  <td> 11</td><td class="pence">  5</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 6</td><td class="pence">  8</td><td>½</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 11</td><td class="pence">  7</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 13</td><td class="pence"> 11</td><td>¾</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 7</td><td class="pence">  5</td><td>½</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 8</td><td class="pence">  0</td><td>¾</td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 10</td><td class="pence">  6</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 12</td><td class="pence">  1</td><td></td><td class="nix"></td>
+  <td> 3</td><td class="pence"> 11</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are no records of the expenses of the
+Society during the time the members were at York;
+but presumably while there, they were treated as
+<a name="png.168" id="png.168" href="#png.168"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>160<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>members of the royal household. Their visit, however,
+was not devoid of incident since a warrant
+was issued against one of them, Robert de Beverley,
+for having joined with the prior of the preaching
+friars of Pontefract in an assault on a certain William
+Hardy: the student was left behind at York,
+and there disappears from our history. Two other
+members of the House, Edward de Kingston and
+David de Winchester, were also left in the city, of
+whom probably at least one was concerned in this
+disturbance. One new member, Warin Trot, was
+admitted at York. These changes reduced the
+numbers to thirty-one. Of these thirty-one members,
+twenty-one, under the guidance of John de Aston,
+came back to Cambridge on the festival of
+St Fabian and St Sebastian (<i>i.e.</i> 20 January), while
+the warden and the remaining nine scholars, among
+whom Trot was included, arrived on 9 February,
+and from these dates their stipends in Cambridge
+during the Lent Term, 1320, were reckoned.</p>
+
+<p>Why the king summoned the members of the
+House to York at so considerable cost I cannot say,
+but I think the detailed statement of how most of
+them travelled and their expenses on the journey
+are interesting.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna27" id="fn27" name="fn27" title="Back">27</a> <cite>Exchequer Accounts</cite>, 552/10.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna28" id="fn28" name="fn28" title="Back">28</a> In my original paper the days of the week were given incorrectly.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="X An Outline of the College Story"><a name="png.169" id="png.169" href="#png.169"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>161<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER X.<br
+ /><small>AN OUTLINE OF THE COLLEGE STORY<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn29" id="fna29" name="fna29">29</a></sup>.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">I have</span> been asked to take you round Trinity
+College to-morrow, and by way of preface to say
+to-night something about its history. The first of
+these tasks, to anyone who lives here, is not difficult,
+but it is far from easy to give, in forty minutes,
+a sketch of a history covering centuries of academic
+life and involving references to the lives of many
+distinguished scholars and men of affairs. If I confined
+myself to an account of the buildings the
+problem would be simpler, but though they must
+form the chief topic of our talk to-morrow, I would
+prefer to-day to say something about the growth
+of the College. On these lines then I proceed,
+though necessarily in an incomplete way, to state
+the outline of our story.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">2.</span> Trinity College was founded in 1546, just
+about half-way back in the history of the University.
+Of those pre-Trinity days I will only say that
+the University arose about the end of the twelfth
+century, and that it was nearly a hundred years
+after its establishment before the first college was
+<a name="png.170" id="png.170" href="#png.170"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>162<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>founded. Colleges were erected for the benefit of
+selected scholars who were maintained at the expense
+of the foundation, and throughout the middle
+ages, most of the students lived in Private Hostels.
+In Tudor times undergraduates who paid their own
+expenses were admitted to colleges, and finally, every
+student was required to be a member of one of
+these Houses: the peculiar collegiate character of
+Oxford and Cambridge dates from this change.
+I need hardly add that women were not (and are
+not) admissible as members of the University, and
+that in former days teachers and students alike
+were unmarried.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">3.</span> Towards the close of his reign, Henry VIII
+determined to found a college at Cambridge which
+should promote his views on religion and the new
+learning. He decided to use for the purpose the
+buildings and land occupied or owned by two of the
+chief medieval colleges, King’s Hall and Michael-House.
+Accordingly, under parliamentary powers,
+he compelled those Societies to surrender to him
+their charters and possessions, purchased such small
+parts of our present Great Court as did not belong
+to them, and gave all this property to his new
+college together with large revenues from religious
+houses which he had recently dissolved. The proceedings
+were high-handed, but we may say that
+the result justified him. It is believed that, during
+<a name="png.171" id="png.171" href="#png.171"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>163<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>these proceedings, the university careers of a few of
+the students, at any rate of King’s Hall, were not
+interrupted, and that thus our academic life runs
+without a break from the days of Edward II to the
+present time. Most of the buildings of Michael-House
+have now disappeared, but our connection
+with King’s Hall is still evident through the remains
+of its Cloister Court, our Great Gate which
+bears an inscription commemorating the permanent
+establishment of King’s Hall by Edward III, and
+our Clock Tower on which is a statue of that
+monarch. To this group of buildings we must first
+direct attention to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">4.</span> Trinity was far larger than the colleges to
+whose buildings and property it succeeded. Of
+course it has had ups and downs in its career, but
+it has generally occupied and still occupies a predominant
+position in the University. Thus in 1564,
+its residents numbered three hundred and six out of
+a total of one thousand two hundred and sixty-seven
+in the University, while last October [1905],
+it had five hundred and sixty-eight undergraduates
+out of a total of two thousand eight hundred and
+thirty-five in the University, and two hundred resident
+graduates out of one thousand and five in the
+University: we now confine our normal entry to
+under two hundred a year, and as long as this is so,
+our numbers cannot exceed a certain limit which we
+<a name="png.172" id="png.172" href="#png.172"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>164<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>have long reached, so, as the University grows, the
+percentage of students on our boards decreases.
+The College has always recognized that it was its
+duty to be a centre of learning as well as one of
+higher education, and thanks to its traditions and
+the large number of resident fellows, it has been
+able to fulfil this double duty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">5.</span> For the first few years after its foundation,
+Trinity was occupied in settling the many problems
+which arise in a new foundation. As far as accommodation
+went, the buildings of King’s Hall and
+Michael-House were connected, and sufficed for immediate
+needs. Naturally the protestant character
+of the foundation given by Henry was emphasized
+by the advisers of Edward VI, the altar in the chapel
+being removed and a communion table set up in
+Huguenot fashion in the middle of the building.
+Queen Mary increased the foundation, and took a
+warm interest in its affairs; of course the Roman
+service was then restored. Under Elizabeth the
+Anglican services were resumed, and she completed
+the erection of the present chapel which had been
+begun by her sister: it stands to-day externally
+much in its original form, though the interior scheme
+of decoration is different. We may leave till to-morrow
+the description of it and college doings
+connected therewith. This first chapter of our
+history ends in 1560 when the constitution of the
+<a name="png.173" id="png.173" href="#png.173"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>165<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>College was definitely established in a form which
+remained practically unaltered till 1861.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">6.</span> The next decade was critical. Many of
+those who had adopted the reformed religion desired
+further changes on presbyterian lines, and
+Cambridge, which had taken so prominent a part
+in the reformation, was their chief intellectual
+stronghold. Their leader was Cartwright, a fellow
+of Trinity, and their chief opponent was Whitgift,
+the master of the College: thus a contest of national
+importance was mixed up with college politics and
+carried on partly within the college walls. Whitgift’s
+powers as master were large, and he strained them
+to the utmost to remove from the House those who
+opposed him; times, however, were revolutionary
+and public opinion condoned and even approved
+his actions. At any rate victory remained with
+him and his party in the College, the University,
+and the State, and the position of the Church of
+England between Rome and Geneva is that for
+which he fought.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">7.</span> Whitgift acted as tutor to some of the
+students, among whom were Francis Bacon and his
+brother Anthony: you will see the portrait of the
+former (as also that of Whitgift) to-morrow, together
+with those of his contemporaries, Edward Coke subsequently
+the great lawyer, and Robert Devereux
+earl of Essex the ill-fated favourite of Elizabeth.
+<a name="png.174" id="png.174" href="#png.174"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>166<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>By a happy accident some of Whitgift’s tutorial
+ledgers have been preserved, and we have in them
+details of the expenditure of his pupils, which, combined
+with information from other sources, enables
+us to give a fairly complete account of their daily
+work, prayers, meals, and amusements<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn30" id="fna30" name="fna30">30</a></sup>. A usual
+age for commencing residence was fifteen or sixteen,
+and it would seem that students then (though of
+course subject in many things to reasonable restraints)
+were allowed that liberty of action which in
+my opinion is, even though sometimes misused, an
+essential feature of university education as opposed
+to the control of the pupil’s doings in every hour of
+the day which is common in many schools. In 1577
+Whitgift accepted a bishopric: an eloquent farewell
+sermon preached in College from 2 Corinthians,
+chapter 13, verse 2, revealed sincere affection
+for the place and moved his audience, “insomuch
+that there were scarce any drie eyes to be found
+amongst the whole number.” He left the House
+prosperous and of high repute.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">8.</span> In 1593 Nevile was appointed master, and
+took in hand the needed reconstruction of the
+<a name="png.175" id="png.175" href="#png.175"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>167<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>buildings. It had from the first been recognized
+that the site offered opportunities for the erection of
+buildings worthy of the reputation of the College,
+and he realized how much the effect would depend
+on making the court large, and above all on keeping
+the chamber frontage only two storeys high with
+attics above. The Great Court as it stands to-day
+is his creation; the only obvious defect in it is the
+ugly block built in the south-west corner in 1770
+to replace Nevile’s set of combination rooms which
+had an elevation agreeing generally with that of the
+master’s lodge, but enriched by a large projecting
+trefoil oriel. The hall, kitchens, combination rooms,
+and lodge form another group of buildings to which
+we must pay attention to-morrow: the first two of
+these are in the form left by Nevile. The blazoned
+glass in the hall and our collection of pictures in
+these rooms, especially the portraits of Henry VIII,
+Mary, and Elizabeth, all of whom have played an
+important part in our history, will well repay your
+study. Nevile also built, at his own cost, part of the
+court situated on the west side of the hall. This too
+we shall see to-morrow on our way to the library:
+in his day, the court was closed on the river side by
+a low wall, in the middle of which stood the stone
+gateway now used as the entrance to the College
+from Trinity Lane, and beyond this wall were the
+tennis courts and paddocks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber"><a name="png.176" id="png.176" href="#png.176"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>168<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>9.</span> The prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I,
+came to the College to inspect these alterations,
+and he was followed later by James I. These visits
+are commemorated by the statues of James, his
+wife, and Charles placed on the west side of the
+Great Gate. The king was so pleased with his
+entertainment that he repeated his visit on three
+subsequent occasions. Of Nevile, one of his contemporaries
+wrote, “He never had his like for a
+splendid courteous and bounteous gentleman,”
+and the College still gratefully honours his memory.
+He was trusted and esteemed by Elizabeth, and
+when dying she selected him to carry to Scotland
+the fateful letter in which she nominated James I
+to succeed her. If you go into the dining room of
+the lodge you will see Nevile’s portrait, hung in the
+place of honour over the mantelpiece, representing
+him as holding this letter in one hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">10.</span> You must not think that under Nevile’s
+rule the energies of the College were wholly directed
+to material ends. In a memorandum of 1607 on
+the use of college emoluments for students, he
+was able to say that of the higher church officials
+of the day, eleven deans, seven bishops, and the two
+archbishops, were drawn from Trinity. In academic
+distinctions, in legal appointments, and in
+statesmanship its records were equally satisfactory:
+so the College was worthily maintaining its tradition
+<a name="png.177" id="png.177" href="#png.177"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>169<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>of service in church and state. Under his immediate
+successors the College entered on a period of steady
+prosperity. In the next generation, however, the
+shadows of the civil disturbances of the seventeenth
+century began to fall; theological disputes increased,
+scholarship in other subjects received but scanty
+attention, and a general slackness in intellectual
+pursuits was visible, though it is fair to say that
+among the students of the time were three or four
+who later deservedly acquired reputation as poets.
+Among the latter I particularize George Herbert,
+Abraham Cowley, and Andrew Marvell; Dryden
+entered a few years later.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">11.</span> On the outbreak of civil war the town was
+occupied by the parliamentary forces, troops were
+quartered in the College, and a good deal of damage
+done to the fabric. In 1644 a large number of the
+fellows were expelled, their places being filled by
+zealots of but slight education. It may be put to
+the credit of a few who were left, notably Duport
+and Ray, that in this time of stress they devoted
+themselves to maintaining the standard of scholarship.
+On the restoration such of the expelled
+fellows as were still alive and unmarried resumed
+office. They decided that there should be no retaliations,
+and that all those nominated to fellowships
+under the commonwealth should be allowed
+to remain, provided only they did not preach in
+<a name="png.178" id="png.178" href="#png.178"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>170<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the chapel unless they were members of the Church
+of England: that was a noble reply to the wrongs
+suffered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">12.</span> The College took pride in resuming at once
+its position in the world of letters and science, and
+the following years are famous for the work of Pearson
+and Barrow, two great divines of the time, and
+above all of Isaac Newton. The influence of the
+last-named philosopher on the studies and intellectual
+life of Cambridge was far reaching. His
+discoveries in pure mathematics, mechanics, physics,
+and dynamical astronomy were of the utmost importance,
+and made Cambridge the centre of
+mathematical work in England. I will show you
+to-morrow the rooms he occupied and in which he
+wrote his famous <cite>Principia</cite>. The staircase on
+which these rooms are situated has had other distinguished
+occupants: the rooms on the ground floor
+on the right-hand side on entering it were occupied
+by Thackeray, and subsequently by the late
+astronomer-royal; those on the opposite side by
+Macaulay; the rooms on the first floor next the
+gate which once had been occupied by Isaac Newton,
+were used later by Lightfoot, the theologian,
+and Jebb, the Greek scholar; and those on the
+opposite side by Sir James Frazer, who has done so
+much to investigate the beliefs of primitive man.
+This is an interesting group of men, but in fact
+<a name="png.179" id="png.179" href="#png.179"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>171<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>there are few rooms in College which have not
+been inhabited at some time by those who have
+made their names famous.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">13.</span> Barrow held the mastership from 1673 to
+1677. On his initiative the College erected, on the
+west side of Nevile’s Court, the magnificent library
+which is now stored with literary treasures. This is
+another building to which we must pay attention to-morrow,
+and with it we may associate the adjoining
+chambers. From the close of the seventeenth century
+onwards we can describe life in College, especially
+among undergraduates, in considerable detail. The
+usual age of entry had risen to seventeen or eighteen.
+To the dons the College offered a comfortable home
+until an opportunity occurred of taking a college
+living, and it must be admitted that some were
+beginning to be content to consider it as nothing
+more. Materials for the history of the time and the
+following century have been published by Christopher
+Wordsworth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">14.</span> Towards the close of the seventeenth century,
+the number of entries fell; this was attributed,
+and no doubt correctly, to the rise to office in College
+of those fellows appointed by mandatory letters from
+James II—he having filled every fellowship that became
+vacant during his reign. The history of the
+Society during the early years of the eighteenth
+century may be dismissed with the briefest notice,
+<a name="png.180" id="png.180" href="#png.180"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>172<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>for college energies were largely occupied by domestic
+disputes, and the number of residents still
+further decreased: these misfortunes were mainly
+due to the scandals inseparably associated with the
+name of Bentley. Bentley held the mastership
+from 1700 to 1742: his critical work can hardly be
+over-praised, but his career here was marked by
+malversations and many dishonourable transactions.
+The only scholars of the time I need mention
+are Cotes and Robert Smith who were mathematicians
+of repute. The latter of these scholars, when
+master, did something to restore orderly government
+and discipline.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">15.</span> It was not until near the close of the
+century that the College recovered from the taint of
+Bentley’s misrule, and scholarship again flourished
+within our walls: among the residents of the time
+was Porson, whose wit and conversation must have
+been delightful features of the High Table of his
+day—he lived in K 5, Great Court. Mathematics
+now afforded the chief avenue to distinction, but
+some acquaintance with classics and moral philosophy
+was also obligatory. This period is famous
+for the number of eminent judges educated in the
+College: the strict training in formal logic and geometry
+required for success in the mathematical tripos
+being especially favourable to legal work. Out of
+eleven such Trinity judges of the time the names
+<a name="png.181" id="png.181" href="#png.181"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>173<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>of Tindal, Pollock, Maule, Lyndhurst, Wensleydale,
+and Cranworth are still remembered. Socially,
+manners were generally coarser than at any time
+during the previous century or than later; though
+the revival of religion under the influence of Simeon
+did something to ameliorate matters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">16.</span> Unlike its predecessor the nineteenth century
+was one of unbroken progress in college achievements
+and reputation. Near its commencement two
+internal changes of some importance were introduced
+in the imposition of an entrance examination
+test and of a limit to the number of those admitted.
+None the less our numbers increased, and in
+1823–25, another court (the New Court) was built on
+the south side of that erected by Nevile. At this
+time, conspicuous among the resident fellows were
+Sedgwick the geologist, Peacock the mathematician,
+Scholefield, Hare, and Thirlwall, Macaulay the historian,
+and Airy the astronomer: it would be difficult
+to exaggerate their influence on the intellectual life
+of the College and University. The undergraduate
+society a few years later also numbered a group of
+men of exceptional power, notably Trench afterwards
+archbishop of Dublin, Thackeray, Fitzgerald,
+Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton), Spedding, Arthur
+Hallam, Kinglake the historian, the three Tennysons
+(Alfred, Charles, and Frederick), and Thompson;
+while a little later came Alford, Lushington, Grote,
+<a name="png.182" id="png.182" href="#png.182"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>174<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Tom Taylor, Burnand, and Francis Galton. Materials
+left by these men, and books like J. M. F. Wright’s
+<cite>Alma Mater</cite>, C. A. Bristed’s <cite>Five years in an English
+University</cite>, Leslie Stephen’s <cite>Sketches from Cambridge
+by a Don</cite>, and W. Everett’s <cite>On the Cam</cite>, give us full
+information of college life during the middle of the
+century. In connection with the social life of the
+early half of the nineteenth century I should note
+that athletic clubs now began to be formed—the
+First Trinity Boat Club, constituted in 1825, being
+the earliest. These societies led to the formulation
+of definite rules for various forms of sport, and to
+much more attention being paid to out-door games.
+The subsequent growth of organized recreations of
+this kind, increasingly developed in recent years, will
+strike the future historian as one of the outstanding
+features of the last century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">17.</span> In 1840 Whewell was appointed master.
+He was of commanding abilities and exercised extraordinary
+influence: to him more than to any other
+single individual is due that development of scientific
+studies at Cambridge which has been so marked in
+the recent history of the University. Under him, the
+prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII, was entered
+at the College, and later showed his appreciation of
+its influence by sending his eldest son, the duke of
+Clarence, here. Whewell erected at his own cost the
+two courts on the east side of Trinity Street, the
+<a name="png.183" id="png.183" href="#png.183"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>175<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>rents being used to encourage the study of International
+Law in the University. During his mastership
+the old order began to crumble, and new ideals
+of education, study, and research arose. The Elizabethan
+statutes were replaced by transitional statutes
+in 1844 and 1861, and these in turn were replaced
+by others in 1882, under which the College is now
+governed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">18.</span> Whewell died in 1866, and was succeeded as
+master by Thompson, and he in 1886 by Butler.
+With their masterships we come to the affairs of to-day.
+The 1882 statutes opened a new chapter in our
+history; restrictions on the marriage of fellows were
+removed, and successful teachers thus encouraged to
+remain in residence; incidentally, this created a new
+social atmosphere. In this and other ways the conditions
+of academic life were considerably changed.
+We need not, however, shun a comparison with
+older times: if you want to see how freely Trinity
+during the late Victorian period spent itself in the
+public service look down any list of judges, bishops,
+statesmen, colonial governors, and civil servants of
+the time, and in all you will find many Trinity men
+conspicuous. Confining ourselves strictly to academic
+work in Cambridge and to those who have now [1906]
+passed away, I may mention the names of Clerk
+Maxwell in physics, of Cayley in mathematics, of
+Munro and Jebb in classics, of Thompson in Greek
+<a name="png.184" id="png.184" href="#png.184"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>176<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>philosophy, of Sidgwick in ethics, and of Westcott,
+Lightfoot, and Hort in theology: all of these were
+fellows of the College, and professors in the University.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">19.</span> This is a bare summary of a complex story.
+Of the spirit that actuates the College, of all that
+makes it a living Society, I have said little. In
+truth, these are incapable of analysis. The charm
+that the place perennially exercises on those who,
+generation after generation, make it their home, the
+affection it inspires, are intangible: they exist, there
+are but few members of the House who have not
+felt them, and perhaps that is all I need say on this
+aspect of our history.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna29" id="fn29" name="fn29" title="Back">29</a> A paper read to a party of north-country students visiting the
+College in 1906.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna30" id="fn30" name="fn30" title="Back">30</a> On some of the items in Whitgift’s tutorial ledgers, see above,
+chapter ii, pp. 36–39: the bills are printed at length in volumes 32
+and 33 of the <cite>British Magazine</cite>, 1847, 1848. Other information on
+the daily life of students of the time is given in the statutes of
+1560. An interesting list of the outfit and furniture in the rooms
+of a fellow-commoner in 1577 was printed by C. H. Cooper, <cite>Annals
+of Cambridge</cite>, vol. <span class="allsc">II</span>, pp. 352–356.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="partpage">
+<big><a name="png.185" id="png.185" href="#png.185"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>177<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>PART II.<br
+ /><span class="h2">Concerning the University.</span></big>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="XI. The Beginnings of the Medieval University"><a name="png.187" id="png.187" href="#png.187"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>179<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER XI.<br
+ /><small>THE BEGINNINGS OF THE MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITY.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">The</span> problems connected with the beginnings of
+the University of Cambridge and the conditions
+of life in its early days have always interested
+me. Much is uncertain and open to various readings<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn31" id="fna31" name="fna31">31</a></sup>,
+but the following is a summary of the story,
+as it appears to me.</p>
+
+<p>First, as to the site of the University. About the
+end of the eleventh century, Cambridge was little
+more than a village concentrated round St Peter’s
+church, having separate hamlets in its vicinity,
+one near St Benet’s church and the other at Newnham:
+at that time there was nothing to suggest the
+likelihood of its being chosen by students as a place
+where they might live and work in security. During
+the next century, however, it became of considerable
+importance. This was due to several causes.
+The chief of these were the castle erected in it by
+William the Conqueror to overawe the fen-men; its
+geographical location which gave it command of the
+<a name="png.188" id="png.188" href="#png.188"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>180<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>river passage by which most of the traffic between
+the midlands and the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk
+went; its position as a port of entry for small sea-going
+vessels coming from Lynn, of which a relic still
+survives in a bonded warehouse on the banks of the
+Cam; its vicinity to Sturbridge common on which
+came to be held one of the chief annual fairs in the
+kingdom; and lastly the establishment here of the
+large monastic Houses of the Augustin Canons, of
+the Brethren of St John’s Hospital, and of the Nuns of
+St Rhadegund: it would seem also that it became<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn32" id="fna32" name="fna32">32</a></sup>,
+maybe under the authority of the secular canons of
+St Giles, the seat of a grammar-school or schools.
+By 1200 the town had spread from castle-end to
+where Christ’s, Peterhouse, and Queens’ now stand,
+and along the east side of the river there were
+numerous small wharves, locally known as hythes.
+The writs of Henry I and Henry II and the charter
+of John bear witness to its importance in their reigns,
+but later this tended to diminish relatively to other
+towns.</p>
+
+<p>The Universities of Cambridge and Oxford
+were initiated near the end of the twelfth century,
+both arising in towns free from disorder and where
+accommodation for students was obtainable. It
+was a time when men of scholarly tastes, especially
+<a name="png.189" id="png.189" href="#png.189"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>181<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>those resident in religious houses, were conscious
+of their ignorance of recent developments in theology
+as set out by Peter Lombard and in canon law,
+and were keen to study these subjects and scholastic
+logic. Schools to meet these needs arose in Cambridge
+and Oxford and became permanent. Like
+centres of instruction were established in other
+places, but for one reason or another did not survive
+long as degree-granting corporations.</p>
+
+<p>It is not known whether the University of
+Cambridge began with a few teachers taking up
+their residence in the town, giving instruction, and
+attracting students and other teachers, or whether
+it started ready-made by a migration of a body of
+discontented teachers and students from some existing
+school. I believe the former view to be
+correct. If so, we may reasonably assume that a
+considerable proportion of the earliest adult students
+were previously living in monastic houses
+here or in the neighbouring fenland monasteries at
+Ely, Peterborough, or Croyland. It has been suggested
+that at first the lectures were given in the
+local grammar-schools: this is probable, and would
+fit in with the secular organization of the University
+and the fact that boys learning Latin grammar
+(glomerels) were reckoned among its students. Probably
+the movement was started with the sanction
+and direct encouragement of the bishop of Ely,
+<a name="png.190" id="png.190" href="#png.190"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>182<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>certainly it was not directly monastic, and more
+likely the teachers were secular clerks and not
+monks. I conjecture that at first the lecturers were
+strangers to the locality, but this in no way implies
+that a fragment of another university, students
+as well as teachers, migrated here as an organized
+body.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the origin of the University, its members
+organized themselves for mutual aid and protection
+as a <i>Studium</i> on the model of that at Paris,
+with which it seems later to have been frequently
+in touch. If we may trust ancient traditions quoted
+by Bulaeus and Peacock, the early University had
+also some connection with the studium of Orleans:
+this is possible but speculative. Bologna represented
+another type of organization which, however, was
+not adopted anywhere in England. The University
+of Cambridge existed in working order in 1209, and
+in my opinion its origin may be safely assigned to
+some time in the previous twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>Of its external history during the century following
+its organization we know little: we read of
+its chancellor in 1225, of French students coming
+to it in 1229, of special privileges conferred by the
+crown in 1231 and 1251, of its recognition by the
+pope in 1233, and finally of a papal grant in 1318—exceptional
+in extent—of all rights which were or
+could be enjoyed by any university in Christendom.
+<a name="png.191" id="png.191" href="#png.191"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>183<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Oxford went through somewhat similar stages. The
+two universities were closely connected, and by 1333
+their position had become so firmly established that
+they agreed not to recognize any other studium in
+the kingdom, and in fact after that year no other
+university was established in England until less than
+a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>Originally the main source of university authority
+was the body of active teachers (regents)
+acting with the concurrence of the chancellor who
+represented the bishop of Ely; their grouping in
+faculties was an obvious development, and probably
+took place early in the thirteenth century. Resident
+graduates who had ceased to teach (non-regents)
+were allowed a voice on matters of property,
+rights, and privileges. The establishment of
+monasteries and colleges with administrative officers
+tended to retain in residence graduates who were
+not lecturing; through them the house of non-regents
+grew in power, and finally in many questions
+obtained concurrent jurisdiction with that of
+the regents—the result was a very complex constitution.
+At first the University had no buildings of its
+own; the regent and non-regent houses met in
+St Benet’s or St Mary’s church, and lectures were
+given wherever accommodation could be obtained.
+After this digression I return to the position of the
+students in the early University.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.192" id="png.192" href="#png.192"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>184<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Numerous monasteries were established in Cambridge
+during the thirteenth century, and from this
+I infer that the number of members of the religious
+Orders studying in the University steadily
+increased during that century. Of monastic Houses
+in Cambridge previous to the foundation of the
+University I have already mentioned those of the
+Augustin Canons, founded in connection with St
+Giles’ church, about 1092, and moved in 1112 to
+Barnwell where their priory became in time one
+of the largest conventual buildings in England,
+and of the Austin Brethren of Frost’s or St John’s
+Hospital, built about 1135 on ground now occupied
+by St John’s College. Shortly after the organization
+of a studium in the town, five important Orders
+established Houses here. These were the Franciscan
+or Grey Friars, who, from their first home
+situated near the present Divinity Schools and used
+from 1224 to 1294, removed in 1294 to a site now
+occupied by Sidney Sussex College, where their
+church was one of the conspicuous architectural
+features of medieval Cambridge; the Dominican or
+Black Friars, who built in 1274 on ground now
+occupied by Emmanuel College; the Carmelite or
+White Friars, who, having previously lived in
+houses at Chesterton and Newnham, removed in
+1290 to a site now occupied by Queens’ and King’s
+Colleges; the Augustine Friars, who built, about
+<a name="png.193" id="png.193" href="#png.193"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>185<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>1290, a home on or near ground now occupied
+by the university examination halls and lecture
+rooms, in the basement of which some fragments
+of the old friary may be found; and the Sempringham
+or White Canons, who about 1290 obtained
+possession of St Edmund’s Priory which had been
+built before 1278 near the Trumpington Gate. The
+Houses of the Bethlehem Friars, opened in 1257,
+of the Friars of the Sack, opened in 1258, and of
+the Friars of St Mary, opened in 1273, were suppressed
+in 1307, and probably were never important
+foundations. I believe that the presence in Cambridge
+of these great establishments, always housing
+a certain number of students, gave stability to the
+nascent University, and tended to prevent its dissipation
+in times of stress: this is a point in our early
+history which is sometimes overlooked. Students
+from Houses of the Benedictine or Black Monks
+were also sent to Cambridge, but until 1428 they
+seem to have had no special home of their own: in
+that year the Order built for them a hostel known
+as Buckingham House which now forms part of
+the first court of Magdalene College.</p>
+
+<p>These conventual Houses were outside town
+and university authority, but their wealth and
+position made them influential. Striking evidence
+of this is afforded by the facts that they secured to
+their members the right to proceed direct to degrees
+<a name="png.194" id="png.194" href="#png.194"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>186<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>in divinity without graduating in arts—a privilege
+not granted to students in law or medicine—and that
+at every congregation of the University the senior
+religious doctor present could veto the offer of any
+grace and so block all business. These privileges
+suggest that monastic students were the dominant
+class in the early days of the University. They were,
+however, naturally distrusted by other students, for
+admittedly they owed allegiance to outside bodies,
+and no man can serve two masters. By the end of
+the thirteenth century the monastic movement had
+spent its force, and thenceforth the religious students
+took a constantly decreasing share in university
+activities; of course they disappeared at the reformation,
+when the monasteries throughout the country
+were suppressed.</p>
+
+<p>I come next to the question of the secular
+students in arts, most or all of whom would be clerks
+in major or minor orders. Rejecting the migration
+theory of the origin of the University, I do not suppose
+that in its earliest days these secular students
+were numerous, for the vicinity cannot have provided
+many such men, but as soon as the University
+acquired reputation as a centre of higher teaching
+they would be attracted to it from a wide area, and
+their numbers would be increased by many glomerels
+who would continue their course as students
+in arts. In the course of the thirteenth century
+<a name="png.195" id="png.195" href="#png.195"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>187<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>these secular students became strong enough to
+assert themselves against the position and privileges
+assumed by the religious students, and after
+that century graces were constantly passed (<i>ex. gr.</i>
+in 1303) to prevent monastic interference in academic
+affairs, or (as in 1369) to limit the number of
+monastic graduates.</p>
+
+<p>A non-graduate student in arts was, before
+admission, expected to know Latin, and, on admission,
+apprenticed to a master or doctor who
+acted as a tutor in scholastic matters: in 1276 this
+system of apprenticeship was made compulsory.
+The full medieval course lasted several years.
+Students who entered as boys stayed, if they took
+the full course, till they were grown men, gradually
+taking up teaching as part of their course of study.
+The bachelors may have assisted in the education of
+the younger arts students and of the glomerels who
+are mentioned below, but normally instruction in
+the arts course was given by masters, and in the
+higher faculties by doctors. The degree of master
+was a license to teach, and newly created masters
+were required to teach and to reside for two years
+(or later at least one year) for that purpose. This
+pre-reformation scheme is in marked contrast to
+the modern plan where the students enter as young
+men, all of about the same age, with a normal
+course lasting three years or so, and with their
+<a name="png.196" id="png.196" href="#png.196"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>188<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>studies sharply differentiated from those of a limited
+number of post-graduate and research students
+and of a separate body of teachers. Mullinger estimated
+that during the medieval period the number
+of resident regents varied from one hundred to two
+hundred, and the number of students (apparently
+exclusive of monastic students) never exceeded two
+thousand of whom the great majority were of
+humble birth; no doubt there were wide variations
+in the numbers at different times.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Guilds in the University cannot
+be given with any certainty. It may be that in
+the early years of the University most secular students
+and teachers from any particular locality were
+associated together as a guild, and perhaps every
+student on arrival was expected to join his local guild,
+and through it become a member of the University.
+The guilds imposed on their members definite rules
+for their conduct in relation to one another, and
+enforced such regulations by means of money fines,
+refusal of assistance, and in extreme cases expulsion.
+The relations between the members of different
+guilds were, however, often unfriendly or worse;
+in particular there was constant friction between
+the guilds connected with localities north and south
+of the Trent. It has been suggested that at one
+time one of the proctors represented the cis-trentine
+guilds and the other the trans-trentine guilds: this
+<a name="png.197" id="png.197" href="#png.197"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>189<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>seems to have been the case at Oxford, but there is
+no evidence of such a custom at Cambridge where,
+according to Peacock, these trentine disputes were
+less violent than at the sister University.</p>
+
+<p>We may take it that the master to whom
+a secular non-graduate student was apprenticed
+looked after his studies, and probably officers of
+the guild to which he belonged looked after him
+when sick or maltreated. In other matters, however,
+he was left to take care of himself, and thus was
+constantly liable to extortion. To meet this evil,
+the University early obtained powers enabling it to
+settle, without consulting the citizens, various local
+matters such as the prices of lodging and food.</p>
+
+<p>Besides students in arts there was also another
+class of secular students consisting of boys,
+known as glomerels (grammarians) and rhetoricians,
+who were under a special officer of the University
+called the master of glomery. I conjecture that
+originally these were the boys at the local grammar-schools,
+that after the foundation of the University
+such boys were regularly treated as glomerel members
+of it, and that for this reason we hear nothing
+more of the local grammar-schools which had at
+first supplied them: most students of this type must
+have lived at home and come from the town or immediate
+neighbourhood. I suppose that in later
+times the number of glomerels was swollen by the
+<a name="png.198" id="png.198" href="#png.198"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>190<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>entry among them of students who had come to
+Cambridge, and were found to be ignorant of Latin
+grammar, and so inadmissible to the arts faculty.</p>
+
+<p>The chief study of a glomerel was Latin grammar,
+and on attaining reasonable proficiency in it he
+could change over to the arts faculty if he wished.
+If a student continued in the glomerel faculty, the
+degree of master in grammar (or rhetoric) was open
+to him, but in processions of the University, such
+graduates took a lower place than students in arts,
+and their inferior position was emphasized by a
+statute which, while regulating the attendance of
+regents at the funeral of a regent master or student
+in arts, stated that graduates and scholars in grammar
+were not entitled to such recognition—<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Illis
+tantummodo exceptis, qui artem solam docent vel
+audiunt grammaticam, ad quorum exequias nisi ex
+devotione non veniant supradicti</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The ceremony of graduation in grammar has
+often been described: it involved the beating openly
+in the schools of a shrewd boy obtained by the university
+officers for the purpose, and the presentation
+to the new master of a ferule: this suggests that the
+course was regarded as a training for a schoolmaster’s
+career, it also facilitated admission to
+orders. As time passed, the glomerels, originally
+forming a large and important section of the University
+here and at Oxford, decreased in numbers,
+<a name="png.199" id="png.199" href="#png.199"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>191<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>and in the latter half of the fifteenth century they
+ceased to be of much importance in academic life.
+The faculty of rhetoric was constituted on similar
+lines to that of grammar, and practically treated as
+part of it. The last degrees in rhetoric and grammar
+of which we have notice were conferred in 1493
+and 1548 respectively: probably the office of master
+of glomery fell into disuse about the beginning of
+the sixteenth century, though it is possible that it
+was held by Sir John Cheke as late as 1547.</p>
+
+<p>The evils consequent on allowing inexperienced
+students, some of whom were quite young, to fend
+for themselves in all matters outside the schools
+were obvious, and it was not long before steps were
+taken to improve matters by the foundation of
+colleges and the licensing of private hostels.</p>
+
+<p>Colleges were designed for selected scholars
+partly to provide assistance for them, and partly
+to protect them from pressure to join a monastic
+Order: the advantages offered being shelter,
+a common sitting room properly warmed, regular
+meals, the use of books, and general supervision.
+The earliest attempt to provide aid and protection
+of this kind for certain scholars was made, about
+1275, by Hugh de Balsham, who arranged for their
+reception as members of Frost’s Hospital; but there
+were constant quarrels between the two sides of
+the House, and in 1284 he dissolved the union and
+<a name="png.200" id="png.200" href="#png.200"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>192<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>moved the secular students to a building (Peterhouse)
+of their own. Other similar foundations were soon
+created: the King’s Scholars (later incorporated as
+King’s Hall) in 1317, Michael-House in 1324, Clare
+in 1325, Pembroke in 1347, Gonville in 1348, Trinity
+Hall in 1350, and Corpus Christi in 1352. Every new
+college that was established provided fresh definite
+ties with the locality, and rendered less likely the
+break-up of the University and the scattering of its
+members—a serious risk to which in early days it
+was always subject. Then came an interval of nearly
+a hundred years, but in the fifteenth century the
+collegiate movement recommenced, and we have
+the foundation of God’s House in 1439, of King’s in
+1441, of Queens’ in 1448 and 1465, of St Catharine’s
+in 1473, and of Jesus in 1496. In the sixteenth
+century we have the larger and more ambitious
+foundations of Christ’s in 1505, St John’s in 1511,
+Magdalene in 1519, Trinity in 1546, Emmanuel in
+1584, and Sidney Sussex in 1596.</p>
+
+<p>The colleges were intended for picked scholars.
+In the course of the fourteenth century the problem
+of the care of other students was taken up, and they
+were forbidden to live in lodgings selected by themselves
+and under no external supervision. To provide
+for them, the University licensed private hostels
+which were managed by masters of arts on lines
+somewhat similar to boarding houses in public schools
+<a name="png.201" id="png.201" href="#png.201"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>193<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>to-day. Thenceforth throughout the middle ages the
+majority of undergraduates resided in these hostels.
+Caius gave the names and sites of twenty-seven private
+hostels which he had known and all of which
+closed their doors during his life, the last in 1540:
+Fuller enumerated thirty-four hostels and two “inns”
+while his editor mentioned fourteen other hostels,
+but some of these certainly ought not to be included
+under the term. Perhaps we may say that the
+number open at anyone time rarely exceeded thirty
+or fell short of twenty: some were cheap, some expensive;
+some were well managed, others not so.
+After the development of these hostels the guilds
+decreased in importance, and finally disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>With the establishment of colleges and private
+hostels the University was fairly launched on its
+career in a form which lasted till the middle half of
+the sixteenth century. My object was to state how,
+in my opinion, it originally took shape, and I do not
+propose here to follow its history further.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna31" id="fn31" name="fn31" title="Back">31</a> Most of the known facts are given in Mullinger’s excellent
+histories, Peacock’s <cite>Observations on the Statutes</cite>, and Rashdall’s
+<cite>Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages</cite>—but all the views of the
+last-named writer are not universally accepted.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna32" id="fn32" name="fn32" title="Back">32</a> See <i>passim</i> G. Peacock, <cite>Observations on the Statutes</cite>, London,
+1841, p. xxxv.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="XII. Discipline"><a name="png.202" id="png.202" href="#png.202"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>194<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER XII.<br
+ /><small>DISCIPLINE.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">This</span> paper contains some extracts from my notebooks
+on the way in which university and college
+discipline was maintained in former days at
+Cambridge. The records on the subject are scanty,
+but I think the facts are worth putting together in
+a connected form. There is no reason to suppose
+that the practices of different colleges varied materially,
+and if in the later period I have taken examples
+from the records of Trinity it is only because
+I have had easier access to them.</p>
+
+<p>In the history of university discipline and social
+customs abrupt changes are not to be expected, and
+none such are noticeable in the transition from the
+medieval period, <i>circ.</i> 1200 to 1525, through the
+renaissance, <i>circ.</i> 1525 to 1640, and the period of
+stagnation, <i>circ.</i> 1660 to 1820, to the present age
+of reconstruction and extension. I begin naturally
+with discipline in medieval Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days of the University the students
+lodged in the town and were of all ages from twelve
+or thirteen upwards. Except in strictly academic
+matters, there was little or no supervision of their
+conduct, and, outside the schools, grave disorders
+<a name="png.203" id="png.203" href="#png.203"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>195<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>were common; the University, however, claimed
+power, when it chose, to take cognizance of all
+offences contrary to good manners, and at any rate
+in later days did so in serious cases. The regulations
+at Cambridge and Oxford were so similar that
+we may fairly draw illustrations from either University,
+and the records of the chancellor’s court at
+Oxford in the fifteenth century show that fines,
+imprisonment, and, in extreme cases, expulsion
+were customary penalties for serious offences against
+university regulations and customs. I have no
+doubt that earlier records, if extant, would be of
+the same general character.</p>
+
+<p>The first college to be founded at Cambridge was
+Peterhouse which took its final form in 1284, and
+during the next century several other similar Houses
+were established: these societies were intended for
+selected scholars. The problem of the control of
+other students was met in the course of the fourteenth
+century by preventing them from living in private
+lodgings chosen by themselves, and thenceforth,
+throughout the middle ages, those who came from a
+distance were generally required to reside in private
+hostels run by masters of arts on lines somewhat
+similar to boarding houses in public schools to-day.
+Besides the lay and secular students accommodated
+in colleges, private hostels, and at their homes, there
+were also in the medieval University a considerable
+<a name="png.204" id="png.204" href="#png.204"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>196<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>number of “religious” students who were housed
+in monasteries or monastic hostels. Some of the
+colleges in later medieval times received as paying
+members a few wealthy pensioners, parochial priests
+in middle life, and even monks from distant convents,
+but probably the number of such favoured
+students was never large. With the establishment
+of colleges and the organization of private hostels
+discipline improved; inside their walls as well as in
+the monastic hostels it is probable that order was
+well maintained, but outside them, at least among
+the students at private hostels, discipline was left to
+the university authorities who did little or nothing
+in the matter.</p>
+
+<p>The colleges took seriously their responsibilities
+for discipline, and all things contrary to good manners
+and morals were prohibited. For the gravest
+offences, such as contumacy, crimes of violence, and
+heresy, expulsion was usually ordered. Among less
+serious delinquencies, explicitly forbidden and therefore
+we may assume not unknown, were bringing
+strangers into the house, sleeping out, and absence
+without leave; using insulting language, drunkenness,
+gambling, and frequenting taverns; keeping
+company with loose women; throwing missiles and
+carrying arms; and the keeping of dogs, hawks,
+falcons, and ferrets. In the regulations of many colleges,
+a course of study was indicated, and directions
+<a name="png.205" id="png.205" href="#png.205"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>197<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>given that idleness was to be punished. Regular
+attendance at religious exercises was assumed, and
+was explicitly directed on certain occasions: I suppose
+that students performed such duties without
+much external pressure, and I know no record
+of the infliction of any penalty in early times for
+non-attendance. In the middle ages Latin was
+the language generally enforced, though occasionally
+French was permitted; this remained the rule
+until the seventeenth century. Conversation during
+dinner and supper was forbidden in many colleges,
+and of course was impossible in those cases where
+some book was then read aloud. At King’s College,
+jumping and ball throwing, and at Clare College
+meetings in bedrooms for feasting and talking were
+also forbidden. At a somewhat later date Caius
+ordered his students to be in bed by eight o’clock
+at night, but they made up for this by rising
+very early in the morning. In general the punishment
+for minor faults was left to the discretion
+of the authorities. This was only reasonable, for
+a medieval college was a mixed community of
+lads and men, the members being of all ages from
+about fourteen or fifteen upwards; and rules enforced
+on boys of fourteen could not be applied
+to men of twenty-three or twenty-four, who were
+in fact already taking part in the teaching of the
+junior scholars.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.206" id="png.206" href="#png.206"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>198<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>For all members, the ultimate penalty for the
+gravest offences was expulsion. For less serious
+misconduct, fines, restrictions on the food supplied,
+impositions, and confinement within the walls, are
+believed to have been common penalties, at any
+rate for adolescents; but, as I explain below, I think
+that corporal punishment was constantly inflicted
+on non-adults in lieu of a fine, which indeed boys
+would have had considerable difficulty in paying.
+As far as the younger students and the bachelors
+at colleges were concerned the extant regulations in
+regard to their exercises, amusements, incomings
+and outgoings, suggest that they were treated much
+like the junior and senior boys in a rather strict
+public school in the first half of the nineteenth
+century; and perhaps the senior graduate members
+were treated somewhat like residents in colleges at
+the same period.</p>
+
+<p>Membership of a college was a privilege confined,
+in general, to scholars specially nominated, and no
+doubt the standards of work and discipline there
+were higher than in the private hostels. Naturally
+we know less of life in these hostels, but it is likely
+that disciplinary rules were originally made by or
+with the approval of the elder residents, and that the
+normal discipline in them was of the same general
+character as that exercised in colleges, though, as
+the members paid for themselves, money fines were
+<a name="png.207" id="png.207" href="#png.207"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>199<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>possible and usual penalties, especially in the case
+of the older members. There must have been more
+variety in the discipline of hostels than of colleges,
+and we may safely say that some hostels were well
+conducted, others not so.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that finally the University claimed
+the right to examine and supervise the internal regulations
+of the hostels. A set of rules, thus enforced on
+an unendowed hall at Oxford in the fifteenth century,
+has been discovered and printed by Rashdall: they do
+not differ much from those usual at a college, except
+that some of the penalties specified are pecuniary,
+and that the principal was given explicit permission,
+if he wished, to flog a student, even though
+the lad’s own master (<i>i.e.</i> the master to whom he
+had been apprenticed) had certified that he had
+already corrected him or was willing to do so.</p>
+
+<p>Was corporal punishment commonly used in
+medieval times? Until recently it was accepted
+without argument that this was the case; and certainly
+in the fifteenth century and later when we
+get detailed information on the subject, the younger
+students were subject to it. Rashdall, however, has
+argued that the absence of its mention in earlier
+times implies that the birch was unknown in the
+ordinary university regulations till towards the end
+of the sixteenth century or later, though he admits
+in various places that glomerels were liable to it: his
+<a name="png.208" id="png.208" href="#png.208"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>200<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>authority is accepted by Rait. It is true that in the
+statutes given in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
+birching is not mentioned explicitly, but, since
+the punishments for petty offences are rarely specified
+in detail, this proves nothing. In the fifteenth century
+corporal punishment is mentioned as a recognized
+penalty. For instance, the statutes given by
+Henry VI to King’s College, Cambridge, prescribed
+that scholars and young fellows might be punished
+by stripes, and a year or two later, the statutes of
+Magdalen College, Oxford, directed that the demies
+should be subject to flogging. In later regulations
+of various colleges, to some of which I refer below,
+whipping is mentioned as a recognized punishment,
+but often as one to which only the younger students
+were liable.</p>
+
+<p>I have already argued that in medieval colleges
+discipline must have varied according to the age
+of the offender, and I conjecture that adults were
+never regularly subject to corporal punishment, but
+that boys were always so, and that the use of the
+rod was regarded as needing no explicit statutable
+authority. Its employment was no strange thing,
+for adult offenders against the law, apprentices, and
+boys at school, were all flogged at times. And what
+else, it has been well asked, could the authorities
+do with a troublesome boy of fourteen? In general
+a fine was impossible for he had no pocket-money.
+<a name="png.209" id="png.209" href="#png.209"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>201<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Most of the colleges were designed for poor scholars,
+and in such foundations usually the allowance for
+commons was so small that without risk to health
+any reduction for more than a day or two was
+difficult; little leisure was allowed for recreation
+or exercise, and thus heavy impositions were impossible;
+and confinement to the precincts of the
+House was so common that gating was no punishment.
+A lad of seventeen or eighteen had more
+liberty and privileges, and in general on reaching
+that age was as safe from the chance of corporal
+punishment as was a boy of the same age at a public
+school fifty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Somewhat similar arguments apply to the private
+hostels, and the regulations of an unendowed hall at
+Oxford, to which I have already referred, show that
+the use of the rod or birch was recognized there. If as
+I suppose is likely, Clement Paston was at a private
+hostel, we have a definite instance of the similar use
+of the rod at Cambridge, for among the Paston letters
+is one dated 28 January 1458 from Dame Agnes
+Paston, about her boy, Clement, in which she says
+“prey Grenefeld to send me feythfully word by
+wrytyn who (how) Clement Paston hathe do his
+dever i lerning. And if he hathe nought do well,
+nor wyll nought amend, prey him that he wyll
+trewly belassch (<i>i.e.</i> flog) him tyll he wyll amend,
+and so ded the last Maystur and ye best, that ev’
+<a name="png.210" id="png.210" href="#png.210"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>202<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>he hadd at Cambrege.” Clement was born in 1442,
+so he was then fifteen years old.</p>
+
+<p>I asserted above that school-boys in the middle
+ages were liable to the birch or cane. I suppose this
+will not be questioned, but by way of parenthesis
+I add that this liability seems to have been a well-established
+practice for centuries. It goes back to
+classical times for in the schools of Rome the less
+serious offences were punished by the cane applied
+to the hand, and graver faults by the birch applied
+to the back; and there is a curious fresco at Herculaneum
+of the application of the latter to a boy,
+horsed by one schoolfellow and with his feet held by
+another. The royal whipping boys in the courts of
+Western Europe remind us that, at least vicariously,
+princes were subject to this discipline as well as
+commoners.</p>
+
+<p>In more recent times the deeds of Busby
+and Keate at Westminster and Eton respectively
+are preserved in tradition, while the reputation
+of Udall at an earlier time, <i>circ.</i> 1530, may be
+gathered from the remarks of Thomas Tusser, a
+choirboy at St Paul’s Cathedral, who subsequently
+went to Eton: Tusser says, “From Paul’s I went,
+to Eton sent, To learn straightways the Latin
+phrase Where fifty-three stripes giv’n to me, at
+once I had. For faults but small, or none at all,
+It came to pass thus beat I was.” The similar
+<a name="png.211" id="png.211" href="#png.211"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>203<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>vigour of Udall’s successor, Cox, is mentioned by
+Ascham. In short, the old saw: “Spare the rod,
+and spoil the child, Solomon said in accents mild,
+Be it boy or be it maid, Whip ’em and wallop ’em
+Solomon said” represented the current belief and
+practice of former days; though the dictum attributed
+to that king is stronger than the passage in
+Proverbs, xiii, 24 warrants.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth century the colleges opened their
+doors to the admission of pensioners and fellow-commoners.
+Collegiate teaching and arrangements
+were superior to those of the private hostels, and
+before the middle of the century the latter had disappeared:
+their revival was rendered impossible by
+a regulation that membership of the University
+should be confined to those who were members of
+a college. Shortly afterwards it became the custom
+not to require residence for degrees after the baccalaureate,
+and thus a course limited to three or four
+years became usual for the average student. These
+changes were of far-reaching importance.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of this century new statutes were
+given to the University and colleges, and subsequently
+we possess records, fairly complete, of the
+domestic life of students. Early in the following
+century, the average age of entry began to rise, and
+before its close, it had become common for students
+to defer entry until about seventeen years old.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.212" id="png.212" href="#png.212"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>204<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>University decrees regulating the conduct of
+students in many matters now appear, notably one
+in 1595 by Goad, then vice-chancellor, which gives
+a summary of what was expected. Expulsion,
+suspension from degrees, and refusal of leave to
+graduate until after a specified time, were normal
+punishments for serious offences, for trivial misconduct
+fines are now constantly prescribed, and
+physical punishments for non-adults are also directed
+in many cases.</p>
+
+<p>In colleges, the Tudor statutes generally enjoined
+good conduct on all students. The regulations
+about the punishment of offences were mostly concerned
+with grave matters for which admonitions,
+and finally expulsions, were the recognized punishments.
+Penalties for the non-performance of religious
+exercises now appear: thus, at Christ’s
+College, Cambridge, and at Balliol College, Oxford,
+whipping was prescribed as a penalty for absence
+from chapel, though probably restricted to the
+younger students; so too at Peterhouse, students
+over eighteen who were absent from prayers were
+to be fined, while younger students so offending
+were to be deprived of dinner, and if persistent in
+their neglect flogged in hall.</p>
+
+<p>As in medieval times, the authorities were generally
+left a free hand in settling the regulations for
+the maintenance of normal discipline. Probably
+<a name="png.213" id="png.213" href="#png.213"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>205<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>fines, impositions, restrictions on the food supplied,
+and gatings continued to be ordinarily used. Reading
+the bible aloud at meal times in hall, dining apart on
+bread and water, and being deprived of commons,
+are definitely mentioned in the 1520 statutes of St
+John’s College, Cambridge, as possible penalties;
+similarly at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, being
+compelled to eat alone at a small table in the middle
+of the hall and restriction to bread and water are
+specified as suitable punishments.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the birch was now constantly prescribed,
+though probably in practice always confined
+to lads. Thus, at Christ’s College, Cambridge, a
+whipping for lads and a fine for adults; and at
+Brasenose, Oxford, a fine or a flogging, at the discretion
+of the principal, were statutable punishments
+for various faults, including at the latter College the
+making of odious comparisons in conversation. At
+other Houses too, for instance, at Corpus Christi,
+Oxford, Wolsey (Christ Church), Oxford, Trinity
+College, Cambridge, and Gonville and Caius, Cambridge,
+the use of the cane or birch is sanctioned
+in the case of lads. I have no doubt this was also
+the general rule in earlier days, and nothing in
+the Tudor codes indicates that any material change
+was made in the existing practice, but on the whole
+I conjecture that the regulations were more humane,
+and I am inclined to think, contrary to Rashdall’s
+<a name="png.214" id="png.214" href="#png.214"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>206<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>view, that discipline was less severe after the renaissance
+than before it. In colleges the deans were
+and are the chief officers responsible for discipline;
+in the University, the proctors.</p>
+
+<p>A part of the fifth chapter of the Trinity statutes
+of 1560 relating to the office of deans may be summarized
+as indicating what was then customary, or at
+any rate desired, in the matter of chapel attendance
+and in certain questions of petty discipline. The
+statute, which is in Latin, is to the following effect:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>In every community regard should be paid to correctness
+of morals and general probity of life, accordingly there
+shall be two deans to give their sedulous attention to these
+objects; at least one of such deans shall be a bachelor of
+divinity and chosen from the eight senior fellows, and the
+other, a master of arts or a bachelor of divinity.</p>
+
+<p>The deans shall provide for the fitting performance of
+public worship; see that all fellows, scholars, pensioners,
+sizars, and subsizars attend on Saints’ days and Sundays at
+morning and evening prayers, the litany, the communion,
+and sermons; and see that the same persons are on other
+days regularly present at prayers between five and six o’clock
+in the morning. Every fellow who is absent shall be fined
+three half-pence, and if he comes in late or goes out early,
+one half-penny. The fine for a bachelor scholar who is absent
+shall be one penny, and for one who comes in late or goes
+out early, one half-penny. Every undergraduate scholar,
+and every pensioner, sizar, and subsizar who is absent shall,
+if his age exceeds eighteen years be fined one half-penny,
+and if he comes in late or goes out early, one farthing; but
+if such student has not attained this age, he shall be chastised
+<a name="png.215" id="png.215" href="#png.215"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>207<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>with rods in the hall on the following Friday. Those
+are to be deemed as coming late who at evening prayers
+arrive after the first psalm; at morning prayers, after the
+<cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Venite</cite>; at the Litany, after the words <i>O Holy Blessed and
+Glorious Trinity</i>; and at the communion service after the
+recital of the commandments: anyone who, during service,
+remains in the antechapel is to be punished as if he had
+been absent.</p>
+
+<p>Each week on Friday, at seven o’clock in the evening,
+the deans shall chastise non-adult offenders. All scholars
+(bachelors excepted), pensioners, sizars, and subsizars shall
+be present during the infliction of such corporal punishment,
+and anyone who does not answer to his name when called,
+and does not stay until all the punishments are finished,
+shall, if an adult, be fined one penny, and if non-adult be
+flogged on the next day.</p>
+
+<p>Each week on Thursday, the deans shall appoint two
+monitors from among the bachelor scholars for noting
+offences of bachelors; and six monitors [from among the
+undergraduate scholars], two for noting offences of undergraduates
+at public worship, and four for noting those who
+fail to speak Latin: the monitors shall prepare lists of all
+who offend in these particulars. The deans shall also appoint
+each week six scholars and four sizars for service at the
+fellows’ table, and one sizar for the organ.</p>
+
+<p>In order to ensure the decorous celebration of public
+worship, the deans shall bring with them to the first vespers
+of every festival a written schedule of the duties of everyone
+concerned in that festival, and shall further appoint an inquisitor
+who shall remind everyone of the duty so assigned
+to him. Anyone who shall fail in such duty shall, if a non-adult,
+be whipt, and, if an adult, be fined fourpence.</p>
+
+<p>One half of all fines inflicted shall go to the College, the
+other half shall be kept by the deans.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><a name="png.216" id="png.216" href="#png.216"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>208<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>The Tudor statutes generally remained in force
+till the middle of the nineteenth century, though in
+time the practices of the colleges came to differ
+materially from what was there directed. Briefly we
+may say that in the sixteenth century the standard of
+medieval discipline and study sank; but in the early
+years of the seventeenth century things improved
+until the civil disturbances threw academic work
+into confusion. With the establishment of the
+commonwealth the age of entry rose, and thus the
+use of corporal and puerile punishments died out,
+and with the disappearance of boys as members of
+the University, rules intended only for young lads
+became obsolete and inoperative. Most of the students
+henceforth were adolescent. The few who
+were younger were dealt with like school-boys, but
+the comparison is rather with school-boys of recent
+years than with those of their own period.</p>
+
+<p>As far back as Sir Simon D’Ewes’s time—and
+he entered Cambridge in 1618—the majority of the
+students were regarded as responsible, and capable
+of conducting themselves rationally. They reflected
+the virtues and foibles of their time, but they were a
+select class, and compare favourably in manners and
+morals with their contemporaries elsewhere. Almost
+without exception they speak warmly of their
+development in college from lads to young men, of
+friendships formed with their elders as well as their
+<a name="png.217" id="png.217" href="#png.217"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>209<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>contemporaries, of the abiding influence of the place,
+and of their affection for it.</p>
+
+<p>From the restoration to the regency was a
+period of stagnation. Discipline deteriorated, and
+if we may trust contemporary accounts drunkenness
+and immorality were far from uncommon. No
+doubt there were always some residents who maintained
+high traditions and ideals, but on the whole
+the records of the social life prevalent then at Cambridge
+and Oxford make but sorry reading.</p>
+
+<p>The sixteenth century codes indicate lofty aims,
+but statutes and rules are not always observed
+literally, and it may be thought that those mentioned
+represented only old customs, perhaps already
+obsolete, or what was deemed desirable but was not
+enforced. It may be well then to turn to contemporary
+evidence, to regulations passed on specific
+occasions, and to records of definite punishments—though
+we can expect the latter to have been
+preserved only in grave cases, and cannot hope
+to learn from them much about discipline in petty
+matters.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary evidence would serve us best if we
+could get it, but the diarists and letter-writers are
+mostly silent on the subject. From this, however,
+I conclude that generally the disciplinary regulations
+were thought sensible. Life in the University
+may have been hard and probably was so, but I do
+<a name="png.218" id="png.218" href="#png.218"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>210<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>not believe that discipline was unreasonable. All
+the evidence is to the contrary. Thus the above-mentioned
+Tusser, a student of no special brilliancy,
+who entered at Trinity Hall in the early half of the
+sixteenth century speaks thankfully of leaving
+school, and says: “To Cambridge thence ... I got at
+last, There joy I felt, there trim I dwelt, There
+heaven from hell, I shifted well, With learned men,
+a number then, the time I passed.”</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to definite punishments, I mention
+successively corporal punishments, such as birching,
+the use of the stocks, and stanging; fines, direct and
+indirect; deprivation of days or standing; gatings;
+impositions; declaratory confessions; and rustications
+and expulsions.</p>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Birching, Flogging"><i>Birching, Flogging.</i></h3>
+<p>Birching remained a recognized
+punishment for the younger students in the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but I think
+that in practice it was not often inflicted except on
+boys. One or two examples of orders directing it
+will suffice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On 8 May 1572, the Vice-Chancellor, Whitgift,
+issued an order which is so detailed that I write
+it at length. Here it is:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>If any scholar shall go into any river, pool, or other
+water in the county of Cambridge; by day or night, to swim
+or wash, he shall, if under the degree of bachelor of arts,
+for the first offence be sharply and severely whipped publicly
+<a name="png.219" id="png.219" href="#png.219"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>211<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>in the common hall of the College in which he dwells, in the
+presence of all the fellows, scholars, and others dwelling in the
+College, and on the next day shall be again openly whipped
+in the public school, where he was or ought to be an auditor,
+before all the auditors, by one of the proctors or some other
+assigned by the Vice-Chancellor, and for the second offence
+every such delinquent shall be expelled his College and the
+University for ever. But if he shall be a bachelor of arts,
+then for the first offence he shall be put in the stocks for a
+whole day, in the common hall of his College, and shall,
+before he is liberated, pay 10s towards the commons of the
+College, and for the second offence shall be expelled his
+College and the University. And if he shall be a master of
+arts, or bachelor of law, physic or music, or of superior
+degree, he shall be severely punished, at the judgment and
+discretion of the Master of his College.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">From this it is clear that at that time undergraduates,
+even of mature age, were liable to be flogged as a
+part of the ordinary discipline of the University and
+College, but probably it was unusual to inflict the
+penalty.</p>
+
+<p>Thirty years later, after the disturbances of
+20 February 1607, following the performance of a
+comedy in King’s College, an order was issued that
+thereafter every ringleader in any similar disturbances
+should be banished from the University: and
+every less responsible offender should, if a graduate,
+pay for the harm done, be suspended from his
+degree, and for one year refused leave to take a
+further degree; and if a non-graduate should for
+<a name="png.220" id="png.220" href="#png.220"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>212<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>one year be refused leave to graduate, and further,
+if non-adult, be corrected in the schools by the
+rod, and, if adult, make an open confession of his
+guilt in the schools: also the offender if not a
+scholar should be set in the stocks at the bull ring
+in the market place. Here, it will be noticed, the
+punishment by the rod is restricted to those non-adulti.</p>
+
+<p>In a list of punishments inflicted at Corpus
+Christi College in 1622, quoted by Lamb, admonitions,
+fines, suspensions, and whippings are mentioned.
+Even as late as 1648 there is a record of
+“Benton per Tutorem suum Magistrum Johnson
+virgis castigandis.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1648 an undergraduate bible-clerk of Peterhouse,
+age about seventeen, Tobias Conyers by
+name was “corrected publicly”—which, I take it,
+means flogged—for toasting the king. But times
+were abnormal, and if Conyers ventured into the
+stirring field of politics, he had to take the consequences.</p>
+
+<p>The liability to a flogging still existed after the
+restoration. Thus in the <cite>Poor Scholar</cite>, by R. Nevile,
+London, 1662, there are references to it in
+Act ii, Scene 6, and Act v, Scene 4, as being still
+in use in colleges though whether adults were so
+liable is uncertain. If the author’s statements refer
+to contemporary matters and are trustworthy it
+<a name="png.221" id="png.221" href="#png.221"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>213<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>would seem that the punishment was then common,
+the culprits being mounted on barrels, and the
+flogging inflicted at the butteries. The birch was
+also still occasionally used in university discipline,
+for on 20 March 1674, the vice-chancellor ordered
+Ellethorpe of St John’s, and Hodges of Sidney
+Sussex to be whipped for having been rude to the
+junior proctor, Peter Parham, of Caius College:
+neither of the offenders had matriculated.</p>
+
+<p>These references provide the strongest evidence
+with which I am acquainted for the assertions that
+flogging was a usual punishment at Cambridge
+during the seventeenth century. There is a widely
+spread tradition that when at Christ’s College, Milton
+was flogged, but Peile has shown that there is no
+satisfactory evidence for it, and it is intrinsically
+improbable. In a disciplinary order of Corpus
+Christi College in 1684, the only punishments mentioned
+are discommonsings, admonitions, rustications,
+deprivation of seniority, and refusal of college
+testimonials, so, comparing this with the orders of
+1622 and 1648 which I have quoted above, perhaps
+we may take it that the use of the rod there had
+become obsolete.</p>
+
+<p>The above extracts are sufficient to show that
+corporal punishment was recognized under the Elizabethan
+codes, though it seems probable that public
+opinion was against its use, unless the students
+<a name="png.222" id="png.222" href="#png.222"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>214<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>were quite young; perhaps this was always the
+practice, and thus, as the age of entry rose, the
+use of the birch died out. Incepting bachelors and
+senior students were usually punished for serious
+offences by deferring their admission to degrees,
+loss of terms, or rustication: being adult, they
+were in effect regarded as not subject to corporal
+punishment.</p>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Stocks; Stangs"><i>Stocks. Stangs.</i></h3>
+<p>A couple of other physical
+punishments—ignominious and sometimes painful—may
+be mentioned in passing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of these was confinement in Stocks. To this
+allusion has already been made in the orders of 1572
+and 1607. Another instance is to be found in the
+records of Corpus Christi College, where about 1580,
+one of the students, Tobias Bland, who had libelled
+the master, was compelled to confess his fault publicly,
+next put in the stocks, and then expelled. In
+the old dining hall of Trinity College there were
+stocks in the minstrel’s gallery, but there is no evidence
+that they were re-erected when the hall was
+rebuilt in 1605; perhaps the punishment was then
+becoming unusual, though against this may be set
+the fact that there are references to the college
+stocks in 1610 at King’s, in 1625 at Christ’s, and
+in 1642 at Emmanuel. The stocks at King’s and
+Emmanuel, like those at Trinity, were in the hall.
+Allusions to their use are rare. The punishment
+<a name="png.223" id="png.223" href="#png.223"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>215<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>continued to be inflicted after the restoration, for
+on 10 April 1680, Thomas Grigson, who had been
+rude to the junior proctor, Thomas Verdon of
+St John’s College, was ordered to be “sett fast in
+the stocks, by the heeles for one whole houre, which
+was presently effected by the Constable of Saint
+Bennett’s Parish in Cambridge.” He had partially
+atoned for his offence by begging pardon on his
+knees, and so escaped a worse punishment.</p>
+
+<p>The Stang was a wooden pole on which the luckless
+culprit was tied, and carried ignominiously
+through the courts of his college. In John Ray’s
+<cite>Collection of English Words not Generally Used</cite>,
+London, 1674, it is said that the “word is still used
+in some colleges in the University of Cambridge; to
+stang scholars in Christmas, being to cause them to
+ride on a colt-staff or pole for missing of chappel.”
+References to the place where the pole was kept
+occur in the account-books of Trinity, St John’s,
+Queens’, and Christ’s. In Parne’s unpublished
+manuscript history of Trinity College, allusion is
+made to stanging as though at the beginning of the
+eighteenth century it had become recently obsolete.
+From his language it would seem also that undergraduates
+themselves inflicted the punishment on
+those of their members who declined to take part in
+the Christmas revelries.</p>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Fines"><i>Fines.</i></h3>
+<p>Pecuniary fines have been used to
+<a name="png.224" id="png.224" href="#png.224"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>216<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>enforce discipline from the earliest times by the
+University as well as by the colleges: after the
+renaissance, the increasing age and means of students
+made fines a suitable penalty for many of the less
+serious offences, such as participation in forbidden
+amusements, visits to places out of bounds, walking
+across the grass in college courts, smoking in public
+places, the failure to wear academic dress when required,
+non-attendance at lectures, chapel, hall, etc.
+Probably grave misconduct was punished otherwise,
+or by fines combined with additional penalties.
+A fine, if heavy, presses unequally on men of
+different means; and thus a system of fines on a
+fixed scale cannot be regarded as equitable. Fines
+are still used as penalties for the infraction of
+rules.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Discommonsing; Dissizaring"><i>Discommonsing. Dissizaring.</i></h3>
+<p>To be put out of
+commons was a well-recognized penalty, applicable
+chiefly to scholars and sizars, part of whose emolument
+consisted of a right to dine in hall and, in
+some cases, to have commons (bread, butter, and
+beer) to a limited amount each day. To deprive
+such a student of the right to dine in hall or of his
+commons was equivalent to a pecuniary fine, and in
+the case of a poor scholar might be a severe, though
+not a satisfactory, punishment; probably a modicum
+of bread and beer was supplied to students even
+when discommonsed. In some comments, published
+<a name="png.225" id="png.225" href="#png.225"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>217<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>in 1768, on university education at Cambridge,
+discommonsing is described as “one of the most
+idle and anile punishments ... inflicted rather on
+the parent than on the young man, who being
+prohibited to eat in Hall is driven to purchase
+a dinner at a tavern or coffee house.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here is an example of an order of discommonsing
+at Trinity in the seventeenth century: “Agreed that
+Cassill should be punisht a monthes <span class="nw">commons....</span>
+Agreed at the same time that Pepys besides a
+monthes commons, should have an admonition
+and pay the charges of the chirurgion for the
+healinge Cassil’s head w<sup>h</sup> he broke with a key.”
+(Conclusion, 1 August 1643.) Its preservation is due
+to the fact that Pepys’ punishment was combined
+with an admonition, and evidence that an admonition
+had been given might be required if subsequently
+a question of expulsion arose. The culprit in question
+was Thomas Pepys (B.A. 1645) and not the
+Samuel of immortal memory.</p>
+
+<p>In 1815, Mansel, master of Trinity and bishop of
+Bristol, was accustomed to put men out of sizings
+and commons if they appeared in hall in trousers
+instead of knee breeches, and it would seem then
+that to be put out of sizings further deprived the
+student of obtaining private supplies from the
+college kitchens. Half a century ago the penalty
+was still in use at Trinity, being imposed on
+<a name="png.226" id="png.226" href="#png.226"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>218<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>scholars in waiting, who failed to appear after hall
+to say grace.</p>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Loss of Days"><i>Loss of Days.</i></h3>
+<p>To qualify for a degree and for an
+emolument, it is and has been generally necessary to
+keep a certain number of days by residence in each
+of certain specified terms. At one time a common
+form of punishment was to cancel a certain number
+of days already kept. Thus the student would be
+obliged to stay at Cambridge for so many additional
+days to make up for the requisite number which had
+to be kept in the course of that term. In the seventeenth
+century the authorities went further and
+sometimes cancelled terms that had been kept.
+I believe this form of punishment has long been
+obsolete.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Gating; Walling"><i>Gating. Walling.</i></h3>
+<p>Continuous confinement within
+the walls of the college (walling) or confinement
+during certain hours (gating) was another form of
+punishment. A case of walling occurred at one of
+the smaller colleges in Cambridge in 1872, but I
+know of no more recent instance. Gating is still in
+force. It causes some social inconvenience. As far
+as it goes, it promotes regular hours and economy,
+and it has no indirect ill-effects. Accordingly it
+serves well to mark dissatisfaction and act as a
+warning.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here is an old-time example from the records of
+Trinity, 19 July 1652, of the infliction of this and
+<a name="png.227" id="png.227" href="#png.227"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>219<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>other penalties interesting from the name of the
+scholar on whom it was inflicted:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Agreed that Dryden be put out of commons for a fortnight
+at least, and that he goe not out of the colledg during
+the time aforesaid, excepting to sermons, without express
+leave of the master or vice-master; and that at the end of
+the fortnight he read a confession of his crime, in the hall,
+at the dinner time; at the three fellowes tables.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">His offence was disobedience to the vice-master, and
+his contumacy in submitting himself to discipline.</p>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Impositions"><i>Impositions.</i></h3>
+<p>Another tolerably obvious punishment
+was the setting of impositions. The imposition
+might be the learning of lines by heart or the
+delivery of a declamation on some given subject,
+or the production in writing of so many lines of a
+classical work or of an analysis of some book. Impositions
+in writing were constantly done vicariously,
+and if so, the punishment was little more than a
+fine: apparently this abuse of the practice was well
+known.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tasks set were very heavy. In the <cite>Gradus</cite>,
+1803, the learning by heart of the first book of the
+<cite>Iliad</cite> is mentioned as a possible, though very severe
+imposition. Similarly, according to J. M. F. Wright,
+a thousand lines of Homer would have been regarded
+in 1815 as an unusually sharp punishment, but such
+as might have been given in lieu of rustication.
+Other impositions mentioned are the learning by
+<a name="png.228" id="png.228" href="#png.228"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>220<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>heart of a satire of Juvenal, and the production of
+an analysis of Butler’s <cite>Analogy</cite>.</p>
+
+<p>At Trinity the deans were provided with long
+sheets of paper on which were printed in double
+columns forms such as the following:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>... to transcribe ... lines of Virgil’s Aeneid, beginning at
+line ... book ..., and to deliver it to the Junior Dean after
+morning Chapel on Tuesday.</p>
+
+<p>... to transcribe ... lines of Homer’s Iliad, beginning at
+line ... book ..., and to deliver it to the Senior Dean after
+Morning Chapel on Thursday.</p>
+
+<p>... to repeat ... lines of ... by order of the Junior (or
+Senior) Dean.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">These were filled up by the deans, cut off, and distributed
+by the chapel-clerk to the men concerned.
+Customarily in Trinity the senior dean gave impositions
+from the <cite>Iliad</cite> to be delivered on a Thursday,
+an the junior dean from the <cite>Aeneid</cite> to be
+delivered on a Tuesday. Forms for putting men out
+of commons, and admonishing them were printed in
+the same way on sheets, to be used as occasions
+arose.</p>
+
+<p>Impositions were set at Trinity as late as 1830,
+but I believe the custom had died out before 1840,
+though I am told it was still used in certain Cambridge
+colleges as late as 1855. At Oxford the practice
+continued rather later and indeed at a few
+colleges seems to have been in force till near the
+close of the nineteenth century, for Rashdall, writing
+<a name="png.229" id="png.229" href="#png.229"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>221<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>in 1895, speaks of the practice as having been in
+force there until recently.</p>
+
+<p>A century ago there seems to have been a sort of
+recognized scale of penalties for cutting lectures or
+chapel. First, a reprimand was given at an interview
+or sent in writing by a servant; second, an
+imposition was set; third the offender was deprived
+of commons and sizings. If these steps were ineffective,
+the matter might be regarded as a serious
+offence against college discipline, and lead to “hauling”
+by the tutor, a gating, an interview with the
+master, a formal admonition, and in extreme cases
+to rustication.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of these petty punishments was
+set out by Whewell in his <cite>Principles of English
+University Education</cite>, 1837. A punishment, according
+to him, was to be regarded as the visible
+expression of college dissatisfaction with certain
+conduct: as an infliction it might be slight, but it
+emphasized the discontent expressed, and acted as
+a definite warning. He suggested a most severe
+scale; namely, for the first offence, forfeiture of
+one month’s commons; for the second, of three
+months’ commons; and for the third, expulsion;
+but there is no reason to think that this was ever
+the practice.</p>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Confessions"><i>Confessions.</i></h3>
+<p>A public confession was another
+form of punishment once used: I believe that
+<a name="png.230" id="png.230" href="#png.230"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>222<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>this ceased to be employed by the middle of the
+eighteenth century.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="runin">
+<h3 title="Statutory Admonitions; Rustication; Expulsion"><i>Statutory Admonitions. Rustication. Expulsion.</i></h3>
+<p>For the graver offences, a statutory admonition,
+rustication (temporary removal from the college),
+or expulsion were reserved.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A formal admonition was intended to act as a
+serious warning, and it served as a statutory prelude
+to expulsion. For this reason it was usually recorded,
+and in former times an additional sting was
+added by compelling the culprit to make also a
+public or written confession of his fault. Admonitions
+are not very common in the records of Trinity:
+some thirty or forty occur in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth century, only a few in the eighteenth
+century, and they are rare in the nineteenth century
+save for a few relating to irregularity of attendances
+at chapel or lectures. The last admonition at Trinity
+was given in 1881, shortly before the new statutes
+of 1882 became operative. Here are typical instances
+of the record of admonitions.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Whereas heretofore I have received an admonition from
+the Master of the College for my lewd and outrageous behaviour
+within the same, and have since that time for like
+rioting and swaggering in the Town received another admonition
+from him before the Vice-Master of the College
+and my Tutor and also therewith all public correction, if
+these admonitions together with due punishment do not
+work reformation in me hereafter, I do likewise willingly
+<a name="png.231" id="png.231" href="#png.231"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>223<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>acknowledge that I am incorrigible and worthy for the next
+like offence to be expelled the College. Galen Browne.
+Circ. 1601. [Browne was elected to a scholarship in 1602,
+and graduated B.A. and M.A. in due course, so presumably
+he amended his ways.]</p>
+
+<p>Whereas I have very unadvisedly and rashly stricken one
+Mr Halfhead, a College servant, to the shedding of blood,
+I do acknowledge myself to have received an admonition
+for that fault tending to expulsion. Thomas Shirley,
+22 February, 1621. [Halfhead was the manciple. Shirley
+was a fellow and master of arts, so the offence was the more
+serious, but perhaps the provocation was great. Shirley
+was subsequently junior bursar and tutor.]</p>
+
+<p>I, Christopher Offley, do confess that often time and
+many ways I have offended against the Statute <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">de Modestia
+Morum</cite> to the displeasure of God, hurt to myself, the evil
+example of others, and discredit of the College, and also
+have broken mine oath taken when I was preferred scholar
+in unreverent behaviour towards some of the fellows and
+specially in giving scandalous and contumelious speeches to
+Mr Hitch, being the Minister and Fellow of this College for
+which misdemeanors and undutiful carriage I am unfainedly
+sorry and heartily desire forgiveness both of God, and him,
+or any other whom I have offended, and confess I have
+received a just admonition of the Master and Seniors by
+setting my date to this writing. Circ. 1622. [Offley graduated
+B.A., 1624, and M.A., 1627, so presumably he amended
+his ways.]</p>
+
+<p>Whereas we whose names are underwritten, on the fourth
+of April last, were guilty of grave irregularity and misbehaviour
+by insulting the Vice-Master, the Dean, and other
+officers of the College and thereby gave just offence to the
+Society, we do profess ourselves heartily sorry for the same
+and acknowledge the lenity of the Master and Dean in
+<a name="png.232" id="png.232" href="#png.232"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>224<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>suffering us to return so soon from rustication. And we do
+hereby engage to be strictly observant of our duty for the
+future and take this as our first admonition in order to
+expulsion. James Bensley, John Ambler. 29 May, 1754.
+[Bensley graduated in due course and was elected to a fellowship:
+Ambler did not graduate.]</p>
+
+<p>Ordered that ..., for irregular attendance at lectures
+and neglect of impositions, be admonished a second time
+previous to rustication or expulsion. 29 May, 1844.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Temporary or permanent removal from the
+College were penalties reserved for the gravest
+offences. They are still recognized as possible
+punishments. The fact that there are but few
+records of the infliction of these extreme penalties
+indicates how easily discipline has always been
+maintained.</p>
+
+<p>My readers may well think that the results of
+these notes are somewhat scanty, but if that nation
+is happy which has no history, surely universities
+and colleges are to be congratulated whose records
+of punishment are so few. To sum up the matter,
+the general effect left on my mind is that most of
+the common offences were due only to youthful
+exuberance of spirits and not to deliberate mischief
+making; and that the rules and sanctions, judged
+by the standard of their time, have been neither
+harsh nor unreasonable, and have usually been
+approved by public opinion in the University.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="XIII. Newton’s ‘Principia’"><a name="png.233" id="png.233" href="#png.233"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>225<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER XIII.<br
+ /><small>NEWTON’S <cite>PRINCIPIA</cite>.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">Newton’s</span> <cite>Principia</cite> is one of the few scientific
+books which has sensibly affected the methods
+of scientific research and the ideas of men about the
+universe. It is on this aspect of the subject I propose,
+in this paper, to make a few remarks. The
+work itself is a classic in the history of mathematics:
+the exposition of the subject, the enunciation of the
+principle of prime and ultimate ratios, the creation
+of mechanics as a science resting on experiments,
+and the theory of universal gravitation with concrete
+applications to the solar system, make it a
+masterpiece. Here I avoid all technicalities, and
+confine myself to a general description of its genesis
+and contents and the reason why its publication
+affected scientific thought and methods.</p>
+
+<p>Newton’s exposition arose from an investigation
+of the cause of the motion of the planets round the
+sun, and this in due course led to the enunciation
+and establishment of the Newtonian theory of attraction.
+The origin of this theory has been often told,
+but will bear repetition. The fundamental idea
+occurred to Newton in 1665 or 1666, shortly after
+he had taken his degree at Cambridge, when, as he
+<a name="png.234" id="png.234" href="#png.234"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>226<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>wrote later, “I was in the prime, of my age for invention,
+and minded Mathematicks and Philosophy
+more than at any time since.” His reasoning was
+as follows. He knew that gravity extended to the
+highest hills, he saw no reason why it should cease
+to act at greater heights, accordingly he believed
+that it would be found in operation as far as the
+moon, and he suspected that it might be the force
+which retained that body in its path round the earth.</p>
+
+<p>This hypothesis he verified thus. If a stone is
+allowed to fall near the surface of the earth, the
+attraction of the earth causes it to move through
+sixteen feet in one second: also Kepler’s Laws, if
+accurate and applicable, involve the conclusion that
+the attraction of the earth on a distant body varies
+inversely as the square of its distance from the
+earth. Now the radius of the earth and the
+distance of the moon were known to Newton, and
+therefore, on this hypothesis, he could find the
+magnitude of the earth’s attraction on the moon.
+Further, assuming that the moon moved in a circle,
+he could calculate the force required to retain it in
+its orbit. At this time his estimate of the radius of
+the earth was inaccurate, and, when he made the
+calculation, he found that this force was rather
+greater than the earth’s attraction on the moon.
+The discrepancy did not shake his faith in his theory,
+but he conjectured that the moon’s motion was also
+<a name="png.235" id="png.235" href="#png.235"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>227<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>affected by other influences, such for example, as
+the effect of a resisting medium which might itself
+be in motion as supposed by Descartes in his hypothetical
+vortices.</p>
+
+<p>In 1679 Newton knew with approximate correctness
+the value of the radius of the earth. He repeated
+his calculations, and found the results to be
+in accordance with his former hypothesis. He then
+proceeded to the general theory of the motion of a
+particle under a force directed to a fixed point, and
+showed that the vector to the particle would sweep
+over equal areas in equal times. He also proved
+that, if a particle describes an ellipse under a force
+directed to a focus, the law must be that of the inverse
+square of the distance from the focus, and conversely,
+that the orbit of a particle projected in free
+space under the influence of such a force must be a
+conic. The application to the solar system was
+obvious, since Kepler had shown that the planets
+describe ellipses with the sun in one focus, and that
+the vectors from the sun to them sweep over equal
+areas in equal times. This investigation was made
+for his own satisfaction and was not published at the
+time. In it he treated the solar bodies as if they
+were particles, and he must have realized that the
+results could be taken as being only approximately
+correct.</p>
+
+<p>In 1684 the subject of the planetary orbits was
+<a name="png.236" id="png.236" href="#png.236"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>228<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>discussed in London by Halley, Hooke, and Wren.
+They were aware that, if Kepler’s conclusions were
+correct, the attraction of the sun or earth on a distant
+external particle must vary inversely as the
+square of the distance, but they could not determine
+the orbit of a particle subjected to the action of a
+central force of this kind. It was suggested that
+Newton might be able to assist them. Accordingly
+in August, Halley went to Cambridge for a talk on
+the subject, and then found that Newton had solved
+the problem some five years previously, and that the
+path was necessarily a conic. At Halley’s request
+Newton wrote out the substance of his argument,
+and sent it to London.</p>
+
+<p>Halley at once realized the importance of the
+communication, and later in the autumn returned to
+Cambridge to urge Newton to prosecute the theory
+further. He found that Newton had already done
+something in the matter, the results being contained
+in a manuscript which he saw. Probably this reference
+is to the holograph manuscript, still preserved
+in the University Library at Cambridge, of Newton’s
+lectures in the Michaelmas Term, which served as
+the basis of his memoir sent to the Royal Society a
+few months later. The great value of these investigations
+was recognized, and Newton was persuaded
+to attack the more general problem. His results
+are given in the <cite>Principia</cite>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.237" id="png.237" href="#png.237"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>229<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>As yet Newton had dealt with the problem as if
+the sun and the planets might be regarded as heavy
+masses concentrated at their centres. Clearly at
+the best this was only an approximation, though
+considering the enormous distances involved it was
+not unreasonable. In January or February, 1685,
+he considered the question of the attraction of bodies
+of finite size, and found, to his surprise and gratification,
+that a sphere or spherical shell attracts an
+external particle as if condensed into a heavy mass
+at its centre. Hence the results he had already
+proved for the relative motion of particles were true
+for the solar system, save for small errors due partly
+to the fact that the bodies were not perfectly
+spherical and partly to disturbances caused by the
+planets attracting one another. It was no longer a
+question of rough approximation: the problem was
+reducible to mathematical analysis, subject to the
+introduction of minute corrections, which, given the
+necessary observations, could be calculated very
+closely. This was a new discovery of first-rate
+importance, and initiated the modern theory of
+attractions.</p>
+
+<p>The first book of the <cite>Principia</cite> was finished before
+the summer of 1685. It deals with the motion
+of particles or bodies in free space either in known
+orbits or under the action of known forces. In
+it the law of attraction is generalized into the
+<a name="png.238" id="png.238" href="#png.238"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>230<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>statement that every particle of matter attracts
+every other particle with a force which varies
+directly as the product of their masses and inversely
+as the square of the distance between them.
+Thus gravitation was brought into the domain of
+Science.</p>
+
+<p>The second book was completed by the summer
+of 1686. It treats of motion in a resisting medium
+and of various problems connected with waves. At
+the end of it, it is shown that the Cartesian theory of
+vortices is inconsistent with the laws of motion, and
+necessarily leads to incorrect results. This book
+opened another world to the application of mathematics
+and, in effect, created the science of hydrodynamics.</p>
+
+<p>The third book was finished in March 1687. In
+this, the theorems previously established are applied
+to the chief phenomena of the universe, and briefly
+we may say that all the facts then known about the
+solar system and, in particular, the motion of the
+moon with its various inequalities, the figure of the
+earth, and the phenomena of the tides, were shown
+to be in accord with the theory. Much of the
+material for these calculations was collected by
+Flamsteed and Halley.</p>
+
+<p>The <cite>Principia</cite>, as I have said, is a classic. Like
+other books to which that compliment is paid, it is
+rarely read: indeed, I doubt whether there are a
+<a name="png.239" id="png.239" href="#png.239"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>231<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>dozen men in Cambridge who have glanced all
+through it, even in a cursory manner. When I was
+an undergraduate the course for the Tripos involved
+five sections (1, 2, 3, 9, and 11) of the first book, but
+now, probably with good reason, even this slight
+acquaintance with the work is no longer required,
+and to-day the character of these investigations is
+unfamiliar to most mathematicians, while the fact
+that it is written in Latin tends to diminish the
+number of its readers. I will, then, with your permission,
+describe briefly its frame-work.</p>
+
+<p>First, however, let me remark on how different
+was the knowledge of mathematics, even among
+experts, at the time it was written from that current
+to-day. In the geometry of the circle and conics
+mathematicians were familiar with the methods of
+Greek science, and in their application Newton was
+unrivalled among his contemporaries, but outside
+geometry methods of investigation were far to seek.
+Analysis had been but little developed; algebraic
+notation had only recently taken definite form;
+trigonometry was still used mainly as an adjunct to
+astronomy; analytical geometry had been invented
+by Descartes, but no text-books on it of modern type
+were available; while nothing about the calculus had
+been published. Mechanics, however, had recently
+been treated as a science—statics by Stevinus and
+dynamics by Galileo—and this paved the way for
+<a name="png.240" id="png.240" href="#png.240"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>232<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Newton’s investigations. In particular, Galileo had
+established principles which foreshadowed the first
+two laws of motion, and had deduced formulae in
+linear motion like <span class="maths"><i>v</i>² = 2<i>fs</i>,</span>
+<span class="maths"><i>s</i> = ½<i>ft</i>²,</span> and in circular
+motion like <span class="maths"><i>f</i> = <i>v</i>² / <i>r</i>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Newton prefaced the <cite>Principia</cite> by explaining
+that the earliest problems in natural philosophy
+which attract attention are connected with the phenomena
+of motion, and it was with motion). that the
+book dealt. To discuss motion effectively, it was
+necessary to give precision to the language used,
+and accordingly he propounded definitions of mass,
+momentum, inertia, and so on, which have settled
+the language of the subject. He next enunciated
+his three well-known laws of motion, and described
+the experiments on which he based them. He
+followed this up by deducing rules for the composition
+and resolution of forces, and discussed relative
+motion.</p>
+
+<p>This preliminary matter is followed by the first
+book, concerned with the motion of bodies in an
+unresisting medium. It is divided into fourteen
+sections containing ninety-eight propositions with
+various interpolated lemmas, corollaries, and scholia.</p>
+
+<p>The first section is on the method of prime and
+ultimate ratios, by the use of which Newton was
+able, in effect, to integrate. He applied this to the
+curvature and the areas of curves, and proved that,
+<a name="png.241" id="png.241" href="#png.241"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>233<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>at the very beginning of the motion of a body from
+rest under any force, the space described is proportional
+to the force and the square of the time.</p>
+
+<p>The second section is concerned with the motion
+of a particle under a central force. It contains the
+well-known propositions that if the force is central
+the area swept out by the vector to the centre is proportional
+to the time, and conversely that if such
+area is proportional to the time the particle is
+acted on by a central force. Newton further discussed
+particular cases of circular, elliptic, and spiral
+motion. In the third section he dealt with motion
+in a conic under a central force to the focus, showed
+that in this case the force must vary inversely as the
+square of the distance, and conversely that if a particle
+be projected from any point in any direction
+with any velocity under such a force it must describe
+a conic about the centre of force as a focus, and that
+in such elliptic orbits the periodic times are in the
+sesquiplicate ratio of the major axes of the ellipses.
+He also explained how to treat the problem if disturbing
+forces are introduced. These two sections
+solved the problem of planetary motion if the planets
+could be treated as particles and did not disturb one
+another’s motions.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth and fifth sections are given up to the
+proof of certain geometrical propositions in conics
+required for subsequent discussions: in particular
+<a name="png.242" id="png.242" href="#png.242"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>234<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the construction of a conic when a focus and three
+other conditions or when five points on it or five
+tangents to it are given.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixth section Newton returned to the
+problem of the motion of a particle in an ellipse
+under a central force to a focus, and discussed how
+to determine the position of the particle at any given
+time. (Kepler’s Problem.)</p>
+
+<p>The seventh and eighth sections are devoted to
+the motion of a particle under a central force which
+is any function of the distance. The geometrical
+treatment of these problems is ingenious, but necessarily
+more involved than when modern analysis is
+used.</p>
+
+<p>In the ninth section Newton dealt with the
+motion of particles in orbits which are revolving
+about the centre of force, and on the motion of the
+apses of such orbits: this introduced the theory of
+disturbing forces. The tenth section is concerned
+with constrained motion, and particularly with the
+motion of pendulums. The eleventh section deals
+with the motion of particles under their mutual
+attractions and incidentally with the problem of
+three bodies. These three sections afford a notable
+illustration of Newton’s analytical powers.</p>
+
+<p>The twelfth and thirteenth sections deal with the
+attraction under various laws of force of spherical
+bodies, circular laminae, and solids of revolution.
+<a name="png.243" id="png.243" href="#png.243"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>235<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>These sections brought the problem of the solar
+system, consisting of solid bodies of finite size and
+approximately spherical in form, into the domain
+of mathematics, and led up to the generalization
+that all particles of matter attract one another with
+a force proportional to the product of their masses
+and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
+between them, from which law it would seem
+that all the known phenomena of the motions of the
+solar system can be deduced.</p>
+
+<p>The fourteenth section is concerned with the
+motion of minute corpuscles, with applications to
+the corpuscular theory of light.</p>
+
+<p>The second book is devoted to the discussion of
+the motion of bodies in resisting mediums: there are
+fifty-three propositions besides lemmas, scholia, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In the first section, Newton considered the
+motion of a particle or sphere moving in a medium
+whose resistance varies as the velocity of the particle:
+in the second section the resistance is assumed
+to vary as the square of the velocity: and in the third
+section the resistance is supposed to consist of two
+terms, one varying as the velocity and the other
+as the square of the velocity. The fourth section
+is on spiral motion caused by resistance of the
+medium.</p>
+
+<p>The fifth section deals with the density and pressure
+of liquids and gases at rest (Hydrostatics).</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.244" id="png.244" href="#png.244"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>236<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>The sixth section treats of the motion of pendulums
+in a resisting medium; and the seventh section
+is concerned with the motion of fluids, and the resistance
+they offer to the motion of projectiles. The
+latter section contains the celebrated statement of
+the form of the solid of least resistance, whose
+demonstration proved a puzzle to mathematicians
+until the invention of the calculus of variations.
+Newton’s solution is in the Portsmouth papers, and
+elsewhere I have published it: it involves the use of
+fluxions, and it is probable that it was his failure to
+translate this demonstration into geometrical language
+that led him to give the result without a proof.</p>
+
+<p>The eighth section deals with the motion of waves
+with applications to the theory of sound and the undulatory
+theory of light; and the ninth section deals
+with vortices; it is here shown that the theory of vortices
+suggested by Descartes to explain the motion
+of the solar system is untenable.</p>
+
+<p>This book created the theory of hydrodynamics.
+Much of it is incomplete, but it is astonishing that
+Newton proved as much as he did; of course to-day
+no one would suggest that the best way of attacking
+these problems is by Newtonian geometrical methods.</p>
+
+<p>The third book contains the practical application
+of the propositions in the two earlier books to the
+solar system. I need not describe this in detail.
+In order to justify this application, Newton commenced
+<a name="png.245" id="png.245" href="#png.245"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>237<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>by laying down four rules which have since
+been accepted as binding in scientific investigations.
+These, as given in the third edition, are to the
+following effect: (1) We are not to assume more
+causes than are sufficient and necessary for the
+explanation of observed facts. (2) Hence, as far
+as possible, similar effects must be assigned to the
+same cause; for instance, the fall of stones in Europe
+and America. (3) Properties common to all bodies
+within reach of our experiments are to be assumed
+as pertaining to all bodies; for instance, extension.
+(4) Propositions in science obtained by a wide induction
+are to be regarded as exactly or approximately
+true, until phenomena or experiments show that they
+may be corrected or are liable to exceptions. The
+substance of these rules is now accepted as the basis
+of scientific investigation. Their formal enunciation
+here serves as a landmark in the history of thought.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the Copernican view of the solar
+system was accepted, it was natural for men to seek
+to explain the reason why the planets moved as they
+did. Descartes, in 1644, had suggested that the
+explanation might be found in the existence of vortices
+in space. This conjecture, although based on
+arbitrary assumptions, and in fact untenable, played
+an important part in the history of the subject,
+for it accustomed men to think that planetary
+phenomena might be explicable by the same laws
+<a name="png.246" id="png.246" href="#png.246"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>238<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>as are found to be true on the earth. That this was
+so was established by Newton in his <cite>Principia</cite>, where
+all the motions of the solar system were made to depend
+on one assumption as to the law of attraction.
+The question whether this law could itself be deduced
+from some more fundamental assumption was raised
+by Newton, but he could not devise a satisfactory
+hypothesis. It has been discussed again and again
+since his time, and the problem is still unsolved.</p>
+
+<p>Newton’s conclusions were immediately accepted
+in Britain, and very rapidly by the leading mathematicians
+in Europe: indeed Huygens came expressly
+from Holland in order to make the personal
+acquaintance of a writer whose work promised to
+revolutionize the history of science. The refutation
+of the Cartesian hypothesis ran, however, counter
+to the sentiments and wishes of a certain number of
+philosophers, and some few years elapsed before the
+truth of the gravitation theory was universally admitted,
+but it would be ungracious to dwell further
+on this. In Britain the work exercised a profound
+influence in philosophy as well as in science, and
+educated men of all schools of thought acquainted
+themselves with the general line of Newton’s reasoning
+and his deductions.</p>
+
+<p>That men of science and philosophers should
+have approved Newton’s theory is not surprising,
+but it is somewhat curious that it excited so little
+<a name="png.247" id="png.247" href="#png.247"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>239<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>opposition among theologians. Galileo’s discoveries
+of hills, vales, and (supposed) seas on the moon and
+planets had already suggested that life might exist
+there, and in the popular (but illogical) view this
+involved the idea of the existence of beings with
+spiritual and intellectual faculties not unlike those
+of men. Newton’s results seemed to show that
+there was nothing in the nature of things to differentiate
+the earth from the other planets, and therefore
+considerably strengthened the view that life
+might be found on them. It might well be asked
+whether such life, and indeed whether the mechanism
+of the solar system as expounded by Newton,
+was in accordance with Scripture. That these difficulties
+were not pressed against Newton’s conclusions
+is, I think, attributable to the fact that his
+theory was explicitly concerned only with non-organic
+matter. His own opinion was that the
+extension of the reign of law was an additional
+argument in favour of a divine creation: this view,
+set out at the end of the <cite>Principia</cite> and in his
+five letters to Bentley in 1692–93, was generally
+accepted by the leaders of religious thought in
+Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Lagrange more than once remarked that Newton
+was not only the greatest mathematician of former
+days, but the most fortunate, since, as there is but
+one universe, it can happen to but one man in the
+<a name="png.248" id="png.248" href="#png.248"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>240<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>world’s history to be the interpreter of its laws. It
+is true that Newton applied his theory only to the
+solar system for which alone he had the necessary
+data, but after the publication of the <cite>Principia</cite>, no
+one doubted that gravity extended to the most distant
+regions of space. The work of Sir William
+Herschel and that of all later astronomers on binary
+and other systems rests on this hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the <cite>Principia</cite> on dynamical
+astronomy has been permanent. It is not too
+much to say that when it was published, the theory,
+as there set out, had outstripped observation, but
+during the succeeding century large numbers of new
+facts were collected, and applications of the theory
+to new problems were made, notably by Clairaut,
+Euler, and Lagrange. All these researches tended
+to confirm it.</p>
+
+<p>The demonstrations in the <cite>Principia</cite> are expressed
+in the language of classical geometry, and,
+though unnecessarily concise and difficult, their
+correctness is unimpeachable. That Newton could
+carry his calculations so far with the limited mathematics
+then at his command is not the least wonderful
+part of the performance, but it is the prerogative of
+genius to get great results with but scanty equipment.</p>
+
+<p>Newton’s methods, which even in the seventeenth
+century were archaic, became in time quite out of
+<a name="png.249" id="png.249" href="#png.249"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>241<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>date. This reason, the growth of the subject, and
+the development of analysis made it desirable to
+expound dynamical astronomy afresh. Towards
+the end of the eighteenth century the task was undertaken
+by Laplace in his <cite xml:lang="fra" lang="fra">Mécanique Céleste</cite>. This
+is far more than the translation of the <cite>Principia</cite>
+into the language of modern analysis, for it greatly
+extends the theory of some branches of the subject
+which had been left incomplete by Newton, either on
+account of his not having the requisite analysis at
+his command or because the necessary facts were
+not available. Laplace acknowledged his debt to
+Newton, and expressed his deliberate opinion that
+the <cite>Principia</cite> was pre-eminent over every previous
+production of human genius—“so near the
+gods, man cannot nearer go.” A century later a
+fresh exposition of the subject embodying the discoveries
+of the nineteenth century was given by
+F. F. Tisserand in his <cite xml:lang="fra" lang="fra">Mécanique Céleste</cite>; this presents
+the subject in its modern form.</p>
+
+<p>Newton had applied his theory to the solar
+system as it existed, and had not investigated its
+origin. We owe to Laplace the enunciation of a
+hypothesis as to its evolution. According to this
+conjecture, the solar system originated in a quantity
+of incandescent gas rotating round an axis through
+its centre of mass. Laplace assumed that as this gas
+cooled, it would contract, and that successive rings
+<a name="png.250" id="png.250" href="#png.250"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>242<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>would break off from its outer edge; these rings in
+their turn would cool, and finally condense into the
+planets with their satellites; while the sun represents
+the central core which would be left. Recent
+investigations show that this cannot be taken as
+correct without numerous modifications. Moreover
+every extension of our knowledge requires the introduction
+of alterations in the hypothesis, and this
+clearly suggests that the conjecture is untenable.
+It played, however, a useful part in its day, as
+suggesting a common origin for all members of the
+system. Perhaps I ought to add that a nebular
+origin had been previously outlined by Kant, who
+had also suggested meteoric aggregations and tidal
+friction as agents concerned, but these were little
+more than vague conjectures.</p>
+
+<p>The <cite>Principia</cite> convinced its readers that the laws
+of mechanics, discovered by experiment on the
+earth, were operative throughout the solar system.
+It was reserved for the nineteenth century to extend
+the reign of law to other celestial phenomena.
+Newton and his successors had proved that the law
+of gravity extends through all parts of space where
+observations are possible. That the sun, stars, and
+planets are constituted of similar materials was
+generally believed; and this has now been confirmed
+by the use of the spectroscope which has enabled us
+to calculate the temperature of gaseous stars, and
+<a name="png.251" id="png.251" href="#png.251"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>243<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>specify the chemical elements comprised in them.
+Thus the composition of far-distant suns has been
+reduced to problems to be settled in our laboratories.
+The scientific world, however, in admitting the validity
+of the theory of universal gravity had implicitly
+accepted the principle that the reign of law, as investigated
+on the earth, extends throughout the
+universe. Thus the daring which permits us, living
+on a medium-sized planet attached to one of the
+smaller suns, to analyse the universe is, I venture
+to say, the direct outcome of the genius of Newton
+as displayed in his <cite>Principia</cite>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="XIV. Isaac Newton on University Studies"><a name="png.252" id="png.252" href="#png.252"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>244<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER XIV.<br
+ /><small>ISAAC NEWTON ON UNIVERSITY STUDIES.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap-A"><span class="allsc">Among</span> the Portsmouth papers in the University
+Library at Cambridge<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn33" id="fna33" name="fna33">33</a></sup> is a memorandum by
+Isaac Newton, drawn up, I conjecture, towards the
+close of the seventeenth century, on the organization
+of the studies and on the discipline of the University.</p>
+
+<p>Conditions then differed so widely from those now in
+force that the value of the memorandum is only
+historical, but notwithstanding this, its interest is
+considerable. I have no reason to suppose that it
+was formally brought before the regent or the non-regent
+house, and possibly the plan never got beyond
+discussion by a few friends. I have modernized the
+spelling, made the use of capitals uniform, allowed
+myself to break paragraphs, and sometimes inserted
+punctuation or altered it—otherwise the paper is
+as originally written. I give it without further
+comment.</p>
+
+<h3 title="Newton’s Memorandum"><i>Newton’s Memorandum.</i></h3>
+
+<p>“Undergraduates to be instructed by a Tutor, a
+Humanity Lecturer, a Greek Lecturer, a Philosophy
+Lecturer, and a Mathematic Lecturer.</p>
+
+<p>“The Tutor to read logic, ethics, the globes and
+<a name="png.253" id="png.253" href="#png.253"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>245<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>principles of geography and chronology in order to
+understand history, unless the Lecturers have time
+for any of these things.</p>
+
+<p>“The Humanity and Greek Lecturers to set
+tasks in Latin and Greek authors once a day to the
+first year, and once a week to the rest; and to examine
+diligently and instruct briefly; and to punish
+by exercises such faults as concern lectures; and to
+appoint the reading of the best historians.</p>
+
+<p>“The Philosophy Lecturer to read first of things
+introductory to natural philosophy—time, space,
+body, place, motion and its laws, force, mechanical
+powers, gravity and its laws, hydrostatics, projectiles
+solid and fluid, circular motions and the
+forces relating to them. And then to read natural
+philosophy, beginning with the general system of the
+world, and thence proceeding to the particular constitution
+of this earth and the things therein—meteors,
+elements, minerals, vegetables, animals,
+and ending with anatomy if he have skill therein.
+Also to examine in logic and ethics.</p>
+
+<p>“The Mathematic Lecturer to read first some
+easy and useful practical things; then Euclid,
+spherics, the projections of the sphere, the construction
+of maps, trigonometry, astronomy, optics,
+music, algebra, etc. Also to examine and (if the
+Tutor be deficient) to instruct in the principles of
+chronology and geography.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.254" id="png.254" href="#png.254"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>246<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>“Several sciences which depend not on one another
+are all learnt in less time together than successively,
+the mind being diverted and recreated by the
+variety, and put more upon the stretch. And therefore
+divers of these Lecturers may proceed together:
+suppose the Tutor’s [lectures] after morning chapel,
+the Greek or Philosophy Lecturer’s two hours after,
+and the Humanity and Mathematic [Lecturers’] in
+the afternoon. The Tutor to accompany his pupils
+to the philosophy and mathematic lectures, and to
+examine them the next morning both in those lectures
+and in his own, and make them understand where
+they hesitate. These two Lecturers to read five
+days in the week and with the other two [Lecturers]
+to examine the sixth. Each Lecturer to read the
+same day successively to two or three years [<i>i.e.</i>, to
+Freshmen, Junior Sophs, or Senior Sophs as the
+case may be] under [their] several Tutors. Their
+lectures to begin with [the] Michaelmas Term and
+continue till the Commencement [<i>i.e.</i> the end of the
+Easter Term]: the Tutors to begin the Commencement
+before. The Greek and Humanity Lecturers
+to set bigger tasks in the vacations than in the
+reading-time, proportionally to the spare hours of
+the students.</p>
+
+<p>“A Monitor to note those who miss lectures, and
+give their names to the Humanity Lecturer, who
+shall punish them, not by pecuniary mulcts, but by
+<a name="png.255" id="png.255" href="#png.255"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>247<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>tasks [, such as] by making verses, themes, epistles, or
+getting anything without book. All pecuniary mulcts
+of Undergraduates to be abolished; and exercises,
+admonitions, recantations, and expulsions (according
+to the nature of the crime) to succeed in their room.</p>
+
+<p>“In the Long Vacation, between the Commencement
+and Michaelmas, the Tutor shall take care that
+his Pupils read over all the last year’s lessons again
+by themselves, and at the end of the vacation they
+shall be examined again, and those, who are at any
+time found not fit to go on, turned down to the
+lectures of the year below, that they do not retard
+the Lecturer and be an ill example to others.</p>
+
+<p>“The Lecturers to be chosen every three years,
+and the elections after the first institution to be on
+this manner. All those who have at any time been
+Lecturers shall choose four out of their number, one
+for each office, and the Master and Seniors of the
+College shall choose other four who have not yet
+executed the office, and those eight with the Master
+shall, by balancing, choose four out their number.
+[There shall be] no regard to seniority or anything
+but merit. The Lecturers to choose yearly a Public
+Tutor, and to reprehend or displace him if there be
+reason. This Tutor without a new election to take
+none but those admitted in his year of office until
+their course of lectures be gone through. No
+Private Tutor to take two years together. All
+<a name="png.256" id="png.256" href="#png.256"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>248<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>sizars, poor scholars, and scholars of the House to
+be under Public Tutors, except Westminster scholars
+of Trinity College when the Tutor is of another school.</p>
+
+<p>“For encouraging able and fit men to accept of
+the Readers’ places, their fellowships during their
+office shall be doubled by the addition of four other
+fellowships kept vacant for the purpose, one, for
+each, unless some other competent provision be
+made for any of them. And because the Philosophy
+and Mathematic Lecturers’ office is laborious, for
+encouraging them to diligence none shall be compelled
+to come to their lectures, but all that will be
+auditors shall offer each of them a quarterly gratuity;
+suppose of 10s. the sizar, 12s. or 15s. the pensioner,
+and 20s. or 25s. the fellow-commoner. And to encourage
+auditors those shall be preferred to scholarships
+and fellowships which are best skilled in all
+sciences, <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">caeteris paribus</i>, and shall have seniority of
+those that come not to lectures. This institution
+to begin in the greater colleges, and be carried on in
+the rest as men qualified and revenues can be had.
+In smaller colleges the Mathematic Lecturer may
+be omitted, and only a power granted the College
+of instituting one when they can. Also the Greek
+Lecturer’s office may be supplied by the Humanity
+Lecturer when it shall be thought fit. A gratuity
+to be given by all the first year to the Greek and
+Humanity Lecturers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.257" id="png.257" href="#png.257"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>249<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>“For securing the Tutor and making his office
+desirable by fit persons, every student at his admission
+to deposit caution money in the hands of the
+bursar of the College; suppose <i>£</i>10 or <i>£</i>12 the sizar,
+<i>£</i>16 or <i>£</i>20 the pensioner, and <i>£</i>30 or <i>£</i>40 the fellow-commoner.
+And in case any pupil at the end of any
+quarter be in his Tutor’s debt, and do not discharge it
+within six weeks after his receipt of the quarter bill,
+the Bursar to discharge it, and return back the
+residue upon demand, and the Tutor forthwith upon
+pain of forfeiting his office, to send home the pupil.
+Yet may the pupil be received again with a new
+supply of money. This institution to be universal.
+The Master and Seniors to regulate the expenses of
+all under tuition by certain limits common to them
+all, and the Senior Dean to read over and sign all
+their quarter bills. Extravagant pupils, after one
+admonition, to be sent away.</p>
+
+<p>“Fellow-commoners to perform all exercises in
+their courses, and to be equally subject to their
+Tutors and Governors with other scholars and alike
+punishable by exercises, and those who are resty
+or idle to be sent away lest they spoil others by their
+bad example. They shall read geography, chronology,
+and mathematics the first year.</p>
+
+<p>“All students who will be admitted to lectures
+in natural philosophy to learn first geometry and
+mechanics. By mechanics I mean here the demonstrative
+<a name="png.258" id="png.258" href="#png.258"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>250<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>doctrine of forces and motions, including
+hydrostatics. For without a judgment in these
+things a man can have none in philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>“Whenever the major part of the Mathematic
+Lecturers in the University shall desire [it] a Master
+[shall be appointed] to teach fellow-commoners and
+others arithmetic and designing. The University
+shall allow him <i>£</i>10 yearly out of their Common
+Chest, and he shall observe the orders of the Mathematic
+Lecturers and be placed or displaced by the
+major part of them at pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>“All graduates without exception found by the
+Proctors in taverns or other drinking houses, unless
+with travellers at their inns, shall at least have their
+names given in to the Vice-Chancellor, who shall
+summon them to answer it before the next Consistory.</p>
+
+<p>“The Deans to visit the chambers of all undergraduates
+once at least every week, upon pain of
+forfeiting 10s. to the Lecturers for every omission.</p>
+
+<p>“Fasting nights have a shadow of religion without
+any substance. ’Tis only supping more pleasantly
+out of the public hall. And this does great
+mischief by sending young students to find suppers
+abroad, where they get into company and grow
+debauched. Whether would it not be better to
+license undergraduates to sup together in such
+places as the Dean shall appoint, with a Monitor
+to note the names of the absent?</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.259" id="png.259" href="#png.259"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>251<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>“All these lectures to consist in extemporary
+explications of books in such an easy, short, and
+clear manner as may be most profitable to the
+auditors. And if any Lecturer or other person
+shall compose any treatise which shall be preferred
+and used by the major part of the Mathematic or
+Philosophic Lecturers, the University shall give the
+author either <i>£</i>20, or if those Lecturers request it,
+<i>£</i>30, <i>£</i>40 or <i>£</i>50, out of their Common Chest.</p>
+
+<p>“Commissioners to be appointed for some years
+to set on foot, inspect, and amend the institution.</p>
+
+<p>“No oaths of office to be imposed on the Lecturers.
+I do not know a greater abuse of religion
+than that sort of oaths: they being harder to be kept
+than the Jewish Law, so that yearly absolutions
+have been instituted. The papists, who believe
+such absolutions, might be excused for instituting
+such oaths, but we have no such doctrine, and yet
+continue their practices. Admonitions and pecuniary
+mulcts for neglect of duty are less cruel punishments
+than the consequence of perjury, and may be
+as effectual.”</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna33" id="fn33" name="fn33" title="Back">33</a> Camb. Univ. Library, Newton MSS. section viii, No. 5. Add.
+4005/6, A.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+
+<h2 title="XV. The History of the Mathematical Tripos"><a name="png.260" id="png.260" href="#png.260"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>252<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>CHAPTER XV.<br
+ /><small>THE HISTORY OF THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS.</small></h2>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="allsc">The</span> Mathematical Tripos has played so prominent
+a part in the history of education at
+Cambridge and of mathematics in England, that a
+sketch of its development<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn34" id="fna34" name="fna34">34</a></sup> may be interesting to
+general readers.</p>
+
+<p>So far as mathematics is concerned the history
+of the University before Newton may be summed up
+very briefly. The University was founded towards
+the end of the twelfth century. Throughout the
+middle ages, the instruction given to students was
+organized on lines similar to those current at Paris
+and Oxford, and to qualify for a degree it was
+necessary to perform various exercises, and especially
+to keep a number of <em>acts</em> or to oppose acts kept
+by other students. An act consisted in effect of a
+<a name="png.261" id="png.261" href="#png.261"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>253<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>debate in Latin, thrown, at any rate in later times,
+into syllogistic form. It was commenced by one
+student, the <em>respondent</em>, stating some proposition,
+often propounded in the form of a thesis, which
+was attacked by an <em>opponent</em> or <em>opponents</em>, the discussion
+being controlled by a senior graduate. The
+teaching was largely in the hands of young
+graduates—every master of arts being compelled to reside and
+teach for at least one year—though no doubt colleges
+and private hostels supplemented this instruction in
+the case of their own students.</p>
+
+<p>The reformation in England was largely the
+work of Cambridge divines, and in the University
+the renaissance was warmly welcomed. In spite
+of the disorder and confusion of the Tudor period,
+new studies and a system of professional instruction
+were introduced. The earliest lectureships created
+by the University seem to have been one in Latin
+established in or before 1492 and one in mathematics
+established in or before 1501: they mark
+the beginning of the system of teaching by experts
+which has superseded the medieval system of compulsory
+teaching by all regent masters. The fact
+that one of these lectureships was in mathematics
+shows that as early as 1500 the subject was regarded
+as important. Tunstall, subsequently the
+most eminent English arithmetician of his time,
+migrated in 1496 from Oxford to Cambridge, and
+<a name="png.262" id="png.262" href="#png.262"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>254<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>most of the subsequent English mathematicians
+of the Tudor period were at Cambridge; of these
+I may mention Record (who migrated, probably
+about 1535, from Oxford), Dee, Digges, Blundeville,
+Buckley, Billingsley, Hill, Bedwell, Hood, Richard
+and John Harvey, Edward Wright, Briggs, and
+Oughtred. Under the Elizabethan statutes of 1570,
+notwithstanding many disadvantages, the mathematical
+school continued to grow. Horrox, Seth
+Ward, Foster, Rooke, Gilbert Clerke, Pell, Wallis,
+Barrow, Dacres, and Morland may be cited as
+prominent Cambridge mathematicians of the succeeding
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Newton’s mathematical career dates from 1665;
+his reputation, abilities, and influence attracted
+general attention to the subject. He created a
+school of mathematics and mathematical physics,
+among the earliest members of which I note the
+names of Laughton, Samuel Clarke, Craig, Flamsteed,
+Whiston, Saunderson, Jurin, Taylor, Cotes,
+and Robert Smith. Since then Cambridge has been
+regarded as, in a special sense, the home of English
+mathematicians, and from 1706 onwards we have
+fairly complete accounts of the course of reading and
+work of mathematical students.</p>
+
+<p>Until less than a century ago the form of the
+method of qualifying for a degree remained substantially
+unaltered, but the subject-matter of the
+<a name="png.263" id="png.263" href="#png.263"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>255<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>discussions varied from time to time with the prevalent
+studies of the place.</p>
+
+<p>After the renaissance some of the statutable
+exercises were “huddled,” that is, were reduced to
+a mere form. To huddle an act, the proctor
+generally asked some question such as <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Quid est
+nomen?</i> to which the answer usually expected was
+<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Nescio</i>. In these exercises considerable license was
+allowed, particularly if there were any play on the
+words involved. For example, J. Brass, of Trinity,
+was accosted with the question, <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Quid est aes?</i> to
+which he answered, <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Nescio nisi finis examinationis</i>.
+It should be added that retorts such as these
+were only allowed in the pretence exercises, and
+a candidate who in the actual examination was
+asked to give a definition of happiness and replied,
+“An exemption from Payne”—that being the name
+of his questioner—was plucked for want of discrimination
+in time and place. In earlier years
+even the farce of huddling seems to have been
+unnecessary, for it was said in 1675 that it was not
+uncommon for the proctors to take “cautions for
+the performance of the statutable exercises, and
+accept the forfeit of the money so deposited in lieu
+of their performance.”</p>
+
+<p>In medieval times acts had been usually kept on
+some scholastic question or on a proposition taken
+from the <cite>Sentences</cite>. About the end of the fifteenth
+<a name="png.264" id="png.264" href="#png.264"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>256<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>century religious questions, such as the interpretation
+of biblical texts, began to be introduced. Some
+fifty or sixty years later the favourite subjects were
+drawn either from dogmatic theology or from philosophy.
+In the seventeenth century the questions
+were usually philosophical, but in the eighteenth
+century, under the influence of the Newtonian school,
+a large proportion of them were mathematical.</p>
+
+<p>Further details about these exercises and specimens
+of acts kept in the eighteenth century are
+given in my <cite>History of Mathematics at Cambridge</cite>.
+Here I will only say that they provided an admirable
+training in the art of presenting an argument, and
+in dialectical skill in attack and defence. The
+mental strain involved in keeping a contested act
+was severe. De Morgan, describing his act kept in
+1826, wrote<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn35" id="fna35" name="fna35">35</a></sup>:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>I was badgered for two hours with arguments given and
+answered in Latin—or what we call Latin—against Newton’s
+first section, Lagrange’s derived functions, and Locke on
+innate principles. And though I took off everything, and
+was pronounced by the moderator to have disputed <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">magno
+honore</i>, I never had such a strain of thought in my life. For
+the inferior opponents were made as sharp as their betters
+by their tutors, who kept lists of queer objections drawn
+from all quarters.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="indent">Had the language of the discussions been changed
+to English, as was repeatedly urged from 1774
+<a name="png.265" id="png.265" href="#png.265"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>257<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>onwards, these exercises might have been retained
+with advantage, but the barbarous Latin and the
+syllogistic form in which they were carried on prejudiced
+their retention.</p>
+
+<p>About 1830 a custom arose for the respondent
+and opponents to meet previously and arrange their
+arguments together. The discussions then became
+an elaborate farce, and were a mere public performance
+of what had been already rehearsed. Accordingly
+the moderators of 1839 took the responsibility
+of abandoning them. This action was
+singularly high-handed, since a report of 30 May
+1838, had recommended that they should be continued,
+and there was no reason why they should
+not have been reformed and retained as a useful
+feature in the scheme of study.</p>
+
+<p>On the result of the acts, a list of those qualified
+to receive degrees was drawn up. This list was not
+arranged strictly in order of merit, because the
+proctors could insert names anywhere in it, but by
+the beginning of the eighteenth century this power
+had become restricted to the right reserved to the
+vice-chancellor, the senior regent, and each proctor
+to place in the list one candidate anywhere he liked—a
+right which continued to exist till 1828, though
+it was not exercised after 1792. Except for the
+names of these “honorary optimes,” this final list
+was, until 1752, arranged in order of merit into
+<a name="png.266" id="png.266" href="#png.266"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>258<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>wranglers and senior optimes, junior optimes, and
+poll-men; after 1752, the wranglers and senior
+optimes were placed in separate classes. The
+bachelors on admission to their degrees took seniority
+according to their order on this list. The title
+<em>wrangler</em> is derived from these contentious discussions;
+the title <em>optime</em> from the customary compliment
+given by the moderator to a successful disputant,
+<i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Domine ..., optime disputasti</i>, or even <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">optime
+quidem disputasti</i>, and the title of <em>poll-man</em> from the
+description of this class as
+<span title="[Greek: hoi polloi]" xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">οἱ πολλοί</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The final exercises for the bachelor of arts degree
+were never huddled, and until 1839 were carried out
+strictly. University officials were responsible for
+approving the subject-matter of these acts. Stupid
+men offered some irrefutable truism, but the ambitious
+student courted reputation by affirming
+some paradox. Probably all honour men kept acts,
+but poll-men were deemed to comply with the regulations
+by keeping opponencies. The proctors were
+responsible for presiding at these acts, or seeing that
+competent graduates did so. In and after 1649 two
+examiners were specially appointed for this purpose.
+In 1680<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn36" id="fna36" name="fna36">36</a></sup> these examiners were appointed by the
+senate with the title of moderator, and with the
+joint stipend of four shillings for everyone graduating
+as a bachelor of arts during their year of office.
+<a name="png.267" id="png.267" href="#png.267"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>259<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>In 1688 the joint stipend of the moderators was
+fixed at <i>£</i>40 a year. The moderators, like the
+proctors, were nominated by the colleges in rotation.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest times the proctors had the
+power of questioning a candidate at the end of a
+disputation, and probably all candidates for a
+degree attended the public schools on certain days
+to give an opportunity to the proctors (or any
+master who liked to take part in the examination)
+to examine them<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn37" id="fna37" name="fna37">37</a></sup>, though the opportunity was not
+always used. Such examinations were conducted in
+Latin, and originally different candidates attended
+on different days. Soon after 1710<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn38" id="fna38" name="fna38">38</a></sup> the moderators
+or proctors began the custom of summoning on one
+day in January all candidates whom they proposed
+to question, and conducting the examination in
+English and in public: the examination did not
+last more than one day, and was partly on philosophy
+and partly on mathematics. It was from
+this examination that the Mathematical Tripos
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>This introduction of a regular oral examination
+seems to have been mainly due to the fact that
+when, in 1710, George I gave the Ely library to the
+<a name="png.268" id="png.268" href="#png.268"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>260<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>University, it was decided to assign for its reception
+the old senate-house—now the catalogue room in the
+library—and to build a new room for the meetings
+of the senate. Pending the building of the new
+senate-house the books were stored in the Schools,
+which thus were rendered unavailable for keeping
+acts. In consequence of this, considerable difficulty
+was found in arranging for all the candidates to keep
+the full number of statutable exercises, and obtaining
+opportunities to compare them one with
+another: hence the introduction or extension of a
+supplementary oral examination. The advantages
+of this examination as providing a ready means of
+testing the knowledge and abilities of the candidates
+were so patent that it was retained when the necessity
+for some system of the kind had passed away, and
+finally it became systematized into an organized test
+to which all questionists were subjected.</p>
+
+<p>In 1731 the University raised the joint stipend of
+the moderators to <i>£</i>60 “in consideration of their
+additional trouble in the Lent Term.” This would
+seem to indicate that the senate-house examination
+had then taken formal shape, and perhaps that a
+definite scheme for its conduct had become customary.</p>
+
+<p>As long as the order of the list of those approved
+for degrees was settled on the result of impressions
+derived from acts kept by the different candidates
+<a name="png.269" id="png.269" href="#png.269"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>261<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>at different times and on different subjects, it was
+impossible to arrange the men in strict order of
+merit, nor was much importance attached to the
+order. But, with the introduction of an examination
+of all the candidates on one day, much closer
+attention was paid to securing an accurate classification,
+and more confidence felt in the published order.
+It seems to have been consequent on this that in and
+after 1748 the final lists were regarded as authoritative
+and important and that the names of the
+honorary optimes were definitely indicated: the lists
+from this time appeared in the <cite>University Calendars</cite>.
+The lists from 1748 to 1910, with the earlier Ordines
+Senioritatis from 1499 to 1747, are printed in the
+<cite>Historical Register of the University</cite>.</p>
+
+<p>Of the detailed history of the examination until
+the middle of the eighteenth century we know
+nothing. From 1750 onwards, however, we have
+more definite accounts of it. At this time, it would
+seem that all the men from each college were taken
+together as a class, and questions passed down by
+the proctors or moderators till they were answered:
+but the examination remained entirely oral, and
+technically was regarded as subsidiary to the discussions
+which had been previously held in the schools.</p>
+
+<p>Each class contained men of very different
+abilities, and to meet difficulties thus caused, a
+custom grew up by which every candidate was
+<a name="png.270" id="png.270" href="#png.270"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>262<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>liable to be taken aside to be questioned by any
+master of arts who wished to do so, and this was
+regarded as an important part of the examination.
+The examination now continued for two days and
+a half, the subjects, as before, being mathematics
+and philosophy. At the conclusion of the second
+day the moderators received the reports of those
+masters of arts who had voluntarily taken part in
+the examination, and provisionally settled the final
+list. The last half-day was used in revising and rearranging
+the order of merit.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Cumberland has left an account of the
+tests to which he was subjected when he took his
+bachelor degree in 1751. Clearly the disputations
+still played an important part, and it is difficult to
+say what weight was attached to the subsequent
+senate-house examination; his reference to it is only
+of a general character. After saying that he kept
+two acts and two opponencies he continued<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn39" id="fna39" name="fna39">39</a></sup>:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The last time I was called upon to keep an act in the
+schools I sent in three questions to the Moderator, which
+he withstood as being all mathematical, and required me
+to conform to the usage of proposing one metaphysical
+question in the place of that, which I should think fit to
+withdraw. This was ground I never liked to take, and I
+appealed against his requisition: the act was accordingly
+put by till the matter of right should be ascertained by the
+statutes of the university, and in the result of that enquiry
+<a name="png.271" id="png.271" href="#png.271"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>263<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>it was given for me, and my question <span class="nw">stood....</span> I yielded now
+to advice, and paid attention to my health, till we were
+cited to the senate house to be examined for our Bachelor’s
+degree. It was hardly ever my lot during that examination
+to enjoy any respite. I seemed an object singled out as
+every man’s mark, and was kept perpetually at the table
+under the process of question and answer.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>It was found possible by means of the new
+examination to differentiate the better men more
+accurately than before; and accordingly, in 1753,
+as above stated, the first class was subdivided
+into two, called respectively wranglers and senior
+optimes, a division which is still maintained.</p>
+
+<p>The semi-official examination by masters of arts
+was regarded as the more important part of the
+test, and the most eminent residents in the University
+took part in it. Thus John Fenn, of Caius,
+5th wrangler in 1761, wrote<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn40" id="fna40" name="fna40">40</a></sup>:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>On the following Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, we
+sat in the Senate-house for public examination; during this
+time I was officially examined by the Proctors and Moderators,
+and had the honour of being taken out for examination
+by Mr Abbot, the celebrated mathematical tutor of St
+John’s College, by the eminent professor of mathematics
+Mr Waring, of Magdalene, and by Mr Jebb of Peterhouse,
+a man thoroughly versed in the academical studies.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">This irregular examination by any master who chose
+to take part in it constantly gave rise to accusations
+of partiality.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.272" id="png.272" href="#png.272"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>264<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>In 1763 the traditional rules for the conduct of
+the examination took more definite shape. Henceforth
+the examiners used the disputations only as a
+means of classifying the men roughly. On the result
+of their “acts,” and probably partly also of their
+general reputation, the candidates were divided into
+eight classes, each arranged in alphabetical order.
+The subsequent position of the men in the class was
+determined solely by the senate-house examination.
+The first two classes comprised all who were expected
+to be wranglers, the next four classes included the
+other candidates for honours, and the last two
+classes consisted of poll-men only. Practically anyone
+placed in either of the first two classes was
+allowed, if he wished, to take an aegrotat senior
+optime, and thus escape all further examination:
+this was called gulphing it.</p>
+
+<p>All the men from one college were no longer
+taken together, but each class was examined separately
+and <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">vivâ voce</i>; and hence, since all the students
+comprised in each class were of about equal attainments,
+it was possible to make the examination more
+effective. Richard Watson, of Trinity, claimed that
+this change was made by him when acting as
+moderator in 1763. He said<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn41" id="fna41" name="fna41">41</a></sup>:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>There was more room for partiality ... then [<i>i.e.</i> in 1759]
+<a name="png.273" id="png.273" href="#png.273"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>265<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>than there is now; and I attribute the change, in a great
+degree, to an alteration which I introduced the first year
+I was moderator [<i>i.e.</i> in 1763], and which has been persevered
+in ever since. At the time of taking their Bachelor of Arts’
+degree, the young men are examined in classes, and the
+classes are now formed according to the abilities shown by
+individuals in the schools. By this arrangement, persons
+of nearly equal merits are examined in the presence of each
+other, and flagrant acts of partiality cannot take place.
+Before I made this alteration, they were examined in classes,
+but the classes consisted of members of the same College,
+and the best and worst were often examined together.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">It is probable that before the examination in the
+senate-house began a candidate, if manifestly placed
+in too low a class, was allowed the privilege of
+challenging the class to which he was assigned.
+Perhaps this began as a matter of favour, and was
+only granted in exceptional cases, but a few years
+later it became a right which every candidate could
+exercise; and I think that it is partly to its development
+that the ultimate predominance of the tripos
+over the other exercises for the degree is due.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year, 1763, it was decided that the
+relative position of the senior and second wranglers,
+namely, Paley, of Christ’s, and Frere, of Caius, was
+to be decided by the senate-house examination and
+not by the disputations. Henceforward distinction
+in that examination was regarded as the most important
+honour open to undergraduates.</p>
+
+<p>In 1768 Robert Smith, of Trinity College, founded
+<a name="png.274" id="png.274" href="#png.274"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>266<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>prizes for mathematics and natural philosophy open
+to two commencing bachelors. The examination
+followed immediately after the senate-house examination,
+and the distinction, being much coveted,
+tended to emphasize the mathematical side of the
+normal university education of the best men. Since
+1883 the prizes have been awarded on the result of
+dissertations<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn42" id="fna42" name="fna42">42</a></sup>. Additional prizes, awarded at the
+same time, and associated with the name of Lord
+Rayleigh<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn43" id="fna43" name="fna43">43</a></sup>, were founded in 1909.</p>
+
+<p>Until about 1770, the senate-house examination
+had been oral, but it began now to be the custom to
+dictate some or all of the questions and to require
+answers to be written. Only one question was
+dictated at a time, and a fresh one was not given
+out until some student had solved that previously
+read: a custom which by causing perpetual interruptions
+to take down new questions must have
+proved very harassing. We are perhaps apt to
+think that an examination conducted by written
+papers is so natural that the custom is of long
+continuance, but I know no record of any in
+Europe earlier than the eighteenth century. Until
+1830 the questions for the Smith’s prizes were
+dictated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.275" id="png.275" href="#png.275"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>267<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>The following description of the senate-house examination
+as it existed in 1772 was given by Jebb<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn44" id="fna44" name="fna44">44</a></sup>:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The moderators, some days before the arrival of the
+time prescribed by the vice-chancellor, meet for the purpose
+of forming the students into divisions of six, eight, or ten,
+according to their performance in the schools, with a view
+to the ensuing examination.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the first of the appointed days, at eight o’clock in
+the morning, the students enter the senate-house, preceded
+by a master of arts from each college, who ... is called the
+“father” of the <span class="nw">college....</span></p>
+
+<p>After the proctors have called over the names, each of
+the moderators sends for a division of the students: they
+sit with him round a table, with pens, ink, and paper, before
+them: he enters upon his task of examination, and does not
+dismiss the set till the hour is expired. This examination
+has now for some years been held in the English language.</p>
+
+<p>The examination is varied according to the abilities of
+the students. The moderator generally begins with proposing
+some questions from the six books of Euclid, plain
+(<i>sic</i>) trigonometry, and the first rules of algebra. If any
+person fails in an answer, the question goes to the next.
+From the elements of mathematics, a transition is made to
+the four branches of philosophy, viz. mechanics, hydrostatics,
+apparent astronomy, and optics, as explained in the
+works of Maclaurin, Cotes, Helsham, Hamilton, Rutherforth,
+Keill, Long, Ferguson, and Smith. If the moderator finds
+the set of questionists, under examination, capable of answering
+him, he proceeds to the eleventh and twelfth books of
+Euclid, conic sections, spherical trigonometry, the higher
+parts of Algebra, and sir Isaac Newton’s Principia; more
+particularly those sections, which treat of the motion of
+<a name="png.276" id="png.276" href="#png.276"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>268<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>bodies in eccentric and revolving orbits; the mutual action
+of spheres, composed of particles attracting each other according
+to various laws; the theory of pulses, propagated
+through elastic mediums; and the stupendous fabric of the
+world. Having closed the philosophical examination, he
+sometimes asks a few questions in Locke’s Essay on the
+human understanding, Butler’s Analogy, or Clarke’s Attributes.
+But as the highest academical distinctions are invariably
+given to the best proficients in mathematics and
+natural philosophy, a very superficial knowledge in morality
+and metaphysics will suffice.</p>
+
+<p>When the division under examination is one of the
+highest classes, problems are also proposed, with which the
+student retires to a distant part of the senate-house, and
+returns, with his solution upon paper, to the moderator,
+who, at his leisure, compares it with the solutions of other
+students, to whom the same problems have been proposed.</p>
+
+<p>The extraction of roots, the arithmetic of surds, the invention
+of divisers, the resolution of quadratic, cubic, and
+biquadratic equations; together with the doctrine of fluxions,
+and its application to the solution of questions “de maximis
+et minimis,” to the finding of areas, to the rectification of
+curves, the investigation of the centers of gravity and oscillation,
+and to the circumstances of bodies, agitated, according
+to various laws, by centripetal forces, as unfolded, and
+exemplified, in the fluxional treatises of Lyons, Saunderson,
+Simpson, Emerson, Maclaurin, and Newton, generally form
+the subject matter of these problems.</p>
+
+<p>When the clock strikes nine, the questionists are dismissed
+to breakfast: they return at half-past nine, and stay
+till eleven; they go in again at half-past one, and stay till
+three; and, lastly, they return at half-past three, and stay
+till five.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.277" id="png.277" href="#png.277"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>269<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>The hours of attendance are the same upon the subsequent
+day.</p>
+
+<p>On the third day they are finally dismissed at eleven.</p>
+
+<p>During the hours of attendance, every division is twice
+examined in form, once by each of the moderators, who are
+engaged for the whole time in this employment.</p>
+
+<p>As the questionists are examined in divisions of only
+six or eight at a time, but a small portion of the whole
+number is engaged, at any particular hour, with the moderators;
+and, therefore, if there were no further examination,
+much time would remain unemployed.</p>
+
+<p>But the moderator’s inquiry into the merits of the candidates
+forms the least material part of the examination.</p>
+
+<p>The “fathers” of the respective colleges, zealous for the
+credit of the societies, of which they are the guardians, are
+incessantly employed in examining those students, who
+appear most likely to contest the palm of glory with their
+sons.</p>
+
+<p>This part of the process is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The father of a college takes a student of a different
+college aside, and, sometimes for an hour and an half together,
+strictly examines him in every part of mathematics
+and philosophy, which he professes to have read.</p>
+
+<p>After he hath, from this examination, formed an accurate
+idea of the student’s abilities and acquired knowledge, he
+makes a report of his absolute or comparative merit to the
+moderators, and to every other father who shall ask him
+the question.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the fathers, all masters of arts, and doctors, of
+whatever faculty they be, have the liberty of examining
+whom they please; and they also report the event of each
+trial, to every person who shall make the inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>The moderators and fathers meet at breakfast, and at
+dinner. From the variety of reports, taken in connection
+<a name="png.278" id="png.278" href="#png.278"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>270<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>with their own examination, the former are enabled, about
+the close of the second day, so far to settle the comparative
+merits of the candidates, as to agree upon the names of
+four-and-twenty, who to them appear most deserving of
+being distinguished by marks of academical approbation.</p>
+
+<p>These four-and-twenty [wranglers and senior optimes]
+are recommended to the proctors for their private examination;
+and, if approved by them, and no reason appears
+against such placing of them from any subsequent inquiry,
+their names are set down in two divisions, according to
+that order, in which they deserve to stand; are afterwards
+printed; and read over upon a solemn day, in the presence
+of the vice-chancellor, and of the assembled university.</p>
+
+<p>The names of the twelve [junior optimes], who, in the
+course of the examination, appear next in desert, are also
+printed, and are read over, in the presence of the vice-chancellor,
+and of the assembled university, upon a day
+subsequent to the <span class="nw">former....</span></p>
+
+<p>The students, who appear to have merited neither praise
+nor censure [the poll-men], pass unnoticed: while those,
+who have taken no pains to prepare themselves for the examination,
+and have appeared with discredit in the schools,
+are distinguished by particular tokens of disgrace.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">Jebb’s statement about the number of wranglers
+and senior optimes is only approximate.</p>
+
+<p>It may be added that it was now frankly recognized
+that the examination was competitive<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn45" id="fna45" name="fna45">45</a></sup>. Also
+that though it was open to any member of the
+senate to take part in it, yet the determination of
+the relative merit of the students was entirely in the
+<a name="png.279" id="png.279" href="#png.279"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>271<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>hands of the moderators<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn46" id="fna46" name="fna46">46</a></sup>. Although the examination
+did not occupy more than three days it
+must have been a severe physical trial to anyone
+who was delicate. It was held in winter and in
+the senate-house: that building was then noted for
+its draughts, and was not warmed in any way; and,
+according to tradition, on one occasion the candidates
+on entering in the morning found the ink
+frozen in the pots on their desks.</p>
+
+<p>The University was not altogether satisfied<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn47" id="fna47" name="fna47">47</a></sup>
+with the regulations, and in 1779<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn48" id="fna48" name="fna48">48</a></sup> the scheme of
+examination was amended in various respects. In
+particular the examination was extended to four
+days, a third day being given up entirely to natural
+religion, moral philosophy, and Locke’s <cite>Essay</cite>. It
+was further announced<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn49" id="fna49" name="fna49">49</a></sup> that a candidate would not
+receive credit for advanced subjects unless he had
+satisfied the examiners in Euclid’s <cite>Elements</cite> and
+elementary natural philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>A system of brackets or “classes quam minimae”
+was now introduced. Under this system the examiners
+issued on the morning of the fourth day a
+provisional list of men who had obtained honours,
+with the names of those of about equal merit
+bracketed, and that day was devoted to arranging
+<a name="png.280" id="png.280" href="#png.280"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>272<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the names in each bracket in order of merit: the
+examiners being given explicit authority to invite
+the assistance of others in this work. Whether at
+this time a candidate could request to be re-examined
+with the view of being moved from one
+bracket to another is uncertain, but later this also
+was allowed.</p>
+
+<p>The number of examiners was also increased
+to four, the moderators of one year becoming, as
+a matter of course, the examiners of the next.
+Thus of the four examiners in each year, two had
+taken part in the examination of the previous year,
+and the continuity of the system of examination
+was maintained. The names of the moderators
+appear on the tripos lists, but the names of the
+examiners were not printed on the lists till some
+years later.</p>
+
+<p>The right of any master of arts to take part in
+the examination was not affected, though henceforth
+it was exercised more sparingly, and I believe
+was not insisted on after 1785. But it became a
+regular custom for the moderators to invite particular
+residents to examine and compare specified
+candidates: Milner, of Queens’, was constantly
+asked to assist in this way.</p>
+
+<p>It was not long before it became an established
+custom that a candidate, who was dissatisfied with
+the class in which he had been placed as the result
+<a name="png.281" id="png.281" href="#png.281"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>273<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>of his disputations, might challenge it before the
+examination began. This power seems to have been
+used but rarely; it was, however, a recognition of the
+fact that a place in the tripos list was to be determined
+by the senate-house examination alone, and
+the examiners soon acquired the habit of settling the
+preliminary classes without exclusive reference to
+the previous disputations.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest extant paper actually set in the
+senate-house, to which we can with certainty refer,
+is a problem paper set in 1785 or 1786 by W. Hodson,
+of Trinity, then a proctor. The autograph
+copy from which he gave out the questions was
+luckily preserved, and is in the library<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn50" id="fna50" name="fna50">50</a></sup> of Trinity
+College. It must be almost the last problem paper
+which was dictated, instead of being printed and
+given as a whole to the candidates. The paper is
+as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><span class="parnumber">1.</span> To determine the velocity with which a Body must
+be thrown, in a direction parallel to the Horizon, so as to
+become a secondary planet to the Earth; as also to describe
+a parabola, and never return.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">2.</span> To demonstrate, supposing the force to vary as
+<span class="maths">1 / <i>D</i>²</span> how far a body must fall both within and without the
+Circle to acquire the Velocity with which a body revolves
+in a Circle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber"><a name="png.282" id="png.282" href="#png.282"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>274<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>3.</span> Suppose a body to be turned (<i>sic</i>) upwards with the
+Velocity with which it revolves in an Ellipse, how high will
+it ascend? The same is asked supposing it to move in a
+parabola.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">4.</span> Suppose a force varying first as <span class="maths">1 / <i>D</i>³,</span> secondly in a
+greater ratio than <span class="maths">1 / <i>D</i>²</span> but less than
+<span class="maths">1 / <i>D</i>³,</span> and thirdly in a
+less ratio than <span class="maths">1 / <i>D</i>²,</span> in each of these Cases to determine
+whether at all, and where the body parting from the higher
+Apsid will come to the lower.</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">5.</span> To determine in what situation of the moon’s Apsid
+they go most forwards, and in what situation of her Nodes
+the Nodes go most backwards, and why?</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">6.</span> In the cubic equation <span class="maths"><i>x</i>³ + <i>qx</i> + <i>r</i> = 0</span> which wants
+the second term; supposing <span class="maths"><i>x = a + b</i></span> and
+<span class="maths">3<i>ab = −q</i>,</span> to
+determine the value of <span class="maths"><i>x</i>.</span> (<i>sic.</i>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">7.</span> To find the fluxion of <span class="maths"><i>x<sup>r</sup></i> × (<i>y<sup>n</sup> + z<sup>m</sup></i>)<sup>1/<i>q</i></sup>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">8.</span> To find the fluent of <span class="maths" title="a[xdot]/(a+x)"><i>aẋ</i> / (<i>a + x</i>).</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">9.</span> To find the fluxion of the <span class="maths"><i>m</i><sup>th</sup></span> power of the Logarithm
+of <span class="maths"><i>x</i>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">10.</span> Of right-angled Triangles containing a given Area
+to find that whereof the sum of the two legs <span class="maths"><i>AB + BC</i></span> shall
+be the least possible. [This and the two following questions
+are illustrated by diagrams. The angle at <span class="maths"><i>B</i></span> is the right
+angle.]</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">11.</span> To find the Surface of the Cone <span class="maths"><i>ABC</i>.</span> [The cone
+is a right one on a circular base.]</p>
+
+<p><span class="parnumber">12.</span> To rectify the arc <span class="maths"><i>DB</i></span> of the semicircle <span class="maths"><i>DBV</i>.</span></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>In cases of equality in the senate-house examination,
+the acts were still taken into account in settling
+<a name="png.283" id="png.283" href="#png.283"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>275<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the tripos order: and in 1786, when the second, third,
+and fourth wranglers came out equal in the examination,
+a memorandum was published that the second
+place was given to that candidate who <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">dialectis magis
+est versatus</i>, and the third place to that one who <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">in
+scholis sophistarum melius disputavit</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At this time there were various intervals in
+the examination by the moderators, and the examinations
+by the extraneous examiners took place
+in these intervals. Those candidates who at any
+time were not being examined occupied themselves
+with amusements, provided they were not too
+boisterous and obvious: probably dice and cards
+played a large part in them. Gunning in an amusing
+account of his examination in 1788 talks of playing
+with a teetotum<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn51" id="fna51" name="fna51">51</a></sup> on the Wednesday (when specified
+works by Locke and Paley formed the subjects of
+examination), and says this game “was carried on
+with great spirit ... by considerable numbers during
+the whole of the examination.”</p>
+
+<p>About this period, 1790, the custom of printing
+the problem papers was introduced, but until 1828
+the other papers continued to be dictated. Since
+then all the papers have been printed.</p>
+
+<p>I insert here the following letter<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn52" id="fna52" name="fna52">52</a></sup> from William
+<a name="png.284" id="png.284" href="#png.284"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>276<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Gooch, of Caius, in which he described his examination
+in the senate-house in 1791. It must be remembered
+that it is the letter of an undergraduate
+addressed to his father and mother, and was not
+intended either for preservation or publication: a
+fact which certainly does not detract from its value.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="h3"><i>Monday</i> ¼ aft. 12.</p>
+
+<p>We have been examin’d this Morning in pure Mathematics
+&amp; I’ve hitherto kept just about even with Peacock
+which is much more than I expected. We are going at
+1 o’clock to be examin’d till 3 in Philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>From 1 till 7 I did more than Peacock; But who did
+most at Moderator’s Rooms this Evening from 7 till 9, I
+don’t know yet;—but I did above three times as much as
+the Sen<sup>r</sup> Wrangler last year, yet I’m afraid not so much as
+Peacock.</p>
+
+<p>Between One &amp; three o’Clock I wrote up 9 sheets of
+Scribbling Paper so you may suppose I was pretty fully
+employ’d.</p>
+
+<p class="h3"><i>Tuesday Night.</i></p>
+
+<p>I’ve been shamefully us’d by Lax to-day;—Tho’ his
+anxiety for Peacock must (of course) be very great, I never
+suspected that his Partially (<i>sic</i>) w<sup>d</sup> get the better of his
+Justice. I had entertain’d too high an opinion of him to
+suppose it.—he gave Peacock a long private Examination &amp;
+then came to me (I hop’d) on the same subject, but ’twas
+only to <em>Bully</em> me as much as he could,—whatever I said
+(tho’ right) he tried to convert into Nonsense by seeming to
+misunderstand me. However I don’t entirely dispair of
+being first, tho’ you see Lax seems determin’d that I shall
+not.—I had no Idea (before I went into the Senate-House)
+of being able to contend at all with Peacock.</p>
+
+<p class="h3"><a name="png.285" id="png.285" href="#png.285"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>277<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a><i>Wednesday evening.</i></p>
+
+<p>Peacock &amp; I are still in perfect Equilibrio &amp; the Examiners
+themselves can give no guess yet who is likely to be
+first;—a New Examiner (Wood of St. John’s, who is reckon’d
+the first Mathematician in the University, for Waring doesn’t
+reside) was call’d solely to examine Peacock &amp; me only.—but
+by this new Plan nothing is yet determin’d.—So Wood
+is to examine us again to-morrow morning.</p>
+
+<p class="h3"><i>Thursday evening.</i></p>
+
+<p>Peacock is declar’d first &amp; I second,—Smith of this Coll.
+is either 8<sup>th</sup> or 9<sup>th</sup> &amp; Lucas is either 10<sup>th</sup> or 11<sup>th</sup>.—Poor
+Quiz Carver is one of the
+<span title="[Greek: hoi polloi]" xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">οἱ πολλοί</span>;—I’m perfectly <em>satisfied</em>
+that the Senior Wranglership is Peacock’s due, but <em>certainly</em>
+not so very undisputably as Lax pleases to represent it—I
+understand that <em>he</em> asserts ’twas 5 to 4 in Peacock’s favor.
+Now Peacock &amp; I have explain’d to each other how we went
+on, &amp; can <em>prove indisputably</em> that it wasn’t 20 to 19 in
+his favor;—I <em>cannot</em> therefore be displeas’d for being plac’d
+second, tho’ I’m provov’d (<i>sic</i>) with Lax for his false report
+(so much beneath the Character of a <span class="nw">Gentleman.)—</span></p>
+
+<p>N.B. it is my very <em>particular Request</em> that you dont
+mention Lax’s behaviour to me to any one.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Such was the form ultimately taken by the
+senate-house examination, a form which it retained
+substantially without alteration for nearly half-a-century.
+It soon became the sole test by which
+candidates were judged. The University was not
+obliged to grant a degree to anyone who performed
+the statutable exercises, and it was open
+to the senate to refuse to pass a supplicat for a
+bachelor’s degree in arts unless the candidate had
+<a name="png.286" id="png.286" href="#png.286"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>278<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>presented himself for the senate-house examination.
+In 1790 James Blackburn, of Trinity, a questionist
+of exceptional abilities, was informed that in spite
+of his good disputations he would not be allowed a
+degree unless he also satisfied the examiners in the
+tripos. He accordingly solved one “very hard
+problem,” though in consequence of a dispute with
+the authorities he refused to attempt any more<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn53" id="fna53" name="fna53">53</a></sup>.</p>
+
+<p>Henceforth the examination was compulsory on
+all candidates pursuing the normal course for the
+B.A. degree. In 1791 the University laid down
+rules<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn54" id="fna54" name="fna54">54</a></sup> for its conduct, so far as it concerned poll-men,
+decreeing that those who passed were to be
+classified in four divisions or classes, the names in
+each class to be arranged alphabetically, but not to
+be printed on the official tripos lists. The classes
+in the final lists must be distinguished from the
+eight preliminary classes issued before the commencement
+of the examination. The men in the
+first six preliminary classes were expected to take
+honours; those in the seventh and eighth preliminary
+classes were <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">primâ facie</i> poll-men.</p>
+
+<p>In 1799 the moderators announced<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn55" id="fna55" name="fna55">55</a></sup> that for the
+future they would require every candidate to show
+<a name="png.287" id="png.287" href="#png.287"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>279<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>a competent knowledge of the first book of Euclid’s
+<cite>Elements</cite>, arithmetic, vulgar and decimal fractions,
+simple and quadratic equations, and selected books
+by Locke and Paley. Paley’s works seem to be
+held in esteem by modern divines, and his <cite>Evidences</cite>,
+though not his <cite>Philosophy</cite>, still remains (1917) one
+of the subjects of the Previous Examination, but his
+contemporaries thought less highly of his writings, or
+at any rate of his philosophy. Thus Best is quoted by
+Wordsworth<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn56" id="fna56" name="fna56">56</a></sup> as saying of Paley’s <cite>Philosophy</cite>, “The
+tutors of Cambridge no doubt neutralize by their
+judicious remarks, when they read it to their pupils,
+all that is pernicious in its principles”: so also
+Richard Watson, bishop of Llandaff, in his anecdotal
+autobiography<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn57" id="fna57" name="fna57">57</a></sup>, says, in describing the senate-house
+examination in which Paley was senior wrangler, that
+Paley was afterwards known to the world by many
+excellent productions, “though there are some ...
+principles in his philosophy which I by no means
+approve.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1800 the moderators extended to all men in
+the first four preliminary classes the privilege of
+being allowed to attempt the problem papers:
+hitherto this privilege had been confined to candidates
+placed in the first two classes. Until 1828
+the problem papers were set in the evenings, and
+<a name="png.288" id="png.288" href="#png.288"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>280<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>in the rooms of the moderator, but many of the
+so-called problems were really pieces of bookwork
+or easy riders. No problems were ever set to the
+men in the seventh and eighth preliminary classes,
+which contained the poll-men.</p>
+
+<p>The <cite>University Calendars</cite> date from 1796, and
+from 1802 to 1882 inclusive contain the printed
+tripos papers of the previous January. The papers
+from 1801 to 1820 and from 1838 to 1849 inclusive
+were also published in separate volumes, which are
+to be found in most public libraries. None of the
+bookwork papers of this time are now extant, but
+it is believed that they contained few, if any, riders.
+In looking at these papers to form an opinion of
+the knowledge current at the time it is necessary
+to bear in mind that the text-books then in circulation
+were far from satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>The <cite>Calendar</cite> of 1802 contains a diffuse account
+of the examination. It commences as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>On the Monday morning, a little before eight o’clock,
+the students, generally about a hundred, enter the Senate-House,
+preceded by a master of arts, who on this occasion
+is styled the father of the College to which he belongs. On
+two pillars at the entrance of the Senate-House are hung
+the classes and a paper denoting the hours of examination
+of those who are thought most competent to contend for
+honours. Immediately after the University clock has struck
+eight, the names are called over, and the absentees, being
+marked, are subject to certain fines. The classes to be
+<a name="png.289" id="png.289" href="#png.289"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>281<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>examined are called out, and proceed to their appointed
+tables, where they find pens, ink, and paper provided in
+great abundance. In this manner, with the utmost order
+and regularity, two-thirds of the young men are set to work
+within less than five minutes after the clock has struck
+eight. There are three chief tables, at which six examiners
+preside. At the first, the senior moderator of the present
+year and the junior moderator of the preceding year. At
+the second, the junior moderator of the present, and the
+senior moderator of the preceding year. At the third, two
+moderators of the year previous to the two last, or two
+examiners appointed by the Senate. The two first tables
+are chiefly allotted to the six first classes; the third, or
+largest, to the <span title="[Greek: hoi polloi]" xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">οἱ πολλοί</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The young men hear the propositions or questions delivered
+by the examiners; they instantly apply themselves;
+demonstrate, prove, work out and write down, fairly and
+legibly (otherwise their labour is of little avail) the answers
+required. All is silence; nothing heard save the voice of
+the examiners; or the gentle request of some one, who may
+wish a repetition of the enunciation. It requires every
+person to use the utmost dispatch; for as soon as ever the
+examiners perceive anyone to have finished his paper and
+subscribed his name to it another question is immediately
+<span class="nw">given....</span></p>
+
+<p>The examiners are not seated, but keep moving round
+the tables, both to judge how matters proceed and to deliver
+their questions at proper intervals. The examination, which
+embraces arithmetic, algebra, fluxions, the doctrine of
+infinitesimals and increments, geometry, trigonometry,
+mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, and astronomy, in all their
+various gradations, is varied according to circumstances:
+no one can anticipate a question, for in the course of five
+minutes he may be dragged from Euclid to Newton, from
+<a name="png.290" id="png.290" href="#png.290"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>282<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the humble arithmetic of Bonnycastle to the abstruse
+analytics of Waring. While this examination is proceeding
+at the three tables between the hours of eight and nine,
+printed problems are delivered to each person of the first
+and second classes; these he takes with him to any window
+he pleases, where there are pens, ink, and paper prepared
+for his operations.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The examination began at eight o’clock in the
+morning. At nine the papers had to be given up, and
+half-an-hour was allowed for breakfast. At half-past
+nine the candidates came back, and were examined
+in the way described above till eleven, when the
+senate-house was again cleared. An interval of two
+hours then took place. At one o’clock all returned
+to be again examined. At three the senate-house
+was cleared for half-an-hour, and, on the return of
+the candidates, the examination was continued till
+five. At seven in the evening the first four classes
+went to the senior moderator’s rooms to solve problems.
+They were finally dismissed for the day at
+nine, after eight hours of examination. The work
+of Tuesday was similar to that of Monday: Wednesday
+was partly devoted to logic and moral philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>At eight o’clock on Thursday morning a first
+list was published with all candidates of about
+equal merits bracketed. Until nine o’clock a candidate
+had the right to challenge anyone above him
+to an examination to see which was the better. At
+<a name="png.291" id="png.291" href="#png.291"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>283<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>nine a second list came out, and a candidate’s right
+of challenge was then confined to the bracket immediately
+above his own. If he proved himself the
+equal of or better than the man so challenged his
+name was transferred to the upper bracket. To
+challenge and then to fail to substantiate the claim
+to removal to a higher bracket was considered rather
+ridiculous. Revised lists were published at eleven,
+three, and five, according to the results of the
+examination during that day. At five the whole
+examination ended. The proctors, moderators, and
+examiners then retired to a room under the public
+library to prepare the list of honours, which was
+sometimes settled in a few hours, but sometimes not
+before two or three the next morning. The name
+of the senior wrangler was generally announced at
+midnight, and the rest of the list the next morning.
+In 1802 there were eighty-six candidates for honours,
+and they were divided into fifteen brackets, the first
+and second brackets containing each one name only,
+and the third bracket four names.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear from the above account that the competition
+fostered by the examination had developed
+so much as to threaten to impair its usefulness as
+guiding the studies of the men. On the other hand,
+there can be no doubt that the carefully devised
+arrangements for obtaining an accurate order of
+merit stimulated the best men to throw all their
+<a name="png.292" id="png.292" href="#png.292"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>284<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>energies into the work for the examination. It is
+easy to point out the double-edged result of a strict
+order of merit. The problem before the University
+was to retain its advantages while checking any
+abuses to which it might lead.</p>
+
+<p>It was the privilege of the moderators to entertain
+the proctors and some of the leading resident
+mathematicians the night before the issue of the
+final list, and to communicate that list in confidence
+to their guests. This pleasant custom survived till
+1884. I revived the practice in 1890 when acting
+as senior moderator, but it seems to have now
+ceased.</p>
+
+<p>In 1806 Sir Frederick Pollock was senior wrangler,
+and in 1869 in answer to an appeal from De
+Morgan for an account of the mathematical study
+of men at the beginning of the century he wrote a
+letter<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn58" id="fna58" name="fna58">58</a></sup> which is sufficiently interesting to bear
+reproduction:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>I shall write in answer to your inquiry, <em>all</em> about my
+books, my study, and my degree, and leave you to settle all
+about the proprieties which my letter may give rise to, as
+to egotism, modesty, &amp;c. The only books I read the first
+year were Wood’s <cite>Algebra</cite> (as far as quadratic equations),
+Bonnycastle’s ditto, and <cite>Euclid</cite> (Simpson’s). In the second
+year I read Wood (beyond quadratic equations), and Wood
+and Vince, for what they called the <em>branches</em>. In the third
+year I read the <cite>Jesuit’s</cite> Newton and Vince’s <cite>Fluxions</cite>; these
+were all the <em>books</em>, but there were certain <span class="allsc">MSS.</span> floating about
+<a name="png.293" id="png.293" href="#png.293"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>285<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>which I copied—which belonged to Dealtry, second wrangler
+in Kempthorne’s year. I have no doubt that I had read
+less and seen fewer books than any senior wrangler of about
+my time, or any period since; but what I knew I knew
+thoroughly, and it was completely at my fingers’ ends. I
+consider that I was the last <em>geometrical</em> and <em>fluxional</em> senior
+wrangler; I was not up to the <em>differential</em> calculus, and never
+acquired it. I went up to college with a knowledge of
+Euclid and algebra to quadratic equations, nothing more;
+and I never read any second year’s lore during my first year,
+nor any third year’s lore during my second; my <i>forte</i> was,
+that what I <em>did</em> know I <em>could produce at any moment with</em>
+<span class="allsc">PERFECT</span> <em>accuracy</em>. I could repeat the first book of Euclid
+word by word and letter by letter. During my first year I
+was not a “<em>reading</em>” man (so called); I had no expectation
+of honours or a fellowship, and I attended all the lectures
+on all subjects—Harwood’s anatomical, Wollaston’s chemical,
+and Farish’s mechanical lectures—but the examination
+at the end of the first year revealed to me my powers. I
+was not only in the first class, but it was generally understood
+I was <em>first</em> in the first class; neither I nor anyone for
+me expected I should get in at all. Now, as I had taken
+no pains to prepare (taking, however, marvellous pains
+while the examination was going on), I knew better than
+anyone else the value of my <em>examination qualities</em> (great
+rapidity and perfect accuracy); and I said to myself, “If
+you’re not an ass, you’ll be senior wrangler”; and <em>I took to
+“reading” accordingly</em>. A curious circumstance occurred
+when the Brackets came out in the Senate-house declaring
+the result of the examination: I saw at the top the name
+of Walter <em>bracketed alone</em> (as he was); in the bracket below
+were <em>Fiott</em>, <em>Hustler</em>, <em>Jephson</em>. I looked down and could not
+find my own name till I got to Bolland, when my pride took
+fire, and I said, “I must have beaten <em>that man</em>, so I will
+<a name="png.294" id="png.294" href="#png.294"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>286<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>look up again”; and on looking up carefully I found the
+nail had been passed through my name, and I was at the
+top bracketed <em>alone</em>, even above Walter. You may judge
+what my feelings were at this discovery; it is the only instance
+of two such brackets, and it made my fortune—that
+is, made me independent, and gave me an immense college
+reputation. It was said I was more than half of the examination
+before anyone else. The two moderators were
+Hornbuckle, of St John’s, and Brown (Saint Brown), of
+Trinity. The Johnian congratulated me. I said perhaps
+I might be challenged; he said, “Well, if you are you’re
+quite safe—you may sit down and do nothing, and no
+one would get up to you in a whole <span class="nw">day.” ...</span></p>
+
+<p>Latterly the Cambridge examinations seem to turn upon
+very different matters from what prevailed in my time. I
+think a Cambridge education has for its object to make good
+members of society—not to extend science and make profound
+mathematicians. The tripos questions in the Senate-house
+ought not to go beyond certain limits, and geometry
+ought to be cultivated and encouraged much more than it is.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>To this De Morgan replied:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Your letter suggests much, because it gives possibility
+of answer. The <em>branches</em> of algebra of course mainly refer
+to the second part of Wood, now called the theory of equations.
+Waring was his guide. Turner—whom you must
+remember as head of Pembroke, senior wrangler of 1767—told
+a young man in the hearing of my informant to be sure
+and attend to quadratic equations. “It was a quadratic,”
+said he, “made me senior wrangler.” It seems to me that
+the Cambridge <em>revivers</em> were [Woodhouse,] Waring, Paley,
+Vince, Milner.</p>
+
+<p>You had Dealtry’s <span class="allsc">MSS.</span> He afterwards published a
+very good book on fluxions. He merged his mathematical
+<a name="png.295" id="png.295" href="#png.295"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>287<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>fame in that of a Claphamite Christian. It is something
+to know that the tutor’s <span class="allsc">MS.</span> was in vogue in 1800–1806.</p>
+
+<p>Now—how did you get your conic sections? How much
+of Newton did you read? From Newton direct, or from
+tutor’s manuscript?</p>
+
+<p>Surely Fiott was our old friend Dr Lee. I missed being
+a pupil of Hustler by a few weeks. He retired just before
+I went up in February 1823. The echo of Hornbuckle’s
+answer to you about the challenge has lighted on Whewell,
+who, it is said, wanted to challenge Jacob, and was answered
+that he could not beat [him] if he were to write the whole
+day and the other wrote nothing. I do not believe that
+Whewell would have listened to any such dissuasion.</p>
+
+<p>I doubt your being the last fluxional senior wrangler.
+So far as I know, Gipps, Langdale, Alderson, Dicey, Neale,
+may contest this point with you.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The answer, dated 7 August 1869, of Sir Frederick
+Pollock to these questions was as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>You have put together as <em>revivers</em> five very different
+men. Woodhouse was better than Waring, who could not
+prove Wilson’s (Judge of C. P.) guess about the property
+of prime numbers; but Woodhouse (I think) did prove it,
+and a beautiful proof it is. Vince was a bungler, and I
+think utterly insensible of mathematical beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Now for your questions. I did not get my conic sections
+from Vince. I copied a <span class="allsc">MS.</span> of Dealtry. I fell in love with
+the cone and its sections, and everything about it. I have
+never forsaken my favourite pursuit; I delighted in such
+problems as two spheres touching each other and also the
+inside of a hollow cone, &amp;c. As to Newton, I read a good deal
+(men <em>now</em> read nothing), but I read much of the notes. I detected
+a blunder which nobody seemed to be aware of. Tavel,
+tutor of Trinity, was not; and he argued very favourably
+<a name="png.296" id="png.296" href="#png.296"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>288<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>of me in consequence. The application of the Principia
+I got from <span class="allsc">MSS.</span> The blunder was this: in calculating the
+resistance of a globe at the end of a cylinder oscillating in
+a resisting medium they had forgotten to notice that there
+is a difference between the resistance to a globe and a circle
+of the same diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Whewell and Jacob cannot be true. Whewell
+was a very, <em>very</em> considerable man, I think not a <em>great</em>
+man. I have no doubt Jacob beat him in accuracy, but
+the supposed answer <em>cannot</em> be true; it is a mere echo of
+what actually passed between me and Hornbuckle on the
+day the Tripos came out—for the truth of which I vouch.
+I think the examiners are taking too <em>practical</em> a turn; it is
+a waste of time to calculate <em>actually</em> a longitude by the help
+of logarithmic tables and lunar observations. It would be
+a fault not to know <em>how</em>, but a greater to be handy at it.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>A few minor changes in the senate-house examination
+were made in 1808<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn59" id="fna59" name="fna59">59</a></sup>. A fifth day was added
+to the examination. Of the five days thus given up
+to it three were devoted to mathematics, one to
+logic, philosophy, and religion, and one to the
+arrangement of the brackets. Apart from the
+evening paper the examination on each of the first
+three days lasted six hours: of these eighteen
+hours, eleven were assigned to bookwork and seven
+to problems. The problem papers were set from
+six to ten in the evening.</p>
+
+<p>A letter from Whewell, dated 19 January 1816,
+thus describes his examination in the senate-house<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn60" id="fna60" name="fna60">60</a></sup>:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><a name="png.297" id="png.297" href="#png.297"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>289<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Jacob. Whewell. Such is the order in which we are
+fixed after a week’s <span class="nw">examination....</span> I had before been given
+to understand that a great deal depended upon being able
+to write the greatest possible quantity in the smallest time,
+but of the rapidity which was actually necessary I had
+formed the most distant idea. I am upon no occasion a
+quick writer, and upon subjects where I could not go on
+without sometimes thinking a little I soon found myself
+considerably behind. I was therefore surprised, and even
+astonished, to find myself bracketed off, as it is called, in
+the second place; that is, on the day when a new division
+of the classes is made for the purpose of having a closer
+examination of the respective merits of men who come pretty
+near to each other, I was not classed with anybody, but
+placed alone in the second bracket. The man who is at
+the head of the list is of Caius College, and was always expected
+to be very high, though I do not know that anybody
+expected to see him so decidedly superior as to be bracketed
+off by himself.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">The tendency to cultivate mechanical rapidity was
+a grave evil, and lasted long after Whewell’s time.
+According to rumour the highest honours in 1845
+were obtained by assiduous practice in writing<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn61" id="fna61" name="fna61">61</a></sup>.</p>
+
+<p>The devotion of the Cambridge school to geometrical
+and fluxional methods had led to its isolation
+from contemporary continental mathematicians.
+Early in the nineteenth century the evil consequence
+of this began to be recognized; and it was felt to be
+little less than a scandal that the researches of
+<a name="png.298" id="png.298" href="#png.298"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>290<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Lagrange, Laplace, and Legendre were unknown to
+many Cambridge mathematicians save by repute.
+An attempt to explain the notation and methods of
+the calculus as used on the continent was made by
+Woodhouse, later professor in the University, who
+stands out as the apostle of the new movement.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtful if Woodhouse could have brought
+analytical methods into vogue by himself; but
+his views were enthusiastically adopted by three
+students, Peacock, Babbage, and Herschel, who
+succeeded in carrying out the reforms he had suggested.
+They created an Analytical Society which
+Babbage explained was formed to advocate “the
+principles of pure <i>d</i>-ism as opposed to the <i>dot</i>-age of
+the University.” The character of the instruction
+in mathematics at the University has at all times
+largely depended on the text-books in use, and
+the importance of good books of this class was
+emphasized by a traditional rule that questions
+should not be set on a new subject in the tripos
+unless it had been discussed in some treatise suitable
+and available for Cambridge students<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn62" id="fna62" name="fna62">62</a></sup>. Hence the
+importance attached to the publication of the work
+on analytical trigonometry by Woodhouse in 1809,
+and of the works on the differential calculus issued
+by members of the Analytical Society in 1816 and
+1820.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.299" id="png.299" href="#png.299"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>291<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>In 1817 Peacock, who was moderator, introduced
+the symbols for differentiation into the papers set in
+the senate-house examination; his colleague, however,
+continued to use the fluxional notation.
+Peacock himself wrote on 17 March 1817 (<i>i.e.</i> shortly
+after the examination) on the subject as follows<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn63" id="fna63" name="fna63">63</a></sup>:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>I assure you ... that I shall never cease to exert myself
+to the utmost in the cause of reform, and that I will never
+decline any office which may increase my power to effect
+it. I am nearly certain of being nominated to the office of
+Moderator in the year 1818–19, and as I am an examiner in
+virtue of my office, for the next year I shall pursue a course
+even more decided than hitherto, since I shall feel that men
+have been prepared for the change, and will then be enabled
+to have acquired a better system by the publication of improved
+elementary books. I have considerable influence as
+a lecturer, and I will not neglect it. It is by silent perseverance
+only that we can hope to reduce the many-headed
+monster of prejudice, and make the University answer her
+character as the loving mother of good learning and science.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>In 1818 all candidates for honours, that is, all
+men in the first six preliminary classes, were allowed
+to attempt the problems: this change was made by
+the moderators.</p>
+
+<p>In 1819 Peacock, who was again moderator, induced
+his colleague to adopt the new notation. It
+was employed in the next year by Whewell, and in
+the following year by Peacock again. Henceforth
+<a name="png.300" id="png.300" href="#png.300"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>292<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>the calculus in its modern language and analytical
+methods were freely used, new subjects were introduced,
+and for many years the examination provided
+a mathematical training fairly abreast of the
+times.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the disputations had ceased to have
+any immediate effect on a man’s place in the tripos.
+Thus Whewell<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn64" id="fna64" name="fna64">64</a></sup>, writing about his duties as moderator
+in 1820, said:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>You would get very exaggerated ideas of the importance
+attached to it [an Act] if you were to trust Cumberland;
+I believe it was formerly more thought of than it is now.
+It does not, at least immediately, produce any effect on a
+man’s place in the tripos, and is therefore considerably less
+attended to than used to be the case, and in most years is
+not very interesting after the five or six best men: so that
+I look for a considerable exercise of, or rather demand for,
+patience on my part. The other part of my duty in the
+Senate House consists in manufacturing wranglers, senior
+optimes, etc. and is, while it lasts, very laborious.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Of the examination itself in this year he wrote as
+follows<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn65" id="fna65" name="fna65">65</a></sup>:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The examination in the Senate House begins to-morrow,
+and is rather close work while it lasts. We are employed
+from seven in the morning till five in the evening in giving
+out questions and receiving written answers to them; and
+when that is over, we have to read over all the papers which
+<a name="png.301" id="png.301" href="#png.301"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>293<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>we have received in the course of the day, to determine who
+have done best, which is a business that in numerous years
+has often kept the examiners up the half of every night;
+but this year is not particularly numerous. In addition
+to all this, the examination is conducted in a building which
+happens to be a very beautiful one, with a marble floor and
+a highly ornamented ceiling; and as it is on the model of a
+Grecian temple, and as temples had no chimneys, and as a
+stove or a fire of any kind might disfigure the building, we
+are obliged to take the weather as it happens to be, and when
+it is cold we have the full benefit of it—which is likely to
+be the case this year. However, it is only a few days, and
+we have done with it.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent">A sketch of the examination in the previous year
+from the point of view of an examinee was given by
+J. M. F. Wright<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn66" id="fna66" name="fna66">66</a></sup>, but there is nothing of special
+interest in it.</p>
+
+<p>Sir George B. Airy<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn67" id="fna67" name="fna67">67</a></sup> gave the following sketch of
+his recollections of the reading and studies of undergraduates
+of his time and of the tripos of 1823, in
+which he had been senior wrangler:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>At length arrived the Monday morning on which the
+examination for the B.A. degree was to <span class="nw">begin....</span> We were
+all marched in a body to the Senate-House and placed in
+the hands of the Moderators. How the “candidates for
+honours” were separated from the <span title="[Greek: hoi polloi]" xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">οἱ πολλοί</span> I do not know,
+I presume that the Acts and the Opponencies had something
+to do with it. The honour candidates were divided into
+<a name="png.302" id="png.302" href="#png.302"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>294<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>six groups: and of these Nos. 1 and 2 (united), Nos. 3 and 4
+(united), and Nos. 5 and 6 (united), received the questions
+of one Moderator. No. 1, Nos. 2 and 3 (united), Nos. 4 and
+5 (united), and No. 6, received those of the other Moderator.
+The Moderators were reversed on alternate days. There
+were no printed question-papers: each examiner had his
+bound manuscript of questions, and he read out his first
+question; each of the examinees who thought himself able
+proceeded to write out his answer, and then orally called
+out “Done.” The Moderator, as soon as he thought proper,
+proceeded with another question. I think there was only
+one course of questions on each day (terminating before
+3 o’clock, for the Hall dinner). The examination continued
+to Friday mid-day. On Saturday morning, about 8 o’clock,
+the list of honours (manuscript) was nailed on the door of
+the Senate House.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that for students pursuing
+the normal course the senate-house examination
+still provided the only avenue to a degree.
+That examination involved a knowledge of the
+elements of moral philosophy and theology, an acquaintance
+with the rules of formal logic, and the
+power of reading and writing scholastic Latin, but
+mathematics was the predominant subject, and this
+led to a certain one-sidedness in education. The
+evil of this was generally recognized, and in 1822
+various reforms were introduced in the university
+curriculum; in particular the Previous Examination
+was established for students in their second year,
+the subjects being prescribed Greek and Latin works,
+<a name="png.303" id="png.303" href="#png.303"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>295<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>a Gospel, and Paley’s <cite>Evidences</cite>. Set classical books
+were introduced in the final examination of poll-men;
+and another honour or tripos examination was
+established for classical students. These alterations
+came into effect in 1824; and henceforth the senate-house
+examination, so far as it related to mathematical
+students, was known as the Mathematical
+Tripos.</p>
+
+<p>In 1827 the scheme of examination in the mathematical
+tripos was revised. By regulations<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn68" id="fna68" name="fna68">68</a></sup> which
+came into operation in January 1828, four days,
+exclusive of the day of arranging the brackets, were
+devoted to the examination; the number of hours of
+examination was twenty-three, of which seven were
+assigned to problems. On the first two days all the
+candidates had the same questions proposed to them,
+inclusive of the evening problems, and the examination
+on those days excluded the higher and more
+difficult parts of mathematics, in order, in the words
+of the report, “that the candidates for honours may
+not be induced to pursue the more abstruse and
+profound mathematics, to the neglect of more
+elementary knowledge.” Accordingly, only such
+questions as could be solved without the aid of the
+differential calculus were set on the first day, and
+those set on the second day involved only its elementary
+applications. The classes were reduced
+<a name="png.304" id="png.304" href="#png.304"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>296<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>to four, determined as before by the exercises in the
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>The regulations of 1827 definitely prescribed that
+all the papers should be printed. They are also
+noticeable as being the last which gave the examiners
+power to ask <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">vivâ voce</i> questions, though
+such questions “were restricted to asking about
+propositions contained in the mathematical works
+commonly in use at the University, or examples
+and explanations of such propositions.” It was
+further recommended that no paper should contain
+more questions than well-prepared students could
+be expected to answer within the time allowed for
+it, but that if any candidate, before the end of
+the time, had answered all the questions in the
+paper, the examiners might propose additional
+questions <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">vivâ voce</i>. The power of granting honorary
+optime degrees now ceased; it had already
+fallen into abeyance. Henceforth the examination
+was conducted under definite rules, and I no longer
+concern myself with its traditions.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year as these changes became effective
+the examination for the poll degree was separated
+from the tripos with different sets of papers
+and a different schedule of subjects<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn69" id="fna69" name="fna69">69</a></sup>. It was, however,
+still nominally considered as forming part of
+the senate-house examination, and until 1858 those
+<a name="png.305" id="png.305" href="#png.305"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>297<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>who obtained a poll degree were arranged in four
+classes, described as fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh,
+as if in continuation of the junior optimes or third
+class of the tripos.</p>
+
+<p>In the course henceforth ordained for the poll
+or ordinary degree, the examination, later known
+as “the General,” represents that part of the old
+senate-house examination which was intended for
+the poll-men, but gradually it was moved to an
+earlier period in the normal course taken by the
+men. In 1851 admission to the classical tripos<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn70" id="fna70" name="fna70">70</a></sup>
+was allowed to others than those who passed the
+mathematical tripos, and this provided another
+avenue to a degree entirely independent of the old
+senate-house examination. In 1852 another set of
+examinations, at first called “the Professor’s Examinations,”
+and now somewhat modified and
+known as “the Specials,” was instituted for all
+poll-men to take before they could qualify for a
+degree.</p>
+
+<p>In 1858 the fiction that the poll examinations
+were part of the senate-house examination was
+abandoned, and subsequently they have been
+treated as providing an independent method of
+obtaining the degree: thus now the mathematical
+tripos is the sole representative of the old senate-house
+examination. Since 1858 numerous other
+<a name="png.306" id="png.306" href="#png.306"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>298<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>ways of obtaining a degree in arts have been
+established, and it is now possible to graduate by
+showing proficiency in very special, or even technical
+subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Further changes in the mathematical tripos were
+introduced in 1833<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn71" id="fna71" name="fna71">71</a></sup>. The duration of the examination,
+before the issue of the brackets, was extended
+to five days, and the number of hours of examination
+on each day was fixed at five and a half: seven and
+a half hours were assigned to problems. The examination
+on the first day was confined to subjects
+that did not require the differential calculus, and
+only the simplest applications of the calculus were
+permitted on the second and third days. During
+the first four days of the examination the same
+papers were set to all the candidates alike, but on
+the fifth day the examination was conducted according
+to classes. No reference was made to <i xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">vivâ
+voce</i> questions, though permission was reserved to
+re-examine candidates if it were found necessary:
+this right remained in force till 1848, but in fact
+was never used. In December 1834, a few unimportant
+details were amended.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Earnshaw, the senior moderator in 1836, informed
+me that he believed that the tripos of that
+year was the earliest one in which all the papers
+were marked, and that in previous years the
+<a name="png.307" id="png.307" href="#png.307"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>299<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>examiners had partly relied on their impression of
+the answers given.</p>
+
+<p>New regulations came into force<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn72" id="fna72" name="fna72">72</a></sup> in 1839. The
+examination now lasted for six days, and continued
+as before for five hours and a half each day: eight
+and a half hours were assigned to problems.
+Throughout the whole examination the same papers
+were set to all candidates, and no reference was
+made to any preliminary classes. It was no doubt
+in accordance with the spirit of these changes that
+the acts in the schools should be abolished, but they
+were discontinued by the moderators of 1839 without
+the authority of the senate. The examination was
+for the future confined<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn73" id="fna73" name="fna73">73</a></sup> to mathematics.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year in which the new scheme came
+into force a proposal to reopen the subject was
+rejected on 6 March 1839.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of bringing professorial lectures
+into relation with the needs of students has more
+than once been before the University. The desirability
+of it was emphasized by a syndicate in
+February 1843, which recommended conferences at
+stated intervals between the mathematical professors
+<a name="png.308" id="png.308" href="#png.308"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>300<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>and examiners. This report, which foreshadowed
+the creation of a Mathematical Board, was rejected
+by the senate on 31 March.</p>
+
+<p>A few years later the scheme of the examination
+was again reconstructed by regulations<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn74" id="fna74" name="fna74">74</a></sup> which came
+into effect in 1848. The duration of the examination
+was extended to eight days. The examination
+lasted in all forty-four and a half hours, twelve of
+which were devoted to problems. The first three
+days were assigned to specified elementary subjects;
+in the papers set on these days riders were to be set
+as well as bookwork, but the methods of analytical
+geometry and the calculus were excluded. After
+the first three days there was a short interval, at the
+end of which the examiners issued a list of those who
+had so acquitted themselves as to deserve mathematical
+honours. Only those whose names were
+contained in this list were admitted to the last five
+days of the examination, which was devoted to the
+higher parts of mathematics. After the conclusion
+of the examination the examiners, taking into
+account the whole eight days, brought out the
+list arranged in order of merit. No provision
+was made for any rearrangement of this list
+corresponding to the examination of the brackets.
+The arrangements of 1848 remained in force till
+1873.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.309" id="png.309" href="#png.309"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>301<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>In the same year as these regulations came into
+force, a Board of Mathematical Studies (consisting
+of the mathematical professors, with the moderators
+and examiners for the current year and the two preceding
+years) was constituted<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn75" id="fna75" name="fna75">75</a></sup> by the senate. From
+that time forward their minutes supply a permanent
+record of the changes gradually introduced into the
+tripos. I do not allude to subsequent changes
+which only concern unimportant details of the
+examination.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1849, the board issued a report in which,
+after giving a review of the past and existing state
+of the mathematical studies in the University, they
+recommended that the mathematical theories of
+electricity, magnetism, and heat should not be admitted
+as subjects of examination. In the following
+year they issued a second report, in which they
+recommended the omission of elliptic integrals,
+Laplace’s coefficients, capillary attraction, and the
+figure of the earth considered as heterogeneous,
+as well as a definite limitation of the questions in
+the lunar and planetary theories. In making these
+recommendations the board were only recognizing
+what had become the practice in the examination.</p>
+
+<p>I may, in passing, mention a curious attempt
+which was made in 1853 and 1854 to assist candidates
+to estimate the relative difficulty of the
+<a name="png.310" id="png.310" href="#png.310"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>302<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>questions asked. This was effected by giving to
+the candidates, at the same time as the examination
+paper, a slip of paper on which the marks assigned
+for the bookwork<!-- TN: hyphen removed based on frequency --> and rider for each question were
+printed. I mention the fact merely because these
+things are rapidly forgotten and not because it is of
+any intrinsic value. I possess a complete set of
+slips which came to me from Todhunter.</p>
+
+<p>In 1856 there was an amusing difference of
+opinion between the vice-chancellor and the moderators.
+The vice-chancellor issued a notice to say that
+for the convenience of the University he had directed
+the tripos lists to be published at 8.0 a.m. as well as
+at 9.0 a.m., but when members of the senate arrived
+at 8.0 the moderators said that the list should not
+be read until 9.0.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable changes in the scheme of examination
+were introduced in 1873. On 5 December 1865,
+the board had recommended the addition of Laplace’s
+coefficients and the figure of the earth considered
+as heterogeneous as subjects of the examination;
+the report does not seem to have been brought
+before the senate, but attention was called to the
+fact that certain departments of mathematics and
+mathematical physics found no place in the tripos
+schedules, and were neglected by most students.
+Accordingly, a syndicate was appointed on 6 June
+1867, to consider the matter, and a scheme drawn
+<a name="png.311" id="png.311" href="#png.311"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>303<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>up by them was approved in 1868<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn76" id="fna76" name="fna76">76</a></sup> and came into
+effect in 1873.</p>
+
+<p>The new scheme of examination was framed on
+the same lines as that of 1848. The subjects in
+the first three days were left unchanged, but an
+extra day was added, devoted to the elements of
+mathematical physics. The essence of the modification
+was the greatly extended range of subjects
+introduced into the schedule of subjects for the last
+five days, and their arrangement in divisions; the
+total marks awarded to the questions in each of
+the five divisions being approximately in a proportion
+to the total marks assigned to the questions
+in the first three days as 2, 1, 1, 1, 2/3 to 1 respectively.
+Under these regulations the number of
+examiners was increased from four to five.</p>
+
+<p>The assignment of marks to groups of subjects
+was made under the impression that the best candidates
+would concentrate their abilities on a selection
+of subjects from the various divisions. But it was
+found that, unless the questions were made extremely
+difficult, more marks could be obtained by
+reading superficially all the subjects in the five
+divisions than by attaining real proficiency in a
+few of the higher ones: while the wide range of
+subjects rendered it practically impossible to
+<a name="png.312" id="png.312" href="#png.312"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>304<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>cover all the ground thoroughly in the time allowed.
+The failure was so pronounced that in 1877 another
+syndicate was appointed to consider the mathematical
+studies and examinations of the University.
+They presented an elaborate scheme, but on 13 May
+1878, some of the most important parts of it were
+rejected; their subsequent proposals, accepted on
+21 November 1878 (by 62 to 49), represented a
+compromise which pleased few members of the
+senate<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn77" id="fna77" name="fna77">77</a></sup>.</p>
+
+<p>Under the new scheme which came into force in
+1882 the tripos was divided into two portions: the
+first portion was taken at the end of the third year
+of residence, the range of subjects being practically
+the same as in the regulations of 1848, and the
+result brought out in the customary order of merit.
+The second portion was held in the following
+January, and was open only to those who had been
+wranglers in the preceding June. This portion was
+confined to higher mathematics and appealed chiefly
+to specialists: the result was brought out in three
+classes, each arranged in alphabetical order. The
+moderators and examiners conducted the whole
+examination without any extraneous aid.</p>
+
+<p>In the next year or two further amendments
+<a name="png.313" id="png.313" href="#png.313"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>305<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>were made<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn78" id="fna78" name="fna78">78</a></sup>, the second part of the examination
+being moved to the June of the fourth year, and
+thrown open to all men who had graduated in the
+tripos of the previous June. At the same time
+the conduct of the examination in part <span class="allsc">II</span> was transferred
+to four examiners nominated by the board:
+this put it largely under the control of the professors.
+The range of subjects of part <span class="allsc">II</span> was also greatly
+extended, and candidates were encouraged to select
+only a few of them. It was further arranged that
+part <span class="allsc">I</span> might be taken at the end of a man’s second
+year of residence, though in that case it would not
+qualify for a degree. A student who availed himself
+of this leave could take part <span class="allsc">II</span> at the end either
+of his third or of his fourth year as he pleased.</p>
+
+<p>The general effect of these changes was to destroy
+the homogeneity of the tripos. Objections to the
+new scheme were soon raised. Especially, it was
+said—whether rightly or wrongly—that part <span class="allsc">I</span> contained
+too many technical subjects to serve as a
+general educational training for any save mathematicians;
+that the distinction of a high place in
+the historic list produced on its results tended to
+prevent the best men taking it in their second year,
+though by this time they had read enough to be
+able to do so; and that part <span class="allsc">II</span> was so constructed as
+<a name="png.314" id="png.314" href="#png.314"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>306<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>to appeal only to professional mathematicians, and
+thus the higher branches of mathematics were
+neglected in the University by all save a few
+specialists.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever value be attached to these opinions,
+the number of students studying mathematics fell
+rapidly under the scheme of 1886. In 1899 the
+board proposed<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn79" id="fna79" name="fna79">79</a></sup> further changes. These seemed
+to some members of the senate to be likely still
+further to decrease the number of men who took up
+the subject as one of general education; and the
+two main proposals were rejected, 15 February
+1900 by votes of 151 to 130 and 161 to 129.</p>
+
+<p>A few years later, in 1907<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn80" id="fna80" name="fna80">80</a></sup>, the board brought forward
+another scheme, proposing changes so sweeping
+as almost to destroy the identity of the tripos.
+Under this the examination in part <span class="allsc">II</span> was abolished—a
+change on which all parties were agreed. There
+was introduced an examination, called part <span class="allsc">I</span>, confined
+to elementary mathematics, which could be
+taken as early as the second term of residence, and
+for which in certain cases of failure a student could
+present himself again, but this, although an examination
+for honours, did not qualify for a degree.
+<a name="png.315" id="png.315" href="#png.315"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>307<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>In the new part <span class="allsc">II</span>, taken normally at the end of
+the third year of residence and qualifying for a
+degree, candidates were given some option in the
+subjects of their examination, and order of merit
+was abolished. The first examination under this
+scheme was held in 1908.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable feature in the history of the
+Cambridge mathematical school is the fact that for
+nearly two hundred years most students were
+accustomed to rely for preparation for it on work
+done with a private tutor or “Coach.” Towards
+the close of the seventeenth century we first read
+of these “pupil-mongers” (among whom Laughton
+of Clare was the most famous) who made it their
+business to prepare men for their “acts.”</p>
+
+<p>With the rise of the senate-house examination
+the importance of this class of teachers increased,
+for success in that examination was regarded as the
+crown of the academic course, and brought with it,
+in the shape of a fellowship, an immediate competence
+with a reasonable prospect of an assured
+career. It was the business of private tutors to
+prepare their pupils for the examination, and among
+those who in this way came to the front shortly after
+the middle of the eighteenth century were Richard
+Watson, John Wilson whose name is still known by
+its association with a proposition in the theory of
+numbers, and Robert Thorp. The last named
+<a name="png.316" id="png.316" href="#png.316"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>308<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>teacher was described, about 1761, as being “of
+eminent use to young men in preparing them for
+the Senate-House Examinations and peculiarly
+successful”; and it was added that “one young
+man of no shining reputation with the assistance
+of Mr Thorp’s tuition had stood at the head of
+wranglers.”</p>
+
+<p>In a grace of the senate, passed in 1781, it is
+stated that almost all sophs then resorted to private
+tuition, and for more than a century subsequently,
+the practice was well established. These were the
+men who really directed the reading of the students.
+Even non-residents, if reputed to be successful
+coaches, drew pupils. Thus John Dawson, a
+medical practitioner at Sedbergh, regularly prepared
+pupils in the vacations for the senate-house
+examination, and at least eleven of the senior
+wranglers between 1781 and 1800 are known to
+have studied under him.</p>
+
+<p>During the nineteenth century the system
+developed under two remarkable teachers, William
+Hopkins, 1793–1866, and Edward John Routh,
+1831–1907, to whom the vast majority of the better
+known Cambridge mathematicians of this century
+owed most of what they learnt in their undergraduate
+days. Hopkins in the twenty-two years
+from 1828–49, had among his pupils one hundred
+and seventy-five wranglers, of whom seventeen were
+<a name="png.317" id="png.317" href="#png.317"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>309<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>senior, forty-four in one of the first three places, and
+one hundred and eight in one of the first ten places.
+So too Routh, in the thirty-one years from 1858–88,
+had between six hundred and seven hundred pupils,
+most of whom became wranglers, twenty-seven being
+senior in the tripos and forty-one Smith’s prizemen.
+To organize teaching on this scale demanded rare
+gifts.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps it may be of interest to describe, by way
+of example, the general features of Routh’s system.
+He gave catechetical lectures three times a week to
+classes of eight or ten men of approximately equal
+knowledge and ability. The work to be done between
+two lectures was heavy, and included the
+solution of some eight or nine fairly hard examples
+on the subject of the lectures. Examination papers
+were also constantly set on tripos lines (bookwork
+and riders), while there was a weekly paper of problems
+set to all pupils alike. All papers sent up were
+marked in public, the comments on them in class
+were generally brief, and, to save time, solutions of
+the questions were circulated in manuscript. Teaching
+also was supplemented by manuscripts on the
+subjects. Finally to the more able students he was
+accustomed, shortly before their tripos, to give
+memoirs or books for analyses and commentaries.
+The course for the first three years and the two
+earlier long vacations covered all the subjects of the
+<a name="png.318" id="png.318" href="#png.318"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>310<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>examination—the last long vacation and the first
+term of the fourth year were devoted to a thorough
+revision.</p>
+
+<p>Under Hopkins and Routh there was no trace
+of what is called cramming; they might say that
+a particular demonstration was so long that it could
+not be required in the tripos, but none the less they
+expected their pupils to master it. The system had
+faults, but it had the merit of providing a systematic
+grounding in a wide field of subjects. The effectiveness
+of teaching of this kind was dependent on
+intimate constant personal intercourse, and the importance
+of this cannot be overrated. The scandal
+of the system consisted in the fact that a man
+was compelled to pay heavy fees to the University
+and his College for instruction, and yet found it
+advantageous at his own expense to go elsewhere
+to get it.</p>
+
+<p>During the last quarter of the nineteenth
+century college lecturers began to share with the
+coaches the general direction of studies. Post-graduate
+work was also to some extent brought
+under the influence of professors and university
+lecturers—these not uncommonly suggesting subjects
+for dissertations for fellowships, Smith’s prizes,
+etc. But the students thus influenced were not
+numerous, and it still remains true that the majority
+of mathematical undergraduates are so out of touch
+<a name="png.319" id="png.319" href="#png.319"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>311<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>with the professors in the subject as to be unacquainted
+even with their personal appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the mathematical tripos and its history.
+Whatever its demerits, it dominated the situation,
+and Cambridge mathematics and mathematicians of
+the nineteenth century were the direct product of the
+system it embodied. Judged by the output, I do
+not think it can be said to have resulted in failure;
+and perhaps Cayley, Sylvester, Adams, Green,
+Stokes, Kelvin, and Maxwell—to mention no others—were
+none the worse for having been compelled
+to go through the course.</p>
+
+<p>The reconstitution in 1907 of the tripos, and the
+destruction of many of its distinctive features must
+profoundly modify the future history of mathematics
+at Cambridge, but forecasts on such a theme
+would be useless.</p>
+
+<p>The curious origin of the term tripos has been
+repeatedly told, and an account of it may fitly close
+this chapter. Formerly there were three principal
+occasions on which questionists were admitted to the
+title or degree of bachelor. The first of these was at
+the comitia priora, held on Ash-Wednesday, for the
+best men in the year. The next was at the comitia
+posteriora, which was held a few weeks later, and
+at which any student who had distinguished himself
+in the quadragesimal exercises subsequent to Ash-Wednesday
+had his seniority reserved to him.
+<a name="png.320" id="png.320" href="#png.320"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>312<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>Lastly, there was the comitia minora, for students
+who had in no special way distinguished themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century an important part in the
+ceremony on each of these occasions was taken by a
+certain “ould bachilour,” who sat upon a three-legged
+stool or tripos before the proctors and tested
+the abilities of the would-be graduates by arguing
+some question with the “eldest son,” who was
+selected from them as their representative. To
+assist the latter in what might be an unequal contest
+his “father,” that is, the officer of his college
+who was to present him for his degree, was allowed
+to come to his assistance.</p>
+
+<p>The discussion took place in Great St Mary’s
+Church, and marked the admission of the student to
+a position with new responsibilities, while the season
+of Lent was chosen with a view to bring this into
+prominence. The puritan party objected to the
+semi-ecclesiastical character of the proceedings, and
+in the course of the sixteenth century set themselves
+to bring the ceremony into disrepute. The
+part played by the questionist now became purely
+formal, though a serious debate still sometimes took
+place between the father of the senior questionist
+and a regent master who represented the University:
+this, however, came to be prefaced by a speech by
+the bachelor, who was now called Mr Tripos, just
+as we speak of a judge as the bench, or of a rower
+<a name="png.321" id="png.321" href="#png.321"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>313<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>as an oar. Ultimately public opinion permitted
+Mr Tripos to say pretty much what he pleased, so
+long as it was not dull and was scandalous. The
+speeches he delivered or the verses he recited were
+generally printed and preserved by the registrary,
+and were known as the tripos verses: originally
+they referred to the subjects of the disputations then
+propounded. The earliest copies now extant are
+those for 1575.</p>
+
+<p>The university officials, to whom the personal
+criticisms in which Mr Tripos indulged were by no
+means pleasing, repeatedly exhorted him to remember
+“while exercising his privilege of humour,
+to be modest withal.” In 1710, says Mullinger<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn81" id="fna81" name="fna81">81</a></sup>,
+“the authorities after condemning the excessive
+license of the tripos announced that the comitia
+at Lent would in future be conducted in the
+Senate-House; and all members of the University,
+of whatever order or degree, were forbidden to
+assail or mock the disputants with scurrilous jokes
+or unseemly witticisms. About the year 1747–8,
+the moderators initiated the practice of printing
+the honour lists on the back of the sheets containing
+the tripos verses, and after the year 1755
+this became the invariable practice. By virtue
+of this purely arbitrary connection these lists
+<a name="png.322" id="png.322" href="#png.322"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>314<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>themselves became known as the tripos; and
+eventually the examination itself, of which they
+represented the results, also became known by
+the same designation.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr Tripos ceased to deliver his speech about
+1750, but the issue of tripos verses continued for
+nearly 150 years longer. During the latter part of
+this time they consisted of four sets of verses, usually
+in Latin, but occasionally in Greek, in which current
+topics in the University were treated lightly or
+seriously as the writer thought fit. They were
+written for the proctors and moderators by undergraduates
+or commencing bachelors, each of whom
+was supposed to receive a pair of white kid gloves
+in recognition of his labours. Thus gradually the
+word tripos changed its meaning “from a thing of
+wood to a man, from a man to a speech, from a
+speech to sets of verses, from verses to a sheet of
+coarse foolscap paper, from a paper to a list of
+names, and from a list of names to a system of
+examination<sup class="fn"><a href="#fn82" id="fna82" name="fna82">82</a></sup>.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1895 the proctors and moderators, without
+consulting the senate, sent in no verses, and thus,
+in spite of widespread regret, an interesting custom
+of many centuries standing was destroyed. In
+defence of this action, it was said that the custom
+had never been embodied in statute or ordinance,
+<a name="png.323" id="png.323" href="#png.323"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>315<span class="ns">]
+ </span></span></a>and thus was not obligatory, and further that its
+continuance was not of material benefit to anybody.
+Such arguments are not conclusive, and we may well
+regret the disappearance of historic ties unless it
+can be shown that they cause inconvenience, which
+of course in this case could not be asserted.</p>
+
+<p>By way of supplement to the foregoing account,
+I append a list of those who have held or hold the
+various university mathematical chairs and lectureships.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>The <cite>Lucasian Professorship of Mathematics</cite> was founded in 1663
+by Henry Lucas. The successive occupants of the chair have
+been: Isaac Barrow, 1664–1669; Isaac Newton, 1669–1702; William
+Whiston, 1702–1711; Nicholas Saunderson (Sanderson), 1711–1739;
+John Colson, 1739–1760; Edward Waring, 1760–1798; Isaac Milner,
+1798–1820; Robert Woodhouse, 1820–1822; Thomas Turton, 1822–1826;
+George Biddell Airy, 1826–1828; Charles Babbage, 1828–1839;
+Joshua King, 1839–1849; George Gabriel Stokes, 1849–1903; Joseph
+Larmor, 1903 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p>The <cite>Plumian Professorship of Astronomy and Experimental
+Philosophy</cite> was founded in 1704 by Thomas Plume. The successive
+occupants of the chair have been: Roger Cotes, 1707–1716; Robert
+Smith, 1716–1760; Anthony Shepherd, 1760–1796; Samuel Vince,
+1796–1822; Robert Woodhouse, 1822–1828; George Biddell Airy,
+1828–1836; James Challis, 1836–1883; George Howard Darwin,
+1883–1912; Arthur Stanley Eddington, 1913 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p>The <cite>Lowndean Professorship of Astronomy and Geometry</cite> was
+founded in 1749 by Thomas Lowndes. The successive occupants of
+the chair have been: Roger Long, 1750–1771; John Smith, 1771–1795;
+William Lax, 1795–1836; George Peacock, 1836–1858; John
+Couch Adams, 1858–1892; Robert Stawell Ball, 1892–1913; Henry
+Frederick Baker, 1914 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p>The <cite>Sadleirian Professorship of Pure Mathematics</cite> was founded, in
+1863 from a benefaction given in 1710 by Lady Sadleir. The successive
+occupants of the chair have been: Arthur Cayley, 1863–1895;
+Andrew Russell Forsyth, 1895–1910; Ernest William Hobson, 1910
+<i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="png.324" id="png.324" href="#png.324"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>316<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>The <cite>Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics</cite> was founded
+in 1871 by the University; the laboratory attached being built at
+the expense of the then Chancellor, the Duke of Devonshire. The
+successive occupants of the chair have been: James Clerk Maxwell,
+1871–1879; John William, Baron Rayleigh, 1879–1884; Joseph John
+Thomson, 1884 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p>The <cite>Professorship of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics</cite>, with
+laboratories and shops attached, was founded by the University in
+1875. The successive occupants of the chair have been: James
+Stuart, 1875–1890; James Alfred Ewing, 1890–1903; Bertram
+Hopkinson, 1903 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p>Five <cite>Lectureships in Mathematics</cite> were created in 1882 under the
+directions of Royal Commissioners, and subsequently two others
+(now reduced to one other) tenable, if desired, with one of the above,
+were founded. The successive holders have been: Joseph John
+Thomson, 1884; Andrew Russell Forsyth, 1884–1895; William
+Herrick Macaulay, 1884–1887; Richard Tetley Glazebrook, 1884–1898;
+Ernest William Hobson, 1884–1910; Joseph Larmor, 1885–1903;
+Richard Pendlebury, 1888–1901; Henry Frederick Baker,
+1895–1914; Augustus Edward Hough Love, 1898–1899; Hector
+Munro Macdonald, 1899–1904; Herbert William Richmond, 1901
+<i>et seq.</i>; George Ballard Mathews, 1903–1905; James Hopwood Jeans,
+1904–1906, 1910–1912; John Gaston Leathem, 1905–1909; Robert
+Alfred Herman, 1906 <i>et seq.</i>; Edmund Taylor Whittaker, 1905–1906;
+Thomas James I’Anson Bromwich, 1909 <i>et seq.</i>; John Hilton Grace,
+1901 <i>et seq.</i>; Godfrey Harold Hardy, 1914 <i>et seq.</i>; Arthur Berry,
+1914 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna34" id="fn34" name="fn34" title="Back">34</a> The greater part of this chapter formerly appeared in my
+<cite>Mathematical Recreations and Essays</cite>, but a few paragraphs on
+“coaching” have been taken from a paper which I wrote for distribution
+to those who attended the International Congress of Mathematicians
+held in England in 1912. The subject is treated in
+Whewell’s <cite>Liberal Education</cite>, Cambridge, three parts, 1845, 1850,
+1853; Wordsworth’s <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Scholae Academicae</cite>, Cambridge, 1877; my own
+<cite>Origin and History of the Mathematical Tripos</cite>, Cambridge, 1880;
+Glaisher’s Presidential Address to the London Mathematical Society,
+<cite>Transactions</cite>, vol. XVIII, 1886, pp. 4–38; and my <cite>History of the Study
+of Mathematics at Cambridge</cite>, Cambridge, 1889.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna35" id="fn35" name="fn35" title="Back">35</a> <cite>Budget of Paradoxes</cite>, by A. De Morgan, London, 1872, p. 305.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna36" id="fn36" name="fn36" title="Back">36</a> See grace of 25 October 1680.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna37" id="fn37" name="fn37" title="Back">37</a> <i>Ex. gr.</i> see De la Pryme’s account of his graduation in 1694,
+<cite>Surtees Society</cite>, vol. <span class="allsc">LIV</span>, 1870, p. 32.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna38" id="fn38" name="fn38" title="Back">38</a> W. Reneu, in his letters of 1708–10 describing the course for
+the B.A. degree, makes no mention of the senate-house examination,
+and I think it is a reasonable inference that it had not then been
+established.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna39" id="fn39" name="fn39" title="Back">39</a> <cite>Memoirs of Richard Cumberland</cite>, London, 1806, pp. 78–79.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna40" id="fn40" name="fn40" title="Back">40</a> Quoted by C. Wordsworth, <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Scholae Academicae</cite>, Cambridge,
+1877, pp. 30–31.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna41" id="fn41" name="fn41" title="Back">41</a> <cite>Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson</cite>, London, 1817,
+pp. 18–19.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna42" id="fn42" name="fn42" title="Back">42</a> See grace of 25 October 1883; and the <cite>Cambridge University
+Reporter</cite>, 23 October 1883.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna43" id="fn43" name="fn43" title="Back">43</a> See grace of 11 February 1909, and the <cite>Cambridge University
+Reporter</cite>, 8 December 1908.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna44" id="fn44" name="fn44" title="Back">44</a> <cite>The Works of J. Jebb</cite>, London, 1787, vol. <span class="allsc">II</span>, pp. 290–297.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna45" id="fn45" name="fn45" title="Back">45</a> “Emulation, which is the principle upon which the plan is
+constructed.” <cite>The Works of J. Jebb</cite>, London, 1787, vol. <span class="allsc">III</span>, p. 261.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna46" id="fn46" name="fn46" title="Back">46</a> <cite>The Works of J. Jebb</cite>, London, 1787, vol. <span class="allsc">III</span>, p. 272.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna47" id="fn47" name="fn47" title="Back">47</a> See graces of 5 July 1773, and of 17 February 1774.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna48" id="fn48" name="fn48" title="Back">48</a> See graces of 19, 20 March 1779.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna49" id="fn49" name="fn49" title="Back">49</a> Notice issued by the vice-chancellor, dated 19 May 1779.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna50" id="fn50" name="fn50" title="Back">50</a> The <cite>Challis Manuscripts</cite>, <span class="allsc">III</span>, 61. There are two copies almost
+identical, one dated 1785, the other 1786. Probably the paper
+printed in the text was set in 1786.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna51" id="fn51" name="fn51" title="Back">51</a> H. Gunning, <cite>Reminiscences</cite>, second edition, London, 1855,
+vol. <span class="allsc">I</span>, p. 82.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna52" id="fn52" name="fn52" title="Back">52</a> C. Wordsworth, <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Scholae Academicae</cite>, Cambridge, 1877, pp. 322–323.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna53" id="fn53" name="fn53" title="Back">53</a> H. Gunning, <cite>Reminiscences</cite>, second edition, London, 1855,
+vol. <span class="allsc">I</span>, p. 182.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna54" id="fn54" name="fn54" title="Back">54</a> See grace of 8 April 1791.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna55" id="fn55" name="fn55" title="Back">55</a> Communicated by the moderators to fathers of colleges on
+18 January 1799, and agreed to by the latter.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna56" id="fn56" name="fn56" title="Back">56</a> C. Wordsworth, <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Scholae Academicae</cite>, Cambridge, 1817, p. 123.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna57" id="fn57" name="fn57" title="Back">57</a> <cite>Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson</cite>, London, 1817, p. 19.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna58" id="fn58" name="fn58" title="Back">58</a> <cite>Memoir of A. De Morgan</cite>, London, 1882, pp. 387–392.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna59" id="fn59" name="fn59" title="Back">59</a> See graces, 15 December 1808.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna60" id="fn60" name="fn60" title="Back">60</a> S. Douglas, <cite>Life of W. Whewell</cite>, London, 1881, p. 20.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna61" id="fn61" name="fn61" title="Back">61</a> For a contemporary account of this, see C. A. Bristed, <cite>Five
+Years in an English University</cite>, New York, 1852, pp. 233–239.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna62" id="fn62" name="fn62" title="Back">62</a> See <i>ex. gr.</i> the grace of 14 November 1827, referred to below.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna63" id="fn63" name="fn63" title="Back">63</a> <cite>Proceedings of the Royal Society</cite>, London, 1859, vol. <span class="allsc">IX</span>, pp. 538–539.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna64" id="fn64" name="fn64" title="Back">64</a> <cite>Whewell’s Writings and Correspondence</cite>, ed. Todhunter, London,
+1876, vol. <span class="allsc">II</span>, p. 36.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna65" id="fn65" name="fn65" title="Back">65</a> S. Douglas, <cite>Life of Whewell</cite>, London, 1881, p. 56.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna66" id="fn66" name="fn66" title="Back">66</a> <cite>Alma Mater</cite>, London, 1827, vol. <span class="allsc">II</span>, pp. 58–98.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna67" id="fn67" name="fn67" title="Back">67</a> See <cite>Nature</cite>, vol. <span class="allsc">XXXV</span>, 24 February 1887, pp. 397–399. See
+also his <cite>Autobiography</cite>, Cambridge, 1896, chapter ii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna68" id="fn68" name="fn68" title="Back">68</a> See grace, 14 November 1827.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna69" id="fn69" name="fn69" title="Back">69</a> See grace, 21 May 1828, confirming a report of 27 March 1828.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna70" id="fn70" name="fn70" title="Back">70</a> See grace of 31 October 1849.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna71" id="fn71" name="fn71" title="Back">71</a> See grace of 6 April 1832.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna72" id="fn72" name="fn72" title="Back">72</a> See grace of 30 May 1838.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna73" id="fn73" name="fn73" title="Back">73</a> Under a badly-worded grace passed on 11 May 1842, on the
+recommendation of a syndicate on theological studies, candidates
+for mathematical honours were, after 1846, required to attend the
+poll examination on Paley’s <cite>Moral Philosophy</cite>, the new testament
+and ecclesiastical history. This had not been the intention of the
+senate, and on 14 March 1855, a grace was passed making this clear.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna74" id="fn74" name="fn74" title="Back">74</a> See grace of 13 May 1846, confirming a report of 23 March 1846.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna75" id="fn75" name="fn75" title="Back">75</a> See grace of 31 October 1848.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna76" id="fn76" name="fn76" title="Back">76</a> See grace of 2 June 1868. It was carried by a majority of
+only five in a house of 75.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna77" id="fn77" name="fn77" title="Back">77</a> See graces of 17 May 1877; 29 May 1878; and 21 November
+1878; and the <cite>Cambridge University Reporter</cite>, 2 April, 14 May,
+4 June, 29 October, 12 November, and 26 November 1878.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna78" id="fn78" name="fn78" title="Back">78</a> See graces of 13 December 1883; 12 June 1884; 10 February
+1885; 29 October 1885; and 1 June 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna79" id="fn79" name="fn79" title="Back">79</a> See reports dated 7 November 1899, and 20 January 1900.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna80" id="fn80" name="fn80" title="Back">80</a> See the reports of the special board, <cite>Cambridge University
+Reporter</cite>, 29 May and 20 November 1906, and the graces of
+2 February 1907. The voting on the first grace was 776 placet
+and 644 non-placet.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna81" id="fn81" name="fn81" title="Back">81</a> J. B. Mullinger, <cite>The University of Cambridge</cite>, Cambridge, vol. <span class="allsc">I</span>,
+1873, pp. 175–176.</p>
+
+<p><a class="parnumber" href="#fna82" id="fn82" name="fn82" title="Back">82</a> C. Wordsworth, <cite xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Scholae Academicae</cite>, Cambridge, 1877, p. 21.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<h2 title="Index"><a name="png.325" id="png.325" href="#png.325"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>317<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<div class="index">
+
+<p>Abbot, Wm, <a href="#png.271">263</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Acts, Scholastic, <a href="#png.260">ch <span class="allsc">XV</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Adams, J. C, <a href="#png.319">311</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Admonitions, Statutory, <a href="#png.229">221–4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Airy, G. B, <a href="#png.181">173</a>, <a href="#png.301">293</a>,
+ <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Alford, Hen, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Allen, Thos, <a href="#png.042">34</a>.</p>
+
+<p>All Saints’ Ch, Camb, <a href="#png.093">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Alston Tankard, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ambler, John, <a href="#png.232">224</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Amos, Andrew, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.148">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Analytical Society, <a href="#png.298">290</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Anne of Denmark, <a href="#png.125">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ansill, Thos, <a href="#png.021">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Apprenticeship, <a href="#png.195">187</a>, <a href="#png.197">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arrington Vicarage, <a href="#png.019">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Artistic Treasures, <a href="#png.112">ch <span class="allsc">VI</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arts, Students in, <a href="#png.195">187</a>, <a href="#png.196">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ascham, Roger, <a href="#png.211">203</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Assessors, Trin. Coll, <a href="#png.135">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Assistant Tutors, <a href="#png.052">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Athletic Club, Trinity, <a href="#png.133">125</a>, <a href="#png.134">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Athletic Clubs, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Atterbury, Fras, <a href="#png.076">68</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Attractions, Theory, <a href="#png.237">229</a>, <a href="#png.242">234</a>,
+ <a href="#png.243">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Auditors, Trin. Coll, <a href="#png.135">ch <span class="allsc">VII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Aykerod Cup, The, <a href="#png.128">120</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Babbage, Chas, <a href="#png.298">290</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Babington, Gervase, <a href="#png.065">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Backhouse, Jas, <a href="#png.050">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bacon, Arth, <a href="#png.173">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bacon, Fras, <a href="#png.116">108</a>, <a href="#png.125">117</a>,
+ <a href="#png.173">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Baker, H. F, <a href="#png.323">315</a>, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Balfour, A. J, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ball, R. S, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Balsham, Hugh de, <a href="#png.199">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bancroft, Rich, <a href="#png.069">61</a>, <a href="#png.070">62</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bankes Ewer, The, <a href="#png.129">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Barnes, E. W, <a href="#png.051">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Barnes, J. W, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Barrington Vicarage, <a href="#png.020">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Barrow, Isaac, <a href="#png.116">108</a>, <a href="#png.117">109</a>,
+ <a href="#png.125">117</a>, <a href="#png.158">150</a>, <a href="#png.178">170</a>,
+ <a href="#png.179">171</a>, <a href="#png.262">254</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beaumont, Robt, <a href="#png.100">92</a>, <a href="#png.101">93</a>,
+ <a href="#png.102">94</a>, <a href="#png.114">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bedesmen, <a href="#png.026">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bedwell, Thos, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bellot Tankard, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bennet, Bishop, <a href="#png.065">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bennet Ewer, The, <a href="#png.129">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bensley, Jas, <a href="#png.232">224</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Benson, E. W, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bentley, Rich, <a href="#png.049">41</a>, <a href="#png.075">67</a>,
+ <a href="#png.076">68</a>, <a href="#png.106">98</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.142">134</a>, <a href="#png.143">135</a>, <a href="#png.180">172</a>,
+ <a href="#png.247">239</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Benton, Dan, <a href="#png.220">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Berry, Art, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Best, H. D, <a href="#png.287">279</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bill, Wm, <a href="#png.057">49</a>, <a href="#png.096">88</a>, <a href="#png.099">91</a>,
+ <a href="#png.100">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Billingsley, Hen, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Birching, <a href="#png.207">199–208</a>, <a href="#png.218">210–214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blackburn, Jas, <a href="#png.286">278</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blakesley, J. W, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bland, Tobias, <a href="#png.222">214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blundeville, Thos, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Board, Mathematical, <a href="#png.308">300</a>, <a href="#png.309">301</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Boat Club, The, <a href="#png.132">124</a>, <a href="#png.133">125</a>,
+ <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bolland, Wm, <a href="#png.293">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bonnycastle’s <cite>Algebra</cite>, <a href="#png.289">281</a>,
+ <a href="#png.292">284</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bottisham Vicarage, <a href="#png.019">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Boude, Wm, <a href="#png.023">15</a>, <a href="#png.024">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Boxworth Rectory, <a href="#png.020">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.326" id="png.326" href="#png.326"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>318<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Boyle Cup, The, <a href="#png.130">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Boys, Wm, <a href="#png.096">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brackets, System of, <a href="#png.279">271–272</a>, <a href="#png.290">282–288</a>,
+ <a href="#png.303">295</a>, <a href="#png.308">300</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brass, John, <a href="#png.263">255</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bridges, Simon, <a href="#png.025">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Briggs, Hen, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Briggs, Simon, <a href="#png.025">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bristed, C. A, <a href="#png.182">174</a>, <a href="#png.297">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bromwich, T. J. I’A, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brooke, Rich, <a href="#png.136">128</a>, <a href="#png.137">129</a>,
+ <a href="#png.139">131</a>, <a href="#png.140">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brown, John, <a href="#png.089">81</a>, <a href="#png.294">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Browne, Galen, <a href="#png.231">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Browne, I. Hawkins, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Buckingham Ewer, The, <a href="#png.128">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Buckley, Wm, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bulaeus, <a href="#png.190">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burcham, T. B, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burials in College, <a href="#png.111">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burnand, F. C, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burnell, Edw, <a href="#png.136">128</a>, <a href="#png.137">129</a>,
+ <a href="#png.138">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Busby Cup, The, <a href="#png.129">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Busby, Rich, <a href="#png.210">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Butler, H. M, <a href="#png.123">115</a>, <a href="#png.183">175</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Butler, Miss, <a href="#png.108">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Butler’s <cite>Analogy</cite>, <a href="#png.227">219</a>,
+ <a href="#png.276">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Byron, Lord, <a href="#png.117">109</a>, <a href="#png.125">117</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Calculus, The, <a href="#png.297">289–292</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cambridge University, Beginnings of, <a href="#png.187">ch <span class="allsc">XI</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Camden, Marquess of, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Caroline, Queen, <a href="#png.146">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cartwright, Thos, <a href="#png.101">93</a>, <a href="#png.173">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Carus, Wm, <a href="#png.081">73</a>, <a href="#png.082">74</a>,
+ <a href="#png.087">79</a>, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Carver, Chas, <a href="#png.285">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cavendish Cup, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cavendish Professorship, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cayley, Art, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.184">176</a>, <a href="#png.319">311</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cecil, Sir Wm, <a href="#png.059">51</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Censer Boat, <a href="#png.095">87</a>, <a href="#png.126">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Central Forces, <a href="#png.233">ch <span class="allsc">XIII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Challenge Plate, <a href="#png.132">124–126</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Challis, Jas, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Challis MSS, <a href="#png.281">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chantrey, Fras, <a href="#png.124">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chapel Attendance, <a href="#png.079">ch <span class="allsc">IV</span></a>,
+ <a href="#png.110">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chapel, Compulsory, <a href="#png.079">ch <span class="allsc">IV</span></a>,
+ <a href="#png.212">204</a>, <a href="#png.214">206</a>, <a href="#png.215">207</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chapel, Trinity, <a href="#png.092">ch <span class="allsc">V</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Charles I, <a href="#png.104">96</a>, <a href="#png.176">168</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Charles II, <a href="#png.104">96</a>, <a href="#png.115">107</a>,
+ <a href="#png.125">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Charrington, John, <a href="#png.123">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cheadle Rectory, <a href="#png.020">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cheke, John, <a href="#png.012">4</a>, <a href="#png.013">5</a>,
+ <a href="#png.025">17</a>, <a href="#png.199">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chesterton Vicarage, <a href="#png.019">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Christ Church Westminsters, <a href="#png.056">ch <span class="allsc">III</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Christopherson, John, <a href="#png.096">88</a>, <a href="#png.099">91</a>,
+ <a href="#png.100">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cipriani, G. B, <a href="#png.124">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clairaut, A. C, <a href="#png.248">240</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clarence, Duke of, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clark, J. W, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.151">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clarke, Sam, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clarke’s <cite>Attributes</cite>, <a href="#png.276">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clarkson Cup, The, <a href="#png.128">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Classical Tripos, <a href="#png.303">295</a>, <a href="#png.305">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clerke, Gilbert, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coaches, Private, <a href="#png.315">307–310</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coke, Edw, <a href="#png.119">111</a>, <a href="#png.173">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colleges, Early, <a href="#png.035">27</a>, <a href="#png.199">191</a>,
+ <a href="#png.200">192</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colson, John, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Combination Rooms, <a href="#png.175">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Commencement-House, <a href="#png.161">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Commons, Out of, <a href="#png.224">216</a>, <a href="#png.225">217</a>,
+ <a href="#png.227">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Confessions, <a href="#png.227">219</a>, <a href="#png.229">221</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Conybeare, W. J, <a href="#png.084">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Conyers, Tobias, <a href="#png.220">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Corporal Punishments, <a href="#png.207">199–208</a>, <a href="#png.218">210–215</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cotes, Roger, <a href="#png.106">98</a>, <a href="#png.180">172</a>,
+ <a href="#png.262">254</a>, <a href="#png.275">267</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton, G. E. L, <a href="#png.084">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cowley, Abraham, <a href="#png.074">66</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.177">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cox, Rich, <a href="#png.210">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.327" id="png.327" href="#png.327"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>319<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Craig, John, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cranworth, Lord, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Creighton, Robt, <a href="#png.047">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Croyland Abbey, <a href="#png.099">91</a>, <a href="#png.189">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cumberland, Rich, <a href="#png.270">262</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Dacres, Art, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Damer Cup, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dance, Nath, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin, G. H, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dawson, John, <a href="#png.316">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Days, Loss of, <a href="#png.225">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dealtry, Wm, <a href="#png.293">285</a>, <a href="#png.294">286</a>,
+ <a href="#png.295">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Deans, College, <a href="#png.036">28</a>, <a href="#png.214">206–8</a>,
+ <a href="#png.227">219–20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Aston, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>, <a href="#png.164">156</a>,
+ <a href="#png.168">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Bagshot, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>, <a href="#png.164">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Balsham, Hugh, <a href="#png.199">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Berwick, Rich, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Beverley, Robt, <a href="#png.163">155</a>, <a href="#png.168">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Declaratio Computi</span>, <a href="#png.136">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Croyland, Robt, <a href="#png.092">84</a>, <a href="#png.093">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Durnford, Nich, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dee, John, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Gretford, Hen, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Gretford, Ralph, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Hull, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Immeworth, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Kelsey, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Kingston, Edw, <a href="#png.163">155</a>, <a href="#png.168">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De la Pryme, Abraham, <a href="#png.267">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De London, Phil, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Morgan, Aug, <a href="#png.264">256</a>, <a href="#png.292">284</a>,
+ <a href="#png.294">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Denman, Geo, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.149">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Nottingham, Walter, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Derby, Henry Earl of, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Rome, Nich, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Salisbury, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Salisbury, Rich, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Descartes, René, <a href="#png.235">227</a>, <a href="#png.244">236</a>,
+ <a href="#png.245">237</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Stanton, Hervey, <a href="#png.095">87</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Sutton, Hugh, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Torterold, Jas, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Torterold, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Devereux, Robt, <a href="#png.116">108</a>, <a href="#png.173">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Devonshire, Duke of, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>D’Ewes, Simon, <a href="#png.216">208</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Winchester, David, <a href="#png.163">155</a>, <a href="#png.168">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Windsor, Thos, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Woodstock, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.<!-- TN: period invisible in scan --></p>
+
+<p><span xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Dialectici</span>, <a href="#png.024">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Digges, Thos, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Discipline, <a href="#png.202">ch <span class="allsc">XII</span></a>,
+ <a href="#png.035">27</a>, <a href="#png.040">32</a>, <a href="#png.041">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Discommonsing, <a href="#png.224">216</a>, <a href="#png.225">217</a>,
+ <a href="#png.227">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dissizaring, <a href="#png.224">216</a>, <a href="#png.225">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span xml:lang="lat" lang="lat">Distribucio Collegii</span>,
+ <a href="#png.021">13–22</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dobson, Wm, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Donaldson, J. W, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Douglas, Stair, <a href="#png.296">288</a>, <a href="#png.300">292</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Downing, Sir Geo, <a href="#png.139">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Draghswerd, Wm, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dryden, John, <a href="#png.119">111</a>, <a href="#png.177">169</a>,
+ <a href="#png.227">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Duport, Jas, <a href="#png.048">40</a>, <a href="#png.177">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Duport Salt, The, <a href="#png.129">121</a>, <a href="#png.130">122</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Early University History, <a href="#png.187">ch <span class="allsc">XI</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Earnshaw, Sam, <a href="#png.306">298</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Eddington, A. S, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Edward II, <a href="#png.092">84</a>, <a href="#png.162">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Edward III, <a href="#png.092">84</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>,
+ <a href="#png.125">117</a>, <a href="#png.171">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Edward IV, <a href="#png.118">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Edward VI, <a href="#png.095">87</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>,
+ <a href="#png.172">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Edward VII, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Elizabeth of York, <a href="#png.114">106</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#png.056">48</a>, <a href="#png.057">49</a>,
+ <a href="#png.098">90</a>, <a href="#png.099">91</a>, <a href="#png.100">92</a>,
+ <a href="#png.122">114</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>, <a href="#png.125">117</a>,
+ <a href="#png.152">144</a>, <a href="#png.172">164</a>, <a href="#png.175">167</a>,
+ <a href="#png.176">168</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ellethorpe, <a href="#png.221">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ellis, Wm, <a href="#png.137">129</a>, <a href="#png.138">130</a>,
+ <a href="#png.141">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Emerson, Wm, <a href="#png.276">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Euclid’s <cite>Elements</cite>, <a href="#png.279">271</a>, <a href="#png.287">279</a>,
+ <a href="#png.289">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Euler, Leonhard, <a href="#png.248">240</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Essex, Earl of, <a href="#png.116">108</a>, <a href="#png.173">165</a>.<!-- TN: out of alphabetical order in original --></p>
+
+<p>Everett, Wm, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ewing, J. A, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Eworth, Hans, <a href="#png.114">106</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Expulsions, <a href="#png.229">221–224</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><a name="png.328" id="png.328" href="#png.328"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns"><br
+ />[</span>320<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Fairfax, Sir Thos, <a href="#png.105">97</a>.<!-- TN: period invisible in scan --></p>
+
+<p>Fakenham Rectory, <a href="#png.019">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Farish, Wm, <a href="#png.293">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fees, College, in 1570, <a href="#png.044">36–37</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fellow-Commoners, <a href="#png.037">29</a>, <a href="#png.042">34</a>,
+ <a href="#png.127">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fellows, Election of, <a href="#png.038">30</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fellowship Election in 1659, <a href="#png.047">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Felmersham Vicarage, <a href="#png.019">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fenn, John, <a href="#png.271">263</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ferguson, Jas, <a href="#png.275">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Field, Fred, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fines, <a href="#png.223">215–216</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fiott (Lee), John, <a href="#png.293">285</a>, <a href="#png.295">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Firebrace Cup, The, <a href="#png.130">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>First Trinity Boat Club, <a href="#png.132">124</a>, <a href="#png.133">125</a>,
+ <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fitzgerald, Edw, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fitzgerald Tankard, The, <a href="#png.130">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flamsteed, John, <a href="#png.238">230</a>, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fletcher, Bishop, <a href="#png.065">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fletcher, W. M, <a href="#png.051">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flogging, <a href="#png.207">199–208</a>, <a href="#png.218">210–214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fluxions, <a href="#png.297">289–292</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Foley Tankard, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Forsyth, A. R, <a href="#png.323">315</a>, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fort, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Foster, Michael, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Foster, Sam, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Foundation of Trinity, <a href="#png.011">ch <span class="allsc">I</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Franciscan Monastery, <a href="#png.027">19</a>, <a href="#png.192">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frazer, Sir Jas, <a href="#png.178">170</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frere, John, <a href="#png.273">265</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fuller, Thos, <a href="#png.101">93</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Galileo, <a href="#png.239">231</a>, <a href="#png.240">232</a>,
+  <a href="#png.247">239</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Galton, Fras, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gating, <a href="#png.226">218–219</a>.</p>
+
+<p>General Examination, <a href="#png.305">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p>George I, <a href="#png.267">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p>George III, <a href="#png.115">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gerrard, Mark, <a href="#png.123">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glaisher, J. W. L, <a href="#png.260">252</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glazebrook, R. T, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glomerels, <a href="#png.189">181</a>, <a href="#png.197">189–191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gloucester, Duke of, <a href="#png.115">107</a>, <a href="#png.120">112</a>,
+ <a href="#png.123">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goad, Roger, <a href="#png.212">204</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gooch, Wm, <a href="#png.284">276</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goodman, Gabriel, <a href="#png.060">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gordon, Douglas, <a href="#png.115">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gouldesborough, Edw, <a href="#png.065">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grace, J. H, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Graham, Robt, <a href="#png.137">129</a>, <a href="#png.144">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grammar, Degrees in, <a href="#png.198">190</a>, <a href="#png.199">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grammarians, <a href="#png.023">15</a>, <a href="#png.024">16</a>,
+ <a href="#png.025">17</a>, <a href="#png.036">28</a>, <a href="#png.189">181</a>,
+  <a href="#png.197">189–191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grammar School at Trinity, <a href="#png.023">15–17</a>, <a href="#png.036">28</a>,
+ <a href="#png.038">30</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grammatici, <a href="#png.023">15</a>, <a href="#png.024">16</a>,
+ <a href="#png.025">17</a>, <a href="#png.036">28</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Granby, Marquess of, <a href="#png.120">112</a>, <a href="#png.121">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gravitation, Law of, <a href="#png.233">ch <span class="allsc">XIII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gray, <a href="#png.096">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greaves Cup, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greaves, Wm, <a href="#png.137">129</a>, <a href="#png.143">135</a>,
+ <a href="#png.144">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greek Authors read in 1570, <a href="#png.045">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Green, Geo, <a href="#png.319">311</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grendon Vicarage, <a href="#png.019">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Griffith, T, <a href="#png.141">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Griffon, John, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Griffon, Thos, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grigson, Thos, <a href="#png.223">215</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grote, John, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grundisburgh Rectory, <a href="#png.020">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Guilds, University, <a href="#png.196">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gulphing, <a href="#png.272">264</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gunning, Hen, <a href="#png.283">275</a>, <a href="#png.286">278</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Hacket, John, <a href="#png.069">61</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Halfhead, <a href="#png.231">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Halifax, Earl of, <a href="#png.118">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hallam, A. H, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Halley, Edmund, <a href="#png.236">228</a>, <a href="#png.238">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton, Hugh, <a href="#png.275">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hardy, G. H, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hare, J. C, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Harman, Rich, <a href="#png.023">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.329" id="png.329" href="#png.329"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>321<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Harvey, John, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Harwood, Busick, <a href="#png.293">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Heath, J. M, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Helsham, Rich, <a href="#png.275">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henry I, <a href="#png.188">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henry II, <a href="#png.188">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VII, <a href="#png.114">106</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII, <a href="#png.011">3</a>, <a href="#png.056">48</a>,
+ <a href="#png.114">106</a>, <a href="#png.170">162</a>, <a href="#png.175">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Herbert, Geo, <a href="#png.069">61</a>, <a href="#png.177">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Herkomer, H. von, <a href="#png.117">109</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Herman, R. A, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Herschel, John, <a href="#png.298">290</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Herschel, Wm, <a href="#png.248">240</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hill, Thos, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hitch, Robt, <a href="#png.231">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hobson, E. W, <a href="#png.323">315</a>, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hodges, <a href="#png.221">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hodson, Wm, <a href="#png.281">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holbein, <a href="#png.114">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hon. Optimes, <a href="#png.265">257</a>, <a href="#png.269">261</a>,
+ <a href="#png.304">296</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hood, Thos, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hooke, Robt, <a href="#png.236">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hopkins, Wm, <a href="#png.316">308–310</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hopkinson, B, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hornbuckle, T. W, <a href="#png.294">286</a>, <a href="#png.295">287</a>,
+ <a href="#png.296">288</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Horrox, Jeremiah, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hort, F. J. A, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.184">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hostels, Private, <a href="#png.035">27</a>, <a href="#png.037">29</a>,
+ <a href="#png.200">192</a>, <a href="#png.201">193</a>, <a href="#png.203">195</a>,
+ <a href="#png.206">198</a>, <a href="#png.207">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Houghton, Lord, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Howson, J. S, <a href="#png.084">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Huddling, <a href="#png.263">255</a>, <a href="#png.266">258</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hughes, Fras, <a href="#png.137">129</a>, <a href="#png.140">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Humphrey Ewer, The, <a href="#png.128">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Husbands Cup, The, <a href="#png.130">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hustler, J. D, <a href="#png.293">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hutton, Archbishop, <a href="#png.065">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Huygens, Christian, <a href="#png.246">238</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hydrodynamics, Theory of, <a href="#png.238">230</a>, <a href="#png.243">235</a>,
+ <a href="#png.244">236</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Impositions, <a href="#png.227">219–221</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland, Rich, <a href="#png.067">59</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Jacob, Edw, <a href="#png.295">287</a>, <a href="#png.296">288</a>,
+ <a href="#png.297">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p>James I, <a href="#png.062">54</a>, <a href="#png.072">64</a>,
+ <a href="#png.074">66</a>, <a href="#png.122">114</a>, <a href="#png.125">117</a>,
+ <a href="#png.176">168</a>.</p>
+
+<p>James II, <a href="#png.179">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jeans, J. H, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jebb, John, <a href="#png.271">263</a>, <a href="#png.275">267</a>,
+ <a href="#png.278">270</a>, <a href="#png.279">271</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jebb, R. C, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.178">170</a>, <a href="#png.184">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jephson, Thos, <a href="#png.293">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Joachim, Joseph, <a href="#png.118">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p>John, King, <a href="#png.188">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Johnson, <a href="#png.220">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jones, Thos, <a href="#png.118">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jurin, Jas, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Kant, Immanuel, <a href="#png.250">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Keate, John, <a href="#png.210">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Keill, John, <a href="#png.275">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kelvin, Lord, <a href="#png.319">311</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kempthorne, John, <a href="#png.293">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kent Ewer, The, <a href="#png.128">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kepler’s Problem, <a href="#png.242">234</a>.</p>
+
+<p>King, C. W, <a href="#png.083">75</a>.</p>
+
+<p>King, Joshua, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>King, John, <a href="#png.067">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kinglake, A. W, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>King’s Hall, <a href="#png.011">3</a>, <a href="#png.017">9–11</a>,
+ <a href="#png.028">20</a>, <a href="#png.092">84–86</a>, <a href="#png.152">144</a>,
+ <a href="#png.162">154–160</a>, <a href="#png.170">162</a>, <a href="#png.171">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p>King’s Scholars, <i>see</i> King’s Hall.</p>
+
+<p>Kneller, Godfrey, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Knight, Sam, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.145">137</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Lagrange, J. L, <a href="#png.247">239</a>, <a href="#png.248">240</a>,
+ <a href="#png.298">290</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laplace, P. S, <a href="#png.249">241</a>, <a href="#png.250">242</a>,
+ <a href="#png.298">290</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Larmor, Joseph, <a href="#png.323">315</a>, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laszlö de Lombros, P. A, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Latin Authors read in 1570, <a href="#png.045">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laud, Wm, <a href="#png.102">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laughton, Rich, <a href="#png.262">254</a>, <a href="#png.315">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laurence, R. V, <a href="#png.051">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lawrence, Thos, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lax, Wm, <a href="#png.284">276</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Least Resistance, Solid of, <a href="#png.244">236</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leathem, J. G, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.330" id="png.330" href="#png.330"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>322<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Lecture-Rooms, College, <a href="#png.052">44</a>,
+ <a href="#png.053">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lectures, College, <a href="#png.052">44–46</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lectureships, Mathematical, <a href="#png.261">253</a>, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lee (Fiott), John, <a href="#png.295">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leg, Thos, <a href="#png.101">93</a>.</p><!-- TN: corrected, original reads 29 -->
+
+<p>Legendre, A. M, <a href="#png.298">290</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lever, Thos, <a href="#png.032">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Library, Trinity, <a href="#png.152">ch <span class="allsc">VIII</span></a>,
+ <a href="#png.112">104</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lightfoot, J. B, <a href="#png.109">101</a>, <a href="#png.118">110</a>,
+ <a href="#png.119">111</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>, <a href="#png.178">170</a>,
+ <a href="#png.184">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p>L’Isle, Denys, <a href="#png.137">129</a>, <a href="#png.142">134</a>,
+ <a href="#png.143">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Locke’s <cite>Essay</cite>, <a href="#png.276">268</a>, <a href="#png.283">275</a>,
+ <a href="#png.287">279</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lombard, Peter, <a href="#png.189">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Long, Roger, <a href="#png.275">267</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lonsdale, John, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Loss of Days or Terms, <a href="#png.226">218</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Love, A. E. H, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowndes, Thos, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowndean Professorship, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lucas, Hen, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lucas, Rich, <a href="#png.285">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lucasian Professorship, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lushington, E. L, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lyndhurst Cup, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lyndhurst, Lord, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lyons, Israel, <a href="#png.276">268</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Macaulay, T. B, <a href="#png.125">117</a>, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Macaulay, W. H, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Macclesfield, Earl of, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Macdonald, H. M, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maclaurin, Colin, <a href="#png.275">267</a>, <a href="#png.276">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Man, Henry, <a href="#png.025">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mansel, W. L, <a href="#png.120">112</a>, <a href="#png.225">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Martin, Fras, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Martin, Theodore, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Marvell, Andrew, <a href="#png.177">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mary, Queen, <a href="#png.056">48</a>, <a href="#png.096">88</a>,
+ <a href="#png.099">91</a>, <a href="#png.116">108</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>,
+ <a href="#png.172">164</a>, <a href="#png.175">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mary of Scotland, <a href="#png.123">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mathematical Board, <a href="#png.308">300</a>, <a href="#png.309">301</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mathematical Tripos, <a href="#png.260">ch <span class="allsc">XV</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mathematics, Cambridge, <a href="#png.260">ch <span class="allsc">XV</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mathews, G. B, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maule, W. H, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maurice, F. D, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maxwell, J. Clerk, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.184">176</a>, <a href="#png.319">311</a>, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maydew, John, <a href="#png.025">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mechanics, Theory of, <a href="#png.239">231–232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mechanism Professorship, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Medieval Tutorial System, <a href="#png.035">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Medieval University, Beginnings of, <a href="#png.187">ch <span class="allsc">XI</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Melbourne, Viscount, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Merit, Order of, in Examinations, <a href="#png.269">261</a>,
+ <a href="#png.315">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mexborough Cup, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mey, Wm, <a href="#png.013">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Michael-House, <a href="#png.011">3</a>, <a href="#png.019">11–13</a>,
+ <a href="#png.028">20</a>, <a href="#png.094">86</a>, <a href="#png.095">87</a>,
+ <a href="#png.170">162</a>, <a href="#png.171">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Milner, Isaac, <a href="#png.280">272</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Milnes, Monckton, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Milton, John, <a href="#png.221">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Moderators, Mathematical, <a href="#png.266">258</a>, <a href="#png.267">259</a>,
+ <a href="#png.268">260</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Monasteries at Cambridge, <a href="#png.188">180</a>, <a href="#png.189">181</a>,
+ <a href="#png.192">184</a>, <a href="#png.193">185</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Monks at University, <a href="#png.189">181</a>, <a href="#png.193">185</a>,
+ <a href="#png.194">186</a>, <a href="#png.195">187</a>, <a href="#png.204">196</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Moreton, Albert, <a href="#png.061">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Morland, Sam, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Moro, Antonio, <a href="#png.114">106</a>, <a href="#png.116">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Motion, Laws of, <a href="#png.240">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mullinger, J. B, <a href="#png.187">179</a>, <a href="#png.196">188</a>,
+ <a href="#png.321">313</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Munro, H. A. J, <a href="#png.184">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Murray, Thos, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Nebular Hypothesis, <a href="#png.249">241</a>, <a href="#png.250">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Neile, Rich, <a href="#png.067">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nevile Cup, The, <a href="#png.127">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nevile, Robt, <a href="#png.220">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nevile, Thos, <a href="#png.061">53</a>, <a href="#png.063">55</a>,
+ <a href="#png.066">58</a>, <a href="#png.067">59</a>, <a href="#png.068">60</a>,
+ <a href="#png.069">61</a>, <a href="#png.070">62</a>, <a href="#png.122">114</a>,
+ <a href="#png.157">149</a>, <a href="#png.174">166</a>, <a href="#png.175">167</a>,
+ <a href="#png.176">168</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nevile’s Court, <a href="#png.159">151</a>, <a href="#png.160">152</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.331" id="png.331" href="#png.331"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>323<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Newton, Isaac, <a href="#png.116">108</a>, <a href="#png.120">112</a>,
+ <a href="#png.124">116</a>, <a href="#png.178">170</a>, <a href="#png.252">244–251</a>,
+ <a href="#png.275">267</a>, <a href="#png.276">268</a>, <a href="#png.289">281</a>,
+ <a href="#png.292">284</a>, <a href="#png.295">287</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Newton, John, <a href="#png.142">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Newton, Sam, <a href="#png.137">129</a>, <a href="#png.140">132</a>,
+ <a href="#png.141">133</a>, <a href="#png.142">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Newton’s <cite>Principia</cite>, <a href="#png.233">ch <span class="allsc">XIII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Non-Regents, <a href="#png.191">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Northampton, Earl of, <a href="#png.070">62</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Numbers of Students, <a href="#png.049">41–44</a>, <a href="#png.196">188</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Offley, Chris, <a href="#png.231">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Opie, John, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Opponencies, <a href="#png.261">253</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Optimes, <a href="#png.260">ch <span class="allsc">XV</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Optimes, Honorary, <a href="#png.265">257</a>, <a href="#png.269">261</a>,
+ <a href="#png.304">296</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ordines Senioritatis, <a href="#png.269">261</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Orleans, University of, <a href="#png.190">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Orwell Rectory, <a href="#png.020">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Oughtred, Wm, <a href="#png.260">252</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Paget, Sir Wm, <a href="#png.014">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paley, Wm, <a href="#png.273">265</a>, <a href="#png.283">275</a>,
+ <a href="#png.287">279</a>, <a href="#png.307">299</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parham, Peter, <a href="#png.221">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paris, University of, <a href="#png.190">182</a>, <a href="#png.260">252</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parke, Jas, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.146">138</a>,
+ <a href="#png.147">139</a>, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parker, Matthew, <a href="#png.012">4</a>, <a href="#png.013">5</a>,
+ <a href="#png.014">6</a>, <a href="#png.015">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parker, Nich, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parker, Roger, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parne, Thos, <a href="#png.223">215</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parr, Queen Katherine, <a href="#png.014">6</a>, <a href="#png.015">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paston, Clement, <a href="#png.209">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paulet Tankard, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Payne, <a href="#png.263">255</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peacock, Geo, <a href="#png.063">55</a>, <a href="#png.089">81</a>,
+ <a href="#png.181">173</a>, <a href="#png.187">179</a>, <a href="#png.188">180</a>,
+ <a href="#png.190">182</a>, <a href="#png.197">189</a>, <a href="#png.284">276</a>,
+ <a href="#png.285">277</a>, <a href="#png.298">290</a>, <a href="#png.299">291</a>,
+ <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pearson, John, <a href="#png.116">108</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.178">170</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peckitt of York, <a href="#png.124">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peile, John, <a href="#png.221">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pell, John, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Penalties, <a href="#png.202">ch <span class="allsc">XII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pendlebury, Rich, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pensioners, <a href="#png.037">29</a>, <a href="#png.039">31</a>,
+ <a href="#png.041">33</a>, <a href="#png.042">34</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pepys, Thos, <a href="#png.225">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Perry, Chas, <a href="#png.084">76</a>, <a href="#png.086">78</a>,
+ <a href="#png.087">79</a>, <a href="#png.089">81</a>, <a href="#png.090">82</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Perry Plate, The, <a href="#png.132">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pheasaunt Tankard, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Philip of Spain, <a href="#png.116">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Physwick’s Hostel, <a href="#png.094">86</a>, <a href="#png.095">87</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plate, College, <a href="#png.112">ch <span class="allsc">VI</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plume, Thos, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plumian Professorship, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Poll-Men, <i>see</i> <a href="#png.260">ch <span class="allsc">XV</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pollock, J. F, <a href="#png.181">173</a>, <a href="#png.292">284</a>,
+ <a href="#png.295">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Porson, Rich, <a href="#png.122">114</a>, <a href="#png.180">172</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Portraits, College, <a href="#png.112">ch <span class="allsc">VI</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pour, Nich, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pour, Rich, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pour, Wm, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pre-elections, <a href="#png.067">59</a>, <a href="#png.068">60</a>,
+ <a href="#png.070">62</a>, <a href="#png.072">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prime and Ultimate Ratios, <a href="#png.240">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p><cite>Principia</cite> of Newton, <a href="#png.233">ch <span class="allsc">XIII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prior, Matthew, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Private Tutors, <a href="#png.315">307–310</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Professors’ Examinations, <a href="#png.305">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pull, Nich, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Raeburn, Hen, <a href="#png.117">109</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Raine, Matthew, <a href="#png.118">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rait, R. S, <a href="#png.208">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rashdall, Hastings, <a href="#png.187">179</a>, <a href="#png.207">199</a>,
+ <a href="#png.228">220</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ray, John, <a href="#png.177">169</a>, <a href="#png.223">215</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rayleigh, Lord, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rayleigh Prizes, <a href="#png.274">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Record, Robt, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Redman, Bishop, <a href="#png.065">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Redman, John, <a href="#png.013">5</a>, <a href="#png.017">9</a>,
+ <a href="#png.019">11</a>, <a href="#png.021">13</a>, <a href="#png.028">20</a>,
+ <a href="#png.032">24</a>, <a href="#png.096">88</a>, <a href="#png.100">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Regents, <a href="#png.191">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Religious Students, <a href="#png.035">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Remée, <a href="#png.115">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Reneu, Wm, <a href="#png.267">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Resisting Mediums, <a href="#png.243">235–236</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.332" id="png.332" href="#png.332"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>324<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Respondents, <a href="#png.261">253</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Reynolds, Joshua, <a href="#png.115">107</a>, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rhetoric, Degrees in, <a href="#png.198">190</a>, <a href="#png.199">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Richard III, <a href="#png.118">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Richard, Duke of York, <a href="#png.118">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Richardson, John, <a href="#png.073">65</a>, <a href="#png.074">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Richmond, H. W, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ring, Mrs, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rod, Punishment by, <a href="#png.207">199–208</a>, <a href="#png.218">210–214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Romney, Geo, <a href="#png.123">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rooke, Laurence, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rose, C. L, <a href="#png.084">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rosekin, Andrew, <a href="#png.163">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Roubiliac, L. F, <a href="#png.124">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Routh, E. J, <a href="#png.316">308–310</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rud, Bishop, <a href="#png.065">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rustication, <a href="#png.229">221–224</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rutherford, Wm, <a href="#png.275">267</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Sadleir, Lady, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sadleirian Professorship, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>St Mary’s Ch, Camb, <a href="#png.019">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>St Michael’s Ch, Camb, <a href="#png.020">12</a>, <a href="#png.095">87</a>,
+ <a href="#png.106">98</a>, <a href="#png.109">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Salisbury, Earl of, <a href="#png.063">55</a>, <a href="#png.070">62</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sanderson, Nich, <i>see</i> Saunderson.</p>
+
+<p>Sandwich Cup, The, <a href="#png.130">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Saunderson, Nich, <a href="#png.262">254</a>, <a href="#png.276">268</a>,
+ <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scholars, Election of, <a href="#png.038">30</a>, <a href="#png.039">31</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scholefield, Jas, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scot, Major, <a href="#png.105">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sedgwick, Adam, <a href="#png.089">81</a>, <a href="#png.118">110</a>,
+ <a href="#png.119">111</a>, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Senate-House, <a href="#png.161">153</a>, <a href="#png.268">260</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Senate-House Examination, <a href="#png.260">ch <span class="allsc">XV</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Servant Students, <a href="#png.036">28</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Seymour, Queen Jane, <a href="#png.114">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shaw-Lefevre, J. G, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.148">140</a>,
+ <a href="#png.149">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shepherd, Anth, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shirley, Walsingham, <a href="#png.069">61</a>, <a href="#png.231">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sides, Tutorial, <a href="#png.050">42</a>, <a href="#png.051">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sidgwick, Hen, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.184">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Simeon, Chas, <a href="#png.082">74</a>, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Simpson, Thos, <a href="#png.276">268</a>, <a href="#png.292">284</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sizars, <a href="#png.036">28</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sloane Tankard, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Elismar, <a href="#png.111">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, John, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Robt, <a href="#png.119">111</a>, <a href="#png.180">172</a>,
+ <a href="#png.262">254</a>, <a href="#png.273">265</a>, <a href="#png.275">267</a>,
+ <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Thos, <a href="#png.012">4</a>, <a href="#png.013">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith’s Prizes, <a href="#png.274">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solar System, <a href="#png.233">ch <span class="allsc">XIII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon, Proverbs of, <a href="#png.211">203</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Somerset, Duke of, <a href="#png.120">112</a>, <a href="#png.121">113</a>,
+ <a href="#png.122">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sophia, Princess, <a href="#png.115">107</a>, <a href="#png.116">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p>S.P.C.U. <a href="#png.079">ch <span class="allsc">IV</span></a>, <a href="#png.109">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Special Examinations, <a href="#png.305">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spectrum Analysis, <a href="#png.250">242–243</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spedding, Jas, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spicer, Robt, <a href="#png.137">129</a>, <a href="#png.140">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stangs, <a href="#png.222">214–215</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Statutes, Trinity, 1552, <a href="#png.038">30</a>, <a href="#png.039">31</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="spacer">Statutes, Trinity,</span> 1554, <a href="#png.041">33</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="spacer">Statutes, Trinity,</span> 1560, <a href="#png.041">33</a>,
+ <a href="#png.042">34</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="spacer">Statutes, Trinity,</span> 1844, <a href="#png.043">35</a>,
+ <a href="#png.183">175</a>,</p>
+<p><span class="spacer">Statutes, Trinity,</span> 1861, <a href="#png.043">35</a>,
+ <a href="#png.183">175</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="spacer">Statutes, Trinity,</span> 1882, <a href="#png.043">35</a>,
+ <a href="#png.183">175</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen, Leslie, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stevinus, Simon, <a href="#png.239">231</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Still, Bishop, <a href="#png.065">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stocks, <a href="#png.222">214–215</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stokes, G. G, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stuart, Bernard, <a href="#png.127">119</a>, <a href="#png.132">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stuart, Jas, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stuart, John, <a href="#png.127">119</a>, <a href="#png.132">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Subsizars, <a href="#png.036">28</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sussex, Duke of, <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sylvester, J. J, <a href="#png.319">311</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Tavel, G. F, <a href="#png.295">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Taylor, Brook, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Taylor Tankard, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.333" id="png.333" href="#png.333"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>325<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>Taylor, Tom, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tennyson, Alf, <a href="#png.116">108</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>,
+ <a href="#png.125">117</a>, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tennyson, Chas, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tennyson, Fred, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Terms, loss of, <a href="#png.225">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thackeray, W. M, <a href="#png.178">170</a>, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thirlwall, Connop, <a href="#png.079">71</a>, <a href="#png.080">72</a>,
+ <a href="#png.081">73</a>, <a href="#png.091">83</a>, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson, W. H, <a href="#png.089">81</a>, <a href="#png.117">109</a>,
+ <a href="#png.122">114</a>, <a href="#png.182">174</a>, <a href="#png.183">175</a>,
+ <a href="#png.184">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thomson, J. J, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thomson, Wm, <a href="#png.319">311</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thorp, Thos, <a href="#png.081">73</a>, <a href="#png.089">81</a>,
+ <a href="#png.315">307</a>, <a href="#png.316">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thorwaldsen, Bertel, <a href="#png.125">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tindal, N. C, <a href="#png.084">76</a>, <a href="#png.138">130</a>,
+ <a href="#png.145">137</a>, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tisserand, F. T, <a href="#png.249">241</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Todhunter, Isaac, <a href="#png.310">302</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Treasures, College, <a href="#png.112">ch <span class="allsc">VI</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trench, R. C, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trentine Disputes, <a href="#png.196">188</a>, <a href="#png.197">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trinity Athletic Clubs, <a href="#png.132">124–126</a>, <a href="#png.182">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trinity College, Foundation, <a href="#png.011">ch <span class="allsc">I</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trinity College, History of, <a href="#png.169">ch <span class="allsc">X</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trinity College, Numbers at, <a href="#png.171">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tripos, Mathematical, <a href="#png.260">ch <span class="allsc">XV</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tripos, Origin of Name, <a href="#png.319">311–314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trot, Warin, <a href="#png.168">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tunstall, Cuthbert, <a href="#png.261">253</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Turner, Joseph, <a href="#png.294">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Turton, Thos, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tusser, Thos, <a href="#png.210">202</a>, <a href="#png.218">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tutorial System, <a href="#png.034">ch <span class="allsc">II</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tutors, College, <a href="#png.034">ch <span class="allsc">II</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tutors, Private, <a href="#png.053">45</a>, <a href="#png.315">307–310</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Udall, Nich, <a href="#png.210">202</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Vanderbank, John, <a href="#png.116">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vandyke, A, <a href="#png.127">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p>VanSittart, A. A, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.148">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Van Somer, Paul, <a href="#png.116">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vaughan, C. J, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Verdon, Thos, <a href="#png.223">215</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Verney Cup, The, <a href="#png.130">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vernon Tankard, The, <a href="#png.131">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Victoria, Queen, <a href="#png.077">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vince, Sam, <a href="#png.292">284</a>, <a href="#png.295">287</a>,
+ <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vortices, Cartesian, <a href="#png.235">227</a>, <a href="#png.238">230</a>,
+ <a href="#png.244">236</a>, <a href="#png.245">237</a>, <a href="#png.246">238</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Wakefield, Thos, <a href="#png.025">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walker, Rich, <a href="#png.107">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walling, <a href="#png.226">218</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wallis, John, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walpole, Horace, <a href="#png.115">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walsh, B. D, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walter, Hen, <a href="#png.293">285</a>, <a href="#png.294">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ward, Seth, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Waring, Edw, <a href="#png.271">263</a>, <a href="#png.285">277</a>,
+ <a href="#png.289">281</a>, <a href="#png.294">286</a>, <a href="#png.295">287</a>,
+ <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Watson, Rich, <a href="#png.272">264</a>, <a href="#png.287">279</a>,
+ <a href="#png.315">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Watts, G. F, <a href="#png.116">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Waves, <a href="#png.238">230</a>, <a href="#png.244">236</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wensleydale, Lord, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.146">138</a>,
+ <a href="#png.147">139</a>, <a href="#png.181">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>West, Robt, <a href="#png.101">93</a>.</p><!-- TN: corrected, original reads 31 -->
+
+<p>Westcott, B. F, <a href="#png.109">101</a>, <a href="#png.118">110</a>,
+ <a href="#png.119">111</a>, <a href="#png.184">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Westlake, John, <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Westminster Gowns, <a href="#png.076">68</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Westminster Scholars, <a href="#png.056">ch <span class="allsc">III</span></a>,
+ <a href="#png.256">248</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Westminster School, <a href="#png.056">ch <span class="allsc">III</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whetham, W. C. D, <a href="#png.051">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whewell, Wm, <a href="#png.077">69</a>, <a href="#png.080">72</a>,
+ <a href="#png.081">73</a>, <a href="#png.089">81</a>, <a href="#png.116">108</a>,
+ <a href="#png.118">110</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>, <a href="#png.125">117</a>,
+ <a href="#png.182">174</a>, <a href="#png.183">175</a>, <a href="#png.229">221</a>,
+ <a href="#png.260">252</a>, <a href="#png.295">287</a>, <a href="#png.296">288</a>,
+ <a href="#png.297">289</a>, <a href="#png.299">291</a>, <a href="#png.300">292</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whisson, Stephen, <a href="#png.050">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whiston, Wm, <a href="#png.262">254</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whitgift, John, <a href="#png.044">36</a>, <a href="#png.059">51</a>,
+ <a href="#png.101">93</a>, <a href="#png.102">94</a>, <a href="#png.173">165</a>,
+ <a href="#png.174">166</a>, <a href="#png.218">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whittaker, E. T, <a href="#png.324">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wilkins, John, <a href="#png.048">40</a>, <a href="#png.119">111</a>,
+ <a href="#png.120">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="png.334" id="png.334" href="#png.334"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>326<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>William I, <a href="#png.187">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Williams, Joshua, <a href="#png.146">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Willis and Clark, <a href="#png.151">143</a>, <a href="#png.160">152</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Willis, Robt, <a href="#png.098">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wilson, John, <a href="#png.295">287</a>, <a href="#png.315">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Windows, Chapel, <a href="#png.099">91</a>, <a href="#png.101">93</a>,
+ <a href="#png.110">102</a>, <a href="#png.123">115</a>, <a href="#png.124">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Winthrop, Adam, <a href="#png.136">128</a>, <a href="#png.137">129</a>,
+ <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.139">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wollaston, F. J. H, <a href="#png.293">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood, Jas, <a href="#png.285">277</a>, <a href="#png.292">284</a>,
+ <a href="#png.294">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Woodhouse, Robt, <a href="#png.294">286</a>, <a href="#png.295">287</a>,
+ <a href="#png.298">290</a>, <a href="#png.323">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wordsworth, Chris (1), <a href="#png.079">71</a>, <a href="#png.080">72</a>,
+ <a href="#png.081">73</a>, <a href="#png.082">74</a>, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wordsworth, Chris (2), <a href="#png.260">252</a>, <a href="#png.271">263</a>,
+ <a href="#png.283">275</a>, <a href="#png.287">279</a>, <a href="#png.322">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wordsworth, John, <a href="#png.089">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wranglers, <a href="#png.260">ch <span class="allsc">XV</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wren, Chris, <a href="#png.152">ch <span class="allsc">VIII</span></a>,
+ <a href="#png.236">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wright, Edw, <a href="#png.262">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wright, J. M. F, <a href="#png.108">100</a>, <a href="#png.182">174</a>,
+ <a href="#png.227">219</a>, <a href="#png.301">293</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="index">
+
+<p class="letter"><span class="ns"><br
+ /></span>Yool, G. V, <a href="#png.138">130</a>, <a href="#png.150">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p>York, Richard Duke of, <a href="#png.118">110</a>.</p>
+
+
+</div>
+
+<div id="indexend">
+<div class="printed">
+<small>CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. B. PEACE, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</small>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chap">
+<h2 title="Works by W. W. Rouse Ball"><a name="png.335" id="png.335" href="#png.335"><span class="pagenum"><span
+ class="ns">[</span>327<span class="ns">]<br
+ /></span></span></a>WORKS BY W. W. ROUSE BALL.</h2>
+
+<div class="adverts">
+
+<p class="adverttitle"><big><cite>A History of Trinity College, Cambridge.</cite></big></p>
+
+<p class="advert"><span class="nw">Pp. xiv+183.</span> <span class="nw">Price 3s net.</span> <span class="nw">Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="adverttitle"><big><cite>Trinity College, Cambridge</cite></big> (in the College Monographs
+Series).</p>
+
+<p class="advert"><span class="nw">Pp. xiv+107.</span> <span class="nw">Price 2s net.</span> <span class="nw">J. M. Dent &amp; Co.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="adverttitle"><big><cite>A History of the First Trinity Boat Club.</cite></big></p>
+
+<p class="advert"><span class="nw">Pp. 190.</span> <span class="nw">Price 5s net.</span> <span class="nw">Bowes &amp; Bowes.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="adverttitle"><big><cite>A History of the Study of Mathematics at Cambridge.</cite></big></p>
+
+<p class="advert"><span class="nw">Pp. xvi+264.</span> <span class="nw">Price 6s.</span> <span class="nw">Cambridge University Press.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="adverttitle"><big><cite>An Essay on the Genesis, Contents, and History of
+Newton’s Principia.</cite></big></p>
+
+<p class="advert"><span class="nw">Pp. x+175.</span> <span class="nw">Price 6s net.</span> <span class="nw">Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="adverttitle"><big><cite>A History of Mathematics.</cite></big></p>
+
+<p class="advert"><span class="nw">Sixth Edition.</span> <span class="nw">Pp. xxiv+522.</span> <span class="nw">Price 12s 6d net.</span>
+<span class="nw">Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="adverttitle"><big><cite>A Primer of the History of Mathematics.</cite></big></p>
+
+<p class="advert"><span class="nw">Fourth Edition.</span> <span class="nw">Pp. iv+149.</span> <span class="nw">Price 2s 6d net.</span>
+<span class="nw">Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="adverttitle"><big><cite>Mathematical Recreations and Essays.</cite></big></p>
+
+<p class="advert"><span class="nw">Seventh Edition.</span> <span class="nw">Pp. xvi+492.</span> <span class="nw">Price 10s 6d net.</span>
+<span class="nw">Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<h2 title="">Transcriber’s notes</h2>
+
+<p>Both “primâ facie” and “prima facie” retained in line with the author’s
+inconsistent usage. Hyphenation of commonwealth/common-wealth not
+regularised because the latter form occurs only within a quote from a
+seventeenth-century source. The author's inconsistent use of italics for abbreviating
+shillings and pence retained.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ww" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Cambridge Papers, by Walter William Rouse Ball
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAMBRIDGE PAPERS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 54023-h.htm or 54023-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/0/2/54023/
+
+Produced by Laura Wisewell, David Wilson and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (The
+original copy of this book was generously made available
+for scanning by the Department of Mathematics at the
+University of Glasgow.)
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
+be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
+law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
+so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
+States without permission and without paying copyright
+royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
+of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
+concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
+and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
+specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
+eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
+for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
+performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
+away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
+not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
+trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
+
+START: FULL LICENSE
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
+Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+
+1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
+destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
+possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
+Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
+by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
+person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
+1.E.8.
+
+1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
+paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
+agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
+Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
+of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
+works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
+States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
+United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
+claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
+displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
+all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
+that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
+free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
+works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
+Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
+comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
+same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
+you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
+in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
+check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
+agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
+distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
+other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
+representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
+country outside the United States.
+
+1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
+immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
+prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
+on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
+performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
+
+  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
+  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
+  are located before using this ebook.
+
+1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
+derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
+contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
+copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
+the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
+redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
+either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
+obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
+additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
+will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
+posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
+beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
+any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
+to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
+other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
+version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
+(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
+to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
+of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
+Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
+full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+provided that
+
+* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
+  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
+  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
+  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
+  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
+  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
+  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
+  Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
+  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
+  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
+  works.
+
+* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
+  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
+  receipt of the work.
+
+* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
+are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
+from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
+Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
+Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
+contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
+or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
+intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
+other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
+cannot be read by your equipment.
+
+1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
+with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
+with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
+lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
+or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
+opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
+the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
+without further opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
+OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
+damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
+violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
+agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
+limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
+unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
+remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
+accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
+production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
+including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
+the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
+or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
+additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
+Defect you cause.
+
+Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
+computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
+exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
+from people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
+generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
+Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
+www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
+U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
+mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
+volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
+locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
+Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
+date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
+official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+
+    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+    Chief Executive and Director
+    gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
+DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
+state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
+donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
+freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
+distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
+volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
+the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
+necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
+edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
+facility: www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/old/54023-h/images/epubcover.jpg b/old/54023-h/images/epubcover.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1654883
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-h/images/epubcover.jpg
diff --git a/old/54023-h/images/illo1.jpg b/old/54023-h/images/illo1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c200874
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-h/images/illo1.jpg
diff --git a/old/54023-h/images/illo2.jpg b/old/54023-h/images/illo2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..610eb2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-h/images/illo2.jpg
diff --git a/old/54023-h/images/illo3.jpg b/old/54023-h/images/illo3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5eee4ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-h/images/illo3.jpg
diff --git a/old/54023-h/images/illo4.jpg b/old/54023-h/images/illo4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f6b008e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-h/images/illo4.jpg
diff --git a/old/54023-h/images/macmillan.jpg b/old/54023-h/images/macmillan.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..389dba9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/54023-h/images/macmillan.jpg