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diff --git a/old/54004-0.txt b/old/54004-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6cd51dd..0000000 --- a/old/54004-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15358 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Adulteration and its Detection, by -Jesse P. Battershall - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Food Adulteration and its Detection - With photomicrographic plates and a bibliographical appendix - -Author: Jesse P. Battershall - -Release Date: January 18, 2017 [EBook #54004] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD ADULTERATION--ITS DETECTION *** - - - - -Produced by Cindy Horton, Chris Curnow, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold -text by =equal signs= - - - - - FRONTISPIECE. PLATE I. - -[Illustration: TEA PLANT.] - - - - - FOOD - - ADULTERATION - - AND - - ITS DETECTION. - - _WITH PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC PLATES AND - A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX._ - - BY - - JESSE P. BATTERSHALL, Ph.D., F.C.S., - CHEMIST, U.S. LABORATORY, - NEW YORK CITY. - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK: - E. & F. N. SPON, 35, MURRAY STREET, - AND 125, STRAND, LONDON. - - 1887. - - - - -[_Copyright, 1887._ By JESSE P. BATTERSHALL.] - - - - -PREFACE. - - -To embody in a condensed form some salient features of the present -status of Food Adulteration in the United States is the object of this -volume. The importance of the subject, and the apparent need of a book -of moderate dimensions relating thereto, must suffice as its _raison -d’être_. The standard works have been freely consulted, and valuable -data have been obtained from the recent reports of our State and Civic -Boards of Health. The system of nomenclature accepted by the American -Chemical Society has been generally adopted. It was, however, deemed -advisable to retain such names as glycerine, sodium bicarbonate, etc., -in place of the more modern but less well-known terms, glycerol and -sodium hydrogen carbonate, even at a slight sacrifice of uniformity. - -The photogravure plates, most of which represent the results of recent -microscopical investigation, are considered an important feature of the -book. And it is believed that the bibliographical appendix, and the -collation of American Legislation on Adulteration, will supply a want -for ready reference often experienced. - - U. S. LABORATORY, - _July 1st, 1887_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - Introduction 1 - - Tea 12 - - Coffee 29 - - Cocoa and Chocolate 42 - - Milk 49 - - Butter 63 - - Cheese 83 - - Flour, Bread, and Starch 87 - - Bakers’ Chemicals 101 - - Sugar 104 - - Honey 121 - - Confectionery 129 - - Beer 132 - - Wine 157 - - Liquors 186 - - Water 200 - - Vinegar 225 - - Pickles 232 - - Olive Oil 233 - - Mustard 239 - - Pepper 243 - - Spices 249 - - Miscellaneous 254 - - Bibliography 258 - - Laws 268 - - - Index 320 - - - - -PLATES. - - - PAGE - - I. Tea Plant _frontispiece_ - - II. Tea Leaves 17 - - III. Tea and other Leaves 18 - - IV. Cream and Cow’s Milk 61 - - V. Skimmed and Colostrum Milk 62 - - VI. Butter and Oleomargarine 78 - - VII. Fat Crystals 79 - - VIII. Artificial Digestion of - Butter and Oleomargarine 82 - - IX. Starches 100 - - X. Polariscope 112 - - XI. Organisms in Water 218 - - XII. Spices 252 - - - - -FOOD ADULTERATION. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -Of the various branches cognate to chemical research which excite -public attention, that of food adulteration doubtless possesses -the greatest interest. To the dealer in alimentary substances, the -significance of their sophistication is frequently merely one of profit -or loss, and even this comparatively unimportant consideration does -not always attach. But to the general community, the subject appeals -to interests more vital than a desire to avoid pecuniary damage, and -involving, as it necessarily does, the question of health, it has -engendered a feeling of uneasiness, accompanied by an earnest desire -for trustworthy information and data. The most usual excuses advanced -by dishonest traders, when a case of adulteration has been successfully -brought home to them--guilty knowledge being also established--are, -that they are compelled to resort to the misdeed by the public demand -for cheap commodities, that the addition is harmless, or actually -constitutes an improvement, as is asserted to be the case when -chicory is added to coffee, or that it serves as a preservative, as -was formerly alleged to be the fact when vinegar was fortified with -sulphuric acid. Pretexts of this sort are almost invariably fallacious. -The claim that manufacturers are often forced into adulteration by -the necessities of unfair trade competition possesses more weight--an -honest dealer cannot as a rule successfully compete with a dishonest -one--and has undoubtedly influenced many of the better class to -co-operate in attempts to prevent the practice. The general feeling -of uncertainty which exists in the public mind concerning the -actual extent and importance of food adulteration is probably to be -ascribed to two causes. In the first place, most of the literature -generally accessible relating to the subject has been limited to -sensational newspaper articles, reciting some startling instance -of food-poisoning, often unauthenticated and bearing upon its face -evidences of exaggeration. By reason of such publications, periodical -panics have been created in our large cities which, however, as a -rule quickly subside, and the community relapses into the customary -feeling of doubtful security, until aroused from its apathy by the next -_exposé_. The fact that the only reliable results of food investigation -have, until recently, been confined to purely scientific journals, -and therefore not prominently brought to public notice, is another -explanation of the lack of creditable information which generally -prevails concerning this species of sophistication. - -The adulteration of alimentary substances was practised in the -civilised countries of Europe at a very remote date, and the early -history of the art, mainly collated by Prof. Blyth in his valuable -work on food,[1] is replete with interest. Bread certainly received -due attention at the hands of the ancient sophisticator. Pliny makes -several references to the adulteration of this food. In England, -as early as the reign of King John, the sale of the commodity was -controlled by the “Assize of Bread,” which, although originally -designed to regulate the price and size of the loaf, was subsequently -amplified so as to include penalties for falsification, usually -consisting of corporal punishment and exposure in the pillory. In -France, in 1382, ordinances were promulgated specifying the proper -mode of bread-making, the punishment for infringement being similar in -character to those inflicted in Great Britain. It is related that in -the year 1525, a guilty baker “was condemned by the court to be taken -from the Châtelet prison to the cross before the _Église des Carmes_, -and thence to the gate of _Notre Dame_ and to other public places in -Paris, in his shirt, having his head and feet bare, with small loaves -hung from his neck, and holding a large wax candle, lighted, and in -each of the places enumerated he was to make _amende honorable_, and -ask mercy and pardon of God, the king, and of justice for his fault.” -In Germany, during the fifteenth century, the bread adulterator, -while not subjected to a religious penance, did not escape from a -sufficiently practical rebuke, as it was the frequent custom to put him -in a basket attached to a long pole, and purge him of his misdeeds by -repeated immersions in a pool of water. - -Wine would also appear to have been exposed to fraudulent admixture -in former times. Pliny mentions that in Rome considerable difficulty -was experienced, even by the wealthy, in securing the pure article, -and in Athens a public inspector was early appointed to prevent its -adulteration. In England, during the reign of Edward the Confessor, -punishment for brewing bad beer was publicly enforced, and, in -1529, official “ale tasters” flourished, without whose approval the -beverage was not to be sold. In later years, Addison, referring to the -manipulators of wine of his time, writes: “These subtle philosophers -are daily employed in the transmutation of liquors, and, by the power -of magical drugs and incantations, raise under the streets of London -the choicest products of the hills and valleys of France; they squeeze -Bordeaux out of the sloe and draw champagne from an apple.”[2] In the -fifteenth century, at Biebrich on the Rhine, a wine sophisticator was -forced to drink six quarts of his own stock, and it is recorded with -due gravity that the test resulted fatally. Not very many years since, -a manufacturer of wine at Rheims secured for his champagne, which was -chiefly consumed in Würtemberg, a high reputation, on account of the -unusually exhilarating effects following its use. Suspicion being at -length aroused, Liebig made a chemical examination of the article, -and found that it was at least unique in its gaseous composition, -being charged with one volume of carbonic acid gas and two volumes of -nitrous oxide, or “laughing gas.” These early attempts to control and -punish adulteration, while often possessing interest on account of -their quaintness, are chiefly important, as being the precursors of the -protective legal measures which exist in more modern times. - -In 1802 the _Conseil de Salubrité_ was established in Paris, and this -body has since developed into numerous health boards, to whom the -French are at present mainly indebted for what immunity from food -falsification they enjoy. A very decided advance upon all preceding -methods to regulate the public supply of food was signalised in 1874 -by the organisation in England of the Society of Public Analysts, who -formulated a legal definition of adulteration, and issued the standards -of purity which articles of general consumption should meet. This -society was supported in its valuable services by the enactment, in -1875, of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, which, with the amendment -added in 1879, seems to embrace all necessary safeguards against -the offences sought to be suppressed. The results of their work are -tabulated as follows:-- - - ---------+-----------+--------------+---------------- - Year. | Samples | Samples | Percentage - | Examined. | Adulterated. | of Adulterated. - ---------+-----------+--------------+---------------- - 1875-6 | 15,989 | 2,895 | 18·10 - 1877 | 11,943 | 2,371 | 17·70 - 1878 | 15,107 | 2,505 | 16·58 - 1879 | 17,574 | 3,032 | 17·25 - 1880 | 17,919 | 3,132 | 17·47 - ---------+-----------+--------------+---------------- - -Of the total number of samples tested, the classification of -adulterations is as below:-- - - Per cent. - Milk 50·98 - Butter 5·73 - Groceries 12·90 - Drugs 2·52 - Wine, spirits, and beer 15·18 - Bread and flour 2·68 - Waters (including mineral) 9·18 - Sundries 0·83 - -More recent data concerning the falsification of food in Great Britain -are as follows:-- - - ---------+---------+--------------+------------- - Year. | Samples | Number | Per cent. of - | Tested. | Adulterated. | Adulterated. - ---------+---------+--------------+------------- - 1881 | 17,823 | 2,495 | 14·0 - 1882 | 19,439 | 2,916 | 15·0 - 1883 | 14,900 | 2,453 | 16·4 - ---------+---------+--------------+------------- - -Of the samples of spirits and beer examined, about 25 per cent. were -adulterated. - -The results of the work done at the Paris Municipal Laboratory are the -following:-- - - --------+---------+-------+-----------+------------------------ - | | | | Bad. - | | | +------------+----------- - Year. | Samples | Good. | Passable. | Not | - | Tested. | | | Injurious. | Injurious. - --------+---------+-------+-----------+------------+----------- - 1881 | 6,258 | 1,565 | 1,523 | 2,608 | 562 - 1882 | 10,752 | 2,707 | 2,679 | 3,822 | 1,544 - 1883 | 14,686 | -- | -- | -- | -- - --------+---------+-------+-----------+------------+----------- - -The American characteristic of controlling their own personal affairs, -and the resulting disinclination to resort to anything savouring of -parental governmental interference, has probably had its effect in -retarding early systematic action in the matter of adulteration. -Sporadic attempts to secure legislative restrictions have, it is true, -occasionally been made, but the laws passed were almost invariably of a -specific nature, designed to meet some isolated case, and were destined -to share the fate of most legislation of the kind--the particular -adulteration being for the nonce suppressed, the law became practically -a dead letter. Subsequent effort to obtain more comprehensive laws -inclined to the other extreme, and the enactments secured were so -general in scope, and so deficient in details, that loopholes were -inadvertently allowed to remain, through which the crafty adulterator -often managed to escape. - -The present food legislation in the United States was to some extent -anticipated in 1848 by an Act of Congress to secure the purity of -imported drugs. In this enactment these are directed to be tested -by the standards established by the various official pharmacopœias; -twenty-three are specifically enumerated, the most important being -Peruvian bark and opium. The Act is still in force. All previous -efforts to regulate the quality of our food supply culminated in -1877 in formal action being taken by several of the State Boards of -Health, at whose instance laws against adulteration were formulated, -and chemists commissioned to collect and examine samples of alimentary -substances, and furnish reports on the subject. These may be found in -the publications of the same, notably in the volumes issued by the -New York, Massachusetts, Michigan, and New Jersey Boards. The service -rendered to the public by these investigations is almost incalculable, -and the annual reports containing the results of the same are fraught -with interest. For the first time we are placed in possession of -trustworthy statistics, indicating the extent of food sophistication in -this country. - -The annual report of the New York City Board of Health for the year -1885 furnishes the following statistics:-- - - Milk examined 7,006 samples. - Adulterated milk destroyed 1,701 quarts. - Candy destroyed 72,700 lbs. - Cheese „ 5,700 „ - Packages of tea, ordered out of sale 266 - Canned goods condemned 39,905 „ - Pickles „ „ 4,000 - Coffee „ „ 4,100 „ - Pepper, spices, and baking powder 1,455 „ - Meat and fish 790,410 „ - Fruit 212,000 „ - Total inspections 43,665 - Complaints made 5,786 - Fines collected $2,070 - -Some of the results of the work performed by the New York State Board -of Health during the year 1882 are tabulated below:-- - - ----------------+-----------+--------------+-------------- - | Number of | Number | Per cent. of - Article. | Samples | found to be | Adulterated. - | Tested. | Adulterated. | - ----------------+-----------+--------------+-------------- - Butter | 40 | 21 | 52·50 - Olive oil | 16 | 9 | 56·25 - Baking powder | 84 | 8 | 9·52 - Flour | 117 | 8 | 6·84 - Spices | 180 | 112 | 62·22 - Coffee (ground) | 21 | 19 | 90·48 - Candy (yellow) | 10 | 7 | 70·00 - Brandy | 25 | 16 | 64·00 - Sugar (brown) | 67 | 4 | 5·97 - ----------------+-----------+--------------+-------------- - -In interpreting the significance of the foregoing table, it should be -borne in mind that in the vast majority of cases the adulterations -practised were not of an injurious nature, but consisted of a -fraudulent admixture of some cheaper substance, the object being an -increase of bulk or weight resulting in augmented profit. - -Much of the embarrassment experienced by health authorities in their -efforts to bring persons guilty of food adulteration to punishment is -due to the lack of explicit detail in the law. It is far easier to -substantiate the fact of the adulteration than it is to produce the -offender in court and secure his conviction. Numerous cases are on -record illustrating the peculiar contingencies which at times arise. -Probably with the best intention, a milk vendor labelled his wagon, -“Country skimmed milk, sold as adulterated;” an inspector bought a -sample, not noticing the label, and the magistrate convicted the -vendor, doubtless on the ground that due attention had not been -directed to the advertisement.[3] Chief Justice Cockburn, in referring -to an analogous case, said: “If the seller chooses to sell an article -with a certain admixture, the onus lies on him to prove that the -purchaser knew what he was purchasing.” In most instances, when in -ostensible compliance with the law, a package bears a label purporting -to state the actual nature of its contents, the label is either printed -in such small type, or is placed in so inconspicuous a position, that -the buyer is in ignorance of its existence at the time the purchase is -made. A confectioner in Boston was suspected of selling adulterated -candy, and while it was proved that a sample bought of him contained -a dangerous proportion of a poisonous pigment--chromate of lead--he -escaped conviction, on the plea that candy was not an article of food -within the meaning of the existing law, which, it seems, has since been -amended so as to embrace cases of this kind. - -In a recent action brought by the New York Board of Health to obtain an -injunction against the sale of certain Ping Suey teas, it was held by -the court, in refusing to grant the same, that, although the teas in -question had been clearly shown to be adulterated with gypsum, Prussian -blue, sand, etc., it was likewise necessary to prove that the effect of -these admixtures was such as to constitute a serious danger to public -health. - -As a result of the publicity lately given to the subject of food -adulteration, a popular impression has been produced that any substance -employed as an adulterant of, or a substitute for another, is to be -avoided _per se_. Perhaps the common belief that for all purposes -cotton-seed oil is inferior to olive oil, and oleomargarine to butter, -is the most striking illustration of this tendency. Now, as a matter -of fact, pure cotton-seed oil, as at present found on the market, -is less liable to become rancid than the product of the olive, and, -for many culinary uses, it is at least quite as serviceable. Absolute -cleanliness is a _sine qua non_ in the successful manufacture of -oleomargarine, and, as an economical substitute for the inferior kinds -of butter often exposed for sale, its discovery cannot justly be -regarded a misfortune. The sale of these products, _under their true -name_, should not only be allowed, but under some circumstances even -encouraged. - -The benefits accruing to the community by reason of the service of our -State Boards of Health are so evident and so important, that it is -almost incredible that these bodies have not been put in possession -of all the facilities necessary for their work. It would appear, -however, that, while our legislators have been induced to enact good -laws regulating adulteration, they have often signally failed to fulfil -all the requirements indispensable to the efficient execution of the -same. Without entering into the details of this branch of the subject, -it is proper to observe that owing to the lack of necessary funds, -great pecuniary embarrassment has been experienced in securing the -services of a competent corps of experts, who, in addition to their -inadequate remuneration, must incur the expenses of purchasing samples. -The appointment of public analysts in our larger towns and cities--as -has for some time been the case in Great Britain--is certainly to be -urgently recommended. - -All attempts to awaken public interest in the subject of food -adulteration are of any real service only as they may be conducive to -the adoption of more advanced and improved measures for the suppression -of the practice. - -In general, the adulterations to which food is subjected may be divided -into those positively deleterious to health (such as the colouring of -confectionery by chrome yellow), those which are only fraudulent (such -as the addition of flour to mustard), and those which may be fairly -considered as accidental (such as the presence of a small amount of -sand in tea). It would exceed the limits of this volume to enter into a -comprehensive review of the almost endless varieties of adulteration. -The following list embraces the articles most exposed to falsification, -together with the adulterants commonly employed:-- - - Article. Common Adulterants. - - Baker’s chemicals Starch, alum. - Bread and flour Other meals, alum. - Butter Water, colouring matter, oleomargarine, and - other fats. - Canned foods Metallic poisons. - Cheese Lard, oleomargarine, cotton-seed oil, metallic - salts (in rind). - Cocoa and chocolate Sugar, starch, flour. - Coffee Chicory, peas, rye, corn, colouring matters. - Confectionery Starch-sugar, starch, artificial essences, - poisonous pigments, terra alba, plaster of - Paris. - Honey Glucose-syrup, cane sugar. - Malt liquors Artificial glucose and bitters, sodium - bicarbonate, salt. - Milk Water, and removal of cream. - Mustard Flour, turmeric, cayenne. - Olive oil Cotton-seed and other oils. - Pepper Various ground meals. - Pickles Salts of copper. - Spices Pepper-dust, starch, flour. - Spirits Water, fusil oil, aromatic ethers, burnt - sugar. - Sugar Starch-sugar. - Tea Exhausted tea leaves, foreign leaves, indigo, - Prussian blue, gypsum, soap-stone, sand. - Vinegar Water, sulphuric acid. - Wine Water, spirits, coal tar and vegetable - colours, factitious imitations. - -The above table includes those admixtures which have actually been -detected by chemists of repute within the past few years, and omits -many rather sensational forms of adulteration mentioned in the early -treatises on the subject, the practice of which appears to have been -discontinued. - -In the following pages, some of the more important articles of food -and drink are described with especial reference to their chemical -relations and the ordinary adulterations to which they are exposed. -It should be added, that many of the methods of examination given -are quoted in a condensed form from the more extensive works on -food-analysis. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] ‘Foods: Composition and Analysis,’ pp. 1-18. - -[2] _The Tatler_, 1710. - -[3] ‘Analyst,’ 1880, p. 225. - - - - -TEA. - - -The early history of tea is probably contemporary with that of China, -although, in that country, the first authentic mention of the plant -was as late as A.D. 350; while, in European literature, its earliest -notice occurs in the year 1550. The first important consignment of -tea into England took place in 1657. Chinese tea made its appearance -in the United States in 1711; in 1858, the importation of Japan tea -began. During the season of 1883-1884, the importation of tea into -this country[4] was--from China, 30½ millions of pounds; from Japan, -32½ millions of pounds. Recently, numerous shipments of Indian tea -have been placed upon our markets, the quality of which compares very -favourably with the older and better known varieties. During the past -four years the consumption of tea in this country has materially -decreased; whilst that of coffee has undergone an almost corresponding -increase. The _per capita_ consumption of tea and coffee in the United -States as compared with that of Great Britain is as follows:--United -States, tea, 1·16; coffee, 9·50; Great Britain, tea, 4·62; coffee, -0·89. In the year 1885 our importation of tea approximated 82 millions -of pounds, that of coffee being nearly 455 millions of pounds. - -Genuine tea is the prepared leaf of _Thea sinensis_. The growth of the -tea shrub is usually restricted by artificial means to a height of from -three to five feet. It is ready for picking at the end of the third -year, the average life of the plant being about ten years. The first -picking is made in the middle of April, the second on the 1st of May, -the third in the middle of July, and occasionally a fourth during the -month of August. The first pickings, which obviously consist of the -young and more tender leaves, furnish the finer grades of tea. After -sorting, the natural moisture of the leaves is partially removed by -pressing and rolling; they are next more thoroughly dried by gently -roasting in iron pans for a few minutes. The leaves are then rolled on -bamboo tables and again roasted, occasionally re-rolled and re-fired, -and finally separated into the various kinds, such as twankay, hyson, -young hyson, gunpowder, etc., by passing through sieves. The difference -between green and black tea is mainly due to the fact that the former -is dried shortly after gathering, and then rolled and carefully fired, -whereas black tea is first made up into heaps, which are exposed to the -air for some time before firing and allowed to undergo a species of -fermentation, resulting in the conversion of its original olive-green -into a black colour. The methods employed in the preparation of the tea -are somewhat modified in their details in the different tea districts -of China and Japan. In Japan two varieties of the leaf are used, which -are termed “otoko” (male), and “ona” (female), the former being larger -and coarser than the latter. After picking, the leaves are steamed by -placing them in a wooden tray suspended over boiling water, in which -they are allowed to remain for about half a minute. They are next -thrown upon a tough paper membrane attached to the top of an oven, -which is heated by burning charcoal covered with ashes, where they are -constantly manipulated by the hand until the light-green colour turns -to a dark olive, and the leaves have become spirally twisted. After -this “firing,” the tea is dried at a low temperature for from four -to eight hours; it is next sorted by passing through sieves, and is -then turned over to the “go-downs,” or warehouses of the foreigners, -where the facing process is carried on by placing the tea in large -metallic bowls, heated by means of a furnace, and gradually adding the -various pigments used, the mixture being continually stirred. The tea -is finally again sorted by means of large fans, and is now ready for -packing and shipment. - -The sophistications to which tea is exposed have received the careful -attention of chemists, but not to a greater extent than the importance -of the subject merits; indeed, it is safe to assert that no article -among alimentary substances has been, at least in past years, more -subjected to adulteration. The falsifications which are practised to no -inconsiderable extent may be conveniently divided into three classes. - -1st. Additions made for the purpose of giving increased weight and -bulk, which include foreign leaves and spent tea leaves, and also -certain mineral substances, such as metallic iron, sand, brick-dust, -etc. - -2nd. Substances added in order to produce an artificial appearance of -strength to the tea decoction, catechu and other bodies rich in tannin -being mainly resorted to for this purpose. - -3rd. The imparting of a bright and shining appearance to an inferior -tea by means of various colouring mixtures or “facings,” which -operation, while sometimes practised upon black tea, is far more -common with the green variety. This adulteration involves the use -of soap-stone, gypsum, China clay, Prussian blue, indigo, turmeric, -and graphite. The author lately received from Japan several samples -of the preparations employed for facing the tea in that country, -the composition of which was shown by analysis to be essentially as -follows:-- - -1. Magnesium silicate (soap-stone). - -2. Calcium sulphate (gypsum). - -3. Turmeric. - -4. Indigo. - -5. Ferric ferrocyanide (Prussian blue). - -6. Soap-stone, 47·5 per cent.; gypsum, 47·5 per cent.; Prussian blue, 5 -per cent. - -7. Soap-stone, 45 per cent.; gypsum, 45 per cent.; Prussian blue, 10 -per cent. - -8. Soap-stone, 75 per cent.; indigo, 25 per cent. - -9. Soap-stone, 60 per cent.; indigo, 40 per cent. - -The “facing” or “blooming” of tea is often accomplished by simply -placing it in an iron pan, heated by a fire, and rapidly incorporating -with it one of the preceding mixtures (Nos. 6, 7, 8, or 9), in the -proportion of about half a dram to seven or eight pounds of the tea, a -brisk stirring being maintained until the desired shade of colour is -produced. - -Some of the above forms of sophistication usually go together;--thus -exhausted tea is restored by facing. The collection of the spent leaves -takes place in China. Much of the facing was, until about three years -since, done in New York city, and constituted a regular branch of -business, which included among its operations such metamorphoses as the -conversion of a green tea into a black, and _vice versâ_. - -According to James Bell,[5] the composition of genuine tea is as -follows:-- - - ----------------------------+-----------+------------- - | Congou. | Young Hyson. - ----------------------------+-----------+------------- - | per cent. | per cent. - Moisture | 8·20 | 5·96 - Theine | 3·24 | 2·33 - Albumin, insoluble | 17·20 | 16·83 - „ soluble | 0·70 | 0·80 - Extractive, by alcohol | 6·79 | 7·05 - Dextrine, or gum | .. | 0·50 - Pectin and pectic acid | 2·60 | 3·22 - Tannin | 16·40 | 27·14 - Chlorophyll and resin | 4·60 | 4·20 - Cellulose | 34·00 | 25·90 - Ash | 6·27 | 6·07 - +-----------+------------- - | 100·00 | 100·00 - ----------------------------+-----------+------------- - -The ash of samples of uncoloured and unfaced tea, and of spent tea -analysed by the author, had the following composition:-- - - -----------------------+------------+-----------+----------- - | Oolong | | - |(average of | Japan. |Spent Black - |50 samples).| | Tea. - -----------------------+------------+-----------+----------- - | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. - Total ash | 6·04 | 5·58 | 2·52 - Soluble in water | 3·44 | 3·60 | 0·28 - Per cent. soluble | 57·00 | 64·55 | 11·11 - -----------------------+------------+-----------+----------- - - _Composition._ - - Silica | 11·30 | 9·30 | 27·75 - Chlorine | 1·53 | 1·60 | 0·79 - Potassa | 37·46 | 41·63 | - Soda | 1·40 | 1·12 | - Ferric oxide | 1·80 | 1·12 } | 16·00 - Alumina | 5·13 | 4·26 } | - Manganic oxide | 2·10 | 1·30 | - Lime | 9·43 | 8·18 | 19·66 - Magnesia | 8·00 | 5·33 | 11·20 - Phosphoric acid | 12·27 | 16·62 | 15·80 - Sulphuric acid | 4·18 | 3·64 | 1·10 - Carbonic acid | 5·40 | 5·90 | 6·70 - +-----------+-----------+---------- - | 100·00 | 100·00 | 99·00 - -----------------------+-----------+-----------+---------- - -“Tea dust” affords a high proportion of ash, sometimes amounting to 20 -per cent., the composition of which is usually strikingly different -from that of the ash of ordinary tea. It is deficient in potassa and -phosphoric acid, and the amount of ash insoluble in water and acids -is very excessive, as is shown by the following analysis, made by the -author:-- - - _Ash of Tea Dust._ - - Per cent. - Insoluble in acids 60·30 - Alumina and ferric oxide 6·60 - Lime 5·10 - Magnesia 7·89 - Potassa 11·00 - Soda 2·51 - Sulphuric acid 1·23 - Chlorine 0·63 - Phosphoric acid 4·73 - ----- - 99·99 - Ash insoluble in water 80·00 - - PLATE II. - -[Illustration: TEA LEAVES.] - -The portion of ash insoluble in acids consisted of silica, clay, and -soapstone, indicating that the ash of tea dust is largely composed of -the mineral substances employed for “facing” purposes. - -The characteristics of the ash of unspent tea are the presence of -manganic oxide, the large proportion of potassium salts present, and -the solubility of the ash in water. The amount of ash in genuine -tea ranges from five to six per cent. In the absence of exhausted -leaves, it has been found that the finer sorts of tea afford a smaller -proportion of ash than the inferior grades. It will be noticed that -spent tea ash exhibits a marked increase in the proportion of insoluble -compounds (silica, alumina, and ferric oxide), as well as a total -absence of potassium salts. - -The presence of foreign leaves, and, in some instances, of mineral -adulterants in tea is best detected by means of a microscopical -examination of the suspected sample. The genuine tea-leaf is -characterised by its peculiar serrations and venations. Its border -exhibits serrations which stop a little short of the stalk, while the -venations extend from the central rib, nearly parallel to one another, -but turn just before reaching the border of the leaf. - -Plate I. (Frontispiece) is a photogravure of a twig of the tea plant, -in possession of the author. The leaves are of natural size, but the -majority are of a greater maturity than those used in the preparation -of tea, which more resemble in size the few upper leaves. - -Plate II. shows more distinctly the serrations and venations of the -tea-leaf. The Chinese are said to occasionally employ ash, camelia, -and dog-rose leaves for admixture with tea, and the product is stated -to have formerly been subjected in England to the addition of sloe, -willow, beech, hawthorn, oak, etc. For scenting purposes, chulan -flowers, rose, jasmine, and orange leaves, have been employed. The -writer has lately received from Japan specimens of willow, wisteria, -_te-mo-ki_, and other leaves which at one time were used in that -country as admixtures. - -Plate III. exhibits some of these leaves, two genuine Japan tea-leaves -being included for purpose of comparison. The leaves represented in -this plate are: 1, beech; 2, hawthorn; 3, rose; 4, Japan tea; 5, -willow; 6, _te-mo-ki_; 7, elm; 8, wisteria; 9, poplar. From very recent -reports of the American consuls in Japan and China, it would appear -that the addition of foreign leaves to tea is at present but seldom -resorted to, and this accords with the author’s experience in the -testing of the teas imported into this country. - -In 1884, the Japanese Government made it a criminal offence to -adulterate tea, and instituted “tea guilds,” which are governed by -very stringent laws, and of which most dealers of repute are members. -The facing of tea does not appear, however, to have been considered an -adulteration, its continued practice being justified by the plea that -otherwise Japan teas would not suit the taste of American consumers. - - PLATE III. - -[Illustration: TEA AND OTHER LEAVES.] - -In the microscopic examination of tea, the sample should be moistened -with hot water and spread out on a glass plate, and then submitted to -a careful inspection, especial attention being directed to the general -outline of the leaf and its serrations and venations. The presence -of exhausted tea-leaves may often be detected by their soft texture -and generally disintegrated appearance. If a considerable quantity -of the tea be placed in a long glass cylinder and agitated with cold -water, the colouring and other abnormal substances frequently become -detached, and either rise to the surface of the liquid as a sort of -scum, or fall to the bottom as a sediment. In this way Prussian blue, -indigo, soapstone, gypsum, sand, and turmeric can often be separated, -and subsequently recognised by their characteristic appearance under -the microscope. The separated substances should also be subjected -to a chemical examination. Prussian blue is detected by heating -with a solution of sodium hydroxide, filtering, acidulating the -filtrate with acetic acid, and then adding ferric chloride, when, -in its presence, a blue colour will be produced. Indigo is best -recognised by the microscopic examination. It is not decolorised by -caustic alkali, but it dissolves in sulphuric acid to a blue liquid. -Soapstone, gypsum, sand, and metallic iron, are identified by means of -the usual chemical reactions. A compound very aptly termed “Lie-tea,” -is sometimes met with. It forms little pellets, consisting of tea-dust -mixed with foreign leaves, sand, etc., and held together by means of -gum or starch. This falls to powder if treated with boiling water. -In the presence of catechu, the tea infusion usually assumes a muddy -appearance upon standing. In case iron salts have been employed to -deepen the colour of the infusion, they can be detected by treating the -ground tea-leaves with acetic acid, and testing the filtered solution -with potassium ferrocyanide. Tea should not turn black upon immersion -in hydrosulphuric acid water, nor should it impart a blue colour to -ammonia water. The infusion should be amber-coloured, and not become -reddened by the addition of an acid. - -The United States Tea Adulteration Act was passed by Congress in 1883. -The enactment of this law was largely due to the exertions of prominent -tea merchants, whose business interests were seriously affected by -the sale (principally in trade auctions) of the debased or spurious -article. It is stated in the official report of the United States Tea -Examiner at New York City, that from March 1883 to December of the same -year, 856,281 packages (about four millions of pounds) of tea were -inspected, of which 7000 packages (325,000 pounds) were rejected as -unfit for consumption. Since the enforcement in New York City of the -Tea Adulteration Act, nearly 2000 samples of tea have been chemically -tested under the direction of the author. The proportion grossly -adulterated has been a little over nine per cent. But this does not -apply to the total amount imported, since only those samples which were -somewhat suspicious in appearance were submitted for analysis. As the -result of the past two years’ experience in the chemical examination of -tea, the prevailing adulterations were found to be of two kinds--the -admixture of spent tea-leaves, and the application to the tea of a -facing preparation. A natural green tea possesses a dull hue, and is -but seldom met with in the trade; some Moyunes and uncoloured Japans -(which latter, properly speaking, is not a green tea) being almost -the only varieties not exhibiting the bright metallic lustre due to -the facing process. The addition of foreign leaves was detected only -in a few instances; the presence of sand and gravel occurred far more -frequently. Apropos of the practical utility of Governmental sanitary -legislation, it can be stated that, since the enforcement of the -Adulteration Act, the tea imported into the city of New York has very -perceptibly improved in quality. - -Attempts in tea culture are being made in the United States of -Columbia, S.A. A specimen of the prepared plant received by the writer, -differed greatly in appearance from the Chinese and Japanese products. -The leaves, which had not been rolled but were quite flat, possessed -a light pea-green colour and a fine but rather faint aroma. An -examination indicated that the tea, although very delicate in quality, -was seriously deficient in body. - -The analysis showed:-- - - Per cent. - Moisture 6·70 - Total ash 4·82 - Ash soluble in water 1·62 - Ash insoluble in water 3·20 - Ash insoluble in acid 0·16 - Extract 27·40 - Tannic acid 4·31 - Theine 0·66 - Insoluble leaf 65·90 - -The following Tea Assay, while not including the determinations of all -the proximate constituents of the plant, will, it is believed, in most -instances suffice to indicate to the analyst the presence of spent -leaves, mineral colouring matters, and other inorganic adulterations. - -_Theine_ (_Caffeine_), C_{8}H_{10}N_{4}O_{2}.--Contrary to the once -general belief, there does not always exist a direct relation between -the quality of tea (at least so far as this is indicated by its -market price) and the proportion of theine contained, although the -physiological value of the plant is doubtless due to the presence of -this alkaloid. - -The commercial tea-taster is almost entirely guided in his judgment in -regard to the value of a sample of tea by the age of the leaf, and by -the flavour or bouquet produced upon “drawing,” and this latter quality -is to be mainly ascribed to the volatile oil. - -The following process will serve for the estimation of theine:--A -weighed quantity of the tea is boiled with distilled water until -the filtered infusion ceases to exhibit any colour. The filtrate is -evaporated on a water bath to the consistence of a syrup; it is next -mixed with calcined magnesia to alkaline reaction, and carefully -evaporated to dryness. - -The residue obtained is then finely powdered, digested for a day or -so with ether (or chloroform) and filtered, the remaining undissolved -matter being again digested with a fresh quantity of ether, so long as -any further solution of theine takes place. The ether is now removed -from the united filtrates by distillation, whereupon the theine will be -obtained in a fairly pure condition. - -Theine contains a very large proportion of nitrogen (almost 29 per -cent.), and Wanklyn[6] has suggested the application of his ammonia -process (see p. 205) to the analysis of tea. Genuine tea is stated to -yield from 0·7 to 0·8 per cent. of total ammonia, when tested in this -manner. - -_Volatile Oil._--Ten grammes of the tea are distilled with water; the -distillate is filtered, saturated with calcium chloride, then well -agitated with ether, and allowed to remain at rest for some time. -The ethereal solution is subsequently drawn off, and spontaneously -evaporated in a weighed capsule. The increase in weight gives -approximately the amount of oil present. A sample of good black tea -yielded by this method 0·87 per cent. of volatile oil. - -_Tannin._--Two grammes of the well-averaged sample are boiled with -100 c.c. of water, for about an hour, and the infusion filtered, the -undissolved matter remaining upon the filter being thoroughly washed -with hot water, and the washings added to the solution first obtained. -If necessary, the liquid is next reduced to a volume of 100 c.c. by -evaporation over a water-bath. It is then heated to boiling, and 25 -c.c. of a solution of cupric acetate added. The copper solution is -prepared by dissolving five grammes of the salt in 100 c.c. of water, -and filtering. The precipitate formed is separated by filtration, -well washed, dried, and ignited in a porcelain crucible. A little -nitric acid is then added and the ignition repeated. One gramme of the -cupric oxide thus obtained represents 1·305 grammes of tannin. For -the estimation of spent leaves (especially in black tea), Mr. Allen -suggests the following formula, in which E represents the percentage of -spent tea, and T the percentage of tannin found:-- - - E = ((10 - T)100) / 8. - -_The Ash._--_a. Total Ash._--Five grammes of the sample are placed -in a platinum dish and ignited over a Bunsen burner until complete -incineration is accomplished. The vessel is allowed to cool in a -desiccator, and is then quickly weighed. In genuine tea the total ash -should not be much below 5 per cent., nor much above 6 per cent., and -it should not be magnetic. In faced teas the proportion of total ash is -sometimes 10 per cent.; in “lie-tea” it may reach 30 per cent.; while -in spent tea it frequently falls below 3 per cent., the ash in this -case being abnormally rich in lime salts, and poor in potassium salts. - -_b. Ash insoluble in water._--The total ash obtained in _a_ is washed -into a beaker, and boiled with water for a considerable time. It is -then brought upon a filter, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. In -unadulterated tea it rarely exceeds 3 per cent. of the sample taken. - -_c. Ash soluble in water._--This proportion is obtained by deducting -the ash insoluble in water from the total ash. Genuine tea contains -from 3 per cent. to 3·5 per cent. of soluble ash, or at least 50 per -cent. of the total ash, whereas in exhausted tea the amount is often -but 0·5 per cent. The following formula has been proposed for the -calculation of the percentage of spent tea E, where S is the percentage -of soluble ash obtained:-- - - E = (6 - 2S)20. - -A sample prepared by averaging several good grades of black tea, was -mixed with an equal quantity of exhausted tea-leaves. The proportion -of soluble ash in the mixture was found to be 1·8 per cent. According -to the above formula, the spent tea present would be 48 per cent., or -within 2 per cent. of the actual amount. - -_d. Ash insoluble in acid._--The ash insoluble in water is boiled with -dilute hydrochloric acid, and the residue separated by filtration, -washed, ignited, and weighed. In pure tea, the remaining ash ranges -between 0·3 and 0·8 per cent.; in faced tea, or in tea adulterated by -the addition of sand, etc., it may reach the proportion of 2 to 5 per -cent. Fragments of silica and brickdust are occasionally found in the -ash insoluble in acid. - -_The Extract._--Two grammes of the _carefully sampled_ tea are -boiled with water until all soluble matter is dissolved, more water -being added from time to time to prevent the solution becoming too -concentrated. The operation may also be conducted in a flask connected -with an ascending Liebig’s condenser. In either case, the infusion -obtained is poured upon a tared filter, and the remaining insoluble -leaf repeatedly washed with hot water so long as the filtered liquor -shows a colour. The filtrate is now diluted to a volume of 200 c.c., -and of this 50 c.c. are taken and evaporated in a weighed dish until -the weight of the extract remains constant. Genuine tea affords from 32 -to 50 per cent. of extract, according to its age and quality; in spent -tea the proportion of extract will naturally be greatly reduced. Mr. -Allen employs the formula below for determining the percentage of spent -tea E in a sample, R representing the percentage of extract found. - - E = ((32 - R)100) / 30. - -In order to test the practical value of this equation, a sample of -black tea was mixed with 50 per cent. of spent tea-leaves, and a -determination made of the extract afforded. The calculated proportion -of spent tea was 44 per cent., instead of 50 per cent. It should be -added, however, that the tea taken subsequently proved to be of a very -superior quality, yielding an extract of 40 per cent. - -_Gum (Dextrine)._--The proportion of gum contained in genuine tea is -usually inconsiderable. Its separation is effected by treating the -concentrated extract with alcohol, allowing the mixture to stand at -rest for a few hours, and collecting the precipitated gum upon a tared -filter, and carefully drying and weighing it. As a certain amount of -mineral matter is generally present in the precipitate, this should -afterwards be incinerated and a deduction made for the ash thus -obtained. A more satisfactory method is to treat the separated dextrine -with very dilute sulphuric acid, and estimate the amount of glucose -formed by means of Fehling’s solution (see p. 37); 100 parts of glucose -are equivalent to 90 parts of dextrine. - -_Insoluble Leaf._--The insoluble leaf as obtained in the determination -of the extract, together with the weighed filter, is placed in an -air-bath, and dried for at least eight hours at a temperature of -100°,[7] and then weighed. In genuine tea the amount of insoluble -leaf ranges from 47 to 54 per cent.; in exhausted tea it may reach a -proportion of 75 per cent. or more. It should be noted that in the -foregoing estimations the tea is taken in its ordinary air-dried -condition. If it be desired to reduce the results obtained to a dry -basis, an allowance for the moisture present in the sample (an average -of 6 to 8 per cent.), or a direct determination of the same must be -made. - -The following tabulation gives the constituents of genuine tea, so far -as the ash, extract, and insoluble leaf are involved:-- - -_Total ash_ ranges between 4·7 and 6·2 per cent. - -_Ash soluble in water_ ranges between 3 and 3·5 per cent.; should equal -50 per cent. of total ash. - -_Ash insoluble in water_, not over 3 per cent. - -_Ash insoluble in acid_ ranges between 0·3 and 0·8 per cent. - -_Extract_[8] ranges between 32 and 50 per cent. - -_Insoluble leaf_ ranges between 43 and 58 per cent. - -The table below may prove useful as indicating the requirements to be -exacted when the chemist is asked to give an opinion concerning the -presence of facing admixtures, or of exhausted or foreign leaves in a -sample of tea. - -_Total ash_ should not be under 4·5 per cent. or above 7 per cent. - -_Ash soluble in water_ should not be under 40 per cent. of total ash. - -_Ash insoluble in water_ should not be over 3·25 per cent. - -_Ash insoluble in acid_ should not be over 1 per cent. - -_Extract_ (excepting in poor varieties of Congou tea) should not be -under 30 per cent. - -_Insoluble Leaf_ should not be over 60 per cent. - -The British Society of Public Analysts adopt:-- - -_Total ash_ (dry basis), not over 8 per cent. (at least 3 per cent. -should be soluble in water). - -_Extract_ (tea as sold), not under 30 per cent. - -Below are the proportions of total ash, ash soluble in water, and -extract found in 850 samples of tea (mostly inferior and faced), -examined under the direction of the author in the U.S. Laboratory:-- - - TOTAL ASH. - - ---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------- - Range |5 to 5½ |5½ to 6 |6 to 6½ |6½ to 7 |7 to 8 |8 p.c. - | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. |and over - Number | 21 | 76 | 102 | 194 | 421 | 36 - Per cent.| 2·47 | 8·94 | 12·00 | 21·64 | 49·53 | 4·23 - ---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------- - - ASH SOLUBLE IN WATER. - - ---------+---------+----------+--------------+--------------- - Range | Under 2 |2 to 3 per|3 to 3½ per |3½ per cent. - |per cent.| cent. | cent. | and over. - Number | 25 | 649 | 157 | 19 - Per cent.| 2·94 | 76·35 | 18·70 | 2·23 - ---------+---------+----------+--------------+--------------- - - EXTRACT. - - ---------+---------+------------+------------+------------- - Range |20 to 25 |25 to 30 per|30 to 35 per|35 to 40 per - |per cent.| cent. | cent. | cent. - Number | 21 | 151 | 499 | 179 - Per cent.| 2·47 | 17·76 | 58·70 | 21·05 - ---------+---------+------------+------------+------------- - -The following tabulation exhibits the results obtained by the -examination of various grades of Formosa, Congou, Young Hyson, -Gunpowder, and Japan tea, made, under the supervision of the writer, by -Dr. J. F. Davis. - -It will be noticed, if the same varieties of tea be compared, that, -with some exceptions, their commercial value is directly proportional -to the percentages of soluble ash, extract, tannin, and theine -contained. - - --------------+------------------------------------------------------ - |Formosa Oolong, Choice, 1st Crop. - | +------------------------------------------------ - | | Formosa Oolong, Superior, 1st Crop. - | | +------------------------------------------ - | | |Formosa Oolong, Choice, 3rd Crop. - | | | +------------------------------------ - Variety. | | | |Formosa Oolong, Superior, 3rd Crop. - | | | | +------------------------------ - | | | | |Congou, Choicest. - | | | | | +--------------------- - | | | | | |Congou, Medium. - | | | | | | +--------------- - | | | | | | |Congou, Common. - --------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------+-----+--------------- - | c. | c. | c. | c. | c. | c. | c. - Price per lb. | 70 | 28 | 55 | 24 |65 to 70| 24 | 14 - (wholesale).| | | | | | | - |p.c. |p.c. |p.c. |p.c. | p.c. |p.c. |p.c. - Total ash | 6·50| 5·96| 5·80| 6·34| 6·22 | 6·36| 6·58 - Ash soluble in| 3·60| 2·86| 3·12| 3·60| 3·56 | 3·00| 2·88 - water. | | | | | | | - Ash insoluble | 2·90| 3·10| 2·68| 2·74| 2·66 | 3·36| 3·70 - in water. | | | | | | | - Ash insoluble | 0·86| 0·94| 0·56| 0·66| 0·56 | 0·66| 1·06 - in acids. | | | | | | | - Extract |42·00|37·40|43·20|40·60| 34·60 |29·60|26·20 - Insoluble leaf|54·90|59·55|52·70|56·55| 60·75 |64·80|68·75 - Tannin |18·66|16·31|18·00|16·05| 14·87 |13·70|12·26 - Theine | 3·46| 2·20| 2·26| 1·39| 3·29 | 2·23| 2·35 - --------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------+-----+----- - - --------------+------------------------------------------------------- - |First Young Hyson, Regular Moyune. - | +---------------------------------------------- - | |First Young Hyson, Plain Draw. - | | +---------------------------------------- - | | |Second Young Hyson, Moyune. - Variety. | | | +------------------------------- - | | | |Third Young Hyson, Plain Draw. - | | | | +------------------------ - | | | | |Choice Gunpowder. - | | | | | +---------------- - | | | | | |Third Gunpowder. - --------------+--------+-----+--------+------+-------+---------------- - | c. | c. | c. | c. | c. | c. - Price per lb. |28 to 30| 25 |17 to 18| 14 | 35 | 23 - (wholesale).| | | | | | - | p.c. | p.c.| p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - Total ash | 6·26 | 5·86| 5·84 | 6·20 | 5·76 | 5·50 - Ash soluble in| 3·60 | 3·28| 3·36 | 3·34 | 3·26 | 3·14 - water. | | | | | | - Ash insoluble | 2·66 | 2·58| 2·48 | 2·86 | 2·50 | 2·36 - in water. | | | | | | - Ash insoluble | 0·64 | 0·58| 0·50 | 0·52 | 0·54 | 0·52 - in acids. | | | | | | - Extract | 40·60 |41·00| 39·80 |30·40 | 39·60 |36·00 - Insoluble leaf| 55·50 |57·70| 57·15 |61·95 | 56·70 |57·90 - Tannin | 18·00 |19·96| 18·53 |16·99 | 20·09 |17·87 - Theine | 2·26 | 2·30| 1·16 | 1·08 | 1·78 | 1·42 - --------------+--------+-----+--------+------+-------+------ - - --------------+----------------------------------------------- - |Uncoloured Japan, Choicest, First Picking. - | +---------------------------------------- - | |Coloured Japan, Good Medium, - | | First Picking. - | | +--------------------------------- - Variety. | | |Coloured Japan, Good Medium, - | | | Third Picking - | | | +-------------------------- - | | | | Japan Dust - | | | +-------------------------- - | | | |Coloured, Fine. - | | | | +------------------- - | | | | |Uncoloured, Common. - --------------+------+------+------+------+------------------- - | c. | c. | c. | c. | c. - Price per lb. | 30 | 22 | 19 | 9 | 6 - (wholesale).| | | | | - | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - Total ash | 5·44 | 6·06 | 6·50 | 9·74 | 6·66 - Ash soluble in| 3·46 | 2·84 | 2·90 | 1·48 | 2·78 - water. | | | | | - Ash insoluble | 1·98 | 3·22 | 3·60 | 8·26 | 3·88 - in water. | | | | | - Ash insoluble | 0·46 | 0·78 | 0·96 | 3·90 | 1·46 - in acids. | | | | | - Extract |39·20 |36·40 |33·40 |31·80 |32·80 - Insoluble leaf|56·85 |57·10 |59·90 |61·45 |60·05 - Tannin |21·92 |18·27 |17·35 |15·66 |17·74 - Theine | 1·54 | 1·66 | 0·74 | 0·82 | 2·43 - --------------+------+------+------+------+----- - -The following analyses of several kinds of spurious tea, received from -the U.S. Consuls at Canton and Nagasaki (Japan), have been made by the -author:-- - - -----------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- - | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. - -----------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- - | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. - Total ash | 8·62 | 8·90 | 7·95 | 12·58 - Ash insoluble in water | 7·98 | 6·04 | 4·95 | 8·74 - Ash soluble in water | 0·64 | 1·86 | 3·00 | 3·84 - Ash insoluble in acid | 3·92 | 3·18 | 1·88 | 6·60 - Extract | 7·73 | 14·00 | 12·76 | 22·10 - Gum | 10·67 | 7·30 | 11·00 | 11·40 - Insoluble leaf | 70·60 | 70·55 | 67·00 | 60·10 - Tannin | 3·13 | 8·01 | 14·50 | 15·64 - Theine | 0·58 | nil | 0·16 | 0·12 - -----------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- - -1. Partially exhausted and refired tea-leaves, known as “_Ching Suey_” -(clear water), which name doubtless has reference to the weakness of a -beverage prepared from this article. - -2. “Lie tea,” made from Wampan leaves. - -3. A mixture of 10 per cent. green tea and 90 per cent. “lie tea.” It -is sometimes sold as “Imperial” or “Gunpowder” tea, and is stated to be -extensively consumed in France and Spain. - -4. “Scented caper tea,” consisting of tea-dust made up into little -shot-like pellets by means of “Congou paste” (_i. e._ boiled rice), and -said to be chiefly used in the English coal-mining districts. - -The following are the results of the analysis by American chemists of -samples representing 2414 packages of Indian tea. - - Per cent. Average per cent. - Moisture 5·830 to 6·325 5·938 - Extract 37·800 „ 40·350 38·841 - Total ash 5·050 „ 6·024 5·613 - Ash soluble in water 3·122 „ 4·280 3·516 - Ash insoluble in water 1·890 „ 2·255 2·092 - Ash insoluble in acid 0·120 „ 0·296 0·177 - Insoluble leaf 47·120 „ 55·870 51·910 - Tannin 13·040 „ 18·868 15·323 - Theine 1·880 „ 3·24 2·736 - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] I.e. the United States. - -[5] ‘Chemistry of Foods.’ - -[6] ‘Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Analysis.’ - -[7] The degrees of temperature given in the text refer to the -Centigrade thermometer; their equivalents on the Fahrenheit scale can -be obtained by means of the formula 9/5C.° + 32 = F.°. - -[8] In low grade, but unadulterated Congou tea, the extract -occasionally falls so low as 25 per cent. - - - - -COFFEE. - - -Coffee is the seed of the _Caffea Arabica_, indigenous to Abyssinia -and southern Arabia, and since naturalised in the West Indies, Ceylon, -Brazil, and other tropical countries. Its importance as an almost -universal beverage is only equalled by that of tea. The ancient history -of coffee is shrouded in great obscurity. It was unknown to the Romans -and Greeks, but its use is said to have been prevalent in Abyssinia -from the remotest time, and in Arabia it formed an article of general -consumption during the fifteenth century. From its introduction, in -1575, into Constantinople by the Turks, it gradually made its way into -all civilised countries. In 1690 it was carried by the Dutch from Mocha -to Java, whence specimens of the tree were taken to Holland and France. -Coffee houses were opened in London about the middle of the seventeenth -century, and in 1809 the first cargo of coffee was shipped to the -United States. As with many other articles of diet, the adulteration of -coffee has kept well apace with its increased consumption. The bean is -deprived of its external fleshy coatings before exportation, and is met -with in commerce in a raw, roasted, or ground condition. Bell[9] gives -the following analyses of two samples of coffee, both in the raw and -roasted state:-- - - ---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------- - | Mocha. | East Indian. - +----------+----------+----------+--------- - | Raw. | Roasted. | Raw. | Roasted. - ---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+--------- - |per cent. |per cent. |per cent. |per cent. - Caffeine | 1·08 | 0·82 | 1·11 | 1·05 - Saccharine matter | 9·55 | 0·43 | 8·90 | 0·41 - Caffeic acids | 8·46 | 4·74 | 9·58 | 4·52 - Alcohol extract (containing| 6·90 | 14·14 | 4·31 | 12·67 - nitrogen and colouring | | | | - matter). | | | | - Fat and oil | 12·60 | 13·59 | 11·81 | 13·41 - Legumin or Albumin | 9·87 | 11·23 | 11·23 | 13·13 - Dextrine | 0·87 | 1·24 | 0·84 | 1·38 - Cellulose (and insoluble | 37·95 | 48·62 | 38·60 | 47·42 - colouring matter). | | | | - Ash | 3·74 | 4·56 | 3·98 | 4·88 - Moisture | 8·98 | 0·63 | 9·64 | 1·13 - +----------+----------+----------+--------- - |100·00 |100·00 | 100·00 |100·00 - ---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+--------- - -Other authorities have obtained the following results:-- - - ---------------------------+-------------------+---------+------------- - | König. | | Smethan. - +---------+---------+ Payen. |(Average of - | Raw. | Roasted.| Raw. |7 Varieties.) - | | | | Roasted. - ---------------------------+---------+---------+---------+------------- - |per cent.|per cent.|per cent.| per cent. - Substances soluble in water| 27·44 | 27·45 | .. | .. - Nitrogen | 1·87 | 2·31 | .. | 2·26 - Nitrogenous substances | 11·43 | 12·05 |11 to 13 | .. - Caffeine | 1·18 | 1·38 | 0·8 | .. - Caffetannic acid | .. | .. |3·5 to 5 | .. - Fat | 13·23 | 15·03 |10 to 13 | 10·99 - Ethereal oil | .. | .. | 0·013 | .. - Sugar | 3·25 | 1·32 | .. | .. - Sugar and Dextrine | .. | .. | 15·5 | .. - Other non-nitrogenous | 31·52 | 38·41 | .. | .. - substances. | | | | - Cellulose | 27·72 | 24·27 | 34·0 | 29·28 - Ash | 3·48 | 3·75 | 6·7 | 4·19 - Soluble ash | .. | .. | .. | 3·37 - Moisture | 11·19 | 3·19 | 12·0 | 2·87 - ---------------------------+---------+---------+---------+------------- - -It will be noticed from these analyses that the amount of sugar is -greatly diminished by the process of roasting. According to some -analysts, the proportion of fat experiences an increase, but it is more -probable that this constituent is simply rendered more susceptible to -the action of solvents by a mechanical alteration of the structure of -the berry. Recent determinations of the ash in coffee place its average -proportion at 4 per cent.; 3·24 being soluble in water, and 0·74 per -cent. insoluble. The soluble extract in roasted coffee usually amounts -to about 30 per cent. - -An analysis made by Beckurts and Kauder[10] gives the general -composition of roasted chicory, dried at 107°, as follows:-- - - Per cent. - Substances soluble in water 57·40 - „ insoluble „ 41·90 - Ash 7·66 - Fat 0·73 - Nitrogenous substances 7·12 - Grape sugar 4·35 - Cane sugar and dextrine 5·33 - Starch 2·45 - Other non-nitrogenous substances 49·13 - Woody fibre 26·23 - -The most common adulterations to which coffee is liable consist -in the addition of chicory, caramel, and numerous roasted grains, -such as corn, wheat, and rye, as well as such roots and seeds as -dandelion, mangold wurzel, turnips, beans, peas, etc. The roasted and -ground article is naturally most exposed to falsification, although -letters patent have been issued for the fictitious manufacture of a -pressed “coffee bean,” containing absolutely no coffee. The addition -of chicory is by far the most prevalent adulteration of coffee. Of -thirty-four samples examined by Hassall, thirty-one (91 per cent.) -contained this root. In regard to the moral aspects of its use, it -can safely be asserted that, while the addition of chicory to coffee -is largely sanctioned, and indeed demanded by the existing tastes of -many coffee-drinkers, its use constitutes a true adulteration, and -should be condemned, unless its presence is prominently stated on the -label of the package. In chicory the active principles of coffee, which -exert valuable physiological effects on the system (viz. caffeine, the -essential oil, etc.), are totally absent; moreover, its comparative -cheapness is a constant temptation to employ a proportion largely in -excess of the amount requisite to produce any alleged improvement in -the flavour of the resulting admixture. - -The sophistications of coffee may be detected, in a general way, by -physical tests, by chemical analysis, and by microscopic examination, -in which processes great aid is derived from the characteristic -properties exhibited by the pure roasted and ground berry which -distinguish it from its more usual adulterants. - -(_a_) _Physical Examination._--The following tests, while not always -decisive in their results, are often of service. - -A small portion of the suspected sample is gently placed upon the -surface of a beaker filled with cold water, and allowed to remain at -rest for about fifteen minutes. If pure, the sample does not imbibe the -water, but floats upon the surface without communicating much colour to -it; if chicory or caramel be present, these substances rapidly absorb -moisture and sink, producing brownish-red streaks in their descent, -which, by diffusion, impart a very decided tint to the entire liquid. A -similar coloration is caused by many other roasted roots and berries, -but not so quickly or to so great an extent. The test may be somewhat -modified by shaking the sample with cold water, and then allowing -the vessel to stand aside for a short time. Pure coffee rises to the -surface, little or no colour being imparted to the water; chicory, -etc., fall to the bottom as a sediment, and give a brownish colour to -the liquid. - -If a small quantity of the sample is placed upon a clean plate of -glass, and moistened with a few drops of water, the pure coffee berries -remain hard, and offer resistance when tested with a needle; most -grains employed for their adulteration become softened in their texture. - -A considerable portion of the mixture is treated with boiling water and -allowed to settle. Genuine coffee affords a clear and limpid infusion; -many foreign grains yield a thick gummy liquor, resulting from the -starchy and saccharine matters contained. An infusion of pure coffee, -if treated with solution of cupric acetate and filtered, will show -a greenish-yellow colour; if chicory be present, the filtrate will -be reddish-brown. As a rule, samples of ground coffee which are much -adulterated, pack together when subjected to a moderate pressure. - -Owing to the low density of a coffee infusion (due to its almost entire -freedom from sugar), as compared with that of the infusions of most -roots and grains, it has been suggested by Messrs. Graham, Stenhouse -and Campbell, to apply the specific gravity determination of the -infusion obtained from the suspected sample as a means for detecting -adulteration. The results afforded are fairly approximate. The solution -is prepared by boiling one part of the sample with ten parts of water -and filtering. The following table gives the densities, at 15°·5, of -various infusions made in this manner:-- - - Acorns 1·0073 - Peas 1·0073 - Mocha coffee 1·0080 - Beans 1·0084 - Java coffee 1·0087 - Jamaica coffee 1·0087 - Costa Rica coffee 1·0090 - Ceylon coffee 1·0090 - Brown malt 1·0109 - Parsnips 1·0143 - Carrots 1·0171 - Yorkshire chicory 1·0191 - Black malt 1·0212 - Turnips 1·0214 - Rye meal 1·0216 - English chicory 1·0217 - Dandelion root 1·0219 - Red beet 1·0221 - Foreign chicory 1·0226 - Mangold wurzel 1·0235 - Maize 1·0253 - Bread raspings 1·0263 - -Assuming the gravity of the pure coffee infusion to be 1·0086, and that -of chicory to be 1·0206, the approximate percentage of coffee, C, in a -mixture, can be obtained by means of the following equation, in which D -represents the density of the infusion:-- - - C = (1·00(1·020 - D)) / 12. - -This was tested by mixing equal parts of coffee and chicory, and taking -the specific gravity of the infusion; it was 1·01408, indicating the -presence of 49 per cent. of coffee. Some idea of the amount of foreign -admixture (especially chicory) in ground roasted coffee may be formed -from the tinctorial power of the sample. It has already been mentioned -that coffee imparts much less colour to water than do most roasted -grains and roots. The table below shows the weights of various roasted -substances which must be dissolved in 2·000 parts of water in order to -produce an equal degree of colour:[11]-- - - Caramel 1·00 - Mangold wurzel 1·66 - Black malt 1·82 - White turnips 2·00 - Carrots 2·00 - Chicory (darkest Yorkshire) 2·22 - Parsnips 2·50 - Maize 2·86 - Rye 2·86 - Dandelion root 3·33 - Red beet 3·33 - Bread raspings 3·36 - Acorns 5·00 - Over-roasted coffee 5·46 - Highly-roasted coffee 5·77 - Medium-roasted coffee 6·95 - Peas 13·33 - Beans 13·33 - Spent tan 33·00 - Brown malt 40·00 - -The comparative colour test may also be applied as follows:[12]--One -gramme each of the sample under examination, and of a sample prepared -by mixing equal parts of pure coffee and chicory, are completely -exhausted with water, and the infusions made up to 100 c.c. or more; -50 c.c. of the filtered extract from the suspected sample are then -placed in a Nessler cylinder, and it is determined by trial how many -c.c. of the extract from the standard mixture, together with enough -distilled water to make up the 50 c.c., will produce the same colour. -In calculating the chicory present, it is assumed that this substance -possesses three times the tinctorial power of coffee. - -(_b_) _Chemical Examination._--Some of the chemical properties of -roasted coffee afford fairly reliable means for the detection of an -admixture of chicory. Coffee ash dissolves in water to the extent of -about 80 per cent.; of the ash of roasted chicory only about 35 per -cent. is soluble. Coffee ash is almost free from silica and sand, which -substances form a notable proportion of the constituents of the ash of -chicory. - -The following (see p. 36) are the results obtained by the writer from -the analysis of the ash of coffee and chicory. - -It will be observed from these analyses, that the most distinctive -features presented by coffee ash are the absence of soda, and the -small amounts of chlorine, ferric oxide and silica present. In these -respects, it is very different from the ash of chicory. The proportion -of phosphoric acid found in the latter is in excess of that given by -some authorities. Several analyses of chicory ash have been made by -the author, and, in every instance, the amount of phosphoric acid was -over 8 per cent.; in one sample of the ash of commercial chicory it -approximated 13 per cent. - - -------------------------------+--------------+-------------- - | Java Coffee. | Chicory Root - -------------------------------+--------------+-------------- - | per cent. | per cent. - Percentage of ash | 3·93 | 4·41 - -------------------------------+--------------+-------------- - Potassa | 53·37 | 23·00 - Soda | .. | 13·13 - Lime | 5·84 | 9·40 - Magnesia | 9·09 | 5·88 - Alumina | 0·43 | .. - Ferric oxide | 0·53 | 5·00 - Sulphuric acid | 3·19 | 9·75 - Chlorine | 0·78 | 4·93 - Carbonic acid | 15·26 | 4·01 - Phosphoric acid | 11·26 | 8·44 - Silica and sand | 0·25 | 16·46 - -------------------------------+--------------+-------------- - | 100·00 | 100·00 - -------------------------------+--------------+-------------- - -Blyth gives the annexed table, showing the characteristic differences -between coffee and chicory ash:[13]-- - - - ------------------------+----------------+---------------- - | Coffee Ash. | Chicory Ash. - ------------------------+----------------+---------------- - | per cent. | per cent. - Silica and sand | none | 10·69 to 35·88 - Carbonic acid | 14·92 | 1·78 „ 3·19 - Ferric oxide | 0·44 to 0·98 | 3·13 „ 5·32 - Chlorine | 0·26 „ 1·11 | 3·28 „ 4·93 - Phosphoric acid | 10·00 „ 11·00 | 5·00 „ 6·00 - Total soluble ash | 75·00 „ 85·00 | 21·00 „ 35·00 - ------------------------+----------------+---------------- - -The following formula has been suggested for determining the percentage -of pure coffee, in mixtures:-- - - C = 2 ((100S - 174) / 3) - -where S represents the percentage of soluble ash. - -Another noteworthy difference between roasted coffee and chicory, is -the amount of sugar contained. As a rule, in roasted coffee, it ranges -from 0·0 to 1·2 per cent.; in roasted chicory, it varies from 12· to -18· per cent. The quantity of sugar in a sample can be determined by -Fehling’s method as follows:-- - -A standard solution of pure cupric sulphate is first prepared by -dissolving 34·64 grammes of the crystals (previously ground and dried -by pressing between bibulous paper) in about 200 c.c. of distilled -water; 173 grammes of pure Rochelle salt are separately dissolved -in 480 c.c. of a solution of sodium hydroxide of sp. gr. 1·14. The -solutions are then mixed and diluted with distilled water to one litre. -Each c.c. of the above solution represents 0·05 gramme of grape sugar. -The test is applied by taking 10 c.c. of the copper solution, adding -about four times its volume of water, and bringing it to the boiling -point. The coffee infusion is then gradually added from a burette, -until the copper salt is completely reduced to the red sub-oxide, -which point is recognised by the disappearance of its blue colour, and -can be more accurately determined by acidulating the filtered fluid -with acetic acid and testing it (while still hot) for any remaining -trace of copper with potassium ferrocyanide. In preparing the coffee -solution for the foregoing test, it is advisable to exhaust a weighed -quantity of the sample with hot water. The infusion is treated with -basic plumbic acetate so long as a precipitate forms; it is then -filtered, the precipitate being well washed, and the lead contained -is removed by conducting sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the fluid -which is subsequently again filtered and boiled until the dissolved gas -is expelled. The sugar determination is now made. Wanklyn employs the -following equation to estimate the amount of chicory in an adulterated -sample:-- - - E = ((S - 1)100) / 14, - -where E is the percentage of chicory, and S the percentage of sugar. - -According to the analysis of König, the proportions of sugar and other -constituents in some of the adulterants of coffee, are as follows:-- - - ----------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - |Chicory. | Figs. | Acorns. | Rye. - ----------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - |per cent.|per cent.|per cent.|per cent. - Water | 12·16 | 18·98 | 12·85 | 15·22 - Nitrogenous substances | 6·09 | 4·25 | 6·13 | 11·84 - Fat | 2·05 | 2·83 | 4·61 | 3·46 - Sugar | 15·87 | 34·19 | 8·05 | 3·92 - Other non-nitrogenous | 46·71 | 29·15 | 62· | 55·37 - substances. | | | | - Cellulose | 11·0 | 7·16 | 4·98 | 5·35 - Ash | 6·12 | 3·44 | 2·12 | 4·81 - Substances soluble in water | 63·05 | 73·8 | .. | 45·11 - ----------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - -Estimations of the amount of sugar obtained upon boiling the suspected -coffee with water containing a little sulphuric acid (see p. 37), and -the proportion of the sample which is soluble in hot water should be -made. The presence of chicory is shown by a decided increase in the -amount of soluble substances; that of rye, by the notable quantity of -sugar produced by the inversion with acid, due to the starch contained -in the grain. - -In this connection, the following determinations of Krausch are of -interest:-- - - ---------------------------------+----------+------------+---------- - |Substances|Ready-formed| Sugar - |Soluble in| Sugar. | after - | Water. | |Inversion. - ---------------------------------+----------+------------+---------- - | per cent.| per cent. | per cent. - Roasted coffee | 23·81 | 0·20 | 24·59 - „ chicory | 65·42 | 23·40 | 22·14 - „ rye | 31·92 | .. | 75·37 - „ coffee | | | - + 10 per cent. chicory | 30·63 | 2·30 | 23·15 - „ coffee | | | - + 10 per cent. rye | 25·98 | 0·19 | 29·60 - ---------------------------------+----------+------------+---------- - -The presence of roasted rye, corn, and other grains in coffee, may be -qualitatively recognised by testing the cold infusion of the sample -with iodine solution for starch, which is not contained in a ready -formed state in coffee. Caffeine is absent in chicory and the other -usual adulterants of coffee, and the estimation of this alkaloid is of -decided service (see p. 21). Roasted coffee contains about 1 per cent. -of caffeine. - -A popular brand of ground coffee received by the author for -examination, and labelled “Prepared Java Coffee,” had the following -approximate composition:--Coffee, 38; peas, 52; rye, 2; and chicory, 7 -per cent. - -A sample of “acorn” coffee, analysed by König, gave the following -results:-- - - Per cent. - Water 12·85 - Nitrogenous substances 6·13 - Fat 4·01 - Sugar 8·01 - Other non-nitrogenous substances 62·00 - Cellulose 4·98 - Ash 2·02 - -The non-nitrogenous constituents contained from 20 to 30 per cent. of -starch, and from 6 to 8 per cent. of tannic acid. - -The composition of the well-known German coffee-substitutes, prepared -by Behr Bros., is stated to be as follows:-- - - “_Rye Coffee-substitutes._” - - Per cent. - Substances soluble in water 61·33 - Substances insoluble in water 36·45 - Cellulose 9·78 - Starch 8·34 - Dextrine 49·51 - Nitrogenous substances 11·87 - Other non-nitrogenous substances 9·83 - Fat 3·91 - Ash 4·54 - Moisture 2·22 - - “_Malt Coffee-substitute._” - - Per cent. - { Albuminoid substances 4·22 - Soluble { Dextrine 50·19 - in { Alcoholic extract 7·57 - hot water { Inorganic matter, } - { containing } 2·27 - { phosphoric acid, 0·54 } - Insoluble in hot water 35·00 - Moisture 0·35 - -The raw coffee bean is sometimes subjected to a process termed -“sweating,” which consists in treating it with moist steam, the object -being to artificially reproduce the conditions present in the holds -of vessels, by means of which the bean is increased in size, and also -somewhat improved in colour and flavour. Another form of manipulation, -analogous to the facing of tea, is to moisten the raw bean with water -containing a little gum, and agitate it with various pigments, such as -indigo, Prussian blue, Persian berries, turmeric, alkanet, Venetian -red, soap-stone, chrome-yellow, and iron ochre. Mexican coffees are -sometimes made to resemble the more expensive Java in appearance. -The chemist of the New York City Board of Health has found in the -quantity of such treated coffee commonly taken to make a cup of the -beverage 0·0014 gramme of cupric arsenite. Indigo may be detected in -the artificially coloured product by treating a considerable portion -of the sample with dilute nitric acid, filtering and saturating the -filtrate with sulphuretted hydrogen. If indigo be present, it can now -be extracted upon agitating the solution with chloroform. Alkanet root -and Prussian blue are separated by warming the coffee with solution of -potassium carbonate, from which these pigments are precipitated upon -addition of hydrochloric acid. - -(_c_) _Microscopic Examination._--Great aid to the chemical -investigation is afforded by the microscopic examination of ground -coffee. It is necessary to first become familiar with the appearance of -the genuine article--low magnifying powers being employed--and then -make comparative examinations of the adulterant suspected to be present. - -The coffee bean mainly consists of irregular cells inclosed in very -thick walls which are distinguished by uneven projections. The cells -contain globules of oil. Most of the roots added to coffee exhibit -a conglomeration of cells (provided with thin walls) and groups of -jointed tubes, often quite similar to one another in structure. The -microscopic appearance of some of the starch granules, occasionally met -with in coffee mixtures, is represented on p. 100. - -Of 151 samples of ground coffee recently purchased at random and tested -by various American chemists, 69 (45·7 per cent.) were found to be -adulterated. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[9] Op. cit. - -[10] Pharm. Centralbl., 1885, p. 346. - -[11] Graham, Stenhouse and Campbell. - -[12] Leebody, ‘Chemical News,’ xxx. p. 243. - -[13] ‘Foods: Composition and Analysis.’ - - - - -COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. - - -Cocoa is prepared from the roasted seeds of the tree _Theobroma cacao_, -of the order _Byttneriaceæ_. It sometimes appears in commerce as -“cocoa-nibs” (_i. e._ partially ground), but it is more frequently sold -in the powdered state, either pure or mixed with sugar and starch, and -also often deprived of about one-half of its fat. Chocolate usually -consists of cocoa-paste and sugar flavoured with vanilla, cinnamon, or -cloves, and commonly mixed with flour or starch. According to Wanklyn, -the average composition of cocoa is as follows:-- - - Per cent. - Cocoa butter 50·00 - Theobromine 1·50 - Starch 10·00 - Albumin, fibrine and gluten 18·00 - Gum 8·00 - Colouring matter 2·60 - Water 6·00 - Ash 3·60 - Loss, etc. 0·30 - -R. Benzeman[14] has furnished the following averages of the results -obtained by the analysis of cocoa and chocolate. The air-dried cocoa -berries gave--husks, 13·00 per cent.; nibs, 87·00 per cent.:-- - - -------------------------------------+-------------+--------------- - | | Chocolate made - | Cocoa Nibs. | from Cocoa and - | | Sugar. - -------------------------------------+-------------+--------------- - | per cent. | per cent. - Moisture at 100° | 6·41 | 1·65 - Fat | 51·47 | 22·57 - Starch | 11·75 | 4·58 - Other organic substances, | | - insoluble in water. | 18·03 | 8·58 - Organic substances, soluble in water | 8·54 | 60·63 - Mineral Ash | 3·80 | 1·99 - -------------------------------------+-------------+--------------- - | 100·00 | 100·00 - -------------------------------------+-------------+--------------- - Ash of insoluble substances | 0·89 | 0·30 - -------------------------------------+-------------+--------------- - -Recent analysis of shelled cocoa-beans, made by Boussingault, gave the -following results:-- - - ---------------------------+-----------+----------- - | Fresh. | Dry. - ---------------------------+-----------+----------- - | per cent. | per cent. - Fat | 49·9 | 54·0 - Starch and starch-sugar | 2·4 | 2·5 - Theobromine | 3·3 | 3·6 - Asparagine | traces | .. - Albumin | 10·9 | 11·8 - „ gum | 2·4 | 2·5 - Tartaric acid | 3·4 | 3·7 - Tannin | 0·2 | 0·2 - Soluble cellulose | 10·6 | 11·5 - Ash | 4·0 | 4·4 - Water | 7·6 | .. - Undetermined | 5·3 | 5·8 - ---------------------------+-----------+----------- - -Dr. Weigman[15] obtained the following results from an examination of -several varieties of the shelled beans:-- - - ---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | Water. | Fat. | Ash. | Nitrogen. - ---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. - Machala | 4·97 | 47·80 | 3·88 | 2·25 - Arriba | 6·57 | 47·44 | 3·52 | 2·31 - Caracas | 6·00 | 46·39 | 4·19 | 2·23 - Puerto Cabello | 5·71 | 48·74 | 3·94 | 2·13 - Surinam | 5·01 | 46·26 | 2·99 | 2·20 - Trinidad | 6·07 | 45·74 | 2·04 | 2·04 - Port au Prince | 4·73 | 48·58 | 3·89 | 2·33 - ---------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - -The most important constituents of cocoa are the fat (cocoa-butter), and -the alkaloid (theobromine). - -_Cocoa butter_ forms a whitish solid of 0·970 specific gravity, fusing -at 30°, and soluble in ether and in alcohol. - -_Theobromine_ (C_{7}H_{8}N_{4}O_{2}) crystallises in minute rhombic -prisms, which are insoluble in benzol, but dissolve readily in boiling -water and alcohol. It sublimes at 170°. Theobromine is exceedingly rich -in nitrogen, containing over 20 per cent. of the element. In this and -many other respects it bears a great resemblance to theine. - -The proportion of mineral ash in cocoa varies from 3·06 to 4·5 per cent. - -James Bell[16] gives the following composition of the ash of Grenada -cocoa nibs:-- - - Per cent. - Sodium chloride 0·57 - Soda 0·57 - Potassa 27·64 - Magnesia 19·81 - Lime 4·53 - Alumina 0·08 - Ferric oxide 0·15 - Carbonic acid 2·92 - Sulphuric acid 4·53 - Phosphoric acid 39·20 - ------ - 100·00 - ------ - -The most characteristic features of the ash of genuine cocoa are its -great solubility, the small amounts of chlorine, carbonates, and soda, -and the constancy of the proportion of phosphoric acid contained. Bell -has also analysed several samples of commercial cocoa. The following -will serve to illustrate their general composition:-- - - Per cent. - Moisture 4·95 - Fat 24·94 - Starch (added) 19·19 - Sugar (added) 23·03 - Non-fatty cocoa 27·89 - ------ - 100·00 - ------ - - Per cent. - Nitrogen 2·24 - Ash 1·52 - Cocoa, soluble in cold water 31·66 - Ash in portion soluble in cold water 1·17 - -The comparatively low percentage of ash contained in prepared cocoas -and chocolate, is of use in indicating the amount of real cocoa present -in such mixtures. A large proportion of the mineral constituents of -cocoa are dissolved by directly treating it with cold water. Wanklyn -obtained in this way from genuine cocoa-nibs 6·76 per cent. organic -matter, and 2·16 per cent. ash, the latter chiefly consisting of -phosphates; a commercial cocoa gave, extract, 46·04 per cent.; ash, -1·04 per cent. The most common admixtures of cocoa and chocolate, -are sugar and the various starches. The addition of foreign fats, -chicory, and iron ochres, is also sometimes practised. Since prepared -cocoas are generally understood to contain the first-named diluents, -their presence can hardly be considered an adulteration, if the fact -is mentioned upon the packages. Many varieties of the cocoas of -commerce will be found to be deficient in cocoa-butter, a considerable -proportion of which has been removed in the process of manufacture. -This practice is also claimed to be justifiable, the object being to -produce an article unobjectionable to invalids, which is not always -the case with pure cocoa. In the analysis of cocoa the following -estimations are usually made:-- - -_Theobromine._--10 grammes of the sample are first repeatedly exhausted -with petroleum-naphtha. The insoluble residue is mixed with a small -quantity of paste, prepared by triturating calcined magnesia with a -little water, and the mixture evaporated to dryness at a gentle heat. -The second residue is boiled with alcohol and the alcoholic solution of -theobromine filtered and evaporated to dryness in a tared capsule. It -is then purified by washing with petroleum-naphtha and weighed. Bell -has verified the existence in cocoa of a second alkaloid, distinct -from theobromine, which crystallises in silky needles very similar to -theine. - -_Fat._--The proportion of fat is readily determined by evaporating to -dryness the petroleum-naphtha used in the preceding estimation. As -already stated, it is generally present in a proportion of 50 per cent. -in pure cocoa; the amount contained in prepared soluble cocoas being -often less than 25 per cent. The English minimum standard is 20 per -cent. - -_Ash._--The ash is determined by the incineration of a weighed portion -of the sample in a platinum dish. In prepared cocoas and chocolates, -the proportion of ash is considerably lower than in pure cocoa. It is -of importance to ascertain the amount of ash soluble in water (the -proportion in genuine cocoa is about 50 per cent.), and especially the -quantity of phosphoric acid contained. Assuming that prepared cocoa -contains 1·5 per cent. of ash, of which 0·6 per cent. consists of -phosphoric acid, and allowing that pure cocoa contains 0·9 per cent. of -phosphoric acid, Blyth adopts the following formula for calculating the -proportion of cocoa present in the article:-- - - (·6 × 100) / ·9 = 66·66 per cent. - -_Starch._--A convenient method for estimating the starch is to -first remove the fatty matter of the cocoa by exhaustion with -petroleum-naphtha, and then boil the residue with alcohol. The -remaining insoluble matter is dried, and afterwards boiled until the -starch becomes soluble. It is next again boiled for several hours with -a little dilute sulphuric acid, after which the solution is purified -by addition of basic plumbic acetate. The liquid is then treated with -sulphuretted hydrogen, in order to remove the lead, and the sugar -contained in the filtered solution is determined by means of Fehling’s -solution, and calculated to terms of starch. The proportion of starch -normally present in cocoa is to be deducted from the results thus -afforded. The variety of starch contained in cocoa differs in its -microscopic appearance from the starches most frequently added. - -_Sugar._--The sugar may be determined by evaporating the alcoholic -solution obtained in the preceding process, and then subjecting the -residue to the same method of procedure. - -The proportion of woody fibre in cocoa can be approximately estimated -by the method of Henneberg and Stohman,[17] which consists in -extracting the fat with benzole, boiling the remaining substances for -half an hour, first with 1·25 per cent. sulphuric acid, then with -1·25 per cent. solution of potassium hydroxide. The residue is washed -with alcohol and with ether, and its weight determined. Unwashed -cocoa-berries, when treated in this manner, gave from 2 to 3 per cent. -of cellulose, while cocoa husks furnished from 10 to 16 per cent. -The presence of chicory in soluble cocoa and chocolate is easily -recognised by the dark colour of the extract obtained, upon digesting -the suspected sample with cold water; ochres and other colouring -matters are detected by the reddish colour of the ash as well as by its -abnormal composition. The addition of foreign fats to chocolates is -stated to be occasionally resorted to. - -The melting point of pure cocoa-butter varies from 30° to 33°. The -identification of foreign fats can sometimes be accomplished by means -of their higher melting point, and by an examination of the separated -fat, according to Koettstorfer’s method (see p. 71). The table -following gives the melting points of various fats, and the number of -milligrammes of K(OH) required for the saponification of one gramme of -the same. - - --------------------------+--------------+------------- - | |m.g. K(OH) - Fat. |Melting point.|to saponify - | |one gramme. - --------------------------+--------------+------------- - | ° ° | - Cocoa-butter | 30 to 33 |198 to 203 - Arachidis oil | .. | 191·3 - Sesamé oil | .. | 190·0 - Cotton-seed and olive oil | .. | 191·7 - Almond oil | .. | 194·5 - Palm oil | 35 to 36 | 202·5 - Lard | 32 „ 33 | 195·5 - Mutton tallow (fresh) | 42·5 „ 45 | .. - Mutton tallow (old) | 43·5 | 196·5 - Bone fat | 21 to 22 | 190·0 - Beeswax | 63 | .. - --------------------------+--------------+------------- - -Other tests have also been suggested for the detection of foreign fats -in cocoa-butter:-- - -(_a_) Treat the fat with two parts of cold ether; pure cocoa-butter -dissolves, forming a clear solution, whereas in presence of tallow or -wax a cloudy mixture is obtained. - -(_b_) Dissolve 10 grammes of the suspected fat in benzole, and expose -the solution to a temperature of 0°. By this treatment a separation -of pure cocoa-butter in minute grains is produced. The liquid is now -heated to 14°·4, when the cocoa-fat will re-dissolve to a transparent -solution, while the presence of tallow will be recognised by the turbid -appearance of the liquid. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[14] Jahresberichte, 1883, p. 1002. - -[15] Agrikulturchemische Versuchstation, in Münster. - -[16] Op. cit. - -[17] Repert. f. Analyt. Chemie, 1884, p. 345. - - - - -MILK. - - -Owing to the very important sanitary relations of milk as a model -food, the subject of its sophistication has during the past ten years -received particular notice at the hands of the food-chemist. The -investigations of our public sanitary authorities have shown that milk -adulteration is exceedingly common. It is stated upon good authority -that until quite recently (1883) the 120 millions of quarts of milk -annually brought into New York city were intentionally diluted with -40 millions of quarts of water, the resulting product rivalling in -richness the famous compound once lauded by the philanthropic Squeers. - -The results of the examination of milk instituted by the New York State -Board of Health are given below, in which, however, the specimens of -skimmed milk are not included:-- - - ------+-------------------+--------------------+-------------- - Year. | Number of Samples | Number showing | Per cent. of - | tested. | addition of Water. | Adulterated. - ------+-------------------+--------------------+-------------- - 1880 | 1514 | 167 | 11·0 - 1881 | 1110 | 51 | 4·6 - 1882 | 1775 | 120 | 6·7 - ------+-------------------+--------------------+-------------- - -From October 1883 to March 1884, of 241 samples of milk examined by the -Public Analyst of Eastern Massachusetts, 21·37 per cent. were watered; -of 1190 samples tested during the year 1884, 790 were watered.[18] -Over 73 per cent. of the milk supplied to the city of Buffalo in -1885 was found to be adulterated. A very marked improvement in the -quality of the milk received in New York city has taken place since the -appointment of a State Dairy Commissioner (1884). Under the direction -of this official the metropolitan milk supply has been subjected to a -most rigid inspection, and with very satisfactory results. During the -years 1884 and 1885 nearly 45,000 samples of milk were examined. - -A very common sophistication practised upon milk consists in the -partial or complete removal of its cream. This process of skimming is -conducted at establishments called “creameries,” of which sixty-three -were formerly known to send their impoverished product to New York -city. The State Dairy Commissioner has likewise accomplished much -towards stopping this form of adulteration. - -Milk is the secretion of the mammary glands of female _mammalia_. It is -an opaque liquid, possessing a white, bluish-white, or yellowish-white -colour, little or no odour, and a somewhat sweetish taste. At times -it exhibits an amphigenic reaction, _i. e._ it turns red litmus blue -and blue litmus red. From the examination of nearly one thousand -cows in the States of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut, the -_minimum_ specific gravity of milk was found to be 1·0290, the -_maximum_ being 1·0394. The opacity of milk is only apparent, and is -due to the presence of fatty globules held in suspension; these under -the microscope are seen to be surrounded by a transparent liquid. -Upon allowing milk to remain at rest for some time it experiences -two changes. At first, a yellowish-white stratum of cream rises to -the surface, the lower portion becoming bluish-white in colour and -increasing in density. If this latter is freed from the cream and -again set aside, it undergoes a further separation into a solid -body (_curd_), and a liquid (_whey_). This coagulation of the curd -(_caseine_) is immediately produced by the addition of rennet, and of -many acids and metallic salts. - -The essential ingredients of milk are water, fat, caseine, sugar -(lactose), and inorganic salts. The following table, collated by -Mr. Edward W. Martin,[19] exhibits the results obtained by numerous -authorities from the analysis of pure cow’s milk:-- - - --------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+------+--------+------ - Authority or |Number | | Total | |Solids| | | - Analyst. | of |Water.|solids.|Fat. | not |Sugar.|Caseine.|Salts. - | cows. | | | | fat. | | | - --------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+------+--------+------ - | | p.c. | p.c. | p.c.| p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - James Bell | 216 |87·17 | 12·83 | 3·83| 9·00 | .. | .. | 0·71 - | | | | | | | | - James Bell | 24 |86·78 | 13·22 | 4·12| 9·10 | .. | .. | 0·72 - |dairies| | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - C. Estecourt | 22 |87·26 | 12·74 | 3·37| 9·37 | .. | .. | .. - |dairies| | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - J. Carter Bell| 183 |86·40 | 13·60 | 3·70| 9·90 | .. | .. | 0·76 - J. Cameron | 42 |86·53 | 13·47 | 4·00| 9·47 | .. | .. | .. - C. Cameron | 40 |87·00 | 13·00 | 4·00| 9·00 | 4·28 | 4·10 | 0·62 - C. Cameron | 100 |86·75 | 13·85 | 4·60| 9·25 | .. | .. | .. - | | | | | | | | - Fleischmann } | 120 |87·78 | 12·22 | 3·20| 9·02 | .. | .. | .. - and Veith } | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Veith | 60 |87·20 | 12·80 | 3·10| 9·70 | .. | .. | .. - Veith | 9120 |86·97 | 13·03 | 3·52| 9·51 | .. | .. | .. - Wanklyn |Average|87·50 | 12·50 | 3·20| 9·30 | .. | .. | .. - | | | | | | | | - A. Wynter } | „ |86·87 | 13·13 | 3·50| 9·63 | .. | .. | .. - Blyth } | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Marchand | „ |87·15 | 12·85 | 3·55| 9·30 | .. | .. | .. - | | | | | | | | - Henry and } | „ |87·02 | 12·98 | 3·13| 9·85 | 4·77 | 4·48 | 0·60 - Chevalier } | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Vernois } | „ |86·40 | 13·60 | 3·60|10·00 | .. | .. | .. - Becquerel } | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Payen | „ |86·60 | 13·40 | 3·50| 9·90 | .. | .. | .. - O. C. Wiggin | 58 |85·92 | 14·08 | 4·01|10·07 | 4·29 | 4·99 | 0·79 - E. Calder | 27 |87·23 | 12·77 | 3·32| 9·45 | .. | .. | .. - Sharpless | 34 |85·85 | 14·15 | 4·62| 9·53 | 4·82 | 4·06 | 0·65 - Haidlen |Average|87·30 | 12·70 | 3·00| 9·70 | .. | .. | .. - Letherby | „ |86·00 | 14·00 | 3·90|10·10 | 5·20 | 4·10 | 0·80 - J. König | „ |87·30 | 12·70 | 3·00| 9·70 | 5·00 | 4·00 | 0·70 - Boussingault | „ |87·40 | 12·60 | 4·10| 8·50 | 5·10 | 3·20 | 0·70 - Muspratt | „ |86·43 | 13·57 | 4·43| 9·14 | 4·73 | 3·74 | 0·67 - Dieulafait | „ |87·64 | 12·36 | 3·11| 9·25 | 4·22 | 4·18 | 0·85 - Gorup-Bezanez | „ |85·70 | 14·30 | 4·31| 9·99 | 4·04 | 5·40 | 0·55 - Brinton | „ |86·00 | 14·00 | 4·50| 9·50 | 3·50 | 5·50 | 0·70 - | | | | | | | | - Chandler | 1700 |87·45 | 12·55 | 3·83| 8·72 | .. | .. | .. - | qts. | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Newton |Average|87·50 | 12·50 | 3·50| 9·00 | .. | .. | .. - Bartley | „ |87·50 | 12·50 | 3·50| 9·00 | .. | .. | .. - White | „ |87·50 | 12·50 | 3·50| 9·00 | .. | .. | .. - Waller | „ |87·50 | 12·50 | 3·20| 9·30 | .. | .. | .. - Babcock | „ |85·53 | 14·47 | 5·09| 9·39 | 5·15 | 3·57 | 0·67 - Church | „ |86·30 | 13·70 | 3·70|10·00 | 5·10 | 4·10 | 0·80 - Edward Smith | „ |86·40 | 13·60 | 3·61| 9·90 | 3·80 | 5·52 | 0·66 - Martin | „ |86·50 | 12·50 | 3·20| 9·30 | .. | .. | 0·67 - --------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+------+--------+------ - -Mr. Martin obtained the following results from the examination of -cream separated by centrifugal force, and of skimmed milk:-- - - -----------+----------+------------- - | Cream. |Skimmed Milk. - -----------+----------+------------- - | per cent.| per cent. - Water | 52·21 | 90·34 - Fat | 41·16 | 0·15 - Sugar | 3·11 | 3·98 - Caseine | 3·40 | 4·80 - Salts | 0·12 | 0·78 - -----------+----------+------------- - -The proportion of mineral constituents in milk usually ranges between -0·7 and 0·8 per cent. The average composition of milk ash is as -follows:[20]-- - - Per cent. - Potassa 24·5 - Soda 11·0 - Lime 22·5 - Magnesia 2·6 - Ferric oxide 0·3 - Phosphoric anhydride 26·0 - Sulphuric anhydride 1·0 - Chlorine 15·6 - ----- - 103·5[21] - -The tabulation below gives the composition of human milk and the milk -of various animals:-- - - ------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+-------+--------- - |Specific|Water.| Milk | Fat. |Caseine.| Milk |Inorganic - |Gravity.| |Solids.| | |Sugar. | Salts. - ------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+-------+--------- - | | p.c. | p.c. | p.c.| p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - White woman | 1·0315 |87·806|12·194 | 4·021| 3·523 | 4·265 | 0·28 - Coloured | | | | | | | - woman | .. |86·34 |13·66 | 4·03 | 3·32 | 5·71 | 0·61 - Mare | 1·0310 |91·310| 9·690 | 1·055| 1·953 | 6·285 | 0·397 - Goat | 1·0323 |86·36 |13·64 | 4·36 | 4·70 | 4·00 | 0·62 - Ewe | 1·0380 |82·94 |17·00 | 6·97 | 5·40 | 3·63 | 0·97 - Sow | 1·0440 |81·80 |18·20 | 6·00 | 5·30 | 6·07 | 0·83 - Canine | 1·0360 |77·26 |22·74 |10·64 | 9·21 | 2·49 | 0·44 - Ass | 1·0330 |91·95 | 8·05 | 0·11 | 1·82 | 6·08 | 0·34 - Camel | |86·94 |13·06 | 2·90 | 3·67 | 5·78 | 0·66 - | | | | | \ | / | - Hippopotamus| .. |90·43 | 9·57 | 4·51 | 4·40 | 0·11 - Elephant | .. |66·697|33·303 |22·070| 3·212 | 7·392 | 0·629 - Porpoise | .. |41·11 |58·89 |45·80 | 11·19 | 1·33 | 0·57 - Cat | .. |81·62 |18·38 | 3·33 | 9·55 | 4·91 | 0·58 - Llama | .. |89·55 |10·45 | 3·15 | 0·90 | 5·60 | 0·80 - ------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+-------+--------- - -Several varieties of preserved and condensed milk have, for a number of -years, been placed upon the market. The composition of the best-known -brands of these preparations is as follows:-- - - PRESERVED MILK. - - ----------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+------ - | | |Cane and | | - Brand. | Water. | Fat. | Milk |Caseine. |Salts. - | | | Sugar. | | - ----------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+------ - | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - Alderney | 30·05 | 10·08 | 46·01 | 12·04 | 1·82 - Anglo-Swiss (American)| 29·46 | 8·11 | 50·41 | 10·22 | 1·80 - „ „ (English)| 27·80 | 8·24 | 51·07 | 10·80 | 2·09 - „ „ (Swiss) | 25·51 | 8·51 | 53·27 | 10·71 | 2·00 - Eagle | 27·30 | 6·60 | 44·47 | 10·77 | 1·86 - Crown | 29·44 | 9·27 | 49·26 | 10·11 | 1·92 - ----------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+------ - - CONDENSED MILK. - - -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - | | |Cane and | | - Brand. | Water. | Fat. | Milk |Caseine. | Salts. - | | | Sugar. | | - -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - |per cent.|per cent.|per cent.|per cent.|per cent. - American | 52·07 | 15·06 | 16·97 | 14·26 | 2·80 - New York | 56·71 | 14·13 | 13·98 | 13·18 | 2·00 - Granulated Milk Co.| 55·43 | 13·16 | 14·84 | 14·04 | 2·53 - Eagle | 56·01 | 14·02 | 14·06 | 13·90 | 2·01 - -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - - -ANALYSIS. - -The principal adulterations of milk (watering and skimming), are -detected by taking its specific gravity, and making quantitative -determinations of the total milk solids, the fat, and the milk solids -not fat. Of these criteria, the last-mentioned is the most constant and -reliable. - - -_Physical Examination._ - -_a. Specific Gravity._--The instrument employed by the New York health -inspectors for testing milk is a variety of the hydrometer, termed -the lactometer, and its use, which is based upon the fact that under -ordinary conditions watered milk possesses a decreased density, is -certainly of great value as a preliminary test. The Board of Health -lactometer indicates specific gravities between 1·000 (the density of -water) and 1·0348. On its scale 100° represents the specific gravity of -1·029 (taken as the minimum density of genuine milk), and 0 represents -the density of water; the graduations are extended to 120°, equivalent -to a specific gravity of 1·0348. In taking an observation with the -lactometer, the standard temperature of 15° should be obtained, -_and the colour and consistency of the milk noted_. If these latter -properties indicate a dilution of the sample, and the instrument sinks -below the 100° mark, it is safe to assume that the milk has been -watered. The scale is so constructed that the extent of the dilution -is directly shown by the reading, _e. g._ if the lactometer sinks to -70° the sample contains 70 per cent. of pure milk and 30 per cent. -of water. As the standard of specific gravity (1·029) selected for -the 100° mark of the lactometer is the _minimum_ density of unwatered -milk, it is evident that the readings of the instrument will almost -invariably indicate an addition of water less than has actually taken -place. It would therefore appear that, under normal circumstances, -the standard adopted by the New York Board of Health errs on the side -of too much leniency toward the milk dealer. Cream being lighter than -water, a sample of skimmed milk will possess a greater specific gravity -than the pure article, and it is possible to add from 10 to 20 per -cent. of water to it and still have the resulting admixture stand at -100° when tested by the lactometer. Vehement attempts have been made in -court and elsewhere to impeach the accuracy of the indications afforded -by the lactometer. These have been mainly founded upon the fact that -a sample of milk unusually rich in cream will have a lower density -than a poorer grade, so that it is quite possible that milk of very -superior quality may show a gravity identical with that of a watered -specimen. Great stress has been laid upon this by the opponents of the -measures to control milk adulteration adopted by the public sanitary -authorities. They have contended that a chemical analysis should be -made. Recourse to this method would, however, involve a greater amount -of time than it is usually practicable to devote to the examination -of the numerous samples daily inspected; moreover, the process is -resorted to whenever the indications of the lactometer leave the -inspector in doubt. With the exercise of ordinary intelligence this -contingency seldom arises, as the proportion of cream required to -reduce the specific gravity to that of a watered sample would be more -than sufficient to obviate any danger of mistaking the cause of the -decreased density. In this connection it should be stated, that the -average lactometric standing of about 20,000 samples of milk, examined -by the New York State Dairy Commissioner in the year 1884, was 110°, -equivalent to a specific gravity of 1·0319. - -The following table shows the value of lactometer degrees in specific -gravity:-- - - VALUE OF LACTOMETER DEGREES IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY. - - -----------+----------- - Lactometer.| Gravity. - -----------+----------- - 0 | 1·00000 - 1 | 1·00029 - 2 | 1·00058 - 3 | 1·00087 - 4 | 1·00116 - 5 | 1·00145 - 6 | 1·00174 - 7 | 1·00203 - 8 | 1·00232 - 9 | 1·00261 - 10 | 1·00290 - 11 | 1·00319 - 12 | 1·00348 - 13 | 1·00377 - 14 | 1·00406 - 15 | 1·00435 - 16 | 1·00464 - 17 | 1·00493 - 18 | 1·00522 - 19 | 1·00551 - 20 | 1·00580 - 21 | 1·00609 - 22 | 1·00638 - 23 | 1·00667 - 24 | 1·00696 - 25 | 1·00725 - 26 | 1·00754 - 27 | 1·00783 - 28 | 1·00812 - 29 | 1·00841 - 30 | 1·00870 - 31 | 1·00899 - 32 | 1·00928 - 33 | 1·00957 - 34 | 1·00986 - 35 | 1·01015 - 36 | 1·01044 - 37 | 1·01073 - 38 | 1·01102 - 39 | 1·01131 - 40 | 1·01160 - 41 | 1·01189 - 42 | 1·01210 - 43 | 1·01247 - 44 | 1·01276 - 45 | 1·01305 - 46 | 1·01334 - 47 | 1·01363 - 48 | 1·01392 - 49 | 1·01421 - 50 | 1·01450 - 51 | 1·01479 - 52 | 1·01508 - 53 | 1·01537 - 54 | 1·01566 - 55 | 1·01595 - 56 | 1·01624 - 57 | 1·01653 - 58 | 1·01682 - 59 | 1·01711 - 60 | 1·01740 - 61 | 1·01769 - 62 | 1·01798 - 63 | 1·01827 - 64 | 1·01856 - 65 | 1·01885 - 66 | 1·01914 - 67 | 1·01943 - 68 | 1·01972 - 69 | 1·02001 - 70 | 1·02030 - 71 | 1·02059 - 72 | 1·02088 - 73 | 1·02117 - 74 | 1·02146 - 75 | 1·02175 - 76 | 1·02204 - 77 | 1·02233 - 78 | 1·02262 - 79 | 1·02291 - 80 | 1·02320 - 81 | 1·02349 - 82 | 1·02378 - 83 | 1·02407 - 84 | 1·02436 - 85 | 1·02465 - 86 | 1·02494 - 87 | 1·02523 - 88 | 1·02552 - 89 | 1·02581 - 90 | 1·02619 - 91 | 1·02639 - 92 | 1·02668 - 93 | 1·02697 - 94 | 1·02726 - 95 | 1·02755 - 96 | 1·02784 - 97 | 1·02813 - 98 | 1·02842 - 99 | 1·02871 - 100 | 1·02900 - 101 | 1·02929 - 102 | 1·02958 - 103 | 1·02987 - 104 | 1·03016 - 105 | 1·03045 - 106 | 1·03074 - 107 | 1·03103 - 108 | 1·03132 - 109 | 1·03161 - 110 | 1·03190 - 111 | 1·03219 - 112 | 1·03248 - 113 | 1·03277 - 114 | 1·03306 - 115 | 1·03335 - 116 | 1·03364 - 117 | 1·03393 - 118 | 1·03422 - 119 | 1·03451 - 120 | 1·03480 - -----------+---------- - - -_Chemical Examination._ - -_b. Water, Total Solids, and Ash._--Five grammes of the fresh milk are -weighed in a tared platinum dish, having a flat bottom, which is placed -on a water-bath, where it is allowed to remain for about three hours. -It is then transferred to a water-oven, and the dish is subsequently -weighed, from time to time, until the weight becomes constant. The loss -in weight is the _water_ present; the difference between the weight -of the platinum capsule and its weight with the remaining contents -gives the amount of _total solids_, which, in milk of good quality, -should not be under 12 per cent. The inorganic salts (ash) can now -be determined by carefully incinerating the residual contents of the -capsule. Too high a temperature is to be avoided in this process, in -order to prevent the fusion of the ash, which should, however, be -ignited until it shows a greyish-white colour. The amount of ash in -genuine milk ranges from 0·70 to 0·80 per cent. The addition of water -naturally decreases this proportion as well as that of the total -milk-solids. - -_c. Fat, Milk Solids not Fat, Caseine, and Milk Sugar._--An approximate -estimation of the fat in milk was formerly made by the use of the -_creamometer_. This instrument consists simply of a long glass tube, -provided at its upper end with a scale. The milk under examination is -introduced into the tube and allowed to remain at rest for about 24 -hours, or until the stratum of cream has completely collected upon -its surface; the quantity is then read off by means of the attached -scale. The results afforded by the creamometer are, however, far -from reliable. Cream is really milk rich in fat, caseine, etc., and -the quantitative relation it bears to the true amount of fat present -is not always a direct one. A recent form of _lactoscope_, devised -by Feser, is less objectionable, and is in very general use for the -rapid estimation of fat in milk. It consists essentially of a glass -cylinder, provided with two scales, one being graduated into c.c., the -other, into percentages of fat. In the lower end of the instrument is -a contraction, in which is placed a cylindrical piece of white glass, -graduated with well-defined black lines. In using the lactoscope, 4 -c.c. of the milk are introduced into the instrument by means of a -pipette, and water is gradually added, with shaking, until the black -marks on the small white cylinder become just visible. Upon now -referring to the c.c. scale, the quantity of water used to effect the -necessary dilution is ascertained, and the corresponding percentage of -fat in the sample is indicated by the percentage scale.[22] - -In the gravimetric determination of the fat (butter), 10 grammes of the -milk are put into a tared platinum dish, containing a weighed amount of -dry sand. The milk is evaporated as previously directed, the mixture -being constantly stirred with a small platinum spatula. The residue -is repeatedly treated with warm ether or petroleum naphtha of 70° B., -and the solutions poured upon a small filter. The several filtrates are -collected in a tared beaker, and cautiously evaporated, until constant -weight is obtained. This will give the amount of _fat_. The undissolved -residue remaining in the platinum capsule, or the difference between -the quantity of fat and that of the total milk-solids, affords the -proportion of _milk solids not fat_ contained, which, in unadulterated -milk, should amount to 9 per cent. It has been determined by -experiment, that every percentage of milk-solids not fat, increases -the specific gravity of milk 0·00375, whereas each percentage of fat -decreases the gravity 0·0010, and the proportion of solids not fat can -be calculated from the data afforded by the lactometer and Feser’s -lactoscope by means of the formula:-- - - (S - A) / 0·00375, - -where S is the specific gravity of the milk, as shown by the -lactometer, and A is the remainder obtained upon multiplying the -percentage of fat indicated by the lactoscope by 0·001 and subtracting -the residue from 1·0000. - -The residue remaining after the extraction of the fat is treated with -warm water containing a few drops of acetic acid, or with dilute (80 -per cent.) alcohol, in order to remove the sugar. The residue is -dried until it ceases to decrease in weight, and is then weighed. The -difference between the original weight of the sand and the weight of -the sand and residue combined represents approximately the amount of -_caseine_ (albuminoids) present. As this contains a certain proportion -of ash it is to be subsequently ignited, and the ash obtained deducted -from the first weight. The alcoholic sugar solution is evaporated to -dryness and weighed. The residue is then incinerated and the weight -of ash is subtracted. The difference is the amount of _milk sugar_ -contained. The sugar may likewise be determined by means of Fehling’s -solution (see pp. 37, 111). About 50 c.c. of the milk is warmed with -a small quantity of acetic acid to precipitate the caseine, which is -removed by filtration, and the filtrate diluted to 500 c.c.; the test -is then applied. 10 c.c. of the copper solution represents 0·067 gramme -of milk sugar. - -The sugar in milk can also be estimated by the polariscope (see under -Sugar, p. 112). In case the Ventzke-Scheibler instrument is used, 65·36 -grammes of the sample are weighed out and introduced into a 100 cc. -flask; about 5 cc. of plumbic basic acetate solution is added, and the -liquid is well shaken, and then allowed to stand at rest for a few -minutes. It is next filtered, its volume made up to the 100 cc. mark, -and the 20 cm. tube filled and the reading made; this divided by 2 -gives the percentage of sugar in the milk. - -Mr. A. Adams[23] has recently proposed a method of milk analysis which -consists in first placing 5 cc. of the sample in a tared beaker, and -then introducing a weighed paper coil made of blotting paper from -which all fatty matter has previously been removed by washing with -ether. As soon as the milk is completely absorbed, the paper coil is -removed and dried at 100°. The increase of weight gives the amount of -_total solids_. The _fat_ is next extracted by petroleum naphtha or -ether, and its weight determined. The proportion of _solids not fat_ is -ascertained by again drying and weighing the exhausted coil. - -The standards adopted by the English Society of Public Analysts for -pure milk, are:-- - - Per cent. - Specific gravity 1·030 - Ash 0·70 - Solids not fat 9·00 - Fat 2·50 - Total solids 11·50 - Water 88·50 - -In the State of New York, the legal standards for milk are that it -shall not contain more than 88 per cent. of water, nor less than 12 per -cent. of milk solids, and 3 per cent. of fat. - -In Massachusetts the law fixing a chemical standard of purity for milk -reads: “In all cases of prosecution, if the milk shall be shown upon -analysis to contain more than 87 per cent. of water, or to contain less -than 13 per cent. of milk solids, it shall be deemed, for the purpose -of this Act, to be adulterated.” - -The Board of Health of New Jersey fixes the minimum amount of total -solids at 12 per cent. and the maximum amount of water at 88 per cent. -In Paris, the minimum limits _for condemnation_ are the following:-- - -Fat, 2·70; milk-sugar, 4·50; caseine, albumen, and ash, 4·30; total -solids, 11·50. - -The following proportion can be employed in the calculation of the -amount of pure milk (_x_) contained in a suspected sample:-- - - From the total solids:-- - - 12·5: total solids found = 100 : _x_. - - From the solids not fat:-- - - 9·30: solids not fat = 100 : _x_. - - From the sugar:-- - - 4·40: sugar found = 100 : _x_. - - From the specific gravity:-- - - 1·030 : sp. gr. = 100 : _x_. - -In most cases the determination of the total milk-solids and the fat -(the difference being the solids not fat) furnishes all the data -required for determining the amount of watering which a sample of milk -has undergone. The Society of Public Analysts use 9 as the average -percentage of solids not fat in pure milk (which is generally -considered as too low) and adopt the formula:-- - - 100/9 S = _x_, - -in which _x_ represents the percentage of genuine milk, and S the -solids not fat. - - PLATE IV. - -[Illustration: Cream × 420.] - -[Illustration: Cows Milk × 420.] - - ARTOTYPE. E. BIERSTADT, N. Y. - -In skimmed milk the percentage of fat removed (_x_) can be ascertained -by the formula:-- - - (2·5) / (9·0) S - _f_ = _x_, - -in which S = solids not fat, and _f_ = the fat found. In case the -sample has been subjected to both skimming and watering, the water -added (_x_) can be calculated from the formula[24]:-- - - 100 - (100 + 2·5) / 9 S - _f_ = _x_. - -The addition of mineral salts to milk is detected by the increased -proportion of ash found; the presence of an abnormal amount of common -salt by the high proportion of chlorine present in the ash, which -in pure milk should never exceed 0·14 per cent. The use of sodium -bicarbonate, borax, etc., is also detected by the analysis of the -ash. Glycerine, salicylic acid, flour, and starch, if added, can be -extracted from the milk-solids and their identity established by the -usual characteristic reactions. - -The microscope is of great service in the determination of the quality -of milk, and especially in the detection of the presence of abnormal -bodies, such as pus, colostrum cells, and blood. In pure cow’s milk the -globules are in constant motion; their usual size is 1/5000 of an inch, -but this depends upon the nature of the food used. Plates IV. and V., -which represent cream, pure milk, skimmed milk, and milk containing -colostrum cells, were taken from photo-micrographic negatives furnished -through the kindness of Mr. Martin. - -Numerous cases of severe illness have from time to time been developed -by the use of milk which was apparently free from any of the usual -adulterants. In a recent issue of the ‘Philadelphia Medical News’ -(Sept. 1886) an instance of wholesale milk poisoning at Long Branch is -described, and the results reached by a careful study of the epidemic -are given. It was demonstrated that warm milk, fresh from the cow, if -placed in closed cans under conditions which retarded the dissipation -of its heat, may suffer fermentation resulting within a few hours in -the genesis of a sufficient quantity of a poisonous ptomaine (termed -_tyrotoxicon_) to produce dangerous toxic effects in those drinking it. - -Tyrotoxicon was isolated from the milk, and obtained in needle-shaped -crystals, which reduced iodic acid and gave a blue coloration when -treated with potassium ferricyanide or ferric chloride. Prof. Victor -C. Vaughan[25] discovered the same alkaloid in poisonous cheese, and -has also detected its presence in ice-cream that had been the cause -of sickness. In this connection it is of importance to note that -the addition of gelatine to ice-cream is occasionally practised: -in case this substance is used while in a state of incipient -decomposition, the danger of the bacteria and other organisms present -subsequently resuming activity is considerable. It has been repeatedly -and conclusively demonstrated that milk from cows affected with -tuberculosis and other complaints, is capable of propagating the seeds -of disease, especially in children. The presence of impure water in -milk constitutes another source of danger. A test based upon the fact -that water which has received sewage contamination often contains -nitrites, is applied by first coagulating the suspected milk with -acetic acid, then filtering and adding to the filtrate a few cc. of an -equal mixture of sulphanilic acid and naphthylamine sulphate, when, in -presence of nitrites, a rose-red colour will be produced. - - PLATE V. - -[Illustration: Skimmed Cows Milk × 420.] - -[Illustration: Colostrum in Cows Milk × 420.] - - ARTOTYPE. E. BIERSTADT, N. Y. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[18] In 1885, out of 2024 samples tested, 880 fell below the standard -of 13 per cent. total solids. - -[19] Second Annual Report of the New York State Dairy Commissioner, -1886. - -[20] Dammer’s ‘Lexikon der Verfälschungen,’ 1887, p. 592. - -[21] 3·50 per cent. should be deducted for chlorine and oxygen. - -[22] For description of the “Lactocrete,” see ‘Analyst,’ Jan. 1887. - -[23] ‘Analyst,’ x. pp. 46-54. - -[24] Blyth. - -[25] “Ein Ptomain aus giftigem Käse,” Zeit. f. Phys. Chem., x. p. 2, -1886. - - - - -BUTTER. - - -Butter is the fat of milk, containing small proportions of caseine, -water, and salt (the latter mostly added), and possessing a somewhat -granular structure. In its preparation the fat-globules of cream are -made to coalesce by the process of churning, and are removed from -the residual buttermilk. Its colour, due to lactochrome, varies from -white to yellow, according to the breed and food of the cow. The -fatty constituents of butter are butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric, -myristic, palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids, which are combined with -glycerine as ethers; the first four are soluble in hot water, the -remainder insoluble. It is very probable that butter fat is composed of -complex glycerides, _i. e._ tri-acid (presumably oleic, palmitic, and -butyric) ethers, of the following character:-- - - {O.C_{4} H_{7}O - C_{3} H_{5} {O.C_{16}H_{31}O - {O.C_{18}H_{33}O - -The table on p. 64 exhibits a summary of the results obtained by -various chemists by the analysis of numerous specimens of genuine -butter. - -Dr. Elwyn Waller found the following variations in the constituents of -pure butter:--Fat, from 83 to 85; water, from 8 to 10; curd, from 1 to -3; salts, from 3 to 5 per cent. - -Butter fat fuses at 28° to 37°, and at 37°·7 its specific gravity -ranges from 0·91200 to 0·91400. The most common adulterations of -butter consist in the addition of water, salt, colouring matters, and -various foreign fats (notably oleomargarine). The first two admixtures -are easily recognised by the proximate analysis; the detection of the -last sophistication involves a somewhat elaborate examination of the -fatty constituents of the butter. - - -----------------+--------+---------------------+--------------------- - | No. | Water. | Fats. - Analyst. | of |------+------+-------+-------+-------+----- - |Samples.| Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. - -----------------+--------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+----- - | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - König | 123 |35·12 | 5·50 | 14·49 |85·25 |76·37 |83·27 - Bell | 117 |20·75 | 4·15 | 14·2 | .. | .. | .. - | | | | | | | - Hassall { | 48 |15·43 | 4·18 | .. |96·93 |67·72 | .. - { | |28·6 | 8·48 | .. |96·93 |67·72 | .. - | | | | | | | - Angell and Hehner| 30 |16·0 | 6·4 | .. |90·2 |76·4 | .. - Wanklyn | 50 |24·9 | 8·6 | .. | .. | .. | .. - Caldwell | 26 |30·75 |10·45 | .. | .. | .. | .. - Ellis | 12 |10·5 | 4·9 | .. |89·7 |80·8 | .. - Larue | 12 |16·5 | 8·0 | .. |86·9 |79·14 | .. - | | | | | | | - Fleischman {fresh| .. | .. | .. | 18·0 | .. | .. |80·0 - {salt | .. | .. | .. | 12·0 | .. | .. |83·5 - | | | | | | | - Blyth | 5 |12·984| 8·58 | .. |87·223 |82·643 |85·45 - Schacht | 8 | 9·00 | 1·25 | .. |98·00 |87·00 | .. - -----------------+--------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+----- - - -----------------+----------------------+----------------------- - | Curd. | Salts. - Analyst. |-------+-------+------+--------+-------------- - | Max. | Min. | Avg. | Max. | Min. | Avg. - -----------------+-------+-------+------+--------+-------+------ - | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - | | | | | | - König | 4·77 | 0·25 | 1·29 | 5·65 | 0·08 | 0·95 - Bell | 4·02 | .. | 1·2 | 15·08 | 0·5 | .. - | | | | | | - Hassall { | .. | .. | .. | 2·91 | 0·3 | .. - { | .. | .. | .. | 8·24 | 1·53 | .. - | | | | | | - Angell and Hehner| 5·1 | 1·1 | .. | 8·5 | 0·4 | .. - Wanklyn | .. | .. | .. | 10·7 | 0·1 | .. - Caldwell | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. - Ellis | 4·9 | 1·1 | .. | 6·2 | 0·1 | .. - Larue | 5·5 | 1·5 | .. | 3·60 | 0·4 | .. - | | | | | | - Fleischman {fresh| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 2·0 - {salt | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 6·5 - | | | | | | - Blyth | 5·137 | 2·054 | 2·5 | 3·151 | 0·424 | .. - Schacht | 0·5 | .. | .. | 6·0 | 0·57 | .. - -----------------+-------+-------+------+--------+-------+------ - - -_Proximate Analysis._ - -About five grammes of the well-averaged sample are weighed out in a -tared platinum capsule, and dried for three hours (or until constant -weight is obtained) over a water-bath (or over a low flame, constantly -stirring with a thermometer), and the decrease in weight (water) -ascertained. As a rule, the proportion of water in genuine butter -varies from 8 to 16 per cent. The residue in the capsule is then -melted at a gentle heat, and the liquid fat cautiously poured off -from the remaining caseine and salt, these latter being afterwards -more completely exhausted by washing with ether. Upon now drying the -residue, the loss in weight will give the amount of fat present. -The caseine is next determined by the loss in weight obtained upon -incinerating the matters left undissolved by the ether, the remaining -inorganic matter being the salt contained. - -The proportion of fat present in genuine butter ranges from 82 to 90 -per cent.; it should never be below 80 per cent. The average amount of -caseine is 2·5 per cent.; greater proportions, frequently occurring -in unadulterated butter, render it more liable to become rancid. The -ash should consist of sodium chloride, with some calcium phosphate; -the amount of salt is quite variable, but it usually ranges from 2 -to 7 per cent. The proportion of ingredients, not fat, in butter -may be conveniently determined by melting 10 grammes of the sample -in a graduated tube, provided with a scale at its lower end, which -is narrowed, adding 30 c.c. of petroleum naphtha, and shaking the -mixture. After standing a few hours, the non-fatty matters collect in -the lower portion of the tube, and their volume is read off. Genuine -butter is said to yield from 12 to 14 per cent. (assuming each c.c. to -equal one gramme), while adulterated specimens may show 20 per cent. of -matters not fat. - - -_Examination of the Butter-fat._ - -The most common and important sophistication of butter consists in the -addition of foreign fats, embracing both animal fats (oleomargarine and -lard) and vegetable oils (cotton-seed, olive, rape-seed, cocoa-nut, -almond, palm, etc.). Of these, oleomargarine is doubtless the most -often employed. Oleomargarine is the more fusible portion of beef fat, -and is prepared by straining the melted fat, allowing the oil thus -obtained to stand for some time at a temperature of about 24°, when -most of the stearine and palmitine will separate out, and cooling the -remaining oil until it solidifies. This is next churned with milk, a -little colouring matter (annato) being added, and the product is then -chilled by mixing it with ice; salt is now added, and the mass is -finally worked up into lumps. - -It is stated that fifteen establishments in the United States are -engaged in the manufacture of oleomargarine, the annual production -in the State of New York alone being about 20,000,000 pounds. The -rapid increase in the manufacture of oleomargarine is shown by the -following statistics:--In 1880 this country exported 39,236,655 -pounds of butter and 20,000,000 pounds of oleomargarine, while in -1885 the exportation of butter declined to 21,638,128 pounds, and -the exportation of oleomargarine reached nearly 38,000,000 pounds. -The present production is said to approximate 50,000,000 pounds per -annum. The most characteristic difference in the composition of genuine -butter and oleomargarine consists in the greater proportion of soluble -fats contained in the former. This is illustrated by the following -comparative analysis of the two products (Mége Mouriès):-- - - ---------------+---------------+--------------- - |Genuine Butter.|Oleomargarine. - ---------------+---------------+--------------- - | per cent. | per cent. - Water | 11·968 | 11·203 - Solids | 88·032 | 88·797 - +---------------+--------------- - | 100·000 | 100·000 - _Solids_: | | - Insoluble fats | 75·256 | 81·191 - Soluble fats | 7·432 | 1·823 - Caseine | 0·182 | 0·621 - Salt | 5·162 | 5·162 - +---------------+--------------- - | 88·032 | 88·797 - ---------------+---------------+--------------- - -Lard is likewise occasionally used in the United States as an -admixture to butter, the product, “lardine,” being sold either as -oleomargarine-butter, or as the genuine article. Dr. Munsell mentions -a factory in New York city where the weekly output of larded butter is -5000 pounds. As a result of the efforts of the New York State Dairy -Commission, it has been estimated that the sale of imitation butter in -this State in 1885 suffered a decrease of about 60 per cent., although -the quantity manufactured in the United States showed an increase of 50 -per cent. - -The specific gravity and melting point of butter have been suggested as -criteria for its purity; in most cases, however, these determinations -possess a rather limited value; as already stated, butter fat, at the -temperature of 37°·7, has a density ranging from 0·91200 to 0·91400. - -The relation between the specific gravity of a fat and the proportion -of insoluble acids contained was first noticed by Bell. This is shown -in the following table which refers to pure butter fat. - - Specific Gravity | Per cent. - at 37°·7. | Insoluble Acids - 0·91382 | 87·47 - 0·91346 | 87·89 - 0·91337 | 87·98 - 0·91290 | 88·48 - 0·91286 | 88·52 - 0·91276 | 88·62 - 0·91258 | 88·80 - 0·91246 | 89·00 - -The following results have been obtained by the analysis of samples of -various animal fats, and oleomargarine butter. - - --------------------------+------------------+------------------ - | Specific Gravity | Per cent. Fixed - | at 37°·5. | Fatty Acids. - --------------------------+------------------+------------------ - Mutton suet | 0·90283 | 95·56 - Beef suet | 0·90372 | 95·91 - Fine lard | 0·90384 | 96·20 - Dripping (commercial) | 0·90456 | 94·67 - Mutton dripping (genuine) | 0·90397 | 95·48 - Oleomargarine butter | 0·90384 | 94·34 - „ „ | 0·90234 | 94·83 - „ „ | 0·90315 | 95·04 - „ „ | 0·90379 | 96·29 - „ „ | 0·90136 | 95·60 - --------------------------+------------------+---------------- - -It will be noticed that the fats mostly used to adulterate butter are -of a lower density. Blyth regards a gravity below 0·911 (at 37°·5) as -clearly pointing to the presence of foreign fatty admixture. - -The specific gravity determination is made by means of the areometer, -or by the gravity bottle; numerous indirect methods have also been -proposed. P. Casamajor[26] suggests a process for distinguishing -genuine butter from oleomargarine which is based upon the fact that -the density of a liquid in which a body remains in equilibrium is the -density of the body itself. As the result of his investigations it was -found that pure butter at 15° would be held in equilibrium by alcohol -of 53·7 per cent. (sp. gr. = 0·926), and that oleomargarine would -remain in equilibrium, at the same temperature, in alcohol of 59·2 per -cent. (sp. gr. = 0·905). If equal volumes of alcohol of 53·7 per cent. -and 59·2 per cent. (_i.e._ an alcohol of 56·5 per cent.) are taken, -and a drop of melted butter and of oleomargarine are delivered upon -its surface, the former will sink to the bottom and the latter will -remain at the top, so long as the two globules are warm and liquid. -In case the temperature of the alcohol is about 30°, the butter will -solidify and also rise to the top, whereas the oleomargarine may remain -liquid. On now keeping the alcohol for a short time at a temperature -of 15° the oleomargarine becomes opaque, but remains at the top, while -the solidified butter will sink to the bottom. If alcohol of 59·2 per -cent. is employed, oleomargarine will remain at the surface and genuine -butter fall to the bottom at all temperatures above 15°, and at this -temperature oleomargarine will be in equilibrium. Since not over 33 per -cent. of butter is usually added to oleomargarine, it is proposed to -use alcohol of 55 per cent., and consider as oleomargarine any sample -which does not sink at 15°. - -The foregoing method can be applied quantitatively by determining the -strength of the alcohol which will keep in equilibrium a drop of the -fat under examination. Since the difference between 59·2 and 53·7 -is 5·5, the difference between the strength of the alcohol used and -53·7, divided by 5·5 (or multiplied by 0·18), will give the proportion -of oleomargarine present. For example, if the globule is held in -equilibrium at 15° in 57 per cent. alcohol, the sample contains about -60 per cent. of oleomargarine, for (57 - 53·7) × 0·18 = 3·3 × 0·18 = -0·594 or, say, 6/10. - -The melting-point of butter is below that of most of its fatty -adulterants; as previously stated, it varies from 28° to 37°. The -determination is made either in the ordinary manner by means of a -fine tube, or a little of the chilled sample is attached to a looped -platinum wire, placed near the thermometer-bulb, in water which is -gradually heated until fusion takes place. Blyth gives the following -table of the melting-points of various fats:-- - - ° - Butterine 31·3 - Cocoa butter 34·9 - Butter (average) 35·8 - Beef dripping 43·8 - Veal dripping 47·7 - Mixed 42·6 - Lard, from 42 to 45 - Ox fat, from about 48 „ 53 - Mutton fat, from about 50 „ 51 - Tallow 53·3 - -Numerous qualitative tests have been proposed by various authorities -for the detection of foreign fats in butter, of which the following are -perhaps sometimes of use. It should be added that the value of these -tests, when applied to mixtures, is limited and very uncertain. - -1. A little of the sample is heated in a test-tube: pure butter froths -and acquires a brownish colour; with foreign fats there is but little -foaming, and, although the caseine present darkens, the liquid itself -remains comparatively clear. - -2. If a sample containing oleomargarine is melted and the oil burned -in an ordinary lamp-wick, a decided odour of burning tallow will be -produced upon extinguishing the flame. Specimens of real butter, -however, have been found to also emit a tallow-like odour. - -3. The melted sample is filtered and treated with boiling ether; -pure butter fat dissolves much more readily than do lard and tallow. -Upon adding methylic alcohol to the solution the latter fats are -precipitated, whereas pure butter will remain in solution. - -4. If the filtered fat is distilled with a mixture of alcohol and -sulphuric acid, the distillate will possess the odour of butyric ether -_in a very marked degree_, in case it consists of butter.[27] - -5. The strained fat is treated with a solution of carbolic acid (1 part -acid and 10 parts water): genuine butter dissolves to a clear solution; -beef, mutton, and swine fat form two layers, the upper one becoming -turbid upon cooling. - -6. If the sample consists of butter or oleomargarine, and is mixed -with about ten parts of glycerine and the emulsion digested with a -mixture of equal parts of ether and alcohol, two layers of solution -will be produced, without any deposit of solid matter between them; -if, however, lard, suet, or starch is present it will become deposited -between the layers. - -It has already been mentioned that butter differs from some of its -fatty adulterants in containing a considerable proportion of fatty -acids which are soluble in hot water, the acids present in most -foreign fats being, on the other hand, almost entirely insoluble. The -estimation of the relative amounts of soluble and insoluble acids -contained in a fat possesses therefore much importance; indeed, more -significance attaches to this determination than to any other. The -processes most frequently employed in the quantitative examination of -butter fat are those of Koettstorfer, Hehner, and Reichert. - -Koettstorfer’s method[28] is based upon the fact that, as butter fat -contains the fatty acids, having a smaller molecular weight than those -present in other fats, it must contain more molecules of acid, and will -therefore require a greater amount of an alkali to effect saponication. -The process is executed as follows:--One or two grammes of the filtered -fat are weighed out in a narrow beaker and heated over a water-bath -with about 25 c.c. of one-half normal alcoholic solution of potassium -hydroxide. The saponification of the fat is assisted by repeated -stirring; when it is completed the beaker is removed from the bath, -a few drops of alcoholic phenol-phthaleine added for an indicator, -and the excess of potash used titrated back with one-half normal -hydrochloric acid. It has been found that pure butter fat requires from -221·4 to 232·4 milligrammes of potassium hydroxide for saponification. -The following are the number of milligrammes of alkali necessary for -the saponification of one gramme of various other fats:-- - - mgr. - Olive oil 191·8 - Rape-seed oil 178·7 - Oleomargarine 195·5 - Beef tallow 196·5 - Lard 195·5 - Mutton suet 197·0 - Dripping 197·0 - -Taking 227 milligrammes as the average amount of potassium hydroxide -required to saponify one gramme of pure butter fat, the following -formula has been suggested for the estimation of the proportion of -admixture in a suspected sample:-- - - (227 - _n_) × 3·17 = _x_, - -in which _n_ represents the number of milligrammes of potassium -hydroxide used, and _x_ the percentage of foreign fat added. In the -Paris Municipal Laboratory, 221 milligrammes of K(OH) are regarded as a -standard for the saponification of one gramme of genuine butter. - -Cocoa-nut oil, unfortunately, requires a figure (250 mgr.) considerably -above that of butter, and it is quite possible to prepare a mixture -of this oil and oleomargarine, that by the foregoing test would show -a result almost identical with that afforded by pure butter. Hehner’s -process,[29] which is often employed for the determination of the -insoluble fatty acids, is as follows:--About 4 grammes of the melted -and strained sample are dissolved in 50 c.c. of alcohol, containing two -grammes of potassium hydroxide in solution, and the mixture is heated -until complete saponification takes place. The alcohol is removed by -evaporation, the residue dissolved in 200 c.c. of water, and the fatty -acids precipitated by adding dilute sulphuric acid to distinct acid -reaction. The fatty acids are next melted by heating the liquid and are -then allowed to cool, after which the insoluble acids are poured upon -a tared filter and repeatedly washed with hot water until the washings -cease to show acidity. The filter and contents are finally cautiously -dried and weighed. In genuine butter the proportion of insoluble fatty -acids ranges between 86·5 and 87·5 per cent.; it should not be above -88 per cent.[30] Oleomargarine, lard, mutton, beef, and poppy, palm, -olive, and almond oils contain about 95·5 per cent. of insoluble -acids.[31] - -The preceding process is also imperfect in not effecting the detection -of cocoa-nut oil, which affords only about 86 per cent. of insoluble -fatty acids, and although the presence of any considerable proportion -of this oil in butter would probably be indicated by the decreased -melting point of the admixture, an estimation of the soluble fatty -acids is by far the most reliable means for its detection. For this -determination Reichert’s method[32] is eminently adapted. In this -process advantage is taken of the facts that the amount of soluble -acids in a mixture of fat bears a direct relation to the proportion -of genuine butter present, and that, if the aqueous solution of a -saponified fat is decomposed by an acid and heated to boiling, the -greater portion of the soluble acids escape with the watery vapours and -can be collected and determined in the distillate. The details of this -method are essentially as follows:--2½ grammes of the filtered sample -are introduced into an Erlenmayer flask together with 1 gramme of -potassium hydroxide and 20 c.c. of dilute (80 per cent.) alcohol, and -the mixture is heated over the water-bath until complete saponification -is effected, and the alcohol _entirely_ removed. The soap thus formed -is dissolved in 50 c.c. of water, and decomposed by adding 20 c.c. -of dilute sulphuric acid (1:10). The flask is next connected with a -Liebig’s condenser and the contents carefully distilled until 50 c.c. -have passed over. The distillate is now freed from any insoluble acids -possibly present by filtration; it is then titrated with decinormal -soda solution, a few drops of litmus solution being employed as an -indicator. As the result of numerous tests, it has been found that -genuine butter, when examined by the above method, requires from 13 to -15 c.c. of the decinormal solution. The following are the number of -c.c. required by various other fats:-- - - Lard 0·2 - Rape oil 0·25 - Kidney fat 0·25 - Olive oil 0·3 - Sesamé oil 0·35 - Oleomargarine 0·7 to 1·3 - Cocoa-nut oil 3·70 - -Dr. Elwyn Waller[33] modifies the foregoing method of procedure by -adding 50 c.c. of water to the contents of the flask remaining after -the first distillation, and again distilling off 50 c.c., the process -being repeated until the final distillate neutralises only 0·1 c.c. of -the decinormal alkali. With butter fat, it was found that the first -distillate contained about 79 per cent. of the total volatile acids -present. By means of this modification, a distinction between the -rate of distillation of the volatile fatty acids of different fats is -possible. The non-volatile acids left in the flask are washed several -times with water, in order to remove the glycerine and potassium -sulphate present, and are then dried and weighed. - -For estimating the percentage of pure butter fat in a sample of mixed -fat, Reichert employed the formula: B = 7·3 (_m_ - 0·3), in which _m_ -is the number of c.c. of soda solution used in the titration. - -Baron Hübl[34] has recently suggested a method for butter testing, -which is founded upon the fact that the three series of fats (acetic, -acrylic, and tetrolic), unite in different proportions with the -halogens (iodine, bromine, and chlorine), to form addition products. -Iodine has been found especially well adapted to the examination of -fats. The standard solution employed is prepared by dissolving 25 -grammes of iodine in 500 c.c. of 95 per cent. alcohol, and adding to -the solution a solution of 30 grammes of mercuric chloride in 500 c.c. -of alcohol. The reagent is then standardised by means of a solution -of 24 grammes of sodium hyposulphite in 1 litre of water. The test -is applied as follows:--1 gramme of the sample under examination is -introduced into a flask and dissolved in 10 c.c. of pure chloroform. -The iodine reagent is then gradually added from a burette, the mixture -being well shaken, until the coloration produced indicates that an -excess is present, even after standing for about two hours; 15 c.c. -of a 10 per cent. potassium iodide solution and 150 c.c. of water are -then added and the excess of iodine present determined by means of the -sodium hyposulphite solution, and deducted from the total quantity -used. The amount of iodine (in grammes) absorbed is calculated to 100 -grammes of the fat; this is termed the iodine number. The examination -of numerous samples of genuine butter and oleomargarine, and other -fats, made at the laboratory of the New York State Dairy Commissioner, -furnished the following results:[35]-- - - Iodine Number. - Genuine butter from 30·5 to 43·0 - Oleomargarine „ 50·9 „ 54·9 - Cocoa-nut oil 6·8 - Lard 55·0 - Mutton fat 57·3 - Oleine 82·3 - Olive oil 83·0 - Pea-nut oil 96·0 - Sweet-almond oil 102·0 - Cotton-seed oil 108·0 - Poppy oil 134·0 - -It has been proposed to differentiate between butter and oleomargarine -by a determination of the proportion of glycerine contained. -Liebschütz[36] employs the following process for this estimation: 10 -grammes of the sample are saponified by heating with 20 grammes of -barium hydroxide, until the water of crystallisation has been almost -entirely expelled. Alcohol is then added with constant stirring; -saponification quickly takes place, and is completed by evaporating -the mass nearly to dryness. The glycerine is extracted with boiling -water, the solution filtered, and the barium contained removed by -means of sulphuric acid. The filtrate from the barium sulphate is then -concentrated by evaporation, and the excess of sulphuric acid present -neutralised by adding a little barium carbonate. The filtered liquid -is now again evaporated to a small volume, and most of the salts -present precipitated by addition of absolute alcohol. After filtration -the alcoholic solution is evaporated over the water-bath, then dried -at 100° until constant weight is obtained. It is finally ignited and -the proportion of glycerine contained estimated by the loss in weight -sustained. This process is certainly far from being exact, owing -principally to the volatilisation of glycerine that occurs in the -evaporation of its aqueous and even alcoholic solutions. The following -results were obtained upon treating genuine butter and oleomargarine -according to the above method:-- - - Per cent. Glycerine. - Butter 3·75 - Oleomargarine 7·00 - -Gelatine is said to have lately been used as an adulterant of butter, -more especially of artificial butter. Its detection is a matter of some -difficulty. The following method has been suggested. A considerable -quantity of the suspected butter is boiled with water, the solution -strained, a drop of acetic acid and a little potassium ferrocyanide -added, and the liquid boiled until the precipitate formed becomes -bluish in colour. The solution is then filtered hot and the filtrate -examined for gelatine by adding tannic acid to, or conducting chlorine -gas through it. - -A sample lately imported under the name of “butter preservative” was -found by the author to consist of a dilute solution of phosphoric acid. -The use of this agent does not, however, appear to be prevalent to any -great extent.[37] - -_Artificial Colouring._--The list of colouring matters said to be -added to butter includes the vegetable dyes, annato, carotin, fustic, -turmeric, marigold, and saffron; the coal-tar colour, Victoria -yellow (potassium dinitrocresylate), and Martius yellow (potassium -dinitronaphthalate), and the mineral pigment chrome yellow (plumbic -chromate). Of the foregoing, annato and carrot colour appear to be most -commonly employed. Mr. Edward W. Martin[38] has proposed a method for -the isolation of the former which consists in dissolving the butter in -carbon disulphide, and shaking the solution with a _dilute_ solution -of potassium hydroxide, in which the colouring matter dissolves; it -is subsequently identified by further tests. According to Mr. R. W. -Moore,[39] the presence of carotin in butter may be detected by first -agitating the carbon disulphide solution of the fat with alcohol, which -fails to extract this colour. Upon now adding to the mixture a drop -of dilute ferric chloride solution, again shaking the liquid and then -putting it aside for a short time, the alcoholic solution dissolves the -carrot colour, and if no other colouring matter is contained in the -butter, leaves the carbon disulphide colourless. - -The artificially coloured butter may be dissolved in alcohol and tested -with the following reagents:-- - -(_a_) Nitric acid: greenish coloration, _saffron_. - -(_b_) Sugar solution and hydrochloric acid: red coloration, _saffron_. - -(_c_) Ammonia: brownish coloration, _turmeric_. - -(_d_) Silver nitrate: blackish coloration, _marigold_. - -(_e_) Evaporate the alcoholic solution to dryness and add concentrated -sulphuric acid: greenish-blue coloration, annato; blue coloration, -_saffron_. - -(_f_) Hydrochloric acid: decolorisation, with formation of yellow -crystalline precipitate, _Victoria or Martius yellow_. - -(_g_) Separation of a heavy and insoluble yellow powder, _chrome -yellow_ (see p. 130). - -_Microscopic Examination._--The microscopic examination of butter has -lately received considerable attention as a means for the detection -of the presence of foreign fats. Genuine butter generally exhibits -under the microscope a crowded mass of globules of fat, fatty crystals -being commonly absent. In oleomargarine a more crystalline structure -is observed, with pear-shaped masses of fat and but few globules. -While the presence of crystals in a sample may justly be regarded as -suspicious, it is by no means a positive evidence of adulteration, -since, under certain circumstances, pure butter may present the same -indications. In applying the microscopic test, a small portion of the -fat is made into a thin layer on the slide, and then protected with a -glass cover, applied with rather gentle pressure. - -Plate VI.[40] represents the microscopic appearance of genuine -butter and oleomargarine. It will be observed that in butter (Fig. -1) numerous globules but no crystals of fat are presented, the -crystals present being those of salt. In oleomargarine (Fig. 2) the -distinctive pear-shaped masses of fat, accompanied by only a small -number of fatty globules, are to be seen. Dr. Thomas Taylor (of the -U.S. Department of Agriculture), has made an elaborate investigation -of the microscopic appearance of various fats when viewed by polarised -light. He regards the presence of peculiar globular crystals and the -black cross commonly termed St. Andrew’s cross as characteristic of -genuine butter.[41] Lard, beef, and other fats are said to exhibit -different and, to some extent, distinctive crystalline forms. Prof. -Weber,[42] however, affirms that mixtures of lard and tallow fat, -under certain conditions, cannot be distinguished from butter by means -of this method of examination. More recently, Dr. Taylor states that -the distinguishing difference between butter and other fats under the -microscope is that the former, when observed by polarised light through -a selenite, exhibits a uniform tint, whereas the latter shows prismatic -colours. Although the results of these investigations cannot as yet be -considered as perfectly satisfactory or conclusive, they certainly are -entitled to rank as a highly valuable and important step in advance of -the optical processes hitherto employed. - - PLATE VI. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1, Butter × 400.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2, Oleomargarine × 400.] - - ARTOTYPE. E. BIERSTADT, N. Y. - - PLATE VII. - -[Illustration: Butter × 40.] - -[Illustration: Butter × 40.] - -[Illustration: Beef × 40.] - -[Illustration: Lard × 160.] - -[Illustration: Butterine × 40.] - -[Illustration: Oleomargarine × 40.] - - FAT CRYSTALS. - -Plate VII. exhibits the appearance of butter, oleomargarine, beef, and -some other fats, when viewed by the microscope and polarised light. It -will be noticed that, while a discrimination between lard and butter is -readily made, oleomargarine presents the St. Andrew’s cross, stated to -be characteristic of genuine butter. These photomicrographs represent -the results of investigations made in the Chemical Division of the U.S. -Department of Agriculture. - -The question of the sanitary effects of oleomargarine and other -substitutes for butter, has been studied by many scientists, and with -very discordant results. Doubtless the great divergence of opinion -which at present exists, is largely due to the fact that the artificial -products examined have been made according to different processes, -and with varying regard to the quality of the fats used in their -manufacture, and to the degree of care and cleanliness observed. The -attention of the American public has very lately been directed to the -oleomargarine question, by the recent enactment of a national law -imposing a tax upon the manufacture of the article. - -Without entering to any great extent into the subject of the -wholesomeness of artificial butter as it is generally met with in -commerce, it will be of interest to refer to the conclusions reached by -two or three sanitarians who have devoted particular attention to this -aspect of the question. Prof. W. O. Atwater[43] summarises the results -of his investigation of oleomargarine as follows:-- - -“1. The common kinds of imitation butter, oleomargarine, butterine, -etc., when properly made, agree very closely in chemical composition, -digestibility, and nutritive value with butter from cow’s milk. - -“2. In fulfilling one of the most important functions of food, namely, -that of supplying the body with heat and muscular energy, they, with -butter, excel in efficiency all, or nearly all, our other common food -materials. - -“3. Considering the low cost at which they can be produced, as well -as their palatability and nutritive value, they form a food product -of very great economical importance, and one which is calculated to -greatly benefit a large class of our population whose limited incomes -make good dairy butter a luxury. - -“4. Imitation butter, like many other manufactured food materials, -is liable (but in actual commerce has been found not to be so) to be -rendered unwholesome by improper materials and methods of manufacture. -It is also open to the especial objection that it is largely sold as -genuine butter. The interests of the public, therefore, demand that -it should be subjected to competent official inspection, and that it -should be sold for what it is, and not as genuine butter.” - -Dr. S. B. Sharples[44] states: “When well made, it (oleomargarine) is -a very fair imitation of genuine butter; being inferior to the best -butter, but much superior to the low grades of butter too commonly -found in the market. So far as its influence on health is concerned, -I can see no objection to its use. Its sale as genuine butter is a -commercial fraud, and as such, very properly condemned by the law. As -to its prohibition by law, the same law which prohibited it should also -prohibit the sale of lard and tallow, and more especially all low-grade -butters, which are far more injurious to health than a good sweet -article of oleomargarine. A good deal has been said in regard to the -poor grade of fats from which the oleomargarine is made. Any one making -such assertions in regard to the fats is simply ignorant of the whole -subject. When a fat has become in the least tainted, it can no longer -be used for this purpose, as it is impossible to remove the odour from -the fat after it has once acquired it.” - -_Per contra_, Dr. R. B. Clark, in an exhaustive report on butter,[45] -affirms with great decision, that artificial butter is not a wholesome -article of food, for the following reasons:-- - -“1. On account of its indigestibility. - -“2. On account of its insolubility when made from animal fats. - -“3. On account of its liability to carry germs of disease into the -human system. - -“4. On account of the probability of its containing, when made under -certain patents, unhealthy ingredients.” - -The two last grounds for condemning oleomargarine are evidently -affected by, and, in fact, dependent upon the character of the fat and -the exercise of care employed in its manufacture. In regard to the -relative digestibility of butter and its imitations, actual experiments -have been made by several chemists. A. Mayer,[46] from the results of -feeding human beings for three days on butter and on oleomargarine, -found that 1·6 per cent. less of the latter was absorbed by the system -than of the former, and inclines to the opinion, that with healthy -persons this proportion is so inconsiderable, that it is of little or -no importance. Dr. Clark considers these experiments of too limited -duration to be regarded as conclusive, although, so far as they went, -the results reached coincided with those obtained by him by a more -exhaustive investigation. Dr. Clark has made an examination of the -artificial digestion of butter as compared with oleomargarine and -other fats, including beef and mutton suet, and lard, cotton-seed, -sesamé, and cod-liver oils. The method of examination pursued was as -follows:--About 2 grammes of the melted fat was added to a digestive -fluid consisting of 0·33 gramme of “extractum pancreatis,” and 0·33 -gramme of sodium bicarbonate, dissolved in 10 c.c. of distilled -water. This mixture was introduced into a test-tube, well shaken, and -then exposed to a temperature of 40°. The contents of the test-tube -were microscopically examined at the lapse of intervals of one, -four, and twelve hours. It was found from these tests that cod-liver -oil exhibited the most perfect state of emulsion, after which came -genuine butter, next lard oil, and then commercial “oleo.” Plate VIII. -represents the results obtained from the experiments made with butter -and commercial oleomargarine, as presented at the end of one, four, -and twelve hours. The globules of butter-fat, it will be observed, are -smaller in size and more uniform in appearance. Dr. Clark likewise -instituted experiments which tended to demonstrate the relative -insolubility of the fats used in the preparation of artificial butter. - - PLATE VIII. - -[Illustration: Butter 1 hour × 250.] - -[Illustration: Oleomargarine 1 hour × 250.] - -[Illustration: Butter 4 hours × 250.] - -[Illustration: Oleomargarine 4 hours × 250.] - -[Illustration: Butter 12 hours × 250.] - -[Illustration: Oleomargarine 12 hours × 250.] - - ARTIFICIAL DIGESTION OF FATS. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[26] Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., iii. p. 83. - -[27] The proportion of butyrine present in commercial oleomargarine -is often sufficient in quantity to cause the characteristic odour of -butyric ether to a noticeable degree. - -[28] Fresenius’ ‘Zeitschrift,’ 1879, p. 197. - -[29] ‘Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie,’ 1877, p. 145. - -[30] The French standard is 87·50 per cent. - -[31] The percentage of foreign fat (F) in a sample can be calculated by -the formula F = (I - 88) × 13·3, in which I = the insoluble fatty acids. - -[32] Fresenius’ Zeitschrift, 1879, p. 68. - -[33] Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., viii. p. 6. - -[34] Dingl. Polyt. Journ., ccliii., p. 281. - -[35] R. W. Moore notes that a certain mixture of lard and cocoa-nut -oil would give an iodine number identical with that of butter -fat.--(‘Analyst,’ x. p. 224.) - -[36] Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., vii. p. 134. - -[37] Samples invoiced as “butter flavouring,” and consisting of butyric -acid, have also been imported. - -[38] ‘Analyst,’ x. p. 163. - -[39] Ibid., xi. p. 163. - -[40] The author is indebted to Mr. Edward W. Martin for the negatives -used in the preparation of these and other photomicrographs of fats. - -[41] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the American Microscopical Society,’ May -1885. - -[42] ‘Bulletin of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station,’ March 1st, -1886. - -[43] Bradstreet’s, June 19, 1886. - -[44] Fourth Annual Report (1883) Mass. State Board of Health, p. 30. - -[45] Second Annual Report of the New York State Dairy Commissioner, pp. -291-392. - -[46] ‘Landwirthschaftliche Versuchsstation,’ ii. p. 215. - - - - -CHEESE. - - -Cheese consists essentially of the caseine and albumen of milk, -together with water, fat, lactic acid, and mineral salts. It is -prepared by the coagulation of milk by means of rennet, and is usually -obtained from cow’s milk (either fresh, skimmed, or sour), although -the milk of the goat, ewe, and other animals is occasionally used. -Its colour is very often due to the addition of annato. The following -table exhibits the composition of the best-known varieties of cheese, -according to the analysis of various chemists:-- - - ----------------+----------+----------+-----------+---------+--------- - | | | Caseine | | - | | | or | | Free - Variety. | Water. | Fat. |Nitrogenous| Milk | Acid, as - | | | Matter. | Sugar. | Lactic. - ----------------+----------+----------+-----------+---------+--------- - |per cent. |per cent. | per cent. |per cent.|per cent. - American (pale) | 31·55 | 35·93 | 28·83 | .. | 0·27 - American (red) | 28·63 | 38·24 | 29·64 | .. | .. - Cheddar | 35·60 | 31·57 | 28·16 | .. | 0·45 - Stilton | 23·57 | 39·13 | 32·55 | .. | 1·24 - Gloucester | 35·75 | 28·35 | 31·10 | .. | 0·31 - Dutch | 41·30 | 22·78 | 28·25 | .. | 0·57 - Roquefort | 32·26 | 34·38 | 27·16 | .. | 1·32 - Brie | 51·87 | 24·83 | 19·00 | .. | .. - Cheshire | 37·11 | 30·68 | 26·93 | .. | 0·86 - Gruyère | 33·66 | 30·69 | 30·67 | .. | 0·27 - Gorgonzola | 31·85 | 34·34 | 27·88 | .. | 1·35 - Neufchatel | 37·87 | 41·30 | 17·43 | | - | | | | \ / - Camembert | 51·30 | .. | 19·00 | 3·50 - | | | | / \ - Parmesan | 27·56 | 15·95 | 44·08 | 6·69 - ----------------+----------+----------+-----------+------------------- - - ----------------+---------+--------------------- - | | Composition of Fat. - | +----------+---------- - Variety. | Ash. | Soluble | Insoluble - | | Acids. | Acids. - ----------------+---------+----------+---------- - |per cent.|per cent. | per cent. - American (pale) | 3·42 | 4·81 | 88·49 - American (red) | 3·49 | 4·26 | 89·06 - Cheddar | 4·22 | 4·55 | 88·75 - Stilton | 3·51 | 4·42 | 88·76 - Gloucester | 4·49 | 6·68 | 86·89 - Dutch | 7·10 | 5·84 | 87·58 - Roquefort | 4·88 | 4·91 | 88·70 - Roquefort | 5·00 | .. | .. - Brie | 4·42 | 5·55 | 87·76 - Cheshire | 4·71 | 4·41 | 88·97 - Gruyère | 4·58 | 4·40 | 89·18 - Gorgonzola | 3·40 | .. | .. - Neufchatel | | | - Camembert | 4·70 | .. | .. - | | | - Parmesan | 5·72 | .. | .. - ----------------+---------+----------+---------- - -Dr. Muter has published the following analyses of cheese:--[47] - - -----------------+---------------------------------------------------- - |Insoluble Acids. - | +---------------------------------------------- - | |Soluble Acids. - | | +----------------------------------------- - | | |Milligrammes K(OH) to saponify 1 gr. - | | | +----------------------------------- - | | | |Water. - | | | | +----------------------------- - | | | | |Fat. - | | | | | +----------------------- - Variety. | | | | | |Lactic Acid. - | | | | | | +----------------- - | | | | | | |Insoluble Ash. - | | | | | | | +----------- - | | | | | | | |Soluble - | | | | | | | | Ash.+----- - | | | | | | | | |Salt. - -----------------+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- - Double Gloucester|87·00|6·28|229·3|37·20|22·80|1·80 |2·56 |2·00 |1·64 - Stilton |86·20|7·02|231·7|28·60|30·70|1·08 |1·80 |2·22 |0·75 - English cream |90·01|3·26|220·0|63·64|15·14|0·90 |0·72 |0·20 |0·12 - Dutch |87·20|6·09|228·7|42·72|16·30|1·35 |2·26 |9·10 |4·02 - Gruyère |87·32|5·98|228·0|33·20|27·26|1·35 |3·12 |1·58 |1·05 - Rochefort |87·00|6·27|229·3|21·56|35·96|0·72 |1·70 |8·54 |3·42 - Camembert |87·15|6·09|229·0|48·78|21·35|0·36 |0·16 |8·64 |3·46 - Bondon |7·834|5·95|228·0|55·20|20·80|0·90 |0·52 |6·46 |3·16 - American Cheddar |89·08|3·30|220·2|29·70|30·70|0·90 |2·16 |1·54 |1·20 - Cheddar |87·66|5·00|227·5|33·40|26·60|1·53 |2·30 |2·00 |1·52 - -----------------+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- - -According to this chemist, one gramme of genuine cheese should require -not less than 220 milligrammes K(OH) for saponification, as executed in -Koettstorfer’s process (see p. 71). - -The following results were obtained by Griffiths[48] from the analysis -of American cheese, and by Gerber[49] from the analysis of artificial -American cheese:-- - - --------------+---------+------------+-------------- - | American|Lard Cheese.|Oleomargarine - | Cheese.| | Cheese. - --------------+---------+------------+-------------- - |per cent.| per cent. | per cent. - | | | - Water | 26·55 | 38·26 | 37·99 - Fat | 35·58 | 21·07 | 23·70 - Caseine, etc. | 33·85 | 35·55 | 34·65 - Ash | 3·90 | 5·12 | 3·66 - --------------+---------+------------+-------------- - -The constituents of cheese are very similar to those of milk; the -relations between the soluble and insoluble fatty acids is much the -same as in butter. In cheese, however, the milk-sugar is largely -decomposed into lactic acid, alcohol, and carbonic acid, during the -process of ripening or curing employed in its manufacture. - -Another essential change effected by the curing of cheese is the -partial decomposition of the caseine into ammonia, which combines -with the unaltered caseine, forming soluble ammonium caseates. Other -products of the ripening process, also due to the decomposition of the -caseine, are tyrosine and leucine (C_{6}H_{13}NO_{2}). The butter-fats -are likewise transformed into the corresponding fatty acids, which give -rise to the formation of either the ammonia salts, acid albuminates, or -amines, such as butylamine or amylamine. - -The characteristic odour of many varieties of cheese is chiefly owing -to the genesis of these latter compounds. - -As with butter, the most important adulteration of cheese consists -in the addition of foreign fats. Doubtless, the most frequent -sophistication is the admixture of lard. Lard cheese (which is usually -sold as “Neufchatel”) is made by first preparing an emulsion of lard -and skimmed milk (in the proportion of one part of the former to two -parts of the latter). This is subsequently incorporated with skimmed -milk and butter-milk, the coagulation of the fat being then effected -in the usual manner. In regard to the production of this species of -cheese, it is stated that in the 23 factories in the State of New -York, the product of six months’ working (ending November, 1881), was -about 800,000 pounds, of which the greater proportion was exported. -The recent (1885) adoption of a New York State brand for “pure cream -cheese” has had a very good effect, and accomplished much in the -restriction of the manufacture and sale of the spurious article. -Another variety of imitation cheese, know as “anti-huff cheese,” -is prepared from skimmed milk without the addition of foreign fat, -but with the aid of various chemical preparations, such as caustic -or carbonated soda, saltpetre, and borax. The rind of cheese is -occasionally contaminated with poisonous metallic salts, including -those of lead, mercury, antimony, arsenic, copper and zinc, which are -added either for colouring purposes or to prevent the attacks of flies -and other insects. This form of adulteration is doubtless of rare -occurrence. The methods used in cheese analysis are much the same as -those employed in the examination of butter. The fat is determined -by exhaustion with ether (or preferably, petroleum naphtha), and -evaporation, the remaining solids not fat being likewise dried and -weighed. The difference between the combined weight of the fat and the -solids not fat, and the amount of the sample taken, represents the -proportion of water present. Lactic acid, while insoluble in petroleum -naphtha, is also dissolved by ether, and can be estimated by digesting -another portion of the sample with water, and titrating the filtered -liquid with decinormal soda solution. Its weight is then to be deducted -from the amount of fat previously obtained, in case ether was employed -in this determination. The relative proportions of the soluble and -insoluble fatty acids contained in cheese possess the same significance -in indicating the presence of oleomargarine and other foreign fats as -with butter; and they are determined by the same methods. - -The examination of the colouring matter of cheese can be made by first -neutralising the free lactic acid, separating the fat by agitation -with water, filtering and drying; the fat is then tested with carbon -disulphide and potassium hydroxide (see p. 77). - -FOOTNOTES: - -[47] ‘Analyst,’ Jan. 1885, p. 3. - -[48] Chem. News, pp. 47, 85. - -[49] Dingl., vol. i. pp. 247, 474. - - - - -FLOUR AND BREAD. - - -Wheat (_Triticum vulgare_) forms the principal bread-stuff of civilized -nations, and is by far the most important of all cereal grasses. It -has one or more slender, erect and smooth stalks, which, owing to the -large proportion of siliceous matter present, possesses the strength -necessary for the support of the ears. The grain is imbricated in four -rows. The following are the averages of the results obtained by the -analyses of 260 samples of American wheat, made by the United States -Department of Agriculture, in 1883:-- - - Per cent. - Water 10·27 - Ash 1·84 - Oil 2·16 - Carbohydrates 71·98 - Fibrin 1·80 - Albuminoids 11·95 - Nitrogen 1·91 - -Analyses of the ash of wheat by the same Department, furnished the -following results:-- - - ----------------+---------+------------------- - | | Foreign. - | Dakota. +---------+--------- - | | Winter. | Spring. - ----------------+---------+---------+--------- - |Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent. - Insoluble | 1·44 | 2·11 | 1·64 - Phosphoric acid | 47·31 | 46·98 | 48·63 - Potassa | 30·63 | 31·16 | 29·99 - Magnesia | 16·09 | 11·97 | 12·09 - Lime | 3·36 | 3·34 | 2·93 - Soda | 1·17 | 2·25 | 1·93 - Sulphuric acid | trace | 0·37 | 0·48 - Chlorine | „ | 0·22 | 0·51 - Ferric oxide | „ | 1·31 | 0·28 - Undetermined | .. | 0·29 | 1·52 - | ------ | ------ | ------ - | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 - | | | - Total ash | 1·88 | 1·97 | 2·14 - ----------------+---------+---------+--------- - - -FLOUR. - -The name flour is usually given to the product obtained by grinding -wheat and removing the bran, or woody portion of the grain, by sifting -or bolting. Its constituents are starch, dextrine, cellulose, and sugar -(carbohydrates), the nitrogenous compounds albumen, gliadin, mucin, -fibrin, and cerealin, and fat, mineral substances and water. Upon -kneading flour with water, and removing the starch and soluble matters -by repeated washing, an adhesive body termed _gluten_ remains behind. -This is chiefly composed of gliadin, mucin, and fibrin. - -According to Wanklyn,[50] the general composition of flour is:-- - - Per cent. - Water 16·5 - Fat 1·5 - Gluten 12·0 - Modified starch 3·5 - Vegetable albumen 1·0 - Starch granules 64·8 - Ash 0·7 - -The average of numerous analyses of American flour examined by the -Department of Agriculture gave:-- - - Per cent. - Water 11·67 - Fat 1·25 - Sugar 1·91 - Dextrine 1·79 - Starch 71·72 - Soluble albuminoids 2·80 - Insoluble „ 7·90 - Total „ 10·70 - Ash 0·54 - -The composition of the ash of flour from Minnesota wheat (1883), is as -follows:-- - - Per cent. - Insoluble 0·98 - Phosphoric acid 49·63 - Potassa 31·54 - Magnesia 9·05 - Lime 5·87 - Soda 2·93 - - -ANALYSIS OF FLOUR. - -The following are the determinations generally required in the -proximate analysis of flour:-- - -_Water._--Two or three grammes of the sample are weighed in a tared -platinum dish, and heated in an air bath, until constant weight is -obtained. The proportion of water should not exceed 17 per cent. - -_Starch._--A small amount of the flour is placed in a flask, connected -with an ascending Liebig’s condenser, and boiled for several hours with -water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. Any remaining excess -of acid is then neutralised with sodium hydroxide; the solution is -considerably diluted, and the glucose formed, estimated by means of -Fehling’s solution (see p. 111). 100 parts of glucose represent 90 -parts of starch. - -_Fat._--The inconsiderable proportion of fat in flour is best -determined by exhausting the dried sample with ether and evaporating -the solution. - -_Gluten_ (albuminoids).--As previously stated, gluten is separated by -kneading the flour and repeated washing with water. After the removal -of the amylaceous and soluble ingredients, the residue is carefully -dried and weighed. A far more accurate method is to make a combustion -of a small portion of the flour with cupric oxide, and determine the -quantity of nitrogen obtained, the percentage of which, multiplied by -6·33, gives the percentage of gluten.[51] The proportion of gluten in -flour ranges from about 8 to 18 per cent. From 10 to 12 per cent, is -deemed necessary in order to make good bread, and, in England, any -deficiency in this constituent is remedied by the addition of bean or -other flour, but in the United States this practice is seldom required. - -_Substances soluble in cold water._--About five grammes of the flour -are digested with 250 c.c. of cold water, and the solution filtered, -and evaporated to dryness. Good flour is stated to yield 4·7 per cent. -of extract when treated in this manner, the soluble matters consisting -of sugar, gum, dextrine, vegetable albumen, and potassium phosphate. -The latter salt, which constitutes about 0·4 per cent. of the extract, -should form the only mineral matter present. - -_The Ash._--The ash of flour is determined in the usual manner, by -ignition in a platinum dish. It varies in amount from 0·3 to 0·8 per -cent., and should never exceed a proportion of 1·5 per cent. - -When of good quality, wheaten flour is perfectly white, or has only a -faint tinge of yellow. It should be free from bran, and must not show -red, grey, or black specks, nor possess a disagreeable odour. It should -also exhibit a neutral reaction and a decided cohesiveness, acquiring -a peculiar soft and cushion-like condition when slightly compressed. -Formerly, wheaten flour was mixed with various foreign meals, such as -rye, corn, barley, peas, beans, rice, linseed, buckwheat, and potato -starch; but at present this form of adulteration is probably but -rarely resorted to, at least in the United States. The presence of -mildew, darnel, ergot, and other parasites of the grain, constitutes -an occasional contamination of flour. The most frequent admixture -consists, however, in the addition of alum, which, although more -extensively used in bread, is also employed in order to disguise the -presence of damaged flour in mixtures, or to improve the appearance of -an inferior grade; its addition to a damaged article serves to arrest -the decomposition of the gluten, thereby preventing the flour from -acquiring a dark colour, and disagreeable taste and odour. - -It has recently been stated that in flour which has been kept for a -long time in sacks, a transformation of the gluten sometimes occurs, -resulting in the production of a poisonous alkaloid. This body may be -separated by evaporating the ethereal extract of the flour to dryness, -and treating the residue with water. The presence of the alkaloid in -the filtered aqueous solution is recognised by means of potassium -ferrocyanide. The presence of an excessive proportion of moisture is -doubtless instrumental in the formation of toxic alkaloids or fungi in -old flour and bread. - -Pure wheaten flour is coloured yellow when treated with ammonium -hydroxide, whereas corn meal assumes a pale brown colour, and the meals -prepared from peas, beans, etc., become dark brown in colour when -tested in this way. Nitric acid imparts an orange-yellow colour to -wheaten flour, but fails to change the colour of potato-starch, with -which it forms a stiff and tenacious paste. - -Potato-starch is readily detected by examining a thin layer of the -sample on a slide under the microscope, and adding a dilute solution -of potassium hydroxide, which, while not affecting the wheaten starch, -causes the potato-starch granules to swell up very considerably. -Leguminous starches, such as peas, etc., contain approximately 2·5 per -cent. of mineral matter; in pure flour, the average proportion of ash -is only about 0·7 per cent., and this difference is sometimes useful in -the detection of an admixture of the former. - -The external envelope of the granules of potato-starch offers far less -resistance when triturated in a mortar than that of wheat, and upon -this fact a simple test for their detection is founded. It is executed -by rubbing up a mixture consisting of equal parts of the sample and -sand with water, diluting and filtering the paste formed, and then -adding to it a solution of 1 part of iodine in 20 parts of water. In -the absence of potato-starch, an evanescent pink colour is produced; -in case it is present, the colour obtained is dark purple, which in -time also disappears. - -Among the methods which have been suggested for the detection of -such accidental impurities as darnel, ergot, and mildew, are the -following:--If pure flour is digested for some time with dilute -alcohol, the latter either remains quite clear or it acquires a very -light straw-colour; with flour contaminated with darnel, the alcohol -shows a decided greenish tint, and possesses an acrid and disagreeable -taste. In case the alcohol used is acidulated with about 5 per cent. -of hydrochloric acid, the extract obtained exhibits a purple-red -colour with flour containing mildew, and a blood-red colour with flour -containing ergot. When flour contaminated with ergot or other moulds, -is treated with a dilute solution of aniline violet, the dye is almost -wholly absorbed by the damaged granules, which are thus rendered more -noticeable in the microscopic examination. - -The following test is often used for the detection of alum in flour:--A -small quantity of the suspected sample is made into a paste with a -little water and mixed with a few drops of an alcoholic tincture of -logwood; a little ammonium carbonate solution is then added. In the -presence of alum, a lavender-blue coloured lake is formed, which -often becomes more apparent upon allowing the mixture to remain at -rest for a few hours. The production of a brown or pink coloration is -an indication of the absence of alum. A modification of this test, -proposed by Blyth, consists in immersing for several hours in the cold -aqueous extract of the flour a strip of gelatine, with which the alum -combines; the gelatine is subsequently submitted to the action of the -logwood tincture and ammonium carbonate as above. - -For the quantitative estimation of alum in flour, the following -processes are usually employed:--A considerable quantity of the sample -is incinerated in a platinum dish, the ash is boiled with dilute -hydrochloric acid and the solution filtered. The filtrate is next -boiled and added to a concentrated solution of pure sodium hydroxide, -the mixture being again boiled and afterwards filtered hot. A little -sodium diphosphate is now added to the filtrate which is then slightly -acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and finally made barely alkaline by -addition of ammonium hydroxide. The resulting precipitate, which, in -the presence of alum, consists of aluminium phosphate, is brought upon -a filter, well washed, and then weighed. - -Another method, which is a modification of that of Dupré, is as -follows:--The ash obtained by the calcination of the flour (or bread), -is fused, together with four times its weight of pure mixed sodium and -potassium carbonates, the fused mass treated with hydrochloric acid, -the solution evaporated to dryness and the separated silica collected -and weighed. A few drops of sodium phosphate solution are added to -the filtrate from the silica, then ammonium hydroxide in excess, by -which the calcium, magnesium, ferric and aluminium phosphates are -precipitated. The two latter are next separated by boiling the liquid -with an excess of acetic acid (in which they are insoluble), and -brought upon a filter, washed, dried, and weighed. The iron sometimes -accompanying the precipitate of aluminium phosphate, can be determined -by reduction with zinc and titration with potassium permanganate. -If the presence of alum is indicated by the logwood test, and it is -quantitatively determined by either of the preceding methods, it has -been suggested that an allowance be made for the small proportion of -aluminium silicate occasionally found in unadulterated flour or bread, -and a deduction from the total alum present of one part of alum for -every part of silica obtained is considered proper. The weight of -aluminium phosphate found, multiplied by 3·873, or by 3·702, gives -respectively the corresponding amounts of potash-alum or ammonia-alum -contained in the sample examined. - - -BREAD. - -Bread is usually prepared by mixing flour with water, kneading it into -a uniform dough, submitting it to a process of “raising,” either by -means of a ferment or by the direct incorporation of carbonic acid gas, -and finally baking the resulting mass. - -Unleavened bread, however, is made by simply kneading flour with water, -with the addition of a little salt, and baking. The oatcake of the -Scotch, the passover bread of the Israelites, and the corncakes of the -Southern States are the best known varieties of unleavened bread. - -The porosity peculiar to raised bread is caused by the generation of -a gas, either previous to, or during the process of baking. In former -times (and to some extent at present, notably in Paris), fermented -bread was made by the use of _leaven_, which is dough in a state of -incipient decomposition; but in this country, the common agent employed -in raising bread is yeast, which consists of minute vegetable cells -(_Torula cerevisiæ_) forming either the froth or deposit of fermenting -worts. - -By the action of these ferments, the gluten of the flour first -undergoes a modification and enters into a peculiar combination with -the starch-granules, which become more or less ruptured; the soluble -albumen is rendered insoluble, and the starch is transformed, first -into sugar, then into carbonic acid and alcohol. These changes are -perfectly analogous to those which occur in the fermentation of the -wort in the preparation of fermented liquors. - -Other and minor decompositions likewise occur, such as the partial -conversion of the starch into dextrine, the sugar into lactic acid, -and the alcohol into acetic acid, but the most essential change is the -production of alcohol and carbonic acid. The alcohol formed is mainly -volatilised, although an average proportion of 0·3 per cent. of this -compound has been found in samples of fresh bread. The escape of the -carbonic acid is retarded by the gluten, and to its expansion is due -the porous or spongy appearance of well-made bread. - -Of late years, artificial substitutes for the fermentation process in -the production of porous bread have been extensively employed. By the -use of these agents, the liberation of carbonic acid in the dough is -accomplished and a slight gain of weight is effected, as none of the -original ingredients of the flour are lost by fermentation. - -“Aërated bread” is made by kneading the flour under pressure with water -highly charged with carbonic acid gas, which, upon the removal of the -pressure, expands, and gives porosity to the bread. The use of “baking -powders” effects the same result in a more convenient manner, and is -largely practised in families. These compounds generally consist of -sodium bicarbonate (sometimes partially replaced by the corresponding -ammonia salt), and tartaric acid, or potassium bitartrate, together -with rice or other flour. A more commendable preparation is a mixture -of sodium bicarbonate with potassium or calcium acid phosphates, the -use of which is claimed to restore to the bread the phosphates lost by -the removal of the bran from the flour. Baking powders are often mixed -in the dry state with flour, and the produce, which is known under the -name of “self-raising flour,” only requires to be kneaded with water -and baked to form porous bread. However great the convenience attending -the use of these compounds, they are often open to the objection that -their decomposition gives rise to the formation of aperient salts, -_e.g._ sodium tartrate, and that they are very frequently contaminated -with alum. - -As a result of the chemical changes which take place in the -fermentation of the flour and the subsequent application of heat, the -composition of bread differs materially from that of the grain from -which it is prepared. As already mentioned, the soluble albuminoids -are rendered insoluble, and the starch is partially transformed into -sugar (maltose). The unconverted starch is modified in its physical -condition, the ruptured granules being far more readily acted upon -by the digestive fluids than before. The proportion of soluble -carbohydrates is naturally augmented in bread. The amount of ash is -also somewhat increased, chiefly owing to the addition of salt, but -it should not exceed a proportion of 2 per cent. The quantity of -water in bread varies considerably. Wanklyn fixes 34 per cent. as the -standard; greater proportions have, however, been frequently found. -In ten samples of apparently normal bread, examined by E. S. Wood, -Analyst to the Massachusetts State Board of Health, the amounts of -moisture contained varied from 34 to 44 per cent. The quantity of -water decreases very rapidly upon exposure to the air. Thus, Clifford -Richardson[52] found that bread which showed 36 per cent. of moisture -when freshly baked, contained but 5·86 per cent. after drying for two -weeks. Stale bread would seem to contain water in a peculiar molecular -condition, and, as is well known, upon heating (“toasting”), it -reassumes the porous state. - -According to analyses collected by König,[53] the mean composition of -bread is as follows:-- - - -------------+-------------------------------------------------------- - |Water. - | +-------------------------------------------------- - | |Nitrogenous substances. - | | +-----+------+------------------------------- - | | |Fat. |Sugar.| Extractive free from Nitrogen. - | | | | ++ +-----------+-------------- - | | | | | |Cellulose. | Dry - | | | | | | +-----| Substances. - | | | | | | |Ash. |-------------- - | | | | | | | |Carbohydrates. - | | | | | | | |-----+ - | | | | | | | | N. | - -------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------- - | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per - |cent.|cent.|cent.|cent.|cent.|cent.|cent.|cent.| cent. - Fine wheat | | | | | | | | | - bread |31·51| 7·06| 0·46| 4·02|52·56|0·32 | 1·09| 1·75| 87·79 - Coarse | | | | | | | | | - wheat bread|40·45| 6·15| 0·44| 2·08|49·04|0·62 | 1·22| 1·65| 85·84 - Rye bread |42·27| 6·11| 0·43| 2·31|46·94|0·49 | 1·46| 1·69| 85·31 - Pumpernickel |43·42| 7·59| 1·51| 3·25|41·87|0·94 | 1·42| 2·15| 79·74 - -------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------- - -Clifford Richardson gives the following results of the analysis of -ordinary family loaf-bread:-- - - Per cent. - Water 37·30 - Soluble albuminoids 1·19 - Insoluble „ 6·85 - Fat 0·60 - Sugar 2·16 - Dextrine 2·85 - Starch 47·03 - Fibre 0·85 - Ash 1·17 - ------ - 100·00 - - Nitrogen 1·29 - Total albuminoids 8·04 - -The analysis of bread is conducted essentially in the same manner -as that of flour. Under ordinary circumstances, the determinations -required are limited to an estimation of the moisture contained in -the crumb, the amount of the ash, and special tests for the presence -of alum and copper salts. Owing to the broken condition of the starch -granules in bread, their identification by the microscope is usually -rendered exceedingly difficult. The logwood test for alum in bread -is applied by Bell as follows:--About 10 grammes of the crumb are -immersed in a little water containing 5 c.c. each of the freshly -prepared logwood tincture and solution of ammonium carbonate for about -five minutes, after which the liquid is decanted, and the bread dried -at a gentle heat. In the presence of alum the bread will acquire -the characteristic lavender tint mentioned under Flour. It should -be added, that salts of magnesia also produce a lavender lake with -alum; but this fact does not affect the usefulness of the process as -a preliminary test to the quantitative determination of the mineral -impurities present in the sample under examination. The quantitative -examination of alum in bread is made by one of the methods described on -p. 93. Bread, free from alum, will sometimes yield 0·013 per cent. of -aluminium phosphate, and this amount should therefore be deducted from -the weight of the precipitate obtained. - -The average of the results obtained by Dr. Edward G. Love, New York -State Board of Health, from the examination of the crumb of ten samples -of the cheaper varieties of wheaten bread were as follows:-- - - Per cent. - Water 42·80 - Total ash 1·0066 - Silica and sand 0·0056 - Aluminium (and ferric) phosphates 0·0053 - -That the addition of alum to bread is prevalent seems to admit of -little doubt. The British Public Analysts, in 1879, tested 1287 samples -of bread, of which 95 (or 7·3 per cent.) contained alum. Of 18 samples -examined, in 1880, in the city of Washington, 8 were adulterated with -the salt. The question of the sanitary effects produced by the use of -alumed bread is one which has given rise to very extended discussion. -According to some authorities, the conversion of alum into an insoluble -salt by the fermentation process, which takes place in bread-making, -is regarded as a proof that it remains inert, and is consequently -harmless in its effects. Others contend that its action as a preventive -of excessive fermentation is at the expense of valuable nutritious -constituents of the flour, and that its combination with the phosphates -present in the grain results in the formation of an insoluble salt -which tends to retard digestion. Experiments have been made by J. West -Knights, on the comparative action of artificial gastric juice upon -pure and alumed bread, which apparently support this latter view. - -Another objection to the use of alum is that it is frequently employed -for the purpose of disguising the bad quality of damaged and inferior -grades of flour. The presence of copper salts in bread is of rare -occurrence. Their detection is accomplished by treating a portion -of the crumb with a dilute solution of potassium ferrocyanide -acidulated with acetic acid, which, in presence of copper, will impart -a reddish-brown colour to the bread. If contained in any appreciable -proportion, it can be extracted from the ash obtained by the -incineration of the bread, and deposited upon the interior of a weighed -platinum capsule by the electrolytic method. - -_Starch_ (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}).--Starch, which enters so largely into the -composition of cereals, is a carbo-hydrate, _i. e._ hydrogen and oxygen -are contained in the proportions necessary to form water. In this -respect, it is identical with woody fibre, cellulose, and dextrine. - -The well-known dark-blue colour produced upon the addition of a -solution of iodine to starch-paste forms the usual qualitative test -for its presence. This coloration is discharged by alkalies and by a -solution of sulphurous acid. The quantitative estimation of starch in -mixtures is best effected by heating the dry substance in a closed -tube for 24 hours, together with a dilute hot alcoholic solution of -potassium hydroxide. The hot liquid is next filtered, the residue -washed with alcohol, and the filtrate heated with 2 per cent. solution -of hydrochloric acid until it ceases to show the blue coloration when -tested with iodine. It is then rendered alkaline, and the proportion of -starch originally present, calculated from the amount of sugar formed, -as determined by Fehling’s solution. Although identical in chemical -composition, the various forms of starch met with in the vegetable -kingdom vary in size and exhibit characteristic differences in the -appearance of the granules. The following are measurements of several -varieties of starch granules:-- - - Millimetre. - Wheat ·0500 - Rye ·0310 - Rice ·0220 - Corn ·0300 - Bean ·0631 - Potato ·1850 - -The larger granules of potato starch, when suspended in water, subside -more rapidly than those of wheat starch; they are also far more readily -ruptured. - -The identification of the various starches is accomplished by means -of the microscope. Starch possesses an organised structure which, -fortunately, differs in different plants. Besides varying in size, -the granules develope in a different manner and form from centres of -growth, and therefore exhibit characteristic conditions and positions. -These distinctions, together with their effect upon polarised light, -are of great utility in the determination of the source of any -particular starch. For this purpose, it is necessary to become familiar -with the distinctive microscopical appearance of each individual -starch. A collection of those most usually met with should be made, -and, after careful study, preserved in a dried state for comparative -purposes. Polarised light is a very useful adjunct in the examination -of starch granules. In the microscopical investigation, a minute -portion of the sample is placed upon the glass slide and well moistened -with a solution of 1 part glycerine in 2 parts of water; it is then -protected by a thin glass cover, which is put on with gentle pressure. -The appearance of various starches, under polarised light, is seen in -Plate IX., where the cross lies at the hilum or nucleus of the granule -and the form and relative size is visible in outline. This plate, and -Plates VII. and XII. are copied, with permission, from Bulletin No. 11 -of the Chemical Division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The -original negatives (made by Clifford Richardson) were used, but the -auto-types are presented in a somewhat modified form. - - PLATE IX. - -[Illustration: Potato × 145.] - -[Illustration: Maize × 145.] - -[Illustration: Wheat × 145.] - -[Illustration: Rice × 450.] - -[Illustration: Bean × 145.] - -[Illustration: Pea × 145.] - - STARCHES. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[50] ‘Bread Analysis.’ - -[51] Wanklyn applies his ammonia process (see p. 205), to the -estimation of albuminoids in vegetable substances. In this manner -he obtained the following percentages of ammonia from various -flours:--Rice, 0·62; maize and malt, 1·03; wheat and barley, 1·10; rye, -1·45; pea, 2·30. - -[52] ‘An Investigation of the Composition of American Wheat and Corn.’ -United States Department of Agriculture, 1883. - -[53] ‘Die Menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel’ p. 420. Berlin, 1883. - - - - -BAKERS’ CHEMICALS. - - -The substances employed for the artificial production of porosity -in bread, as already mentioned, are sodium bicarbonate (now termed -“saleratus”), potassium bitartrate, tartaric acid, and calcium -diphosphate, the various mixtures of these compounds being known as -baking powders. Some of the above chemicals are not always used in -the pure state, and, in addition to this source of contamination, -baking powders are often excessively diluted with flour or starch, and -seriously adulterated with alum. - -The sodium bicarbonate employed is generally a fairly pure article. -Common grades of the salt contain a little sodium chloride, and in some -cases as much as 2 per cent. of the corresponding sulphate; it may -also prove to be somewhat deficient in the proportion of carbonic acid -present. Cream of tartar (potassium bitartrate), is far more liable to -adulteration. A certain quantity of calcium tartrate is often found in -the commercial article, originating from its method of manufacture, and -amounting, on the average, from 6 to 7 per cent. The salt is, moreover, -sometimes intentionally mixed with alum, starch, tartaric acid, gypsum, -chalk and terra alba. - -Occasionally so-called cream of tartar has been found to be wholly -composed of starch and calcium diphosphate. In the examination for -calcium tartrate and sulphate, a quantitative determination of the -total lime and sulphuric acid is made. The quantity of sulphuric -acid obtained is calculated to gypsum, any excess of lime left -being returned as tartrate. The ash in pure cream of tartar should -amount to 36·79 per cent., while that of calcium tartrate is only -21·54 per cent. Naturally, the addition of flour or starch would -materially decrease the proportion of ash. The presence of these latter -adulterants is recognised by means of the microscope, and by testing -the sample with iodine solution. It is generally required that cream of -tartar should contain at least 90 per cent. of potassium bitartrate. - -_Baking powders._--The usual composition of baking powders has already -been stated. They all contain sodium bicarbonate, but differ in the -acid ingredient present, which may consist of cream of tartar, tartaric -acid, calcium diphosphate, or alum. In order to remedy the tendency to -deterioration which exists in powders entirely composed of the above -salts, it is the practice to add a considerable amount of “filling” -(corn-starch, flour, etc.). The quantity of filling employed for this -purpose varies from 20 to 60 per cent., but is as a rule, greater than -is really necessary. A small proportion of the sodium salt is often -replaced by ammonium sesquicarbonate. Alum is a more objectionable -constituent of many preparations, and it should be considered an -adulteration. The practical value of baking powder is chiefly dependent -upon the quantity of carbonic acid it liberates when decomposed, and -this is affected by the strength of the acid salt and the amount of -“filling” used. The most common varieties of baking powders are:-- - -(_a_) _Sodium bicarbonate and cream of tartar_, either pure or mixed -with starch. In testing this class of powders, it is usual to determine -the excessive alkalinity remaining after the decomposition with water, -by means of decinormal acid; this is put down as bicarbonate present in -excess. The proportions of sodium bicarbonate and cream of tartar are -calculated from the alkaline strength of the ash, minus the excessive -alkalinity found. - -Impurities originating from the cream of tartar employed are estimated -as previously described; and the amount of starch contained is -determined by the usual methods. In some preparations, tartaric acid -is substituted for cream of tartar. - -The following proportions represent the composition of a baking powder -of good quality:-- - - Parts. - Cream of tartar 30 - Sodium bicarbonate 15 - Flour 5 - -(_b_) _Sodium bicarbonate and calcium diphosphate._--Calcium sulphate -occurs as an impurity in the commercial phosphate and is therefore -liable to be met with in phosphate powders. In addition to phosphoric -acid, lime, etc., a determination of sulphuric acid and chlorine should -be made. - -(_c_) _Sodium bicarbonate and alum._--These constitute the most -reprehensible forms of baking powder. The sanitary effects of alum have -been referred to under Flour. It may be present either as potash or -ammonia alum. The following is a fair example of an alum powder:-- - - Per cent. - Alum 26·45 - Sodium bicarbonate 24·17 - Ammonium sesquicarbonate 2·31 - Cream of tartar None - Starch 47·07 - -From an exhaustive investigation of baking powders made by Dr. Henry -A. Mott, it was found that about 50 per cent. of these preparations -were impure, alum being the chief admixture. Of 280 samples of cream -of tartar lately examined by various American Health Boards, 100 were -adulterated; of 95 baking powders tested, 16 were adulterated. - - - - -SUGAR. - - -The sugars of commerce may be conveniently classified into two -varieties, viz., sucrose (cane sugar or saccharose) and dextrose (grape -sugar or glucose). The former, which is the kind almost exclusively -employed for domestic uses, is chiefly obtained from the sugar cane of -the West Indies and American Southern States (_Saccharum officinarum_), -and, in continental Europe, from the sugar beet (_Beta vulgaris_). -A comparatively small quantity is manufactured in the United States -from the sugar maple (_Acer saccharinum_), and from sorghum (_Sorghum -saccharatus_). - -_Cane Sugar_ (C_{12} H_{22} O_{11}).--Among the more important chemical -properties of cane sugar are the following:--It dissolves in about -one-third its weight of cold water--much more readily in hot water--and -is insoluble in cold absolute alcohol. From a concentrated aqueous -solution it is deposited in monoclinic prisms, which possess a specific -gravity of 1·580. Cane sugar is characterised by its property of -rotating the plane of a ray of polarised light to the right; the rotary -power is 66°·6. Upon heating its solution with dilute mineral acids, it -is converted into a mixture termed “invert sugar,” which consists of -equal parts of _dextrose_ and _levulose_. The former turns the plane of -polarised light to the right, the latter to the left; but owing to the -stronger rotation exerted by the levulose, the combined rotary effect -of invert sugar is to the left, _i. e._, opposite to that possessed by -cane sugar. Invert sugar exhibits the important property of reducing -solutions of the salts of copper, which is not possessed by pure cane -sugar. Cane sugar melts at 160°; at a higher temperature (210°) it -is converted into a reddish-brown substance termed _caramel_. When -subjected to the action of ferments, cane sugar is first transformed -into invert sugar, then into alcohol and carbonic acid, according to -the reactions:-- - - (_a_) C_{12} H_{22} O_{11} + H_{2}O = 2 C_{6} H_{12} O_{6}. - (_b_) C_{6} H_{12} O_{6} = 2 CO_{2} + 2 C_{2} H_{6}O. - -The varieties of cane sugar usually met with in commerce are the -following:-- - -1. Loaf sugar, consisting either of irregular fragments, or (more -often) of cut cubes. - -2. Granulated sugar. - -3. Soft white sugar. - -4. Brown sugar, varying in colour from cream-yellow to reddish-brown. - -Molasses is a solution of sugar, containing invert sugar, gummy -matters, caramel, etc., which forms the mother-liquor remaining after -the crystallisation of raw cane sugar; the name “syrup” being commonly -applied to the residual liquor obtained in the manufacture of refined -sugar. - -_Dextrose_ (C_{6} H_{12} O_{6}), occurs ready-formed in grape juice, -and in many sweet fruits, very frequently associated with levulose; -it is also contained in honey, together with a small amount of cane -sugar. As already mentioned, it constitutes an ingredient of the -product obtained by the action of acids and ferments upon cane sugar. -For commercial purposes, glucose is prepared by treating grains rich -in starch, with dilute acids. In France and Germany, potatoes are used -in its manufacture; in the United States, Indian corn or maize is -almost exclusively employed. The processes used consist substantially -in first separating the starch from the grain by soaking, grinding, -and straining, then boiling it, under pressure, with water containing -about 3 per cent. of sulphuric acid, neutralising the remaining acid -with chalk, decolorising the solution by means of animal charcoal, -and concentrating it in vacuum pans. In the United States thirty-two -factories are engaged in the manufacture of glucose, which consume -about 40,000 bushels of corn daily, their annual production having an -estimated value of 10 millions of dollars. In commerce, the term grape -sugar is applied to the solid product, the syrup or liquid form being -known as glucose. The chief uses of starch sugar and glucose are in -the manufacture of table syrups, and as a substitute for malt in the -brewing of beer and ale. Their other most important applications are as -a substitute for cane sugar in confectionery, and in the preparation -of fruit jellies; as an adulterant of cane sugar, as an admixture to -genuine honey, and as a source for the preparation of vinegar. - -Dextrose is soluble in 1-1/5 part of cold water, and is much more -soluble in hot water. It has a dextro-rotary power of 56°. When -separated from its aqueous solution, it forms white and opaque granular -masses, but from an alcoholic solution, it is obtained in well-defined, -microscopic needles, which fuse at 146°. Two parts of glucose have -about the same sweetening effect as one part of cane sugar.[54] It does -not become coloured when mixed with cold concentrated sulphuric acid, -which distinguishes it from sucrose; on the other hand, its solution -is coloured dark-brown if boiled with potassium hydroxide, another -distinction from cane sugar. Dextrose is capable of directly undergoing -vinous fermentation, and, like invert sugar, it possesses the property -of reducing alkaline solutions of copper salts, especially upon the -application of heat. - -The chief commercial varieties of American glucose are the following:-- - - 1. _Glucose_: Per cent. Glucose. - “Crystal H,” containing 40 - “Crystal B” 45 - “Crystal A” 50 - - 2. _Grape Sugar_: - “Brewers’ grape” 70-75 - “A” or “Solid grape” 75-80 - “Grained” or “Granulated grape” 80-85 - -_Maltose_ and _levulose_ are isomers of dextrose. The former is -prepared by the action of malt or diastase upon starch. It has a -dextro-rotary power of 150° and its property of reducing copper salts -is only about 60 per cent. of that of dextrose. It is converted into -the latter compound upon boiling with dilute sulphuric acid. Levulose, -as previously stated, is formed, together with dextrose, from cane -sugar by treatment with dilute acids or with ferments. It turns the -plane of a ray of polarised light to the left, its rotary power varying -considerably at different temperatures. - -_Lactose_, or milk sugar, has already been referred to under the head -of Milk. It is isomeric with cane sugar, possesses a dextro-rotary -power (58°·2), and undergoes fermentation when mixed with yeast, and -reduces alkaline copper solutions, but in a different degree from -glucose. - -Many of the substances frequently enumerated as being used to -adulterate sugar are at present very seldom employed. The usual list -includes “glucose” (often meaning invert sugar), sand, flour, chalk, -terra alba, etc. Loaf sugar is almost invariably pure, although its -colour is sometimes improved by the addition of small proportions of -various blue pigments, such as ultramarine, indigo, and Prussian blue. -The presence of ultramarine was detected in about 73 per cent. of -the samples of granulated sugar tested in 1881 by the New York State -Board of Health. Tin salts[55] are also occasionally employed in the -bleaching of sugar and syrups. Granulated sugar is asserted to be -sometimes mixed with grape sugar, and powdered sugar has been found -adulterated with flour and terra alba; but the varieties which are most -exposed to admixture are the low grades of yellow and brown sugar, in -which, however, several per cent. of invert sugar are normally present. -Sand, gravel, and mites form a rather common contamination of raw -sugar. From the year 1876 to 1881, 310 samples of commercial sugar were -examined by the public health authorities of Canada, of which number -24 were reported as containing glucose, and 11 as of doubtful purity. -Of 38 samples of brown sugar recently analysed by Dr. Charles Smart, -of the National Board of Health, 9 were adulterated with glucose. -From the investigations of A. L. Colby, Analyst to the New York State -Board of Health, it was found that of the 116 samples examined, the -white sugars were practically pure; whereas, of 67 samples of brown -sugar, 4 contained glucose. Of 16 specimens of brown sugar, tested by -a commission appointed by the National Academy of Sciences in 1883, -4 contained about 30 per cent. of this body.[56] Many varieties of -sugar-house syrups, and the various forms of confectionery, are very -extensively adulterated with artificial glucose. - -The average sugar-house syrup has the following composition:-- - - Per cent. - Water 16 - Crystallisable sugar 36 - Invert sugar 34 - Gum, pectose, etc. 10 - Ash 4 - -Dr. W. H. Pitt, in the Second Annual Report of the New York State -Board of Health, gives the following analysis of grocers’ mixed glucose -syrup, and of confectioners’ glucose:-- - - _American Grape Sugar Co.’s Syrup._ - - Per cent. - Ash 0·820 - Water 18·857 - Dextrine 34·667 - Cane syrup 7·805 - Glucose 37·851 - ------- - 100·000 - ------- - - _Confectioners’ Glucose._ - - Per cent. - Ash 0·431 - Water 15·762 - Dextrine 41·614 - Glucose 42·193 - ------- - 100·000 - ------- - -It is stated that a large proportion of the American maple syrup and -maple sugar found on the market, consists of raw sugar, flavoured with -the essential oil of hickory-bark, for the manufacture of which letters -patent have been granted. - -_Analysis of Sugar._--The examination of sugar is ordinarily confined -to the estimation of the water, ash, and determination of the nature -of the organic matters present. The proportion of water contained in -a sample is found by drying it for about two hours in an air-bath, at -a temperature of 110°. Moist and syrupy sugars, such as muscovadoes, -are advantageously mixed with a known weight of ignited sand before -drying. The ash is determined either by directly incinerating a few -grammes of the sugar in a tared platinum capsule, or by accelerating -the process of combustion by first moistening the sample with a little -sulphuric acid. In this case the bases will naturally be converted -into sulphates, and a deduction of one-tenth is usually made from -the results so obtained, in order to reduce it to terms of the -corresponding carbonates. The proportion of ash in raw cane sugar -varies somewhat, but it should not much exceed 1·5 per cent. Its -average composition, as given by Monier, is as follows:-- - - Calcic carbonate 49·00 - Potassium carbonate 16·50 - Sodium and potassium sulphates 16·00 - Sodium chloride 9·00 - Alumina and silica 9·50 - ------ - 100·00 - ------ - -Insoluble mineral adulterants are readily separated by dissolving a -rather considerable amount of the sample in water and filtering. In -this manner the presence of sand, terra alba, and foreign pigments may -be recognised. - -The determination of the character of the organic constituents of -commercial sugars is effected, either by chemical or by physical tests, -and, in some instances, by a combination of these methods. The presence -of such adulterants, as flour or starch, is very easily detected upon a -microscopic examination of the suspected sample. - -If cane sugar, containing grape sugar, is boiled with water, to which -about 2 per cent. of potassium hydroxide has been added, the solution -acquires a brown colour. - -Upon mixing a solution of pure cane sugar with a solution of cupric -sulphate, adding an excess of potassium hydroxide, and boiling, only a -slight precipitation of red cupric oxide takes place. Under the same -conditions, grape sugar at once produces a copious green precipitate, -which ultimately changes to red, the supernatant fluid becoming nearly -or quite colourless. A very good method for the quantitative estimation -of grape sugar when mechanically mixed with cane sugar, is that of P. -Casamajor. It is executed by first preparing a saturated solution of -grape sugar in methylic alcohol. The sample to be tested is thoroughly -dried, and then well agitated with the methylic alcohol solution, in -which all cane sugar will dissolve; any grape sugar present remains -behind, and upon allowing the mixture to remain at rest for a short -time, forms a deposit which is again treated with the grape sugar -solution, and then collected upon a tared filter, washed with absolute -methylic alcohol, and weighed. Glucose and invert sugar are usually -quantitatively determined by means of Fehling’s solution. - -As this preparation is liable to decompose upon keeping, it is -advisable to first prepare cupric sulphate solution by dissolving -exactly 34,640 grammes of the salt in 500 c.c. of distilled water, -and then make up the Rochelle salt solution by dissolving 68 grammes -of sodium hydroxide, and 173 grammes of Rochelle salt in 500 c.c. of -water, the solutions being kept separate. When required for use, 5 -c.c. each of the copper and Rochelle solutions (corresponding to 10 -c.c. of Fehling’s solution) are introduced into a narrow beaker, or a -porcelain evaporating dish, a little water is added, and the liquid -brought to the boiling point. The sugar solution under examination -should not contain over 0·5 per cent. of glucose. It is cautiously -added to the hot Fehling’s solution from a burette until the fluid -loses its blue colour (see p. 37). The number of c.c. required to -completely reduce 10 c.c. of Fehling’s solution, represents 0·05 gramme -of grape sugar. The foregoing volumetric method is sometimes applied -gravimetrically by adding a slight excess of Fehling’s solution to the -sugar solution, collecting the precipitated cupric oxide upon a filter -and weighing, after oxidation with a few drops of nitric acid; or, it -may be dissolved, and the copper contained deposited by electrolysis, -in which case the weight of copper obtained, multiplied by 0·538, gives -the equivalent amount of glucose. The proportion of cane sugar in a -sample of raw sugar can be determined by first directly estimating the -proportion of invert sugar contained by means of Fehling’s solution, as -just described. The cane sugar present is then inverted by dissolving -one gramme of the sample in about 100 c.c. of water, adding 1 c.c. -of strong sulphuric acid, and heating the solution in the water-bath -for 30 minutes, the water lost by evaporation being from time to -time replaced. The free acid is next neutralised by a little sodium -carbonate, its volume made up to 200 c.c., and the invert sugar now -contained estimated by Fehling’s solution. The difference in the two -determinations represents the glucose formed by the conversion of the -cane sugar; 100 parts of the glucose so produced is equivalent to 95 -parts of cane sugar. - -Commercial cane sugar is, however, generally estimated by the -instrument known as the saccharimeter or polariscope. - -In order to convey an intelligent idea of the physical laws which -govern the practical working of the polariscope, it will first be -necessary to refer to the subject of the polarisation of light. The -transformation of ordinary into polarised light is best effected either -by reflection from a glass plate at an angle of about 56°, or by what -is known as double refraction. The former method can be illustrated by -Fig. 1, Plate X., which represents two tubes, B and C, arranged so as -to allow the one to be turned round within the other. Two flat plates -of glass, A and P, blackened at the backs, are attached obliquely to -the end of each tube at an angle of about 56°, as represented in the -figure. The tube B, with its attached plate, A, can be turned round -in the tube C without changing the inclination of the plate to a ray -passing along the axis of the tube. If a candle be now placed at I, -the light will be reflected from the plate P through the tube, and, -owing to the particular angle of this plate, will undergo a certain -transformation in its nature, or, in other words, become “polarised.” -So long as the plate A retains the position represented in the figure, -the reflected ray would fall in the same plane as that in which the -polarisation of the ray took place, and an image of the candle would -be seen by an observer stationed at O. But, suppose the tube B to be -turned a quarter round; the plane of reflection is now at right -angles to that of polarisation, and the image will become invisible. -When the tube B is turned half-way round, the candle is seen as -brightly at first; at the third quadrant it disappears, until, on -completing the revolution of the tube, it again becomes perfectly -visible. It is evident that the ray reflected from the glass plate P -has acquired properties different from those possessed by ordinary -light, which would have been reflected by the plate A in whatever -direction it might have been turned. - - PLATE X. - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 1. - -Fig. 2. - -Fig. 3. - -Fig. 4. - -Polariscope.] - - ARTOTYPE. E. BIERSTADT N. Y. - -If a ray of common light be made to pass through certain crystals, -such as calc spar, it undergoes double refraction, and the light -transmitted becomes polarised. The arrangement known as Nicol’s prism, -which consists of two prisms of calc spar, cut at a certain angle and -united together by means of Canada balsam, is a very convenient means -of obtaining polarised light. If two Nicol’s prisms are placed in a -similar position, one behind the other, the light polarised by the -first (or polarising) prism passes through the second (or analysing) -prism unchanged; but if the second prism be turned until it crosses -the first at a right angle, perfect darkness ensues. While it would -exceed the limits of this work to enter fully upon the theoretical -explanations which are commonly advanced concerning the cause and -nature of this polarised, or transformed light, it may be well to state -here that common light is assumed to be composed of two systems of -beams which vibrate in planes at right angles to each other, whereas -polarised light is regarded as consisting of beams vibrating in a -single plane only. If, now, we imagine the second Nicol’s prism to be -made up of a series of fibres or lines, running only in one direction, -these fibres would act like a grating and give free passage to a -surface like a knife blade only when this is parallel to the bars, -but would obstruct it if presented transversely. This somewhat crude -illustration will, perhaps, serve to explain why the rays of light -which have been polarised by the first Nicol’s prism are allowed to -pass through the second prism when the two are placed in a similar -position, and why they are obstructed when the prisms are crossed -at right angles, it being remembered that in a polarised ray the -vibrations of the beams of light take place in a single plane. - -Suppose we place between the two Nicol’s prisms, while they are at -right angles, a plate cut in a peculiar manner from a crystal of -quartz, we will discover that rays of light now pass through the -second prism, and that the field of vision has become illuminated -with beautiful colours--red, yellow, green, blue, etc., according -to the thickness of the quartz plate used. On _turning_ the second -Nicol’s prism on its axis, these colours will change and pass through -the regular prismatic series, from red to violet, or the contrary, -according to the direction of the rotation produced by the intervening -plate. Quartz, therefore, possesses the remarkable property of rotating -the plane of polarisation of the coloured rays of which light is -composed; and it has been discovered that some plates of this mineral -exert this power to the right, others to the left; that is, they -possess a right or left-handed circular polarisation. Numerous other -substances, including many organic compounds, possess this quality -of causing a rotation--either to the right or left--of a plane of -polarised light. For example, solutions of cane sugar and ordinary -glucose cause a right-handed rotation, whilst levulose and invert sugar -exert a left-handed rotation. The extent of this power is directly -proportional to the concentration of the solutions used, the length -of the column through which the ray of polarised light passes being -the same. It follows that on passing polarised light through tubes of -the same length which are filled with solutions containing different -quantities of impure cane sugar, an estimation of the amount of pure -cane sugar contained in the tubes can be made by determining the degree -of right-handed rotation produced; and it is upon this fact that the -application of the polariscope in sugar analysis is based. The optical -portions of the most improved form of the polariscope--that known as -the Ventzke-Scheibler--are represented by Fig. 2. - -The light from a gas burner enters at the extremity of the instrument -and first passes through the “regulator A,” which consists of the -double refracting Nicol’s prism _a_ and the quartz plate _b_, it being -so arranged that it can be turned round its own plane, thus varying -the tint of the light used, so as to best neutralise that possessed -by the sugar solution to be examined. The incident ray now penetrates -the polarising Nicol’s prism B, and next meets a double quartz plate -C (3·75 millimetres in thickness). This quartz plate, a front view of -which is also shown in the figure, is divided in the field of vision, -one half consisting of quartz rotating to the right hand, the other -half of the variety which rotates to the left hand. It is made of the -thickness referred to owing to the fact that it then imparts a very -sensitive tint (purple) to polarised light, and one that passes very -suddenly into red or blue when the rotation of the ray is changed. -Since the plate C is composed of halves which exert opposite rotary -powers, these will assume different colours upon altering the rotation -of the ray. After leaving the double quartz plate the light, which, -owing to its passage through the Nicol’s prism B is now polarised, -enters the tube D containing the solution of cane sugar under -examination; this causes it to undergo a right-handed rotation. It next -meets the “compensator” E, consisting of a quartz plate _c_, which has -a right-handed rotary power, and the two quartz prisms _d_, both of -which are cut in a wedge shape and exert a left-handed rotation. They -are so arranged that one is movable and can be made to slide along the -other, which is fixed, thus causing an increase or decrease in their -combined thickness and rotary effect. The ray of light then passes -through the analysing Nicol’s prism F, and is finally examined by -means of the telescope G, with the objective _e_ and ocular _f_. Fig. -3 gives a perspective view of the Ventzke-Scheibler polariscope. The -Nicol’s prism and quartz plate which constitute the “regulator” are -situated at A and B, and can be rotated by means of a pinion connecting -with the button L. The polarising Nicol’s prism is placed at C, and -the double quartz plate at D. The receptacle _h_ contains the tube -P filled with sugar solution, and is provided with the hinged cover -_h´_, which serves to keep out the external light while an observation -is being taken. The right-handed quartz plate and the wedge-shaped -quartz prisms (corresponding to _c_ and _d_, Fig. 2) are situated at G, -and at E and F, and the analysing Nicol’s prism is placed at H. When -the wedge-shaped prisms have an equal thickness coinciding with that -of the quartz plate _c_ (Fig. 2) the left-handed rotary power of the -former is exactly neutralised by the right-handed rotary power of the -latter, and the field of vision seen at I is uniform in colour, the -opposing rotary powers of the two halves of the double quartz plates -C (Fig. 2) being also equalised. But if the tube, filled with a sugar -solution, is placed in the instrument, the right-handed rotary power -of this substance is added to that half of the double quartz plate -which exerts the same rotary effect (the other half being diminished -in a like degree), and the two divisions of the plate will now appear -of different colours. In order to restore an equilibrium of colour -the movable wedge-shaped quartz plate E is slid along its fellow F by -means of the ratchet M, until the right-handed rotary power of the -sugar solution is compensated for by the increased thickness of the -left-handed plate, when the sections of the plate C will again appear -uniform in colour. For the purpose of measuring the extent to which the -unfixed plate has been moved, a small ivory scale is attached to this -plate, and passes along an index scale connected with the fixed plate. -The degrees marked on the scale, which are divided into tenths, are -read by aid of a mirror _s_ attached to a magnifying glass K. When the -polariscope is in what may be termed a state of equilibrium, _i. e._ -before the tube containing the sugar solution has been placed in it, -the index of the fixed scale points to the zero of the movable scale. - -In the practical use of the Ventzke-Scheibler saccharimeter the -method to be followed is essentially as follows: 26·048 grammes of -the sugar to be tested are carefully weighed out and introduced into -a flask 100 cubic centimetres in capacity; water is added, and the -flask shaken until all crystals are dissolved. The solution is next -decolorised by means of basic plumbic acetate, its volume made up to -100 cubic centimetres, and a little bone-black having been added if -necessary, a glass tube, corresponding to P (Fig. 3) which is exactly -200 millimetres in length, and is provided with suitable caps, is -completely filled with the clear filtered liquid. This is then placed -in the polariscope, and protected from external light by closing the -cover shown at _h´_. On now observing the field of vision by means of -the telescope, it will be seen that the halves into which it is divided -exhibit different colours. The screw M is then turned to the right -until this is no longer the case, and absolute uniformity of colour is -restored to the divisions of the double quartz plate C (Fig. 2). The -extent to which the screw has been turned, which corresponds to the -right-handed rotation caused by the sugar solution, is now ascertained -on reading the scale by the aid of the glass K. The instrument under -consideration is so constructed that, when solutions and tubes of the -concentration and length referred to above are used, the reading on the -scale gives directly the percentage of pure crystallisable cane sugar -contained in the sample examined. For instance, if the zero index of -the fixed scale points to 96°·5 on the movable scale, after uniformity -of colour has been obtained, the sample of sugar taken contains 96·5 -per cent. of pure cane sugar. The results given by the polariscope -possess an accuracy rarely, if ever, attained by any other apparatus -employed in the determination of practical commercial values.[57] - -The proportion of grape sugar intentionally added to cane sugar can -also be determined by the use of the polariscope, certain modifications -being observed in its application. As previously stated, cane sugar -is converted into a mixture of dextrose and levulose, termed invert -sugar, by the action of dilute acids. While the rotary effect of -dextrose upon the plane of a ray of polarised light is constant at -temperatures under 100°, that exerted by levulose varies, it being -reduced as the temperature is increased; hence it follows that at a -certain temperature the diminished levo-rotary power of the levulose -will become neutralised by the dextro-rotary effect of the dextrose, -_i.e._ the invert sugar will be optically inactive. This temperature -has been found to approximate 90°. Since dextrose is not perceptibly -affected by the action of weak acids, it is evident that by converting -cane sugar into invert sugar and examining the product by the -polariscope at a temperature of about 90°, the presence of any added -dextrose (glucose) will be directly revealed by its dextro-rotary -action. This is accomplished by a method suggested by Messrs. Chandler -and Ricketts,[58] which consists in substituting for the ordinary -observation tube of the polariscope a platinum tube, provided with -a thermometer, and surrounded by a water-bath, which is heated to -the desired temperature by a gas burner (Plate X. Fig. 4). The sugar -solution to be examined is first treated with a little dilute sulphuric -acid, then neutralised with sodium carbonate, clarified by means of -basic plumbic acetate, filtered, and the polariscopic reading taken at -a temperature of 86° to 90°. - -Since the results given by the foregoing method represent pure -dextrose, it is necessary to first ascertain the dextro-rotary -power of the particular variety of glucose probably employed for -the adulteration of the sugar under examination, and then make the -requisite correction. This process for the estimation of glucose is -especially advantageous, in that the optical effect of the invert sugar -normally present in raw cane sugars is rendered inactive. - -It is sometimes desirable to determine the relative proportions of -the organic constituents which are present in commercial glucose. -These usually consist of dextrose, maltose, and dextrine, all of which -possess dextro-rotary power, but not in the same degree; that of -dextrose being 52, that of maltose 139, and that of dextrine 193. An -estimation of the amount of each can be made by first ascertaining the -total rotary effect of the sample by means of the polariscope.[59] This -is expressed by the equation - - P = 52 _d_ + 139 _m_ + 193 _d´_, (1) - -in which P is the total rotation observed. Upon now treating the -solution of glucose with an excess of an alkaline solution of mercuric -cyanide (prepared by dissolving 120 grammes of mercuric cyanide and 25 -grammes of potassium hydroxide in 1 litre of water), the dextrose and -maltose contained in the sample are decomposed, leaving the dextrine -unaffected. A second polariscopic reading is then made, which gives the -amount of dextrine present, that is - - P´ = 193 _d´_, (2) - -from which the proportion of dextrine is calculated. - -Subtracting the second equation from the first, we have - - P - P´ = 52 _d_ + 139 _m_. (3) - -Both dextrose and maltose reduce Fehling’s solution, the total -reduction (R) being the reducing per cent. of the former (_d_) added to -that of the latter (_m_). The reducing power of maltose is, however, -only 0·62 as compared with dextrine, therefore - - R = _d_ + 0·62 _m_. (4) - -Multiplying by 52, we have - - 52 R = 52 _d_ + 32·24 _m_, - -and subtract from (3), which gives - - P - P´ - 52 R = 106·76 _m_, (5) - -whence - - _m_ = (P - P´ - 52 R) / 106·76 (6) - - _d_ = R - 0·62 _m_ (7) - -and - - _d´_ = P´/193. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[54] It is of interest in this connection to note the recent discovery -of a coal-tar derivative, benzoyle sulphonic imide, C_{6}H_{4} <CO/SO> -NH, commercially known as “saccharine.” This body possesses about -230 times the sweetening power of cane sugar. It bears, however, no -near chemical relation to the sugars, which, for the greater part, -constitute hexatomic alcohols. See Amer. Chem. Jour., i. p. 170, and -vol. ii. p. 181; also, Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., No. 2, vol. vi. p. 75. - -[55] Of 41 samples of molassan, tested in Massachusetts in 1885, 12 -contained tin chloride. - -[56] The average composition of over 100,000 samples of raw cane sugar -(mostly Cuban) tested in the United States Laboratory during the past -five years, has been as follows:-- - - Per cent. - Moisture 3·0 - Ash 1·5 - Polarisation 90° - - -[57] The foregoing description of the polariscope was embodied in -an article contributed by the author to Van Nostrand’s Engineering -Magazine. - -[58] Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., i. p. 1. - -[59] Wiley, Chem. News, xlvi. p. 175. - - - - -HONEY. - - -Honey consists of the saccharine substance collected by the bee (_Apis -mellifica_) from the nectaries of flowers, and deposited by them in -the cells of the comb. “Virgin honey” is the product of hives that -have not previously swarmed, which is allowed to drain from the comb; -the inferior varieties being obtained by the application of heat and -pressure. As a result of the peculiar conditions of its formation, -honey constitutes a rather complex mixture of several bodies; indeed, -its exact composition is a matter of some doubt. The chief ingredients -are levulose and dextrose, accompanied by a small amount of cane sugar, -and inconsiderable proportions of pollen, wax, and mineral matter. -According to Dubrunfaut and Soubeiran,[60] genuine honey contains an -excess of levulose mixed with dextrose and some cane sugar. In the -course of time the latter is gradually converted into invert sugar, and -a crystalline deposit of dextrose forms, the levulose remaining fluid. - -The following analyses made by J. C. Brown[61] and E. Sieben,[62] show -the general composition of pure honey:-- - - ------------------------+----------------+---------------- - | J. C. Brown. | E. Sieben. - ------------------------+----------------+---------------- - Dextrose | 31·77 to 42·02 | 22·23 to 44·71 - Levulose | 33·56 „ 40·43 | 32·15 „ 46·89 - Total glucoses | 68·40 „ 79·72 | 67·92 „ 79·57 - Sucrose | .. | none „ 8·22 - Wax, pollen and insol | trace to 2·10 | .. - Ash | 0·07 „ 0·26 | .. - Water at 100° | 15·50 „ 19·80 | 16·28 to 24·95 - Undetermined | 4·95 „ 11·00 | 1·29 „ 8·82 - ------------------------+----------------+---------------- - -Barth has examined several varieties of genuine honey with the -following results:-- - - -----------------------------------+----------+-----------+----------- - | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. - -----------------------------------+----------+-----------+----------- - Water | 13·60 | 15·60 | 11·06 - Dry substance | 86·40 | 84·40 | 88·94 - Ash | 0·28 | 0·24 | 0·90 - Polarisation of 10 per }Direct | -4·6° | -5° | +11° - cent. solution (in 200 }After | | | - millimetre tube) } inversion| .. | -7·5° | +4° - {Original substance | 69·60 | 72·0 | 60·0 - Sugar {After inversion | 69·50 | 77·0 | 74·6 - Organic matter, not sugar | 16·52 | 7·16 | 13·44 - -----------------------------------+----------+-----------+----------- - -W. Bishop[63] obtained the following figures from the examination of -honey of known purity:-- - - -----------------------------+-----------+-------+---------+--------- - |Hungarian. |Chili. |Italian. |Normandy. - -----------------------------+-----------+-------+---------+--------- - Reducing sugar | 67·17 | 73·05 | 70·37 | 79·39 - Crystallised sugar | 7·58 | 4·55 | 5·77 | 0· - Direct polarisation | -13·70 |-14·15 | -8·55 | -9·25 - Polarisation after inversion | -15·40 |-14·85 | -12·0 | .. - -----------------------------+-----------+-------+---------+--------- - -The substances said to be employed in the adulteration of honey are -water, starch, cane sugar, and glucose-syrup; the last mentioned is -undoubtedly most commonly used. Hager[64] states that, by treating -corn starch with oxalic acid, a product is obtained which, on standing -two or three weeks, acquires the appearance and taste of genuine -honey; and samples of commercial honey not unfrequently wholly consist -of this or some other form of artificial glucose. The season for -the collection of honey by bees is a limited one, and any existing -deficiency in their natural source of supply is sometimes remedied by -placing vessels filled with glucose near the hives. Occasionally the -bees are also supplied with a ready-made comb, consisting, at least -partially, of paraffine. It has been asserted that in some instances, -this factitious comb is entirely composed of paraffine, but the writer -is informed that, if the sophistication is practised to a proportion -of over 10 per cent., the bees do not readily deposit the honey in the -comb. - -Owing to the complex composition of honey and to the rather incomplete -character of the analyses of the genuine article at hand, the detection -of some of the forms of adulteration resorted to is a matter of -considerable difficulty. The presence of starch is best recognised by -the microscopic examination of the honey. This will likewise reveal the -absence of pollen, which may be regarded as a certain indication of -the spurious nature of the sample. There appears to exist a difference -of opinion in regard to the presence of cane sugar in genuine honey, -but it may safely be accepted that the detection of a considerable -proportion of this substance points to its artificial addition. In -all cases of suspected adulteration with cane sugar or glucose, the -determination of the sugar present by means of the polariscope and by -Fehling’s method (both before and after inversion) is indispensable. It -is commonly stated that unsophisticated honey polarises to the left, -and that a sample possessing a dextro-rotary action is necessarily -contaminated with glucose or cane sugar; but, while in the great -majority of cases this is doubtless the fact, it is equally certain -that honey of known purity has been met with which polarised to -the right. Upon the inversion of honey containing cane sugar, the -dextro-rotation is changed to a levo-rotation. - -According to Lenz,[65] the specific gravity (at 17°) of a solution -of 30 grammes of pure honey in exactly twice the quantity of -distilled water is never less than 1·1110, a lower density indicating -adulteration with water. Hehner[66] states that the ash of genuine -honey is always alkaline, whereas that of artificial glucose is -invariably neutral. The proportion of phosphoric acid present in honey -varies from 0·013 to 0·035 per cent., which is considerably less -than the proportion contained in starch sugars. Honey contaminated with -starch sugar will generally show about 0·10 per cent. of phosphoric -acid, and artificial honey, made from cane sugar, will usually be free -from the acid. - -The addition of commercial glucose may often be detected by the -turbidity produced upon adding ammonium oxalate to a filtered aqueous -solution of the sample; this is due to the presence of calcium -sulphate, a common impurity in the commercial varieties of glucose. -If the glucose employed for admixture contains much dextrine, as is -very often the case, this fact can be utilised in its detection as -follows:--2 c.c. of a 25 per cent. solution of the honey are introduced -into a narrow glass cylinder, and 0·5 c.c. of absolute alcohol is -cautiously added; with pure honey, the point of contact of the liquids -will remain clear or become so upon allowing the mixture to stand at -rest, whereas in presence of artificial glucose a milky turbidity will -appear between the two strata. Genuine honey may, it is true, contain -a small proportion of dextrine and exhibit a slight cloudiness when -treated with alcohol, but the difference in the degree of turbidity -caused is very considerable, and sufficient to render the test of -service. - -The test may also be applied by dissolving 20 grammes of the suspected -honey in 60 c.c. of distilled water and then adding an excess of -alcohol. Under these circumstances pure honey merely becomes milky, -while, if commercial glucose is present, a white precipitate of -dextrine is formed, which can be collected and weighed. If the sugar in -the sample is determined by Fehling’s solution, both before and after -inversion with a little sulphuric acid, and an estimation of the amount -of dextrine present is made by precipitation with alcohol, it often -occurs that the quantity of the latter substance is proportional to the -difference between the amount of sugar found. - -According to the late investigations of Sieben,[67] fairly -satisfactory methods for the detection and determination of glucose -syrup in honey are based upon the following facts:-- - -1st. When genuine honey undergoes fermentation, the substances which -remain undecomposed, are optically inactive. Glucose, or starch syrup, -on the other hand, leaves a considerable amount of dextrine, which -is strongly dextrogyrate. The test is made by dissolving 25 grammes -of honey in about 160 c.c. of water, and adding 12 grammes of yeast -(free from starch). The mixture is allowed to ferment at a moderate -temperature for two or three days, after which aluminium hydroxide is -added, and the liquid made up to 250 c.c. and then filtered. 200 c.c. -of the filtrate are evaporated to a volume of 50 c.c., and a 200 mm. -tube is then filled with the concentrated solution and examined by the -polariscope. - -2nd. The substances remaining unaffected by the fermentation of pure -honey are not converted into a reducing sugar by boiling with dilute -hydrochloric acid, as is the case with those obtained from starch syrup -under the same circumstances. 25 c.c. of the solution employed for the -polarisation test, as just described, are diluted with an equal volume -of water, 5 c.c. of strong hydrochloric acid added, and the mixture -is placed in a flask and heated for an hour over the water-bath. The -contents of the flask are neutralised with potassium hydroxide, then -diluted to a volume of 100 c.c., and the proportion of reducing sugar -estimated in 25 c.c. of the solution. Honey containing different -proportions of starch sugar gave the following percentages of reducing -sugar:-- - - Starch-Sugar Present. | Reducing Sugar Obtained. - per cent. | per cent. - 5 | 1·472 - 10 | 3·240 - 20 | 6·392 - 40 | 8·854 - -3rd. If the cane sugar originally present in genuine honey has been -changed into invert sugar, and the honey solution is boiled with a -slight excess of Fehling’s reagent, no substances capable of yielding -sugar when treated with acids will remain undecomposed. Starch syrup, -when subjected to this treatment, yields grape sugar in about the -proportion of 40 parts to every 100 parts of the syrup used. The test -is applied as follows:--14 grammes of honey are dissolved in 450 c.c. -of water, and the solution is heated over the steam-bath with 20 c.c. -of semi-normal acid, in order to invert the cane sugar present. After -heating for half an hour, the solution is neutralised, and its volume -made up to 500 c.c. 100 c.c. of Fehling’s solution are then titrated -with this solution, which may contain about 2 per cent. of invert -sugar (in case the sample examined is pure, from 23 to 26 c.c. will -be required); 100 c.c. of Fehling’s reagent are next boiled with 0·5 -c.c. less of the honey solution than was found to be necessary to -completely reduce the copper. The reduced liquid is then passed through -an asbestos filter, the residue washed with hot water, the filtrate -treated with a slight excess of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and the -solution heated for one hour on the steam-bath. Sodium hydroxide is -now added, until only a very little free acid remains unneutralised, -and the solution is made up to 200 c.c. Upon well shaking the cooled -liquid, a deposit of tartar sometimes separates. 150 c.c. of the -filtered solution are finally boiled with a mixture of 120 c.c. of -Fehling’s reagent and 20 c.c. of water, and the proportion of grape -sugar estimated from the amount of metallic copper obtained. (See p. -111.) When pure honey is submitted to the preceding process, the copper -found will not exceed 2 milligrammes. The quantities of copper obtained -when honey adulterated with various proportions of starch sugar was -tested were about as follows:-- - - Starch Sugar | Milligrammes of - contained. | Copper found. - per cent. | - 10 | 40 - 20 | 90 - 30 | 140 - 40 | 195 - 50 | 250 - 60 | 330 - 70 | 410 - 80 | 500 - - --------------------------------+----------------------------------- - |Dextrose. - | +---------------------------- - | |Levulose. - | | +--------------------- - | | |Invert Sugar, - Character of Samples. | | | by Fehling’s Method. - | | | +------------- - | | | |Cane Sugar. - | | | | +------ - | | | | |Total - | | | | |Sugar. - --------------------------------+------+------+-------+------+------ - | per | per | per | per | per - |cent. |cent. | cent. | cent.| cent. - Adulterated with cane sugar | .. | .. | 56·39 | 19·45| 76·84 - „ „ „ „ and | | | | | - water |25·63 |25·42 | 51·06 | 10·62| 61·67 - „ „ 15 per cent. | | | | | - glucose syrup|37·20 |31·80 | 69·18 | .. | 69·00 - „ „ 65 per cent. | | | | | - glucose syrup|21·75 |19·60 | 41·30 | .. | 41·35 - „ „ 40 per cent. | | | | | - glucose syrup|34·61 |23·89 | 58·83 | .. | 58·50 - „ „ 40 per cent. | | | | | - glucose syrup| | | | | - and with cane| | | | | - sugar. |25·47 |23·51 | 49·04 | 7·06| 56·04 - „ „ 80 per cent. | | | | | - glucose syrup|21·92 |12·83 | 35·00 | .. | 34·75 - --------------------------------+------+------+-------+------------- - - --------------------------------+------------------------- - |Water. - | +------------------ - Character of Samples. | |Dry Substance. - | | +----------- - | | | Not Sugar. - --------------------------------+------+------+----------- - | per | per | per - |cent. |cent. |cent. - Adulterated with cane sugar |20·85 |79·15 | 2·31 - „ „ „ „ and | | | - water |36·48 |63·52 | 1·85 - „ „ 15 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup|18·54 |81·46 |12·46 - „ „ 65 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup|18·65 |81·35 |40·00 - „ „ 40 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup|17·81 |82·19 |23·69 - „ „ 40 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup| | | - and with cane| | | - sugar. |19·94 |80·06 |24·02 - „ „ 80 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup|18·12 |81·88 |57·13 - --------------------------------+------+------+----------- - - --------------------------------+--------+---------------------------- - |Polarisation after Fermentation. - | +---------------------------- - | I |Residue of Fermentation when - | |treated with acid gave Grape - Character of Samples. | | Sugar. - | | +------------------ - | | |Milligrammes of - | | |Copper found by - | | |Method 3. - --------------------------------+--------+---------+------------------ - |degrees.|per cent.| mgr. - Adulterated with cane sugar | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0 - „ „ „ „ and | | | - water | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0 - „ „ 15 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup| × 4·4 | 4·2 | 66 - „ „ 65 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup| × 25 | 12·4 | 366 - „ „ 40 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup| × 13 | 7·6 | 196 - „ „ 40 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup| | | - and with cane| | | - sugar. | | | - „ „ 80 per cent. | | | - glucose syrup| × 34 | 15·2 | 492 - -----------------------------------------+---------+------------------ - -The tabulation on p. 127 exhibits the results obtained by the -application of the foregoing tests to adulterated honey.[68] - -The detection of paraffine in honeycomb is easily accomplished. Genuine -bees’-wax fuses at 64°, paraffine usually at a lower temperature. -The latter is not affected by treatment with concentrated sulphuric -acid, whereas bees’-wax is dissolved by the strong acid, and undergoes -carbonisation upon the application of heat. The amount of potassium -hydroxide required for the saponification of one gramme of bees’-wax, -as applied in Koettstorfer’s method for butter analysis (p. 71), widely -differs from the quantities consumed by Japanese wax and paraffine. Mr. -Edward W. Martin has obtained the following figures:-- - - Milligrammes K (O H) required - to saponify one gramme. - Bees’-wax 7·0 - Japanese wax 212·95 - Paraffine none - -18 out of 37 samples of strained and comb honey, examined in 1885 by -the Mass. State Board of Health, were adulterated with glucose and -ordinary syrup. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[60] ‘Comptes Rendus,’ xxviii. p. 775. - -[61] ‘Analyst,’ iii. p. 269. - -[62] Zeits. Anal. Chem., xxiv. p. 135. - -[63] Journ. de Pharm. et de Chem., 1884, p. 459. - -[64] Pharm. Centralb. 1885, pp. 303, 327. - -[65] ‘Chemiker Zeitung,’ viii., p. 613. - -[66] ‘Analyst,’ x., p. 217. - -[67] Zeitsch. d. Vereins. f. d. Rübenzucker Ind., p. 837. - -[68] ‘Jahresberichte,’ 1884, p. 1051. - - - - -CONFECTIONERY. - - -Pure white candy should consist entirely of cane sugar with its water -of crystallisation, but most of the article commonly met with contains -a large proportion of glucose, and in many cases it is wholly composed -of this compound (see p. 109). Starch and terra alba (_i. e._ gypsum or -kaolin), are the other adulterants sometimes employed to fraudulently -increase the bulk and weight of candy. - -The substances used for colouring purposes are more liable to be -positively deleterious. While such colouring agents as caramel, -turmeric, litmus, saffron, beet-juice, indigo, and some of the coal-tar -dyes may be considered comparatively harmless, there can be no question -in regard to the very objectionable character of certain other pigments -which are sometimes employed: these are mainly inorganic, and include -plumbic chromate, salts of copper and arsenic, zinc-white, barium -sulphate and Prussian blue. Another occasional form of adulteration -to which some kinds of confectionery are exposed, is the admixture of -artificial flavourings, such as “pear essence” (amylic and ethylic -acetates), “banana essence” (a mixture of amylic acetate and ethylic -butyrate), and oil of bitter almonds, or its imitation, nitro-benzole. -A preparation known as “rock and rye drops,” which had acquired a great -popularity among school children in several of our large cities, proved -upon analysis to consist of a mixture of glucose, flour, and fusel oil. - -The examination of candy and other forms of confectionery usually -embraces the determinations of glucose, starch, flour, colouring and -flavouring agents, terra alba, and mineral admixtures generally. The -detection and estimation of glucose has already been described under -Sugar. - -Starch and flour are readily detected upon treating a minute portion of -the suspected candy with a little water and submitting the mixture to a -microscopic examination, when, in their presence, the insoluble residue -will exhibit the characteristic forms of starch granules. The insoluble -portion of the sample may also be tested with a solution of iodine. The -proportion of starch can be determined by boiling the matter insoluble -in water with dilute sulphuric acid, and estimating the amount of -glucose found, by means of Fehling’s solution. - -Coal-tar and vegetable compounds used for colouring purposes, can -often, be recognised by means of their behaviour with reducing and -oxidising agents, by their solubility in spirits and other menstrua, -and by the application of dyeing-tests. Thus vegetable colours may -sometimes be identified upon boiling mordanted cotton yarn in a bath -prepared from a portion of the sample containing the colouring matter, -and slightly acidulated with acetic acid. This process will likewise -generally reveal the presence of aniline dyes, unmordanted woollen -cloth being substituted for cotton, and a neutral bath being employed. -The inorganic pigments used for colouring candy are usually to be -sought for in the ash obtained upon incineration. - -The presence of copper and lead is detected by the formation of -black precipitates upon saturating with sulphuretted hydrogen the -solution of the ash in hydrochloric acid; zinc, chromium, etc., are -precipitated from the filtered solution upon addition of ammonium -hydroxide and ammonium sulphide. It is frequently more convenient to -apply special tests for the particular metal thought to be present, -either directly to the pigment or to the ash. In this way, arsenic can -often be recognised by treating a portion of the colouring matter in a -test-tube, when it will sublime and collect upon the cool part of the -tube in minute crystals of arsenious acid. Or, an acidulated solution -of the detached pigments may be boiled with a piece of polished -copper-foil, upon which the arsenic will be deposited as a greyish -film: this can be sublimed, and otherwise further examined. - -Copper is easily detected and estimated by placing the acid solution -of the ash in a tared platinum dish, and reducing the copper by the -electrolytic method. Chromium is recognised upon boiling the colouring -matter with potassium carbonate solution: in its presence, potassium -chromate is formed, which is submitted to the usual distinctive tests -for chromium. The colour of Prussian blue is destroyed upon warming -it with caustic alkalies: indigo, which remains unaffected by this -treatment, forms a blue solution if heated with concentrated sulphuric -acid. The presence of terra alba, barium sulphate, etc., is best -detected by the examination of the ash. Chalk, or marble-dust, is -recognised by its effervescence when treated with an acid, as well as -by the presence of a notable proportion of lime in the ash. - -Many of the flavouring mixtures added to candy may be separated -by treating the sample with chloroform or petroleum naphtha and -evaporating the solution to dryness over a water-bath, when their -identity is frequently revealed by their odour and other physical -properties. Of 198 samples of the cheaper varieties of confectionery -examined by Health officials in the United States, 115 were -adulterated. Plumbic chromate is a very common addition; 41 out of 48 -samples of yellow- and orange-coloured candy contained this poisonous -pigment. - - - - -BEER. - - -The name beer is most commonly applied to a fermented infusion of -malted barley, flavoured with hops. Its manufacture embraces two -distinct operations, _viz._, malting and brewing. Briefly considered, -the former process consists in first steeping barley (the seed of -_Hordeum distichon_) in water and allowing it to germinate by arranging -it in layers or heaps which are subsequently spread out and repeatedly -turned over, the germination being thereby retarded; it is afterwards -entirely checked by drying the grain (now known as _malt_) in cylinders -or kilns. - -The degree of temperature employed in drying and roasting the barley -determines the colour and commercial character of the malt, which may -be pale, amber, brown or black. In the United States the light-coloured -varieties of malt are chiefly made. An important change which takes -place during the malting of barley is the conversion of its albuminous -constituents into a peculiar ferment, termed _diastase_, which, -although its proportion in malt does not exceed 0·003 per cent., exerts -a very energetic action in transforming starch, first into dextrine, -then into sugar (maltose). The following analyses, by Proust, exhibit -the general composition of unmalted and malted barley:-- - - ----+---------------------+---------------+-------------+---- - | | Barley. | Malt. | - | +---------------+-------------+ - | Hordeine | 55 | 12 | - | Starch | 32 | 56 | - | Gluten | 3 | 1 | - | Sugar | 5 | 15 | - | Mucilage | 4 | 15 | - | Resin | 1 | 1 | - | | --- | --- | - | | 100 | 100 | - ----+---------------------+---------------+-------------+---- - -The body termed hordeine is generally considered to be an allotropic -modification of starch. - -In the brewing of beer, the malted grain is crushed by means of iron -rollers, and then introduced into the mash-tubs and digested with -water at a temperature of about 75°, whereby the conversion of the -starch into dextrine and sugar is effected. After standing for a few -hours, the clear infusion, or _wort_, is drawn off and boiled with hops -(the female flower of _Humulus lupulus_), after which it is rapidly -cooled, and then placed in capacious vats where it is mixed with -yeast and allowed to undergo the process of fermentation for several -days, during which the formation of fresh quantities of yeast and a -partial decomposition of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid take -place. The beer is next separated from the yeast and transferred into -clearing-vats, and, later on, into storage casks, where it undergoes -a slow after-fermentation, at the completion of which it is ready for -consumption. The quality of the water used in the process of mashing -and brewing is of great importance, and it is of special moment that it -should be free from all organic contaminations. The presence of certain -mineral ingredients, notably of calcium sulphate, is believed to exert -a beneficial effect on the character of the beer obtained. - -In the United States, the best known varieties of malt liquors are -ale, porter, and lager beer. The difference between ale and porter is -mainly due to the quality of the malt used in their manufacture. Ale -is made from pale malt, porter or stout from a mixture of the darker -coloured malts, the method of fermentation employed being in both cases -that known as the “superficial” (_obergährung_), which takes place at -a higher temperature and is of shorter duration than the “sedimentary” -(_untergährung_). The latter form of fermentation, which is used in the -preparation of Bavarian or lager beer, occurs at a temperature of about -8°, and requires more time for its completion, during which the beer -is, or should be, preserved in cool cellars for several months before -it is fit for use; hence the common American name of this kind of beer, -from _lager_, a storehouse. There are three varieties of Bavarian beer, -“lager beer” proper, or the summer beer, which has been stored for -about five months; “_schenk_,” or winter beer, which is fit for use in -several weeks; and “_bock_” beer, which possesses more strength than -the former, and is made in comparatively small quantities in the spring -of the year. A mild kind of malt liquor, known as “_weiss_” beer, and -prepared by a quick process of fermentation, is less frequently met -with. - -The first brewery in America is said to have been founded in New -York in the year 1644, by Jacobus, who afterwards became the first -burgomaster of the city, then New Amsterdam. Subsequently, William -Penn established a brewery in Bucks Co., Pa., and a century later, -General Putnam engaged in the manufacture of beer in the State of -Connecticut. The brewing of lager beer in the United States began to -assume prominence about thirty-five years ago. It is estimated that, at -the present time, over 2000 breweries are devoted to the preparation -of this form of malt liquor, with an invested capital of at least 60 -millions of dollars, the annual production exceeding 15 millions of -barrels.[69] The industry is chiefly carried on in New York, Brooklyn, -Philadelphia, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. - -The composition of beer naturally varies according to the kind of -grain from which it is made and the process of fermentation employed. -The chief ingredients are alcohol, carbonic acid, sugar (maltose), -dextrine, the oil and bitter principle of hops (lupuline), albuminoids, -lactic, acetic, succinic and propionic acids, inorganic salts, and -traces of glycerine. The term “extract” is applied to the non-volatile -constituents, which include the sugar, dextrine, albuminoids, ash, etc. -The foregoing table, collated from the analyses of various chemists, -gives the general composition of some of the best known brands of malt -liquor, as well as the minimum and maximum proportions that have been -found. - - --------------+------------------------------------------------------- - |Specific Gravity. - | +------------------------------------------------ - | |Carbonic Acid. - | | +------------------------------------------ - | | |Alcohol (by weight). - | | | +------------------------------------- - | | | |Extract. - | | | | +------------------------------- - | | | | |Albuminoids. - Variety. | | | | | +-------------------------- - | | | | | |Sugar. - | | | | | | +--------------------- - | | | | | | | Dextrine. - | | | | | | | +---------------- - | | | | | | | |Phosphoric Acid. - | | | | | | | +----------+ - | | | | | | | |Acid. | - | | | | | | | | +-----+ - | | | | | | | | |Ash. | - --------------+------+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+----- - | |p.c. |p.c.|p.c. |p.c.|p.c.|p.c.|p.c.|p.c. |p.c. - Porter |1·0207|0·16 | 5·4| 6·0 |0·83| .. |7·72|0·24|0·40 | .. - Scotch ale | .. |0·15 | 8·5|10·9 |0·77|0·34|2·50|0·19| .. | .. - Burton ale |1·0106| .. | 5·9|14·5 |0·57| .. |3·64|0·32| .. | .. - Munich | | | | | | | | | | - (Salvator)|1·0129|0·18 | 4·6| 9·4 |0·67| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. - „ (Bock) |1·0118|0·17 | 4·2| 9·2 | .. |0·80| .. | .. |0·22 |0·024 - „ (Schenk) | .. | .. | 3·8| 5·8 | .. | .. |6·17|0·14| .. | .. - „ (Lager) |1·0110|0·15 | 5·1| 5·0 |0·83|0·35| .. |0·20|0·21 | .. - Berlin | .. | .. | 3·1| 5·8 | .. | .. | .. | .. |0·21 | .. - „ (Tivoli) | .. | .. |4·35| 5·14| .. | .. | .. |0·23|0·19 | .. - Erlanger | .. | .. |4·56| 4·81| .. |0·40|1·44| .. |0·48 | .. - Thüringer | | | | | | | | | | - (common) | .. | .. |2·00| .. | .. |0·31|7·71| .. | .. | .. - Culmbacher |1·0228| .. |4·00| 7·38|0·53| .. | .. |0·16| .. | .. - American | | | | | | | | | | - lager, | | | | | | | | | | - average 19 | | | | | | | | | | - samples |1·0162| .. |2·78| 6·05| .. |1·52| .. |0·19|0·305|0·105 - American ale |1·0150| .. |4·69| 6·50|0·74|4·96| .. | .. |0·253|0·080 - American | | | | | | | | | | - lager, 474 | | | | | | | | | | - samples | | | | | | | | | | - maximum |1·0370| .. |8·99| 9·54| .. | .. | .. | .. |0·46 |0·166 - minimum |0·999 | .. |0·68| 1·28| .. | .. | .. | .. |0·10 |0·028 - According to | | | | | | | | | | - König | | | | | | | | | | - maximum |1·034 |0·500| 7·3|11·24|1·98|2·45|7·85|0·40|0·48 |0·09 - minimum |1·0100|0·100|1·00| 2·60|0·02|0·10|1·46|0·08|0·14 |0·02 - --------------+------+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+----- - -The composition of beer ash is evidently affected by the character of -the water used in the brewing process. Blyth gives the following as the -average composition of the ash of English beers:-- - - Per cent. - Potash 37·22 - Soda 8·04 - Lime 1·93 - Magnesia 5·51 - Ferric oxide traces - Sulphuric acid 1·44 - Phosphoric acid 32·09 - Chlorine 2·91 - Silica 10·82 - -The following results were obtained by the writer from the analysis of -the ash of American lager beer of fair quality:-- - - Per cent. - Silica 9·97 - Alumina and ferric oxide 0·46 - Lime 3·55 - Magnesia 7·27 - Soda 13·81 - Potassa 19·59 - Sulphuric acid 3·25 - Chlorine 4·40 - Phosphoric acid 37·70 - ------ - 100·00 - - Percentage of ash 0·274 - -Strictly speaking, normal beer consists solely of the product of malt -and hops, and the presence of any ingredients other than these should -be regarded as an adulteration. It is maintained by brewers, and -with justice, that the term “malt” is not necessarily restricted to -barley, but includes other varieties of malted grain, such as wheat, -corn, and rice. The old English law, while permitting the addition -of wholesome bitters, prohibits the use of various other substances, -but in the United States, no legal definition of pure beer has, as -yet, been formulated, and the necessity for such a measure is being -experienced.[70] The past literature of beer adulteration makes mention -of very numerous substances which, in former times, have been resorted -to as admixtures. Among these the following are the most prominent:-- - -1st. _Artificial bitters._--Picric acid, picrotoxine, aloes, gentian, -quassia, and wormwood. Several years ago the author had occasion to -examine two samples, imported under the name of “hop substitutes,” both -of which proved to consist of _salicine_, the bitter principle of the -willow. The fruit of the hop tree (_Ptelea trifoliata_), has also been -employed as an artificial bitter for beer. - -2nd. _Flavourings._--For flavouring purposes, cayenne pepper, “grains -of paradise,” cloves, orris root, coriander seeds, the oils of anise, -nutmegs, and carraway, are stated to have been used. - -3rd. _Malt substitutes._--These mainly consist of corn, rice, and -glucose. - -A substitute for malt, of rather recent origin, and commercially known -as “cerealine,” is prepared by subjecting hulled and coarsely ground -Indian corn to the action of steam, the product being subsequently -pulverised by means of hot rollers. It is said to have the following -average composition:-- - - Water 9·98 - Insoluble starch 61·43 - Soluble starch, dextrine, and maltose 17·79 - Albuminoids 9·07 - Oil 1·22 - Cellulose 0·23 - Mineral matter 0·28 - -In addition to the foregoing, several chemical compounds, such as -ammonium carbonate, tartaric acid, alkaline phosphates, boric and -salicylic acids and glycerine are, or at least have been, employed -as accessories in the manufacture of beer. From the investigations -of the New York State Board of Health, it appears that the present -adulteration of American beer--more especially of “lager beer”--is -limited, so far as the brewer is concerned, to the use of various -substitutes for malt, the addition of salt, and of sodium bicarbonate. - -The proportion of diastase obtained by the germination of barley, or -other cereals, is largely in excess of the amount required to convert -into sugar the starch actually present in the grain treated; hence -the brewer can add other forms of amylaceous substances, such as corn -or rice, to malted barley with decided economy, and the majority of -New York brewers employ such substitutes, usually in a proportion of -25 per cent. The brewer may likewise advantageously add glucose syrup -to the malt infusion, since, by its use, he arrives at the same end, -_i. e._ instead of obtaining all of his sugar as the result of the -malting process, he directly provides himself with the same body, at -least so far as it possesses value to him as a source of alcohol. The -question of the sanitary effects of the use of artificial glucose as an -adulterant of sugar and syrups, and as a substitute for malted grain -in the manufacture of beer, has given rise to extensive controversy. -In this regard, one fact seems to have been demonstrated. Glucose, -as it is now to be found on the market, is free from any appreciable -amount of deleterious contamination. The discovery of its artificial -production has given birth to a very important branch of industry, and, -according to all available reports, the commercial product at present -met with is for many purposes an economical and harmless substitute for -cane sugar, the chief objection to its application as such being the -fact that it possesses considerably less sweetening power. - -The United States National Academy of Sciences, after having carefully -investigated the sanitary aspects of the glucose question, arrived at -the following conclusion:[71] “That, though having at best only about -two-thirds the sweetening power of cane sugar, yet starch sugar is in -no way inferior to the cane sugar in healthfulness, there being no -evidence before the committee that maize-starch sugar, either in its -normal condition or fermented, has any deleterious effect upon the -system, even when taken in large quantities.” In regard to the use -of glucose as a substitute for malt in beer-making, it is asserted -by some authorities that dietetic advantages to be derived from pure -malt will be to some extent wanting in the extractive matters of beer -manufactured partially from the artificial product. A distinction -between glucose and maltose, to the advantage of the latter, is also -made. The brewer, on the other hand, claims that sugar is sugar, -whether obtained from the malting of grain or from the conversion of -starch by the aid of acids. Regarding these bodies merely as sources of -alcohol, attempts to differentiate between them are of little service. -The superiority claimed for barley malt over its substitutes would -rather appear to be due to its greater richness in certain soluble -constituents, more especially those containing nitrogen and phosphoric -acid.[72] A proposed law to prohibit the use of all malt substitutes -has recently been rejected by the German Reichstag. In the English Beer -Adulteration Act (1886), however, it is directed that, in case beer -(ale or porter) made from other substances than hops and barley-malt is -offered for sale, the fact shall be mentioned on a prominent placard, -stating the nature of the foreign ingredients. - -The addition of sodium bicarbonate is resorted to in order to increase -the effervescing power of the beverage, and, possibly in some -instances, to neutralise the acids formed by the souring of new and -hastily prepared beer.[73] One of the chief objections to which certain -inferior varieties of American lager beer are open is that they are -not allowed to “age” properly. The apparent gain to the brewer of such -beer consists in an economy of time and ice; he is also enabled to turn -over his invested capital sooner than the more scrupulous manufacturer, -who is thus placed in a disadvantageous position so far as trade -competition is concerned. It is stated that some of the beer made in -the neighbourhood of New York is sent out for consumption two weeks -after its brewing.[74] Beer of this character would be apt to contain -abnormally large proportions of dextrine, dextrose, etc., as well as -be contaminated with unchanged yeast and other products of imperfect -fermentation. It is said to be the practice to submit it to a process -of clarification by means of isinglass and cream of tartar, and then -impart additional life to the product by adding sodium bicarbonate, -which is used in the form of cartridges or pills, and in a proportion -of two ounces of the salt to the keg of beer.[75] Such a beverage -obviously possesses very little claim to the name “lager” beer. It is, -perhaps, to this reprehensible practice that many of the deleterious -effects on the digestive organs which sometimes follow the consumption -of considerable quantities of _poor grades_ of lager beer are to be -ascribed; and it is often asserted to be the fact that beer drinkers -who have daily drunk from 20 to 25 glasses of German beer with apparent -impunity, experience disagreeable results from the habitual consumption -of much smaller quantities of some varieties of American lager. - -It should be remarked, in this connection, that the brewer is by no -means responsible for all of the sophistications to which beer is -exposed, as after it leaves his hands it may be watered by the retailer -as well as allowed to deteriorate in quality by careless methods of -preservation. From all procurable information, it would appear that the -only questionable features of beer brewing, as now generally carried on -in the United States, are the following:-- - -1st. The use of corn and other meals, and of artificial glucose as -substitutes for malted barley. - -2nd. The use of sodium bicarbonate, to impart additional life to the -beer, and the occasional use of common salt. - -Concerning the alleged employment of artificial bitters in beer -it should be stated, that a few years since, when a very marked -increase occurred in the price of hops, other bitter preparations -were advertised and offered for sale in the market; unfortunately, -but little authentic data can be secured in regard to the extent of -their use. At present, this form of adulteration has apparently been -discontinued. It is worthy of notice, that the addition of hops to -beer was originally considered a falsification, and was prohibited -in England by legal enactments. In regard to the manufacture and -sale of partially fermented beer, the question of the prevalence of -this practice must be regarded as undetermined. No objection exists -to the proper use of isinglass or other forms of gelatine for the -clarification of beer. - -Of 476 samples of beer tested by Dr. F. E. Engelhardt, of the New York -State Board of Health, about one-quarter gave evidence of the use of -malt substitutes in their manufacture, but no sample was conclusively -shown to be adulterated with bitters other than hops. - -The examination of beer properly includes an inspection of its -physical characteristics, such as taste, colour, and transparency, the -determination of the specific gravity, quantitative estimations of -the proportions of alcohol, carbonic acid, extractive matter, sugar, -organic acids, ash and phosphoric acid, and qualitative tests for the -detection of the presence of artificial substitutes for malt and hops. - -When of good quality, beer exhibits a bright and transparent colour, -a faint but not disagreeable aroma, and a clean and slightly bitter -taste. It should be free from any signs of viscosity, the appearance of -which is usually an indication of the presence of unchanged yeast. - -The specific gravity of beer is determined by first removing the excess -of carbonic acid by repeatedly agitating the sample in a capacious -glass flask, or by pouring it from one beaker into another several -times, and then filling a specific gravity bottle with the liquid and -allowing it to stand at rest until all air or gas bubbles have escaped; -the weight of the bottle and its contents is now taken at 15°. In order -to determine the proportion of alcohol present, 100 c.c. of the beer -are introduced in a suitable flask which is connected with a Liebig’s -condenser and subjected to distillation until about one-half of the -quantity taken has passed over. The distillate is then made up to its -original volume by the addition of water, and its density ascertained -by means of the specific gravity bottle, from which the percentage of -alcohol present (by weight and by volume) is readily obtained upon -referring to the alcoholometric table on p. 144. The frothing of beer -and the volatilisation of the free acids present are best obviated by -the addition of a little tannic acid and baryta-water to the sample -before the distillation. An indirect method for the determination -of alcohol in beer is also frequently employed. It is accomplished -by first ascertaining the density of the liquor, next removing the -alcohol present by evaporation over the water-bath, subsequently adding -sufficient water to restore the original volume and again taking -the specific gravity of the product. The density of spirit of equal -strength to the beer taken (X) is obtained by the formula, D/D´ = X, -in which D is the original gravity of the sample, and D´ the gravity -of the de-alcoholised liquor when made up to its first volume. The -following table (see p. 144) from ‘Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry’ -gives the percentages of alcohol by volume and weight, corresponding to -different densities at 15°. - -The amount of carbonic acid is conveniently found by introducing 100 -c.c. of the _well-cooled_ beer into a rather large flask, provided -with a delivery-tube which connects, first with a wash-bottle -containing concentrated sulphuric acid, next with a U-tube, filled -with fused calcium chloride. The latter is connected with a Liebig’s -bulb containing a solution of potassium hydroxide, then with a U-tube -containing solid potassium hydroxide, both of which have previously -been tared. The flask is heated over a water-bath until the evolution -of carbonic acid ceases, after which, the gas remaining in the -apparatus is caused to traverse the potash bulb by drawing air through -it. This is done by means of a tube attached to the flask and reaching -below the surface of the beer. At its other extremity, it is drawn -out to a fine point and connected with a small potash bulb (for the -retention of atmospheric carbonic acid), by aid of a rubber tube, -which permits of breaking the glass point before drawing air through -the apparatus. The amount of carbonic acid present in the sample is -ascertained by the increase of weight found in the larger potash bulb -and U-tube. - - ALCOHOLOMETRIC TABLE FOR BEER, ETC. - - ---------+---------+------------------- - Volume | Weight |Specific Gravity. - per cent.|per cent.| - ---------+---------+------------------ - 1·0 | 0·80 | 0·99850 - 1·1 | 0·88 | 0·99835 - 1·2 | 0·96 | 0·99820 - 1·3 | 1·04 | 0·99805 - 1·4 | 1·12 | 0·99790 - 1·5 | 1·20 | 0·99775 - 1·6 | 1·28 | 0·99760 - 1·7 | 1·36 | 0·99745 - 1·8 | 1·44 | 0·99730 - 1·9 | 1·52 | 0·99715 - 2·0 | 1·60 | 0·99700 - 2·1 | 1·68 | 0·99686 - 2·2 | 1·76 | 0·99672 - 2·3 | 1·84 | 0·99658 - 2·4 | 1·92 | 0·99644 - 2·5 | 2·00 | 0·99630 - 2·6 | 2·08 | 0·99616 - 2·7 | 2·16 | 0·99602 - 2·8 | 2·24 | 0·99588 - 2·9 | 2·32 | 0·99574 - 3·0 | 2·40 | 0·99560 - 3·1 | 2·48 | 0·99546 - 3·2 | 2·56 | 0·99532 - 3·3 | 2·64 | 0·99518 - 3·4 | 2·72 | 0·99504 - 3·5 | 2·80 | 0·99490 - 3·6 | 2·88 | 0·99476 - 3·7 | 2·96 | 0·99462 - 3·8 | 3·04 | 0·99448 - 3·9 | 3·12 | 0·99434 - 4·0 | 3·20 | 0·99420 - 4·1 | 3·28 | 0·99406 - 4·2 | 3·36 | 0·99392 - 4·3 | 3·44 | 0·99378 - 4·4 | 3·52 | 0·99364 - 4·5 | 3·60 | 0·99350 - 4·6 | 3·68 | 0·99336 - 4·7 | 3·76 | 0·99322 - 4·8 | 3·84 | 0·99308 - 4·9 | 3·92 | 0·99294 - 5·0 | 4·00 | 0·99280 - 5·1 | 4·08 | 0·99267 - 5·2 | 4·16 | 0·99254 - 5·3 | 4·24 | 0·99241 - 5·4 | 4·32 | 0·99228 - 5·5 | 4·40 | 0·99215 - 5·6 | 4·48 | 0·99202 - 5·7 | 4·56 | 0·99189 - 5·8 | 4·64 | 0·99176 - 5·9 | 4·72 | 0·99163 - 6·0 | 4·81 | 0·99150 - 6·1 | 4·89 | 0·99137 - 6·2 | 4·97 | 0·99124 - 6·3 | 5·05 | 0·99111 - 6·4 | 5·13 | 0·99098 - 6·5 | 5·21 | 0·99085 - 6·6 | 5·30 | 0·99072 - 6·7 | 5·38 | 0·99059 - 6·8 | 5·46 | 0·99046 - 6·9 | 5·54 | 0·99033 - 7·0 | 5·62 | 0·99020 - 7·1 | 5·70 | 0·99008 - 7·2 | 5·78 | 0·98996 - 7·3 | 5·86 | 0·98984 - 7·4 | 5·94 | 0·98972 - 7·5 | 6·02 | 0·98960 - 7·6 | 6·11 | 0·98949 - 7·7 | 6·19 | 0·98936 - 7·8 | 6·27 | 0·98924 - 7·9 | 6·35 | 0·98912 - 8·0 | 6·43 | 0·98900 - ---------+---------+------------------ - -The proportion of malt extract in beer can be directly determined by -the evaporation of 5 or 10 c.c. of the sample in a capacious platinum -dish over the water-bath and drying the residue until constant weight -is obtained.[76] It should be allowed to cool under a bell-jar over -calcium chloride, before weighing. Usually the estimation is made -by an indirect process, which consists in removing the alcohol by -evaporation, bringing the liquid up to its original volume by the -addition of water, and then taking its specific gravity and determining -the percentage of malt extract by means of the following table:-- - - SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND STRENGTH OF MALT EXTRACT. - - ----------+------------- - Specific | Per Cent. - Gravity. |Malt Extract. - ----------+------------- - 1·000 | 0·000 - 1·001 | 0·250 - 1·002 | 0·500 - 1·003 | 0·750 - 1·004 | 1·000 - 1·005 | 1·250 - 1·006 | 1·500 - 1·007 | 1·750 - 1·008 | 2·000 - 1·009 | 2·250 - 1·010 | 2·500 - 1·011 | 2·750 - 1·012 | 3·000 - 1·013 | 3·250 - 1·014 | 3·500 - 1·015 | 3·750 - 1·016 | 4·000 - 1·017 | 4·250 - 1·018 | 4·500 - 1·019 | 4·750 - 1·020 | 5·000 - 1·021 | 5·250 - 1·022 | 5·500 - 1·023 | 5·750 - 1·024 | 6·000 - 1·025 | 6·244 - 1·026 | 6·488 - 1·027 | 6·731 - 1·028 | 6·975 - 1·029 | 7·219 - 1·030 | 7·463 - 1·031 | 7·706 - 1·032 | 7·950 - 1·033 | 8·195 - 1·034 | 8·438 - 1·035 | 8·681 - 1·036 | 8·925 - 1·037 | 9·170 - 1·038 | 9·413 - 1·039 | 9·657 - 1·040 | 9·901 - 1·041 | 10·142 - 1·042 | 10·381 - 1·043 | 10·619 - 1·044 | 10·857 - 1·045 | 11·095 - 1·046 | 11·333 - 1·047 | 11·595 - 1·048 | 11·809 - 1·049 | 12·047 - 1·050 | 12·285 - 1·051 | 12·523 - 1·052 | 12·761 - 1·053 | 13·000 - 1·054 | 13·238 - 1·055 | 13·476 - 1·056 | 13·714 - 1·057 | 13·952 - 1·058 | 14·190 - 1·059 | 14·428 - 1·060 | 14·666 - 1·061 | 14·904 - 1·062 | 15·139 - 1·063 | 15·371 - 1·064 | 15·604 - 1·065 | 15·837 - 1·066 | 16·070 - 1·067 | 16·302 - 1·068 | 16·534 - 1·069 | 16·767 - 1·070 | 17·000 - ----------+------------- - -The sugar contained in beer is best determined by by taking 50 c.c. -of the sample, adding 10 c.c. of plumbic basic acetate solution, and -making the volume of the mixture up to 300 c.c. with distilled water. -After standing for some time the solution is passed through a dry -filter. It is then examined by cautiously adding it from a burette to -10 c.c. of Fehling’s solution (diluted with 40 c.c. of distilled water -and brought to the boiling-point), until the blue colour of the latter -disappears (see p. 111). It should be borne in mind that, while 10 -c.c. of Fehling’s solution are reduced by 0·05 gramme of glucose, it -requires 0·075 gramme of maltose to effect the same reduction. - -In order to estimate the dextrine, 10 c.c. of the beer are reduced by -evaporation to about 4 c.c., and heated with 1 c.c. of dilute sulphuric -acid to 110° by means of an oil-bath in a strong hermetically closed -glass tube for five hours. At the completion of this operation the -solution is neutralised with sodium hydroxide, diluted, and the total -glucose determined by Fehling’s reagent, as just described. The glucose -due to the conversion of the dextrine is found by deducting the amount -of maltose (expressed in terms of glucose) previously obtained from the -total glucose; 10 parts of glucose represent 9 parts of dextrine. - -The organic acids (acetic and lactic) are estimated as follows:--(_a_) -_Acetic acid_, by distilling 100 c.c. of the sample almost to -dryness, and titrating the distillate with decinormal soda solution; -(_b_) _Lactic acid_, by dissolving the residue remaining after the -distillation in water, and either determining its acidity by decinormal -soda, or by treating the residue with water and a little sulphuric -acid, adding barium carbonate to the mixture, heating in the water-bath -and filtering, the precipitate being thoroughly washed with hot water. -The filtrate is then concentrated to a syrup by evaporation, and -agitated in a test-tube with a mixture of 1 part each of sulphuric -acid, alcohol, and water, and 10 parts of ether. After standing at rest -for some time, the ethereal solution is separated by means of a pipette -and evaporated to dryness in a tared capsule. The residue (impure -lactic acid) can be weighed, or it is dissolved in water, the solution -treated with zinc carbonate, and the lactic acid determined as zinc -lactate, which contains 54·5 per cent. of the anhydrous acid. - -Phosphoric acid may be estimated in the beer directly by first -expelling the carbonic acid, then adding a small quantity of potassium -acetate, heating, and titrating with a standard solution of uranium -acetate, using potassium ferrocyanide as the indicator. It can also be -determined gravimetrically in the ash. - -The estimation of the ash is made by evaporating 100 c.c. of the sample -in a weighed platinum dish to dryness, and incinerating the residue at -a rather moderate heat, so as to avoid volatilisation of the chlorides. -The amount of ash in normal beer should never exceed 0·5 per cent., -the usual proportion being about 0·3 per cent.; this would naturally -be increased by the addition of sodium bicarbonate or sodium chloride -to the beer. The complete analysis of the ash is seldom necessary, but -it is often of importance to estimate the amount of sodium chloride -contained. This is effected by dissolving the ash-residue in distilled -water and precipitating the chlorine from an aliquot portion of the -solution by silver nitrate; one part of the precipitate obtained -represents 0·409 part of common salt. The proportion of sodium -chloride in pure beer is very inconsiderable, but it may be added to -the beverage either to improve the flavour or to create thirst. For -the determination of phosphoric acid, a weighed portion of the ash -is dissolved in nitric acid, the solution evaporated to dryness, and -the residue boiled with water containing a little nitric acid. It is -then filtered, concentrated by evaporation, an excess of ammonium -molybdate solution added, and the mixture set aside for about ten -hours, after which the precipitate formed is separated by filtration -and dissolved in ammonium hydroxide. A solution of magnesium sulphate -(mixed with a considerable quantity of ammonium chloride) is now added, -and the precipitated ammonio-magnesium phosphate collected, washed, -ignited, and weighed, 100 parts of this precipitate contain 64 parts of -phosphoric anhydride (P_{2}O_{5}). - -The positive detection of the presence of artificial substitutes -for malt in beer is a matter of considerable difficulty. According -to Haarstick, a large proportion of commercial glucose contains a -substance termed _amylin_, which exerts a strong dextro-rotary effect -upon polarised light, but is not destroyed by fermentation, and upon -these facts is based a process for the identification of starch-sugar -in beer. It is executed by evaporating 1 litre of the sample to the -consistency of a syrup and separating the dextrine present by the -gradual addition of 95 per cent. alcohol.[77] After standing at -rest for several hours the liquid is filtered, the greater portion -of the alcohol removed from the filtrate by distillation, and the -residual fluid evaporated to dryness over the water-bath. The solid -residue is then diluted to about a litre, yeast added, and the sugar -present decomposed by allowing fermentation to take place for three -or four days, at a temperature of 20°. It was found that, under these -conditions, pure beer afforded a solution which was optically inactive -when examined by the polariscope, while beer prepared from artificial -glucose gave a solution possessing decided dextro-rotary power. The use -of rice and glucose in the manufacture of beer is also indicated when -there is a deficiency in the proportion of phosphoric acid in the ash, -and of the extract, which applies, although to a somewhat less extent, -if wheat or corn meal has been substituted for barley malt. - -The following conclusions were reached by a commission of chemists -appointed in Germany to determine standards for beer:--A fixed relation -between the quantity of alcohol and extract in beer does not invariably -exist. As a rule in Bavarian and lager beer, for 1 part by weight of -alcohol a maximum of 2 parts and a minimum of 1·5 parts of extract -should be present. In case malt has been replaced by glucose, or other -non-nitrogenous substances, the percentage of nitrogen in the extract -will fall below 0·65. The acidity should not exceed 3 c.c. of normal -alkali solution for 100 c.c. of beer. The ash should not exceed 0·3 -per cent. The maximum proportion of glycerine should not exceed 0·25 -per cent. For clarification, the following means are permissible: -Filtration, the use of shavings, etc., and of isinglass or other forms -of gelatine; for preservation, carbonic acid gas, and salicylic acid -may be employed--the latter, however, only in beer which is intended -for exportation to countries where its use is not prohibited. - -Several samples of so-called “beer preservatives” examined by the -author, consisted of a solution of sodium salicylate and borax, -dissolved in glycerine. Salicylic acid is employed in order to -prevent fermentation in beer, which is exposed to great variations -in temperature. Its presence is detected by the following process, -suggested by Röse,[78] which is equally applicable to wine:--The beer -(or wine) is acidulated with sulphuric acid, and well shaken with its -own volume of a mixture of equal parts of ether and petroleum naphtha. -After standing at rest, the ethereal layer is removed by a pipette, -and evaporated or distilled until reduced to a few c.c. A little water -and a few drops of a dilute ferric chloride solution are then added, -and the liquid filtered: in presence of salicylic acid, the filtrate -will exhibit a violet colour. In the case of wines, where the presence -of tannic acid might interfere with the salicylic acid reaction, the -filtrate is re-acidulated, then diluted, and the treatment with the -ether mixture and iron chloride repeated. The second residue will -now show the violet coloration, even in wines rich in tannin, and -containing but 0·2 milligramme of salicylic acid per litre. The tannin -can also be removed by precipitation with gelatine, and the colour -test for salicylic acid subsequently applied. Glycerine is likewise -sometimes used as a preservative of beer, and is also added to render -the liquor richer in appearance, by communicating a viscosity to the -froth which causes it to adhere longer to the sides of the glass. It -can be quantitatively estimated by evaporating 100 c.c. of the sample -in a capsule at a temperature of 75°, until the carbonic acid has -been expelled, then adding about 5 grammes of magnesium hydroxide, -and thoroughly stirring the mixture until it forms a homogeneous, -semifluid mass. The contents of the dish are allowed to cool, and are -then well digested with 50 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and the fluid -portion afterwards separated by decantation, the residual mass being -again treated with 20 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and the alcoholic -solution thus obtained added to the first. The malose, parapeptone, -etc., present in the solution are now precipitated by adding (with -constant stirring) 300 c.c. of anhydrous ether, after which the liquid -is filtered, and the filtrate concentrated, at first by spontaneous -evaporation, subsequently by heating over the water-bath, until it -assumes the consistency of a syrup, when it is placed in an exsiccator -which connects with an air-pump, where it is allowed to remain for -twenty-four hours. The syrupy residue is then digested with 20 c.c. of -absolute alcohol and filtered, the filtrate being collected in a tared -capsule, which is again exposed to the heat of the water-bath, and -allowed to remain in the exsiccator for twelve hours, after which it -is weighed. The increase in weight gives approximately the amount of -glycerine contained in the beer examined.[79] - -It is certain that many of the poisonous substances which in former -times have been detected in beer, such as strychnine, hyoscyamine, -picric acid, and picrotoxine, are not used at present. It is much -more probable that such bitters as gentian and quassia may be met -with, especially at times when hops are dear. These latter far -exceed hops in bitterness, and do not exert deleterious effects upon -health. Willow bark, or its active principle, salicine, has also been -employed. The detection of some of the most apocryphal substitutes -for hops is effected, according to Wiltstein,[80] by the following -method: One litre of the beer is concentrated over the water-bath to -a syrupy liquor, which is introduced into a rather capacious tared -cylinder and weighed. The gum, dextrine, and mineral salts are first -separated by adding to the syrup five times its weight of 95 per cent. -alcohol, with which it is thoroughly mixed, and allowed to digest for -twenty-four hours. The clear, supernatant solution is now drawn off, -and the residue treated with a fresh quantity of alcohol, which is -afterwards united with the solution first obtained, the whole being -then evaporated until the alcohol is expelled. A small portion of the -residue is dissolved in a little water, and tested for picric acid, -as described later on. The remainder is repeatedly shaken with about -six times its weight of pure benzol, which is subsequently removed -by decantation, the operation being then repeated with fresh benzol, -the two solutions added and evaporated to dryness at a very moderate -temperature. The residue thus obtained is divided into three portions, -which are placed in small porcelain dishes and tested as follows:-- - -To one portion a little nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·330) is added; if a -red coloration ensues, _brucine_ is present; if a violet colour, -_colchicine_. A second portion is treated with concentrated sulphuric -acid; the production of a red colour indicates the presence of -_colocynthine_. To a third portion, a few fragments of potassium -dichromate and a little sulphuric acid are added; if a purple-violet -coloration takes place, _strychnine_ is present. - -The portion of the syrup which has remained undissolved by benzol is -first dried over the water-bath, and then agitated with pure amylic -alcohol, by which treatment picrotoxine and aloes, if present, will go -in solution, and impart a bitter taste to the liquid. - -The solution can be examined as subsequently directed for picrotoxine; -the presence of aloes is best recognised by the characteristic -saffron-like odour possessed by this body. The syrup which remains -after the successive treatments with benzol and amylic alcohol is -next freed from any remaining traces of the latter compound by means -of blotting-paper, and then thoroughly agitated with anhydrous ether, -which is afterwards removed and allowed to spontaneously evaporate. -If the residue now obtained exhibits a wormwood-like aroma, and gives -a reddish yellow solution, which rapidly changes to a deep blue when -treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, _absinthine_ is present. The -syrup insoluble in ether may still contain quassine, gentipicrine, and -menyanthine, and the presence of any of these bodies is indicated if -it possesses a bitter taste, since the bitter principle of hops would -have been removed by the foregoing treatment with solvents. The syrup -is dissolved in a little warm water, the solution filtered and divided -into two portions. To one a concentrated ammoniacal solution of silver -nitrate is added, and the mixture heated: if it remains clear, quassine -is probably present; the formation of a metallic mirror points to the -presence of either gentipicrine or menyanthine. A second portion of the -aqueous solution is cautiously evaporated in a small porcelain capsule, -and a few drops of strong sulphuric acid are added to the residue: if -no change takes place in the cold, but upon applying heat a carmine-red -coloration appears, _gentipicrine_ is present; if a yellowish brown -colour, which afterwards changes to a violet, is produced, the presence -of _menyanthine_ is probable.[81] - -Picric acid can be detected by means of the following tests:-- - -1. Upon shaking pure beer with animal charcoal, it becomes decolorised, -whereas beer containing picric acid retains a lemon-yellow colour after -this treatment. - -2. The bitter taste of normal beer is removed by treatment with a -little plumbic diacetate and filtering, which is not the case with the -flavour imparted by the use of picric acid. - -3. Unbleached wool or pure flannel will acquire a decided yellow colour -if boiled for a short time in beer adulterated with picric acid, and -afterwards washed. - -4. Upon agitating 20 c.c. of the suspected beer in a test-tube with 10 -c.c. of amylic alcohol, allowing the mixture to remain at rest, and -then removing the amylic alcohol, a solution is obtained which contains -any picric acid present in the sample treated. It is evaporated to -dryness, the residue dissolved in a little warm distilled water, and -the aqueous solution submitted to the following tests:-- - -(_a_) To one portion a concentrated solution of potassium cyanide is -added; in presence of picric acid, a blood-red colour is produced, due -to the formation of iso-purpuric acid. - -(_b_) A second portion is treated with a solution of cupric-ammonium -sulphate; if picric acid be present, minute greenish crystals of -cupric-ammonium picrate will be formed. - -(_c_) To a third portion, a little ammonium sulphide, containing free -ammonium hydroxide, is added; in presence of picric acid, picramic acid -is produced, the formation of which is accelerated by the application -of heat, and is made evident by the appearance of an intensely red -colour. - -The detection of _cocculus indicus_, or its poisonous alkaloid, -_picrotoxine_, may be effected by first agitating the beer with -plumbic acetate, filtering, removing the lead from the filtrate by -means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and again filtering. The filtrate is -first boiled, then carefully evaporated until it possesses a thickish -consistency, when it is shaken up with animal charcoal, which is -afterwards brought upon a filter, washed with a very little cold water, -and dried at 100°. The picrotoxine possibly present is then extracted -from the animal charcoal by boiling it with strong alcohol, from -which the alkaloid separates on evaporating the solution, either in -quadrilateral prisms or in feathery tufts. - -Again reverting to beer adulteration, Prof. H. B. Cornwall has lately -made an interesting report in this regard.[82] Several years ago, in -reply to a circular issued by the “Business Men’s Moderation Society -of New York City,” the “Association of United Lager Beer Brewers” -asserted that the only substitutes for barley malt employed were corn -starch, corn meal, rice, glucose, and grape sugar, no artificial -bitters being used. The addition of glucose and grape sugar, the -association stated, was not necessarily on account of economy, but -had for its object an increase in the strength of the wort, without -resorting to concentration and the production of beer of desirable -flavour and colour. Rüdlinger[83] denies that beer is subjected to -injurious adulteration in Germany. He states substantially as follows: -“Cases of sickness, frequently claimed to be caused by the beer, are -due either to excess or to the consumption of the new and incompletely -fermented beverage. It has been affirmed that brewers often economise -in hops by the use of other and deleterious bitters, and that picric -acid and strychnine have been employed for this purpose. Nonsense, once -written, is frequently copied by hundreds, and in this way circulates -among the masses. The maximum amount of hops used in beer is really -inconsiderable, and, there exists no necessity for resorting to foreign -substitutes, even in seasons when the price of hops is abnormally high, -since the proportion of this ingredient could be slightly decreased -without incurring the danger of detection which would follow the use of -artificial bitters.” On the other hand, it is certain that, _in past -years_, such injurious additions as cocculus indicus, picric acid, -aloes, etc., have actually been discovered by chemists of high standing -in bitter ale and other forms of beer. A. Schmidt,[84] asserts that -glycerine, alum, and sodium bicarbonate are added to beer, and states -that beer, poor in extractive and alcoholic constituents, is liable -to become sour, a defect which is remedied by the use of alkalies -and chalk, the resulting disagreeable taste being disguised by means -of glycerine. The same authority deprecates the use of glucose on -account of the absence of nutritious albuminoids and phosphates in this -substance. It would certainly appear obvious that the direct addition -of starch-sugar to the wort, which results in augmenting the alcoholic -strength of beer without correspondingly increasing the proportion of -valuable extractive matter, is of doubtful propriety. Grains are less -open to this objection. Of these, maize is generally regarded as the -best substitute for barley malt, both on account of its similarity in -composition and its cheapness. The International Congress of Medical -Sciences, held at Brussels in 1875, adopted the following resolutions:-- - -1. Genuine beer should be made from grain and hops. - -2. No other substances should replace these, either wholly or partially. - -3. All substitutes should be considered as adulterations, and should -come under the penalty of the law, even if not deleterious to health. - -The German Brewers’ Association, at its Frankfort meeting, defined -wholesome beer as the produce of malt, hops, yeast, and water with -a partial substitution of the malt by starch meal, rice, maize, and -glucose, and regarded the use of some malt substitutes as permissible -on scientific and hygienic grounds. It recommended, however, that, in -case such substitutes are employed, the beer so prepared should be -designated by a distinctive name, such as “rice beer,” “sugar beer,” -etc. - -The darker varieties of beer are sometimes artificially coloured by -the addition of caramel, and, although the result reached is virtually -the same as that caused by the over-roasting of malt, the practice is -prohibited in Germany unless the product is designated as “coloured -beer.”[85] According to Guyot, some of the Bavarian beer sold in Paris -is coloured with methyl orange.[86] Licorice is employed in beer -brewing in Germany, both on account of its sweetening power and for -clarifying purposes. - -In regard to the use of artificial preservatives, such as salicylic -acid and sodium bisulphite, it is very probable that articles of -food which have been treated with these preparations are not readily -digested. Their use, moreover, should be unnecessary, if due care has -been exercised in the manufacture of the beer. This is especially -applicable to beer intended for home consumption. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[69] The total production of all kinds of malt liquors in the United -States was, for the fiscal year 1886, 20 millions of barrels; it is -assumed that at least three-quarters of this amount consisted of lager -beer. - -[70] In Bavaria the use of all malt and hop substitutes is legally -prohibited. - -[71] ‘Report of the National Academy of Sciences,’ 1883, p. 88. - -[72] Hanemann has made the following determinations of fermented worts -prepared from pure malt and from malts containing 40 per cent. of each -substitute:-- - - ---------+------------+--------------+------------+--------------+ - | Pure Malt. | Maize Malt. | Rice Malt. | Starch Malt. | - ---------+------------+--------------+------------+--------------+ - Alcohol | 2·71 | 2·76 | 2·90 | 3·19 | - Extract | 6·59 | 6·48 | 6·25 | 5·91 | - Proteids | 0·43 | 0·39 | 0·33 | 0·28 | - ---------+------------+--------------+------------+--------------+ - -[73] The writer is assured by a prominent New York brewer, that the -addition of sodium bicarbonate is resorted to, not so much as a remedy -for poor beer, as for the purpose of satisfying the vitiated taste of -the public, who demand a lively and sparkling beverage. The proportion -employed is claimed not to exceed one ounce to the keg of beer. - -[74] ‘Annual Report Brooklyn Board of Health,’ 1885, p. 89.--The -accuracy of this statement is denied by the brewers. A blending of new -and old beer is, however, occasionally practised with, it is said, no -deleterious effects. - -[75] Ibid. - -[76] The albuminoids in beer may be estimated by diluting 1 c.c. of the -sample with water and then submitting it to Wanklyn’s process for water -analysis (see p. 211). The albuminoid ammonia thus obtained, multiplied -by 5·2, give the proteids in the beer taken. - -[77] The dextrine can also be removed by subjecting the beer to -dialysis (see p. 183). - -[78] Chem. Centralb., 1886, p. 412. - -[79] Griessmayer; Corresp. Blatt. d. Ver. Anal. Chem. No. 4, Feb. 1880. - -[80] Griessmayer; Corresp. Blatt. d. Ver. Anal. Chem. No. 4, Feb. 1880. - -[81] A comprehensive scheme for the detection of foreign bitters in -beer, suggested by Dragendorff, will be found in the Archiv. der Pharm. -[3] iii. 295; iv. 389. - -[82] Reports of Am. Health Assoc., vol. x. - -[83] ‘Bierbrauerei,’ 1876. - -[84] Archiv. der Pharm., xii. 392. - -[85] Deutsch. Reichsanzeiger, July 31, 1885. - -[86] Répert. de Pharm., xii. p. 513. - - - - -WINE. - - -Wine is the fermented juice of the grape of _Vitis vinifera_. In its -preparation, the fully matured grapes are usually (but not always) -first separated from the stalks, and then crushed, the _marc_ so -obtained being afterwards placed in butts provided with perforated -sides, through which the expressed juice or _must_ percolates. It -is next introduced into vats, and allowed to undergo a process of -fermentation, which is very analogous to that of beer wort. The -addition of yeast is, however, in this case unnecessary, as the -fermentation of grape-juice is spontaneous, it being due to the -generation of the fungus _Penicillium glaucum_, which is the product of -the action of atmospheric germs upon the albuminoid matters contained -in the must. The most important constituents of grape-juice are -glucose (10 to 30 per cent.), organic acids (0·3 to 1·5 per cent.), -and albuminous substances. During the fermentation the glucose is -converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, the latter being evolved in -bubbles; a deposit of potassium bitartrate and yeast-cells, forming -the _lees_, likewise occurring. This first fermentation ceases after -the lapse of several days, the period being indicated by the cessation -of escaping gas. In order to prevent the oxidation of the alcohol to -acetic acid, the liquid is removed from the lees and transferred into -casks, in which a slow after-fermentation and a further separation of -potassium bitartrate take place. The wine is subsequently stored for a -considerable time in fresh casks, during which it “ages,” and acquires -its characteristic flavour. - -The more common varieties of wine are classified according to the -country of their production--into French (claret, burgundy, champagne, -etc.), German (Rhine), Spanish (sherry and port), and Italian. - -The production of American wine has experienced a noteworthy increase -during the past twenty-five years. While, in 1860, less than two -millions of gallons of native wine were consumed in the United States, -in the year 1884 the quantity used exceeded seventeen millions of -gallons.[87] Aside from the general distinction of red and white, -wines are classified by their characteristic properties, as dry, -sweet, and cordial. In dry wines, such as those of the Gironde and -Rhenish districts, considerable free acid, and but little or no sugar -are contained, whereas in sweet wines (Madeira, port, etc.) a certain -proportion of the sugar remains undecomposed. Cordial wines are -distinguished by their sweetness and comparatively heavy body. The -nature of wines is materially affected by the proportion of glucose and -acids contained in the original must, as well as by the environments -of their manufacture, such as climate and temperature. From a chemical -point of view, the most important constituents of wine are the primary -products of fermentation--alcohol, succinic acid, and glycerine, but -its market value is far more dependent upon the flavour and bouquet, -which are chiefly due to the formation of secondary products, usually -included under the name “oenanthic ether,” and consisting of the ethers -of caproic, caprylic, and other organic acids. - -The following table exhibits the constituents of some of the best -known varieties of wine, according to results obtained by different -authorities:-- - - -----------------+---------------------------------------------------- - |Specific Gravity. - | +-------------------------------------------- - | |Alcohol, by Weight. - | | +------------------------------------- - | | |Fixed Acids (as Tartaric). - | | | +----------------------------- - | | | |Volatile Acids (as Acetic). - Kind of Wine. | | | | +---------------------- - | | | | |Total Acids. - | | | | | +--------------- - | | | | | | Real - | | | | | |Tartaric Acid. - | | | | | | +-------- - | | | | | | | Total - | | | | | | |Residue. - -----------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------- - | | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - French (red)[88] |0·9950 |12·00 |0·420 |0·170 |0·590 |0·180 | 2·43 - French (white) |0·9922 |10·84 |0·435 |0·169 |0·604 |0·102 | 1·257 - Vin Ordinaire | .. | 6·99 |0·610 |0·110 |0·720 | .. | 5·04 - St. Julien (1858)| .. | 9·84 |0·510 |0·140 |0·650 | .. | 2·67 - Frousac | .. |10·74 |0·450 |0·270 |0·720 | .. | 2·36 - Champagne | .. | 7·95 | .. | .. |0·520 | .. |12·41 - Rhenish[88] |0·9934 | 9·26 |0·420 |0·110 |0·530 |0·250 | 1·850 - Rüdesheimer | .. |13·32 | .. | .. |0·630 | .. | 1·840 - Alsatian[88] | .. |10·38 | .. |0·6100 | .. | .. | .. - Würtemberg | .. | 7·09 |0·87 | .. | .. | .. | 2·22 - Sherry[88] |0·9940 |17·20 |0·270 |0·150 |0·420 |0·018 | 4·20 - Port[88] |1·0040 |18·56 |0·310 |0·080 |0·390 |0·022 | 7·55 - Madeira[88] |0·9940 |17·75 |0·330 |0·160 |0·490 |0·03 | 4·35 - Marsala[88] |0·9960 |16·71 |0·190 |0·110 |0·300 | .. | 4·98 - Red Vœslauer | .. |10·25 |0·480 |0·060 |0·540 | .. | 1·96 - Lachryma Christi | .. | 9·70 |0·460 |0·110 |0·560 | .. |23·63 - White Capri | .. |10·40 |0·460 |0·190 |0·650 | .. | 1·96 - Cyprus | .. |10·09 |0·480 |0·120 |0·600 | .. |23·81 - Greek[88] |0·9931 |13·89 |0·233 |0·177 |0·710 |0·03 | 2·55 - Hungarian[88] |0·9921 | 8·54 |0·530 |0·150 |0·700 |0·067 | 1·82 - -----------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------- - - -----------------+--------+----------------------------------------- - | Sugar. | Ash. |Potassa (KOH). - | | | +-------------------------- - | | | |Potassium Carbonate. - | | | | +------------------ - | | | | | Sulphates - | | | | |and Chlorides. - | | | | | +---------- - | | | | | |Phosphoric - | | | | | | Acid. - -----------------+--------+-------+------+-------+-------+---------- - | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - French (red)[88] | 0·200 | 0·220 | .. | 0·060 | 0·10 | 0·03 - French (white) | 0·880 | 0·197 | .. | .. | .. | 0·031 - Vin Ordinaire | 0·110 | 0·450 | 0·13 | .. | .. | .. - St. Julien (1858)| 0·250 | 0·400 | .. | .. | .. | 0·080 - Frousac | 0·370 | 0·270 | .. | .. | .. | 0·040 - Champagne | 10·63 | 0·25 | .. | .. | .. | 0·050 - Rhenish[88] | 0·012 | 0·170 | .. | 0·07 | 0·07 | 0·03 - Rüdesheimer | 0·017 | 0·170 | .. | 0·07 | .. | .. - Alsatian[88] | .. | 0·178 | .. | .. | .. | 0·0253 - Würtemberg | .. | 0·230 | 0·09 | .. | .. | .. - Sherry[88] | 2·56 | 0·450 | .. | 0·001 | 0·36 | 0·02 - Port[88] | 4·33 | 0·280 | .. | 0·05 | 0·130 | 0·03 - Madeira[88] | 2·08 | 0·39 | .. | 0·03 | 0·25 | 0·04 - Marsala[88] | 3·24 | 0·22 | .. | 0·02 | 0·15 | 0·02 - Red Vœslauer | 0·29 | 0·32 | 0·14 | .. | .. | .. - Lachryma Christi | 18·91 | 0·48 | 0·10 | .. | .. | .. - White Capri | 0·48 | 0·29 | 0·11 | .. | .. | .. - Cyprus | 22·12 | 0·53 | 0·11 | .. | .. | .. - Greek[88] | 0·36 | 0·37 | .. | 0·02 | 0·24 | 0·04 - Hungarian[88] | 0·06 | 0·17 | .. | 0·01 | 0·08 | 0·02 - -----------------+--------+-------+------+-------+-------+---------- - -Two varieties of Californian wine, examined by J. L. de Fremery,[89] had -the following composition:-- - - -------------------------------+------------------+------------------- - Grammes in 100 c.c. | Gutedel (White). | Zinfandel (Red). - -------------------------------+------------------+------------------- - Alcohol | 10·45 | 9·80 - Extract | 2·0908 | 2·1270 - Mineral matter | 0·1978 | 0·2218 - Volatile acids (as acetic) | 0·0804 | 0·0972 - Fixed acids (as tartaric) | 0·4845 | 0·4110 - Potassium bitartrate | 0·1579 | 0·1428 - Free tartaric acid | 0·0060 | .. - Other free acids (as tartaric) | 0·5850 | 0·5325 - Sulphuric acid | 0·0384 | 0·0168 - Phosphoric acid | 0·0220 | 0·0193 - Chlorine | 0·0036 | 0·0054 - Lime | 0·0056 | 0·0084 - Magnesia | 0·0170 | 0·0160 - Glycerine | 0·6133 | 0·5647 - Sugar | 0·0165 | 0·0276 - Polarisation | +0·2 | .. - Succinic acid | 0·0068 | 0·0097 - Malic acid | 0·0324 | 0·0922 - -------------------------------+------------------+------------------- - -According to analyses made by R. Fresenius and R. Borgmann,[90] natural -wine has the following _average_ composition:-- - - Grammes in 100 c.c. - Alcohol 7·71 - Extract 2·75 - Free acids 0·73 - Mineral matter 0·23 - Glycerine 0·79 - Sulphuric acid 0·038 - Phosphoric acid 0·040 - Lime 0·018 - Magnesia 0·018 - Potassa 0·092 - Chlorine 0·004 - Potassium bitartrate 0·200 - -Natural wines are frequently subjected to various processes of -treatment, designed to remedy certain defects existing in the original -must. While these do not, perhaps, all properly come under the head -of adulteration, it is certain that many of the practices resorted to -affect the dietetic quality of the wine in a deleterious manner. The -most common modes of treatment, generally considered harmless, are the -following:-- - -_Pasteuring_, which consists essentially in heating the wine to 60°, -with a limited supply of air, and effects the artificial ageing and -better conservation of the product. Wines which exhibit ropiness and -other diseases are restored by destroying the fungi present. This is -accomplished by subjecting the well-filled and corked bottles to a -temperature of from 45° to 100° for several hours. - -A process of freezing is likewise employed for the improvement of wine. -It results in the removal of much of the cream of tartar, colouring -matter, and nitrogenous substances contained, and also causes an -increase in the alcoholic strength of the wine, thereby considerably -decreasing its tendency to undergo an after-fermentation. - -The proportions of sugar and acid best adapted to the production of -wine of good quality are at least 20 per cent. of the former to not -more than 0·5 per cent. of the latter. As these conditions do not -always obtain in grape-juice, artificial methods are employed to supply -the necessary constituents. Of these, the most rational consists in -diluting the must until the amount of acid is reduced to 0·5 per -cent., and increasing the sugar to a proportion of 20 per cent. by the -addition of glucose. In a somewhat similar process, due to Petiot, the -marc is repeatedly mixed with water containing 20 per cent. of sugar, -and then subjected to fermentation. In other methods, the removal of -the excess of free acid is effected by neutralisation with pulverised -marble or neutral potassium tartrate. The use of these agents results -in the formation and subsequent separation of insoluble salts--in -the latter case, of potassium bitartrate. Another process for the -improvement and preservation of natural wine, proposed by Scheele, -consists in the addition of glycerine, in a maximum proportion of 3 per -cent., after the first fermentation has taken place. - -R. Kayser[91] has made a very exhaustive investigation of wine-must -of different sources, and of the wine prepared therefrom, both in its -natural state and after having been subjected to various “processes of -improvement.” The following table shows the results obtained from the -analysis of Franken must and wine (both natural and “improved”), made -from Riessling grapes in 1880:-- - - -------------------+-------+------------------------------------------ - | Must. |Natural Wine. - | | +----------------------------------- - | | |Gall’s Process, (Cane Sugar added). - | | | +--------------------------- - | | | |Gall’s Process, - | | | |(Grape Sugar used). - | | | | +-------------------- - | | | | |Chaptal’s - | | | | |Process (Calcium - | | | | |Carbonate added). - | | | | | +--------------- - | | | | | |Plastered. - | | | | | | +-------- - | | | | | | |Petiot’s - | | | | | | |Process - | | | | | | |(Cane - | | | | | | |Sugar - | | | | | | |added to - | | | | | | |grape - | | | | | | |husks). - | | | | | | +-+ - | | | | | | | - +-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------ - | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. - Alcohol | .. |6·60 |12·20 |9·10 |6·60 |6·70 |10·40 - Extract |17·87 |2·53 | 2·11 |5·91 |2·19 |2·80 | 1·98 - Ash | 0·33 |0·26 | 0·10 |0·17 |0·28 |0·29 | 0·16 - Sulphuric acid | 0·010 |0·006 | 0·002 |0·010 |0·006 |0·077 | 0·002 - Phosphoric acid | 0·031 |0·024 | 0·020 |0·021 |0·023 |0·025 | 0·017 - Lime | 0·012 |0·009 | 0·007 |0·018 |0·027 |0·039 | 0·006 - Magnesia | 0·012 |0·011 | 0·012 |0·009 |0·012 |0·012 | 0·008 - Free acid (as | | | | | | | - tartaric) | 1·365 |1·275 | 0·765 |0·802 |0·660 |1·297 | 0·488 - Total tartaric acid| 0·501 |0·342 | 0·120 |0·140 |0·014 |0·260 | 0·150 - Free tartaric acid | 0·188 |0·012 | .. | .. | .. |0·160 | .. - Malic acid | 0·720 |0·715 | 0·400 |0·388 |0·710 |0·716 | 0·165 - Succinic acid | .. |0·110 | 0·140 |0·114 |0·112 |0·101 | 0·127 - Glycerine | .. |0·650 | 1·150 |0·800 |0·600 |0·700 | 0·900 - Sugar |13·90 |0·210 | 0·180 |0·340 |0·200 |0·180 | 0·300 - Potassa | 0·156 |0·117 | 0·051 |0·081 |0·134 |0·127 | 0·093 - -------------------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------ - -Magnier de la Source[92] has recently made some investigations -concerning the difference in chemical composition of natural and -plastered wine; he gives the following constituents of 1 litre of -wine:-- - - --------------------------------------+--------+------------ - |Natural.| Plastered. - +--------+------------ - | gr. | gr. - Tartar | 1·94 | 0 - Sulphuric acid | 2·58 | 3·10 - Potassium | 1·12 | 2·46 - Calcium (in soluble portion of ash) | 0 | 0·037 - Calcium (in insoluble portion of ash) | 0·179 | 0·151 - --------------------------------------+--------+------------ - -_Adulteration of Wine._--Although there may be some question in regard -to the moral status of the foregoing methods of improvement of natural -wine, numerous other practices are resorted to concerning which no -doubt can exist. The more common forms of wine adulteration include -plastering, sulphuring, fortification, blending, flavouring, colouring, -and the manufacture of fictitious imitations. - -The “plastering” of wines consists in the addition of plaster of -Paris (often mixed with lime), either to the unpressed grapes or to -the must. The process, which is rather hypothetically claimed to aid -in the preservation of the wine and correct any excessive acidity, -is very objectionable, in that it determines the formation of free -sulphuric acid and acid sulphates, as well as of calcium tartrate and -potassium sulphate. The lime salt, being insoluble, is deposited with -the lees; the potassium sulphate, however, remains in solution, and -as it exerts a decided purgative effect, its presence in wine cannot -fail to be detrimental. In France, the sale of wine containing over -0·2 per cent. of potassium sulphate is prohibited. The plastering of -wine is chiefly carried on in Spain, Portugal, and southern France. -The ash of pure wine does not exceed 0·3 per cent., but in the samples -of sherry usually met with it reaches a proportion of 0·5 per cent., -and is almost entirely composed of sulphates. The “sulphuring” of -wines is also extensively practised. It is effected either by burning -sulphur in the casks or by conducting sulphurous acid through the wine -itself, the object sought being to preserve the product and impart to -it the ripeness naturally acquired by age. Sulphured wines, while not -necessarily showing an increase in the amount of ash, can often be -recognised by the abnormally large proportion of sulphates present. - -The strength and preservative qualities of wine are frequently -augmented by the addition to it of inferior sorts of brandy. Port -wine usually receives an addition of about 30 per cent., and sherry -is invariably fortified, if not to so great an extent. By the Customs -regulations in England, 10 per cent. of brandy is allowed to be added -to wines in bond, while, in France, the sophistication is equally -permitted in wines intended for export, provided the total amount of -alcohol in the fortified article does not exceed 21 per cent. - -Doubtless the mixing or blending of wines constitutes the most frequent -form of their sophistication. Natural wines of the same manufacture -vary to some extent from year to year in colour, flavour, and other -characteristic properties, and mixing is resorted to in order to supply -the trade with a product always possessing nearly identical qualities. -In many cases, the flavour of wines is improved by blending, and their -intoxicating effects are also increased, both results being due to -the formation of compound ethers. Common instances of wine mixing -are the addition of Hermitage and Rousillon wines to clarets; of -Malaga and Teneriffe to port; of _solaras_ (a mixture of Amontillado -and Manzanilla) to sherry; and of a liqueur composed of sugar, some -kind of full, rich wine, and brandy, to champagne. The flavour and -bouquet of expensive wines are frequently imparted to inferior grades -by the addition of various substances, among which are elderflowers, -orris root, cherry water, essential oil of almonds, sweet briar, and -numerous perfumes, such as orange-flower water, neroli, _essence de -petit grain_, violet petals, etc. The tincture of raisin seeds is said -to communicate a genuine port flavour to poor wines, and a grain of -ambergris, triturated with a little sugar, is stated to impart a much -esteemed bouquet to a hogshead of claret. Numerous tinctures, as those -of strawberry root, raspberries, and walnuts, are likewise used. Sweet -and liqueur wines are extensively imitated at Cette and Montpelier. The -following recipes[93] will serve to illustrate the general character of -the mixtures employed:-- - - _For Lachryma Christi_:-- - Bagnols (dry) 85 litres. - Gum kino 50 grammes. - Infusion of walnuts 1 litre. - Syrup of raisins 6 litres. - Alcohol (85°) 8 „ - - _For Madeira_:-- - Picardan (dry) 60 litres. - Tavel (old and strong) 25 „ - Infusion of walnuts 2 „ - Infusion of bitter almonds 2 „ - Rock candy 1½ kilos. - Brandy (58°) 10 litres. - - _For Malaga_:-- - Bagnols (old) 80 litres. - Syrup of raisins 10 „ - Infusion of walnuts 2 „ - Alcohol (85°) 8 „ - - _For Tokay_:-- - Bagnols 80 litres. - Syrup of raisins 10 „ - Dried elder flowers 300 grammes. - Infusion of white raspberries 2 kilos. - „ „ walnuts 1 kilo. - Alcohol 6 litres. - -Port is frequently flavoured with a mixture of elderberry juice, grape -juice, brown sugar, and crude brandy known as “_Jerupiga_.” Sherry -often consists of Cape wine mixed with honey, bitter almonds, and -brandy. Astringency is conveyed to wines, deficient in this quality, by -means of tannin; and the property of forming a crust on the interior of -the bottle is produced, especially in port, by the admixture of cream -of tartar and gum. “Dryness” is also obtained by artificial methods. A -preparation met with in the trade, and used for this purpose, has the -following composition:[94]-- - - Per cent. - Glucose 28·72 - Glycerine 38·40 - Tannin 4·10 - Dextrine 3·14 - Boracic acid 4·27 - Cream of tartar trace - Moisture and ash 21·37 - ------ - 100·00 - ------ - -The colour of white wines is caused by the oxidation of the tannin -present, but it is sometimes increased by the addition of the -concentrated juice of highly-coloured grapes, or by means of a small -proportion of caramel. The colour of natural red wine is due to the -presence of _oenocyanin_, a bluish-black compound, chiefly contained -in the grape skins, which is insoluble in water, but dissolves in -acidulated alcohol. In Spain and southern France, a wine prepared -from a vine known as the _Teinturier_, and possessing an intense -bluish-red colour, is extensively employed for colouring of wines. -There appears to be no doubt but that elderberries, black cherries, -mulberries, and hollyhock are also frequently used as colouring agents. -Souberian[95] mentions a mixture, termed _liqueur de fismes_, composed -of elderberries, but also containing about 5 per cent. of alum, which -is occasionally employed. The general use of several deleterious -dyes, such as logwood, cochineal, and the aniline colours, is far -more problematical. In regard to the last-mentioned agents, it has, -however, been asserted,[96] that in a commune near Beziers, of 1800 -inhabitants, magenta, to the value of 30,000 francs, is annually -consumed in the adulteration of wine. - -It is also worthy of remark that an aniline preparation used in Spain -for the artificial colouring of wine has recently been found to contain -1·62 per cent. of arsenic acid.[97] - -Owing to the ravages of the phylloxera, a very considerable decrease in -the source of natural wines has taken place during the past few years. -Between 1883 and 1884 no less than 22 thousand acres of vineyards were -entirely destroyed in the Gironde district alone, and it is stated, -upon good authority, that the total production of wines in France in -1884 was 220 millions of gallons less than the average of the previous -ten years.[98] There is no doubt but that this decrease has greatly -stimulated the manufacture of imitation wines. These occasionally -contain a certain proportion of genuine wine as the basis, but more -frequently they consist entirely of factitious constituents. The -following recipe furnishes a fair example of those of the first class:-- - - Rousillon wine 50 litres. - Water 85 „ - Common brandy 20 „ - Vinegar 1 „ - Tartaric acid 300 grammes. - Powdered orris 20 „ - Wood charcoal 500 „ - -Agitate thoroughly, add the white of two eggs, with constant stirring; -allow to settle, and draw off. - -Of late years, the production of wine from dried fruit has assumed -very extensive proportions in France. The product, which is generally -known as “_vin de raisins secs_,” is claimed by its manufacturers to be -wholesome.[99] A wine said to possess the qualities of a fair claret, -is made by submitting to fermentation the following mixture:-- - - White sugar 5 kilos. - Raisins 5 „ - Sodium chloride 125 grammes. - Tartaric acid 200 „ - Brandy 12 litres. - Water 95 „ - Gall nuts 20 grammes. - Brewer’s yeast 200 „ - -Another recipe for Bordeaux wine is:-- - - Orris root 1 lb. - Water 5 galls. - Raspberry juice 1 „ - Pure spirit 10 „ - Essence of claret ½ lb. - Sugar syrup 1 gall. - Colour with cochineal. - -It is authentically stated that in the year 1881, 52 millions of -gallons of factitious claret wine were made in France, and the -industry has certainly not diminished in extent since this date. It -is a significant fact that the importation of Spanish raisins into -France has undergone a remarkable increase during the past few -years. Nor is this species of sophistication confined to foreign -wines. Establishments are in active operation in New York City and -elsewhere in this country, where imitations of Californian hock and -claret are made from fermented infusions of dried fruit (often charged -with salicylic acid), and offered for sale at less than thirty cents -per gallon, with more than the usual trade discount.[100] According -to a reliable estimation, less than one-tenth of the wine sold as -champagne is actually the product of that district, the remainder being -fabricated from other wines or from cider. - -_Analysis of Wine._--The analysis of wine comprises the following -estimations:--Specific gravity, alcohol, extract, sugar, polarisation, -glycerine, total free acids, volatile acids, free tartaric acid, -potassium bitartrate, malic acid, succinic acid, tannin, ethers, ash, -chlorine, sulphuric and phosphoric acids, and colouring matters. - -_Specific gravity._--The density is determined by means of the gravity -bottle, at a temperature of 15°. - -_Alcohol._--The proportion of alcohol is ascertained by the -distillation of 50 or 100 c.c. of the wine in a suitable flask, which -is connected with a Liebig’s condenser, until about half of the liquid -has passed over. The distillate is made up to the original volume with -water, and its specific gravity taken, from which the amount of alcohol -(by weight) present is calculated by aid of the usual alcohol-metric -tables (see p. 196). The result (as well as the proportions of the -other constituents) is preferably stated in grammes per 100 c.c. of -wine. The determination may also be made by first removing the alcohol -by evaporation, adding distilled water to restore the original volume, -and then estimating the density of the liquid (see under Beer, p. 142). -In unfortified wines the alcoholic strength ranges from 6 to 12 per -cent., and in wines which have received an addition of spirit, it may -vary from 12 to 22 per cent. - -_Extract._--The extract is conveniently determined by evaporating 50 -c.c. (measured at 15°), in a platinum dish over the water-bath, the -residue being dried for 2½ hours in the steam-oven. In case a wine rich -in sugar (containing, say, over 0·5 grammes per 100 c.c.) is under -examination, 20 c.c. will suffice for the determination. The indirect -method used in the estimation of the malt extract in beer may also be -employed. According to Girardin and Pressier, it is possible to detect -the watering of certain wines, the average composition of which is -known, by means of the proportions of extract and alcohol present. For -example, in genuine Bordeaux wines the proportion of extract ranges -from 20 to 20·8 grammes per 1000 c.c., and the amount of alcohol is -also very constant, it being a mean of 100 grammes per 1000 c.c. Should -a sample of Bordeaux wine show an extract of 14·5 grammes per litre, -the proportion of genuine wine present would be 72·5 per cent., for -(1000 × 14·5)/20 = 725·00, the remainder being water and alcohol. In -order to estimate the amount of spirits artificially added, the alcohol -contained in 72·5 parts of the wine is determined. If, for instance, -it is found to be 11 parts, then, (11 - 7·25 = ) 3·75 parts of alcohol -have been added.[101] The quantity of extract in pure natural wine -varies from 1·5 to 3 per cent., but in sweet and fortified wines, it -may reach 10 per cent. or more. - -_Sugar._--The sugar in wine consists of a mixture of fruit and grape -sugar, usually in the proportion of 3 parts of the former to 1 part -of the latter. The amount of sugar is best estimated by Fehling’s -solution (see p. 111). In the case of white wines, it is advisable to -employ 100 c.c. for the determination; with sweet rich wines 25 c.c. -are sufficient. The alcohol is first removed by evaporation over the -water-bath, and the diluted liquid is next decolorised by means of -bone-black or plumbic acetate, filtered, and made alkaline by addition -of sodium carbonate. It is then made up to a volume of 200 c.c. and -gradually added to 10 c.c. of Fehling’s solution. It is always well to -test the wine by the polariscope, and, whenever the presence of cane -sugar is indicated, to invert 100 c.c. of the sample by heating with a -few drops of hydrochloric acid, and again make a sugar determination -with Fehling’s reagent after neutralisation with sodium carbonate. - -_Polarisation._--The optical examination of wine is conducted by adding -20 c.c. of plumbic acetate solution to 100 c.c. of the sample, shaking -the mixture, allowing it to stand for a short time, and passing it -through a filter. If necessary the filtrate is further decolorised with -animal charcoal and again filtered. The polariscope tube is then filled -with the clear solution and the reading made. The majority of wines -exhibit a left-handed polarisation, which is due to the fact that, as -a rule, the proportion of fruit sugar present predominates over that -of grape sugar; moreover, ½ part of fruit sugar will neutralise the -dextro-rotary action of 1 part of grape sugar. In case the presence of -an excess of grape sugar is indicated by the polariscopic examination, -it is often assumed that this body has been directly added to the -wine. It sometimes occurs, however, that, in the fermentation process, -more grape sugar remains undecomposed than fruit sugar, under which -circumstances the preponderance of the former body in the resulting -wine would not prove sophistication; but, under ordinary conditions, -the presence of an excessive proportion of grape sugar may safely be -regarded as strongly pointing to the artificial addition of must syrup. - -_Glycerine._--100 c.c. of the wine are reduced by evaporation on the -water-bath to 10 c.c., some pure sand added, and then milk of lime to -decided alkaline reaction, after which the mixture is evaporated nearly -to dryness. When cold, the residue is thoroughly agitated with 50 c.c. -of 96 per cent. alcohol, next heated to boiling on the water-bath, -and then passed through a filter. The insoluble residue is repeatedly -washed with more hot alcohol, the washings being added to the first -filtrate. The solution is now evaporated until it assumes a viscous -consistency. The residue is taken up with 10 c.c. of absolute alcohol, -and 15 c.c. of ether are added, the mixture being shaken and allowed -to stand at rest in a well-stoppered flask until it becomes clear. The -solution is subsequently filtered into a tared glass capsule, then -carefully evaporated to a syrupy condition over the water-bath, and -the residue dried in the steam-oven for one hour, and finally weighed. -According to Pasteur, 112·8 parts of grape sugar yield 3·6 parts of -glycerine; in natural wine, therefore, the glycerine should amount to -about 1/14th part of the alcohol present. - -_Acids._--The acids in wine consist of acetic, tartaric, malic, tannic, -succinic, racemic, formic, and propionic. - -_Total free Acids._--These are determined by titrating 10 c.c. of the -sample with 1/10th normal soda solution, litmus paper or tincture of -logwood being employed as the indicator. Wines containing free carbonic -acid should be repeatedly well-shaken before making the estimation. The -free acids are expressed in terms of tartaric acid (C_{4}H_{6}O_{6}). -If sulphuric acid or potassium bisulphate is present, a piece of filter -paper will be rendered brittle when immersed in the wine for some time, -and afterwards cautiously dried. - -_Volatile Acids._--The volatile acids are estimated by slowly -evaporating 10 c.c. of the wine to the consistency of a syrup, and -repeating the titration with 1/10th normal alkali solution. The -difference in acidity represents the proportion of volatile acids -present, which is stated in terms of acetic acid (C_{2}H_{4}O_{2}). It -is evident that the non-volatile acids can be calculated by deducting -from the total amount of free acids, the tartaric acid corresponding -to the acetic acid found. The proportion of volatile acid in genuine -wine varies from 0·3 to 0·6 per cent. According to Dupré, in white -wine, one-fourth of the total acidity should be due to volatile acids, -and in fortified and red wine, they should not exceed a proportion of -one-third. - -_Free Tartaric Acid and Potassium Bitartrate._--In the presence -of a small amount of free acids, the detection of a considerable -proportion of free tartaric acid may fairly be considered as strong -evidence that the wine is artificial. Nessler recommends the following -qualitative test:--20 c.c. of the sample are repeatedly shaken with -a little freshly prepared and finely ground cream of tartar. After -standing one hour, the solution is filtered, 3 or 4 drops of a 20 -per cent. solution of potassium acetate are added, and the mixture -is allowed to remain at rest for twelve hours, when, in presence of -free tartaric acid, a precipitation will take place. The quantitative -estimation of free tartaric acid and potassium bitartrate is made -by Berthelot’s method, as follows:--Separate portions of the wine -(20 c.c. each) are introduced into two flasks, a few drops of 20 per -cent. solution of potassium acetate being added to the second flask. -200 c.c. of a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether are then -added to both flasks, their contents repeatedly shaken and finally -set aside for eighteen hours at a temperature between 0° and 10°. The -separated precipitates are now removed by filtration, washed with the -ether-alcohol mixture, and then titrated with 1/10th normal alkali -solution. That formed in the first flask corresponds to the potassium -bitartrate originally contained in the wine; the second represents the -total tartaric acid present. The addition of a small quantity of clean -sand will assist in the separation of the precipitates. - -_Malic Acid._--A slight excess of lime-water is added to 100 c.c. of -the wine, and, after standing for some time the solution is filtered, -concentrated by evaporation to one-half its original volume, and -treated with an excess of absolute alcohol. The resulting precipitate -(consisting of calcium malate and sulphate) is collected upon a filter, -dried and then incinerated. The proportion of malic acid contained -is now estimated by volumetrically determining the amount of calcium -carbonate present by means of a normal acid solution: 1 part of calcium -carbonate represents 1·34 parts of malic acid (C_{4}H_{6}O_{5}). - -_Tannic Acid._--10 c.c. of the sample are taken, the free acids -present neutralised with normal alkali solution, and a few drops of -concentrated sodium acetate solution (40 per cent.) added. A solution -of ferric chloride (10 per cent.) is then added, drop by drop, -carefully avoiding an excess. A single drop of the iron solution -represents 0·05 per cent. of tannic acid. The method of tannin -determination described under Tea (see p. 22) can also be applied. - -_Succinic Acid._--500 c.c. of the wine are decolorised with bone-black, -filtered, the filtrate evaporated over the water-bath nearly to -dryness, and the residue repeatedly treated with alcohol-ether. The -solution thus obtained is concentrated, carefully neutralised with -lime-water, evaporated to dryness, and the glycerine present removed by -washing with the alcohol-ether mixture. The remaining residue is now -treated with 80 per cent. alcohol, in order to dissolve the calcium -succinate contained, every 100 parts of which represent 75·64 parts of -succinic acid (H_{6}C_{4}O_{4}). Thudichum and Dupré state that one -litre of pure wine contains from 1 to 1·5 grammes of succinic acid. - -_Ethers._--The compound ethers in wine are volatile and fixed, -and exist in but minute proportions. Of the former class, ethylic -acetate C_{2}H_{3}(C_{2}H_{5})O_{2} is the most important. As already -mentioned, the aroma of wine is largely influenced by the presence of -the ethers of the fatty acids, butyric, caprylic, etc. Dupré determines -the proportion of both kinds of ethers indirectly as follows:--250 c.c. -of the wine are distilled until 200 c.c. have passed over. Water is -then added to the distillate to a volume of 250 c.c. 100 c.c. are first -titrated with 1/10th normal soda solution. Another 100 c.c. of the -distillate are next heated with a known quantity of alkali (by which -the ethers are decomposed into their corresponding acids and alcohol), -and the titration is repeated. The amount of _volatile_ ethers is then -calculated from the increased acidity shown by the second titration. In -order to determine the proportion of _fixed_ ethers, 500 c.c. of the -sample are evaporated over the water-bath to a small volume which is -made alkaline, and then subjected to distillation. The distillate is -acidulated with sulphuric acid and again distilled. The alcohol present -in the second distillate is now oxidised to acetic acid by means of -potassium dichromate, and the amount of this acid found estimated -by titration. According to Berthelot, the proportion of ethers in -genuine wine bears a fixed relation to the amounts of alcohol and acids -present: he suggests the following formula for calculating the amount -of alcohol contained in the compound ether of one litre of wine, when -etherification is complete:-- - - _y_ = 1·17 A + 2·8 - - _x_ = (_y_ × _a_) / 100, - -where A is the percentage, by weight, of alcohol; _a_ the amount -of alcohol equivalent to the total free acid in one litre of wine -(assuming this to be acetic acid); _y_, the proportion per cent. of -_a_ present as compound ether in one litre of wine, when the alcoholic -strength of the wine is A; and _x_, the amount of alcohol present in -the compound ether of one litre of wine. - -_The Ash._--100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated to dryness in a -platinum dish, over the water-bath, and the residue is incinerated at -a rather low temperature and weighed. By this process, the tartrates -and malates contained in the wine are converted with carbonates. -The ash of normal wine consists of potassium sulphate, carbonate, -phosphate and chloride, sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, etc., -but, in many samples, it will be found to be largely if not entirely -composed of sulphates, which is due to the practice of sulphuring and -plastering.[102] Generally speaking, the proportion of ash in genuine -wine ranges from 0·15 to 0·30 per cent. - -_Chlorine._--100 c.c. of the sample are neutralised with sodium -carbonate, evaporated to dryness, and the residue gently ignited. -It is then extracted with boiling water, filtered, and the chlorine -determined by means of silver nitrate, either volumetrically or -gravimetrically. - -_Sulphuric Acid._--100 c.c. are acidulated with hydrochloric acid, the -liquid heated to boiling, and the sulphuric acid precipitated by barium -chloride. The precipitate is well washed, dried, and weighed. 100 parts -represent 42·49 parts H_{2}SO_{4}. Pure wine contains from 0·109 to -0·328 gramme of monohydrated sulphuric acid per litre (corresponding to -0·194 to 0·583 gramme potassium sulphate). The presence of an excess of -this maximum amount indicates that the wine has been plastered. - -_Phosphoric Acid._--100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated, the residue -ignited, dissolved in a little water, acidulated with nitric acid, -and then added to an excess of solution of ammonium molybdate. After -standing over night the separated precipitate is dissolved in ammonia -and the phosphoric acid determined by means of an ammoniacal solution -of magnesium sulphate. 100 parts of the precipitate thus obtained -correspond to 63·96 parts of phosphoric acid. The former belief -that the best qualities of wine contain the largest proportion of -phosphoric acid does not appear to be invariably correct. - -_Salicylic Acid._[103]--The determination of this acid is accomplished -as follows:--100 c.c. of the sample are repeatedly agitated with -chloroform, which is subsequently separated and evaporated to dryness. -The residue is re-crystallised from chloroform and weighed; its -identity can be established by dissolving it in water and adding -solution of ferric chloride (see p. 149). - -_Sulphurous Acid._--For the detection and estimation of sulphurous -acid, the following methods have been recommended:--500 c.c. of -the wine are placed in a flask, the exit-tube of which dips into a -test-tube which is suitably cooled, and subjected to distillation. When -about 2 c.c. have distilled, a few drops of a _neutral_ solution of -silver nitrate are added to the distillate: in presence of sulphurous -acid, a white curdy precipitate will be formed, which differs from -silver chloride in being soluble in nitric acid. According to -Haas,[104] this test is not invariably decisive, as pure wine may cause -the precipitation under certain conditions; moreover, acetic acid is -said to render silver nitrate turbid in strong alcoholic solutions. -Sulphurous acid can be quantitatively determined by adding phosphoric -acid to 100 c.c. of the wine, and distilling it in an atmosphere of -carbonic acid gas. The distillate is received in 5 c.c. of normal -iodine solution. When one-third of the sample has passed over, the -distillate (which should still contain an excess of free iodine), -is acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and the sulphuric acid formed -precipitated with barium chloride. - -_Colouring matters._--Very numerous processes have been published for -the detection of foreign and artificial colouring matters in wine. -Among those suggested are the following:-- - -1. A few drops of the sample are placed in succession on the smooth -surface of a piece of white calcined lime, and notice taken of the -tint produced. The following colours are stated to occur with pure and -artificially coloured wine:-- - - Natural red wine yellowish brown. - Wine coloured with fuchsine rose colour. - „ „ „ Brazil wood „ „ - „ „ „ logwood reddish violet. - „ „ „ black hollyhock yellowish brown. - „ „ „ poke-berries yellowish red. - -2. If ammonium hydroxide be added to the suspected sample to distinct -alkaline reaction, then a little ammonium sulphide and the liquid -filtered, the filtrate from genuine wine will possess a green tint, -whereas that obtained from artificially coloured wine will exhibit -other colours, such as red, blue, violet, or brown. - -3. 100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated to about one-half of the -original volume, ammonium hydroxide added to alkaline reaction, and the -liquid thoroughly shaken. Ether is then added, and the mixture again -well shaken. It is next introduced into a separator, and allowed to -stand at rest until the ether has risen to the surface, when the lower -stratum is drawn off, and the residual ether washed by agitation with -water, which is subsequently removed. The ethereal solution is now -transferred to a flask connected with a Liebig’s condenser, a piece of -white woollen yarn introduced into the liquid, and the contents of the -flask distilled at a gentle heat: in presence of the smallest amount of -fuchsine, the wool will acquire a very perceptible reddish hue. - -4. A slight excess of ammonium hydroxide is added to 50 c.c. of the -wine, a piece of white woollen fabric introduced, and the liquid -boiled until the alcohol and ammonia are expelled. By this treatment -it will be found that most aniline colouring matters, if present, -become attached to the wool. Their presence can be corroborated by -removing the fabric, washing and pressing it, and then dissolving it, -with constant stirring, in a hot solution of potassium hydroxide. When -solution has taken place, the liquid is allowed to cool, and one-half -its volume of alcohol is added, then an equal volume of ether. The -mixture is vigorously shaken, and, after remaining at rest for some -time, the supernatant ethereal solution is removed, introduced into -a test-tube, and a drop or two of acetic acid added. In presence of -fuchsine, its characteristic colour will now become apparent. Methyl -violet and aniline blue are separated by an analogous process. - -5. Logwood and cochineal may be detected by agitating 100 c.c. of the -suspected wine with manganic peroxide, and filtering. The filtrate -afforded by pure wine will be colourless. - -6. In Dupré’s process,[105] cubes of jelly are first prepared by -dissolving 1 part of gelatine in 20 parts of hot water, and pouring -the solution into moulds to set. These are immersed in the wine under -examination for 24 hours, then removed, slightly washed, and the depth -to which the colouring matter has permeated is observed: pure wine will -colour the gelatine very superficially; the majority of other colouring -principles (e.g. fuchsine, cochineal, logwood, Brazil wood, litmus, -beetroot, and indigo) penetrate the jelly more readily and to a far -greater degree. Dilute ammonium hydroxide dissolves from the stained -cake the colouring matter of logwood and cochineal, but not that -derived from fuchsine or beetroot. - -7. The colouring principle of genuine wine when subjected to dialysis, -does not pass through the animal membrane to any decided extent, while -that of logwood, cochineal, and Brazil wood easily dialyses. - -8. Many of the foreign dyes added to wine are precipitated by a -solution of basic plumbic acetate. The precipitate obtained upon -treating 10 c.c. of the sample with 3 c.c. of this reagent is collected -on a filter and washed with a 2 per cent. solution of potassium -carbonate, which dissolves cochineal, sulphindigotic acid and aniline -red. The latter is separated upon neutralising the solution with acetic -acid, and shaking with amylic alcohol, which, in its presence, will -acquire a rose colour. The liquid is next acidulated with sulphuric -acid, and again agitated with amylic alcohol, by which the carminamic -acid, originating from cochineal, is isolated. Any remaining indigo -(as well as the carminamic acid) is to be subsequently identified by -means of its spectroscopic reactions. Upon treating the portion of the -plumbic acetate precipitate which remains undissolved by potassium -carbonate with a dilute solution of ammonium sulphide, the colouring -matter of pure wine and of logwood is dissolved. If, in presence of -logwood, the original sample is shaken with calcium carbonate mixed -with a little calcium hydroxide solution and filtered, the filtrate -will exhibit a decided red tint, but, if the wine treated be pure, -little or no coloration will be produced. - -9. An artificial colouring for wine, known as _rouge végétale_, is not -uncommonly employed. According to Amthor,[106] its presence can be -recognised as follows:--100 c.c. of the wine are distilled until all -alcohol is removed. The residual liquid is strongly acidulated with -sulphuric acid, and agitated with ether. Some woollen yarn is next -introduced into the ethereal solution, which is then evaporated over -the water-bath. In presence of _rouge végétale_, the wool will acquire -a brick-red colour, which turns violet upon treatment with ammonium -hydroxide. - -10. Cauzeneuve and Lepine[107] state that acid aniline red, -“naphthol-yellow S,” and roccelline red are harmless, whereas safranine -and ordinary Martius’ yellow are decidedly poisonous. - -The presence of “Bordeaux red”[108] is recognised by first adding -sodium sulphate to the suspected wine, then a solution of barium -chloride: the artificial dye is carried down with the precipitated -barium sulphate, from which it can be extracted by means of sodium -carbonate solution. The brownish-red liquid thus obtained acquires -a deep red colour if acidulated with acetic acid, which it readily -communicates to silk upon boiling. Natural red wine fails to produce a -coloration under the same circumstances. - -For the detection of the presence of artificial colouring matter -the following process is used in the Municipal Laboratory in -Paris:--Preliminary tests are made-- - -1st. By soaking pieces of chalk in an aqueous solution of egg-albumen; -these are dried and applied for use by dropping a little of the wine -upon them, and noting the coloration produced. Natural coloured wine -usually causes a greyish stain, which, in highly coloured varieties, -may verge to blue. - -2nd. Baryta water is added to the wine under examination until the -mixture acquires a greenish hue, after which it is shaken with acetic -ether or amylic alcohol. If the wine be pure, the upper layer remains -colourless, even after acidulation with acetic acid; whereas, in -presence of _basic_ coal-tar dyes, such as fuchsine, amidobenzole, -safranine, chrysoidine, chrysaniline, etc., characteristic colorations -will be obtained. - -3rd. A few c.c. of the sample are made alkaline by the addition of -dilute potassium hydroxide, some mercuric acetate added, and the -mixture agitated and filtered. With pure wines, the filtrate is -colourless; in the presence of _acid_ coal-tar derivatives, it is red -or yellow. - -The general character of the artificial dye contained in the wine -having been ascertained by the foregoing tests its more precise nature -is determined as follows:-- - -In case the foreign colouring is _basic_, the supernatant layer -obtained in the second test is separated, and divided into two -portions; one portion being evaporated with pure woollen yarn, the -other with filaments of silk. The dyed threads are then subjected to -the following tests:-- - -(_a_) _Rose-aniline or safranine_ affords a red coloration; safranine -usually attaches itself only on silk. - -(_b_) _Soluble aniline violet_ produces coloured threads which become -green upon treatment with hydrochloric acid, the primitive colour -reappearing upon dilution with water. - -(_c_) _Mauve-aniline_ gives a colour which turns blue upon addition of -the acid. - -(_d_) _Chysotoluidine_ causes a coloration which is only slightly -affected by the acid, but which is discharged upon boiling with zinc -powder; upon protracted exposure to the air the colour reappears. - -(_e_) _Chrysoidine_ and _Amidonitrobenzole_ produce yellow colours, the -former turning poppy-red if treated with sulphuric acid, the latter, -scarlet. A general characteristic of dyes, similar to rose-aniline, is -that they are decolorised by treatment with sodium bisulphite. - -If the presence of an _acid_ coal-tar dye is indicated by the third -preliminary test, the following special methods of procedure are -employed:-- - -Two portions of the wine are saturated respectively with hydrochloric -acid and with ammonium hydroxide water, and each portion is strongly -agitated with acetic ether. The ethereal layers are removed by means -of a pipette, then mixed together, evaporated to dryness, the residue -obtained treated with a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, and -observations made of the colour obtained:-- - - (_a_) Roccelline affords a violet colour. - (_b_) Bordeaux, R. and B. „ blue „ - (_c_) Panceau R., R.R., R.R.R. „ scarlet „ - (_d_) Panceau, B. „ red „ - (_e_) Biebrich red „ green to violet colour. - (_f_) Tropeoline, O.O.O. „ red colour. - (_g_) Tropeoline, O., and Chrysoidine „ orange-yellow colour. - (_h_) Tropeoline, O.O. „ violet-red „ - (_i_) Eosine „ yellow „ - -The method employed in the Paris Municipal Laboratory for the detection -of dried fruit wine, or of added commercial glucose, is substantially -the following:--A little beer-yeast is added to 300 c.c. of the -suspected wine, and the mixture is allowed to undergo fermentation -at a temperature of about 30°. When the fermentation is completed, -the filtered liquid is introduced into a dialyser, the outer water of -which is automatically renewed. The process of dialysis is continued -until the outer water ceases to show a rotary effect when examined by -the polariscope, after which it is neutralised with calcium carbonate -and evaporated to dryness over the water-bath, with constant stirring. -The residue obtained is treated with 50 c.c. of absolute alcohol and -filtered, the insoluble matters being twice washed with 25 c.c. of -alcohol. The alcoholic filtrates are next decolorised by means of -animal charcoal, and evaporated to dryness, and the solid residue is -dissolved in 30 c.c. of water and polarised. Genuine claret, when -tested in this manner, fails to exhibit a rotary power, or is but -slightly dextrogyrate, whereas fruit wines, and those containing -artificial starch sugar, strongly rotate respectively to the left or to -the right. - -The following are some of the conclusions arrived at by a commission, -appointed by the German Government, to inquire into uniform methods -for wine analysis, and establish standards of purity for genuine -wine.[109] - -(_a_) After deducting the non-volatile acids, the extract in natural -wine should amount to at least 1·1 gramme per 100 c.c.; after deducting -the free acids, to at least 1 gramme per 100 c.c. - -(_b_) Most natural wines contain one part of ash to every 10 parts of -extract. - -(_c_) The free tartaric acid should not exceed 1/6th of the total -non-volatile acids. - -(_d_) The relation between the alcohol and glycerine varies in natural -wines between 100 parts alcohol to 7 parts glycerine, and 100 parts -alcohol to 14 parts glycerine. These proportions do not apply, however, -to sweet wines. - -(_e_) Genuine wines seldom contain less than 0·14 gramme of ash, nor -more than 0·05 gramme of sodium chloride per 100 c.c. - -According to the analyses of Moritz, the maximum and minimum relative -proportions of the constituents of natural wine are as follows:--The -extract (after deducting the free acids) ranges from 1·10 to 1·78 -per cent.; the proportion of ash to extract varies from 1 : 19·2 to -1 : 6·4; that of phosphoric acid to ash ranges from 1 : 12·3 to 1 : -10·49; that of alcohol to glycerine, from 100 : 12·3 to 100 : 7·7.[110] -From the investigations of Dr. Dupré, it would appear that in genuine -unfortified wines, the amount of alcohol present varies from 6 to 12 -per cent. by weight. A wine containing less than 6 per cent. would be -unpalatable, and more than 13 per cent. cannot well be present, since -natural grape-juice does not contain the quantity of sugar requisite -for the production of a greater amount of alcohol; moreover, an excess -of this proportion would retard, if not entirely stop, the process -of fermentation. Pure wines contain a greater proportion of volatile -than fixed ethers, but in fortified wines the reverse is frequently -the case. In natural wines, which are not over a few years old, the -sugar present rarely amounts to 1 per cent., generally it is much less. -Fortified wines, in which fermentation has been checked by the addition -of alcohol, often contain 5 per cent. of sugar; champagnes usually show -from 4 to 10 per cent., and, in some liqueur wines, a maximum of 25 per -cent. has been found. In natural wines, the total dry residue generally -ranges from 1·5 to 3 per cent., while in fortified wines the addition -of sugar and other substances may increase its proportion to 10 per -cent., or even more. At the Paris Municipal Laboratory the following -standards are adopted: The amount of added water in all wines, not -sold as of a special or abnormal character, is calculated on a basis -of 12 per cent. of alcohol (by volume) and 24 grammes of dry extract -per litre. The proportion of potassium sulphate in unplastered wines -must not exceed 0·583 gramme per litre. The use of salicylic acid is -prohibited. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[87] During the year 1886 the total production of Californian wine -approximated 19½ million gallons, of which 3½ million gallons were -consumed in the manufacture of brandy, and 5 million gallons exported. - -[88] These figures denote the weight in grammes of the ingredients -contained in 100 c.c. of the wine; otherwise, percentages are expressed. - -[89] Berichte der Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., 1885, p. 426. - -[90] Zeit. f. Anal. Chem., 1885, p. 44. - -[91] Repert. Anal. Chem., 1882, ii., p. 1. - -[92] ‘Comptes Rendus,’ xcviii. p. 110. - -[93] _Vide_ ‘Spon’s Encyclopædia.’ - -[94] Jay, Bullet. de la Soc. Chim., xlii. p. 217. - -[95] Dict. des Falsifications. - -[96] ‘Les Mondes, Revue Hebd. des Sciences,’ No. 4, 1876. - -[97] Bullet. de la Soc. de Chim., xlii. pp. 167 and 207. - -[98] Recent reports of the vintage in France for the year 1886, -indicate that, while a decided improvement has been experienced in the -Champagne, Burgundy, Hérault, and Rousillon districts, this has failed -to be the case in Charentes and Gironde, where the phylloxera has again -seriously injured the crops. - -[99] F. Schaffer (Zeits. Anal. Chem., xxiv. p. 559) has made the -following analyses of artificial wine (grammes in 100 c.c.):-- - - ------------------------+--------+--------+------- - Alcohol (by volume) | 8·05 | 9·55 | 7·02 - Extract | 2·395 | 1·962 | 1·797 - Sugar | 0·330 | 0·409 | 0·321 - Ash | 0·209 | 0·135 | 0·160 - Acidity (as tartaric) | 0·743 | 0·501 | 0·772 - Free tartaric acid | -- | traces | traces - Cream of tartar | 0·264 | 0·227 | 0·471 - Sulphuric anhydride | 0·0374 | -- | -- - Phosphoric anhydride | 0·0196 | 0·0135 | 0·0172 - ------------------------+--------+--------+------- - -[100] It is asserted by a prominent wine merchant in New York that the -monthly production of two manufacturers of artificial wine in this city -exceeds 30,000 gallons. - -[101] Blyth, op. cit., p. 445. - -[102] According to J. Carter Bell (‘Analyst,’ vi. pp. 197, 221), the -average composition of the ash of pure grape-juice is as follows:-- - - K_{2}O Na_{2}O CaO MgO Fe_{2}O_{3} & Al_{2}O_{3} - 42·14 3·37 11·48 9·67 0·75 - - SiO_{2} P_{2}O_{6} SO_{3} Cl - 0·29 9·60 9·14 1·09 - -[103] Curtman (Jour. Pharm., xiv. p. 523) states that salicylic acid -can be detected by adding to 4 c.c. of the wine (or beer) 2 c.c. of -methylic alcohol and 2 c.c. of sulphuric acid. Shake the mixture, heat -gently for two minutes, then allow to cool. Next heat to boiling, -when, in presence of the acid, the odour of oil of wintergreen will be -perceptible. - -[104] Zeit. f. Anal. Chem., xxi. p. 3, 1882. - -[105] Journ. Chem. Soc., xxxvii. p. 572. - -[106] Schweizer Wochenschrift, xxii. p. 143. - -[107] ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 101, pp. 823, 1011, 1167. - -[108] Répert de Pharm. xii. p. 504. - -[109] Reichsanzeiger, 1884, No. 154. - -[110] R. Borgman (loc. cit.) gives the follow average relations of -ingredients in pure wine:-- - - Alcohol : glycerine = 100 : 10·5 - Extract : acidity = 1000 : 16·6 - Acidity : ash = 10 : 3·4 - Ash : extractives = 1 : 11·2 - Phosphoric acid : ash = 1 : 6·8 - - - - -LIQUORS. - - -The ordinary forms of liquors (namely, whisky, rum, and gin), are -prepared by the distillation of alcoholic infusions. The process of -distillation is preceded either by the conversion of the amylaceous -constituents of grain, first into sugar, then into alcohol, or by the -fermentation of saccharine bodies into alcohol, or, as in the case of -brandy, it may be directly applied to a solution containing alcohol. - -_Brandy._--When genuine, brandy is the product of the distillation -of various sorts of rich, light-coloured wines. The most esteemed -quality is prepared in the neighbourhood of Cognac, in the Deux -Charentes district, and in Armagnac; but numerous inferior grades are -manufactured in Rochelle and Bordeaux and in other parts of Southern -France, as well as in Spain and Portugal. In the United States, a -considerable quantity is produced by the distillation of California and -Ohio wine. The fermented marc and lees of grapes are also extensively -utilised in the manufacture of brandy. Most of the liquor known in -commerce under this name, however, is made from the spirit obtained -by the distillation of potatoes, corn, and other grains, which is -subsequently rectified, deodorised, and then suitably flavoured. -In France, the different grades of brandy are known as _eau-de-vie -supérieure_ (the best quality of Cognac); _eau-de-vie ordinaire_ -(common, sp. gr. 0·9476); _eau-de-vie de marc_ (chiefly used for mixing -purposes); _eau-de-vie seconde_ (weak and inferior); _eau-de-vie à -preuve de Hollande_ (sp. gr. 0·941); _eau-de-vie à preuve d’huile_ (sp. -gr. 0·9185); _eau-de-vie forte_ (sp. gr. 0·8390); and _esprit-de-vin_ -(sp. gr. 0·8610). - -The characteristic taste and bouquet of the original wine are to a -considerable extent communicated to the resulting brandy, and upon -these qualities its value is greatly dependent. Many of the remarks -made in regard to the ageing, flavouring and blending of wines equally -apply to brandy, and need not be repeated in this place. When freshly -distilled, it is colourless, its amber tint being either due to the -casks in which it has been stored, or to added caramel. The normal -constituents of genuine brandy are water, alcohol (including small -amounts of butylic, propylic and amylic), various ethers (acetic, -oenanthic, butyric, and valerianic), aldehyde, acetic and tannic -acids, and traces of sugar and the oil of wine. The specific gravity -usually approximates 0·9300 (equivalent to 52 per cent. of alcohol by -volume), it may, however, range from 0·9134 to 0·9381 (from 60 to 48 -per cent. of alcohol). Owing to the presence of acetic acid, genuine -brandy usually shows a slightly acid reaction. According to Blyth, the -constituents vary as follows:--total solids, from 1 to 1·5 per cent.; -ash, from ·04 to ·2 per cent.; acids (estimated as tartaric), from ·01 -to ·05 per cent.; sugar from 0 to ·4 per cent. A partial examination of -brandy, by König,[111] furnished the following percentages:--specific -gravity, 0·8987; alcohol (by weight), 61·70; extract, 0·645; ash, -0·009. The ingredients found in twenty-five samples of brandy tested -for the New York State Board of Health varied as follows:--specific -gravity, 0·9297 to 0·9615; alcohol (by weight) from 25·39 to 42·96; -extract, from 0·025 to 1·795; ash, from 0·002 to 0·014. - -The majority of these samples were certainly abnormal in composition. -Ordonneau[112] has quite recently determined by careful fractional -distillation the proportions of the more important constituents of -cognac brandy twenty-five years old, with the following results, the -quantities being stated in grammes per hectolitre:--aldehyde, 3; -ethylic acetate, 35; acetal, traces; normal propylic alcohol, 40; -normal butylic alcohol, 218·6; amylic alcohol, 83·8; hexylic alcohol, -0·6; heptylic alcohol, 1·5; propionic, butyric and caproic ethers, 3; -oenanthic ether, 4; amines, traces. The large proportions of normal -butylic and amylic alcohols obtained are very significant. It was found -that commercial alcohol, prepared from corn, potatoes and beetroot, -while containing isobutylic alcohol, was entirely free from normal -butylic alcohol, and the difference in flavour between genuine brandy -and brandy distilled from grains would appear to be mainly due to -this fact. Normal butylic alcohol is obtained when fermentation takes -place under the influence of elliptical or wine yeast, whereas the -iso-alcohol is the product of fermentation induced by means of beer -yeast; and it was shown that, by fermenting molasses, etc., with the -aid of wine yeast, a spirit was obtained which much resembled brandy in -colour and flavour. - -_Whisky._--Whisky is the spirituous liquor prepared by distilling -fermented infusions of barley, wheat, corn, and other grains. Spirits -that contain over 60 per cent. of alcohol are known as “high wines,” -or common spirits; those containing 90 per cent. of alcohol are often -termed “cologne spirits,” the name whisky being usually given to the -product of a former distillation, containing about 50 per cent. by -weight of alcohol. In Great Britain, the largest amount of whisky is -made in Scotland and Ireland; in the United States, the principal -supply comes from the States of Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky -(Bourbon Co.), and Pennsylvania (Monongahela Co.). The grains taken -differ greatly in composition. In Scotland and Ireland, malted barley -(pure, or mixed with other grain) is extensively employed; in the -preparation of Bourbon, partially malted corn and rye are taken, -while, for Monongahela whisky, only rye (with 10 per cent. of malt) -is used. The essential features of whisky-making are, first, the -conversion of the starch of the grain into dextrine and glucose, -which takes place in the process of _mashing_; the change being due -to the action of the nitrogenous principle, _diastase_ (formed during -the germination of the gain); then, the transformation of the sugar -into alcohol and carbonic acid by fermentation, which is induced by -the addition of yeast; and, finally, the concentration of the alcohol -by distillation. The quality of whisky is much affected by the nature -of the grain from which it is prepared, and by the care exercised in -its manufacture, more particularly in the process of distillation. -The most injurious ingredient in distilled spirits is commonly known -as “fusel oil,” which term comprises several products of alcoholic -fermentation, possessing a higher boiling point than ethylic alcohol, -and consisting chiefly of amylic alcohol, accompanied by small -proportions of butylic and propylic alcohols. Several varieties of -fusel oil exhibiting distinctive properties are met with, but that -obtained from potato-spirit is the most common. As a rule, the spirits -prepared from malted grain contain the smallest proportion. In the -manufacture of whisky, a danger of promoting the formation of fusel -oil is incurred by carrying on the distillation to the furthest -point, in order to obtain the greatest possible quantity of alcohol. -In Great Britain, the fermented mash is removed from the remaining -grain before its introduction into the still; but in this country the -entire mash is occasionally taken, by which means a larger yield of -alcohol is supposed to be effected. This practice is evidently open to -the objection that the solid matters of the wort are liable to suffer -destructive distillation, and engenders the formation of fusel oil. -Another result, sometimes experienced, is the imparting of a smoky -flavour to the product, which was originally intentionally communicated -to the famous “poteen” whisky of Ireland, by using malt dried by -means of burning turf. This quality is said to be still artificially -obtained by the use of creosote. Genuine whisky, when recently -made, is nearly colourless; but, if preserved in casks, it gradually -acquires a brownish colour. It contains minute quantities of tannic -acid, and ethylic and amylic acetates and valerianates. The specific -gravity generally ranges between 0·9220 and 0·9040, corresponding to -48 and 56 per cent. of alcohol. The solid extract in whisky is usually -below 1 per cent., and the total volatile acids under 0·1 per cent. -In regard to the average composition of whisky, chemical literature -furnishes but very meagre data. The examination of a large number of -samples of ordinary American whisky in 1881, for the New York State -Board of Health, gave the following results:--Specific gravity ranged -from 0·9018 to 0·9645; alcohol (by weight) from 23·75 to 52·58; solid -residue, from 0·100 to 0·752; ash, from 0·0020 to 0·0280. Several -samples of rye whisky, examined by Mr. Green,[113] showed alcohol (by -weight) from 32·50 to 51·20; tannic acid, 0·0003; acetic acid, 0·0012 -to 0·002; sugar, 0·002 to 0·005; solid residue, 0·160 to 0·734. - -_Rum._--Rum is obtained by the distillation of the fermented juice -of sugar-cane or of molasses; a very considerable proportion of the -article bearing this name is, however, made from grain spirit. In -France and Germany the mother-liquor remaining after the extraction -of beet-sugar, is utilised in the manufacture of a spirituous liquor -greatly resembling rum in properties. The characteristic odour and -taste of the liquor are mainly due to the presence of ethylic butyrate, -and are frequently factitiously communicated to its imitations by -the direct addition of this ether or of butyric acid. Grain spirit -is also sometimes treated with pineapples, which likewise impart the -distinctive flavour. Rum is chiefly produced in the West Indies, and -in North America. The specific gravity ranges from 0·874 to 0·926; -alcohol, from 50 to 70 per cent.; solid residue, from 0·7 to 1·50 per -cent; ash, under 0·10 per cent.[114] - -The following are the results obtained by Berkhurts, from the analysis -of various samples of genuine and artificial Jamaica rum:[115]-- - - -----------------+----------+----------+---------+------- - | Specific |Alcohol by| Total | - Source. | Gravity. | Weight. | Solids. | Ash. - -----------------+----------+----------+---------+------- - London | 0·885 | 61·38 | 0·668 | 0·023 - Glasgow | 0·875 | 61·38 | 4·800 | 0·089 - Bremen | 0·875 | 74·07 | 0·568 | 0·031 - Directly imported| 0·910 | 51·33 | 2·047 | 0·098 - Artificial | .. | 38·94 | 0·469 | 0·033 - Artificial | .. | 58·86 | 0·926 | 0·021 - -----------------+----------+----------+---------+------- - -The variations in the composition of commercial rum would seem to be so -great that little information of value concerning its authenticity is -to be derived from analyses of a general character. - -_Gin._--Genuine Holland gin is a spirit prepared by the distillation -of fermented grain infusions (rye and malted barley), flavoured with -juniper berries, or oil of turpentine. Formerly the flavouring was -directly introduced into the still together with the mash, but the -more recent practice is to add salt, water, and juniper berries to -the distilled grain spirit, and then re-distil the mixture. Numerous -other aromatic substances are likewise employed in the manufacture of -gin, among which are coriander, cardamom, and caraway seeds, orris, -angelica, and calamus roots, cassia, bitter-almonds, sweet fennel, etc. -Cayenne pepper, sugar, and acetic acid, are said to be also frequently -added to gin. Gin doubtless possesses more of an artificial character -than any other spirit. It is safe to assert that the great bulk of the -drink sold under the name is simply grain-spirits flavoured with some -of the preceding aromatics. On the other hand, the flavouring agents -employed are not, as a rule, harmful in their effects, so that the -quality of the liquor is mainly dependent upon the extent to which the -spirits used have been rectified. It is difficult to define “pure -gin,” since, owing to its compound character, it varies in composition -according to the method of manufacture followed by each individual -distiller. The variations found from the examination of twenty-five -samples of the commercial article, tested by the New York State Board -of Health, were as follow:[116]--Specific gravity, from 0·9302 to -0·9694; alcohol (by weight), from 18·64 to 44·33; solid residue, from -0·018 to 0·772; ash, from 0·001 to 0·019. - -_Adulteration of liquors._--Although it is notorious that the more -common varieties of spirituous liquors are sophisticated, the practices -resorted to are unfortunately usually of a character that does not -permit of positive detection, and, unless an actual adulteration, such -as the addition of some substance foreign to the genuine liquor, has -been made, a chemical examination alone is frequently inadequate to -distinguish between the true and the factitious article. In fact, the -ordinary physical qualities, such as odour and taste, are often of -greater service in determining the genuineness of distilled spirits -than more scientific tests. The most prevalent form of sophistication -with brandy, rum, and gin, is their artificial imitations; the direct -addition of substances deleterious to health being of comparatively -unfrequent occurrence. It is usual to employ a certain proportion of -the genuine liquor in the fabrication of its imitation. An apparent -objection to this species of adulteration is that grain spirits are -liable to be used as the basis of the fictitious product, which is -therefore apt to be contaminated with fusel oil, a compound producing -toxic effects in a proportion fifteen times greater than ordinary -ethylic alcohol. - -In the United States, whisky is probably less subjected to serious -sophistication than other spirituous drinks. While the blending -of this liquor (i. e. the mixing of new and old grades) is almost -universally practised by the refiner, and while the retail dealer often -reduces its alcoholic strength by the addition of water, there is very -little ground for the belief that, in this country, whisky is subjected -to noxious admixture to any great extent. - -A very large number of recipes have been published for the manufacture -of spurious liquors; the following are characteristic, and will -indicate their general nature:-- - - _For Brandy_:-- - - Cologne spirits (reduced to proof) 40 galls. - Oil of cognac 1/6 oz. - Burnt sugar colouring 1½ pint. - Tannin ¼ oz. - Brandy essence 1 part. - Alcohol 1000 parts. - Water 600 „ - -The compound known as “Brandy essence” consists of oil of grapes, 5 -parts; acetic ether, 4 parts; tincture of allspice, 1 part; tincture of -galls, 3 parts; and alcohol, 100 parts. “Oil of cognac” is a mixture of -amylic alcohol and oenanthic ether. - -According to M. Duplais, the best imitation of Cognac is the -following:-- - - Alcohol (85 per cent.) 54 litres. - Rum (good quality) 2 „ - Syrup of raisins 3 „ - Infusion of green walnut hulls 2 „ - Infusion of the shells of bitter almonds 2 „ - Catechu, in powder 15 grammes. - Balsam of tolu 6 „ - Pure water 37 litres. - Mix and colour with caramel. - -New Cognac, Montpellier, Saintonge, and other brandies are aged and -improved by adding to every 100 litres: old rum, 2 litres; old kirsch, -1-3/4 litres; infusion of green walnut hulls, 3/4 litre; syrup of -raisins, 2 litres. - -A compound sold as “London Brandy Improver” consists of sugar syrup, -acetic ether and essence of cayenne, coloured with caramel. - - _Whisky_:-- - (Rye) Proof spirit 50 galls. - Pelargonic ether 2 oz. - Pear oil 1 „ - Oil of wintergreen (dissolved in alcohol) 10 drops. - Acetic ether 4 oz. - Oil of cloves (dissolved in acetic ether) 4 drops. - - (Scotch) Alcohol (95 per cent.) 46 galls. - Scotch whisky 8 „ - Water 18 „ - Honey (3 lbs. in 1½ gall. water) - Creosote 5 drops. - Acetic acid 2 oz. - Pelargonic ether 1 „ - Ale 1 gall. - - (Irish) Spirits 30 galls. - Irish whisky 5 „ - Old ale ½ „ - Creosote (dissolved in acetic acid) 4 drops. - Pelargonic ether 1 oz. - -The preparation met with in commerce under the name of “pelargonic -ether” appears to be identical with oenanthic ether. - - _Rum_:-- - Rectified spirits 6 quarts. - Jamaica rum 22 „ - Rum essence 1½ oz. - Vanilla essence 1/10 „ - Water 2 quarts. - St. John’s bread 1½ oz. - Raisins 1½ „ - - Proof spirits 40 galls. - Rum essence ½ pint. - Sugar colouring ½ „ - Sugar syrup 1 quart. - -“Rum essence” is composed of butyric ether, 15 parts; acetic ether, -2 parts; vanilla tincture, 2 parts; essence of violets, 2 parts; and -alcohol, 90 parts. - - _Gin_:-- - Corn spirits 80 galls. - Oil of turpentine 1 pint. - Oil of juniper 8 oz. - Salt 21 lbs. - Water 35 galls. - Oil of caraway ½ oz. - Oil of sweet fennel ¼ „ - Cardamoms 8 „ - Distil over, 100 galls. - -The chemical examination of distilled spirits is ordinarily limited -to a determination of the alcohol, solid residue, ash, and volatile -acids, coupled with special qualitative and quantitative tests for any -particular adulterants, the presence of which may be suspected. - -(_a_) _Alcohol._--In properly distilled liquors, a fairly approximate -estimation of their alcoholic strength is effected by the specific -gravity determination, which is best made by means of the special -gravity bottle. In the case of spirituous liquors which contain -extractive matters, it is necessary to first separate the alcohol -present by the process of distillation, and then determine the density -of the distillate when made up to the volume originally taken. The -following table gives the percentages of alcohol by weight and by -volume, and of water by volume, for specific gravities at 15°.[117] - -The percentages of alcohol in the table are calculated for the -temperature of 15°. The necessary correction for differences of -temperature at which the determination is made is obtained by -multiplying the number of degrees above or below 15°, by 0·4, and -adding the product to the percentage shown by the table, when the -temperature is lower than 15°, and deducting it when it is above. - -Percentage of alcohol, by weight and by volume, and of water by -volume, for specific gravity at 15°; water at same temperature being -the unit:-- - - ---------+------------------------- - | PERCENTAGE. - +---------+--------------- - | By | By - | Weight. | Volume. - Specific +---------+------+-------- - Gravity. | Alc. | Alc. | Water. - ---------+---------+------+-------- - 1·0000 | 0· | 0 | 100· - 0·9985 | 0·80 | 1 | 99·05 - 0·9970 | 1·60 | 2 | 98·11 - 0·9956 | 2·40 | 3 | 97·17 - 0·9942 | 3·20 | 4 | 96·24 - 0·9928 | 4·00 | 5 | 95·30 - 0·9915 | 4·81 | 6 | 94·38 - 0·9902 | 5·61 | 7 | 93·45 - 0·9890 | 6·43 | 8 | 92·54 - 0·9878 | 7·24 | 9 | 91·62 - 0·9867 | 8·06 | 10 | 90·72 - 0·9855 | 8·87 | 11 | 89·80 - 0·9844 | 9·69 | 12 | 88·90 - 0·9833 | 10·51 | 13 | 88·00 - 0·9822 | 11·33 | 14 | 87·09 - 0·9812 | 12·15 | 15 | 86·19 - 0·9801 | 12·98 | 16 | 85·29 - 0·9791 | 13·80 | 17 | 84·39 - 0·9781 | 14·63 | 18 | 83·50 - 0·9771 | 15·46 | 19 | 82·60 - 0·9761 | 16·29 | 20 | 81·71 - 0·9751 | 17·12 | 21 | 80·81 - 0·9741 | 17·96 | 22 | 79·92 - 0·9731 | 18·79 | 23 | 79·09 - 0·9721 | 19·63 | 24 | 78·13 - 0·9711 | 20·47 | 25 | 77·23 - 0·9700 | 21·31 | 26 | 76·33 - 0·9690 | 22·16 | 27 | 75·43 - 0·9679 | 23·00 | 28 | 74·53 - 0·9668 | 23·85 | 29 | 73·62 - 0·9657 | 24·70 | 30 | 72·72 - 0·9645 | 25·56 | 31 | 71·80 - 0·9633 | 26·41 | 32 | 70·89 - 0·9620 | 27·27 | 33 | 69·96 - 0·9607 | 28·14 | 34 | 69·04 - 0·9595 | 29·01 | 35 | 68·12 - 0·9582 | 29·88 | 36 | 67·20 - 0·9568 | 30·75 | 37 | 66·26 - 0·9553 | 31·63 | 38 | 65·32 - 0·9538 | 32·52 | 39 | 64·37 - 0·9522 | 33·40 | 40 | 63·42 - 0·9506 | 34·30 | 41 | 62·46 - 0·9490 | 35·18 | 42 | 61·50 - 0·9473 | 36·09 | 43 | 60·58 - 0·9456 | 37·00 | 44 | 59·54 - 0·9439 | 37·90 | 45 | 58·61 - 0·9421 | 38·82 | 46 | 57·64 - 0·9403 | 39·74 | 47 | 56·66 - 0·9385 | 40·66 | 48 | 55·68 - 0·9366 | 41·59 | 49 | 54·70 - 0·9348 | 42·53 | 50 | 53·72 - 0·9328 | 43·47 | 51 | 52·73 - 0·9308 | 44·41 | 52 | 51·74 - 0·9288 | 45·37 | 53 | 50·74 - 0·9267 | 46·33 | 54 | 49·74 - 0·9247 | 47·29 | 55 | 48·74 - 0·9226 | 48·26 | 56 | 47·73 - 0·9205 | 49·24 | 57 | 46·73 - 0·9183 | 50·21 | 58 | 45·72 - 0·9161 | 51·20 | 59 | 44·70 - 0·9139 | 52·20 | 60 | 43·68 - 0·9117 | 53·19 | 61 | 42·67 - 0·9095 | 54·20 | 62 | 41·65 - 0·9072 | 55·21 | 63 | 40·63 - 0·9049 | 56·23 | 64 | 39·60 - 0·9026 | 57·25 | 65 | 38·58 - 0·9002 | 58·29 | 66 | 37·54 - 0·8978 | 59·33 | 67 | 36·51 - 0·8954 | 60·38 | 68 | 35·47 - 0·8930 | 61·43 | 69 | 34·44 - 0·8905 | 62·50 | 70 | 33·39 - 0·8880 | 63·58 | 71 | 32·35 - 0·8855 | 64·64 | 72 | 31·30 - 0·8830 | 65·72 | 73 | 30·26 - 0·8804 | 66·82 | 74 | 29·20 - 0·8778 | 67·93 | 75 | 28·15 - 0·8752 | 69·04 | 76 | 27·09 - 0·8725 | 70·16 | 77 | 26·03 - 0·8698 | 71·30 | 78 | 24·96 - 0·8671 | 72·43 | 79 | 23·90 - 0·8644 | 73·59 | 80 | 22·83 - 0·8616 | 74·75 | 81 | 21·76 - 0·8588 | 75·91 | 82 | 20·68 - 0·8559 | 77·09 | 83 | 19·61 - 0·8530 | 78·29 | 84 | 18·52 - 0·8500 | 79·51 | 85 | 17·42 - 0·8470 | 80·72 | 86 | 16·32 - 0·8440 | 81·96 | 87 | 15·23 - 0·8409 | 83·22 | 88 | 14·12 - 0·8377 | 84·47 | 89 | 13·01 - 0·8344 | 85·74 | 90 | 11·88 - 0·8311 | 87·04 | 91 | 10·76 - 0·8277 | 88·37 | 92 | 9·62 - 0·8242 | 89·72 | 93 | 8·48 - 0·8206 | 91·08 | 94 | 7·32 - 0·8169 | 92·45 | 95 | 6·16 - 0·8130 | 93·89 | 96 | 4·97 - 0·8089 | 95·35 | 97 | 3·77 - 0·8046 | 96·83 | 98 | 2·54 - 0·8000 | 98·38 | 99 | 1·28 - 0·7951 | 100·00 | 100 | 0·00 - ---------+---------+------+-------- - -(_b_) _Solid residue._--This is determined by evaporating 100 c.c. of -the liquor in a tared platinum dish, until constant weight is obtained. - -(_c_) _Ash._--The proportion of ash is found by the incineration of the -solid residue. If the presence of poisonous metallic adulterants (such -as copper or lead) is suspected, a further examination of the ash is -necessary. - -(_d_) _Acids._--The acidity of distilled liquors is generally due to -minute quantities of acetic acid, and can be estimated by means of -1/10th normal soda solution. - -Any mineral acid (_e.g._, sulphuric acid) supposed to be present is to -be sought for in the residue remaining, after the distillation process -employed in the determination of alcohol. - -The presence of fusel oil in liquors is sometimes quite readily -detected, by first removing the ethylic alcohol by gentle evaporation, -and then inspecting the odour and taste of the still warm residue. -The suspected liquor may also be agitated with an equal volume of -ether, water added, and the ethereal stratum removed by means of a -pipette, and concentrated by evaporation; the residue is to be examined -for amylic alcohol. When distilled with a mixture of sulphuric and -acetic acids, amylic alcohol is converted into amylic acetate, which -may be recognised by its characteristic pear-like odour; or, the -amylic alcohol can be transformed into valerianic acid (which also -possesses a distinctive odour) by oxidation with sulphuric acid and -potassium dichromate. Another simple qualitative test for fusel oil -consists in first decolorising a small quantity of the liquor under -examination with animal charcoal, adding a few drops of hydrochloric -acid, and then a little freshly distilled and colourless aniline -oil, when, in presence of fusel oil, it will be observed that the -aniline compound acquires a perceptible rose tint as it falls to the -bottom of the liquid. The quantitative determination of fusel oil -presents some difficulties. A very ingenious method has been suggested -by Marquardt.[118] It consists essentially in first agitating the -sample with chloroform, draining off the solution obtained, washing -it by repeated shaking with water, and then treating it at 85° with a -mixture of 5 parts potassium dichromate, 2 parts sulphuric acid, and -30 parts of water. The valerianic acid thus formed is now separated -by distilling the mixture of water and chloroform. The distillate is -digested with barium carbonate, next concentrated by evaporation, -and then filtered, and divided into two equal portions. One portion -is evaporated to dryness, the residue taken up with water containing -a little nitric acid, and the amount of barium present determined -by precipitation with sulphuric acid. In the other portion, the -chlorine originating from a partial oxidation of the chloroform, is -to be estimated. The amount of barium combined with the chlorine, is -deducted from the total quantity obtained; the remainder represents the -proportion in combination with the fatty acids formed by oxidation. Of -these, valerianic acid largely predominates; and the amount of barium -valerianate [Ba_{2} (C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})] found is calculated to its -equivalent in amylic alcohol. Capsicum, creosote, etc., are isolated by -treating the sample with ether or benzole, and testing the odour and -taste of the evaporated solutions so prepared. - -Creosote gives a blue colour with ferric chloride solution; and the -exceedingly pungent vapours evolved upon heating a residue containing -capsicum are equally characteristic. The presence of tannin in -distilled spirits, which is mostly derived from their preservation in -casks, is recognised by the formation of a bluish-black colour upon the -addition of ferric solutions. The identification of the various ethylic -and amylic ethers used in the preparation of factitious liquors is a -matter of some difficulty. Their presence is most readily detected by -means of their characteristic odour, which is developed upon adding a -little sodium hydroxide to the sample, evaporating the mixture over -the water-bath almost to dryness, and then adding a small quantity of -sulphuric acid. Another means of ascertaining the nature of the organic -ethers present in spirits is to first remove the ethylic alcohol -contained by a partial distillation with an alkaline solution, and -then acidulate the remaining liquid with sulphuric acid, and repeat -the distillation, when the volatile fatty acids originally contained -in the ethers will be found in the distillate; their identity is to be -established by means of their characteristic properties. Nitrous ether -(which compound is not contained in genuine liquors) may be detected -by partially distilling the sample and adding a mixture of potassium -iodide, starch paste, and acetic acid to the first portion of the -distillate, the production of a blue colour indicating its presence. As -previously remarked, the exercise of the ordinary senses is frequently -of greater value in judging the quality of liquors than the results of -chemical tests. Many of the organic ethers employed in the manufacture -of artificial liquors are identical with those contained in the genuine -article, and it is obvious that, in such instances, no distinction can -be made between them. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[111] ‘Nahrungs u. Genussmittel,’ 1st part, p. 187. - -[112] ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 102, p. 217-219. - -[113] Am. Chem. 1876, p. 46. - -[114] Blyth, op. cit. - -[115] ‘Wieder die Nahrungsfälscher,’ 1881, p. 105. - -[116] See Report by Dr. F. E. Engelhardt, New York State Board of -Health, 1882. - -[117] Hager’s ‘Untersuchungen.’ - -[118] ‘Berichte,’ 1882, pp. 1370, 1661. - - - - -WATER. - - -The subject of the purity of potable waters possesses the highest -degree of importance in its sanitary relations, and, particular -attention has been bestowed upon methods of analysis that would serve -to indicate the character and significance of existing impurities. -The earlier processes of examination, which chiefly consisted in the -determination of the mineral constituents of water, while of use in -furnishing an idea of the general nature of the water regarded as an -inorganic solution, almost totally failed to reveal the presence of the -more subtle and important organic contaminations which are now known -to exert an active influence in the propagation of zymotic diseases. -During the past few years, decided progress has been attained in the -analytical methods employed. Little is known of the exact nature of -the organic constituents present in water that has received sewage -contamination. They may be either of vegetable or animal origin, and it -appears to be very probable that they constitute organised germs. But, -although we are still unable to determine the constitution of these -deleterious ingredients, it is at present possible to approximately -ascertain the hygienic character of drinking water, and to distinguish, -with a fair degree of accuracy, between a good and a bad sample. In -arriving at a conclusion regarding the sanitary quality of water, it -is, however, also needful to take into consideration the origin and -surrounding conditions which affect the chances of contamination. -Most of the more recent methods of water analysis are based upon the -fact, that the putrefactive decomposition of harmful organic matter -is attended by the genesis of certain compounds (such as ammonia, -nitrites, and nitrates), of which quantitative estimations can be made. -For the purpose of ascertaining the character of a potable water, the -following determinations are usually necessary:-- - -1. Colour, odour, and taste. - -2. Total solid matter and loss on ignition. - -3. Organic matter in solution. - -4. Chlorine. - -5. Ammonia, free and albuminoid. - -6. Nitrogen, as nitrites and nitrates. - -Certain precautions should be observed in the collection of samples of -water intended for examination. It is indispensable for this purpose -to employ scrupulously clean glass stoppered bottles, which are washed -out several times with the water previous to being filled. If a well -or stream is to be sampled, the bottle should be entirely immersed in -the water some distance from the sides of the stream, and, if taken -from a pump or pipe, the latter should be cleansed by first running a -considerable quantity of the water before charging the bottle. - -1. _Colour, odour, and taste._--The colour is best determined by -filling a glass cylinder, about 2 feet in height, with the sample, -placing it upon a white surface and observing the tint produced; or, by -the use of a coloured glass tube of the same length, which is provided -with glass plates attached at each end, and is filled with the sample -and viewed when held towards a sheet of white paper. - -As a rule, pure water exhibits a light-bluish tint, a yellowish hue -being generally considered a suspicious indication; but it frequently -occurs that a perfectly colourless water is bad, and one possessing a -decided colour may prove to be at least, fair in quality. The odour of -the sample is ascertained by placing a corked bottle, one-half filled -with the water, in a warm place (at about 38°) for some time, and then -shaking the bottle, withdrawing the stopper and immediately testing the -odour. Pure water should be free from much perceptible odour of any -kind, and more especially from one of a disagreeable nature. The same -remark applies to the taste. Water should be practically tasteless, -even when warmed. It frequently happens, however, that a water may be -highly contaminated with deleterious organic impurities, and still -remain devoid of any marked unpleasant taste. There are few simple -tests of any value which will reveal at once the sanitary quality of -drinking water. One, sometimes employed, is to fill a clean quart -bottle about three-fourths full with the suspected sample, and dissolve -in it a teaspoonful of fine granulated white sugar. The bottle is -then corked and allowed to remain in a warm place for two days, when, -in the presence of sewage contamination, it will become cloudy or -milky.[119] According to Wanklyn and Chapman,[120] if a brownish colour -or precipitate is produced upon the addition of 1·5 c.c. of Nessler’s -reagent (see p. 208) to 100 c.c. of the water, it should be considered -unfit for domestic use. - -2. _Total solid residue and loss on ignition._--500 c.c. of the water -under examination are introduced, in small portions at a time, into a -tared platinum dish, and evaporated to dryness over the water-bath, the -residue being subsequently dried for three or four hours in an air-bath -at 100°. The solid residue obtained, multiplied by 200, represents -parts in 100,000: or, by 140, grains per imperial gallon. It is usually -considered that, unless the proportion of total solids exceeds 40 -grains per Imperial gallon (32 grains per U.S. gallon, or about 56·5 -parts per 100,000), the water need not be objected to for drinking -purposes on this ground alone. The volatile and organic matters are -determined by igniting the solid residue, which is afterwards allowed -to cool. It is then moistened with a little carbonic acid water or -solution of ammonium carbonate, dried to constancy at 130°, and the -organic matter estimated by the decrease in weight. Formerly, this -process was chiefly depended upon for determining the proportion of -organic substances contained in water. It is open to numerous serious -objections, among which are, that it may afford a result either -below or above that correctly representing the quantity of organic -ingredients present in the sample. The first case takes place when -a portion of the organic matter is decomposed during the process of -evaporation, and is quite liable to occur; the second case takes place -when the water contains nitrates, which would be decomposed upon -ignition. The method, however, possesses some value, and is still often -resorted to as affording a general idea of the proportion of organic -contamination present, the degree of blackening of the solid residue -during the process of ignition being, at least, a useful qualitative -indication. - -3. _Organic matter in solution._--A method frequently employed for -this determination is based upon the supposition that the amount of -potassium permanganate required to oxidise the organic constituents -contained in water would serve as a criterion of its sanitary value. -It is generally known as the “Forchammer” or “oxygen” process, and, -although of undoubted service in comparing the quality of samples of -very impure water, it is defective in the following important respects: -Different organic substances are not affected to an equal extent by -potassium permanganate; albumen, for instance, being far less easily -oxidised than other compounds, and the value of the results afforded is -vitiated by the presence of certain inorganic bodies, such as nitrites, -sulphuretted hydrogen, ferrous salts, etc. It has been stated, that -the more deleterious and putrescent organic ingredients of water are -those most readily affected by the permanganate solution. As modified -and improved by Miller[121] and by Tidy,[122] the process consists -substantially in adding an excess of a standard solution of potassium -permanganate to a measured quantity of the water under examination -(acidulated with sulphuric acid), and then determining the excess of -permanganate used by means of sodium hyposulphite and potassium iodide. -The following solutions are required:-- - -_Potassium Permanganate._--0·395 gramme of the salt is dissolved in -1 litre of distilled water; 10 c.c. of this solution represent 0·001 -gramme of available oxygen. - -_Sodium Hyposulphite._--One gramme of the salt is dissolved in a litre -of water. - -_Starch solution._--One gramme of starch is triturated with about 20 -c.c. of boiling water, and the mixture allowed to stand at rest over -night, after which the clear supernatant solution is drawn off. - -_Pure distilled Water._--This is prepared by digesting 10 litres of -distilled water with 10 grammes of potassium hydroxide and 2 grammes of -potassium permanganate in a still provided with an inverted condenser -at 100° for twenty-four hours, after which the water is distilled, -separate portions being frequently tested with Nessler’s solution; the -distillate is not reserved for use until this reagent ceases to produce -a brownish coloration. - -The determination proper is executed as follows:--Two flasks are first -thoroughly cleansed by washing with concentrated sulphuric acid, and -subsequently with water; 250 c.c. of the water to be examined are -introduced into one, and the same volume of the pure distilled water, -prepared as above, is placed in the other. 10 c.c. of dilute sulphuric -acid (1 part pure acid and 8 parts distilled water) and 10 c.c. of the -potassium permanganate solution are now added to each flask, both then -being put aside for three hours. Two drops of a 10 per cent. solution -of potassium iodide are next added to the flasks, and the amount of -iodine liberated (which is equivalent to the quantity of permanganate -unacted upon by the water) is determined by titration with the sodium -hyposulphite solution. The precise end of the reaction is ascertained -by means of a few drops of the starch paste, the hyposulphite being -added to each flask until the blue colour produced by the starch -disappears. The quantities of solution used in each titration are then -read off. - -The amount of permanganate consumed is equal to A-B, where A represents -the hyposulphite used with the distilled water, and B, that used with -the sample under examination, and the proportion of oxygen which is -consumed by the water tested, can be calculated by the formula:-- - - ((A - B) _a_) / A - -in which _a_ is the available oxygen in the added permanganate. For -example, if 10 c.c. of permanganate (= 0·001 gramme available oxygen) -are added to the 250 c.c. (= ¼ litre) contained in each flask, and -the distilled water required 35 c.c., the sample 15 c.c., of the -hyposulphite solution, the proportion of oxygen consumed by the ¼ litre -of water, would be - - ((35 - 15) × ·001) / 35 - -= ·000571, which represents ·228 parts of oxygen in 100,000 parts of -water. - -In applying the preceding test, it is requisite that the flasks should -be kept at a particular temperature, such as 27°. The presence of -putrescent and readily oxidised organic matter or nitrites, which -indicates dangerous contamination, is recognised by the absorption of -any considerable proportion of oxygen in the space of two minutes. -According to Dr. Tidy, 100,000 parts of water of various degrees of -purity, absorb the following amount of oxygen in three hours:-- - - Part Oxygen. - 1. Great organic purity 0 to 0·05 - 2. Medium purity 0·05 „ 0·15 - 3. Doubtful 0·15 „ 0·21 - 4. Impure over 0·21 - -4. _Chlorine._--The importance attached to the estimation of chlorine -in potable waters is derived from the fact that this element enters -largely into the food of men and animals, and is thrown off in their -excreta. This, naturally, contributes to the sewage contamination to -which water is often exposed. Water, however, may take up a certain -proportion of chlorides from the geological strata through which it -passes, and it is of importance to bear this fact in mind in forming -a conclusion as to the significance of the results afforded by this -determination. It is, likewise, to be remembered that vegetable -organic pollution would escape detection were the quantity of chlorine -contained alone taken into consideration. The determination is -conveniently made as follows:--50 c.c. of the water are introduced -into a beaker, a drop or two of a concentrated and neutral solution -of potassium chromate added, and then a standard solution of silver -nitrate very cautiously added from a burette, drop by drop, until a -faint but permanent red tint is produced. If the silver solution is -prepared by dissolving 2·394 grammes of the nitrate in 1 litre of -distilled water, the number of c.c. required to cause the reddish -coloration directly indicates the parts of chlorine present in 100,000 -parts of the water examined. According to Frankland, 100,000 parts -of water from various sources contain the following proportions of -chlorine:-- - - Rainwater 0·22 - Upland surface water 1·13 - Springs 2·49 - Deep wells 5·11 - -Watts’ ‘Dictionary of Chemistry’ quotes the proportions below:-- - - Thames, at Kew 1·21 - Thames, at London Bridge 6·36 - Loch Katrine 0·56 - Rhine, at Basle 0·15 - Rhine, at Bonn 1·45 - Lake of Geneva 0·67 - Elbe, near Hamburg 3·94 - Loire, at Orleans 0·29 - -The amount of chlorine contained in sewage is stated to range from 6·5 -to 21·5 parts, the average being 11·54 parts.[123] It is generally -considered that a proportion in excess of 5 parts in 100,000 parts -of a drinking water, which is not liable to be affected by mineral -admixture, is to be ascribed to organic contamination. - -5. _Ammonia, free and albuminoid._--It has already been mentioned -that the decomposition of the nitrogenous organic impurities present -in polluted water results in the production, first, of ammonia, then -of nitrites and nitrates, and, as it is commonly asserted that the -deleterious character of water is mainly due to the putrefactive -processes taking place, which are probably directly proportionate to -the quantity of ammonia produced, it is evident that the determination -of this compound is of considerable importance. The proportion of -albuminous and allied constituents in a sample can, moreover, be -measured by the quantity of ammonia produced when the water is boiled -with an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate. Upon the foregoing -facts, Messrs. Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith[124] have based a method for -the determination of the sanitary quality of potable waters, which is -in very general use. It involves, first, an estimation of the ammonia -generated upon distilling the water with sodium carbonate (“free” -ammonia); second, the quantity given off by boiling with alkaline -potassium permanganate (“albuminoid” ammonia). In case the water tested -is contaminated with urea, which is not improbable, this compound will -be decomposed into ammonia by the treatment with sodium carbonate. The -following solutions are employed in the execution of the test:-- - -_Ammonium Chloride._--Dissolve 1·5735 grammes of the dry and pure salt -in 1 litre of distilled water. When required for use, dilute 100 c.c. -of the solution to 1 litre; 1 c.c. of this diluted solution contains -·00005 gramme of NH_{3}. - -_Pure Sodium Carbonate._--The ordinary pure reagent is freed from any -ammonia possibly contained by heating it in a platinum capsule. - -_Pure distilled Water._--This is obtained as directed on p. 204. - -_Nessler’s Reagent._--This is a strong alkaline solution of mercury -biniodide. It may be prepared by first dissolving 62·5 grammes of -potassium iodide in 250 c.c. of hot distilled water (reserving 10 -c.c. of the solution), and adding a concentrated solution of mercury -bichloride, with constant shaking, to the remainder, until a permanent -precipitate remains undissolved; this is then brought in solution by -means of the 10 c.c. of iodide solution, set aside, and the addition of -mercury bichloride is carefully continued until a slight precipitate -reappears. A concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide (200 grammes -dissolved in water) is now added, and the volume of the whole made -up with distilled water to 1 litre. The solution is then allowed to -subside, after which it is decanted and preserved in a well-stoppered -bottle. - -_Permanganate solution._--Dissolve 8 grammes of potassium permanganate -and 200 grammes of potassium hydroxide in 1 litre of water, and boil to -expel any ammonia present. - -The estimation of free and albuminoid ammonia is made as follows:--100 -c.c. of the water to be examined are introduced into a glass retort, -which connects with a Liebig’s condenser, and has previously been -thoroughly cleansed by boiling with distilled water; one gramme of -pure sodium carbonate is added, and the water distilled until 40 c.c. -have passed over, the distillate being separately collected in four -10 c.c. cylinders or tubes. About 10 c.c. of the alkaline solution of -potassium permanganate is then added to the remaining contents of the -retort, and the distillation continued almost to dryness. The second -distillate is likewise collected in fractions of 10 c.c. each. It -is advisable to so regulate the process of distillation, that only -about 10 c.c. pass over in the space of eight minutes. The two sets -of distillates are then separately tested by adding 0·5 c.c. of the -Nessler solution to each cylinder, well stirring the mixture, and -setting it aside for at least five minutes. A series of comparison -tubes (10 c.c. in capacity) are prepared by adding ·001, ·003, ·005 up -to ·01 gramme of ammonium chloride, and filling to the 10 c.c. mark -with pure distilled water; 0·5 c.c. of the Nessler reagent being added -to each. The degree of coloration exhibited in the cylinders containing -the two sets of distillates is then matched by the comparison cylinders. - -It is evident, that from the data thus obtained, the amount of ammonia -obtained by the first distillation with sodium carbonate (free -ammonia), and by the second distillation with alkaline potassium -permanganate (albuminoid ammonia), can be determined. It has been -previously mentioned that urea evolves ammonia when boiled with sodium -carbonate; the amount of ammonia obtained by the first process of -distillation will therefore include that actually contained as such -in the water, and that generated by the decomposition of any urea -possibly present. As the presence of this body is incompatible with -a good drinking water, this fact is of little real importance. In -case, however, it be desired to make an estimation of the free ammonia -really present, 500 c.c. of the water to be tested are treated with 1 -or 2 c.c. of calcium chloride solution, then with a slight excess of -potassium hydroxide, and the liquid filtered. It is next distilled as -directed above, and the remaining contents of the retort made up to 500 -c.c. 200 c.c. of the original sample are then subjected to the same -treatment with calcium chloride and potassium hydroxide, and filtered. -The second solution, which contains all the ammonia originally present -in the water, is now tested with Nessler’s reagent, the solution first -obtained by diluting the contents of the retort being employed, instead -of pure distilled water, for comparison. - -The proportions of free and albuminoid ammonia found in the preceding -operations are usually expressed in parts per 100,000 of the water. -Wanklyn gives the following amounts of free and albuminoid ammonia -contained in 100,000 parts of several kinds of water:-- - - Deep spring water not over 0·001 - „ „ „ mixed with surface water 0·005 - Filtered water 0·005 to 0·010 - Imperfectly filtered water 0·01 „ 0·02 - Sewage 0·30 - -The same authority makes the following classification of potable water, -reference being made to parts of albuminoid ammonia present in 100,000 -parts:-- - - Extraordinary purity 0 to 0·005 - Satisfactory purity 0·005 „ 0·010 - Dirty over 0·010 - -The presence of any considerable proportion of free ammonia is -usually indicative of recent sewage contamination. In the absence -of free ammonia, a water need not be rejected unless the albuminoid -ammonia exceeds 0·010 part, but a water containing over 0·015 part of -albuminoid ammonia should be condemned under all circumstances. - -6. _Nitrogen as nitrites and nitrates._--It is quite generally accepted -that the presence in water of the oxidation products of nitrogen, -is to be ascribed to the oxidation of nitrogenous organic matter, -unless they are the result of percolation through soil containing -nitrates, and, for this reason, considerable importance attaches to -the quantitative estimation of the nitrogen present in the state of -nitrates, and, in some cases, nitrites. One of the most reliable -methods for this determination is the eudiometric process of Frankland, -which is based upon that of Crum,[125] and consists in agitating -the concentrated water with mercury and strong sulphuric acid, and -measuring the volume of nitric oxide formed by the reduction of -nitrates and nitrites. Owing, however, to the necessity of employing -gas apparatus, this method is not in very general use. Wanklyn’s -process is the following:--100 c.c. of the sample are made alkaline -with pure sodium hydroxide, evaporated to about one-fourth of its -original volume, next made up to 100 c.c. by adding pure distilled -water, and introduced into a flask which connects with a U-tube -filled with powdered glass moistened with hydrochloric acid. A piece -of aluminium foil is then added to the contents of the flask, and -the mixture is allowed to stand at rest for six or seven hours. The -contents of the U-tube are now transferred to the flask, the latter -is connected with a Liebig’s condenser and the liquid distilled. The -proportion of ammonia contained in the distillate is determined by -Nessler’s reagent as previously described, from which the amount of -nitrogen present as nitrates and nitrites is calculated. - -Griess[126] has suggested a very useful process for the determination -of nitrous acid and nitrites in potable waters. It is executed by -placing 100 c.c. of the filtered water in a glass cylinder, and adding -a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 1 c.c. of a solution of -sulphanilic acid and naphthylamine hydrochloride. In the presence -of nitrites, a beautiful rose-red colour (due to the formation of -azobenzol-naphthylamine sulphonic acid), will be produced. The -proportion of nitrites contained in the water, is ascertained by -simultaneously subjecting a solution of potassium nitrite, of known -strength, to the same treatment, and matching the degree of colour -obtained, as in the Nessler process. This solution can be prepared by -dissolving 0·406 gramme of dry silver nitrite in hot water, and adding -a slight excess of potassium chloride. After cooling, the solution is -made up to one litre, the silver chloride allowed to settle, and the -clear liquid filtered. If 100 c.c. of the filtrate are further diluted -to one litre, each c.c. will contain 0·00001 gramme of nitrous acid. - -In Ditmar’s method, the residue obtained by the evaporation of the -water, is first mixed with pure sodium hydroxide, and placed in a -small silver boat. It is next introduced into a combustion tube and -burned in a current of hydrogen, the evolved gases being received in an -absorption apparatus filled with very dilute hydrochloric acid. In this -method the amount of ammonia formed, is likewise estimated by means of -Nessler’s solution. The proportion of _organic nitrogen_ is found by -deducting the free ammonia present in the water and multiplying the -remainder by 14/17. - -Messrs. Dupré and Hake[127] determine the _organic carbon_ in water -essentially as follows:--The residue of the evaporation of the water -is obtained in a very thin silver dish, which can be rolled up -and introduced into a combustion tube filled three-fourths of its -length with cupric oxide. The residue is then burned in a stream of -oxygen. The evolved carbonic acid is absorbed in a solution of barium -hydroxide, the precipitate formed being collected upon a filter, -washed, dried, and weighed; its weight, divided by 19·4, gives the -amount of organic carbon present in the sample. The carbonates and -nitrates originally contained in the water can be removed by boiling -with a saturated solution of sulphurous acid before the preliminary -evaporation. - -Frankland gives the following average proportions of nitrogen, as -nitrates, occurring in 100,000 parts of various kinds of water:-- - - Rain water 0·007 - Upland surface water 0·009 - Deep wells and springs 0·400 - Surface water (cultivated districts) 0·250 - Shallow wells (no average), 2 to 5 parts common. - -Other authorities regard the presence of more than 0·6 part of nitrogen -as nitrates per 100,000 parts of water as indicating dangerous -pollution. - -At the International Pharmaceutical Congress held in Brussels,[128] the -following standards of purity for potable water were recommended:-- - -1st. A water should be limpid, transparent, colourless, without smell, -and free of matter in suspension. - -2nd. It should be fresh, with a pleasant taste, and its temperature -should not vary much, and certainly not be higher than 15°. - -3rd. It should not contain noxious animal or vegetable matter, and -especially none of these substances in a state of decomposition. - -4th. It should not contain more than 6 to 10 mgrms. of organic matter -per litre, expressed in terms of oxalic acid. It should not contain -nitrogenous matter. - -5th. The nitrogenous organic matter, oxidised with an alkaline solution -of potassium permanganate, should not yield more than 0·01 part of -albuminoid ammonia per 100,000. - -6th. It should not assume a disagreeable smell after having been kept -in an open or closed vessel. - -7th. It should not contain white algæ, nor numerous infusoria, -bacteria, etc. - -8th. It must hold air in solution, which should contain a larger -proportion of oxygen than ordinary air. - -9th. It should not contain, per litre, more than:-- - - 0·5 gramme mineral salts. - ·060 „ sulphuric anhydride. - ·008 „ chlorine. - ·002 „ nitric anhydride. - ·200 „ alkaline earths. - ·030 „ silica. - ·003 „ iron. - -In the Municipal Laboratory of Paris, the following standards for -potable waters are employed. One litre must not contain more than:-- - - 0·5 to 0·6 gramme total mineral residue. - 0·25 „ „ calcium sulphate. - 0·015 „ „ chlorine. - 0·005 „ „ organic matter (calculated as oxalic acid). - 0·001 „ „ albuminoid ammonia. - 0·001 „ „ metals precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen. - 0·003 „ „ iron. - No sulphuretted hydrogen. - -100 c.c. should contain 3·25 c.c. of gas, 10 per cent. of which should -be carbonic acid and 33-1/3 per cent. oxygen. - -Professor J. W. Mallet[129] suggests the idea, that the noxious -character of potable waters containing nitrates and nitrites, with but -small proportions of organic matter, may be due to the presence of a -special nitrifying ferment belonging to the lower organisms, which are -capable of propagating disease. - -In regard to the degree of importance that should attach to definite -and arbitrary standards of purity, it appears to be accepted that, -although the data afforded as the result of chemical tests are often -of value in discriminating between pure and impure waters, but little -reliance should be placed upon such criteria alone. - -Professor Mallet, who has devoted much attention to the investigation -of potable waters, and whose opinion on this subject is entitled to the -highest consideration, arrived at the following conclusions concerning -the more vital points at issue in the determination of the hygienic -character of water:-- - -“1. It is not possible to decide absolutely upon the wholesomeness -or unwholesomeness of a drinking water by the mere use of any of -the processes examined for the estimation of organic matter or its -constituents. - -“2. I would even go further, and say that in judging the sanitary -character of the water, not only must such processes be used in -conjunction with the investigation of other evidence of a more general -sort, as to the source and history of the water, but should even be -deemed of secondary importance in weighing the reasons for accepting or -rejecting a water not manifestly unfit for drinking on other grounds. - -“3. There are no sound grounds on which to establish such general -‘standards of purity’ as have been proposed, looking to exact amounts -of ‘organic carbon’ or ‘nitrogen,’ ‘albuminoid-ammonia,’ ‘oxygen of -permanganate consumed,’ etc., as permissible or not. - -“4. Two entirely legitimate directions seem to be open for the useful -examination by chemical means of the organic constituents of drinking -water, namely; first, the detection of _very gross_ pollution, * * * * -and, secondly, the periodical examination of a water supply, as of a -great city, in order that the normal or usual character of the water -having been previously ascertained, any suspicious changes, which from -time to time may occur, shall be promptly detected and their cause -investigated.” - -The microscopic and biological investigations of water are useful -adjuncts to the chemical examination. The former is made by -allowing a litre or more of the sample to remain at rest for several -hours, collecting the deposit formed and inspecting it by means of -the microscope, using low magnifying power at first. It will be -found advantageous to stain portions of the sediment obtained with -aniline violet, which, by a sort of predilection, attaches itself to -particular forms of vegetable and animal life, thereby rendering them -more distinct. The matters most usually observed in the microscopic -examination of the deposit are:-- - -1st. Numerous lifeless substances, such as mineral matters, vegetable -_debris_, muscular and cellular tissues, hairs, hemp, wool, cotton, -silk, starch cells, insect remains, and pollen grains. - -2nd. Living vegetable forms, such as confervæ, various algæ, -oscillatoria, desmids, diatoms, and bacteria. - -3rd. Living animal forms, including many varieties of infusoria and -animalcula. Of the latter, those known as “saprophytes” are regarded as -specially indicating the presence of sewage contamination. - -Certain varieties of bacteria have been found associated with some -forms of disease, and particular attention has been bestowed upon the -study of these germs. The biological examination of water consists -of pathological experiments on living animals, made by injecting a -solution of the water-residue beneath the skins of rabbits, etc., and -of experiments made by inoculating culture gelatine with the water. -Of the latter methods of examination, that originally suggested by -Dr. Koch, of Berlin, and described by Dr. Percy F. Frankland,[130] is -well worthy of mention. In this process, the lower forms of life are -cultivated in a solid medium, by means of which the growth of each -colony is localised and rendered suitable for microscopic inspection. - -The medium employed by Dr. Frankland has the following composition: - - Lean meat 1 lb. - Gelatine 150 grammes. - Solid peptone 10 „ - Sodium chloride 1 „ - Distilled water 1 litre. - -The finely-cut meat is first infused in half a litre of cold water -for two hours and strained; the gelatine is digested in the other -half-litre of water, then mixed with the meat-extract, and the whole -heated until the gelatine is completely dissolved, when the peptone and -salt are added. - -The liquid is now cautiously neutralised with sodium carbonate, and -clarified by beating it together with two or three eggs, boiling, -straining through cloth, and filtering hot through bibulous paper; -upon cooling it sets to a transparent jelly. Before setting, 7 c.c. of -the liquid are introduced into a series of clean test-tubes, which are -tightly plugged with cotton-wool and then sterilised by steaming them -half-an-hour for three or four consecutive days. It is necessary to -observe special precautions in the collection of the sample of water to -be examined. Glass-stoppered bottles are well adapted for this purpose. -These are to be very thoroughly washed with distilled water, then dried -and finally sterilised by heating in an air-bath for three or four -hours at a temperature of from 150° to 180°. - -The actual examination of the water is executed by first heating one of -the test-tubes containing the sterilised gelatin medium in a water-bath -to 30°, by which it is fused. The external portion of the cotton-wool -is next burned, the tube opened, and a certain number of drops of the -water to be tested (previously well shaken) are introduced by means -of a sterilised pipette. The mixture is immediately poured out upon a -clean and sterilised glass plate which rests in a perfectly horizontal -position, and is covered by a glass shade. The plate is supported -by a glass tripod which dips into a dish containing a two per cent. -solution of mercuric chloride--thus forming an antiseptic protection -from the external air. The tripods, dishes, etc., are sterilised -by washing them with the mercuric chloride solution. As soon as the -gelatine mixture has set, the glass plate (together with the cover) -is introduced into an air-bath kept at a temperature of from 20°-25°, -where it is allowed to remain for two to five days for incubation. The -individual organisms and the progress of the formation of colonies are -observed from time to time by inspecting the plate, which can be done -without removing the glass cover. As soon as they have become easily -visible to the naked eye, the plate is removed from the bath, and -placed upon another glass plate, which is ruled in squares, and put -over a black paper. The colonies are then counted by aid of a lens, or, -if they are too numerous to admit of this, the number contained in a -few of the squares is determined and multiplied accordingly. - -Dr. Frankland has applied the foregoing method to the examination of -the London water supply (1885), with the following results:-- - - MICRO-ORGANISMS IN 1 C.C. - - --------------+-----+-----+------+-----+----------+------+-----+----- - |Jan. | Feb.|March.| May.| June. | Sept.| Oct.| Nov. - --------------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+----+------+-----+----- - River Thames | .. | .. | .. | .. | 155 | .. | 1644 | 714 |1866 - at Hampton | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | - Chelsea | 8 | 23 | 10 | 14 | 22 | 81 | 13 | 34 | 3 - | | | | | | | | | - West Middlesex| 2 | 16 | 7 | 3 | .. | 26 | 2 | 2 | 5 - | | | | | | | | | - Southwark | 13 | 26 | 246 | 24 | .. | 47 | 18 | 24 | 32 - | | | | | | | | | - Grand Junction| 382 | 57 | 28 | 3 | 21 | 18 | 43 | 40 | 40 - | | | | | | | | | - Lambeth | 10 | 5 | 69 | 30 | .. | 38 | 103 | 26 | 26 - | | | | | | | | | - RIVER LEA. | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | - River Lea at | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 954 - Chingford Mill| | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | - New River | 7 | 7 | 95 | 3 | .. | 27 | 3 | 2 | 11 - | | | | | | | | | - East London | 25 | 39 | 17 | 121 | .. | 22 | 29 | 53 | 14 - | | | | | | | | | - DEEP WELLS. | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | - Kent (well at | .. | .. | .. | .. | 6 | .. | .. | 6 | 8 - Deptford) | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | - Kent (supply) | 10 | 41 | 9 | 20 | 26 | .. | 14 | 18 | .. - --------------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+----+------+-----+---- - - PLATE XI. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -In Plate XI., Fig. 1 exhibits the animal and vegetable living forms -contained in Croton water. They have been catalogued as follows:-- - - (_a_) Asterionella formosa, vegetable; a diatom, × 312. - (_b_) Pediastrum simplex, vegetable; a desmid, × 200. - (_c_) Cyclotella astræa, vegetable; a diatom, × 200. - (_d_) Vorticella; an animalcule, × 312. - (_e_) Conferva, vegetable; “green scum,” × 40. - (_f_) Epithelial cell; × 200. - (_g_) Fragillaria cupucina, vegetable; a diatom, × 200. - (_h_) Heteromita ovata; an animalcule, × 500. - (_i_) Halteria grandinella (?); an animalcule, × 200. - (_k_) Anguillula fluviatilis; a water-worm, × 312. - (_l_) Amœba porrecta; an animalcule, × 200. - (_n_) Dinophrys; an animalcule, × 200. - (_o_) Didymoprium borreri, vegetable; a desmid, × 200. - (_p_) Tabellaria fenestrata, vegetable; a diatom, × 312. - (_q_) Free vorticella; an animalcule, × 200. - (_r_) Coccudina costata, dividing; an animalcule, × 312. - (_s_) Monas umbra; an animalcule, × 312. - (_t_) Cyclidium obscissum; an animalcule, × 312. - (_u_) Chilodon cucullulus; an animalcule, × 200. - (_v_) Epistylis nutans; young animalcules, × 200. - (_w_) Paramecium; an animalcule, × 200. - (_x_) Difflugia striolata, the lorica or case; an animalcule, × 200. - (_y_) Conferva; vegetable “green scum,” × 312. - (_z_) Vorticella microstoma; an animalcule, × 200. - (_aa_) Fragments of dyed wood, × 200. - (_cc_) Gomphonema acuminatum, vegetable; a diatom, × 200. - (_ee_) Arthrodesmus octocornis, vegetable; a desmid, × 312. - (_ff_) Scenodesmus quadricauda, vegetable; a desmid, × 200. - (_ii_) Navicula rhynchocephala (?), vegetable; a diatom, × 200. - -Fig. 2 represents the organisms found in the Brooklyn (Ridgwood) water -supply:-- - - (_a_) Actinophrys sol; an animalcule, × 200. - (_b_) Coccudina costata; an animalcule, × 200. - (_c_) Chætonotus squamatus; hairy-backed animalcule, × 200. - (_d_) Notommata; a rotiferous animalcule, × 200. - (_e_) Amœba guttula; an animalcule, × 200. - (_f_) Melosira orichalaea, vegetable; a diatom, × 200. - (_g_) Vorticella microstoma; animalcules, × 200. - (_h_) Chætonotus larus; hairy-backed animalcule, × 200. - (_i_) Tabellaria flocculosa, vegetable; a diatom, × 200. - -The original drawings from which Plate XI. is taken were prepared by -Mr. William B. Lewis, for the Metropolitan Board of Health. - -The presence of these organisms, however startling some of them may -be in appearance, is usually not objectionable; indeed, microscopic -vegetable growths are frequently of service in the purification of -potable water. The more important forms of bacteria (bacilli, etc.), -present minute rod-like shapes, far less impressive in appearance. - -Considerable difference of opinion exists in regard to the sanitary -value of the results afforded by the biological examination of water. -While the number of bacteria found in a given quantity of water -may be of aid in the formation of an opinion as to its relative -safety for domestic purposes, it should be borne in mind that these -micro-organisms are almost omnipresent, being contained in the air, and -in soils, and articles of food. - -The following tabulation shows the relative purity of the water supply -of several American cities, as determined by Prof. A. R. Leeds, in -June, 1881:-- - - ----------+-------+------------------------------------------------------- - | New |Brooklyn. - | York. | +-------+--------------------------------------- - | | |Jersey |Philadelphia. - | | | City. | +-------+----------------------- - Parts in | | | | |Boston.|Washington. - 100,000 | | | | | | +--------------- - | | | | | | |Rochester. - | | | | | | | +----------- - | | | | | | | |Cincinnati. - | | | | | | | +---+ - | | | | | | | | - ----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Free | | | | | | | | - ammonia. | 0·0027|0·00075|0·00475| 0·001 |0·01325| 0·006 | 0·0114| 0·0115 - Albuminoid| | | | | | | | - ammonia. | 0·027 |0·00825|0·0427 | 0·018 |0·0605 | 0·027 | 0·023 | 0·024 - Oxygen | | | | | | | | - required.| 0·81 |0·413 |0·95 | 0·46 |1·77 | 0·600 | 0·790 | 0·860 - Nitrites. | None |None | None | None | None | None | None | None - Nitrates. | 0·8325|1·2025 |0·9065 | 0·6845|1·2395 | 0·8325| 0·629 | 0·740 - Chlorine. | 0·350 |0·550 |0·235 | 0·3000|0·315 | 0·270 | 0·195 | 0·805 - Total | | | | | | | | - hardness.| 3·300 |2·270 |3·200 | 4·400 |2·100 | 4·800 | 5·500 | 6·400 - Total | | | | | | | | - solids. |11·800 |6·000 |9·300 |14·300 |8·500 |11·500 |10·000 |16·200 - Mineral | | | | | | | | - matter. | 5·000 |5·000 |3·400 | 6·000 |2·000 | 5·500 | 4·000 | 9·000 - Organic | | | | | | | | - and | | | | | | | | - volatile | | | | | | | | - matter. | 6·800 |1·000 |5·900 | 8·300 |6·500 | 6·000 | 6·000 | 7·200 - ----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - - -----------------+-------+--------------+--------------+-------------- - Parts per | April.| May. | June. | July. - 100,000. +-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+------ - | 3rd. | 6th. | 26th.| 13th.| 30th. | 15th. | 30th. - -----------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+------ - Appearance, &c. | Cl. |Sl. Tb.| Tb. | Cl. | Cl. | Cl. | Cl. - Odour (heated to | None | None | None | None | None | None | None - 100° Fahr.). | | | | | | | - Chlorine in |0·278 |0·348 |0·244 |0·348 |0·226 |0·279 |0·226 - chlorides. | | | | | | | - Equivalent to |0·459 |0·575 |0·400 |0·574 |0·374 |0·459 |0·374 - sodium | | | | | | | - chloride. | | | | | | | - Phosphates. | None | None | None | None | None | None | None - Nitrites. | None | None | None | None | None | None | None - Nitrogen in | 0·0403|0·0494 |0·034 |0·0469|0·0371 |0·0395 |0·0387 - nitrates and | | | | | | | - nitrites. | | | | | | | - Free ammonia. | 0·001 |0 |0·002 |0·003 |0·0005 |0·002 |0·003 - Albuminoid | 0·009 |0·0166 |0·0086|0·007 |0·014 |0·008 |0·011 - ammonia. | | | | | | | - “Hardness” | | | | | | | - equivalent | | | | | | | - to carbonate of | | | | | | | - lime-- | | | | | | | - Before boiling.| 4·73 |4·082 |4·280 |3·860 |4·968 |4·268 |4·332 - After boiling. | 4·31 |3·787 |3·510 |3·500 |4·586 |4·268 |4·332 - Organic and | 6·00 |1·500 |3·00 |2·50 |2·00 |0·50 |2·50 - volatile | | | | | | | - (loss on | | | | | | | - ignition). | | | | | | | - Mineral matter | 5·00 |4·000 |4·50 |4·50 |5·50 |5·00 |5·00 - (non volatile). | | | | | | | - Total solids (by |11·00 |5·50 |7·50 |7·00 |7·50 |5·50 |7·50 - evaporation). | | | | | | | - -----------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+------ - - -----------------+-------------+------------+-----------+------+------ - Parts per | August. | September. | October. | Nov. | Dec. - 100,000. +------+------+-----+------+-----+-----+------+------ - | 19th.| 31st.|15th.| 29th.|14th.|30th.| 15th.| 1st. - -----------------+------+------+-----+------+-----|-----+------+------ - Appearance, &c. | Cl. | Cl. | Cl. | Cl. | Cl. | Cl. | Cl. | Cl. - Odour (heated to | None | None |None | None |None |None | None | None - 100° Fahr.). | | | | | | | | - Chlorine in |0·278 |0·313 |0·209|0·208 |0·272|0·243|0·312 |0·295 - chlorides. | | | | | | | | - Equivalent to |0·459 |0·517 |0·344|0·343 |0·458|0·400|0·515 |0·486 - sodium | | | | | | | | - chloride. | | | | | | | | - Phosphates. | None | None | None| None |None |None | None | None - Nitrites. | None | None | None| None |None |None | None | None - Nitrogen in |0·0469|0·0486|0·037|0·0477|0·041|0·047|0·048 | .. - nitrates and | | | | | | | | - nitrites. | | | | | | | | - Free ammonia. |0·003 |0·001 |0·004|0·002 |0 |0·003|0·001 |0·0032 - Albuminoid |0·014 |0·009 |0·016|0·0094|0·013|0·015|0·014 | .. - ammonia. | | | | | | | | - “Hardness” | | | | | | | | - equivalent | | | | | | | | - to carbonate of | | | | | | | | - lime-- | | | | | | | | - Before boiling.|4·586 |4·332 |5·096|3·949 |4·520|4·512|3·840 |3·729 - After boiling. |3·949 |4·332 |4·459|3·822 |4·294|4·512|3·390 |3·164 - Organic and |3·00 |2·00 |2·50 |2·50 |2·50 |3·00 |3·00 | .. - volatile | | | | | | | | - (loss on | | | | | | | | - ignition). | | | | | | | | - Mineral matter |5·00 |4·50 |4·00 |4·00 |4·00 |4·50 |4·00 | .. - (non volatile). | | | | | | | | - Total solids (by |8·00 |6·50 |6·50 |6·50 |6·50 |7·50 |7·00 | .. - evaporation). | | | | | | | | - -----------------+------+------+-----+------+-----+-----+------+------ - - Cl. signifies _clear_. Sl. Tb., _slightly turbid_. - Tb., _turbidity_ somewhat more marked. - - PARTS PER 100,000. - - --------------+-------+-----------------------+------------+---------- - | | | Chlorine | - | | | in |Equivalent - | Date | Time when drawn. | Chlorides.| to - Description | when | +-----------------+----------+ | Sodium - of Sample. | taken | | |Odour when| | Chloride. - | | | Appearance in | heated | +----+ - | | | two-foot Tube. | to 38°. | | - --------------+-------+-----+-----------------+----------+------+----- - | 1884. | | | | | - Mohawk River, |Dec. 5 | .. |Turbid, |Faint |0·233 |0·371 - above Diamond| | | greenish yellow| aromatic | | - Woollen Mills| | | | | | - Hudson River, |Nov. 12| .. |Faintly turbid, |Faint, |0·233 |0·371 - above | | | light greenish | vegetable| | - Lansingburg | | | yellow | | | - Troy hydrant | „ 12| .. |Faintly turbid, |Faint, |0·233 |0·371 - | | | light greenish | vegetable| | - | | | yellow | | | - Hudson River, |Dec. 6 | .. |Faintly turbid, |Faint, |0·167 |0·265 - at Maple | | | greenish yellow| marshy | | - Island | | | | | | - Hudson River, |Nov. 1 |High |Clear, light |Faint |0·333 |0·530 - at inlet | |tide | yellow | | | - | | | | | | - Hudson River, | „ 1 |High |Faintly turbid, |Faint, |0·333 |0·530 - at inlet | |tide | light yellow | stale | | - | | | | | | - Hudson River, | „ 1 |Low |Clear, brownish |Faint |0·366 |0·583 - at inlet | |tide | yellow | | | - | | | | | | - Hudson River, | „ 1 |Low |Turbid, brownish |Faint |0·366 |0·583 - at inlet | |tide | yellow | | | - | | | | | | - Hudson River, |Dec. 4 |High |Slightly turbid, |Oily |0·233 |0·371 - 50 ft. south | |tide | brownish yellow | | | - of inlet | | | | | | - Hudson River, | „ 4 |Low |Turbid, brownish |Oily |0·183 |0·291 - at inlet | |tide | yellow | | | - | | | | | | - Bleecker |Nov. 1 | .. |Clear, faint | .. |0·340 |0·541 - Reservoir | | | yellow | | | - | | | | | | - Bleecker | „ 1 | .. |Turbid, faint |Faint, |0·340 |0·541 - Reservoir | | | yellow | stale | | - Tivoli Lake | „ 6 | .. |Faint milkiness |Faint, |0·833 |1·325 - | | | | stale | | - Tivoli Lake | „ 6 | .. |Whitish, milky |Faint, |0·833 |1·325 - | | | | stale | | - Tivoli Lake |Dec. 4 | .. |Turbid, greenish |Faint, |0·966 |1·537 - | | | | marshy | | - --------------+-------+-----+-----------------+----------+------+------ - - --------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- - |Phosphates.| Nitrites. | | | - | | in | | | - | | Nitrates | | | - | | and | Nitrogen | Free |Albuminoid - | | Nitrites. | Ammonia. |Ammonia. |Ammonia. - --------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- - Mohawk River, | .. | .. | 0·0705 | 0·0044 | 0·0074 - above Diamond| - Woollen Mills| - Hudson River, | .. | .. | 0·0247 | .. | 0·0150 - above | - Lansingburg | - Troy hydrant | .. | .. | 0·0284 | 0·0015 | 0·0151 - Hudson River, | .. | .. | 0·0614 | 0·0014 | 0·0082 - at Maple | - Island | - Hudson River, | .. | .. | 0·0277 | 0·0064 | 0·0002 - at inlet | - Hudson River, | .. | .. | 0·0265 | 0·0038 | 0·0142 - at inlet | - Hudson River, | .. | .. | 0·0471 | 0·0028 | 0·0134 - at inlet | - Hudson River, | .. | .. | 0·0288 | 0·0050 | 0·0124 - at inlet | - Hudson River, | .. | .. | 0·0647 | 0·0054 | 0·0114 - 50 ft. south | - of inlet | - Hudson River, | .. | .. | 0·0606 | 0·0064 | 0·0090 - at inlet | - Bleecker | .. | .. | 0·0484 | 0·0052 | 0·0068 - Reservoir | - Bleecker | .. | .. | 0·0489 | 0·0046 | 0·0102 - Reservoir | - Tivoli Lake |Faint trace|Faint trace| 0·0507 | 0·0184 | 0·0080 - Tivoli Lake |Faint trace|Faint trace| 0·0611 | 0·0198 | 0·0280 - Tivoli Lake |Faint trace|Faint trace| 0·1334 | 0·0380 | 0·0118 - --------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- - - --------------+---------------+-----------------+---------------------- - | | Hardness | Mineral Matter. - | | equivalent +--------+ +------ - |Oxygen absorbed| to Carbonate | | |Total - | at 80° Fahr. | of lime. |Organic | |Solids - |--------+------+--------+--------+ and | |dried - | In 15 | In 4 | Before | After |Volatile| | at - |Minutes.|hours.|Boiling.|Boiling.|Matter. | |110°. - --------------+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+------+------ - Mohawk River, | 0·2071 |0·3704| 6·838 | 6·838 | 1·70 | 9·00 |10·70 - above Diamond| - Woollen Mills| - Hudson River, | 0·2691 |0·4150| 3·818 | 3·818 | 2·20 | 5·80 | 8·00 - above | - Lansingburg | - Troy hydrant | 0·2750 |0·4000| 4·498 | 4·498 | 2·60 | 6·50 | 9·00 - Hudson River, | 0·2827 |0·4100| 5·049 | 4·839 | 2·40 | 5·30 | 7·70 - at Maple | - Island | - Hudson River, | 0·1670 |0·3111| 5·897 | 5·897 | 1·40 | 9·80 |11·20 - at inlet | - Hudson River, | 0·1890 |0·3422| 6·237 | 6·237 | 5·00 | 7·20 |12·20 - at inlet | - Hudson River, | 0·2180 |0·3180| 6·237 | 6·086 | 1·80 | 9·20 |11·00 - at inlet | - Hudson River, | 0·2200 |0·3470| 6·048 | 6·048 | 4·80 | 8·20 |13·00 - at inlet | - Hudson River, | 0·2509 |0·4340| 5·470 | 5·470 | 3·50 | 4·50 | 8·00 - 50 ft. south | - of inlet | - Hudson River, | 0·2230 |0·4420| 5·838 | 5·838 | 1·50 | 7·50 | 9·00 - at inlet | - Bleecker | 0·1511 |0·2578| 5·330 | 3·893 | 2·50 | 8·80 |11·30 - Reservoir | - Bleecker | 0·1755 |0·3020| 6·577 | 6·577 | 5·70 | 6·80 |12·50 - Reservoir | - Tivoli Lake | 0·0780 |0·2030| 7·069 | 4·309 | 2·00 |12·00 |14·00 - Tivoli Lake | 0·1200 |0·1852| 7·409 | 5·481 | 6·00 |11·00 |17·00 - Tivoli Lake | 0·1075 |0·1762| 8·468 | 8·468 | 3·20 |10·40 |13·60 - --------------+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+------+------ - -The variation in the composition of Croton water, at different seasons -of the year, is exhibited by the table on p. 221, which gives the -results of the semi-monthly examinations made by Dr. Elwyn Waller -during the year 1885.[131] - -For the results of the analyses of the water of the Hudson River, -recently made by Dr. C. F. Chandler, see table, pp. 222, 223. - -The rather common belief that freezing purifies water is incorrect. -It is said, that the greater part of the ice supply of New York City -(three millions of tons) is gathered from the Hudson River between -Albany and Poughkeepsie, most being drawn within thirty miles of the -former city, and therefore liable to be polluted with sewage. The -average number of bacteria in one c.c. of ordinary ice is stated to -approximate 400, but Hudson River ice has been found to contain nearly -2000 bacteria per c.c.[132] The number of bacteria in one c.c. of snow -is usually about 9000; Hudson River snow-ice contains 20,000 per c.c.; -and, although the great majority of these organisms are perfectly -harmless, cases are on record where epidemics (as of gastro-enteritis) -have been directly traced to the use of impure ice. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[119] This test presupposes the existence in the water of the -substances necessary for the support of vegetable growth. - -[120] ‘Water Analysis.’ - -[121] Jour. Lond. Chem. Soc., xviii. p. 117. - -[122] Ibid., xxxv. p. 67. - -[123] Sixth Annual Report, Rivers Pollution Commission, “Blue Book.” - -[124] Jour. Lond. Chem. Soc. 1867, xx. p. 445. - -[125] Phil. Mag., xxx. p. 426. - -[126] Ber. der Deutsch. Chem. Gesell. xii. p. 427. - -[127] Chem. Soc. Journ., March, 1879. - -[128] Pharm. Zeit., 1885, No. 76. - -[129] ‘Annual Report of the National Board of Health,’ 1882, p. 207. - -[130] Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., Dec. 1885. - -[131] Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., viii. p. 6. - -[132] See paper read by Dr. T. M. Prudden before the New York Academy -of Medicine, March 18th, 1887. - - - - -VINEGAR. - - -Vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of acetic acid, containing -inconsiderable proportions of alcohol, aldehyde, acetic ether, and -extractive matters, which, to some extent, impart a characteristic -flavour and aroma. The process most frequently involved in the -preparation of vinegar is known as the acetous fermentation, and may be -induced in various saccharine juices and infusions, such as those of -apples, wine, malted grain, etc., when, in presence of a ferment, they -are exposed to the action of the air, at a temperature between 24° and -32°. In the oxidation of alcohol, an intermediate compound (aldehyde) -is at first formed, which, by the continued action of oxygen, is -ultimately converted into acetic acid. A dilute solution of alcohol is, -however, not oxidised to acetic acid by simple exposure to the air; -it is usually necessary that a peculiar microscopic plant (_mycoderma -aceti_) should be present. This fungus includes two varieties, viz., -minute globules (_micrococci_) and rod-like forms (_bacilli_) varying -in size; and is often developed in old casks that have been long -employed for making vinegar. It constitutes a gelatinous mass (“mother -of vinegar”) having the appearance of glue that has been soaked in -cold water; the surface quickly becomes coated with a bluish mould -(_Penicillium glaucum_). - -Pasteur regards acetification as a product of the development of the -_mycoderma aceti_, _i.e._, as a physiological fermentation--but it -appears probable that the process is rather one of oxidation, and -that the fungus accelerates the change by condensing the oxygen upon -its surface and delivering it to the alcohol, possibly in the form -of ozone. Indeed, the process of vinegar making may take place in -the entire absence of the _mycoderma_, as when spongy platinum is -brought into contact with alcoholic solutions; and Buchner has examined -shavings which had been used in a vinegar factory for over twenty-five -years, and found them to be absolutely free from the fungoid plant. In -the United States, the best known and most esteemed kind of vinegar -is that obtained by the acetification of apple cider; but by far the -largest quantity is manufactured from alcohol and spirituous liquors. -Cider vinegar is free from aldehyde but contains malic acid. The usual -source of vinegar in Great Britain is a wort prepared from mixtures of -malt with other grain; while, in Continental Europe, inferior sorts -of new wine (especially white wine) are extensively employed for its -production. - -Malt vinegar possesses a brown colour and a density ranging from 1·006 -to 1·019; that known as proof vinegar contains from 4·6 to 5 per cent. -of acetic acid. In Great Britain the manufacturer is allowed by law -to add 0·1 per cent. of sulphuric acid to vinegar, on account of its -supposed preservative action, and, although the practice is now known -to be unnecessary, it is still sometimes resorted to. The specific -gravity of wine vinegar varies from 1·014 to 1·022. 100 c.c. should -neutralise from 0·6 to 0·7 grains of sodium carbonate, and the solids -obtained upon evaporation to dryness should approximate two per cent. -According to the United States Pharmacopœia, one fluid ounce of vinegar -should require for saturation not less than 35 grains of potassium -bicarbonate. - -In 500 samples of imported wine and malt vinegar tested by the author, -the minimum and maximum strength ranged from 3 to 10·6 per cent. of -acetic acid, the specific gravity from 1·0074 to 1·0150, and the number -of grains of potassium bicarbonate required to neutralise one troy -ounce from 22 to 84. Of 273 samples of vinegar tested in 1884 by the -Massachusetts State Board of Health, 52 were above the then legal -standard of 5 per cent. of acetic acid, and 221 below; 109 of the -latter contained more than 4 per cent.; the strongest sample showed -8·86 per cent., and the weakest contained but 0·66 per cent. of acetic -acid. In the year 1885, 114 samples were examined, of which 45 were -above and 69 below the standard of 4½ per cent. acetic acid. - -In the State of New York, the legal standard for vinegar is 4·5 of -absolute acetic acid, and, in the case of cider vinegar, the proportion -of total solids must not fall below 2 per cent. In Massachusetts, also, -the acidity must be equivalent to 4½ per cent. of acetic acid, and -cider vinegar must contain, at least, 2 per cent. of solid matter. The -English standard of strength is 3 per cent. of acetic acid. - -_Analysis._--For the requirements of the United States Customs Service, -the only estimations ordinarily made are the specific gravity, and a -determination of the acidity. The former is accomplished by means of -the specific gravity bottle; the latter, by placing 10 c.c. of the -sample in a beaker, adding about 30 c.c. of water, then a few drops of -an alcoholic solution of phenol-phthaleïn (to serve as the indicator), -and titrating with a normal alkali-solution; the number of c.c. used -divided by 10 and multiplied by 48, gives the amount, in grains, of -potassium bicarbonate required to neutralise one troy ounce of the -vinegar. In the presence of sulphuric acid, it is necessary to distil -a measured quantity of the sample almost to dryness and titrate the -distillate, it being assumed that 80 per cent. of the total acetic acid -present passes over. - -The determination of the extract or solid residue in vinegar is -executed in the same manner as described under beer and wine. Several -tests have been suggested for the detection of the presence of free -sulphuric acid. The usual reagent--barium chloride--is not well adapted -to the direct determination of this acid, since sulphates, which are -as readily precipitated as the free acid, may also be present. The -following methods may be employed:-- - -1. A piece of cane sugar is moistened with a small quantity of the -sample and exposed to the heat of the water-bath for some time, when, -in presence of free sulphuric acid, the residue will become more or -less carbonised, according to the proportion of acid present. - -2. Five centigrammes of pulverised starch are dissolved in a decilitre -of the sample by boiling, and after the liquid has become completely -cooled, a few drops of iodine solution are added. Dilute acetic acid -does not affect starch, and if the sample is pure, a blue coloration -will be produced; if, however, but a minute quantity of sulphuric or -other mineral acid is present, the starch is converted into dextrine, -and the addition of iodine fails to cause the blue coloration. - -3. According to Hilger,[133] if two drops of a very dilute solution -of methyl aniline violet (0·1 to 100) are added to about 25 c.c. of -pure vinegar no change of colour takes place; whereas, in the presence -of 0·2 per cent. of mineral acid, a bluish coloration is produced; in -case the proportion of acid reaches 1 per cent. the liquid acquires a -greenish tint. - -4. A recent test for mineral acids has been suggested by Hager.[134] It -consists in warming together two drops of East Indian copaiba balsam, -and 30 drops of pure acetic acid, and subsequently adding to the -mixture two or three drops of the vinegar under examination; if either -sulphuric or hydrochloric acid be present, a blue-violet colour is -produced. - -The free mineral acids in vinegar may be quantitatively estimated by -saturating a weighed quantity of the sample with quinine, evaporating -the mixture to dryness over the water-bath, and dissolving the quinine -salts formed in alcohol, which is then removed by distillation. The -second residue is next dissolved in water, and the quinine precipitated -by addition of ammonia, and separated by filtration. - -The filtrate will contain the mineral acids present, and their amount -is determined by the ordinary methods. - -The free sulphuric acid in vinegar can also be quantitatively -estimated, according to Kohnstein,[135] as follows: 100 c.c. of the -sample are shaken with pure and freshly calcined magnesia until -completely neutralised. The mixture is filtered, the filtrate -evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish and the residue ignited at a -moderate temperature. By this treatment magnesium acetate is converted -into the corresponding carbonate, while any magnesium sulphate present -will remain unaltered. The ignited residue is moistened and evaporated -with a little carbonic acid water, then digested with hot water, and -the solution filtered; the insoluble magnesium carbonate remains -upon the filter, the sulphate going in solution; the precipitate is -thoroughly washed. After removing the traces of lime possibly present, -the amount of magnesia contained in the filtrate is determined as -pyrophosphate, from the weight of which the proportion of free -sulphuric acid originally contained is calculated. The presence of -metallic impurities in vinegar is detected by means of the usual -reagents, such as hydrosulphuric acid and ammonium sulphide. In -addition to water and sulphuric acid, the most common adulterants of -vinegar are capsicum, sulphurous acid and various colouring matters. -The presence of capsicum and other acrid substances is usually revealed -by the pungent odour produced upon burning the solid residue obtained -by the evaporation of the sample to dryness, and by the peculiar -taste of the residue. Sulphurous acid is sometimes detected by its -characteristic odour; its determination is described on p. 177. - -Caramel is recognised by extracting the solid residue with alcohol, -and evaporating the solution to dryness; in its presence, the residue -now obtained will possess a decidedly dark colour, and a bitter taste. -Fuchsine, which is said to have been employed for colouring vinegar, -is detected by the tests mentioned under Wine. - -As already stated, a very large proportion of vinegar is made in the -United States from spirituous liquors. It is probable that fully 90 -per cent. of the total production is obtained by the acetification of -whisky. Much of this product is mixed with cider vinegar, or simply -coloured with caramel, and then put on the market as apple vinegar. It -is certain that the manufacturers of whisky vinegar, who are permitted -by law to make “low wines” on their premises, without being subjected -to the usual Internal Revenue Tax, are frequently enabled to perpetrate -a fraud on the Government by disposing of the spirits so produced to -the whisky trade, instead of converting it wholly into vinegar. To so -great an extent is this practice carried on, that many of the cider -vinegar producers have found it impossible to successfully compete with -the less scrupulous manufacturers. Whisky vinegar is nearly colourless, -usually possesses a greater strength than cider vinegar, and is free -from malic acid. Cider vinegar exhibits a light-brownish colour and -a characteristic odour. Some of the differences between these two -varieties are shown by the following results, obtained by the author by -the examination of samples of pure apple and whisky vinegar, fresh from -the factories:-- - - -------------------------------+--------------+--------------- - |Cider Vinegar.|Whisky Vinegar. - -------------------------------+--------------+--------------- - Specific gravity | 1·0168 | 1·0107 - | | - Specific gravity of distillate}| 0·9985 | 0·9973 - from neutralised sample }| | - Acetic acid | 4·66 p. c. | 7·36 p. c. - Total solids | 2·70 „ | 0·15 „ - Mineral ash | 0·20 „ | 0·038 „ - Potassa in ash |Considerable | None - Phosphoric acid in ash |Considerable | None - | | - Heated with Fehling’s solution}|Copious |} No reduction - }| reduction |} - | | - Treated with basic lead }|Flocculent |} No precipitate - acetate }| precipitate |} - -------------------------------+--------------+---------------- - -Naturally the addition of caramel or cider vinegar to whisky vinegar -would greatly affect the above tests. - -Attempts made to differentiate between the two samples by means of -qualitative reactions for aldehyde and malic acid were not sufficiently -distinctive in their results to be of much value. - -It has been suggested that the presence of _nitrates_ in vinegar would -point to its origin from spirits. The apple vinegar manufacturer, -however, frequently finds his product above the standard, in which case -he reduces its strength by adding water, thus rendering this test of -little or no avail. - -Regarding the addition of mineral acids to vinegar in the United -States, it is satisfactory to note that, of a large number of samples -tested by the New York City Vinegar Inspector during the past year, not -a single sample was found to contain these adulterants. - -Fermented infusions of molasses, “black strap,” etc., are occasionally -employed in the manufacture of vinegar. The product obtained from these -sources has been found in some instances to contain acrid and probably -noxious ingredients. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[133] Archiv. der Pharm., 1876, p. 193. - -[134] Pharm. Centralb., N.F. 7, p. 292. - -[135] Dingl. Poly. Journ., 256, p. 129. - - - - -PICKLES. - - -The examination of pickles naturally includes a determination of the -character of the vinegar used in their preparation. This is made by -the methods just described. The practice of imparting a bright green -colour to pickles which have become bleached by long preservation in -brine or by other means, is doubtless still prevalent, and calls for -a brief notice. The greening of pickles is effected either by the -direct addition of cupric sulphate to the water in which they are -heated, or by introducing some form of metallic copper into the bath. -Alum is stated to be also occasionally employed for the same purpose. -The presence of copper is readily detected by incinerating a rather -considerable quantity of the pickles, treating the ash with a little -nitric acid and adding an excess of ammonium hydroxide to the solution, -when, in presence of the metal, a blue coloration will be produced. -The quantitative estimation of copper is made by boiling the residue, -obtained by the evaporation of the vinegar or the incineration of the -pickles, with dilute nitric acid, adding a small quantity of sulphuric -acid and expelling the excess of nitric acid by evaporating nearly to -dryness. The solution is next diluted with water, filtered, and the -filtrate placed in a platinum capsule. The copper is then deposited by -electrolysis. In the Report of the Brooklyn Board of Health for the -year 1885, a case is recorded where a child ate a portion of a pickle -coloured with cupric sulphate (containing an estimated quantity of 2½ -grains of the salt), with fatal results. - - - - -OLIVE OIL. - - -Olive Oil is extracted from the pericarp of the fruit of the _Olea -Europea_. When pure, it exhibits a pale yellow or greenish colour, -has a specific gravity of 0·9176, and possesses a faint, pleasant -odour and a bland and agreeable taste. It is insoluble in water, very -slightly in alcohol, but dissolves in about 1½ parts of ether. Olive -oil boils at 315°, and begins to deposit white granules at 10°; at 0°, -it solidifies to a solid mass which, by pressure, may be separated -into tripalmetine and trioleine. Upon saponification, it is decomposed -into oleic, palmetic, and stearic acids and glycerine. The best-known -varieties of olive oil met with in commerce, in the order of their -quality, are--Provence, Florence, Lucca, Genoa, Gallipoli, Sicily, and -Spanish.[136] - -Owing to the high price of the pure article, and perhaps to the -difficulty experienced in detecting foreign admixtures, olive oil is -probably more extensively adulterated than any substance of general -consumption. The oils most employed as adulterants are those of -cotton-seed, poppy, pea-nut, sesamé, rape-seed, arachis, and lard. -Although the subject of the adulteration of olive oil has received the -attention of numerous chemists, including several of exceptionally high -standing, the results obtained, while of service in indicating the -presence of some foreign oil, are unfortunately often of but little -use in the positive identification of the particular adulterant used. -Of the many methods of examination that have been suggested, the -following are the most satisfactory:-- - -1. _Specific gravity._--The density of olive oil is lower than -that of the majority of the oils with which it is mixed, and it is -sometimes possible to detect the presence of the latter by means of -this property, especially when they are contained in a considerable -proportion. Cotton-seed oil differs more in specific gravity than the -other oils generally employed as adulterants. Donny[137] applies the -test by placing in the suspected sample a drop of olive oil of known -purity which has been dyed with ground alkanet root, and observing -whether it remains stationary. A more satisfactory method is to -determine the density by the gravity bottle. The following tabulation -gives the densities (at 15°) of olive and several other oils liable to -be met with as admixtures:-- - - Olive oil ·914 to ·917 - Poppy oil ·924 „ ·927 - Cotton-seed oil ·922 „ ·930 - Sweet almond oil ·914 „ ·920 - Arachis oil ·916 „ ·920 - Colza oil ·914 „ ·916 - Sesamé oil ·921 „ ·924 - Rape-seed oil ·914 „ ·916 - Lard oil ·915 - -2. _Solidifying point._--Attempts have been made to utilise the fact -that some of the oils added to olive congeal at a lower temperature -than the pure oil. Thus, cotton-seed oil solidifies at -22°, ground-nut -oil at -33°, poppy at -18°. - -3. _Elaidin and colour tests._--Pure olive oil is converted into a -solid mass when treated with various oxidising agents, the change being -retarded by the presence of some of its adulterants. The test may be -made in several ways:-- - -(_a_) Ten grms. of the sample are shaken with 5 grms. of nitric acid -(sp. gr. 1·40) and 1 grm. of mercury, and the colour produced and time -required for solidification noticed. In this manner the following -results have been obtained:-- - - ------------+----------------------+----------------- - Oil. | Coloration. | Minutes for - | | Solidification. - ------------+----------------------+----------------- - Olive | Pale yellowish green | 60 - Almond | White | 90 - Arachis | Pale reddish | 105 - Rape | Orange | 200 - Cotton-seed | Orange red | 105 - Sesamé | Yellowish orange | 150 - Beech-nut | Reddish orange | 360 - Poppy | Red | Remains fluid. - ------------+----------------------+----------------- - -(_b_) Or a few pieces of copper foil are added to a mixture of equal -parts of the oil and nitric acid, the liquor occasionally stirred, and -then set aside. If the oil be pure, it will be converted into a nearly -white buttery mass in from three to six hours; sesamé oil yields a red, -cotton and rape-seed a brown, and beech-nut a reddish-yellow colour, -the solidification being delayed from 10 to 20 hours, while poppy oil -fails to solidify at all. - -(_c_) Nine parts of the sample are oxidised by heating with one part -of concentrated nitric acid, the mixture being well stirred; pure -olive oil forms a hard, pale-yellow mass in the course of two hours; -seed oils (including cotton-seed) turn orange-red in colour and do not -become solid in the same time or manner. - -(_d_) A portion of the sample is well mixed with one-fourth of its -weight of chromic acid; if pure, the oil will be converted into an -opaque mass. - -(_e_) Introduce 2 c.c. of the sample into a narrow graduated glass -cylinder, add 0·1 gramme potassium dichromate, next 2 c.c. of a mixture -of sulphuric and nitric acids, shake well, and then add 1 c.c. of -ether; shake again and allow the mixture to stand at rest. Lively -effervescence and evolution of nitrous fumes soon take place, and the -oil rises to the surface, showing a characteristic coloration. Olive -oil exhibits a green colour, whereas in presence of 5 per cent. of -sesamé, arachis, cotton-seed, or poppy oil, the colours will vary from -greenish-yellow to yellow or yellowish red. The coloration is more -readily observed upon agitating the mixture with water and, setting it -aside for a short time. - -(_f_) Several portions of the oil are placed upon a porcelain slab and -separately treated with a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, -nitric acid, and a solution of potassium dichromate in sulphuric acid, -and notice taken of the colours produced, comparative tests being -simultaneously made with olive oil of undoubted purity. - -(_g_) The presence of sesamé oil is readily detected by the formation -of a deep green colour when the oil is agitated with a mixture of equal -parts of nitric and sulphuric acid. - -(_h_) Upon mixing samples containing cotton-seed oil with an equal -volume of nitric acid (40° B.) a coffee-like colour is produced. Olive -oil gives a pale green, rape and nut, a pale rose, and sesamé oil a -white-coloured mixture. - -The presence of rape- and cotton-seed oils may also be detected as -follows:--Dissolve 0·1 gramme silver nitrate in a very little water, -and add about 4 c.c. of absolute alcohol. This solution is added to -the sample of olive oil to be tested, the mixture well shaken and put -aside for one or two hours; it is then to be heated for a few minutes. -If cotton-seed or rape-seed oil is present, the oily stratum which -separates on standing will exhibit a brownish-red or blackish colour, -due to the reduction of silver. Olive oil fails to cause an appreciable -coloration. Experiments made by the author with samples of olive oil -containing 10 per cent. of cotton-seed and rape-seed oils furnished -the following results:--On standing one hour, without heating, the -mixture containing cotton-seed oil showed a slightly dark colour, -that adulterated with rape-seed oil a decidedly dark colour; upon the -application of heat, the former exhibited a dark-red colour, while the -latter turned quite black. - -_Maumené’s test._--This test is founded upon the fact that the -elevation of temperature caused by mixing olive oil with strong -sulphuric acid is considerably less than that produced with the oils -commonly employed as its adulterants. With these latter an evolution -of sulphurous acid generally takes place, which is not the case with -pure olive oil. The best method of procedure is as follows:--10 c.c. of -sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1·844) are gradually added to 50 grammes of the -sample, the mixture being constantly stirred with a small thermometer, -and observations made of the maximum increase of temperature produced, -as well as of the evolution of gas. When treated in this manner, -genuine olive oil causes an elevation of about 42°; that given by -various other oils, often added to it, ranges from 52° to 103°, and -it is frequently possible to recognise their presence in admixtures -by the high temperature produced. The following are the increases -of temperature observed by L. Archbutt:--olive, 41-45; rape, 55-64; -arachis, 47-60; sesamé, 65; cotton-seed (crude) 70; (refined), 75-76; -poppy-seed, 86-88; menhaden, 123-128. In the Paris Municipal Laboratory -an acid of 1·834 sp. gr. is used, and the following heating powers are -regarded as standards:--For olive oil, 55·5°; for cotton-seed, 69·5° -for nut, 62°; for sesamé, 66°; for poppy oil, 73°. - -The application of Hubl’s test for butter (see p. 75) is one of the -most useful means for the detection of foreign oils in olive oil. The -iodine absorption number of the pure oil is considerably below that of -its most common adulterants. - -The prevalence of the adulteration of olive oil has been abundantly -demonstrated. Of 232 samples examined by the New York and Massachusetts -State Boards of Health, 165 (71 per cent.) were spurious. It is a -notorious fact that large quantities of cotton-seed oil are exported -from the United States to France and Italy, much of which returns home -under the guise of the genuine product of the olive. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[136] It has been stated that American olive oil of superior excellence -is made in the States of N.C., Miss, and Cal.; but this product does -not, as yet, appear to be generally known on the New York market. - -[137] Frens. Zeitsch. 3, 1864, p. 513. - - - - -MUSTARD. - - -Mustard is the product obtained by crushing and sifting the seeds of -_Sinapis nigra_ and _Sinapis alba_, of the genus Brassicaceæ. In the -manufacture of the condiment, both the black and white seeds are used. -According to analyses made by Piesse and Stansell,[138] fine grades of -the two varieties of mustard possess the following composition:-- - - --------------------+--------------+-------------- - |Black Mustard.|White Mustard. - --------------------+--------------+-------------- - | per cent. | per cent. - Moisture | 4·52 | 5·78 - Fixed oil or fat | 38·02 | 35·74 - Cellulose | 2·06 | 4·15 - Sulphur | 1·48 | 1·22 - Nitrogen | 5·01 | 4·89 - Albuminoids | 30·25 | 30·56 - Myrosin and albumen | 6·78 | 6·67 - Soluble matter | 32·78 | 36·60 - Volatile oil | 1·50 | 0·04 - Potassium myronate | 5·36 | .. - Ash | 4·84 | 4·31 - Soluble ash | 0·98 | 0·55 - --------------------+--------------+------------ - -Clifford Richardson regards the following proportions of the more -prominent constituents of pure mustard flour as a basis for detecting -adulterations:-- - - Per cent. - Water 5·00 to 10·00 - Ash 4·00 „ 6·00 - Fixed oil 33·00 „ 37·00 - Volatile oil 0·25 „ 1·00 - Crude fibre 0·50 „ 2·00 - Nitrogen 4·50 „ 6·00 - -The following results were obtained by Messrs. Waller and Martin from -the examination of 14 samples of very low grade dry mustard, as found -on the New York market:[139]-- - - Per cent. - Moisture, ranged from 5·43 to 9·86 - Fixed oil „ „ 6·81 „ 22·56 - Total ash „ „ 2·05 „ 16·05 - Soluble ash „ „ 0·15 „ 2·90 - Insoluble ash „ „ 1·69 „ 13·15 - -Eight samples were coloured with turmeric, 4 with Martius’ yellow, 12 -contained starch, and 5 showed the presence of calcium sulphate. - -The article usually sold as mustard is a mixture of mustard farina, -prepared from different varieties of the seed, with wheaten flour -or starch, and turmeric. It is claimed by the manufacturers that -pure mustard possesses too acrid a taste to be suitable for use as -a condiment; and its admixture with the foregoing substances is so -generally resorted to and recognised, that the New York State Board of -Health, in 1883, legally sanctioned the practice, provided the fact -is distinctly stated upon the label of the packages. Other prevalent -forms of sophistication consist in the partial extraction of the -fixed oil from the mustard before its introduction on the market, -and in the addition of cocoa-nut shells, _terra alba_, and “Martius’ -yellow” (potassium dinitronaphthalate). The latter colouring matter is -specially objectionable, being poisonous in its action. The presence of -organic admixtures is usually recognised upon a microscopic examination -of the sample. The anatomical structure of mustard seed is described -by Fluckigen and Hamburg in ‘Pharmacographia.’ Wheaten flour or starch -is readily identified by the iodine test. The following methods are -employed for the detection of turmeric:-- - -1. A portion of the sample is agitated with castor oil and filtered. In -case turmeric is present, the filtrate will exhibit a marked greenish -fluorescence. - -2. Upon treating the suspected sample with ammonium hydroxide, an -orange-red colour is produced in presence of turmeric. Or, the mustard -is boiled with methylic alcohol, the extract filtered, evaporated to -dryness, and the residue treated with hydrochloric acid; if turmeric -be present, an orange-red coloration takes place, which changes to a -bluish-green upon adding an excess of sodium hydroxide. In addition -to the above qualitative tests, valuable indications regarding the -purity of mustard are to be obtained by the determination of the -proportions of fixed oil, sulphur, and ash contained in the sample -under examination. - -_Fixed Oil._--The amount of fixed oil is estimated by digesting -a weighed portion of the mustard with ether in a closed vessel, -filtering, and determining the weight of the residue left upon -evaporating the ethereal solution to dryness over the water-bath. The -oil possesses a specific gravity ranging from 0·915 to 0·920. The -percentage of fixed oil in pure mustard is very considerable (usually -over 34 per cent.), whereas the substances commonly added contain but -a very small quantity. In case wheaten flour has been employed as an -adulterant, the proportion of pure mustard (_x_) in a mixed sample, can -be approximately calculated by the following formulæ, in which _y_ is -the fixed amount of oil contained.[140] - - (33·9_x_) / 100 + 1·2(100 - _x_) / 100 = _y_, - - 36·7_x_ / 100 + 2·(100 - _x_) / 100 = _y_. - -In the absence of flour, a low percentage of fixed oil indicates the -presence of exhausted mustard cake. - -_Sulphur._--Blyth determines the total sulphur by oxidation with fuming -nitric acid, diluting the liquid considerably with water, filtering and -precipitating the sulphates formed by means of barium chloride. The -proportion of sulphates (in terms of barium sulphate) found in the -ash is to be deducted from the weight of the precipitate obtained; the -remainder, multiplied by 0·1373, gives the amount of sulphur present -in organic combination, and, as the quantity contained in this form in -mustard is far greater than in any of the substances employed for its -adulteration, the estimation is frequently very useful. - -_Ash._--The amount of ash is determined in the usual manner, _i. e._ by -the incineration of a weighed portion in a platinum capsule. Genuine -mustard contains about 5 per cent. of ash, of which nearly 1 per cent. -is soluble in water. In presence of inorganic impurities, the quantity -of ash is naturally increased, while a proportion under 4 per cent. is -usually considered an indication of organic admixture. - -The composition of the ash of mustard seed is given below:-- - - Per cent. - Potassa 16·15 - Lime 19·24 - Magnesia 10·51 - Ferric oxide 0·99 - Phosphoric acid 39·92 - Sulphuric acid 4·92 - Chlorine 0·53 - Silica 2·48 - -The adulteration of mustard is very extensively practised. Of 18 -samples bought at random in the shops and tested for the New York State -Board of Health, 12 were found to be impure; of 88 samples, examined -in the year 1884 by the Massachusetts State Board, 20 were compounds -(labelled as such, but in a manner designed to deceive the purchaser). -37 were adulterated with flour, turmeric, and, in some cases, with -cayenne, and 31 were found to be pure; in 1885, 211 samples were -tested, of which 124 were sophisticated; of 27 samples tested by the -National Board of Health, 21 contained foreign admixtures, consisting -chiefly of wheat or flour and turmeric, but also including corn-starch, -rice, cayenne, and plaster of Paris. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[138] ‘Analyst,’ 1880, p. 161. - -[139] ‘Analyst,’ ix. p. 166. - -[140] Blyth, op. cit. - - - - -PEPPER. - - -Black Pepper is the dried unripe berry of _Piper nigrum_; white -pepper, which is much less in use, being the same fruit deprived of -its outer skin by maceration in water and friction. The more important -constituents of pepper are an alkaloid (piperin), the volatile oil, and -the resin, and upon these ingredients its value as a condiment depends. -The partial composition of genuine pepper, as given by Blyth, is shown -below:-- - - -----------+---------+---------+---------+---------+------------------- - | | | | | Ash. - | | | |Aqueous +---------+--------- - Variety. |Moisture.| Piperin.| Resin. |Extract. |Soluble. | Total. - -----------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - |per cent.|per cent.|per cent.|per cent.|per cent.|per cent. - Penang | 9·53 | 5·57 | 2·08 | 18·33 | 2·21 | 4·18 - Tellicherry| 12·90 | 4·67 | 1·70 | 16·50 | 3·38 | 5·77 - Sumatra | 10·10 | 4·70 | 1·74 | 17·59 | 2·62 | 4·31 - Malabar | 10·54 | 4·63 | 1·74 | 20·37 | 3·45 | 5·19 - -----------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - -The percentages of piperin, resin, extract, and ash are calculated on -the sample dried at 100°. König’s analysis of pepper is as follows:-- - - Per cent. - Water 17·01 - Nitrogenous substances 11·99 - Volatile oil 1·12 - Fat 8·82 - Other non-nitrogenous substances 42·02 - Cellulose 14·49 - Ash 4·57 to 5·00 - -Heisch[141] has analysed several varieties of pure and commercial -pepper, with the following results:-- - - -------------------+-------------------------------------------------- - |Water. - | +-----+-------------------------------------- - | |Total|Ash Soluble in Water. - | |Ash. | +-------------------------------- - | | | |Ash Soluble in Acid. - | | | | +--------------------------- - | | | | |Ash Insoluble. - | | | | | +--------------------- - | | | | | |Alkalinity - | | | | | | as +---------- - | | | | | |K_{2}O. |Piperin. - | | | | | | +-----+-----+ - | | | | | | | Alcoholic| - | | | | | | | Extract.| - | | | | | | +-------+ | - | | | | | | |Starch.| | - | | | | | | | +-+ | - | | | | | | | | | - -------------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+---- - |p.c. |p.c. |p.c. |p.c.|p.c. |p.c.|p.c. |p.c. |p.c. - {| 9·22| 4·35|1·54 |1·51|0·36 |0·72|48·53|10·47|4·05 - Black berry {| to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to - {|14·36| 8·99|3·34 |3·83|4·38 |1·57|56·67|16·20|9·38 - | | | | | | | | | - {|13·67| 1·28|0·217|0·84|0·22 |0· |76·27| 9·23|5·13 - White berry {| to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to |to - {|17·32| 8·78|0·618|2·80|0·69 |0·22|77·68| 9·73|6·14 - | | | | | | | | | - Fine ground (white)|13·90| 1·58|0·16 |0·90|0·52 |0·0 |75·31|10·66|4·51 - Long pepper |12·15|13·48|2·28 |5·52|5·68 |0·53|58·78| 8·29|1·71 - Adulterated ground |11·12|14·70|2·02 |4·07|8·61 |0·78|35·85|11·57|2·02 - -------------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+----- - -The same authority regards 50 per cent. of starch as the minimum -standard for unadulterated pepper. The granules of pepper-starch are -characterised by their exceedingly small size, being only about ·008 -mm. in diameter. - -The proportion of ash in genuine pepper seldom exceeds 7 per cent., of -which not over 1/10th should consist of sand; but in the commercial -article, the total ash often approximates 10 or 12 per cent., 40 or 50 -per cent. of which is sand and other insoluble substances. - - COMPOSITION OF PEPPER ASH. - - Potassa 31·36 - Soda 4·56 - Magnesia 16·34 - Lime 14·59 - Ferric oxide 0·38 - Phosphoric acid 10·85 - Sulphuric acid 12·09 - Chlorine 9·52 - -The list of adulterations used as admixtures to pepper, as well as -to most other ground condiments and spices, is quite extensive, and -includes such cheap and neutral substances as ship-bread, corn, ground -cocoanut shells, beans, peas, hulls of mustard seed, sand, etc., -etc. It is stated that in England large quantities of preparations -consisting of linseed-meal, mustard husks and rice-meal, known to the -trade respectively as P.D., H.P.D., and W.P.D., are very generally -employed in the adulteration of pepper. P.D. (pepper-dust), would -appear to also signify the sweepings collected from pepper factories, -and sometimes fortified with cayenne, the manufacture of which article -has given rise to a special industry. It is utilised as a diluent of -the various spices, the sophisticated products being sold as “P.D. -pepper,” “P.D. cloves,” “P.D. cinnamon,” etc. Unfortunately the -character of most of the adulterants of pepper, as of other spices, -is such, that little assistance is afforded the analyst by chemical -tests. A microscopic examination of the suspected sample furnishes far -more trustworthy information and should in all instances be employed, -comparative observations being made with an article of known purity. - -The appearance of several of the starch granules of various flours -often found in adulterated condiments and spices is represented in -Plate IX. - -In the special case of pepper, it is of advantage to make chemical -determinations of the moisture, ash, piperin and resin. - -_Moisture._--The proportion of moisture is estimated by the ordinary -method of drying a weighed portion of the pepper in a platinum capsule -at 100°, and noting the loss in weight sustained. - -_Ash._--The dry sample is incinerated, and the amount of mineral -residue determined. As already intimated, the proportion of sand -present is of especial import. - -_Piperin and Resin._--The pepper is repeatedly digested with absolute -alcohol, the mixture filtered and the filtrate evaporated to dryness -over a water-bath. The extract is weighed and then treated with sodium -hydroxide solution, in which the resin is soluble. The alkaline liquid -is then removed, and the remaining piperin dissolved in alcohol, the -solution filtered, evaporated to dryness, and the weight of the residue -determined. The proportion of piperin in unadulterated pepper ranges -from 4·5 to 5·5 per cent., that of resin from 1·7 to 2 per cent. - -Niederstadt,[142] from the results of his investigations, concludes, -that genuine pepper should yield as much as 7·66 per cent. of piperin, -and employs this factor for estimating the purity of mixtures; thus, a -sample adulterated with palm kernels and husks, to the extent of about -80 per cent., contained but 1·62 per cent. of piperin. - -Pepper contains a greater proportion of starch than some of the -substances employed in its adulteration. The following method, -suggested by Lenz,[143] may be used for the determination of this -constituent:--4 grammes of the sample are digested for several hours -in a flask with 250 c.c. of water, with occasional shaking, and the -decoction decanted upon a filter. The residue is washed and returned to -the flask, which is filled with water to a volume of 200 c.c., 20 c.c. -of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·121) are added, the flask connected -with an ascending Liebig’s condenser, and heated on the water-bath for -three hours. After cooling, the contents of the flask are filtered into -a half-litre flask, and the filtrate carefully neutralised with sodium -hydroxide and diluted up to the 500 c.c. mark. It is finally tested by -Fehling’s solution. The clarification of the hot solution is assisted -by the addition of a few drops of zinc chloride. Lenz obtained by this -process the following percentages of sugar, calculated on the ash-free -substances:-- - - Black pepper 52 - White pepper 60 - Palm-nut meal 22·6 - Pepper husks 16·3 - -The application of this method to the examination of commercial -American peppers, when they contain as adulterants substances rich -in starch, is obviously of little value. A sample of German pepper, -sold as “_Pfefferbruch_,” recently analysed by Hilger,[144] had the -following composition:-- - - Per cent. - Pepper husks 50 - Palm nut meal 30 - Pepper dust 15 - Paprika 1 - Brick-dust 4 - -_Cayenne Pepper._--Cayenne pepper is the ground berry and pods of -_Capsicum annuum_. Its well-known active properties, which were -formerly ascribed to an acrid oil termed _capsicin_, have lately been -shown to be due to the presence of the crystalline compound _capsaicin_ -(C_{9}H_{14}O_{5}), fusing at 55°, and capable of volatilisation at -115° without decomposition. The proportion of moisture in cayenne -pepper is about 12 per cent.; the alcoholic and ethereal extracts -should approximate, respectively, 25 and 9 per cent. The ash ranges -from 5·5 to 6 per cent., of which nearly one-half should be soluble -in water. Strohmer[145] has analysed Hungarian cayenne, known as -“Paprika”; his results were as follows:-- - - ------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+--------- - | | | Entire - | Seeds. | Husks. | Fruit. - ------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+--------- - | per cent. | per cent. |per cent. - Water and volatile matter at 100° | 8·12 | 14·75 | 11·94 - Nitrogenous substances, as protein | 18·31 | 10·69 | 13·88 - Fat | 28·54 | 5·48 | 15·26 - Ethereal extract (free of nitrogen) | 24·33 | 38·73 | 32·63 - Fibre | 17·50 | 23·73 | 21·09 - Ash | 3·20 | 6·62 | 5·20 - Nitrogen | 2·93 | 1·71 | 2·22 - ------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+--------- - -A commercial brand of the same article had the following composition:-- - - Per cent. - Volatile at 100° 12·69 - Nitrogenous substances, as protein 13·19 - Ethereal extract 13·35 - Ash 7·14 - -The organic adulterants sometimes met with in cayenne (flour, mustard -seed, husks, etc.), are detected by means of the microscope. Among the -mineral substances said to be employed as colouring agents, such as -iron ochre, brick-dust, red lead, and vermilion, the two former are of -more frequent occurrence, and may be recognised upon an examination of -the ash obtained by the incineration of the sample. - -An adulterant of pepper, known in the trade as “Poivrette” or -“Pepperette,” has recently made its appearance in England. It forms -a cream-coloured powder, much resembling the inner layer of the -pepper-berry in bulk and cellular structure, is exported from Italy, -and evidently consists of ground olive-stones, as is indicated by the -following analyses, made by J. Campbell Brown:[146]-- - - ---------------------+-----+----------+----------+----------+--------- - | | Matters |Albuminous| Woody | - | | Soluble | and | Fibre | - | |by boiling| other |Insoluble | - | | in | matters | in Acid | - | | Dilute | Soluble | and | - |Ash. | Acid. |in Alkali.| Alkali. | Starch. - ---------------------+-----+----------+----------+----------+--------- - White pepperette |1·33 | 38·32 | 14·08 | 48·48 | None - Black pepperette |2·47 | 34·55 | 17·66 | 47·69 | „ - Ground almond shells |2·05 | 23·53 | 24·79 | 51·68 | „ - Ground olive stones |1·61 | 39·08 | 15·04 | 45·38 | „ - ---------------------+-----+----------+----------+----------+--------- - -The extent to which the various forms of pepper are fraudulently -contaminated in the United States is illustrated by the fact that, out -of 386 samples of the condiment examined by the chemists of the New -York, Massachusetts and National State Boards of Health, 236 (or about -61 per cent.) were found to be adulterated. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[141] ‘Analyst,’ 1886, p. 186. - -[142] Rép. anal. Chem., iii. p. 68. - -[143] Zeit. f. anal. Chem., 1884, p. 501. - -[144] Archiv. der Pharm., 233, p. 825. - -[145] Chem. Centralb., 1884, p. 577. - -[146] ‘Analyst,’ Feb. 1887, p. 23; Mar. p. 47. - - - - -SPICES. - - -As is the case with mustard and pepper, the adulteration of the -ordinary spices is exceedingly prevalent in the United States. Probably -those most subject to admixture, are cloves, mace, cinnamon, allspice, -and ginger. The fact that these condiments are frequently offered for -sale in a ground state furnishes an opportunity to incorporate with -them various cheaper vegetable substances, of which the manufacturer -too often makes use. For the detection of these additions the use of -the microscope is of pre-eminent importance; and, in this regard, -no more useful information could be afforded than by quoting the -following remarks, furnished to the author by Clifford Richardson, -Assistant Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture, who -has lately made a valuable contribution to the literature of spice -adulteration.[147] - -“Spices consist of certain selected parts of aromatic or pungent -plants possessing a characteristic anatomical structure and proximate -composition which, when they have been carefully studied and recorded, -serve as a means of recognising the pure substances when under -examination, and distinguishing them from the different structure and -composition of the adulterants which have been added to them. - -“To carry on an investigation of this description a limited knowledge -of botanical physiology (as well as of proximate chemical analysis) -is therefore necessary. For the physiological part, the use of the -microscope, as a means of determining structure, is necessary. - -“The structure of the plant parts which constitute the spices and their -adulterants as well, is characterised by the presence or absence of -different forms of cells and of starch, and their relative arrangement. -At least, this is as far as it is necessary to go from the analyst’s -point of view. By studies of sections of pure whole spices one must -become familiar with the forms usually met with in the spices and -those which are prominent in adulterants and be able to recognise the -presence of starch and by the character of the granules to determine -their source. - -“The common forms of cells which are met with in the spices, and -with which one should be familiar, are known as parenchyma cells, -sclerenchyma cells, those of fibro-vascular bundles, spiral and dotted -cells, and those of peculiar form in the cortex and epidermis. - -“_Parenchyma_ consists of thin-walled cells, such as are well -illustrated in the interior of a corn-stalk and are found in the centre -of the pepper kernel. They are often filled with starch, as in the -cereals and pepper, but at times are without it, as in the mustard seed. - -“_Sclerenchyma_, or stone cells, are of a ligneous character, their -walls being greatly thickened. They are commoner in the adulterants -than in the spices, and are well illustrated in the shell of the -cocoa-nut, in clove stems, and a few are seen in pepper hulls. - -“_Spiral and Dotted Cells_ are found in woody tissue, and their -characteristics are denoted by their names. They are more commonly -found in adulterants, and their presence in large amounts is -conclusive, in many instances, of impurity. They may be seen in -sections of cedar-wood and in cocoa-nut shells, and to a small extent -in pepper husks. - -“_The Fibro-vascular Bundles_, as their name implies, are aggregations -which appear to the eye, in some instances, as threads running through -the tissue of the plant. They are easily seen in the cross-section -of the corn-stalk, and are common in ground ginger, having resisted -comminution from their fibrous nature. They are made up of cells of -various forms. - -“_The Cells of the Cortex and Epidermis_ are in many cases extremely -characteristic in form, and of great value for distinguishing the -origin of the substances under examination. They are too numerous in -shape to be particularly described, and are well illustrated in the -husk of mustard, and the pod of _Capsicum_ or cayenne. - -“Other forms of tissue are also met with, but not so prominently as to -render it advisable to burden the memory with them at first, or to seek -them before they are met. - -“These forms of cells and their combinations which have been described, -present in addition some peculiarities, aside from their structure, -which assist in distinguishing them. - -“Parenchyma is optically inactive, and is not stained by iodine -solution, except in so far as its contents are concerned. Sclerenchyma, -the stone cell, is optically active, and in the dark field of the -microscope, with crossed Nicols, appears as shining silvery cells, -displaying their real structure. The fibro-vascular bundles are stained -yellowish brown by iodine, and are thus differentiated from the -surrounding tissue. - -“Starch is stained a deep blue, or blue black, by iodine solution, -and since the contents of the parenchyma cells often consist of much -starch, the parenchyma in these cases seems to assume this colour. - -“To distinguish some of the peculiarities of structure which have been -mentioned requires some little practice and skill, but not more than is -readily acquired with a short experience. There are however some aids -which should not be neglected. - -“In the ground spices it will be found more difficult to recognise -the anatomy of the parts than in a carefully prepared section. The -hardest parts are often the largest particles, and scarcely at all -transparent. The mounting of the material in water or glycerine will -render them more so, but it is necessary to employ some other means of -which two are available. A solution of chloral hydrate in water, 8 to -5, serves after 24 hours to make the particles less obscure. In many -instances also, it has been found advisable to bleach the deep colour -by Schulze’s method, using nitric acid of 1·1 sp. gr. and chlorate of -potash. When this is done, hard tissue is broken down and rendered -transparent where otherwise nothing could be seen. As examples, olive -stones and cocoa-nut shells will serve. Without treatment little can be -made out of their structure. - -“Of course, it is plain that the detection of starch must be in a -portion of the material which has received no treatment, and that -progress must be made from the least to the most violent reagents. - -“For this work an elaborate microscope is unnecessary. It should, for -work with starches, have objectives of ½ and 1/5 inch equivalent focus, -arrangements for polarising light, and if possible, a condenser system. -Many good stands are to-day made at reasonable prices which will serve -the purpose.” - -The microscopical appearance of various starches in polarised light is -shown in Plate IX. Plate XII. exhibits several spices, under polarised -light, in a pure and adulterated state. Those represented are:-- - -Ginger, pure, and adulterated with foreign starch. - -Cinnamon and Cassia; the pure barks, ground, showing the relative -greater frequency of fibro-vascular bundles in the former. - -Cayenne, pure, and adulterated with rice starch. - -The chemical analysis of spices, although usually of minor importance, -often serves to confirm the results secured by aid of the microscope. -The principal determinations required are the ash, oil, starch, and -sugar. The more common forms of spice adulteration are the following:-- - -_Cloves._--This spice is said to be sometimes deprived of its volatile -oil before being put on the market. In the genuine article the -proportion of oil seldom falls below 17 per cent. The oil is readily -estimated by distilling the suspected sample with water. The usual -adulterants of ground cloves consist of clove-stems, allspice, flour -and burnt shells. - - PLATE XII. - -[Illustration: Ginger Starch.] - -[Illustration: Ginger Adulterated.] - -[Illustration: Cinnamon.] - -[Illustration: Cassia.] - -[Illustration: Cayenne.] - -[Illustration: Cayenne Adulterated.] - - SPICES. - -_Mace._--True mace is frequently mixed with the false spice, the -presence of which is indicated by its dark-red colour. The other -foreign substances most commonly used are turmeric, wheaten flour, -rice, corn meal, and roasted beans. - -_Cinnamon._--The chief admixtures to be sought for are cassia, ground -shells, crackers, etc. - -_Allspice._--Owing to its cheapness, allspice is probably less -adulterated than the preceding spices. The addition of mustard-husks, -ground shells, and clove stems, and the removal of the volatile oil, -are, however, sometimes practised. The oil in genuine allspice should -amount to about 5 per cent. - -_Ginger._--Ginger is likewise comparatively little exposed to -sophistication, although it has occasionally been found coloured with -turmeric, and admixed with corn meal, mustard-husks, cayenne, and clove -stems. It is stated that the manufacturers of ginger extract dispose -of the exhausted article to spice dealers who utilise the impoverished -product for the adulteration of other spices. - -_Mixed Spices._--These consist of mixtures of the foregoing, and are -liable to the sophistications practised upon their ingredients, the -addition of the cheaper flours and starches being especially prevalent. - -The following table shows the results of the examination of various -spices, lately officially made in the States of New York and -Massachusetts, and by the National Board of Health in Washington:-- - - ---------+-----------+--------------+-------------- - | Number | Number | Percentage - | Examined. | Adulterated. | Adulterated. - ---------+-----------+--------------+-------------- - Cloves | 132 | 60 | 45·5 - Mace | 79 | 50 | 66·3 - Cinnamon | 149 | 78 | 52·4 - Allspice | 90 | 39 | 43·3 - Ginger | 157 | 40 | 25·4 - ---------+-----------+--------------+-------------- - -FOOTNOTE: - -[147] Bulletin No. 13, Part 2, Chemical Division; United States -Department of Agriculture. - - - - -MISCELLANEOUS. - - -A variety of articles of food, which do not properly come under any of -the heads previously treated, have, during the past few years, been -found on our markets in an adulterated state. Prominent among these, -are the various kinds of canned meats, fruits, and vegetables, which -have not unfrequently been the cause of serious cases of illness. This -result may be owing to the original bad condition of the goods, or to -fermentation having taken place; but, in many instances, the trouble -has been traced to the improper methods of canning used, resulting in -the contamination of the preserved articles with metallic poisons. The -fact that fermentation has occurred is frequently indicated by the -external appearance of the head of the can, which, in this case, will -be slightly convex, instead of being, as it should be, concave. The -metals most often detected in canned goods are lead, tin, and copper. -The presence of lead is usually due to the use of an impure grade of -tin, known as “terne-plate,” in the manufacture of the cans, or to -carelessness in the soldering process. The origin of copper is probably -to be found in the methods sometimes practised of heating the goods -in vessels made of this metal previous to canning them. The presence -of tin results from the action of partially decomposed fruits and -vegetables upon the can. Preserved fruits and jellies are sometimes put -up in unsealed tin pails or cans, when they almost invariably contain -notable amounts of this metal. - -Asparagus seems to be especially liable to contamination with metals, -doubtless owing to the formation of aspartic acid. As much as half a -gramme of tin has been found in a quart can of this vegetable. The -use of zinc chloride as a flux in soldering, has, to the writer’s -knowledge, occasioned the presence of an appreciable proportion of the -salt in canned goods. - -Of 109 samples of canned food lately examined by our health officials, -97 contained tin; 39, copper; 4, zinc; and 2 lead. In the analysis of -food of this description, the organic matters are first destroyed by -heating with oxidising agents, such as a mixture of potassium chlorate -and hydrochloric acid. The solution is then evaporated to a small -volume. It is next diluted with water, and tested with sulphuretted -hydrogen, ammonium sulphide, and the usual reagents. - -Messrs. Waller and Martin have made an investigation in regard to the -proportion of copper which may be present in various natural grains and -vegetables. Their results show that these plants frequently take up -a minute quantity of this metal from the soil. The amounts of copper -found were as follows:-- - - Parts of copper - per million. - Raw wheat and other grains, from 4· to 10·8 - Green cucumbers 2·5 - „ peas 3·1 - „ pea pods 1·0 - -The following proportions were detected in canned vegetables:-- - - Pickles 29 to 91 - Peas 79 „ 190 - Beans 87 „ 100 - -Meat extracts, while not subjected to adulteration, have acquired a -popular reputation as articles of food which is not always deserved. As -stimulants and useful adjuncts to food proper for invalids, the value -of these preparations is undoubted. The chemical composition of several -of the best known brands, as determined by American and English health -officials, is given below:-- - - --------------------------+------+------------------------------------ - |Water.|Organic Substance. - | | +-----+------------------------ - | | |Ash. |Soluble Albumin. - | | | | +------------------ - | | | | |Alcoholic Extract. - Brand. | | | | | +----------- - | | | | | |Phosphoric - | | | | | |Acid. - | | | | | | +-------- - | | | | | | |Potassa. - | | | | | | +--+ - | | | | | | | - --------------------------+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+----- - | per | per | per | per | per | per | per - |cent. |cent.|cent.|cent.|cent. |cent.|cent. - Liebig’s extract |18·27 |58·40|23·25| 0·05|44·11 |7·83 |10·18 - Berger’s extract of beef |40·65 |39·85|19·50| 1·11|13·18 | .. | .. - Starr’s extract of beef |37·00 |55·65| 7·35| 1·10|10·13 | .. | .. - Johnson’s fluid beef |41·20 |50·40| 8·40| 1·17|15·93 |1·91 | 1·72 - Gaunt’s beef peptone |37·15 |54·92| 7·43| 0·00|20·14 | .. | .. - London Co.’s extract of |81·90 |16·80| 1·30| .. | .. | .. | .. - beef | | | | | | | - London Co.’s extract of |78·00 |19·50| 2·50| .. | .. | .. | .. - mutton | | | | | | | - London Co.’s extract of |71·60 |27·10| 1·30| .. | .. | .. | .. - chicken | | | | | | | - Brand’s essence of beef |89·19 | 9·50| 1·31| .. | .. |0·19 | 0·20 - Carnrick’s beef peptonoids| 6·75 |87·75| 5·50| .. | .. |1·27 | 1·33 - Kemmerick’s extract of |20·95 |60·81|18·24| .. | .. |6·56 | 8·30 - beef | | | | | | | - Murdoch’s liquid food |83·61 |15·83| 0·56| .. | .. |0·10 | 4·17 - Savory and Moore’s fluid |27·01 |60·89|12·10| .. | .. |1·49 | 4·20 - meat | | | | | | | - Valentine’s meat juice |50·67 |29·41|11·52| .. | .. |3·76 | 5·11 - --------------------------+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+----- - -The factitious manufacture of jellies has lately excited considerable -attention. Many of the more expensive kinds of this article are -imitated by mixtures consisting largely of apple jelly. - -A brand of spurious currant jelly, which is manufactured in France, and -has recently made its appearance on the American market, is prepared -from a gelatinous seaweed found in Japan (_Arachnoidiscus Japonicus_), -to which glucose, tartaric acid, and an artificial essence of currants -are added, the desired colour being obtained by means of cochineal and -_Althea roseata_. The product is offered for sale at five cents a pound. - -The flour employed in the manufacture of the maccaroni and vermicelli -commonly met with in our larger cities, is not always of good quality. -A more serious form of adulteration consists in the artificial -colouring of these preparations. The substances used for this purpose, -which have been detected by the public authorities, are turmeric, -saffron, and chrome yellow. Meat has been found tinted with aniline -red, and Bologna sausages, coated with iron pigments, have occasionally -been encountered. - -The flavouring syrups used in connection with the popular American -beverage, “soda water,” frequently consist almost wholly of glucose and -artificial compound ethers. Dr. Cyrus Edson, of the New York City Board -of Health, has lately directed public notice to the fact that many -manufacturers of soda water use water obtained from artesian wells, -which are driven on their premises, and which, from the nature of the -geological formation of Manhattan Island, are very liable to contain -sewage contamination. - - - - -APPENDIX. - -BIBLIOGRAPHY. - - -The literature of Food Adulteration has acquired such extensive -proportions during the past few years, that a complete list of the -memoirs which have been contributed to scientific journals would -alone form a moderately sized volume. In the following pages the more -important periodicals, official reports, etc., are mentioned, together -with a chronological catalogue of the works on Adulteration and allied -subjects. - - -_Periodicals._ - - Zeitschrift für Untersuchung von Lebensmittel. Eichstatt. - - Zeitschrift gegen Verfälschung der Lebensmittel. Leipzig. - - The Analyst. London, from 1877 to date. - - The Food Journal. London, 1870 to 1874. - - The Sanitary Engineer. New York, 1877 to date. - - Food, Water, and Air in relation to the Public Health. London, 1872. - - Jacobson’s Chemisch-techniches Repertorium. 1862 to date. - - Repertorium der Analytischen Chemie. 1881. - - Schäfer’s Wieder die Nahrungsfälscher. Hanover, 1878. - - Biederman’s Centralblatt. 1880 to date. - - Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie. 1862 to date. - - Wagner’s Jahresberichte. 1880 to date. - - American Analyst. New York, 1884 to date. - - Vierteljahresschrift der Chemie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. - Berlin, 1887. - - -_Reports._ - - Reports of the Select Committee on Adulteration of Food. London, - 1855, 1856, 1872, 1874. - - Canadian Reports on the Adulteration of Food. Ottawa, 1876 to date. - - First and Second Reports of the Municipal Laboratory of Paris. - - Annual Reports of the National Academy of Sciences. Washington, 1882 - to date. - - Annual Reports of the National Board of Health. Washington, 1881 to - date. - - Annual Reports of the State Boards of Health of New York, New Jersey, - Massachusetts, and Michigan. 1882 to date. - - Annual Reports of the New York State Dairy Commissioner. 1885-1886. - - Annual Reports of the Inspector of Wines and Liquors to the - Commonwealth of Massachusetts. 1876 to date. - - Annual Reports of the New York City Board of Health. 1871, 1873. - - Annual Reports of the Brooklyn Board of Health. - - Bulletins of the Chem. Div., U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - -_Special Technical Journals._ - - Milk Journal. London. - - Milch-Zeitung. - - La Sucrerie Indigène. Compiègne. - - Jahresbericht über die Untersuchungen und Fortschritte auf dem - Gesammtgebiete der Zuckerfabrikation. - - Wochenschrift für die Zuckerfabrikanten. Braunschweig. - - Zeitschrift für Zuckerindustrie. Prag. - - The Sugar Cane. Manchester. - - Der Bierbrauer. Leipzig. - - Der Amerikanische Bierbrauer. New York. - - Le Brasseur. La Sedan. - - Bayerischer Bierbrauer. München. - - Norddeutsche Brauer-Zeitung. Berlin. - - The Western Brewer. Chicago and New York. - - The Brewer’s Gazette. New York. - - The Brewer’s Journal. London. - - Le Moniteur de la Brasserie. Bruxelles. - -Important articles on Food Adulteration and Analysis are contained in -the following general works of reference:-- - - Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry. - Spons’ Encyclopædia of Arts, Manufactures, etc. - Muspratt’s Encyclopædia of Chemistry. - Lippincott’s Encyclopædia of Chemistry. - Ure’s Dictionary of Chemistry. - Gmelin’s Handbook of Chemistry. - Cooley’s Practical Receipts. - Wurtz’s Dictionnaire de Chimie. - - -_General Works, chronologically arranged._ - - Boyle, Medicina Hydrostatica. London, 1690. - - Sande, Les falsifications des médicaments dévoilées. La Haye, 1784. - - Fraise, Alimentation publique. Anvers, 1803. - - Favre, De la sophistication des substances médicamenteuses et des - moyens de la reconnaître. Paris, 1812. - - Accum, A Treatise on Adulteration of Foods and Culinary Poisons. - London, 1820. - - Ebermayer, Manuel des pharmaciens et des droguistes. Paris, 1821. - - Culbrush, Lectures on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons. - Newbury, 1823. - - Branchi, Sulla falsificazione delle sostanze specialmente medicinali - e sui mezzi atti ad scoprirli. Pisa, 1823. - - Desmarest, Traité des falsifications. Paris, 1827. - - Bussy et Boutron-Charlard, Traité des moyens de reconnaître les - falsifications des drogues. Paris, 1829. - - Walchner, Darstellung der wichtigsten im bürgerlichen Leben - vorkommenden Verfälschungen der Nahrungsmittel und Getränke. - Karlsruhe, 1840. - - ----, Darstellung der wichtigsten, bis jetzt erkannten Verfälschungen - der Arzneimittel und Droguen. Karlsruhe, 1841. - - Brum, Hilfsbuch bei Untersuchungen der Nahrungsmittel und Getränke. - Wien, 1842. - - Pereira, A Treatise on Food and Diet. London, 1843. - - Richter, Die Verfälschung der Nahrungsmittel und anderer - Lebensbedürfnisse. Gotha, 1843. - - Garnier, Des falsifications des substances alimentaires, et des - moyens de les reconnaître. Paris, 1844. - - Trebuschet, Exposé des recherches du Conseil de Salubrité de Paris. - Paris, 1845. - - Bertin, Sophistication des substances alimentaires, et moyens de les - reconnaître. Nantes, 1846. - - Beck, Adulterations of various substances used in Medicine and in the - Arts. New York, 1846. - - Friederich, Handbuch der Gesundheitspolizei. Ansbach, 1846. - - Duflos, Die wichtigsten Lebensbedürfnisse, ihre Aechtheit, Güte, und - Verunreinigungen, etc. Breslau, 1846. - - Acam, Traité des falsifications des substances médicamenteuses, &c. - Anvers, 1848. - - Batilliat, Traité sur les Vins de France. Paris, 1848. - - Mitchell, Treatise on the Adulteration of Food. London, 1848. - - Pedroni, Manuel complet des falsifications des drogues, simples et - composées. Paris, 1848. - - Normandy, Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis. London, 1850. - - Cottereau, Des altérations et des falsifications du vin et des moyens - physiques et chimiques employés pour les reconnaître. Paris, 1850. - - Dungerville, Traité des falsifications des substances alimentaires, - etc. Paris, 1850. - - Marcet, Composition, Adulteration, and Analysis of Foods. London, - 1850. - - Tauber, Verfälschung der Nahrungstoffe und Arzneimittel. Wien, 1851. - - Chevallier et Baudrimont, Dictionnaire des altérations et - falsifications des substances alimentaires, etc., avec l’indication - des moyens pour les reconnaître. Paris, 1851. - - Büchner, Die Baierische Bierbrauerei und ihre Geheimnisse. Leipzig, - 1852. - - McMullen, Handbook of Wines. New York, 1852. - - Pierce, Examination of Drugs, Medicines, Chemicals, etc., as to their - Purity and Adulterations. Cambridge, U.S., 1852. - - Fop, Adulteration of Food. London, 1853. - - Moleschott, Lehre der Nahrungsmittel für das Volk. Erlangen, 1853. - - Gille, Falsifications des substances alimentaires. Paris, 1853. - - Babo, Von dem Weinbau. 1855. - - Bureaux, Histoire des falsifications des substances alimentaires. - Paris, 1855. - - Hassall, Food and its Adulteration. 1855 (there are several later - editions). - - How, Adulteration of Food and Drink. London, 1855. - - Klencke, Die Nahrungsmittelfrage in Deutschland. Leipzig, 1855. - - Fresenius, Auffindung unorganischer Gifte in Speisen. Braunschweig, - 1856. - - Ganeau, Altérations et falsifications des farines. Lille, 1856. - - Dodd, The Food of London. London, 1856. - - Gall, Praktische Anweisung sehr gute Mittelweine aus unreifen Trauben - zu erzeugen. Trier, 1856. - - Payen, Des substances alimentaires. Paris, 1856. - - Trommer, Die Kuhmilch in Bezug auf ihre Verdünnung und - Verfälschungen. Berlin, 1857. - - Dalton, Adulteration of Food. London, 1857. - - Bouchardet et Quevenne, Du Lait. Paris, 1857. - - Müller, Die Chemie des Bieres. Leipzig, 1858. - - Klencke, Die Verfälschung der Nahrungsmittel und Getränke. Leipzig, - 1858. - - Vernois, Du Lait, chez la femme dans l’état de santé et dans l’état - de maladie. Paris, 1858. - - Petit, Instructions simplifiées pour la constatation des propriétés - des principales denrées alimentaires. Bordeaux, 1858. - - Müller, Anleitung zur Prüfung der Kuhmilch. Bern, 1858. - - Souillier, Des substances alimentaires, de leur qualité, de leur - falsification, de leur manutention, et de leur conservation. - Amiens, 1858. - - Monier, Mémoires sur l’analyse du lait et des farines. Paris, 1858. - - Nägeli, Die Stärkemehlkörner. Zurich, 1858. - - Friederich, Die Verfälschung der Speisen und Getränke. Münster, 1859. - - Adriene, Recherches sur le lait au point de vue de sa composition, de - son analyse, etc. Paris, 1859. - - Gellée, Précis d’analyse pour la recherche des altérations et - falsifications des produits chimiques et pharmaceutiques. Paris, - 1860. - - Gerhardt, Précis d’analyse pour la recherche des altérations, etc. - Paris, 1860. - - Vogel, Eine neue Milchprobe. Stuttgart, 1860. - - Roussen, Falsifications des vins par l’alun. Paris, 1861. - - Brinton, On Food. London, 1861. - - Quarigues, Chemische künstliche Bereitung der moussirenden Weine. - Weimar, 1861. - - Selmi, Chimica applicata all’igiene alla economica domestica. Milan, - 1861. - - Wenke, Das Bier und seine Vefälschung. Weimar, 1861. - - Henderson, Geschichte des Weines. 1861. - - Hoskins, What we eat, and an account of the most common Adulterations - of Food and Drink, with simple tests by which many of them may be - detected. Boston, 1861. - - Muller, A., La composition chimique d’aliments, représenté en - tableaux coloriés. Brux., 1862. - - Haraszthy, Grape Culture, Wines, and Wine-making. New York, 1862. - - Pohl, Beihilfe zum Gallisiren der Weine. Wien, 1863. - - Moir, Das Bier und dessen Untersuchungen. München, 1864. - - Balling, Die Bereitung des Weines. Prag, 1865. - - Ladray, L’art de faire le vin. Paris, 1865. - - Pasteur, Précis théorique et pratique des substances alimentaires. - Paris, 1865. - - Druitt, On Wines. London, 1866. - - Huber und Becker, Die pathologisch-histiologischen und - bacterio-logischen Untersuchungsmethoden, mit einer Darstellung der - wichtigsten Bacterien. Leipzig, 1866. - - Robinet, Manuel pratique et élémentaire d’analyse chimique des vins. - Paris, 1866. - - Gerstenbergk, Geheimnisse und Winke für Braumeister. Weimar, 1866. - - Vogel, Die Bieruntersuchung. Berlin, 1866. - - Feser, Der Werth der bestehenden Milchproben für die Milchpolizei. - München, 1866. - - Brun, Guide pratique pour reconnaître et corriger les fraudes et - maladies du vin. Paris, 1866. - - Lancaster, Good Food, what it is and how to get it. London, 1867. - - Feuchtwanger, Fermented Liquors, etc. New York, 1867. - - Wiesner, Einleitung in die technisch Mikroscopie. Wien, 1867. - - Gall, Das Gallisiren. Trier, 1867. - - Monier, Guide pratique d’essai et l’analyse des sucres. Paris, 1867. - - Cameron, Chemistry of Food. London, 1868. - - Cammerson, Guide pour l’analyse des matières sucrées. Paris, 1868. - - Pasteur, Étude sur le Vinaigre. Paris, 1868. - - Dubusque, Pratique du Saccharimètre Soleil modifiée. Paris, 1868. - - Wanklyn, Water Analysis. London, 1868. - - Sonnenschein, Handbuch der gerichtlichen Chemie. Berlin, 1869. - - Letheby, On Food, its varieties, chemical composition, etc. London, - 1870. - - Rion, Sämmtliche Geheimnisse der Bierbrauerei. New York, 1870. - - Neubauer, Chemie des Weines. Wiesbaden, 1870. - - Foellix, Gründliche Belehrung über richtiges Gallisiren oder Veredeln - der Trauben-most in nicht guten Weinjahren durch Zucker- und - Wasserzusatz. Mainz, 1870. - - Martigny, Die Milch, ihre Wesen und ihre Verwerthung. 1871. - - Huseman, Die Pflanzenstoffen. Berlin, 1871. - - Hager, Untersuchungen. 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London, 1874. - - Baltzer, Die Nahrungs- und Genussmittel der Menschen. Nordhausen, - 1874. - - Lunel, Guide pratique pour reconnaître les falsifications des - substances alimentaires. Paris, 1874. - - Walchner, Die Nahrungsmittel des Menschen, ihre Verfälschungen und - Verunreinigung. Berlin, 1874. - - Marvaud, Les aliments d’épargne. Paris, 1874. - - Smith, Ed., Manual for Medical Officers of Health. London, 1874. - - Hamm, Das Weinbuch. Leipzig, 1874. - - Nägeli, Stärkegruppe. Leipzig, 1874. - - Schmidt, Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Milch. Dorpat, 1874. - - Squibb, Proper Legislation on Adulteration of Food. New York, 1874. - - Wanklyn, Milk Analysis. London, 1874. - - ---- Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa. London, 1874. - - Sharples, Food, and its Adulteration. Preston, 1874. - - Passoz, Notice sur la saccharométrie chimique. Paris, 1874. - - Angell and Hehner, Butter, its Analysis and Adulteration. London, - 1874. - - Cotter, Adulterations of Liquors. New York, 1874. - - Jones, Chemistry of Wines. London, 1874. - - Bowman and Bloxam, Medical Chemistry. London, 1874. - - Springer, Ein Handbuch der Untersuchung, Prüfung und Werthbestimmung - aller Handswaaren, Natur- und Kunsterzeugnisse, Gifte, - Lebensmittel, Geheimmittel, etc. Berlin, 1874. - - Attfield, General, Medicinal, and Pharmaceutical Chemistry. London, - 1874. - - Thiel, Nahrungs- und Genussmittel als Erzeugnisse der Industrie. - Braunschweig, 1874. - - Black, A Practical Treatise on Brewing. London, 1875. - - Dammer, Kurzes chemische Handwörterbuch. 1875. - - Blankenhorn, Bibliotheca œnologica, etc. Heidelberg, 1875. - - Müller, Chemische Zusammensetzung der wichtigsten Nahrungsmittel. - 1875. - - Terrell, Notions pratiques sur l’analyse chimique des substances - saccharifères. Paris, 1878. - - Prescott, Chemical Examination of Alcoholic Liquors. New York, 1875. - - Pavy, A Treatise on Food and Dietetics. London, 1875. - - Hoppe-Seyler, Handbuch der physiologisch- und pathologisch-chemische - Analyse. Berlin, 1875. - - Bartling, Die Englische Spiritus-fabrication und der Spiritus auf dem - Englischen Markte. London, 1876. - - Bastide, Vins sophistiqués. Beriés, 1876. - - Blyth, Dictionary of Hygiene and Public Health. London, 1876. - - Bresgen, Der Handel mit verdorbenen Getränke. Ahrenweiler, 1876. - - Bolley, Handbuch der technisch-chemischen Untersuchungen. Leipzig, - 1876. - - Pasteur, Étude sur la bière. Paris, 1876. - - ---- Recherches des substances amères dans la bière. Paris, 1876. - - Ritter, Des vins coloriés par la fuchsine. Paris, 1876. - - Schutzenberger, On Fermentation. New York, 1876. - - Bauer, Die Verfälschung der Nahrungsmittel in grossen Städten, - speciell Berlin, etc. Berlin, 1877. - - Grandeau, Traité d’analyse des matières agricoles. Paris, 1877. - - Church, Food. New York, 1877. - - Dennehl, Die Verfälschung des Bieres. Berlin, 1877. - - Feltz, Etude expérimentale de l’action de la fuchsine sur - l’organisme. Nancy, 1877. - - Gaultier, La sophistication des vins. Paris, 1877. - - Duplais, Traité de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation - des alcools. Paris, 1877. - - Goppelsroeder, Sur l’analyse des vins. Mulhouse, 1877. - - Hilger, Die wichtigen Nahrungsmittel. Erlangen, 1877. - - Lieberman, Anleitung zur chemischen Untersuchung auf der Gebiete der - Medicinal-polizei. Stuttgardt, 1877. - - Birnbaum, Einfache Methoden zur Prüfung wichtiger Lebensmittel auf - Verfälschungen. Karlsruhe, 1877. - - Focke, Massregeln gegen Verfälschung der Nahrungsmittel. Chemnitz, - 1877. - - Hausner, Die Fabrikation der Conserven und Conditen. Leipzig, 1877. - - Lobner, Massregeln gegen Verfälschung der Nahrungsmittel. Chemnitz, - 1877. - - Mierzinski, Die Conservirung der Thier- und Pflanzenstoffe. Berlin, - 1877. - - Wittstein, Taschenbuch des Nahrungs- und Genussmittel-Lehre. - Nordlingen, 1877. - - Lintner, Lehrbuch der Bierbraurei. 1877. - - Loebner, Massregeln gegen Verfälschung der Nahrungsmittel. Chemnitz, - 1877. - - Reitleitner, Die Analyse des Weines. Wien, 1877. - - Schnarke, Wörterbuch der Verfälschung. Jena, 1877. - - Husson, Du Vin. Paris, 1877. - - Bauer, Die Verfälschung des Nahrungsmittel. Berlin, 1877. - - Stierlin, Ueber Weinverfälschung und Weinfarbung. Bern, 1877. - - ---- Das Bier und seine Verfälschung. Bern, 1877. - - Pfeiffer, Analyse der Milch. Wiesbaden, 1877. - - Koenig, Chemische Zusammensetzung der menschlichen Nahrungsmittel. - Leipzig, 1878. - - Lang, Die Fabrikation der Künstbutter, Spärbutter, und Butterin. - Leipzig, 1878. - - Auerbeck, Die Verfälschung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Bremen, - 1878. - - Fox, Sanitary Examination of Water, Air, and Food. 1878. - - Klencke, Illustrirtes Lexicon der Verfälschungen der Nahrungsmittel - und Getränke. Leipzig, 1878. - - Schmidt, Anleitung zu sanitärisch- und polizeilich-chemischen - Untersuchungen. Zurich, 1878. - - Birnbaum, Das Brodtbacken. Braunschweig, 1878. - - Bronner and Scoffern, The Chemistry of Food and Diet. London, 1878. - - Kollmann, Anhaltspunkte zur Benutzung bei Bieruntersuchung. Leipzig, - 1878. - - Nessler, Die Behandlung des Weines. Stuttgart, 1878. - - Parkes, A Manual of Practical Hygiene. London, 1878. - - Roth, Die Chemie des Rothweines. Heidelberg, 1878. - - Reischauer, Die Chemie des Bieres. München, 1879. - - Caldwell, Agricultural Qualitative and Quantitative Chemical - Analysis. New York, 1879. - - Adams, Étude sur les principales méthodes d’essai et d’analyse du - lait. Paris, 1879. - - Blas, De la présence de l’acide salicylique dans les bières. Paris, - 1879. - - Dietzsch, Die wichtigsten Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Zurich, 1879. - - Kensington, Analysis of Foods. London, 1879. - - Fleischman, Das Molkerwesen. 1879. - - Bourchadat et Quervenne, Instruction sur l’essai et l’analyse du - lait. Paris, 1879. - - Robinet, Manuel pratique d’analyse des vins, etc. Paris, 1879. - - Stahlschmidt, Bolley’s Handbuch der technisch-chemischen - Untersuchungen. Leipzig, 1879. - - Mott, Brief History of the Mégé Discovery. New York, 1880. - - Elsner, Die Praxis des Nahrungs-mittel Chemikers, etc. Leipzig, 1880. - - Hoppe-Seyler, Physiologische Chemie. Berlin. 1880. - - Guckeisen, Die modernen Principien der Ernährung. Köln, 1880. - - Griessmayer, Die Verfälschung der wichtigsten Nahrungs- und - Genussmittel. 1880. - - Meyer und Finkelnburg, Gesetze der Verkehr mit Nahrungsmittel, - Genussmittel, etc. Berlin, 1880. - - Pick, Die Untersuchung der im Handel und Gewerbe gebräuchlichsten - Stoffe. Wien, 1880. - - Märcker, Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation. 1880. - - Johnson, Chemistry of Common Life. New York, 1880. - - Pratt, Food Adulteration. Chicago, 1880. - - Muter, An Introduction to Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry. - Philadelphia, 1880. - - Flügge, Lehrbuch der hygienischen Untersuchungsmethoden. Leipzig, - 1881. - - Hehner, Alkoholtafeln. Wiesbaden, 1881. - - Medicus, Gerichtlich-chemische Prüfung von Nahrungs- und - Genussmittel. Würzburg, 1881. - - Nowak, Lehrbuch der Hygiene. Wien, 1881. - - Post, Handbuch der analytischen Untersuchungen zur Beaufsichtigung - der chemische Grossbetriber. Braunschweig, 1881. - - Tucker, Manual of Sugar Analysis. New York, 1881. - - Blyth, Foods, Composition and Analysis. London, 1882. - - Blochman, Ueber Verfälschung der Nahrungsmittel. Köln, 1882. - - Flick, Die Chemie im Dienst der öffentlichen Gesundheitspflege. - Dresden, 1882. - - Landolt, Handbook of the Polariscope (trans.). London, 1882. - - Palm, Die wichtigsten und gebräuchlichsten Nahrungsmittel. St. - Petersburg, 1882. - - Prescott, Proximate Organic Analysis. New York, 1882. - - Bell, James, Chemistry of Food. London, 1883. - - Frankland, Agricultural Chemical Analysis. London, 1883. - - Tracy, Handbook of Sanitary Information. New York, 1884. - - Naquet, Legal Chemistry (trans., 2nd edition). New York, 1884. - - Cornwall, Adulteration of Beer. 1885. - - Husband-Audry, Aids to the Analysis of Food and Drugs. 1884. - - Smee, Milk in Health and Disease. London, 1885. - - Wauters, Prospect d’organisation d’un service de surveillance des - Denrées alimentaires et Boissons. Paris, 1885. - - Brieger, Untersuchung über Ptomaine. Berlin, 1886. - - Cazeneuve, La coloration des vins par les couleurs de houille. Paris, - 1886. - - Jago, The Chemistry of Wheat, Flour, and Bread. London, 1886. - - Merat et Delens, Dictionnaire Universelle. Paris, 1886. - - Schimper, Anleitung zur mikroskopisch-chemischen Untersuchung der - Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Jena, 1886. - - Thomann, Alleged Adulteration of Malt Liquors. New York, 1886. - - Wanklyn, Bread Analysis. London, 1886. - - Benedikt, Analyse der Fette, etc. Berlin, 1886. - - Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis. Philadelphia, 1887. - - Damner, Illustrirtes Lexikon der Verfälschungen und Verunreinigungen - der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Leipzig, 1887. - - Bickerdyke, The Curiosities of Ale and Beer. New York, 1887. - - Moeller, Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Berlin, 1887. - - Offinger, Die Ptomaïne oder Cadaver-Alkaloïde. Wiesbaden, 1887. - - - - -LEGISLATION. - - -The following are the more important and recent laws relating to Food -Adulteration, which have been enacted by American State Legislatures, -and by the United States Government. - -The New York State General Law, of 1881, for the prevention of the -adulteration of food and drugs, is as follows:-- - - SECTION 1. No person shall, within this State, manufacture, have, - offer for sale, or sell any article of food or drugs which is - adulterated within the meaning of this Act, and any person violating - this provision shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanour, and upon - conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding fifty - dollars for the first offence, and not exceeding one hundred dollars - for each subsequent offence. - - 2. The term “food,” as used in this Act, shall include every article - used for food or drink by man. The term “drug,” as used in this Act, - shall include all medicines for internal and external use. - - 3. An article shall be deemed to be adulterated within the meaning of - this Act:-- - - _a._--In the case of drugs. - - 1. If, when sold under or by a name recognised in the United States - Pharmacopœia, it differs from the standard of strength, quality, or - purity laid down therein. - - 2. If, when sold under or by a name not recognised in the United - States Pharmacopœia, but which is found in some other pharmacopœia - or other standard work on Materia Medica, it differs materially - from the standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down in such - work. - - 3. If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard - under which it is sold. - - _b._--In the case of food or drink. - - 1. If any substance or substances has or have been mixed with it - so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or - strength. - - 2. If any inferior or cheaper substance or substances have been - substituted wholly or in part for the article. - - 3. If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in - part abstracted. - - 4. If it be an imitation of, or be sold under the name of, another - article. - - 5. If it consists wholly or in part of a diseased or decomposed, - or putrid or rotten, animal or vegetable substance, whether - manufactured or not, or, in the case of milk, if it is the produce - of a diseased animal. - - 6. If it be coloured, or coated, or polished, or powdered, whereby - damage is concealed, or it is made to appear better than it really - is, or of greater value. - - 7. If it contain any added poisonous ingredient, or any ingredient - which may render such article injurious to the health of the person - consuming it: Provided, that the State Board of Health may, with - the approval of the Governor, from time to time declare certain - articles or preparations to be exempt from the provisions of this - Act: And provided further, that the provisions of this Act shall - not apply to mixtures or compounds recognised as ordinary articles - of food, provided that the same are not injurious to health and - that the articles are distinctly labelled as a mixture, stating the - components of the mixture. - - 4. It shall be the duty of the State Board of Health to prepare - and publish from time to time lists of the articles, mixtures, or - compounds declared to be exempt from the provisions of this Act in - accordance with the preceding section. The State Board of Health shall - also from time to time fix the limits of variability permissible in - any article of food or drug, or compound, the standard of which is not - established by any national pharmacopœia. - - 5. The State Board of Health shall take cognisance of the interests - of the public health as it relates to the sale of food and drugs and - the adulteration of the same, and make all necessary investigations - and inquiries relating thereto. It shall also have the supervision - of the appointment of public analysts and chemists, and upon its - recommendation whenever it shall deem any such officers incompetent, - the appointment of any and every such officer shall be revoked and - be held to be void and of no effect. Within thirty days after the - passage of this Act, the State Board of Health shall meet and adopt - such measures as may seem necessary to facilitate the enforcement of - this Act, and prepare rules and regulations with regard to the proper - methods of collecting and examining articles of food or drugs, and - for the appointment of the necessary inspectors and analysts; and the - State Board of Health shall be authorised to expend, in addition to - all sums already appropriated for said Board, an amount not exceeding - ten thousand dollars for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of - this Act. And the sum of ten thousand dollars is hereby appropriated - out of any moneys in the treasury, not otherwise appropriated, for the - purposes in this section provided. - - 6. Every person selling or offering or exposing any article of food - or drugs for sale, or delivering any article to purchasers, shall be - bound to serve or supply any public analyst or other agent of the - State or Local Board of Health appointed under this Act, who shall - apply to him for that purpose, and on his tendering the value of the - same, with a sample sufficient for the purpose of analysis of any - article which is included in this Act, and which is in the possession - of the person selling, under a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars for - a first offence, and one hundred dollars for a second and subsequent - offences. - - 7. Any violation of the provisions of this Act shall be treated and - punished as a misdemeanour; and whoever shall impede, obstruct, - hinder, or otherwise prevent any analyst, inspector, or prosecuting - officer in the performance of his duty shall be guilty of a - misdemeanour, and shall be liable to indictment and punishment - therefor. - - 8. Any Acts or parts of Acts inconsistent with the provisions of this - Act are hereby repealed. - - 9. All the regulations and declarations of the State Board of Health - made under this Act from time to time, and promulgated, shall be - printed in the statutes at large. - - 10. This Act shall take effect at the expiration of ninety days after - it shall become a law. - - -AMENDMENT of April 29th, 1885. - - SECTION 1. The title of chapter four hundred and seven of the laws - of eighteen hundred and eighty-one, entitled “An Act to prevent the - adulteration of food and drugs,” is hereby amended to read as follows: - “An Act to prevent the adulteration of food, drugs and spirituous, - fermented or malt liquors in the State of New York.” - - 2. Section one of chapter four hundred and seven of the laws of - eighteen hundred and eighty-one is amended to read as follows:-- - - 1. No person shall within this State manufacture, brew, distil, have, - offer for sale or sell any articles of food, drugs, spirituous, - fermented or malt liquors which are adulterated within the meaning - of this Act, and any person violating this provision shall be deemed - guilty of a misdemeanour, and upon conviction thereof, shall be - punished by fine not exceeding fifty dollars for the first offence, - and not exceeding one hundred dollars or imprisonment for one year, - or both, for each subsequent offence, and shall in addition thereto - be liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars for each and every - offence, to be sued for and recovered in the name of the people of - the State of New York on complaint of any citizen, one-half of such - recovery to be paid to the prosecutor of the action and the balance - shall be paid to the county where such recovery shall be obtained for - the support of the poor. - - 3. Section two is hereby amended to read as follows:-- - - 2. The term food as used in this Act shall include every article - of food or drink by man, including teas, coffees, and spirituous, - fermented and malt liquors. The term drug as used in this Act shall - include all medicines for internal or external use. - - 4. Section three is hereby amended by adding after subdivision seven - the following: C. In the case of spirituous, fermented and malt - liquors, if it contain any substance or ingredient not normal or - healthful to exist in spirituous, fermented or malt liquors, or which - may be deleterious or detrimental to health when such liquors are used - as a beverage. - - 5. Section five is hereby amended to read as follows:-- - - 5. The State Board of Health shall take cognisance of the interests - of the public health as it relates to the sale of food, drugs, - spirituous, fermented and malt liquors, and the adulteration thereof, - and make all necessary inquiries relating thereto. It shall have the - supervision of the appointment of public analysts and chemists, and - upon its recommendation, whenever it shall deem any such officers - incompetent, the appointment of any and every such officer shall be - revoked and be held to be void and of no effect. Within thirty days - after the passage of this Act, and from time to time thereafter as - it may deem expedient, the said Board of Health shall meet and adopt - such measures, not provided for by this Act, as may seem necessary to - facilitate the enforcement of this Act, and for the purpose of making - an examination or analysis of spirituous, fermented or malt liquors - sold or exposed for sale in any store or place of business not herein - otherwise provided for, and prepare rules and regulations with regard - to the proper methods of collecting and examining articles of food, - drugs, spirituous, fermented or malt liquors, and for the appointment - of the necessary inspectors and analysts. The said Board shall at - least once in the calendar year cause samples to be procured in public - market or otherwise, of the spirituous, fermented or malt liquors - distilled, brewed, manufactured or offered for sale in each and every - brewery or distillery located in this State, and a test, sample or - analysis thereof to be made by a chemist or analyst duly appointed - by said Board of Health. The samples shall be kept in vessels and - in a condition necessary and adequate to obtain a proper test and - analysis of the liquors contained therein. The vessels containing - such samples shall be properly labelled and numbered by the secretary - of said Board of Health, who shall also prepare and keep an accurate - and proper list of the names of the distillers, brewers or vendors, - and opposite each name shall appear the number which is written or - printed upon the label attached to the vessel containing the sample - of the liquor manufactured, brewed, distilled or sold. Such lists, - numbers and labels shall be exclusively for the information of the - said Board of Health, and shall not be disclosed or published unless - upon discovery of some deleterious substance prior to the completion - of the analysis, except when required in evidence in a court of - justice. The samples when listed and numbered shall be delivered to - the chemist, analyst or other officer of said Board of Health, and - shall be designated and known to such chemist, analyst or officer only - by its number, and by no other mark or designation. The result of the - analysis or investigation shall thereupon, and within a convenient - time, be reported by the officer conducting the same to the secretary - of said State Board of Health, setting forth explicitly the nature - of any deleterious substance, compound or adulteration which may be - detrimental to public health and which has been found upon analysis - in such samples, and stating the number of the samples in which said - substance was found. Upon such examination or analysis the brewer, - distiller or vendor in whose sample of spirituous, fermented or malt - liquor such deleterious substances, compounds or adulterations shall - be found, shall be deemed to have violated the provisions of this Act, - and shall be punishable as prescribed in section seven of this Act. - - 6. Section six of said chapter four hundred and seven of the laws of - eighteen hundred and eighty-one is hereby amended to read as follows:-- - - 6. Every person selling, offering, exposing for sale or manufacturing, - brewing or distilling any article of food, spirituous, malt or - fermented liquors, or delivering any such articles to purchasers, - shall be bound to serve or supply any public analyst or other agent - of the State or local Board of Health appointed under this Act, who - shall apply to him for that purpose, and upon his tendering the value - of the same, with a sample sufficient for the purpose of analysis of - any article which is included in this Act, and which is in possession - of the person selling, manufacturing, brewing or distilling the same, - and any person who shall refuse to serve or supply such sample of - any article as prescribed herein, or any person who shall impede, - obstruct, hinder or otherwise prevent any analyst, inspector or - prosecuting officer in the performance of his duty shall be deemed to - have violated the provisions of this Act, and shall be punishable as - prescribed by section seven of this Act. - - 7. Section seven of said chapter four hundred and seven of the laws of - eighteen hundred and eighty-one is hereby amended to read as follows:-- - - 7. Upon discovering that any person has violated any of the provisions - of this Act, the State Board of Health shall immediately communicate - the facts to the district attorney of the county in which the person - accused of such violation resides or carries on business, and the said - district attorney, upon receiving such communication or notification, - shall forthwith commence proceeding for indictment and trial of the - accused as prescribed by law in cases of misdemeanour. - - 8. The State Board of Health shall be authorised to expend, in - addition to the sums already appropriated for said board, an amount - not exceeding three thousand dollars, for the purpose of carrying - out the provisions of this Act, in relation to spirituous, fermented - or malt liquors. And the sum of three thousand dollars is hereby - appropriated out of any moneys in the treasury not otherwise - appropriated and expended for the purposes of this Act. - - 9. This Act shall take effect immediately. - - - SPECIAL ACT to prevent deception in the sale of dairy products, and - to preserve the public health, being supplementary to and in aid - of chapter two hundred and two of the laws of eighteen hundred and - eighty-four, entitled “An act to prevent deception in sales of dairy - products.” - - (PASSED April 30, 1885). - - _The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and - Assembly, do enact as follows_:-- - - SECTION 1. No person or persons shall sell or exchange, or expose - for sale or exchange, any unclean, impure, unhealthy, adulterated or - unwholesome milk, or shall offer for sale any article of food made - from the same, or of cream from the same. The provisions of this - section shall not apply to skim milk sold to bakers or housewives - for their own use or manufacture, upon written orders for the same, - nor to skim milk sold for use in the county in which it is produced. - This provision shall not apply to pure skim cheese made from milk - which is clean, pure, healthy, wholesome and unadulterated, except - by skimming. Whoever violates the provisions of this section is - guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be punished by a fine of not less - than twenty-five dollars, nor more than two hundred dollars, or by - imprisonment of not less than one month or more than six months, or - both such fine and imprisonment for the first offence, and by six - months’ imprisonment for each subsequent offence. - - 2. No person shall keep cows for the production of milk for market, - or for sale or exchange, or for manufacturing the same, or cream from - the same, into articles of food, in a crowded or unhealthy, condition, - or feed the cows on food that is unhealthy, or that produces impure, - unhealthy, diseased or unwholesome milk. No person shall manufacture - from impure, unhealthy, diseased or unwholesome milk, or of cream from - the same, any article of food. Whoever violates the provisions of - this section is guilty of a misdemeanour and shall be punished by a - fine of not less than twenty-five dollars, nor more than two hundred - dollars, or by imprisonment of not less than one month or more than - four months, or by both such fine and imprisonment for the first - offence, and by four months’ imprisonment for each subsequent offence. - - 3. No person or persons shall sell, supply or bring to be manufactured - to any butter or cheese manufactory, any milk diluted with water or - any unclean, impure, unhealthy, adulterated or unwholesome milk, - or milk from which any cream has been taken (except pure skim milk - to skim cheese factories), or shall keep back any part of the milk - commonly known as “strippings,” or shall bring or supply milk to any - butter or cheese manufactory that is sour (except pure skim milk to - skim cheese factories). No butter or cheese manufactories, except - those who buy all the milk they use, shall use for their own benefit, - or allow any of their employés or any other person to use for their - own benefit, any milk, or cream from the milk, or the product thereof, - brought to said manufactories without the consent of the owners - thereof. Every butter or cheese manufacturer, except those who buy - all the milk they use, shall keep a correct account of all the milk - daily received, and of the number of packages of butter and cheese - made each day, and the number of packages and aggregate weight of - cheese and butter disposed of each day, which account shall be open - to inspection to any person who delivers milk to such manufacturer. - Whoever violates the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a - misdemeanour, and shall be punished for each offence by a fine of not - less than twenty-five dollars, or more than two hundred dollars, or - not less than one month or more than six months’ imprisonment, or both - such fine and imprisonment. - - 4. No manufacturer of vessels for the package of butter shall sell or - dispose of any such vessels without branding his name and the true - weight of the vessel or vessels on the same, with legible letters - or figures not less than one-fourth of an inch in length. Whoever - violates the provisions of this section is guilty of a misdemeanour, - and shall be punished for each offence by a fine of not less than - fifty dollars, nor more than one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment - of not less than thirty days or more than sixty days, or by both such - fine and imprisonment. - - 5. No person shall sell, or offer or expose for sale, any milk except - in the county from which the same is produced, unless each can, vessel - or package containing such milk shall be distinctly and durably - branded with letters not less than one inch in length, on the outside, - above the center, on every can, vessel or package containing such - milk, the name of the county from which the same is produced; and the - same marks shall be branded or painted in a conspicuous place on the - carriage or vehicle in which the milk is drawn to be sold; and such - milk can only be sold in, or retailed out of a can, vessel, package or - carriage so marked. Whoever violates the provisions of this section - shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be punished by a fine of - not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than two hundred dollars, - or not less than two months’ or more than four months’ imprisonment, - or both such fine and imprisonment, for the first offence, and by four - months’ imprisonment for each subsequent offence. - - 6. No person shall manufacture out of any oleaginous substance or - substances, or any compound of the same, other than that produced from - unadulterated milk, or of cream from the same, any article designed to - take the place of butter or cheese produced from pure unadulterated - milk or cream of the same, or shall sell, or offer for sale, the - same as an article of food. This provision shall not apply to pure - skim-milk cheese made from pure skim milk. Whoever violates the - provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be - punished by a fine of not less than two hundred dollars nor more than - five hundred dollars, or not less than six months or more than one - year’s imprisonment, or both such fine and imprisonment for the first - offence, and by imprisonment for one year for each subsequent offence. - - 7. No person by himself or his agents or servants shall render or - manufacture out of any animal fat or animal or vegetable oils not - produced from unadulterated milk or cream from the same, any article - or product in imitation or semblance of or designed to take the place - of natural butter or cheese produced from pure unadulterated milk or - cream of the same, nor shall he or they mix, compound with, or add - to milk, cream or butter any acids or other deleterious substance - or any animal fats or animal or vegetable oils not produced from - milk or cream, with design or intent to render, make or produce any - article or substance or any human food in imitation or semblance of - natural butter or cheese, nor shall he sell, keep for sale, or offer - for sale any article, substance or compound made, manufactured or - produced in violation of the provisions of this section, whether such - article, substance or compound shall be made or produced in this State - or in any other State or country. Whoever violates the provisions - of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and be punished - by a fine of not less than two hundred dollars nor more than five - hundred dollars or not less than six months’ or more than one year’s - imprisonment for the first offence, and by imprisonment for one year - for each subsequent offence. Nothing in this section shall impair the - provisions of section six of this Act. - - 8. No person shall manufacture, mix or compound with or add to - natural milk, cream or butter any animal fats or animal or vegetable - oils, nor shall he make or manufacture any oleaginous substance not - produced from milk or cream, with intent to sell the same for butter - or cheese made from unadulterated milk or cream, or have the same - in his possession, or offer the same for sale with such intent, nor - shall any article or substance or compound so made or produced, be - sold for butter or cheese, the product of the dairy. If any person - shall coat, powder or colour with annatto or any colouring matter - whatever, butterine or oleomargarine, or any compounds of the same, - or any product or manufacture made in whole or in part from animal - fats or animal or vegetable oils not produced from unadulterated milk - or cream, whereby the said product, manufacture or compound shall be - made to resemble butter or cheese, the product of the dairy, or shall - have the same in his possession, or shall sell or offer for sale - or have in his possession any of the said products which shall be - coloured or coated in semblance of or to resemble butter or cheese, it - shall be conclusive evidence of an intent to sell the same for butter - or cheese, the product of the dairy. Whoever violates any of the - provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be - punished by a fine of not less than two hundred dollars nor more than - one thousand dollars. This section shall not be construed to impair or - affect the prohibitions of sections six and seven of this Act. - - 9. Every manufacturer of full-milk cheese may put a brand upon each - cheese indicating “full-milk cheese,” and the date of the month and - year when made; and any person using this brand upon any cheese made - from which any cream whatever has been taken shall be guilty of a - misdemeanour, and shall be punished for each offence by a fine of not - less than one hundred dollars nor more than five hundred dollars. - - 10. No person shall offer, sell or expose for sale in full packages, - butter or cheese branded or labelled with a false brand or label as - to county or state in which the article is made. Whoever violates the - provisions of this section is guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be - punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars or more than - fifty dollars, or imprisonment of not less than fifteen days or more - than thirty days for the first offence, and fifty dollars or thirty - days’ imprisonment for each subsequent offence. - - 11. No person shall manufacture, sell or offer for sale any condensed - milk, unless the same shall be put up in packages upon which shall be - distinctly labelled or stamped the name, or brand, by whom or under - which the same is made. No condensed milk shall be made or offered - for sale unless the same is manufactured from pure, clean, healthy, - fresh, unadulterated and wholesome milk, from which the cream has not - been removed, or unless the proportion of milk solids contained in the - condensed milk shall be in amount the equivalent of twelve per centum - of milk solids in crude milk, and of such solids twenty-five per - centum shall be fat. When condensed milk shall be sold from cans, or - packages not hermetically sealed, the vendor shall brand or label such - cans or packages with the name of the county or counties from which - the same was produced, and the name of the vendor. Whoever violates - the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and - be punished by a fine of not less than fifty dollars or more than five - hundred dollars, or by imprisonment of not more than six months, or - by both such fine and imprisonment for the first offence, and by six - months’ imprisonment for each subsequent offence. - - 12. Upon the expiration of the term of office of the present - commissioner, the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of - the Senate, shall appoint a commissioner, who shall be known as the - New York State Dairy Commissioner, who shall be a citizen of this - State, and who shall hold his office for the term of two years, or - until his successor is appointed, and shall receive a salary of three - thousand dollars per annum, and his necessary expenses incurred in the - discharge of his official duties under this Act. Said commissioner - shall be charged, under the direction of the Governor, with the - enforcement of the various provisions thereof, and with all laws - prohibiting or regulating the adulteration of butter, cheese, or milk. - The said commissioner is hereby authorised and empowered to appoint - such assistant commissioners and to employ such experts, chemists, - agents, and such counsel as may be deemed by him necessary for the - proper enforcement of this law, their compensation to be fixed by - the commissioner. The said commissioner is also authorised to employ - a clerk at an annual salary not to exceed twelve hundred dollars. - The sum of fifty thousand dollars is hereby appropriated, to be paid - for such purpose out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise - appropriated. All charges, accounts and expenses authorised by this - Act shall be paid by the Treasurer of the State upon the warrant of - the comptroller, after such expenses have been audited and allowed - by the comptroller. The entire expenses of said commissioner shall - not exceed the sum appropriated for the purposes of this Act. The - said commissioner shall make annual reports to the legislature, on - or before the fifteenth day of January of each year, of his work - and proceedings, and shall report in detail the number of assistant - commissioners, experts, chemists, agents, and counsel he has employed, - with their expenses and disbursements. The said commissioner shall - have a room in the new capitol, to be set apart for his use by - the capitol commissioner. The said commissioner and assistant - commissioners and such experts, chemists, agents, and counsel as they - shall duly authorise for the purpose, shall have full access, egress, - and ingress to all places of business, factories, farms, buildings, - carriages, vessels, and cans used in the manufacture and sale of any - dairy products or any imitation thereof. They shall also have power - and authority to open any package, can, or vessel containing such - articles which may be manufactured, sold, or exposed for sale, in - violation of the provisions of this Act, and may inspect the contents - therein and may take therefrom samples for analysis. This section - shall not affect the tenure of the office of the present commissioner. - - 13. Upon the application for a warrant under this Act, the - certificate of the analyst or chemist of any analysis made by him - shall be sufficient evidence of the facts therein stated. Every such - certificate shall be duly signed and acknowledged by such analyst - or chemist before an officer authorised to take acknowledgments of - conveyances of real estate. - - 14. Courts of special sessions shall have jurisdiction of all cases - arising under this Act, and their jurisdiction is hereby extended - so as to enable them to enforce the penalties imposed by any or all - sections thereof. - - 15. In all prosecutions under this Act, one-half of the money shall - be paid by the court or clerk thereof to the city or county where the - recovery shall be had, for the support of the poor, except in the city - and county of New York shall be equally divided between the pension - funds of the police and fire departments, and the residue shall be - paid to the Dairy Commissioner, who shall account therefor to the - Treasury of the State, and be added to any appropriation made to carry - out the provisions of this Act. All sums of money expended by the - Dairy Commissioner under the provisions of this Act shall be audited - and allowed by the Comptroller of the State. Any bond given by any - officer shall be subject to the provisions of this section. - - 16. In all prosecutions under this Act relating to the sale and - manufacture of unclean, impure, unhealthy, adulterated, or unwholesome - milk, if the milk be shown to contain more than eighty-eight per - centum of water or fluids, or less than twelve per centum of milk - solids, which shall contain not less than three per centum of fat, it - shall be declared adulterated, and milk drawn from cows within fifteen - days before, and five days after, parturition, or from animals fed on - distillery waste, or any substance in the state of putrefaction or - fermentation, or upon any unhealthy food whatever, shall be declared - unclean, unhealthy, impure and unwholesome milk. This section shall - not prevent the feeding of ensilage from silos. - - 17. The doing of any thing prohibited being done, and the not doing - of any thing directed to be done in this Act, shall be presumptive - evidence of a wilful intent to violate the different sections and - provisions thereof. If any person shall suffer any violation of the - provisions of this Act by his agent, servant, or in any room or - building occupied or controlled by him, he shall be deemed a principal - in such violation and punished accordingly. - - 18. Chapters four hundred and sixty-seven of the laws of eighteen - hundred and sixty-two, five hundred and forty-four, and five hundred - and eighteen of the laws of eighteen hundred and sixty-four, - five hundred and fifty-nine of the laws of eighteen hundred and - sixty-five, four hundred and fifteen of the laws of eighteen hundred - and seventy-seven, two hundred and twenty, and two hundred and - thirty-seven of the laws of eighteen hundred and seventy-eight, four - hundred and thirty-nine of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighty, - and two hundred and fourteen of the laws of eighteen hundred and - eighty-two, are hereby repealed. - - 19. If any person shall, by himself or other, violate any of the - provisions of sections one, two, three, four or five of this Act, - or knowingly suffer a violation thereof by his agent, or in any - building or room occupied by him, he shall, in addition to the fines - and punishments therein described for each offence, forfeit and pay - a fixed penalty of one hundred dollars. If any person, by himself or - another, shall violate any of the provisions of sections six, seven, - or eight of this Act, he shall, in addition to the fines and penalties - herein prescribed for each offence, forfeit and pay a fixed penalty of - five hundred dollars. Such penalties shall be recovered with costs in - any court of this State having jurisdiction thereof in an action to be - prosecuted by the Dairy Commissioner, or any of his assistants in the - name of the people of the State of New York. - - 20. This Act and each section thereof is declared to be enacted to - prevent deception in the sale of dairy products, and to preserve the - public health which is endangered by the manufacture, sale or use of - the articles or substances herein regulated or prohibited. - - 21. This Act shall take effect immediately. Sections six and seven - shall not apply to any product manufactured, or in process of - manufacture at the time of the passage of this Act; but neither - this exemption nor this Act shall impair the power to prosecute any - violations heretofore committed of section six of the Act of which - this Act is supplemental. - - - AN ACT to amend chapter two hundred and two of the laws of eighteen - hundred and eighty-four, entitled “An Act to prevent deception in - sales of dairy products.” - - (PASSED April 30, 1885). - - _The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and - Assembly, do enact as follows_:-- - - SECTION 1. Section seven of chapter two hundred and two of the laws - of eighteen hundred and eighty-four, entitled “An Act to prevent - deception in sales of dairy products,” is hereby amended to read as - follows:-- - - 7. No person shall offer, sell, or expose for sale butter or cheese - branded or labelled with a false brand or label as to the quality of - the article, or the county or State in which the article is made. The - New York State Dairy Commissioner is hereby authorised and directed - to procure and issue to the cheese manufactories of the State, upon - proper application therefor and under such regulations as to the - custody and use thereof as he may prescribe, a uniform stencil brand - bearing a suitable device or motto, and the words “New York State - Full Cream Cheese.” Every brand issued shall be used upon the outside - of the cheese and also upon the package containing the same, and - shall bear a different number for each separate manufactory, and the - commissioner shall keep a book in which shall be registered the name, - location and number of each manufactory using the said brand, and the - name or names of the persons at each manufactory authorised to use the - same. It shall be unlawful to use or permit such stencil brand to be - used upon any other than full cream cheese or packages containing the - same. Whoever violates the provisions of this section is guilty of - a misdemeanour, and for each and every cheese or package so falsely - branded shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five - dollars or more than fifty dollars, or imprisonment of not less than - fifteen or more than thirty days. - - 2. This Act shall take effect immediately. - - - AN ACT to protect butter and cheese manufacturers. - - (PASSED June 8, 1885, three-fifths being present.) - - _The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and - Assembly, do enact as follows_:-- - - SECTION 1. Whoever shall with intent to defraud, sell, supply, or - bring to be manufactured to any butter or cheese manufactory in - this State, any milk diluted with water, or in any way adulterated, - unclean or impure, or milk from which any cream has been taken, or - milk commonly known as skimmed milk, or whoever shall keep back any - part of the milk as strippings, or whoever shall knowingly bring or - supply milk to any butter or cheese manufactory that is tainted or - sour, or whoever shall knowingly bring or supply to any butter or - cheese manufactory, milk drawn from cows within fifteen days before - parturition, or within three days after parturition, or any butter - or cheese manufacturers who shall knowingly use or allow any of his - or her employés or any other person to use for his or her benefit, - or for their own individual benefit, any milk or cream from the milk - brought to said butter or cheese manufacturer, without the consent of - all the owners thereof, or any butter or cheese manufacturer who shall - refuse or neglect to keep or cause to be kept a correct account, open - to the inspection of any one furnishing milk to such manufacturer, - of the amount of milk daily received, or of the number of pounds of - butter and the number of cheeses made each day, or of the number cut - or otherwise disposed of, and the weight of each, shall for each and - every offence forfeit and pay a sum not less than twenty-five dollars - nor more than one hundred dollars, with costs of suit, to be sued for - in any court of competent jurisdiction for the benefit of the person - or persons, firm or association, or corporation or their assigns upon - whom such fraud or neglect shall be committed. But nothing in this Act - shall affect, impair, or repeal any of the provisions of chapter two - hundred and two of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighty-four, or of - the acts amendatory thereof or supplementary thereto. - - 2. This Act shall take effect immediately. - - - Special Act in relation to the manufacture and sale of vinegar. - - (PASSED June 9, 1886.) - - _The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and - Assembly, do enact as follows_:-- - - SECTION 1. Every person who manufactures for sale, or offers or - exposes for sale as cider vinegar, any vinegar not the legitimate - product of pure apple juice, known as apple cider, or vinegar not - made exclusively of said apple cider, or vinegar into which foreign - substances, drugs or acids have been introduced, as may appear by - proper test, shall for each offence be punishable by a fine of not - less than fifty, nor more than one hundred dollars. - - 2. Every person who manufactures for sale, or offers for sale, any - vinegar found upon proper tests to contain any preparation of lead, - copper, sulphuric acid, or other ingredient injurious to health, shall - for each such offence be punishable by fine of not less than one - hundred dollars. - - 3. The mayor of cities shall, and the supervisor of towns may, - annually, appoint one or more persons to be inspectors of vinegar, who - shall be sworn before entering upon their duties, and who shall have - power and authority to inspect and examine all vinegar offered for - sale. - - 4. No person shall by himself, his servant or agent, or as the servant - or agent of any other person, sell, exchange, deliver, or have in his - custody or possession, with intent to sell or exchange, or expose or - offer for sale or exchange any adulterated vinegar, or label, brand - or sell as cider vinegar, or as apple vinegar, any vinegar not the - legitimate product of pure apple juice, or not made exclusively from - apple cider. - - 5. All vinegars shall be without artificial colouring matter, and - shall have an acidity equivalent to the presence of not less than - four and one-half per cent., by weight, of absolute acetic acid, - and in the case of cider vinegar, shall contain in addition not - less than two per cent. by weight of cider vinegar solids upon full - evaporation over boiling water; and if any vinegar contains any - artificial colouring matter or less than the above amount of acidity, - or in the case of cider vinegar, if it contains less than the above - amount of acidity or of cider vinegar solids, it shall be deemed to be - adulterated within the meaning of this Act. - - 6. Every person making or manufacturing cider vinegar shall brand - on each head of the cask, barrel or keg containing such vinegar - the name and residence of the manufacturer, the date when same was - manufactured, and the words cider vinegar. - - 7. Whoever violates any of the provisions of this Act shall be - punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars. Any person who - may have suffered any injury or damage by reason of the violation of - any of the provisions of this Act, may maintain an action in his own - name against any person violating any of the provisions of this Act, - to recover the penalties provided for such violation, and one-half of - the sum recovered shall be retained by him for his own use and the - other half shall be paid into the city or county treasury where such - offence was committed for the benefit of such city or county. - - 8. This Act shall take effect immediately. - - -The following are the Statutes of the State of Massachusetts relating -to the adulteration of food and drugs:-- - -GENERAL LAWS RELATING TO ADULTERATION. - - FOOD AND DRUGS. - - [Sidenote: Adulteration prohibited. 1882, 263, § 1.] - - SECTION 1. No person shall, within this commonwealth, manufacture for - sale, offer for sale, or sell any drug or article of food which is - adulterated within the meaning of this Act. - - [Sidenote: Definition of terms “drug” and “food.” 1882, 263, § 2.] - - 2. The term “drug” as used in this Act shall include all medicines for - internal or external use, antiseptics, disinfectants, and cosmetics. - The term “food” as used herein shall include all articles used for - food or drink by man. - - [Sidenote: Drugs, how adulterated. 1882, 263, § 3. Specifications.] - - 3. An article shall be deemed to be adulterated within the meaning of - this Act-- - - [Sidenote: Officinal drugs may be sold as called for, or as variation - is made known to the purchaser. 1884, 289, § 7.] - - (_a._) In the case of drugs,--(1.) If, when sold under or by a name - recognised in the United States Pharmacopœia, it differs from the - standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down therein, unless the - order calls for an article inferior to such standard, or unless such - difference is made known or so appears to the purchaser at the time - of such sale; (2.) If, when sold under or by a name not recognised - in the United States Pharmacopœia, but which is found in some other - pharmacopœia, or other standard work on _materia medica_, it differs - materially from the standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down - in such work; (3.) If its strength or purity falls below the professed - standard under which it is sold: - - [Sidenote: Food, how adulterated. Specifications.] - - (_b._) In the case of food--(1.) If any substance or substances have - been mixed with it so as to reduce, or lower, or injuriously affect - its quality or strength; (2.) If any inferior or cheaper substance - or substances have been substituted wholly or in part for it; (3.) - If any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted - from it; (4.) If it is an imitation of, or is sold under the name of - another article; (5.) If it consists wholly or in part of a diseased, - decomposed, putrid, or rotten animal or vegetable substance, whether - manufactured or not, or in the case of milk, if it is the produce - of a diseased animal; (6.) If it is coloured, coated, polished, or - powdered, whereby damage is concealed, or if it is made to appear - better or of greater value than it really is; (7.) If it contains any - added or poisonous ingredient, or any ingredient which may render it - injurious to the health of a person consuming it. - - [Sidenote: Provisions of Act not to apply to labelled compounds or - mixtures when not injurious to health.] - - [Sidenote: No prosecution to be made relative to drugs, if standard - of same has been raised since the issue of the last edition of the - Pharmacopœia until such change has been published. 1884, 289, § 5.] - - 4. The provisions of this Act shall not apply to mixtures or compounds - recognised as ordinary articles of food or drinks, provided that - the same are not injurious to health, and are distinctly labelled - as mixtures or compounds. And no prosecutions shall at any time be - maintained under the said Act concerning any drug the standard of - strength or purity whereof has been raised since the issue of the - last edition of the United States Pharmacopœia, unless and until such - change of standard has been published throughout the commonwealth. - - [Sidenote: State Board shall make investigations and may appoint - inspectors, analysts and chemists. 1882, 263, § 5.] - - 5. The State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity, shall take - cognisance of the interests of the public health relating to the sale - of drugs and food and the adulteration of the same, and shall make all - necessary investigations and inquiries in reference thereto, and for - these purposes may appoint inspectors, analysts, and chemists, who - shall be subject to its supervision and removal. - - [Sidenote: The Board shall make regulations as to collecting and - examining of food and drugs, and may expend ten thousand dollars in - carrying out the provisions of this Act. 1882, 263, § 5. 1884, 289, § - 1. - - Three-fifths to be expended in relation to milk and its products. - 1884, 289, § 1.] - - Within thirty days after the passage of this Act the said Board - shall adopt such measures as it may deem necessary to facilitate - the enforcement hereof, and shall prepare rules and regulations - with regard to the proper methods of collecting and examining drugs - and articles of food. Said Board may expend annually an amount not - exceeding ten thousand dollars for the purpose of carrying out the - provisions of this Act: provided, however, that not less than - three-fifths of the said amount shall be annually expended for the - enforcement of the laws against the adulteration of milk and milk - products. - - [Sidenote: Samples to be furnished to officers or agents. 1882, 263, § - 6.] - - 6. Every person offering or exposing for sale, or delivering to a - purchaser, any drug or article of food included in the provisions - of this Act, shall furnish to any analyst or other officer or agent - appointed hereunder, who shall apply to him for the purpose and shall - tender him the value of the same, a sample sufficient for the purpose - of the analysis of any such drug or article of food which is in his - possession. - - [Sidenote: Obstruction and its penalty. 1882, 263, § 7.] - - 7. Whoever hinders, obstructs, or in any way interferes with any - inspector, analyst, or other officer appointed hereunder, in the - performance of his duty, and whoever violates any of the provisions - of this Act, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding fifty dollars - for the first offence, and not exceeding one hundred dollars for each - subsequent offence. - - [Sidenote: State Board to report prosecutions and money expended. - 1883, 263, § 2. 1884, 289, § 2.] - - 8. The State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity shall report - annually to the Legislature the number of prosecutions made under said - chapter, and an itemised account of all money expended in carrying out - the provisions thereof. - - [Sidenote: Powers of inspectors. 1884, 289, § 3.] - - 9. An inspector appointed under the provisions of said chapter two - hundred and sixty-three of the Acts of the year eighteen hundred and - eighty-two shall have the same powers and authority conferred upon a - city or town inspector by section two of chapter fifty-seven of the - Public Statutes. - - [Sidenote: Act of 1882 does not affect chapter 57 of the Public - Statutes. 1884, 289, § 4.] - - 10. Nothing contained in chapter two hundred and sixty-three of the - Acts of the year eighteen hundred and eighty-two shall be in any way - construed as repealing or amending anything contained in chapter - fifty-seven of the Public Statutes. - - [Sidenote: Samples to be sealed for benefit of defendant. 1884, 289, § - 8.] - - 11. Before commencing the analysis of any sample the person making - the same shall reserve a portion which shall be sealed; and in case - of a complaint against any person the reserved portion of the sample - alleged to be adulterated shall upon application be delivered to the - defendant or his attorney. - - [Sidenote: Selling corrupt or unwholesome provisions without notice. - Public Statutes, chap. 208, § 1. 12 Cush. 499.] - - 12. Whoever knowingly sells any kind of diseased, corrupted, or - unwholesome provisions, whether for meat or drink, without making - the same fully known to the buyer, shall be punished by imprisonment - in the jail not exceeding six months, or by fine not exceeding two - hundred dollars. - - [Sidenote: Adulterating food. Public Statutes, chap. 208, § 3.] - - 13. Whoever fraudulently adulterates, for the purpose of sale, - bread or any other substance intended for food, with any substance - injurious to health, or knowingly barters, gives away, sells, or has - in possession with intent to sell, any substance intended for food, - which has been adulterated with any substance injurious to health, - shall be punished by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding one year, - or by fine not exceeding three hundred dollars; and the articles so - adulterated shall be forfeited, and destroyed under the direction of - the court. - - [Sidenote: Adulterating liquor used for drink, with Indian cockle, - etc. Public Statutes, chap. 208, § 4.] - - 14. Whoever adulterates, for the purpose of sale, any liquor used or - intended for drink, with Indian cockle, vitriol, grains of paradise, - opium, alum, capsicum, copperas, laurel-water, logwood, Brazil wood, - cochineal, sugar of lead, or any other substance which is poisonous - or injurious to health, and whoever knowingly sells any such liquor - so adulterated, shall be punished by imprisonment in the State prison - not exceeding three years; and the articles so adulterated shall be - forfeited. - - [Sidenote: Adulteration of drugs or medicines. Public Statutes, chap. - 208, § 5.] - - 15. Whoever fraudulently adulterates, for the purpose of sale, any - drug or medicine, or sells any fraudulently adulterated drug or - medicine, knowing the same to be adulterated, shall be punished by - imprisonment in the jail not exceeding one year, or by fine not - exceeding four hundred dollars; and such adulterated drugs and - medicines shall be forfeited, and destroyed under the direction of the - court. - - [Sidenote: Persons selling certain poisons to keep record, etc.] - - [Sidenote: Purchasers who give false name, etc. Public Statutes, chap. - 208, § 6.] - - 16. Whoever sells arsenic, strychnine, corrosive sublimate, or prussic - acid, without the written prescription of a physician, shall keep a - record of the date of such sale, the name of the article, the amount - thereof sold, and the name of the person or persons to whom delivered; - and for each neglect shall forfeit a sum not exceeding fifty dollars. - Whoever purchases deadly poisons as aforesaid, and gives a false or - fictitious name to the vendor, shall be punished by fine not exceeding - fifty dollars. - - -LAWS RELATIVE TO SPECIAL ARTICLES OF FOOD. - -OF THE INSPECTION AND SALE OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS. - - [Sidenote: Appointment of inspectors of milk. Public Statutes, chap. - 57, § 1.] - - 1. The mayor and aldermen of cities shall, and the selectmen of towns - may, annually appoint one or more persons to be inspectors of milk - for their respective places, who shall be sworn before entering upon - the duties of their office. Each inspector shall publish a notice of - his appointment for two weeks in a newspaper published in his city or - town, or if no newspaper is published therein, he shall post up such - notice in two or more public places in such city or town. - - [Sidenote: Their duties and powers. 1884, 310, § 3-11 Allen, 264.] - - 2. Such inspectors shall keep an office, and shall record in books - kept for the purpose the names and place of business of all persons - engaged in the sale of milk within their city or town. Said inspectors - may enter all places where milk is stored or kept for sale, and all - persons engaged in the sale of milk shall, on the request in writing - of an inspector, deliver to the person having the request a sample or - specimen sufficient for the purpose of analysis of the milk then in - his possession from such can or receptacle as shall be designated by - the inspector or the person bearing the request. Said inspector shall - cause the sample or specimen of milk so delivered to be analysed or - otherwise satisfactorily tested, the results of which analysis or - test they shall record and preserve as evidence. The inspectors shall - receive such compensation as the mayor and alderman or selectmen may - determine. - - [Sidenote: Persons selling milk from carriages to be licensed. Public - Statutes, chap. 57, § 3.] - - 3. In all cities, and in all towns in which there is an inspector of - milk, every person who conveys milk in carriages or otherwise for the - purpose of selling the same in such city or town shall annually, on - the first day of May, or within thirty days thereafter, be licensed - by the inspector or inspectors of milk of such city or town to sell - milk within the limits thereof, and shall pay to such inspector or - inspectors fifty cents each to the use of the city or town. The - inspector or inspectors shall pay over monthly to the treasurer of - such city or town all sums collected by him or them. Licenses shall be - issued only in the names of the owners of carriages or other vehicles, - and shall for the purposes of this chapter be conclusive evidence of - ownership. No license shall be sold, assigned, or transferred. Each - license shall record the name, residence, place of business, number of - carriages or other vehicles used, name and residence of every driver - or other person engaged in carrying or selling said milk, and the - number of the license. Each licensee shall before engaging in the sale - of milk, cause his name, the number of his license, and his place of - business, to be legibly placed on each outer side of all carriages - or vehicles used by him in the conveyance and sale of milk, and he - shall report to the inspector or inspectors any change of driver or - other person employed by him which may occur during the term of his - license. Whoever, without being first licensed under the provisions - of this section, sells milk or exposes it for sale from carriages or - other vehicles, or has it in his custody or possession with intent so - to sell, and whoever violates any of the provisions of this section, - shall for a first offence be punished by fine of not less than thirty - nor more than one hundred dollars; for a second offence by fine of - not less than fifty nor more than three hundred dollars; and for a - subsequent offence by fine of fifty dollars and by imprisonment in the - house of correction for not less than thirty nor more than sixty days. - - [Sidenote: Persons selling milk in stores, etc., to be registered. - Public Statutes, chap. 57, § 4. 1 Allen, 593. 2 Allen, 157.] - - 4. Every person before selling milk or offering it for sale in a - store, booth, stand, or market-place in a city or in a town in which - an inspector or inspectors of milk are appointed, shall register in - the books of such inspector or inspectors, and shall pay to him or - them fifty cents to the use of such city or town; and whoever neglects - so to register shall be punished for each offence by fine not - exceeding twenty dollars. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for selling, etc., adulterated milk, etc. Public - Statutes, chap. 57, § 5. 9 Allen, 499. 10 Allen, 199. 11 Allen, 264. - 107 Mass., 194.] - - 5. Whoever by himself or by his servant or agent, or as the servant or - agent of any other person, sells, exchanges, or delivers, or has in - his custody or possession with intent to sell or exchange, or exposes - or offers for sale or exchange, adulterated milk, or milk to which - water or any foreign substance has been added, or milk produced from - cows fed on the refuse of distilleries or from sick or diseased cows, - shall for a first offence be punished by fine of not less than fifty - nor more than two hundred dollars; for a second offence by fine of - not less than one hundred nor more than three hundred dollars, or by - imprisonment in the house of correction for not less than thirty nor - more than sixty days; and for a subsequent offence by fine of fifty - dollars and by imprisonment in the house of correction for not less - than sixty nor more than ninety days. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for selling milk from which cream has been removed. - Public Statutes, chap. 57, § 6.] - - 6. Whoever by himself or by his servant or as the servant or agent of - any other person, sells, exchanges, or delivers, or has in his custody - or possession with intent to sell or exchange, or exposes or offers - for sale as pure milk, any milk from which the cream or a part thereof - has been removed, shall be punished by the penalties provided in the - preceding section. - - [Sidenote: Vessels containing milk from which cream has been removed - to be marked “skimmed milk.” Public Statutes, chap. 57, § 7.] - - 7. No dealer in milk, and no servant or agent of such a dealer, shall - sell, exchange, or deliver, or have in his custody or possession, with - intent to sell, exchange, or deliver, milk from which the cream or any - part thereof has been removed, unless in a conspicuous place above - the centre upon the outside of every vessel, can, or package from or - in which such milk is sold, the words “skimmed milk” are distinctly - marked in letters not less than one inch in length. Whoever violates - the provisions of this section shall be punished by the penalties - provided by section 5. - - [Sidenote: Penalty on inspectors, etc., for conniving, etc. Public - Statutes, chap. 57, § 8. 1884, 310, § 5.] - - 8. Any inspector of milk, and any servant or agent of an inspector who - wilfully connives at or assists in a violation of the provisions of - this chapter, and whoever hinders, obstructs, or in any way interferes - with any inspector of milk, or any servant or agent of an inspector - in the performance of his duty, shall be punished by fine of not - less than one hundred nor more than three hundred dollars, or by - imprisonment for not less than thirty nor more than sixty days. - - [Sidenote: What milk to be deemed adulterated. Public Statutes, chap. - 57, § 9.] - - 9. In all prosecutions under this chapter, if the milk is shown upon - analysis to contain more than eighty-seven per cent. of watery fluid, - or to contain less than thirteen per cent. of milk solids, it shall be - deemed for the purposes of this chapter to be adulterated. - - [Sidenote: Inspectors to institute complaints. Public Statutes, chap. - 57, § 10.] - - 10. It shall be the duty of every inspector to institute a complaint - for a violation of any of the provisions of this chapter on the - information of any person who lays before him satisfactory evidence by - which to sustain such complaint. - - [Sidenote: Names, etc., of persons convicted to be published. Public - Statutes, chap. 57, § 11.] - - 11. Each inspector shall cause the name and place of business of every - person convicted of selling adulterated milk, or of having the same in - his possession with intent to sell, to be published in two newspapers - in the county in which the offence was committed. - - [Sidenote: Milk cans to hold eight quarts when, etc. Public Statutes, - chap. 57, § 12.] - - 12. When milk is sold by the can, such can shall hold eight quarts, - and no more. - - [Sidenote: Spurious butter sold in boxes, tubs and firkins to be - plainly marked as such. 1884, 310, § 1.] - - [Sidenote: Retail packages to be marked on outside of wrapper.] - - 13. Whoever, by himself or his agents, sells, exposes for sale, or - has in his possession with intent to sell, any article, substance or - compound, made in imitation or semblance of butter, or as a substitute - for butter, and not made exclusively and wholly of milk or cream, or - containing any fats, oils or grease not produced from milk or cream, - shall have the words “imitation butter,” or “oleomargarine,” stamped, - labelled or marked, in printed letters of plain Roman type, not less - than one inch in length, so that said word cannot be easily defaced, - upon the top and side of every tub, firkin, box or package containing - any of said article, substance, or compound. And in cases of retail - sales of any of said article, substance or compound, not in the - original packages, the seller shall, by himself or his agents, attach - to each package so sold, and shall deliver therewith to the purchaser, - a label or wrapper bearing in a conspicuous place upon the outside of - the package the words “imitation butter” or “oleomargarine” in printed - letters of plain Roman type, not less than one half inch in length. - - [Sidenote: Spurious cheese to be plainly marked as such. Public - Statutes, chap. 56, § 18.] - - [Sidenote: Wrappers to be marked.] - - 14. Whoever, by himself or his agents, sells, exposes for sale, or - has in his possession with intent to sell, any article, substance, or - compound, made in imitation or semblance of cheese, or as a substitute - for cheese, and not made exclusively and wholly of milk or cream, or - containing any fats, oils or grease not produced from milk or cream, - shall have the words “imitation cheese” stamped, labelled, or marked - in printed letters of plain Roman type not less than one inch in - length, so that said words cannot be easily defaced, upon the side - of every cheese cloth or band around the same, and upon the top and - side of every tub, firkin, box, or package containing any of said - article, substance or compound. And in case of retail sales of any of - said article, substance or compound not in the original packages, the - seller shall, by himself or his agents, attach to each package so sold - at retail, and shall deliver therewith to the purchaser a label or - wrapper bearing in a conspicuous place upon the outside of the package - the words “imitation cheese,” in printed letters of plain Roman type - not less than one half inch in length. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for fraudulent sales. Public Statutes, chap. 56, § - 19.] - - 15. Whoever sells, exposes for sale, or has in his possession with - intent to sell, any article, substance, or compound made in imitation - or semblance of butter, or as a substitute for butter, except as - provided in section one; whoever sells, exposes for sale, or has - in his possession with intent to sell, any article, substance, or - compound made in imitation or semblance of cheese, or as a substitute - for cheese, except as provided in section two, and whoever shall - deface, erase, cancel, or remove any mark, stamp, brand, label, or - wrapper provided for by this Act, or change the contents of any box, - tub, article, and package marked, stamped, or labelled as aforesaid, - with intent to deceive as to the contents of said box, tub, article, - or package, shall for every such offence forfeit and pay a fine of one - hundred dollars, and for a second and each subsequent offence a fine - of two hundred dollars, to be recovered with costs in any court of - this commonwealth of competent jurisdiction; and any fine paid shall - go to the city or town where the offence was committed. - - [Sidenote: Complaints for violations to be instituted by inspectors of - milk. 1884, 310, § 2.] - - 16. Inspectors of milk shall institute complaints for violations - of the provisions of the three preceding sections when they have - reasonable cause to believe that such provisions have been violated, - and on the information of any person who lays before them satisfactory - evidence by which to sustain such complaint. Said inspectors may enter - all places where butter or cheese is stored or kept for sale, and said - inspectors shall also take specimens of suspected butter and cheese - and cause them to be analysed or otherwise satisfactorily tested, the - result of which analysis or test they shall record and preserve as - evidence; and a certificate of such result, sworn to by the analyser, - shall be admitted in evidence in all prosecutions under this and the - three preceding sections. The expense of such analysis or test, not - exceeding twenty dollars in any one case, may be included in the - costs of such prosecutions. Whoever hinders, obstructs, or in any way - interferes with any inspector, or any agent of an inspector, in the - performance of his duty, shall be punished by a fine of fifty dollars - for the first offence, and of one hundred dollars for each subsequent - offence. - - [Sidenote: Terms “butter” and “cheese” defined. Public Statutes, chap. - 56, § 21.] - - 17. For the purposes of the four preceding sections the terms “butter” - and “cheese” shall mean the products which are usually known by these - names, and are manufactured exclusively from milk or cream, with salt - and rennet, and with or without colouring matter. - - [Sidenote: Portion of sample to be reserved for defendant. 1884, 310, - § 4.] - - 18. Before commencing the analysis of any sample the person making - the same shall reserve a portion which shall be sealed; and in case - of a complaint against any person the reserved portion of the sample - alleged to be adulterated shall upon application be delivered to the - defendant or his attorney. - - - OF THE SALE OF CHOCOLATE. - - [Sidenote: Chocolate, how to be stamped. Public Statutes, chap. 60, § - 8.] - - 28. No manufacturer of chocolate shall make any cake of chocolate - except in pans in which are stamped the first letter of his Christian - name, the whole of his surname, the name of the town where he - resides, and the quality of the chocolate in figures, No. 1, No. 2, - No. 3, as the case may be, and the letters MASS. - - [Sidenote: Ingredients of.] - - [Sidenote: Boxes, how branded. Public Statutes, chap. 60, § 9.] - - 29. Number one shall be made of cocoa of the first quality, and - number two of cocoa of the second quality, and both shall be free - from adulteration; number three may be made of the inferior kinds and - qualities of cocoa. Each box containing chocolate shall be branded on - the end thereof with the word chocolate, the name of the manufacturer, - the name of the town where it was manufactured, and the quality, as - described and directed in the preceding section for the pans. - - [Sidenote: Boxes, when may be seized, etc. Public Statutes, chap. 60, - § 10.] - - 30. If chocolate manufactured in this commonwealth is offered for sale - or found within the same, not being of one of the qualities described - in the two preceding sections and marked as therein directed, the same - may be seized and libelled. - - - OF THE ADULTERATION OF VINEGAR. - - [Sidenote: Sale of adulterated vinegar. Penalty. Public Statutes, - chap. 60, § 69. 1883, 257, § 1.] - - 31. Every person who manufactures for sale or offers or exposes for - sale as cider vinegar, any vinegar not the legitimate product of pure - apple juice, known as apple cider or vinegar, not made exclusively - of said apple cider or vinegar, into which any foreign substances, - ingredients, drugs or acids have been introduced, as may appear by - proper tests, shall for each such offence be punished by fine of not - less than fifty nor more than one hundred dollars. - - [Sidenote: Sale of vinegar containing ingredients injurious to Health. - Penalty Statutes Public Statutes, chap. 60, § 70.] - - 32. Every person who manufactures for sale, or offers or exposes for - sale, any vinegar found upon proper tests to contain any preparation - of lead, copper, sulphuric acid, or other ingredients injurious to - health, shall for each such offence be punished by fine of not less - than one hundred dollars. - - [Sidenote: Appointment of inspectors. Public Statutes, chap. 60, § 71.] - - 33. The mayor and aldermen of cities shall, and the selectmen of towns - may, annually appoint one or more persons to be inspectors of vinegar - for their respective places, who shall be sworn before entering upon - their duties. - - [Sidenote: Compensation of inspectors. 1883, chap. 257, § 2.] - - 34. Any city or town in which an inspector shall be appointed under - the preceding section, may provide compensation for such inspector - from the time of such appointment, and in default of such provision - shall be liable in an action at law for reasonable compensation for - services performed under such appointment. - - - (Chap. 307, Acts of 1884.) - - AN ACT to prevent the adulteration of vinegar. - - _Be it enacted &c., as follows_:-- - - [Sidenote: Sale of adulterated vinegar.] - - SECTION 1. No person shall by himself, his servant or agent or as - the servant or agent of any other person, sell, exchange, deliver or - have in his custody or possession with intent to sell or exchange, - or expose or offer for sale or exchange any adulterated vinegar, - or label, brand or sell as cider vinegar, or as apple vinegar, any - vinegar not the legitimate product of pure apple juice, or not made - exclusively from apple cider. - - [Sidenote: Standard of vinegar prescribed.] - - 2. All vinegar shall have an acidity equivalent to the presence of - not less than five per cent. by weight of absolute acetic acid, and - in the case of cider vinegar shall contain in addition not less than - one and one-half per cent. by weight of cider vinegar solids upon full - evaporation over boiling water, and if any vinegar contains less than - the above amount of acidity, or if any cider vinegar contains less - than the above amount of cider vinegar solids, such vinegar shall be - deemed to be adulterated within the meaning of this Act. - - [Sidenote: Milk inspectors to enforce Act.] - - 3. It shall be the duty of the inspectors of milk who may be appointed - by any city or town to enforce the provisions of this Act. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for violation.] - - 4. Whoever violates any of the provisions of this Act shall be - punished by fine not exceeding one hundred dollars. - - 5. All Acts or parts of Acts inconsistent with this Act are hereby - repealed. - - Approved June 2, 1884. - - -The method of testing vinegar, used by Dr. B. F. Davenport, late -Vinegar Inspector of Boston, is as follows:-- - - The following detailed practical method of determining whether - a sample of “cider vinegar or apple vinegar” conforms to the - requirements of the Statute of April 1885, relating thereto, which - requires that it should be not only the legitimate and exclusive - product of pure apple juice or cider, but also that it should not - fall below the quality of possessing an acidity equivalent to the - presence of not less than 4½ per cent. by weight of absolute--that is, - monohydrated--acetic acid, and should yield upon full evaporation at - the temperature of boiling water not less than 2 per cent. by weight - of cider vinegar solids, may prove of interest to those dealing in the - article. As the limits set by the Statute are in per cents. by weight, - the portion of vinegar taken for the tests should, for perfect - accuracy, be also taken by weight--that is, the quantities of 6 and of - 10 grammes are to be taken for the tests of strength and of residue; - but as taking it by measure, if of about the ordinary atmospheric - temperature of 60 to 70 degrees F. will make the apparent percentage - at most only 1 to 2 per cent. of itself greater than the true--that - is, will make a true 5 per cent. vinegar appear to be, say, from 5·05 - to 5·10 per cent.--measuring proves in practice to be accurate enough - for all common commercial purposes, and therefore the quantities of - 6 and of 10 cubic centimetres by measure may be taken in place of as - many grammes. - - All the measuring apparatus necessary for making the legal tests is - one of the measuring tubes called burettes. It is most convenient - to have this of a size to contain 25 to 50 c.c.--that is, cubic - centimetres--and have these divided into tenths. The best form of - burette is the Mohr’s, which is closed by a glass stop-cock. Besides - this, only a dropping-tube, called a pipette, graduated to deliver 6 - and 10 c.c., will be needed. These tubes are to be obtained of any - philosophical or chemical apparatus dealer, being articles generally - kept in stock by them for common use, like yard-sticks. - - The only two chemicals needed in determining the strength of a vinegar - are such as can be obtained of any competent apothecary in any city - of the State. They are simply a small vial of a 1 per cent. solution - of Phenol-phthalein in diluted alcohol, and a sufficient quantity - of a solution of caustic soda, prepared as directed for “Volumetric - Solution of Soda” upon page 399 of the last ‘U. S. Pharmacopœia,’ - a book which is in the hands of every competent apothecary, as it - contains the formulæ according to which he is required by the law of - the State to prepare all such medicinal preparations as are mentioned - therein. - - Having these, the procedure for making the test will be as - follows:--Fill the pipette by suction, and then quickly close the - top of it with the forefinger. Raise the tube out of the sample - of vinegar, and let it empty out by drops exactly down to the top - graduation-mark, this bearing the mark of 0· c.c. Then holding it - over a white mug or cup, let it run out exactly down to the 6 c.c. - mark. Dilute the 6 c.c. of vinegar thus measured out into the mug with - sufficient clean water to make it look about white, and then add to - it about three drops of the Phenol-phthalein solution. Then having - prepared the burette by filling it up to the top, zero, or any other - noted mark of the graduation, with the volumetric solution of soda, - let the soda solution run out cautiously into the diluted vinegar, - which should be constantly stirred about. As soon as the vinegar in - the mug begins to darken, the soda should then only be allowed to - run into it by drops. This dropping is thus continued until at last - a final drop of soda turns the vinegar suddenly to a permanent pink - or cherry colour, which will not disappear upon further stirring. By - now reading off from the graduations of the burette the number of - full c.c. divisions and of tenths which have been emptied out to bring - about this change of colour in the vinegar is known the per cents. - and tenths of acidity equivalent to true acetic acid contained in the - vinegar being examined. This, if it is a pure cider vinegar, and well - made, will be upon the average about 6 per cent., but never under - 5 per cent. If, in like manner, 10 c.c. of the vinegar is exactly - measured off by the pipette into a small light porcelain dish, and - then evaporated fully to dryness over boiling water, the number of - grammes weight gained by the dish, when multiplied by ten, gives the - percentage of solid residue contained in the vinegar. - - There are certain characteristics peculiar to the residue of a pure - cider vinegar, the principal of which are the following:--It will be - about 3 per cent. in weight, and never less than 2 per cent. It is - always soft, viscid, of apple flavour, somewhat acid and astringent in - taste. A drop of it taken up in a clean loop of platinum or of iron - wire, and ignited in a colourless Bunsen gas-lamp flame, imparts to - it the pale lilac colour of a pure potash salt, without any yellow, - due to sodium, being visible. The ignited residue left in the loop of - wire will be a fusible bead of quite a good size, and it will have - a strong alkaline reaction upon moistened test-paper, effervescing - briskly when immersed in an acid. The presence in a vinegar of the - _slightest_ trace of any free mineral acid will prevent the ignited - residue having any alkaline reaction, or effervescing with acids. The - presence of any practical amount of commercial acetic acid added to - “tone up” the strength of the vinegar will cause the igniting residue - to impart another colour to the Bunsen flame, and the residue itself - will have a smoky pyroligneous taste or odour. Any corn glucose - used in the vinegar will cause its residue when ignited to emit the - characteristic odour of burning corn, and, as the last spark glows - through the carbonised mass, to usually emit the familiar garlic - odour of arsenic, for the common oil of vitriol usually used in the - production of glucose is now mostly derived from pyrites, which almost - always contain arsenic. A glucose vinegar which has been made without - vaporising the alcohol after the fermentation of the glucose will - also have a strong reducing action upon a copper salt in an alkaline - solution, and also will give a heavy precipitation of lime with - ammonium oxalate. A true malt vinegar always contains phosphates, and - a wine vinegar cream of tartar. The presence of any acrid vegetable - substance in a vinegar is known by the residue having a pungent taste, - especially if before the evaporation the vinegar has been exactly - neutralised with soda. - - In a pure apple cider vinegar hydrogen sulphide gas will not cause any - discoloration, nor will the addition of a solution of either barium - nitrate, silver nitrate, or ammonium oxalate cause anything more than - the _very slightest_ perceptible turbidity. But the addition of some - solution of lead acetate--that is, of sugar of lead--will cause an - immediate voluminous and flocculent precipitation, which will all - settle out in about ten minutes, leaving a clear fluid above. In most - of the so-called “apple vinegars,” made with second pressings of the - fermenting pumice, the addition of some of this lead solution will - cause but a slight turbidity, without any precipitate settling out for - several hours, and even then the precipitate will not be of the same - appearance as in apple cider vinegar. - - Sophistications of cider vinegar that will not be detected by some - one or more of the above given tests are not likely to be met with, - for the simple reason that they are not profitable. To translate - percentages of acid strength into the old commercial terms of grains - of soda bicarbonate per troy ounce, the per cent. may be multiplied - by 6·72, or, _vice versâ_, divide the grains by the same factor. To - reduce it into grains of potash bicarbonate 8 would be the factor to - be used in like manner. - - -The general Adulteration of Food Law of the State of New Jersey is the -same as that of New York. The following is a copy of a special Act in -relation to the sale of adulterated milk:-- - - - AN ACT to prevent the adulteration of milk and to regulate the sale of - milk. - - [Sidenote: Persons selling or offering for sale skimmed milk, to - solder a label or tag upon can or package.] - - [Sidenote: Penalty for violating this section.] - - 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of - New Jersey, that every person who shall sell, or who shall offer or - expose for sale, or who shall transport or carry, or who shall have in - possession with intent to sell, or offer for sale, any milk from which - the cream, or any part thereof has been removed, shall distinctly, - durably and permanently solder a label, tag or mark of metal in a - conspicuous place upon the outside and not more than six inches from - the top of every can, vessel or package containing such milk, and said - metal label, tag or mark shall have the words “skimmed milk” stamped, - engraved or indented thereon in letters not less than one inch in - height, and such milk shall only be sold or shipped in or retailed - out of a can, vessel or package so marked, and every person who shall - violate the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty of - a misdemeanour, and on conviction thereof shall be subject to the - penalties prescribed in section eight of this Act. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for selling or offering for sale impure or - adulterated milk.] - - 2. And be it enacted, that every person who shall sell, or who shall - offer for sale, or who shall transport or carry, for the purposes of - sale, or who shall have in possession with intent to sell or offer for - sale, any impure, adulterated or unwholesome milk, shall be deemed - guilty of a misdemeanour, and on conviction thereof shall be subject - to the penalties prescribed in section eight of this Act. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for adulterating milk and keeping cows in an - unhealthy condition, etc.] - - 3. And be it enacted, that every person who shall adulterate milk - or who shall keep cows for the production of milk, in a crowded - or unhealthful condition, or feed the same on food that produces - impure, diseased or unwholesome milk, shall be deemed guilty of a - misdemeanour, and on conviction thereof, shall be subject to the - penalties prescribed in section eight of this Act. - - [Sidenote: Addition of water or other substance declared an - adulteration.] - - 4. And be it enacted, that the addition of water or any substance or - thing is hereby declared an adulteration; and milk that is obtained - from animals that are fed on distillery waste, usually called “swill,” - or upon any substance in a state of putrefaction or rottenness, or - upon any substance of an unhealthful nature, is hereby declared to be - impure and unwholesome, and any person offending as aforesaid shall be - deemed guilty of a misdemeanour, and on conviction thereof shall be - subject to the penalties prescribed in section eight of this Act. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for feeding cows on unwholesome substances.] - - 5. And be it enacted, that every person who shall feed cows on - distillery waste, usually called “swill,” or upon any substance in - a state of putrefaction, or rottenness or upon any substance of an - unwholesome nature, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanour, and on - conviction thereof shall be subject to the penalties prescribed in - section eight of this Act. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for selling or offering for sale milk exposed to - certain diseases.] - - 6. And be it enacted, that every person who shall sell, or who shall - offer for sale any milk that has been exposed to, or contaminated - by the emanations, discharge or exhalations from persons sick with - scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, small pox, typhoid fever, or any - contagious disease by which the health or life of any person may be - endangered or compromised, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and on - conviction thereof shall be subject to the penalties prescribed in - section eight of this Act. - - [Sidenote: When milk is deemed to be adulterated.] - - 7. And be it enacted, that in all prosecutions under this Act, if the - milk shall be shown, upon analysis, to contain more than eighty-seven - per centum of watery fluids, or to contain less than thirteen per - centum of milk solids, it shall be deemed, for the purposes of this - Act, to be adulterated. - - [Sidenote: Penalty for violating the provisions of this Act.] - - 8. And be it enacted, that every person who shall violate any of the - provisions of this Act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanour, and, - upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by a fine of not less than - fifty dollars, nor more than two hundred dollars, or imprisonment in - the county jail for not less than thirty days, nor more than ninety - days, or both, at the discretion of the court, and if the fine is not - immediately paid, shall be imprisoned for not less than thirty days, - or until said fine shall be paid, and for a second offence by a fine - of not less than one hundred dollars, nor more than three hundred - dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail for not less than - sixty days, nor more than ninety days, or both, at the discretion of - the court, and for any subsequent offence by a fine of fifty dollars - and imprisonment in the county jail not less than sixty nor more - than ninety days; and on trial for such misdemeanour or penalty, the - sale, or offer for sale, or exposure for sale, of milk or articles - contrary to the provisions of this Act, shall be presumptive evidence - of knowledge by the accused of the character of the milk or article - so sold, or offered, or exposed for sale, and that the can, vessel or - package was not marked as required by this Act. - - [Sidenote: Penalties--how recovered.] - - 9. And be it enacted, that all penalties imposed under the - provisions of this Act may be sued for in any court having competent - jurisdiction, one-half the fine to go to the person making the - complaint, and the other half to be paid to the county collector for - the benefit of the county; any court of competent jurisdiction in this - state shall have jurisdiction to try and dispose of all and any of the - offences arising in the same county against the provisions of this - Act, and every justice of the peace shall have jurisdiction within his - county of actions to recover any penalty hereby given or created. - - [Sidenote: State Board of Health empowered to appoint an inspector of - milk.] - - [Sidenote: Compensation and expenses--how paid.] - - [Sidenote: Duties of inspector.] - - [Sidenote: Inspector to advertise name and place of business of - persons convicted of violating this Act.] - - [Sidenote: Proviso.] - - 10. And be it enacted, that the State Board of Health is hereby - empowered and directed to appoint, each year, a competent person, who - shall act as State inspector of milk, at a salary of eight hundred - dollars per annum, payable by the treasurer of this State, by warrant - of the comptroller, in quarterly payments, for the purposes of this - Act, and in addition thereto, said inspector shall be paid his actual - travelling expenses while in the performance of his duties, and actual - expenses of suits brought by him under this Act, payable by the - treasurer of this State by warrant of the comptroller; said inspector - shall act until removed by said board, or until his successor is - appointed, and shall make such reports to said board, at such time as - it may direct; said inspector, having reason to believe the provisions - of this Act are being violated, shall have power to open any can, - vessel, or package containing milk and not marked as directed by the - first section of this Act, whether sealed, locked or otherwise, or - whether in transit or otherwise; and if, upon inspection, he shall - find such can, vessel or package to contain any milk which has been - adulterated, or from which the cream, or any part thereof, has been - removed, or which is sold, offered or exposed for sale, or held in - possession with intent to sell or offer for sale, in violation of any - section of this Act, said inspector is empowered to condemn the same - and pour the contents of such can, vessel or package upon the ground, - and bring suit against the person or party so violating the law, and - the penalty, when so collected by such suit, shall be paid into the - treasury of this State, and said inspector is directed to cause the - name and place of business of all persons convicted of violating any - section of this Act to be published once in two newspapers in the - county in which the offence is committed; and said inspector is - empowered to appoint one or more deputies, who shall have power to - inspect milk, as provided by this Act, and who shall be empowered to - act as complainant, as provided by section nine of this Act; provided, - that no expense be incurred to the State by action or appointment in - lieu thereof of said deputies. - - [Sidenote: Inspector to be a public analyst.] - - 11. And be it enacted, that said State inspector of milk shall also be - a public analyst, and shall make analyses and investigations of food, - drugs, and other substances, as he may be directed so to do by the - State Board of Health. - - [Sidenote: Certain Acts repealed.] - - 12. And be it enacted, that an Act entitled “An Act to prevent - the adulteration of milk, and to prevent traffic in impure and - unwholesome milk,” approved April seventh, one thousand eight hundred - and seventy-five, and an Act, entitled “An Act to regulate the sale - of milk,” approved April fifth, one thousand eight hundred and - seventy-eight, and an Act entitled “A supplement to an Act to regulate - the sale of milk, approved April fifth, one thousand eight hundred and - seventy-eight,” approved March twelfth, one thousand eight hundred and - eighty, are hereby repealed. - - 13. And be it enacted, that this Act shall take place immediately. - - Approved March 22, 1881. - - -The New Jersey State Board of Health has adopted the following rules -for the government of its inspectors and analysts:-- - - DUTIES OF INSPECTORS. - - 1. The inspector is to buy samples of food or drugs, and to seal each - sample in the presence of a witness. - - 2. The inspector must affix to each sample a label bearing a number, - his initials, and the date of purchase. - - 3. Under no circumstance is the inspector to inform the analyst as to - the source of the sample before the analysis shall have been completed - and formally reported to the President or Secretary of the State Board - of Health. - - 4. Inspectors are to keep a record of each sample as follows:-- - - (1) Number of sample. - (2) Date and time of purchase. - (3) Name of witness to sealing. - (4) Name and address of seller. - (5) Name and address of producer, manufacturer or wholesaler, when - known, with marks on original package. - (6) Name of analyst and date of sending. - (7) How sent to analyst. - - 5. If the seller desires a portion of the sample, the inspector is to - deliver it under seal. The duplicate sample left with seller should - have a label containing the same marks as are affixed to the portion - taken by the inspector. - - 6. The inspector is to deliver the sample to the analyst, taking his - receipt for the same, or he may send it by registered mail, express or - special messenger. - - - DUTIES OF THE ANALYSTS. - - 1. The analyst is to analyse the samples immediately upon receipt - thereof. - - 2. Samples, with the exception of milk and similar perishable - articles, are to be divided by the analyst and a portion sealed up, - and a copy of the original label affixed. These duplicates are to be - sent to the Secretary of the State Board of Health at the end of each - month, and to be retained by him until demanded for another analysis, - as provided for in section 3 of these Rules. - - 3. Should the result obtained by any analyst be disputed in any - case, an appeal may be made to the State Board of Health, through - its secretary, by the defendant or person selling the sample, or - his attorney, and said secretary shall then require another member - of the Committee of Public Analysts to repeat the analysis, using - the duplicate sample for such purpose. But when an appeal shall be - made, a sum of money sufficient to cover the expenses of the second - analysis shall be deposited with the President of the State Board of - Health, which sum shall be paid over to the analyst designated by the - President and Secretary of the Board to perform the second analysis, - in case the analysis shall be found to agree with the first in all - essential particulars. - - 4. In the case of all articles having a standard of purity fixed by - any of the laws of the State, the certificate of the analyst should - show the relation of the article in question to that standard. - - 5. Where standards of strength, purity or quality are not fixed by - law, the Committee of Analysts shall present to the State Board of - Health such standard as in their judgment should be fixed. - - 6. Each analyst should keep a record book, in which should be entered - notes, as follows:-- - - (1) From whom the sample is received. - (2) Date, time and manner in which the sample was received. - (3) Marks on package, sealed or not. - (4) Results of analysis in detail. - - This record should be produced at each meeting of the committee. - - 7. At the completion of the analysis a certificate in the form given - below should be forwarded to the person from whom the sample was - received, and a duplicate copy sent to the State Board of Health. - - - CERTIFICATE. - - _To whom it may concern._ - - I, ------, a member of the Committee of Public Analysts, appointed by - the State Board of Health of New Jersey under the provisions of an - Act entitled “An Act to prevent the adulteration of food and drugs,” - approved March 25th, 1881, do hereby certify that I received from - ------, on the day ------ of ------, 188--, a sample of ------, sealed - as require by the rules of said Board, and bearing the following - marks, to wit: ------ - - I carefully mixed said samples and have analysed the same, and hereby - certify and declare the results of my analysis to be as follows:------ - - ------[_Signature._] - - - EXCEPTIONS. - - The following exceptions are adopted:-- - - _Mustard._--Compounds of mustard, with rice flour, starch, or flour, - may be sold if each package is marked “Compound Mustard,” and if not - more than 25 per cent. of such substance is added to the mustard. - - _Coffee._--Compounds of coffee with chicory, rye, wheat, or other - cereals, may be sold if the package is marked “A Mixture,” and if the - label states the per cent. of coffee contained in said mixture. - - _Oleomargarine_ and other imitation dairy products may be sold if each - package is marked with the name of the substance, and in all respects - fulfils the terms of the special law as to these. - - _Syrups._--When mixed with glucose, syrup may be sold if the package - is marked “A Mixture.” - - -The following is a summary of the laws of various States and -Territories relative to Oleomargarine:[148]-- - - - STATES. - - - _California._ - - “An Act to prevent the sale of oleomargarine, under the name and - pretence that the said commodity is butter.” - - This law is restrictive, requires the word “oleomargarine” to be - branded on the package. - - The penalty is from fifty dollars to two hundred dollars, or - imprisonment from fifty to two hundred days, or both. - - “An Act to prevent fraud and deception in the sale of butter and - cheese.” - - This law is restrictive, requiring the article to be manufactured and - sold under its appropriate name. - - Penalty is from ten dollars to five hundred dollars or imprisonment - from ten to ninety days, or both. - - Approved, March 2, 1881. - - “An Act to prevent the sale or disposition as butter of the substance - known as ‘oleomargarine,’ or ‘oleomargarine butter,’ and when - ‘oleomargarine’ or ‘oleomargarine butter’ is sold or disposed of - requiring notice thereof to be given.” - - This law is restrictive, requiring branding, also requiring - hotel-keepers, etc., to keep posted up in their places of business in - three places, the words “oleomargarine sold here.” - - Penalty from five dollars to five hundred dollars, or imprisonment for - not more than three months, or both such fine and imprisonment. - - Approved, March 1, 1883. - - “An Act to protect and encourage the production and sale of pure and - wholesome milk, and to prohibit and punish the production and sale of - unwholesome or adulterated milk.” - - This law makes it a misdemeanour to sell or expose for sale - adulterated or unwholesome milk, or to keep cows for producing the - same in an unhealthy condition, or feeding them on feed that will - produce impure milk, etc. - - Penalty is one hundred dollars for the first offence, and double that - amount for each subsequent offence. - - Approved, March 12, 1870. - - - _Colorado._ - - “An Act to encourage the sale of milk, and to provide penalties for - the adulteration thereof.” - - This law makes it a misdemeanour to sell adulterated milk or milk from - which the cream has been taken, or for withholding the strippings - without the purchasers being aware of the fact. - - Penalty is from twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars, or - imprisonment for six months, or by both such fine and imprisonment. - - In force, May 20, 1881. - - “An Act to regulate the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine, - butterine, suine or other substances made in imitation of, or having - the semblance of butter, and to provide penalties for the violation of - the provisions hereof.” - - This law requires that a license shall be necessary to manufacture, - import, or sell oleomargarine or kindred products within the State. - License to manufacture or import not less than one thousand; license - to sell not less than five hundred. - - Penalty from fifty dollars to five hundred dollars, or imprisonment - not to exceed one year or both. - - Approved, April 6, 1885. - - - _Connecticut._ - - “An Act concerning the sale of oleomargarine and other articles.” - - This law requires that the article shall be properly branded, and that - the seller shall keep a sign posted up in his place of business that - such commodity is sold there. - - Penalty seven dollars, or imprisonment from ten to thirty days or both. - - Approved, April 4, 1883. - - - _Delaware._ - - “An Act to regulate the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine.” - - This law is restrictive in its nature. - - Penalty fifty dollars, commitment until the fine is paid. - - Approved, February 10, 1879. - - “An Act to amend chapter 154, volume 16, Laws of Delaware.” - - This amendment has reference to the fact that the substance - manufactured is “artificial butter.” - - Passed, March 21, 1883. - - - _Florida._ - - Chapter 80, sections 34-35, McClellans’ Digest, 1881. - - Section 34 makes it a misdemeanour to sell spurious preparations as - butter; section 35 has reference to hotels and boarding-houses. - - Penalty, not to exceed one hundred, or imprisonment not to exceed - thirty days, or both. - - - _Illinois._ - - “An Act to prevent and punish the adulteration of articles of food, - drink and medicine, and the sale thereof when adulterated.” - - Section 3 of this law has reference to colouring matter in food, drink - or medicine. - - Section 4 of this law has reference to mixing oleomargarine with - butter, cheese, etc., requiring the seller to inform the buyer of the - fact and the proportion of the mixture. - - Penalty, first offence, twenty-five dollars to two hundred dollars; - second offence, one hundred dollars to two hundred dollars, or - imprisonment from one to six months or both; third offence, from five - hundred dollars to two thousand dollars and imprisonment not less than - one year nor more than five years. - - Approved, June 1, 1881. - - “An Act to require operators of butter and cheese factories on the - co-operative plan to give bonds, and to prescribe penalties for the - violation thereof.” - - This law requires the filing of a bond in the penal sum of six - thousand dollars that certain reports will be made on the first of - each month and a copy filed with the town clerk, etc. - - Penalty, from two hundred dollars to five hundred dollars, or - imprisonment from thirty days to six months, or both. - - Approved, June 18, 1883. - - - _Indiana._ - - Section 2071, Revised Statutes. “Selling unwholesome milk.” - - This section provides against the sale of unwholesome milk, whether - from adulteration or from the feed given the cows; also against the - use of poisonous or deleterious material in the manufacture of butter - and cheese. - - Penalty, from fifty dollars to five hundred dollars. - - “An Act to prevent the sale of impure butter, and the keeping on any - table at any hotel or boarding-house of impure butter, providing - penalties declaring an emergency.” - - This law requires the branding with the word “oleomargarine.” - - Penalty from ten dollars to fifty dollars. - - Approved, March 3, 1883. - - - _Iowa._ - - Section 4042, Code. - - This section provides against the adulteration of milk in any way. - - Penalty, twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars, and makes the - offender liable in double that amount to the party injured. - - “An Act to protect the dairy interests and for the punishment of fraud - connected therewith.” - - This law requires that “oleo” and kindred products shall be branded - with the word “oleomargarine.” - - Penalty, from twenty dollars to one hundred dollars or imprisonment - from ten to ninety days. - - “An Act to prevent and punish the adulteration of articles of food, - drink, and medicine, and the sale thereof when adulterated.” - - This law provides that skimmed milk cheese shall be so branded, and - when oleomargarine is mixed with any other substance for sale it shall - be distinctly branded with the true and appropriate name. - - Penalty, first offence, from ten dollars to fifty dollars; second, - from twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars, or confined in the - county jail not more than thirty days; third, from five hundred - dollars to one thousand dollars and imprisonment not less than one - year nor more than five years. - - - _Maryland._ - - “An Act to repeal the Act of 1883, chapter 493, entitled ‘An Act for - the protection of dairymen, and to prevent deception in the sale of - butter and cheese, and to re-enact new sections in lieu thereof.’” - - This law requires that substances made in semblance of butter and - cheese not the true product of the dairy shall be branded with the - word “oleomargarine” so as to be conspicuous, and that the buyer shall - be apprised of the nature of the article that he has bought. - - Penalty, one hundred dollars, or imprisonment not less than thirty or - more than ninety days for the second offence, and not less than three - months nor more than one year for the third offence. - - Approved, April 8, 1884. - - - _Maine._ - - “An Act to amend chapter 128 of the Revised Statutes, relating to the - sale of unwholesome food.” - - This law is prohibitive as to oleomargarine and kindred products. - - Penalty, for the first offence one hundred dollars, and for each - subsequent offence two hundred dollars, to be recovered with costs. - - - _Massachusetts._ - - This State has a law against selling adulterated milk. - - Penalty, for first offence, fifty dollars to one hundred dollars; for - the second offence, one hundred dollars to three hundred dollars, or - by imprisonment for thirty to sixty days; and for each subsequent - offence, fifty dollars and imprisonment from sixty to ninety days. - - - _Michigan._ - - “An Act to prevent deception in the manufacture and sale of dairy - products and to preserve the public health.” - - This law prohibits the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine and - kindred products. - - Penalty, two hundred dollars to five hundred dollars or not less than - six months’ nor more than one year’s imprisonment, or both, for the - first offence, and by imprisonment for one year for each subsequent - offence. - - Approved, June 12, 1885. - - - _Minnesota._ - - “An Act to prohibit and prevent the sale or manufacture of unhealthy - or adulterated dairy products.” - - This law prohibits the sale of impure or adulterated milk. - - Penalty, twenty-five dollars to two hundred dollars, or imprisonment - from one to six months, or both for the first offence, and six months’ - imprisonment for each subsequent offence. - - This law also prohibits the manufacture and sale of oleaginous - substances or compounds of the same. - - Penalty, from one hundred dollars to five hundred dollars, or from - six months’ to one year’s imprisonment, or both, such fine and - imprisonment for the first offence, and by imprisonment one year for - each subsequent offence. - - Approved, March 5, 1885. - - - _Missouri._ - - This State passed the first prohibitory law. - - Penalty, confinement in the county jail not to exceed one year, or - fine not to exceed one thousand dollars, or both. - - - _Nebraska._ - - Section 2345, “Skimmed milk or adulterated milk.” - - This section provides against the sale of adulterated milk, and makes - a penalty of from twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars and be - liable to double the amount to the person or persons upon whom the - fraud is perpetrated. - - - _New Hampshire._ - - “An Act relating to the sale of imitation butter.” - - This law provides that no artificial butter shall be sold unless it is - coloured pink. - - Penalty, for the first offence, fifty dollars, and for a second - offence a fine of one hundred dollars. “A certificate of the analysis - sworn to by the analyser shall be admitted in evidence in all - prosecutions.” - - “The expense of the analysis, not exceeding twenty dollars, included - in the costs.” - - - _New Jersey._ - - Law similar to the New York law. - - - _Ohio._ - - This State has a law that is prohibitory except as to oleomargarine - made of beef suet and milk. - - Penalty, one hundred dollars to five hundred dollars, or from three to - six months’ imprisonment, or both, for the first offence; and by such - fine and imprisonment for one year for each subsequent offence. - - Passed, April 27, 1885. - - - _Oregon._ - - The law in this State provides against adulterated and unwholesome - milk, against keeping cows in an unhealthy condition, and against - feeding them upon unhealthful food. - - It also provides that oleaginous substances sold upon the market shall - be so branded as to distinguish them from the true dairy product; - and that in hotels, boarding-houses, restaurants, etc., where such - substances are used as an article of food, the bill of fare shall - state the fact, and that the name of the said substance shall be - posted up in the dining-room in a conspicuous place. - - Passed, February 20, 1885. - - - _Pennsylvania._ - - “An Act to protect dairymen, and to prevent deception in sales of - butter and cheese.” - - This act requires the branding of imitation butter and cheese. - - Penalty, one hundred dollars. Violations of this Act by exportation - to a foreign country are punished by a fine of from five dollars to - two hundred dollars, or by imprisonment from ten to thirty days, or by - both such fine and imprisonment. - - Approved, May 24, 1883. - - “An Act for the protection of the public health and to prevent - adulteration of dairy products and fraud in the sale thereof.” - - This law prohibits the sale of oleomargarine and kindred products. - - Penalty, one hundred dollars to three hundred dollars, or by - imprisonment from ten to thirty days for the first offence, and by - imprisonment for one year for each subsequent offence. - - Approved, May 21, 1885. - - - _Rhode Island._ - - “Of the sale of butter, potatoes, onions, berries, nuts, and shelled - beans.” - - This law provides that artificial butter shall be stamped - “Oleomargarine,” and that the retailer shall deliver to the purchaser - a label upon which shall be the word “Oleomargarine.” - - Penalty, one hundred dollars. - - - _Tennessee._ - - Code of 1884, chapter 14, sections 2682, 2683, 2684. - - This law requires that the substance shall be manufactured under its - true and appropriate name, and that it shall be distinctly branded - with the true and appropriate name. - - Penalty, from ten dollars to three hundred dollars, or imprisonment - from ten to ninety days. - - - _Vermont._ - - “An Act to prevent fraud in the sale of oleomargarine and other - substances as butter.” - - This law provides that oleomargarine and kindred products shall not be - sold as butter. - - Penalty, five hundred dollars. - - Approved, November 1884. - - Chapters 192, Laws of 1874, 76 of 1870, 51 of 1855, provide against - the adulteration of milk. - - - _Virginia._ - - Code of Virginia, 1873, chapter 865, title 26, section 56. - - “Provision against adulterating milk intended for the manufacture of - cheese.” - - This law provides against the adulteration of milk carried to cheese - manufactories, etc. - - Penalty, from twenty-five dollars to one hundred dollars, with costs - of suit. - - - _West Virginia._ - - Chapter 41, Acts of West Virginia, 1885. - - “An Act to prevent the manufacture and sale of mixed and impure butter - and cheese and imitations thereof.” - - This law requires that the true and appropriate name of the substance - shall be printed thereon, etc. - - Penalty, from ten dollars to one hundred dollars, or imprisonment. - - - _Wisconsin._ - - Section 1494, chapter 61, Revised Statutes. - - This Act provides that no cream shall be taken from the manufactory - where it is being worked up, also that the persons manufacturing - cheese at factories shall keep certain records. - - Chapter 361, R. S. - - “An Act to prevent the manufacture and sale of oleaginous substances - or compounds of the same in imitation of the pure dairy products, and - to repeal sections 1 and 3 of chapter 49 of the laws of 1881.” - - This law prohibits the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine and - kindred products. - - Penalty, not to exceed one thousand dollars, or imprisonment not to - exceed one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment. - - Published, April 13, 1885. - - - TERRITORIES. - - - _Arizona._ - - “An Act to regulate the sale and manufacture of oleomargarine or other - substitutes for butter in the Territory of Arizona.” - - This law requires that oleomargarine and kindred substances sold - in the territory shall be appropriately branded with the word - “oleomargarine.” And that the seller shall deliver to the purchaser - a printed label on which is the word “oleomargarine.” Also that - dealers shall keep posted up in their places of business this sign, - “Oleomargarine sold here.” - - Penalty for the first offence not less than five dollars, for the - second offence not less than one hundred dollars or imprisonment for - sixty days, and for each succeeding offence five hundred dollars and - imprisonment for ninety days. - - Approved, March 8, 1883. - - - _Dakota._ - - “An Act to secure the public health and safety against unwholesome - provisions.” - - This law requires that all oleaginous substances shall be branded with - their true and proper names. Costs of analyses, not exceeding twenty - dollars, shall or may be included in the costs of prosecutions. - - Penalty, first offence, one hundred dollars, and every subsequent - offence, two hundred dollars. - - Passed at the session of 1883. - -The following States and Territories have no law on the subject:-- - - STATES.--Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, - Mississippi, Nevada, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas. - - TERRITORIES.--Alaska, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, - Wyoming. - -The complete text of the United States Oleomargarine Tax Law is as -follows:-- - - SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives - of the United States of America, in Congress assembled. That for the - purposes of this Act the word “butter” shall be understood to mean the - food product usually known as butter, and which is made exclusively - from milk or cream, or both, with or without common salt, and with or - without additional colouring matter. - - 2. That for the purposes of this Act certain manufactured substances - certain extracts, and certain mixtures and compounds, including such - mixtures and compounds with butter, shall be known and designated - as “oleomargarine,” namely: All substances heretofore known as - oleomargarine, oleo, oleomargarine oil, butterine, lardine, suine, - and neutral; all mixtures and compounds of oleomargarine, oleo, - oleomargarine oil, butterine, lardine, suine, and neutral; all - lard extracts and tallow extracts; and all mixtures and compounds - of tallow, beef fat, suet, lard, lard oil, vegetable oil, annatto - and other colouring matter, intestinal fat, and offal fat made in - imitation or semblance of butter, or when so made, calculated or - intended to be sold as butter or for butter. - - 3. That special taxes are imposed as follows:--Manufacturers of - oleomargarine shall pay six hundred dollars. Every person who - manufactures oleomargarine for sale shall be deemed a manufacturer of - oleomargarine. - - 4. Wholesale dealers in oleomargarine shall pay four hundred - and eighty dollars. Every person who sells or offers for sale - oleomargarine in the original manufacturer’s packages shall be - deemed a wholesale dealer in oleomargarine. But any manufacturer of - oleomargarine who has given the required bond and paid the required - special tax, and who sells only oleomargarine of his own production, - at the place of manufacture, in the original packages to which the - tax-paid stamps are affixed, shall not be required to pay the special - tax of a wholesale dealer in oleomargarine on account of such sale. - - Retail dealers in oleomargarine shall pay forty-eight dollars. Every - person who sells oleomargarine in less quantities than ten pounds at - one time shall be regarded as a retail dealer in oleomargarine. And - Sections 3232, 3233, 3234, 3235, 3236, 3237, 3238, 3239, 3240, 3241, - and 3243 of the Revised Statutes of the United States are, so far as - applicable, made to extend to and include and apply to the special - taxes imposed by this section, and to the persons upon whom they are - imposed. (See page 10 for Revised Statutes.) Provided, That in case - any manufacturer of oleomargarine commences business subsequent to the - thirtieth day of June in any year, the special tax shall be reckoned - from the first day of July in that year, and shall be five hundred - dollars. - - 4. That every person who carries on the business of a manufacturer - of oleomargarine without having paid the special tax therefor, as - required by law, shall, besides being liable to the payment of the - tax, be fined not less than one thousand dollars and not more than - five thousand dollars; and every person who carries on the business of - a wholesale dealer in oleomargarine without having paid the special - tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable to the - payment of the tax, be fined not less than five hundred dollars nor - more than two thousand dollars, and every person who carries on the - business of a retail dealer in oleomargarine without having paid the - special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable - to the payment of the tax, be fined not less than fifty dollars nor - more than five hundred dollars for each and every offence. - - 5. That every manufacturer of oleomargarine shall file with the - Collector of Internal Revenue of the district in which his manufactory - is located, such notices, inventories, and bonds, shall keep such - books and render such returns of materials and products, shall put - up such signs and affix such number to his factory, and conduct - his business under such surveillance of officers and agents as the - Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary - of the Treasury may, by regulation, require. But the bond required of - such manufacturer shall be with sureties satisfactory to the Collector - of Internal Revenue, and in a penal sum of not less than five thousand - dollars, and the sum of said bond may be increased from time to time, - and additional sureties required at the discretion of the Collector, - or under instructions of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. - - 6. That all oleomargarine shall be packed by the manufacturer thereof - in firkins, tubs, or other wooden packages not before used for that - purpose, each containing not less than ten pounds, and marked, - stamped and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the - approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe; and all - sales made by manufacturers of oleomargarine and wholesale dealers in - oleomargarine shall be in original stamped packages. Retail dealers - in oleomargarine must sell only from original stamped packages, in - quantities not exceeding ten pounds, and shall pack the oleomargarine - sold by them in suitable wooden or paper packages, which shall be - marked and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with the - approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe. Every - person who knowingly sells or offers for sale, or delivers or offers - to deliver, any oleomargarine in any other form than in new wooden or - paper packages as above described, or who packs in any package any - oleomargarine in any manner contrary to law, or who falsely brands - any package or affixes a stamp on any package denoting a less amount - of tax than that required by law, shall be fined for each offence not - more than one thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not less than six - months nor more than two years. - - 7. That every manufacturer of oleomargarine shall securely affix, - by pasting, on each package containing oleomargarine manufactured - by him, a label on which shall be printed, besides the number of - the manufactory and the district and State in which it is situated, - these words:--“Notice.--The manufacturer of the oleomargarine herein - contained has complied with all the requirements of law. Every person - is cautioned not to use this package again or the stamp thereon - again nor to remove the contents of this package without destroying - said stamp, under the penalty provided by law in such cases.” Every - manufacturer of oleomargarine who neglects to affix such label to any - package containing oleomargarine made by him, or sold or offered for - sale by or for him, and every person who removes any such label so - affixed from any such package, shall be fined fifty dollars for each - package in respect to which such offence is committed. - - 8. That upon oleomargarine which shall be manufactured and sold, or - removed for consumption or use, there shall be assessed and collected - a tax of two cents per pound, to be paid by the manufacturer thereof; - and any fractional part of a pound in a package shall be taxed as a - pound. The tax levied by this section shall be represented by coupon - stamps; and the provisions of existing laws governing the engraving, - issue, sale, accountability, effacement and destruction of stamps - relating to tobacco and snuff, as far as applicable, are hereby made - to apply to stamps provided for by this section. - - 9. That whenever any manufacturer of oleomargarine sells, or removes - for sale or consumption, any oleomargarine upon which the tax is - required to be paid by stamps, without the use of the proper stamps, - it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, within - a period of not more than two years after such sale or removal, upon - satisfactory proof, to estimate the amount of tax which has been - omitted to be paid, and to make an assessment therefor and certify the - same to the collector. The tax so assessed shall be in addition to the - penalties imposed by law for such sale or removal. - - 10. That all oleomargarine imported from foreign countries shall, - in addition to any import duty imposed on the same, pay an internal - revenue tax of 15 cents per pound, such tax to be represented by - coupon stamps as in the case of oleomargarine manufactured in the - United States. The stamps shall be affixed and cancelled by the owner - or importer of the oleomargarine while it is in the custody of the - proper custom-house officers; and the oleomargarine shall not pass out - of the custody of said officers until the stamps have been so affixed - and cancelled, but shall be put up in wooden packages, each containing - not less than ten pounds; as prescribed in this Act for oleomargarine - manufactured in the United States, before the stamps are affixed; - and the owner or importer of such oleomargarine shall be liable to - all the penal provisions of this Act prescribed for manufacturers - of oleomargarine manufactured in the United States. Whenever it is - necessary to take any oleomargarine so imported to any place other - than the public stores of the United States for the purpose of - affixing and cancelling such stamps, the Collector of Customs of the - port where such oleomargarine is entered, shall designate a bonded - warehouse to which it shall be taken, under the control of such - customs officer as such collector shall direct; and every officer of - customs who permits such oleomargarine to pass out of his custody or - control without compliance by the owner or importer thereof with the - provisions of this section relating thereto, shall be guilty of a - misdemeanour, and shall be fined not less than one thousand dollars - nor more than five thousand dollars, and imprisoned not less than six - months nor more than three years. Every person who sells or offers - for sale any imported oleomargarine, or oleomargarine purporting or - claimed to have been imported, not put up in packages and stamped - as provided by this Act, shall be fined not less than five hundred - dollars nor more than five thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not - less than six months nor more than two years. - - 11. That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale any - oleomargarine which has not been branded or stamped according to law, - shall be liable to a penalty of fifty dollars for each such offence. - - 12. That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale any - oleomargarine from any manufacturer who has not paid the special tax - shall be liable for each offence to a penalty of one hundred dollars, - and to forfeiture of all articles so purchased or received, or of the - full value thereof. - - 13. That whenever any stamped package containing oleomargarine is - emptied, it shall be the duty of the person in whose hands the - same is to destroy utterly the stamps thereon, and any person who - wilfully neglects or refuses so to do shall for each such offence - be fined not exceeding fifty dollars, and imprisoned not less than - ten days nor more than six months. And any person who fraudulently - gives away or accepts from another, or who sells, buys, or uses for - packing oleomargarine, any such stamped package, shall for each such - offence be fined not exceeding one hundred dollars and be imprisoned - not more than one year. Any revenue officer may destroy any emptied - oleomargarine package upon which the tax-paid stamp is found. - - 14. That there shall be in the office of the Commissioner of Internal - Revenue an analytical chemist and a microscopist, who shall each be - appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and shall each receive - a salary of two thousand five hundred dollars per annum; and the - Commissioner of Internal Revenue may, whenever in his judgment - the necessities of the service so require, employ chemists and - microscopists, to be paid such compensation as he may deem proper, not - exceeding in the aggregate any appropriation made for that purpose. - And such commissioner is authorised to decide what substances, - extracts, mixtures or compounds which may be submitted for his - inspection in contested cases are to be taxed under this Act; and his - decision in matters of taxation under this Act shall be final. The - commissioner may also decide whether any substances made in imitation - or semblance of butter, and intended for human consumption, contains - ingredients deleterious to the public health; but in case of doubt - or contest his decisions in this class of cases may be appealed from - to a board hereby constituted for the purpose, and composed of the - Surgeon-General of the Army, the Surgeon-General of the Navy, and the - Commissioner of Agriculture, and the decisions of this body shall be - final in the premises. - - 15. That all packages of oleomargarine subject to tax under this - Act that shall be found without stamps or marks as herein provided, - and all oleomargarine intended for human consumption which contains - ingredients adjudged, as hereinbefore provided, to be deleterious to - the public health, shall be forfeited to the United States. Any person - who shall wilfully remove or deface the stamps, marks or brands on the - package containing oleomargarine taxed as provided herein shall be - guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall be punished by a fine of not less - than one hundred dollars nor more than two thousand dollars, and by - imprisonment for not less than thirty days nor more than six months. - - 16. That oleomargarine may be removed from the place of manufacture - for export to a foreign country without payment of tax or affixing - stamps thereto, under such regulations and the filing of such bonds - and other security as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the - approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe. Every person - who shall export oleomargarine shall brand upon every tub, firkin, - or other package containing such article the word “oleomargarine” in - plain Roman letters not less than one-half inch square. - - 17. That whenever any person engaged in carrying on the business of - manufacturing oleomargarine defrauds, or attempts to defraud, the - United States of the tax on the oleomargarine produced by him, or any - part thereof, he shall forfeit the factory and manufacturing apparatus - used by him, and all oleomargarine and all raw material for the - production of oleomargarine found in the factory and on the factory - premises, and shall be fined not less than five hundred dollars nor - more than five thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not less than six - months nor more than three years. - - 18. That if any manufacturer of oleomargarine, any dealer therein, or - any importer or exporter thereof shall knowingly or wilfully omit, - neglect, or refuse to do, or cause to be done, any of the things - required by law in the carrying on or conducting of his business, or - shall do anything by this Act prohibited, if there be no specific - penalty or punishment imposed by any other section of this Act for - the neglecting, omitting, or refusing to do, or for the doing or - causing to be done, the thing required or prohibited, he shall pay a - penalty of one thousand dollars; and if the person so offending be - the manufacturer of or a wholesale dealer in oleomargarine, all the - oleomargarine owned by him, or in which he has any interest as owner, - shall be forfeited to the United States. - - 19. That all fines, penalties and forfeitures imposed by this Act may - be recovered in any court of competent jurisdiction. - - 20. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with the approval of the - Secretary of the Treasury, may make all needful regulations for the - carrying into effect of this Act. - - 21. That this Act shall go into effect on the ninetieth day after - its passage; and all wooden packages containing ten or more pounds - of oleomargarine found on the premises of any dealer on or after the - ninetieth day succeeding the date of the passage of this Act shall be - deemed to be taxable under section eight of this Act, and shall be - taxed, and shall have affixed thereto the stamps, marks, and brands - required by this Act or by regulations made pursuant to this Act; and - for the purposes of securing the affixing of the stamps, marks and - brands required by this Act, the oleomargarine shall be regarded as - having been manufactured and sold, or removed from the manufactory - for consumption or use, on or after the day this Act takes effect; - and such stock on hand at the time of the taking effect of this Act - may be stamped, marked and branded under special regulations of the - Commissioner of Internal Revenue, approved by the Secretary of the - Treasury; and the Commissioner of Internal Revenue may authorise - the holder of such packages to mark and brand the same and to affix - thereto the proper tax-paid stamps. - - -The following is the United States’ Tea Adulteration Law:-- - - SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives - of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That from and - after the passage of this Act it shall be unlawful for any person or - persons or corporation to import or bring into the United States any - merchandise for sale as tea, adulterated with spurious leaf or with - exhausted leaves, or which contains so great an admixture of chemicals - or other deleterious substances as to make it unfit for use; and the - importation of all such merchandise is hereby prohibited. - - 2. That on making entry at the custom house of all tea or merchandise - described as tea imported into the United States, the importer or - consignee shall give a bond to the collector of the port that such - merchandise shall not be removed from warehouse until released by the - custom house authorities, who shall examine it with reference to its - purity and fitness for consumption; and that for the purpose of such - examination samples of each line in every invoice shall be submitted - by the importer or consignee to the examiner, with his written - statement that such samples represent the true quality of each and - every part of the invoice, and accord with the specification therein - contained; and in case the examiner has reason to believe that such - samples do not represent the true quality of the invoice, he shall - make such further examination of the tea represented by the invoice, - or any part thereof, as shall be necessary: Provided, That such - further examination of such tea shall be made within three days after - entry thereof has been made at the custom house: And provided further, - That the bond above required shall also be conditioned for the payment - of all custom house charges which may attach to such merchandise - prior to being released or destroyed (as the case may be) under the - provisions of this Act. - - 3. That if, after an examination, as provided in section two, the tea - is found by the examiner not to come within the prohibition of this - Act, a permit shall at once be granted to the importer or consignee - declaring the tea free from the control of the custom authorities; - but if on examination such tea, or merchandise described as tea, is - found, in the opinion of the examiner, to come within the prohibitions - of this Act, the importer or consignee shall be immediately notified, - and the tea, or merchandise described as tea, so returned shall not be - released by the custom house, unless on a re-examination called for by - the importer or consignee, the return of the examiner shall be found - erroneous: Provided, That should a portion of the invoice be passed - by the examiner, a permit shall be granted for that portion, and the - remainder held for further examination, as provided in section four. - - 4. That in case of any dispute between the importer or consignee and - the examiner, the matter in dispute shall be referred for arbitration - to a committee of three experts, one to be appointed by the collector, - one by the importer, and the two to choose a third, and their decision - shall be final; and if upon such final re-examination the tea shall - be found to come within the prohibitions of this Act, the importer - or consignee shall give a bond, with securities satisfactory to the - collector, to export such tea, or merchandise described as tea, out - of the limits of the United States, within a period of six months - after such final re-examination; but if the same shall not have been - exported within the time specified, the collector, at the expiration - of that time shall cause the same to be destroyed. - - 5. That the examination and appraisement herein provided for shall be - made by a duly qualified appraiser of the port at which said tea is - entered, and when entered at ports where there are no appraisers, such - examination and appraisement shall be made by the revenue officers to - whom is committed the collection of duties, unless the Secretary of - the Treasury shall otherwise direct. - - 6. That leaves to which the term “exhausted” is applied in this Act - shall mean and include any tea which has been deprived of its proper - quality, strength, or virtue by steeping, infusion, decoction, or - other means. - - 7. That teas actually on shipboard for shipment to the United States - at the time of the passage of this Act shall not be subject to the - prohibition thereof. - - 8. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall have the power to enforce - the provisions of this Act by appropriate regulations. - - Approved, March 2, 1883. - - -The following is the text of the California Wine Adulteration Law, -passed Feb. 17th, 1887:-- - - _The People of the State of California, represented in Senate and - Assembly, do enact as follows_:-- - - SECTION 1. For the purposes of this Act, pure wine shall be defined - as follows: The juice of grapes fermented, preserved, or fortified - for use as a beverage, or as a medicine, by methods recognised as - legitimate according to the provisions of this Act; unfermented grape - juice, containing no addition of distilled spirits, may be denominated - according to popular custom and demand as wine only when described as - “unfermented wine,” and shall be deemed pure only when preserved for - use as a beverage or medicine, in accordance with the provisions of - this Act. Pure grape must shall be deemed to be the juice of grapes, - only, in its natural condition, whether expressed or mingled with the - pure skins, seeds, or stems of grapes. Pure condensed grape must shall - be deemed to be pure grape must from which water has been extracted - by evaporation for purposes of preservation or increase of saccharine - strength. Dry wine is that produced by complete fermentation of - saccharine contained in must. Sweet wine is that which contains more - or less saccharine appreciable to the taste. Fortified wine is that - wine to which distilled spirits have been added to increase alcoholic - strength, for purposes of preservation only, and shall be held to be - pure, when the spirits so used are the product of the grape only. Pure - champagne or sparkling wine is that which contains carbonic acid gas - or effervescence produced only by natural fermentation of saccharine - matter of musts, or partially fermented wine in bottle. - - 2. In the fermentation, preservation, and fortification of pure - wine, it shall be specifically understood that no materials shall - be used intended as substitutes for grapes, or any part of grapes; - no colouring matters shall be added which are not the pure products - of grapes during fermentation, or by extraction from grapes with the - aid of pure grape spirits; no foreign fruit juices, and no spirits - imported from foreign countries, whether pure or compounded with fruit - juices, or other material not the pure product of grapes, shall be - used for any purpose; no aniline dyes, salicylic acid, glycerine, - alum, or other chemical antiseptics, or ingredients recognised as - deleterious to the health of consumers, or as injurious to the - reputation of wine as pure, shall be permitted; and no distilled - spirits shall be added except for the sole purpose of preservation, - and without the intention of enabling trade to lengthen the volume of - fortified dry wine by the addition of water, or other wine weaker in - alcoholic strength. - - 3. In the fermentation and preservation of pure wine, and during - the operations of fining or clarifying, removing defects, improving - qualities, blending and maturing, no methods shall be employed which - essentially conflict with the provisions of the preceding sections - of this Act, and no materials shall be used for the promotion of - fermentation, or the assistance of any of the operations of wine - treatment which are injurious to the consumer or the reputation of - wine as pure; _provided_, that it shall be expressly understood - that the practices of using pure tannin in small quantities, leaven - to excite fermentation only, and not to increase the material for - the production of alcohol; water before or during, but not after - fermentation, for the purpose of decreasing the saccharine strength - of musts to enable perfect fermentation; and the natural products of - grapes in the pure forms as they exist in pure grape musts, skins, - and seeds; sulphur fumes, to disinfect cooperage and prevent disease - in wine; and pure gelatinous and albuminous substances, for the sole - purpose of assisting fining or clarification, shall be specifically - permitted in the operations hereinbefore mentioned, in accordance with - recognised legitimate custom. - - 4. It shall be unlawful to sell, or expose, or offer to sell under - the name of wine, or grape musts, or condensed musts, or under any - names designating pure wines, or pure musts as hereinbefore classified - and defined, or branded, labelled, or designated in any way as - wine or musts, or by any name popularly and commercially used as a - designation of wine produced from grapes, such as claret, burgundy, - hock, sauterne, port, sherry, madeira, and angelica, any substance, - or compound, except pure wine, or pure grape must, or pure grape - condensed must, as defined by this Act, and produced in accordance - with and subject to restrictions herein set forth; _provided_, - that this Act shall not apply to liquors imported from any foreign - country, which are taxed upon entry by custom laws in accordance - with a specific duty and contained in original packages or vessels - and prominently branded, labelled, or marked so as to be known - to all persons as foreign products, excepting, however, when such - liquors shall contain adulterations of artificial colouring matters, - antiseptic chemicals, or other ingredients known to be deleterious to - the health of consumers; _and provided further_, that this Act shall - not apply to currant wine, gooseberry wine, or wines made from other - fruits than the grape, which are labelled or branded and designated - and sold, or offered or exposed for sale under names, including the - word wine, but also expressing distinctly the fruit from which they - are made, as gooseberry wine, elderberry wine, or the like. Any - violation of any of the provisions of any of the preceding sections - shall be a misdemeanour. - - 5. Exceptions from the provisions of this Act shall be made in the - case of pure champagne, or sparkling wine, so far as to permit the - use of crystallised sugar in sweetening the same according to usual - custom, but in no other respect. - - 6. In all sales and contracts for sale, production, or delivery of - products defined in this Act, such products, in the absence of a - written agreement to the contrary, shall be presumed to be pure as - herein defined, and such sale or contracts shall, in the absence of - such an agreement, be void, if it be established that the products so - sold or contracted for were not pure as herein defined. And in such - case the concealment of the true character of such products shall - constitute actual fraud for which damages may be recovered, and in - a judgment for damages, reasonable attorney fees to be fixed by the - Court, shall be taxed as costs. - - 7. The Controller of the State shall cause to have engraved plates, - from which shall be printed labels which shall set forth that the wine - covered by such labels is pure California wine in accordance with - this Act, and leaving blanks for the name of the particular kind of - wine, and the name or names of the seller of the wine and place of - business. These labels shall be of two forms or shapes, one a narrow - strip to cap over the corks of bottles, the other, round or square, - and sufficiently large, say three inches square, to cover the bungs of - packages in which wine is sold. Such labels shall be furnished upon - proper application to actual residents, and to be used in this State - only, and only to those who are known to be growers, manufacturers, - traders, or handlers, or bottlers of California wine, and such parties - will be required to file a sworn statement with said Controller, - setting forth that his or their written application for such labels is - and will be for his or their sole use and benefit, and that he or they - will not give, sell, or loan such label to any other person or persons - whomsoever. Such labels shall be paid for at the same rate and price - as shall be found to be the actual cost price to the State, and shall - be supplied from time to time as needed upon the written application - of such parties as are before mentioned. Such label when affixed to - bottle or wine package shall be so affixed, that by drawing the - cork from bottle or opening the bung of package, such label shall be - destroyed by such opening; and before affixing such labels all blanks - shall be filled out by stating the variety or kind of wine that is - contained in such bottle or package, and also by the name or names and - Post Office address of such grower, manufacturer, trader, handler, or - bottler of such wine. - - 8. It is desired and required that all and every grower, manufacturer, - trader, handler, or bottler of California wine, when selling or - putting up for sale any California wine, or when shipping California - wine to parties to whom sold, shall plainly stencil, brand, or have - printed where it will be easily seen, first, “Pure California Wine,” - and secondly his name, or the firm’s name, as the case may be, both on - label of bottle or package in which wine is sold and sent, or he may, - in lieu thereof, if he so prefers and elects, affix the label which - has been provided for in section seven. It shall be unlawful to affix - any such stamp or label as above provided to any vessel containing any - substance other than pure wine, as herein defined, or to prepare or - use on any vessel containing any liquid any imitation or counterfeit - of such stamp, or any paper in the similitude or resemblance thereof, - or any paper of such form and appearance as to be calculated to - mislead or deceive any unwary person, or cause him to suppose the - contents of such vessel to be pure wine. It shall be unlawful for - any person or persons, other than the ones for whom such stamps were - procured, to in any way use such stamps, or to have possession of the - same. A violation of any of the provisions of this section shall be a - misdemeanour, and punishable by fine of not less than fifty dollars - and not more than five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the - county jail for a term of not exceeding ninety days, or by both such - fine and imprisonment. All moneys collected by virtue of prosecutions - had against persons violating any provisions of this or any preceding - sections shall go one half to the informer and one half to the - District Attorney prosecuting the same. - - 9. It shall be the duty of the Controller to keep an account, in a - book to be kept for that purpose, of all stamps, the number, design, - time when, and to whom furnished. The parties procuring the same are - hereby required to return to the Controller semi-annual statements - under oath, setting forth the number used, and how many remain on - hand. Any violation of this section, by the person receiving such - stamps, is a misdemeanour. - - 10. It shall be the duty of any and all persons receiving such stamps - to use the same only in their business, in no manner or in nowise to - allow the same to be disposed of except in the manner authorised by - this Act; to not allow the same to be used by any other person or - persons. It shall be their duty to become satisfied that the wine - contained in the barrels or bottles is all that said label imports as - defined by this Act. That they will use the said stamps only in this - State, and shall not permit the same to part from their possession, - except with the barrels, packages, or bottles upon which they are - placed as provided by this Act. A violation of any of the provisions - of this section is hereby made a felony. - - 12. This Act shall take effect and be in force ninety days after its - passage. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[148] Second Report of the New York State Dairy Commissioner. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Acetous fermentation, 225 - Acids, acetic, 146 - ---- butyric, 63 - ---- malic, 173 - ---- nitrous, 210 - ---- phosphoric, 147 - ---- picric, 153 - ---- salicylic, 149, 177 - ---- succinic, 174 - ---- sulphuric, 176, 227 - ---- tannic, 22, 174 - ---- tartaric, 102, 173 - ---- in beer, 146 - ---- ---- butter, 63, 71 - ---- ---- wine, 172 - Adams’ test for milk, 59 - Adulteration, excuses for, 1 - ---- extent of, 5, 7 - ---- varieties of, 9, 10 - Albuminoid ammonia, 207 - Albuminoids in beer, 145 - ---- ---- flour, 89 - ---- ---- water, 207 - Alcohol in beer, 143 - ---- ---- bread, 94 - ---- ---- liquors, 195 - Alcoholometric tables, 144, 196 - Alkaloids in beer, 150 - ---- ---- flour, 91 - ---- ---- milk, 62 - Allspice, 253 - Aloes, 152 - Alum in baking powders, 102 - ---- ---- bread, 98 - ---- ---- flour, 92 - American adulteration, 8 - ---- cheese, 85 - ---- wine, 158 - Ammonia in water, 207 - Amylic alcohol, 197 - Annato in butter, 77 - ---- ---- cheese, 86 - Aniline dyes in wine, 178-183 - Artesian wells in New York, 257 - Artificial bitters in beer, 141 - ---- butter, 66 - ---- cheese, 85 - ---- coffee, 31-40 - ---- honey, 122 - ---- jelly, 256 - ---- liquors, 193 - ---- spices, 245 - ---- sugar, 105 - ---- tea, 19, 28 - ---- wine, 167 - Ash of beer, 136 - ---- ---- bread, 96 - ---- ---- chicory, 35 - ---- ---- cocoa, 44 - ---- ---- coffee, 31, 35 - ---- ---- flour, 89 - ---- ---- milk, 52 - ---- ---- mustard, 242 - ---- ---- pepper, 244 - ---- ---- pickles, 232 - ---- ---- sugar, 110 - Ash of tea, 16, 22 - ---- ---- wine, 175 - Asparagus, 254 - - - B. - - Bacteria in water, 220 - Bakers’ chemicals, 101 - Baking powders, 102 - Banana essence, 129 - Barley malt, 132 - Beans in coffee, 31 - Beech leaves in tea, 18 - Beer, 132 - ---- adulteration of, 137 - ---- acids in, 146 - ---- alcohol in, 142 - ---- albuminoids in, 145 - ---- alkaloids in, 150 - ---- American, 134 - ---- analysis of, 142 - ---- ash of, 136, 147 - ---- bitters in, 137, 141 - ---- carbonic acid in, 143 - ---- composition of, 135 - ---- extract of, 134, 144 - ---- flavourings for, 137 - ---- glucose in, 138 - ---- glycerine in, 150 - ---- lager, 134 - ---- malt substitutes in, 138 - ---- manufacture of, 133 - ---- phosphates in, 147 - ---- picric acid in, 153 - ---- picrotoxine in, 153 - ---- production of, 134 - ---- salicylic acid in, 149 - ---- salt in, 147 - ---- soda in, 140 - ---- standards for, 148 - ---- sugar in, 144 - ---- sulphites in, 156 - ---- Wittstein’s test for, 151 - ---- varieties of, 133 - Bees’ wax, 128 - Bibliography, 258 - Biological examination of water, 216 - Bitters in beer, 141 - Bleaching of flour, 90 - ---- ---- sugar, 108 - Blending of beer, 140 - ---- ---- liquors, 185 - ---- ---- wine, 164 - Blue pigments, 14, 107 - Boards of Health, 6 - Borax in milk, 61 - Bouquet of liquors, 187 - ---- ---- wine, 164 - Brandy, 186 - Bread, 94 - ---- aerated, 95 - ---- alcohol in, 94 - ---- alum in, 98 - ---- analysis of, 97 - ---- ash of, 96 - ---- composition of, 96 - ---- salt in, 96 - ---- soda in, 95 - ---- starch in, 96 - ---- water in, 96 - Brewing in the United States, 134 - Butter, 63 - ---- acids in, 71 - ---- adulteration of, 66 - ---- analysis of, 65 - ---- Angell & Hehner’s test, 72 - ---- annato in, 77 - ---- artificial, 66 - ---- ash of, 65 - ---- carotin in, 77 - ---- colouring of, 77 - ---- composition of, 63 - ---- examination of, 65, 68 - ---- fat crystals in, 79 - ---- fusing point of, 63, 69 - ---- gelatine in, 76 - ---- Hübl’s process for, 75 - ---- Koettstorfer’s process for, 71 - ---- microscopic appearance of, 78 - ---- oleomargarine in, 66 - ---- photomicrographs of, 78 - Butter, Reichert’s process for, 73 - ---- saffron in, 77 - ---- salt in, 65 - ---- soluble acids in, 71 - ---- specific gravity of, 67 - ---- tests for purity of, 70 - ---- volatile acids in, 71 - ---- water in, 65 - Butterine, 66, 67 - Butter fat, melting point, 69 - ---- ---- specific gravity, 68 - Butyric acid, 63 - ---- alcohol, 188 - ---- ether, 187 - - - C. - - Caffeine, 21, 39 - California wine, 158, 160 - Cane sugar, 104 - Canned vegetables, 254 - Capsicum, 229 - Carbohydrates, 99 - Carbonic acid, 95, 143 - Carotine, 77 - Caseine, 50, 85 - Cassia, 252 - Cayenne pepper, 247 - Cereals in coffee, 31, 34 - Cheese, 83 - ---- adulteration of, 85 - ---- American, 84 - ---- analysis, 86 - ---- artificial, 85 - ---- composition of, 83 - ---- fats in, 84 - ---- lard, 85 - ---- varieties of, 83, 84 - Chicory, 31 - ---- ash, 35 - ---- colouring power of, 34 - ---- extract, 38 - ---- in coffee, 32, 34 - ---- sugar in, 37 - ---- tests for, 32 - Chlorine in water, 206 - Chocolate, 42 - ---- ash of, 45 - ---- fats in, 45 - ---- flavourings for, 42 - ---- flour in, 42 - ---- sugar in, 45 - Chrome yellow in coffee, 40 - ---- ---- ---- candy, 131 - Cider vinegar, 230 - Cinnamon, 253 - Cloves, 252 - Coal-tar colours in candy, 130 - ---- ---- ---- mustard, 240 - ---- ---- ---- wine, 178, 183 - Cocoa, 42 - ---- adulteration of, 42, 45 - ---- analysis of, 45 - ---- composition of, 43 - ---- starch in, 42 - ---- theobromine in, 44 - Cocoa-nut oil in butter, 73 - Coffee, 29 - ---- adulteration of, 31 - ---- analysis of, 30 - ---- artificial, 31, 40 - ---- ash of, 31, 35 - ---- caffeine in, 39 - ---- cereals in, 31, 34 - ---- chicory in, 31, 32 - ---- colouring of, 40 - ---- composition of, 30 - ---- density of infusion, 33 - ---- examination of, 32 - ---- extract of, 31 - ---- facing of, 40 - ---- fat in, 30 - ---- sugar in, 37, 38 - ---- tests for purity of, 32, 33 - Cognac essence, 193 - ---- oil, 193 - Colouring agents, 15, 77, 130 - ---- ---- aniline, 130 - ---- ---- annato, 77 - ---- ---- carotin, 77 - ---- ---- gypsum, 14 - Colouring agents, indigo, 14 - ---- ---- lead, 131 - ---- ---- logwood, 178 - ---- ---- Martius’ yellow, 77 - ---- ---- mineral, 15 - ---- ---- Prussian blue, 15 - ---- ---- saffron, 77 - ---- ---- turmeric, 15, 77 - ---- ---- vegetable, 130 - ---- ---- Venetian red, 40 - Cocculus indicus, 153 - Condensed milk, 53 - Confectionery, 129 - Copper in grains, 255 - ---- ---- pickles, 232 - - - D. - - Dairy Commissioner, 50 - Darnel in flour, 90 - Dextrine, 24, 146 - Dextrose, 105 - Dialysis, 180, 183 - Diastase, 132 - Digestion of alumed bread, 98 - ---- ---- butter, 82 - ---- ---- oleomargarine, 82 - - - E. - - Elaidin test, 234 - Elm leaves, 18 - Ergot in flour, 90 - Essences, artificial, 129 - Ethers, 129, 174 - - - F. - - Facing of coffee, 40 - ---- ---- tea, 15 - Fats in butter, 63, 71 - ---- ---- chocolate, 46 - ---- ---- crystals, 79 - ---- fixed, 73 - ---- insoluble, 71 - ---- milk, 57 - ---- soluble, 71, 73 - Fats, volatile, 73 - Fehling’s test, 37, 111 - Feser’s lactoscope, 57 - Flavourings for beer, 137 - ---- ---- candy, 129 - ---- ---- chocolate, 42 - ---- ---- liquors, 194 - ---- ---- wine, 165 - Flour, 88 - ---- adulteration of, 90 - ---- albuminoids in, 89 - ---- alkaloids in, 91 - ---- alum in, 90, 92 - ---- analysis of, 89 - ---- ash of, 89 - ---- composition of, 87 - ---- fungi in, 91 - ---- gluten in, 89 - ---- phosphates in, starch in, 89 - ---- tests for, 92 - ---- water in, 89 - Forchammer’s test, 203 - Frankland’s method, 211 - Fruit, canned, 254 - ---- essences, 129 - ---- wine, 168 - Fusel oil in candy, 129 - ---- ---- liquors, 197 - - - G. - - Gall’s method for wine, 162 - Gelatine in butter, 76 - Gentian in beer, 150 - Gin, 191 - Ginger, 253 - Glucose, commercial, 105 - ---- estimation of, 111 - ---- in beer, 138 - ---- in honey, 124 - ---- in wine, 171 - ---- manufacture of, 105 - ---- tests for, 110, 124 - Gluten in flour, 89 - Glycerine in beer, 150 - ---- ---- wine, 171 - Granules of starch, 100 - Gypsum in sugar, 110 - ---- ---- tea, 14 - ---- ---- wine, 163, 176 - - - H. - - Honey, 121 - ---- adulteration of, 122 - ---- analysis of, 124 - ---- artificial, 122 - ---- ash of, 123 - ---- comb, 122, 128 - ---- glucose in, 123 - ---- sugar in, 123 - ---- water in, 123 - Hop-substitutes, 137, 150 - Hordeine, 133 - Hawthorn leaves, 18 - Hubl’s test, 75 - - - I. - - Ice, impure, 224 - Indigo, 14, 19, 40, 129 - Iodine test, 99 - - - J. - - Jellies, 256 - - - K. - - Kœttstorfer’s test, 71 - - - L. - - Lactometer, 53, 54 - Lactoscope, 57 - Levulose, 107 - Lard cheese, 85 - Leaves in tea, 17, 18 - Legislation, 268 - Liquors, 186 - ---- adulteration of, 192 - Logwood test, 92 - - - M. - - Mace, 253 - Malic acid, 173 - Malt, 132, 137 - Maltose, 107 - Malt substitutes in beer, 137, 148 - Maple sugar, 109 - Marble dust, 131 - Marc of wines, 157 - Martius’ yellow, 77, 240 - Meat extracts, 255 - Micro-organisms in water, 214 - Microscopic examination of butter, 78 - ---- ---- coffee, 40 - ---- ---- fats, 78, 79 - ---- ---- milk, 61 - ---- ---- spices, 246 - ---- ---- starches, 100 - ---- ---- tea, 17 - ---- ---- water, 216 - Milk, 49 - ---- Adam’s method for, 59 - ---- adulteration of, 49 - ---- analysis of, 53 - ---- ash of, 52 - ---- caseine in, 59 - ---- composition of, 51 - ---- condensed, 53 - ---- cream in, 57 - ---- fats in, 57 - ---- globules, 61 - ---- nitrites in, 62 - ---- photo-micrographs of, 61 - ---- ptomaines in, 62 - ---- skimmed, 50 - ---- specific gravity of, 53, 55 - ---- standards for, 59-60 - ---- sugar of, 59 - ---- total solids, 58 - ---- water in, 56 - Miscellaneous adulteration, 254 - Molasses, 105 - Moore’s test for carotine, 77 - Mustard, 239 - ---- adulteration of, 240 - ---- analysis of, 241 - ---- ash of, 242 - ---- colouring of, 240 - Mustard, composition of, 239 - ---- flour in, 240 - ---- oil of, 241 - ---- sulphur in, 241 - - - N. - - Nessler’s solution, 208 - Nitrates in water, 210 - Nitrites in milk, 62 - ---- ---- vinegar, 231 - ---- ---- water, 210 - Nitrogen in flour, 89 - ---- ---- tea, 21 - ---- ---- water, 210 - - - O. - - Oenanthic ether, 158 - Oils, bitter almond, 129 - ---- cocoanut, 73 - ---- cognac, 193 - ---- cotton seed, 234, 236 - ---- fusel, 197 - ---- lard, 68 - ----- mustard, 241 - ---- nut, 235 - ---- olive, 233 - ---- poppy, 235 - ---- rape seed, 236 - ---- sesamé, 236 - ---- turpentine, 191 - Oleic acid, 63 - Oleomargarine, 66 - ---- composition of, 67 - ---- digestion of, 82 - ---- effects of, 80, 81 - ---- exportation of, 66 - ---- manufacture of, 66 - ---- photo-micrographs of, 79 - ---- tests for, 70 - Olive oil, 233 - ---- ---- adulteration of, 233 - ---- ---- American, 233 - ---- ---- cotton seed oil in, 236 - ---- ---- examination of, 234 - Olive oil, specific gravity of, 234 - ---- ---- standard for, 237 - Organisms in ice, 219 - ---- ---- water, 217 - - - P. - - Pepper, 243 - ---- adulteration of, 244 - ---- analysis of, 245 - ---- ash of, 244 - ---- cayenne, 247 - ---- composition of, 243 - ---- starch in, 246 - Pepperette, 248 - Phosphates in beer, 147 - ---- ---- bread, 89 - ---- ---- wine, 176 - Photogravures of leaves, 18 - ---- ---- water, 217 - ---- ---- polariscope, 112 - ---- ---- tea, 17 - ---- ---- tea plant, _Frontispiece_. - Photo-micrographs of butter, 79 - ---- ---- cream, 61 - ---- ---- digestion of fats, 82 - ---- ---- fats, 79 - ---- ---- milk, 61 - ---- ---- oleomargarine, 79 - ---- ---- spices, 252 - ---- ---- starches, 100 - Pickles, 232 - Picric acid, 153 - Polariscope, 112 - Polarisation of beer, 148 - ---- ---- honey, 123 - ---- ---- glucose, 118 - ---- ---- lactose, 59 - ---- ---- sugar, 112 - ---- ---- wine, 171 - Poplar leaves, 18 - Preservatives in beer, 149, 156 - ---- ---- butter, 77 - ---- ---- milk, 61 - ---- ---- wine, 177 - Preserved milk, 53 - Prussian blue in candy, 131 - ---- ---- coffee, 40 - ---- ---- tea, 14 - Ptomaines in ice cream, 62 - ---- ---- milk, 62 - - - Q. - - Quassia in beer, 152 - - - R. - - Raisin wine, 168 - Reichert’s test, 73 - “Rock and rye” drops, 129 - Rose leaves, 18 - Rum, 190 - - - S. - - St. Andrew’s cross in fats, 79 - Sal aeratus, 101 - Salicine in beer, 137 - Salt in beer, 147 - ---- ---- butter, 65 - Salicylic acid in beer, 149 - ---- ---- wine, 175 - Sand in tea, 14 - Soda water syrups, 257 - Specific gravity of beer, 142 - ---- ---- butter, 63, 68 - ---- ---- fats, 68 - ---- ---- milk, 50, 53 - ---- ---- oils, 232 - ---- ---- spirits, 185-189 - ---- ---- tables, 55, 144, 145, 196 - ---- ---- vinegar, 226 - ---- ---- wine, 159 - Spices, 249 - ---- microscopic examination of, 249 - Standards for beer, 148 - ---- ---- butter, 72, 74, 75 - ---- ---- cocoa, 46 - ---- ---- milk, 59, 60 - ---- ---- tea, 25 - ---- ---- water, 213, 214 - Standards for wine, 184 - Starch, 99 - ---- estimation of, 99 - ---- granules, 100 - ---- in mustard, 240 - ---- in pepper, 246 - ---- photo-micrographs of, 100 - ---- in spices, 252 - Strychnine in beer, 151 - Sugar, 104 - ---- adulteration of, 107 - ---- analysis of, 109 - ---- ash of, 110 - ---- cane, 104 - ---- fruit, 105 - ---- grape, 105, 119 - ---- invert, 104 - ---- malt, 107 - ---- maple, 109 - ---- milk, 59, 107 - ---- tin salts in, 107 - Sulphates in wine, 176 - Sulphuric acid in vinegar, 228 - ---- ---- wine, 176 - Syrups, adulteration of, 108 - ---- glucose, 108 - - - T. - - Tables, of adulteration, 10 - ---- alcoholometric, 144 - ---- coffee infusion, 33 - ---- lactometric, 55 - ---- malt extract, 145 - ---- specific gravity, 55, 143, 196 - Tannic acid in tea, 22 - ---- ---- in wine, 174 - Tartar, cream of, 101 - ---- ---- in wine, 173 - Tartaric acid in baking powder, 103 - ---- ---- in wine, 173 - Tea, 12 - ---- adulteration of, 14 - ---- analysis of, 21, 26, 27 - ---- ash of, 16, 17, 22 - Tea, Ching Suey, 28 - ---- colouring of, 14 - ---- composition of, 15 - ---- dust, 16 - ---- examination of, 21 - ---- extract of, 23 - ---- facing of, 15 - ---- factitious, 19, 28 - ---- foreign leaves in, 14, 18 - ---- gypsum in, 14 - ---- gum in, 24 - ---- indigo in, 19 - ---- insoluble ash in, 23 - ---- ---- leaf in, 28 - ---- leaves, 7, 17, 18 - ---- lie, 19 - ---- microscopic examination of, 18 - ---- Ping Suey, 8 - ---- sand in, 14 - ---- soapstone in, 19 - ---- soluble ash, 23 - ---- South American, 26 - ---- spent, 15 - ---- standards for, 25 - ---- tannin in, 22 - ---- theine in, 21 - ---- volatile oil in, 22 - Te-mo-ki leaves, 18 - Theine in tea, 21 - Tin in canned fruits, 254 - Tin salts in sugar, 107 - - - U. - - Ultramarine in sugar, 107 - - - V. - - Vanilla in chocolate, 42 - Vegetables, canned, 254 - Vinegar, 225 - ---- adulteration of, 229 - ---- analysis of, 227 - ---- cider, 230 - ---- extract of, 227 - ---- malt, 226 - Vinegar, standards for, 227 - ---- sulphuric acid in, 228 - ---- whisky, 230 - ---- wine, 226 - Volatile acids in butter, 73 - ---- ethers in wine, 174 - - - W. - - Water, 200 - ---- albuminoid ammonia in, 207 - ---- American supply, 220 - ---- bacteria in, 216 - ---- biological examination of, 216 - ---- carbon in, 212 - ---- chlorine in, 206 - ---- croton, 219 - ---- examination of, 201 - ---- Forchammer’s process, 203 - ---- Frankland’s process, 211 - ---- free ammonia in, 207 - ---- Hudson river, 222 - ---- microscopic examination of, 216 - ---- nitrates in, 210 - ---- nitrites in, 210 - ---- nitrogen in, 210 - ---- organic matter in, 203 - ---- organisms in, 219 - ---- sewage in, 207, 210 - ---- standards for, 213 - ---- total solids in, 202 - ---- urea in, 207 - ---- Wanklyn’s process, 207 - Wheat, 87 - Wheaten flour, 87 - ---- starch, 88, 100 - Whey, 50 - Whisky, 188 - ---- vinegar, 230 - Willow leaves, 18 - Wine, 157 - ---- acids in, 172 - ---- adulteration of, 163 - ---- alcohol in, 169 - ---- American, 158 - Wine, ash of, 175 - ---- blending of, 164 - ---- California, 160 - ---- colouring of, 166, 178 - ---- ethers in, 174 - ---- examination of, 169 - ---- extract of, 170 - ---- fruit, 168 - ---- glycerine in, 170 - ---- imitation, 167 - ---- improving, 161 - ---- malic acid in, 173 - ---- natural, 160 - ---- Pasteuring, 161 - ---- Petiot’s process, 161 - ---- phosphoric acid in, 176 - ---- plastering of, 163 - ---- polarisation of, 171 - ---- raisin, 168 - ---- salicylic acid in, 177 - ---- Scheele’s process for, 162 - ---- standards for, 184 - ---- succinic acid in, 174 - ---- sulphates in, 176 - ---- sulphurous acid in, 177 - ---- sugar in, 170 - ---- table of, 159 - ---- tannin in, 174 - ---- tartrates in, 178 - ---- tartaric acid in, 173 - ---- varieties of, 159 - Willow leaves, 18 - Wisteria ----, 18 - - -PRINTED BY E. AND F. N. SPON, NEW YORK AND LONDON. - - - - -_RELIABLE FOOD PRODUCTS._ - - -As the largest Manufacturers and Dealers in the world in this line, -we consider it to our interest to manufacture only PURE and WHOLESOME -goods, and pack them in a tidy and attractive manner. We import, -manufacture, or deal in nearly everything eaten or drank. _All goods -bearing our name are guaranteed to be of superior quality, and dealers -are authorized to refund the purchase price in any case where consumers -have cause for dissatisfaction._ It is, therefore, to the interest of -both dealers and consumers to use THURBER’S BRANDS. - - THURBER, WHYLAND & CO., - - _West Broadway, Reade and Hudson Streets, New York._ - - _9 and 11 Fenchurch Avenue, London, E. C., England._ - - _17 Rue Lagrange, Bordeaux, France._ - -_NOTICE._ - -Our Canned Goods are put up with a special quality of tin, and most of -them, being hermetically sealed while fresh at the sources of supply, -preserve the fresh natural flavors, and are REALLY FRESHER, MORE -WHOLESOME AND PALATABLE than many so-called “fresh” articles which are -exposed for sale during considerable periods of time in city markets. - - - - -When the very delicate article of =CORN STARCH=, which is so largely -used in the family for food, and especially for children and invalids, -is adulterated with poisonous and unhealthy substances, it becomes very -important that every housekeeper should be cautious and know what kind -they use. - -The evidence of such adulteration is most signally shown in the -following proof, which is by one of the most eminent food analysts of -Great Britain, viz.: - - “I recently purchased, on the same day and in the same neighborhood, - a series of eight samples of starch, paying for them three different - prices. On subjecting them to analysis, I found the whole of them to - be adulterated with 20, 30, and even nearly 40 per cent. of earthy or - mineral matter. This I found to consist of mineral white, terra alba, - or sulphate of lime.”--Letter in the London _Times_, October 5th, 1878. - - (Signed) ARTHUR H. HASSALL, M.D. - -Only a careful chemical analysis will show the pure article from the -adulterated. - -KINGSFORD’S OSWEGO STARCH - -has been thus analyzed and proved to be perfectly pure and free from -any foreign substance, as is proved by the following report: - - THE ANALYTICAL SANITARY INSTITUTION. - - LONDON, January 1, 1879. - -We have obtained in different parts of the metropolis samples of both -the qualities of Starch manufactured by Messrs. T. KINGSFORD & SON. - -We have examined them carefully, both with the microscope and by -chemical analysis, and found the samples without exception to be of -good color, of excellent quality, perfectly genuine, and of great -strength. - -THEY WERE QUITE FREE FROM ANY ADDED MINERAL MATTER. - - (Signed) ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D. - - (Signed) OTTO HEHNER, F.C.S. - -In order to secure the genuine and unadulterated article, see that the -name T. KINGSFORD & SON is on every box and package. - - - - -ANTI-ADULTERATION BAKING POWDERS. - -[Illustration: Count Rumford] - -THE BAKING PREPARATIONS - -OF - -PROFESSOR HORSFORD - - [Namely, Professor Horsford’s Self-Raising Bread Preparation, put up - in paper packages; Rumford Yeast Powder, in bottles; and Professor - Horsford’s Phosphatic Baking Powder, in bottles with wide mouths to - admit a spoon], - -are made of Horsford’s Acid Phosphate, in powdered form, and are - - HEALTHFUL AND NUTRITIOUS, - -because they restore to the flour the nourishing phosphates lost with -the bran in the process of bolting. - -These Baking Preparations have received the endorsement of, and are - - UNIVERSALLY USED AND RECOMMENDED BY PROMINENT PHYSICIANS AND CHEMISTS, - -and are for sale by all dealers. - - THEY INCREASE THE NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF FLOUR. - -BARON LIEBIG, the world-renowned German chemist, said: “I consider this -invention as one of the most useful gifts which science has made to -mankind! It is certain that the nutritive value of flour is increased -ten per cent. by your phosphatic Baking Preparations, and the result -is precisely the same as if the fertility of our wheat fields had been -increased by that amount. What a wonderful result is this!” - - THE HORSFORD ALMANAC AND COOK BOOK SENT FREE. - - RUMFORD CHEMICAL WORKS, PROVIDENCE, R. I. - - - - -SPONS’ ENCYCLOPÆDIA - -OF THE - -INDUSTRIAL ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. - -Edited by C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S., &c., &c. - -In Super-royal 8vo, containing 2,100 pp., and illustrated by nearly -1,500 Engravings. - -Can be had in the following bindings: - - In 2 vols., cloth $27.00 - - In 5 divisions, cloth 27.00 - - In 2 vols. half-morocco, top edge gilt, - bound in a superior manner 35.00 - - In 33 monthly parts, at 75c. each. - -_Any Part can be had separate, price 75c._ - - -COMPLETE LIST OF ALL THE SUBJECTS. - - PART - Acids 1, 2, 3 - Alcohol 3, 4 - Alkalies 4, 5 - Alloys 5, 6 - Arsenic 6 - Asphalte 6 - Aerated Waters 6 - Beer and Wine 6, 7 - Beverages 7, 8 - Bleaching Powder 8 - Bleaching 8, 9 - Borax 9 - Brushes 9 - Buttons 9 - Camphor 9, 10 - Candles 10 - Carbon 10 - Celluloid 10 - Clays 10 - Carbolic Acid 11 - Coal-tar Products 11 - Cocoa 11 - Coffee 11, 12 - Cork 12 - Cotton Manufactures 12, 13 - Drugs 13 - Dyeing and Calico - Printing 13, 14 - Dyestuffs 14 - Electro-Metallurgy 14 - Explosives 14, 15 - Feathers 15 - Fibrous Substances 15, 16 - Floor-cloth 16 - Food Preservation 16 - Fruit 16, 17 - Fur 17 - Gas, Coal 17 - Gems 17 - Glass 17 - Graphite 18 - Hair Manufactures 18 - Hats 18 - Ice, Artificial 18 - Indiarubber - Manufactures 18, 19 - Ink 19 - Jute Manufactures 19 - Knitted Fabrics - (Hosiery) 19 - Lace 19 - Leather 19, 20 - Linen Manufactures 20 - Manures 20 - Matches 20, 21 - Mordants 21 - Narcotics 21, 22 - Oils and Fatty - Substances 22, 23, 24 - Paper 24 - Paraffin 24 - Pearl and Coral 24 - Perfumes 24 - Photography 24, 25 - Pigments and Paints 25 - Pottery 25, 26 - Printing and Engraving 26 - Resinous and Gummy - Substances 26, 27 - Rope 27 - Salt 27, 28 - Silk 28 - Skins 28 - Soap, Railway Grease - and Glycerine 28, 29 - Spices 29 - Starch 29 - Sugar 29, 30, 31 - Tannin 31, 32 - Tea 32 - Timber 32 - Varnish 32 - Wool and Woollen - Manufactures 22, 33 - -_Descriptive Catalogue of Books relating to Civil and Mechanical -Engineering, Arts, Trades and Manufactures sent on application. We can -supply any book in print at published price._ - - -E. & F. N. SPON, 35 Murray Street, New York. - - - - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes - -Minor punctuation errors (i.e. missing periods) have been silently -corrected. Inconsistencies in hyphenation and accented letters have -been retained. The use of both c.c. and cc. has also been retained. - -Discrepancies between the names in the Table of Contents and List of -Plates and on the Chapters and Plates themselves has been retained. - -Inconsistencies in spelling have been retained except in the following -apparent typographical errors: - -Page 34, “wurtzel” changed to “wurzel.” (Mangold wurzel) - -Page 62, “demonstated” changed to “demonstrated.” (It was demonstrated -that warm milk) - -Page 80, “excell” changed to “excel.” (with butter, excel in efficiency) - -Page 136, “10·000” changed to “100·00.” (the total of the analysis of -American lager beer) - -Page 162, “proprotion” changed to “proportion.” (in a maximum -proportion of 3 per cent.) - -Page 169, “calulated” changed to “calculated.” (calculated by aid of -the usual alcohol-metric) - -Page 190, “·0012” changed to “0·0012.” (acetic acid, 0·0012 to 0·002) - -Page 196, “9·9538” changed to “0·9538.” (in Specific Gravity column of -table) - -Page 200, “degeee” changed to “degree.” (with a fair degree of accuracy) - -Page 211, “presenee” changed to “presence.” (In the presence of -nitrites) - -Page 275, “years’” changed to “year’s.” (more than one year’s -imprisonment) - -Page 316, “accordanee” changed to “accordance.” (and produced in -accordance with) - -Page 321, “carrotin” changed to “carotin.” (butter ... carotin in) - -Page 322, “Cocoanut” changed to “Cocoa-nut.” (Cocoa-nut oil in butter) - -Page 322, “carrotin” changed to “carotin.” (Colouring agents ... carotin) - -Second end paper, “analysists” changed to “analysts.” (one of the most -eminent food analysts) - -Second end paper, “ANYLITICAL” changed to “ANALYTICAL.” (THE ANALYTICAL -SANITARY INSTITUTION.) - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Adulteration and its Detection, by -Jesse P. 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