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- text-align: center; -} - -.figleft { - float: left; - clear: left; - text-align: center; - margin: 1em 1em .2em .2em; -} - -/* images that float left on screens have been made to float right - on handhelds. This avoids an issue on handhelds with sidenotes - overlaying the image */ - -@media handheld -{ - .figleft { - float: right; - clear: right; - text-align: center; - margin-right: 0; - } -} - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - text-align: center; - margin: 1em .2em .2em 1em; -} - -@media handheld -{ - .figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - text-align: center; - margin-left: 0; - } -} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 3em; - padding-bottom: 1em;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} -.footnote p {text-indent: 0em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:90%; - padding:0.5em; - margin-top:5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; -} - -.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} - - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Principles of Public Health, by Thos. D. Tuttle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Principles of Public Health - A Simple Text Book on Hygene Presenting the Principles - Fundamental to the Conservation of Individual and Community - Health - -Author: Thos. D. Tuttle - -Release Date: January 16, 2017 [EBook #53974] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC HEALTH *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources. Misspellings in -the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> - -<p>The original book had many illustrations embedded in the text on -both the left and the right. On handheld devices all such illustrations -are displayed on the right, to avoid some sidenotes overlaying the image.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/cover.jpg"> - <img src="images/cover-tn.jpg" width="100" alt="" /> -</a></div> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> - -<h1> -PRINCIPLES OF<br /> -PUBLIC HEALTH</h1> - -<div class="blockquotxx"> -<p>A SIMPLE TEXT BOOK ON HYGIENE -PRESENTING THE PRINCIPLES FUNDA­MENTAL -TO THE CONSERVATION OF -INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY HEALTH</p></div> - -<p class="p2 pfs120"><span class="smcap">By</span> THOS. D. TUTTLE, B.S., M.D.</p> - -<p class="pfs60 lsp wsp">SECRETARY AND EXECUTIVE OFFICER OF<br /> -THE STATE BOARD OF HEALTH OF MONTANA</p> - -<p class="p6" /> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/colophon.jpg" width="50" alt="" /> -</div> -<p class="p6" /> - -<p class="pfs100">YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK</p> -<p class="pfs135">WORLD BOOK COMPANY</p> -<p class="pfs120">1910</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<div class="bboxx"> - -<div class="bbox"> -<p class="pfs135">CONSERVATION OF HEALTH</p> - -<div class="blockquoty"> -<p class="noindent pad6 padr6">"Our national health is physically our greatest asset. To -prevent any possible deterioration of the American stock -should be a national ambition."—<span class="smcap">Theodore Roosevelt.</span></p> -</div> - -</div> -<p class="p1" /> -<div class="bbox fs80"> - -<p class="center pad6 padr6"><em>The conservation of individual and national -health is the keynote of these books</em></p> - -<p class="p2">PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC HEALTH</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Thos. D. Tuttle, M.D.</span>, Secretary and Executive Officer -of the State Board of Health of Montana. Illustrated. Cloth. -vii + 186 pages. List price 50 cents, mailing price 60 cents.</p></div> - -<p class="p2">PRIMER OF HYGIENE</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">John W. Ritchie</span>, of the College of William and Mary in -Virginia, and <span class="smcap">Joseph S. Caldwell</span>, of the George Peabody -College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee. Illustrated. Cloth. -vi + 184 pages. List price 40 cents, mailing price 48 cents.</p></div> - -<p class="p2">PRIMER OF SANITATION</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">John W. Ritchie</span>. Illustrated. Cloth. vi + 200 pages. -List price 50 cents, mailing price 60 cents.</p></div> - -<p class="p2">HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY</p> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">John W. Ritchie</span>. Illustrated in black and colors. Cloth. -vi + 362 pages. List price 80 cents, mailing price 96 cents.</p></div> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="pfs180 lsp wsp">WORLD BOOK COMPANY</p> -<p class="pfs80">CASPAR W. HODGSON, <em>Manager</em></p> -<p class="pfs90 lsp">YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK</p> - -</div> -</div> - -<p class="p1 pfs70"><em>Copyright, 1910, by World Book Company. All rights reserved</em></p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></h2> - - -<p>The earliest history of remote ages describes methods -employed in combating disease, and down through all the -centuries the struggle against infection has been going on. -The science of health as applied in recent years reveals -wonderful progress in the avoidance of disease, and in the -control of the violent epidemics by which in the past nations -were almost exterminated. Modern methods of hygiene -and sanitation as applied to public health have robbed -smallpox and diphtheria of their death-dealing power; -cholera and yellow fever have been forced to retreat before -the victorious hosts of applied medical science; tuberculosis, -the greatest foe of human life, is slowly but surely receding -before the determined efforts of modern preventive medicine.</p> - -<p>By nature man is endowed with resistive power sufficient -to ward off most forms of disease, provided he keeps his -health at a normal standard by right living. If, however, -he allows his health to become impaired by reason of overwork, -bad habits, wilful exposure to contagion or unhealthful -surroundings, he readily falls a prey to disease.</p> - -<p>The author of <cite>Principles of Public Health</cite> has here set -forth the general rules of life by the observance of which -every adult and every child not only can do much to preserve -his own health but also can prove himself a prominent -factor in raising the standard of public health. A campaign -of education is demanded to arrest the enormous loss of -life which is carrying so many to untimely graves, and the -instruction given in this volume will be of inestimable -value in teaching people how to avoid avoidable disease.</p> - -<p>The author has not attempted to deal with all the diseases -that may be classed as preventable; as the work is -intended for use in the public schools, only such diseases -are mentioned as it seems fitting to present to school -children. To teach our children a proper respect for their -own health and for the community welfare is to fit them for -the best citizenship.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">E. A. Pierce, M. D.</span></p> -<p class="smcap fs80">Portland, Oregon</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS" id="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</a></h2> - - -<p>The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation of -the valuable assistance rendered in the preparation of this -work by Dr. S. T. Armstrong, of New York City; Dr. H. -Wheeler Bond, Commissioner of Health, St. Louis, Missouri; -Dr. H. M. Bracken, Secretary and Executive Officer -of the State Board of Health of Minnesota; J. S. Caldwell, -Professor of Biology, George Peabody College for Teachers, -Nashville, Tennessee; R. J. Condon, Superintendent of -Schools, Providence, Rhode Island; Mrs. Nona B. Eddy, of -the Public Schools of Helena, Montana; Dr. F. M. McMurray, -of Teachers College, Columbia University, New -York City; Miss Jessie B. Montgomery, Supervising Critic -in Training School, State Normal School, Terre Haute, Indiana; -Dr. E. A. Pierce, Secretary and Executive Officer -of the State Board of Health of Oregon.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="99%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc lsp" colspan="3">PART I—THE FIGHT FOR HEALTH</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdpp"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr fs70">CHAPTER</td><td></td><td class="tdr fs70">PAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">I.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Constant Danger of Illness</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">II.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Necessity of Caring for the Body</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">4</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">III.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Clothing Affects Health</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">IV.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Uses of Food</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">14</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">V.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Care of Food—Meats</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">VI.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Care of Food—Milk</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">VII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Decomposition of Food</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">30</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">VIII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Harm Done by Improper Cooking</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">34</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">IX.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Neatness, Cheerfulness, and Good Manners Promote Health</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">37</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">X.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Dangers from Poor Teeth</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">41</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XI.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Necessity for Pure Air and how to Secure it</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">45</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Rest Essential to Health</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">51</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XIII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Care of the Eye and Ear</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">56</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XIV.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Care of the Skin</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XV.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Common Poisons to be Avoided</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">64</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc lsp" colspan="3">PART II—THE ENEMIES OF HEALTH</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdpp"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XVI.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Disease Germs</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">73</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XVII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Encouragement of Disease by Uncleanly Habits</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">75</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XVIII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Flies as Carriers of Disease</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XIX.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Disease Germs get into Water</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XX.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Transmission of Disease through the Air</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">89</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXI.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Insects as Carriers of Disease</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">92</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How to Keep Germs out of Wounds</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXIII.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Transmission of Diphtheria</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">100</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXIV.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Cure of Diphtheria</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">108</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXV.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Typhoid Fever Germs are Carried</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">113</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXVI.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hookworm Disease and Amoebic Dysentery</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">120</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXVII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Scarlet Fever is Carried</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">123</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXVIII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Measles and Whooping Cough Dangerous Diseases</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXIX.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Smallpox is Prevented</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">131</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXX.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Why Vaccination Sometimes seems a Failure</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">138</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXXI.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Consumption, the Great White Plague</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXI">142</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXXII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Consumption is Spread and how Prevented</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXII">150</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrv">XXXIII.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">How Consumption is Cured</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXIII">157</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Appendix—Summary of Anatomy</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDIX">163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Suggestions to the Teacher</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#SUGGESTIONS">182</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">183</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PART I<br /> - -<span class="medium bold">THE FIGHT FOR HEALTH</span></h2> - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER I</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">CONSTANT DANGER OF ILLNESS</span></h3> - - -<p>Every boy and girl confidently expects to grow into a -strong and healthy man or woman. How often we hear -a child say, "When I am a man," or "When I am a -woman;" but I have never heard a boy or a girl say, "If -I live to be a man or woman." When you think of what -you will do when you are grown into men or women, it -never occurs to you that you may be weak and sickly and -therefore not able to do the very things that you would -most like to do. This suggests that sickness is not natural, -else the thought that you may perhaps become sick would -enter your mind. As a matter of fact, most sickness is not -natural.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The fight for -life</div> - -<p>There is a constant struggle going on in the world. -You see a fight about you every day among the animals. -You see the spider catch the fly, the snake catch the -frog, the bird catch the insect, and the big fish catch -the minnow; and you have heard of wars where men kill -one another.</p> - -<p>The greatest enemies that men have to fight, however, -are not other men, or wild animals, but foes that kill -more men, women and children every year than were -ever killed in the same length of time by war. These -foes are small, very small, but you must not think that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -because things are small they are not dangerous. We call -these foes <em>disease germs</em>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure001.jpg" width="200" alt="" /> -<img src="images/figure002.jpg" width="200" alt="" /> -</div> -<div class="textcol"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Looking at cells<br /> -through a microscope.</p> -</div> -<div class="textcol"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Some skin cells as seen<br /> -through a microscope.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">The nature -of a germ</div> - -<p>The germ is a very, very small body; it is the smallest -living body that we know. Later we shall learn that our -bodies are made up of cells, and that these cells are extremely -small—so small that it takes a very powerful -microscope to see one of them. The germ is still smaller -than the cells in our bodies, and it is made of a single cell. -There are a great many kinds of germs in the world. -Fortunately, most of them are not harmful. Some germs -cause disease, but there are other germs that not only are -not harmful, but are actually helpful to men. Among -the helpful germs are those that enrich the ground, and -these should be protected; but all germs that cause disease -should be destroyed as rapidly as possible. These germs -are fighting all the time against our health. They are not -armed with guns and cannon, neither do they build forts -from which to fight; but they get inside our bodies and -attack us there.</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to fight -germs</div> - -<p>There are three principal ways by which we fight -disease germs: <em>first</em>, by keeping our bodies so well and -strong that germs cannot live in them; <em>second</em>, by keeping -germs out of our bodies; <em>third</em>, by preventing germs -from accumulating in the world—that is, by killing as -many of them as possible.</p> - -<p>If it is possible to keep so well and strong that disease -germs cannot live in our bodies, you will naturally infer -that there are other causes of sickness besides disease -germs. That is true, for there are a great many things -beside germs that cause our bodies to get into such a condition -that disease germs can enter and grow and make -us ill. We sometimes call this a "run-down" condition. -Before we begin, then, to study the germs that cause -disease, we must learn how to keep our bodies strong and -ready to fight these germs.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What evidence have we that sickness is not -natural? 2. Name some of the fights going on in the animal -world. 3. What can you say of the amount of illness caused -by germs? 4. Tell what you have learned about germs. -5. Name three ways of fighting germs.</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Most sickness comes from failure to observe -Nature's laws. 2. We must keep up a constant fight against -germs that cause sickness. 3. We fight germs by killing as -many of them as we can, and by keeping our bodies so strong -that if a disease germ enters it cannot grow.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER II</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">THE NECESSITY OF CARING FOR THE BODY</span></h3> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure003.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The organs of the body.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How the -body is like -an automobile</div> - -<p>These bodies of ours are built somewhat like automobiles. -An automobile is made up of a framework, wheels, -body, gasoline tank, engine, and steering-gear. The -human body has much the same form of construction. -We have a frame, which is made of the bones of the body.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -We have arms and legs, which correspond to the wheels of -the automobile. We have many little pockets in our bodies -in which fat is stored, and these little pockets answer to -the gasoline tank of the automobile. We have an engine -which, like the automobile engine, is made up of many -parts; and we have a head or brain, that plays the same -part as the steering-gear of the automobile.</p> - -<p>The automobile has a tank in which is carried the gasoline -necessary to develop power for the machine. If the -gasoline gives out, the engine will not run, and before -the owner starts on a trip, he is always careful to see that -the tank is well filled. In the same way, if we do not -provide new fat for the pockets in our bodies in which the -fat is stored, our supply will soon give out and our bodies -will refuse to work, just as the engine of the automobile -will refuse to work when the gasoline is used up.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">What cells -are like</div> - -<p>The automobile is made of iron and wood and rubber, -and each bit of iron and wood and rubber is made up of -tiny particles. The body is made of bones and muscles, -covered with skin, and all these are made up of very -fine particles that we call cells. Every part of the body -is made of these fine cells. The cells are so small that -they can be seen only with a powerful microscope. If -you look at your hand you cannot see a cell, because it -takes a great many cells to make a spot large enough for -you to see. In Figure 1 you see a boy looking through a -microscope, and beside him you see a picture of what he -sees. This picture does not look like the skin on your -hand, neither does it look like the skin on the boy's hand; -but it is nothing more nor less than a piece of skin taken -from that boy's hand, and it looks just as a piece of skin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -from your own hand would look if you were to see it -through a very strong microscope.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why cells -must not be -killed</div> - -<p>The whole body is made up of just such little cells as -you see in Figure 4, and each cell is alive and has a -certain work to perform. It is very important that we -keep these cells from dying and that they perform the -work for which they are intended, for if these cells die -or fail to act, the body becomes sick or dies.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 25%;"> -<img src="images/figure004.jpg" width="125" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> A cell. -(a) Cell body; (b) nucleus; (c) nucleolus.</div> -</div> - -<p>You can scratch some of the paint from your automobile -and the machine will work just as well as ever. -Apparently no harm has been done, but -an opening has been made through which -moisture and germs can enter and cause -the wood to rot and the iron to rust. You -can remove certain parts of the automobile -and still the machine will do its work; but -you cannot take away too much of any -one part without weakening the automobile, -and if certain parts are missing (such -as the sparker, the battery, or the steering-gear), -the usefulness of the machine is destroyed. So it -is with the body. You can scratch off some of the skin -and not do any apparent harm, but you have made an -opening through which germs may get into the body. -You can remove certain parts of the body, such as the -arm or leg, and still the body will do efficient service. -But there are certain parts of the body that are necessary -to life, just as certain parts of the automobile are -necessary to the usefulness of the machine. You cannot -remove the heart and live; you cannot remove the brain -and live.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">How cells -are killed</div> - -<p>You are probably thinking that it must be easy to kill -such a little thing as a cell; and so it is. Cells can be -killed by too much heat or too much cold. When you -skin your hand, you kill many cells, and at the same time -make an opening for germs to get in and cause sickness. -You can kill cells also by starving them, for they must -have not only enough food, but the right kind of food. -If you feed your bodies on nothing but candy, pie, and -cake, most of the cells will refuse to perform their work -and many of them will die. These cells must have also -an abundance of air, and the air must be pure and fresh. -If you breathe the air that others have breathed or that -contains poison of any kind, you will soon find that you -are not feeling well. This simply means that so many of -the cells are being starved for fresh air, that not enough -strong ones are left to do the necessary work. You can -kill these cells by overwork, for they must have a proper -amount of rest. If you go to school all day long and then -sit up until midnight every night, you must not expect -the cells of your body to keep strong and well. You -can kill these cells by the use of certain things that -act as poisons to them, such as tobacco, beer, wine, or -whisky.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. In what way is the body like an automobile? -2. What are cells like? 3. Why must cells not be killed? -4. Name five ways by which we kill cells.</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Each part of the body is important to the -welfare of the whole body. 2. Each part of the body is -made up of very small particles that we call cells; each cell -in the body is alive and has a certain work to perform. -3. Cells are very easily weakened and killed. 4. There are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -five principal ways by which we kill the cells in our bodies: -by too much heat or cold; by not giving them the proper -kinds of foods; by not giving them enough fresh air; -by giving them too much work to do; and by poisoning -them.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER III</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW CLOTHING AFFECTS HEALTH</span></h3> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure005.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Warm, dry clothing necessary for health.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why the -body should -be equally -covered</div> - -<p>The body should always be kept at as nearly uniform -a temperature as possible. In order to do this we wear -clothing. Clothing keeps out the heat on a hot day, just -as it keeps the heat in and the cold out on a cold day. -The clothing should be equally heavy on all parts of the -body. It is not right to wear a thick dress over your -chest and leave your shoulders and arms bare, or nearly -so. People who do this are killing a great many cells by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -letting part of their bodies become chilled while the rest -is warm, probably too warm.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why clothing -should -not be too -heavy</div> - -<p>The clothing should be just heavy enough to keep the -body warm. If you wear such heavy clothing indoors -that you are constantly perspiring, your underclothes become -damp, and when you go out, even though you put -on your overcoat, your body becomes chilled. If you -begin to sneeze, that is Nature's way of telling you that -you are killing many of your cells by too much cold.</p> - -<p>People sometimes get warm from exercising, and then -take off their coats. They should have removed their -coats before they began to exercise. If you take off your -coat after you are too warm, your body becomes chilled. -Baseball pitchers know this, and if you watch a good -pitcher, you will see that he always puts on his sweater -as soon as he stops pitching, even though he is very -warm. He knows that if he cools off too quickly, he will -become stiff and sore and cannot pitch good ball.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">When a -draft is -dangerous</div> - -<p>Sometimes a person sits in a warm room until he begins -to perspire freely. Then he opens a window and sits -in the draft. Under ordinary conditions, the cool wind -alone would chill the body, but now the rapid drying of -the perspiration makes the body cool still more quickly. -The sudden chill causes the person to take cold, which is -simply another way of saying that he has killed many cells -and caused others to fall sick, so that they cannot perform -their work. We cannot get too much fresh air. Drafts -do not hurt us if we are thoroughly wrapped up; but it is -very dangerous to allow the wind to strike the body when -it is not well protected, and especially when it is damp -with perspiration.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> -<img src="images/figure006.jpg" width="150" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> Properly prepared -for wet weather.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why damp -clothing is -dangerous</div> - -<p>Damp clothing chills the body very rapidly and kills -many cells. Indeed, if a single one of the germs that -cause pneumonia were to enter your -lungs while you were wearing damp -clothing, it would grow so rapidly -that you might have pneumonia in -a very little while. That is why it -is important to change your shoes -and stockings as soon as you get -them wet, and to take off immediately -any clothing that becomes -damp. It is hard for boys and girls -to keep their feet dry in the winter -and spring months, and rubbers are -a nuisance; but if you expect to -grow into the strong man or woman -you picture yourself becoming, you -must take care to wear your rubbers. -Otherwise you may become weak -and sickly, and never be able to do -the things you hope to do.</p> - -<p>The feet are not the only part of -the body that needs to be kept dry. -A wet coat is just as harmful as -wet shoes and stockings; hence, -you should always carry an umbrella -or wear a raincoat when you go out into the rain. -Umbrellas are unhandy for boys and girls to carry, but -if you will remember that thousands of little cells in -your body are being injured when you get wet and -chilled, you will be willing to take your umbrella.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">When to -wear an -overcoat</div> - -<p>In cold weather the same amount of clothing should -not be worn in the house and outdoors; for this reason, -we have overcoats. If you wear your overcoat in the -house, you will become overwarm and your underclothing -will then become damp with perspiration; when -you go outdoors into the cold air, this dampness will have -just the same effect as would dampness that comes from -outside.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure007-008.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 7 and 8. If you keep your overcoat on in the house, your -underclothes become damp from perspiration, and when you go outdoors -your body becomes chilled.</div> -</div> - -<p>As soon as the weather gets cold, put on your overcoat -every time you go outdoors, and take it off as soon as you -come into the house. This is troublesome for boys and -girls to do, because they want to run in and out of the -house so often; but on the other hand, think of all the -cells you will kill if you do not do this, and you will certainly -consider it worth while to take off your coat and put -it on again.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. How does keeping the body equally covered -protect the cells? 2. Give reasons for not wearing too heavy -clothing. 3. When is it safe to sit in a draft, and when dangerous? -4. What is the danger of keeping on wet shoes or other -damp clothing? 5. When and why should overcoats be worn?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Clothing should be just heavy enough to keep -the body warm all the time. 2. Never take off your coat or -sit in a draft when you are too warm. 3. Since wearing damp -clothing causes a great deal of sickness, change your clothes -as soon as they become wet or damp. 4. Do not forget to -take your umbrella when it is raining and to wear your rubbers -when the ground is wet. 5. In cold weather wear your overcoat -when you are outdoors, but take it off when you come -into the house.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IV</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">THE USES OF FOOD</span></h3> - - -<p>We kill a great many of the cells in our bodies by starving -them; either we do not give them enough food or we -do not supply the right kind of food.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why the -body needs -new cells</div> - -<p>Not only must we feed the cells in our bodies, but we -must be constantly making new ones, for in all our work -or play, awake or asleep, we are constantly using up certain -cells. These cells are used to make the body go, -just as the engine uses coal to form the steam that gives -it power to run. Boys and girls grow fast and, of course, -if they expect to become well men and women, they must -make a great many new cells all the time, in addition to -those used in doing the work of the body. If we are to -make new cells we must have the right kind of food with -which to make them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How the -body keeps -itself warm</div> - -<p>We want to do something besides make new cells; we -want to keep warm and well the cells we already have. -No amount of clothing would keep you warm if you were -not making heat inside your body all the time, any more -than you could make a telephone post warm by putting -your coat on it. Therefore it is necessary to have food -that makes heat in the body, in addition to food that -builds cells.</p> - -<p>We eat a great many kinds of foods, and all that we eat -is used either for building new cells or for producing heat -in the body. Thus we can divide all our foods into two -classes—building material and heat-producing material. -The type of building material is lean meat, and the type -of heat-producing material is fat meat and starches, such -as potatoes and bread. Milk contains much building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -material as well as heat-producing material. That is -why a baby grows and keeps warm while he takes nothing -but milk.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The building -foods</div> - -<p>Lean meat is the best of all building foods. Eggs are -largely a form of lean meat, and hence constitute a good -article of food for building purposes. Certain vegetables -contain a large per cent of building material; this is especially -true of dried beans and peas. Wheat flour and -corn meal (particularly when made of whole wheat and -unbolted meal) contain much building material.</p> - -<p>It is possible for one to live and grow when eating only -vegetable matter. But the boy or girl who tries to become -a strong man or woman by eating only vegetables will be -disappointed; these are mostly heat-producing foods and -will not make strong bodies. Experience has proved that -the best results are obtained by eating what is called "a -mixed diet," that is, a diet composed partly of lean meats -and partly of fats and vegetables.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The heat-producing -foods</div> - -<p>Of the heat-producing foods, fat is the most powerful. -Most of the fat that we eat is used immediately for producing -in the body heat, and therefore power, but a part -of it is stored up for future use. We see it in all healthy -young persons. It is this stored-up fat that gives the -body its rounded form. When any one has been sick he -is thin, because, to produce heat and power while he was -sick, he has had to use the fat stored up in his body. To -have such a supply of fat is like having a bank account to -draw on when out of work. We might call the deposits of -fat in our bodies our health banks.</p> - -<p>Fat meat is not the only form in which we eat fats; we -eat them in a great many other ways. Certain vegetables,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -such as beans, contain an oil that forms fat. Ripe olives -contain a great deal of fatty oil. Butter is a very important -form of fat, and cream contains a large amount of it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Cost of suitable -foods</div> - -<p>In selecting our foods we should think of two things: -<em>first</em>, the value of the food as a heat-producer or as a building -material; and <em>second</em>, the cost of the food. We may -like butter much better than bacon, but we should remember -that, pound for pound, bacon has a greater -nourishing power than butter, and a pound of bacon will -cost far less than a pound of butter.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<p>Vegetable foods produce heat by means of the starch -which they contain. All vegetables contain starch. This -starch is changed into a kind of sugar in the body, and -when thus changed it is used to produce heat and power. -All vegetable foods do not have the same heat-producing -power. There is more heat-producing power in a pound -of oatmeal than there is in ten pounds of cabbage. Ten -cents' worth of dried beans will produce more heat in the -body than will a dollar's worth of lettuce. Thirty cents' -worth of corn meal will do more building in the body than -will a piece of mutton worth a dollar and a half; but you -would have to eat a large amount of corn meal in order -to secure the building effect that would result from eating -a small quantity of mutton. In most fruits the only -nourishing quality is in the sugar they contain. This -sugar produces heat in the body just as starch does.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The real -value of -advertised -foods</div> - -<p>You will see some foods advertised as possessing a -wonderful nourishing power. Do not let such statements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -deceive you, for no food can have a greater nourishing -power than the things from which it is made. If the particular -food advertised is made from wheat flour, its -nourishing power is just the same as that of an equal -quantity of wheat flour. If it is made from corn meal, it -can have no greater nourishing power than has the meal -itself.</p> - -<p>We have learned something about the materials necessary -in food and why they are needed. We must now -learn why foods that contain these materials sometimes -do not give us as good results as we might hope for.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What use does the body make of new cells? -2. How does the body keep itself warm? 3. Name two uses -that the body makes of food. 4. What foods are especially -useful for making cells? 5. What foods are chiefly used for -making heat? 6. Select articles of food for two meals of -equal nourishing value, one meal to be expensive and the other -inexpensive. 7. How would you determine the real value of -any food?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Foods are used to make heat and power in the -body and to make the body grow. 2. The foods that make -the body grow are called building materials, and lean meat is -the best kind of building material. 3. The foods that produce -heat and power in the body are called heat-producing materials, -and fats and starches are the best heat-producers. -4. All vegetables contain starch, some of them contain a fatty -oil, and most of them contain some building material. 5. You -can get as much building and heat-producing material from -cheap foods as you can from expensive foods.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER V</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">CARE OF FOOD—MEATS</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Value of -meat as a -food</div> - -<p>Meat is one of the most important articles of our diet. -It furnishes essential materials for building cells, and it -furnishes fat for making heat and power in the body.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure009.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A double menace to health; the slaughterhouse -is dirty, and the filth is drained into a stream.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Characteristics -of good meat</div> - -<p>Since meat is so important an article of food, we should be -very careful to see that it is handled in a way to keep it always -perfectly clean. We should make sure that it comes -from animals absolutely free from any kind of disease, and -that no germs have been allowed to develop poisons in it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How meat -may be -kept clean</div> - -<p>While people know that they ought to pay attention to -these things, as a matter of fact they do not do it. They -take very little interest in the way the meat that they -are to eat is handled, and very few ever go to the -slaughterhouse or into the back room of the butcher -shop to see whether things are kept clean or not. Some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -people say, "Oh, we do not like to go there because it is -such a horrid place." If these places were kept clean, -as they should be, they would not be "horrid." And if -the people who buy the meat would occasionally visit -them, these places would be kept clean.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure010.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Properly displayed foods, protected from handling and -from dirt and flies.</div> -</div> - -<p>If the slaughterhouse and the butcher shop where your -meats are handled are not kept clean, the meat is sure to -have germs growing in it, and these germs will cause -poisons called <em>ptomaines</em> to form in the meat. There may -not be enough of them to make you sick, but there will be -enough to injure some of the cells of your body, and to -deprive you of much of the nourishment that you would -otherwise get from the meat.</p> - -<p>All boys and girls should belong to a "Clean Meat -League" and should try to persuade their parents not to -buy meat from any butcher who does not keep his -slaughterhouse and butcher shop clean.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Dangers -from diseased -meat</div> - -<p>Sometimes butchers are anxious to make money fast -and take little thought for the number of people they may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -make ill. They can buy sick cows very much cheaper -than well ones. The meat from a sick cow looks just like -the meat from a healthy cow, and the dishonest butcher -sells both at the same price. The meat from the diseased -cow is not suitable for food. It may cause you to have the -same disease that the cow had, or it may only be changed -to such an extent that it will not give you the nourishment -that you should get from good meat. The butcher -who sells you meat from a sick cow is of course dishonest.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure011.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> Improperly displayed foods, exposed to handling and -to dirt and flies.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How to prevent -the sale -of diseased -meats</div> - -<p>Ask your father to visit the slaughterhouse where your -meat is killed. The only thing you need to do is to persuade -him to go and see whether the cattle are sick or not. -If the cattle look sick, you will not have to ask him not to -buy the meat. No person should ever eat meat that comes -from a diseased animal, no matter what the nature of the -sickness may be. People who will take the trouble to -visit the slaughterhouses occasionally, to investigate these -things for themselves, will not have such meat offered -them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Importance -of giving -animals -clean food</div> - -<p>Animals that are fed on filthy food are not fit for human -consumption. Butchers often feed the offal (the insides) -of animals to the hogs. This makes the hogs fatten -quickly, but it also makes them diseased. When you go -to the slaughterhouse with your father, ask him to go -around to the back door, and if you see hogs eating this -filth, do not buy any more meat from that butcher.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What use does the body make of meat? -2. What conditions are essential for good meat? 3. How can -meat be kept clean? 4. Why is meat from a diseased animal -unfit for food? 5. How can you help in preventing the sale -of meat from diseased animals? 6. Why should animals not -be fed with offal?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Meat that is not handled in a clean manner -is sure to contain germs that cause a poison to form in the -meat. 2. Never buy meat from a butcher who does not keep -his slaughterhouse and butcher shop clean. 3. Meat from a -diseased animal is not fit for food. 4. Meat from animals -fed on filthy food should not be eaten. 5. Form a "Clean -Meat League" and visit the slaughterhouse where your meat -is killed.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VI</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">CARE OF FOOD—MILK</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Value of -milk as a -food</div> - -<p>Milk is another important article of food. The Department -of Agriculture at Washington says that milk -furnishes sixteen per cent of the nourishment of the -people of the country. Milk is an excellent food when it -is pure, but when it is not pure it is very dangerous.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure012.jpg" width="600" height="269" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> A clean dairy.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Milk as a -carrier of -germs</div> - -<p>Milk has carried the germs of every disease of which -the germ is known; it has also carried many diseases of -which we do not know the germ. Disease germs grow -rapidly in milk, and they do not make the milk look -different or taste different from milk that is perfectly pure. -If you could take two bottles of milk entirely free from -disease germs and put typhoid fever germs in one, and -should set both bottles in an ice box for twenty-four hours, -you would not then be able to tell into which one you had -put the germs. The milk in both bottles would look and -taste just the same. The only difference between the milk -in the two bottles would be that if you drank from one it -would make you stronger and would furnish you with both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -building material and power-producing material, while -if you drank from the other you would become very ill -and would probably die.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How disease -germs -get into -milk:</div> - -<p>Since we cannot tell from the taste or the appearance of -milk whether or not there are disease germs in it, we must -take every precaution possible -to keep them out. The first -step is to learn where the -disease germs come from and -how they get into the milk.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure013.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> Polluted milk is -sure to come from a dairy -where cleanliness is not observed.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) By dirt -on the cow</div> - -<p>Every cow has more or less -dirt on her sides and udder; -some have a great deal. When -the cow is milked, much of -the dirt falls into the milk -bucket. This dirt always contains -a great many germs of -different kinds, and many of -them are germs that cause disease. Straining the milk -will take out much of the dirt, but disease germs will go -through the finest strainer that was ever made.</p> - -<p>In Figure 13 we see a man milking a dirty cow. The -owner has allowed his lot to become so dirty that the -cow cannot find a clean place in which to lie down. -If the man kept his lot clean, and if before milking -the light dirt on the cow's sides and udder were -wiped off with a damp cloth, no germs would fall into -the milk.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) By dirt -in the cow -barn</div> - -<p>Another source of dirt and disease germs in milk is the -barn. The walls of a barn where cows are milked should -always be kept clean and should be whitewashed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -frequently. If this is done, there will be comparatively -little dirt on the walls to fall into the milk.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure014.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> Only clean milk will come from a dairy where proper -precautions are taken.</div> -</div> - -<p>Of course the walls and floors of a barn cannot be kept -absolutely clean. There will always be some dirt, and -the movements of the cows shifting their position and -switching their tails, will stir up the dust; so it is important -to remove the milk from the barn as soon as possible. -Milk cans should never be kept in the barn. The milk -should be taken directly from the barn to a cooling house -and there strained.</p> - -<p>All barns where cows are kept should have plenty of -windows, that there may be an abundance of light and fresh -air. Cows need fresh air just as much as people do, -while a barn that is not supplied with plenty of light is -very likely to be a dirty barn.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> - -<p>Keep dirt and disease germs out of the milk by keeping -the barn clean and by taking the milk away from the barn -as soon as possible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure015.jpg" width="200" alt="" /> -<img src="images/figure016.jpg" width="200" alt="" /> -</div> -<div class="textcol"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> A dirty, insanitary milk-house.</p> -</div> -<div class="textcol"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> A clean, inexpensive milk-house.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(3) By dirt -on the -milkman</div> - -<p>Another source of dirt and disease germs in milk is -the milkman or milkmaid. No matter how careful we -may be, our clothes hold more or less dust, and all dust -contains germs, very often disease germs. When a person -is milking a cow, the dust from his clothes is shaken off -into the milk. The only way to avoid this is to wear, while -milking, a special suit of clothes made of white cloth, -which may be washed as soon as it shows the least -particle of dirt.</p> - -<p>The milker's hands, too, are often dirty. Perhaps he -carefully washes his hands after milking, but not before. -It is a common custom for milkers to moisten their hands -with milk while milking, and to do this frequently. The -result is that dirty milk from their hands is constantly -dropping into the milk pail. This is a very bad habit,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -and doubly bad if the milkman has not washed his hands -before milking.</p> - -<p>Sometimes there are sick people at the dairy farm. -Often some one nurses a sick person until milking time -and then goes out and milks the cows. When this is done, -the milker is almost -sure to plant the -germs of the disease -in the milk. No milk -should ever be used -from any dairy where -there is an infectious -disease; and no one -who has charge of -a sick person, no -matter what the nature -of the sickness, -should ever handle -milk that is to be -used by others.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 60%;"> -<img src="images/figure017.jpg" width="300" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> A model bottling establishment.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(4) By dirt -in cans -and bottles</div> - -<p>The cans and bottles in which the milk is placed are -frequently sources of dirt and germs. Milk cans and -bottles are supposed to be thoroughly washed before milk -is put into them, and they should be thoroughly scalded -after they are washed. This is not always done, and -sometimes the bottles are not washed at all.</p> - -<p>Some dairymen will tell you that the bottles and cans -are always washed and scalded just before the milk is put -into them, and that this is never neglected by any dairyman. -That is what a dairyman once told me. Then I -asked him how he accounted for the fact that I had found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -a milk ticket in the bottle with the fresh milk. Of course -he could not explain this, though I thought I could explain -it for him. The old milk bottle was returned to the -milkman with the ticket for the new milk inside it. The -deliveryman left the fresh milk, but forgot to take the -ticket out of the bottle; and the man who "washed" the -bottles must have forgotten to take out the ticket too. Of -course, the bottle was not washed at all, and if one bottle -goes unwashed, it is reasonable to assume that others are -neglected in the same way.</p> - -<p>Milk bottles and cans should always be thoroughly -washed before fresh milk is put into them. This washing -cannot be done by little children; it is work for a man or -woman, and careful work at that.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(5) By polluted -water</div> - -<p>I have just told you that milk vessels should be thoroughly -washed. It is true, however, that disease germs -may get into the milk through this very process of washing -the vessels. Water sometimes contains disease germs, -especially the germs that cause typhoid fever, cholera, -and other diseases of the intestines. Such water is said -to be polluted. When milk vessels are washed with -polluted water, the germs are left in them and thus get -into the milk. If the water used to wash the cans is -thoroughly boiled, the germs will be killed; hence it is -important to scald all milk vessels.</p> - -<p>All water used about a dairy should be perfectly pure. -If there is the least suspicion about the quality of the -water, it should be examined by a chemist; and if it is -not pure, the milk from such a dairy should not be used. -In order to prevent the possibility of any infection, all -water used to wash milk vessels should be thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -boiled even when the water is known to be pure, and -the vessels should afterward be scalded, to kill any germs -that may be left after washing.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(6) By flies -falling into -the milk</div> - -<p>Flies very frequently get into the milk. Later we shall -learn more about how flies carry germs, but at present it -is enough to know that on every fly there are a great -many germs, and whenever a fly gets into milk it plants -those germs and they grow very rapidly. As soon as a -cow is milked, the milk should be taken to a clean cooling -house, with screens at all the windows and doors, -and there strained into a vessel and cooled.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(7) By disease -in the -cow</div> - -<p>The last way that we will mention by which germs get -into milk is by disease in the cow herself. Cows suffer -from many diseases, just as men do; and when a cow is -sick, her milk is very likely to contain the germs of the -disease that is making her sick. Especially is this true of -tuberculosis, or consumption, as it is called. A great -many children get consumption by drinking milk from -consumptive cows. No milk should ever be used from a -cow that is not healthy. All dairy cows should be examined -at frequent intervals by a competent veterinarian -to make sure that they are free from any disease.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Milk forms what per cent of the food of the -people of the United States? 2. Why is it important that milk -should be kept clean? 3. Name some ways by which germs get -into milk. 4. What is the danger from a dirty cow and barn? -5. How can this danger be prevented? 6. How does the -milkman allow germs to get into the milk, and how can he -avoid doing so? 7. How should milk cans and bottles be -washed? 8. Why is it important that only pure water be used -about the dairy? 9. How can flies be kept out of milk? -10. How should milch cows be tested to make sure that they -are free from tuberculosis?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Milk is a very important article of food; it -is both a building and a heat-producing material. 2. When -milk is not properly handled, it contains many disease germs. -3. Disease germs often get into milk from unwashed bottles -and cans; from dirty barns; from dirty milkmen; from dirty -water used to wash the cans and bottles; from flies falling -into the milk; from diseased cows.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">DECOMPOSITION OF FOOD</span></h3> - - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 25%;"> -<img src="images/figure018.jpg" width="125" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span> Partially -decayed fruit is not fit for food.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why partially -decomposed -foods -should not -be eaten</div> - -<p>Vegetables and fruits that are partially decayed should -not be eaten. Even if an orange is decayed only on one -side, the products of decomposition—that is, the poisons -produced by decay—have extended all -through the orange. You cannot see them, -but they are there. It is the same with a -decaying apple, potato, or melon. It never -pays to buy partially decayed or stale fruits -or vegetables, for not only are they dangerous -to health, but they are so reduced -in nourishing qualities by decomposition -that you get little value for the money you -spend. It is always better economy to -buy fresh fruits and vegetables, or even -canned vegetables, when the latter are -properly put up.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">What causes -decomposition</div> - -<p>All decomposition (rotting) in fruits and vegetables is -due to the action of germs. If you will look at a bunch -of old grapes, you will notice that some of the grapes are -rotten, while others have dried up. Now, if you examine -them very carefully, you will find that all the decomposed -grapes have breaks in the skin. The break may be very -small, but it is there, and through this break the germs -that cause decomposition have entered. You will find -also that there is not the slightest break in the skin of any -grape that has dried up. The germs could not enter, -hence there has been no decomposition. It is the same -with other fruits and vegetables: if the germs that cause -decomposition cannot get inside, the fruit or vegetable -will dry up, but will not rot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 60%;"> -<img src="images/figure019.jpg" width="300" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> Fruits displayed for -sale, but properly protected from -flies, dust, and dirty hands.</div> -</div> - -<p>Germs can go through a very small opening—so small -that you may not be able to find it; but if there is decomposition, -the hole is there.</p> - -<p>The skin of the body acts -in the same way as the skin -of the grape and keeps out -a great many germs that -would make us sick were -they able to get through the -skin. They often get -through the skin when we -cut ourselves.</p> - -<p>Meats decompose as well -as fruits and vegetables, -and the decomposition is -due to the presence of germs -in the meat. We cannot -keep all germs out of meat, -but we can keep out a great -many of them by having -everything clean about the -meat, by keeping it covered -as much of the time as -possible, and by handling it -only with clean hands.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 60%;"> -<img src="images/figure020.jpg" width="300" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span> Fruits for sale, not -properly protected from flies, -dirt, and other sources of filth.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why foods -do not decompose -in -very cold -places</div> - -<p>When meat is kept so -cold that it is almost frozen, -the germs cannot grow, and -decomposition is prevented. -In this way meat can be kept perfectly free from decomposition -for several weeks. After the meat is taken from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -the cold storage room, it should be cut as soon as possible -into steaks, roasts, and other pieces for cooking; and -when taken to your home, it should be kept in an ice box -until the time to cook it. You cannot keep meat very long -at home without decomposition starting, because small -ice boxes are not cold enough to check entirely the growth -of germs.</p> - -<p>Unless the meat is to be eaten hot, it should be cooled -after cooking and placed again in the ice box as soon -as possible. Cooking kills the germs that are in the -meat before it is cooked; but unless it is kept in a -very cold place and protected from flies after it is -cooked, germs will get into it again as soon as it is cold. -Cooked meat will decompose just the same as uncooked -meat.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">What is -formed in -food by decomposition</div> - -<p>When germs are allowed to grow in meat, as always -happens when it is not kept in a very cold place, these -germs cause the poisons that we call ptomaines. The people -who eat such meat become sick, and in many cases -do not recover. Cooking meat that contains ptomaines -will kill the germs that caused the poison, but it will not -destroy the poison that has already been formed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why some -canned -meats are -poisonous</div> - -<p>People not infrequently are poisoned by eating canned -meat. Sometimes you will hear it said that the poison -formed because the meat was in cans. This is not true; -the cans had nothing to do with the forming of the poison. -This was caused by germs that were allowed to grow in -the meat before it was cooked. When the meat was cooked -the germs were killed, but the poison was not destroyed. -In other words, the poison developed before the meat was -canned, and not after it was put into the cans.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What is the objection to eating fruits when -they are partially decayed? 2. Why do some foods shrivel -while others decay? 3. Why does decomposition not go on -in cold places? 4. What are ptomaines? 5. When are -ptomaines formed in canned meats?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Partially decomposed fruits or vegetables are -not suitable for foods. 2. Meats in which germs have been -allowed to grow should not be eaten. 3. Cooking meat kills -the germs in it, but does not destroy the poisons that the germs -have formed. 4. When canned meats are poisonous, it is -because the poison was formed before the meat was canned; -the poison is not caused by the can.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VIII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HARM DONE BY IMPROPER COOKING</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Effects of -improper -cooking</div> - -<p>Nearly all food should be cooked before it is eaten; -but if the cooking is not properly done, much of the -nourishing power of the food is destroyed, and in some -instances the food is rendered actually injurious.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why starchy -foods should -be thoroughly -cooked</div> - -<p>Starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked in order -that the coverings which surround the little granules may -be broken or made soft. If starchy foods are not thoroughly -cooked, the little grains go into the stomach as -hard as grains of sand; then most of them are not digested -at all, but pass out of the system without furnishing any -nourishment to the body. If starchy foods are fried in -fats, as is the case with doughnuts, the granules of starch -become coated with fat. As the fat is not digested until -it comes to the intestines, the saliva never reaches the coverings -of the starch, and more work is thrown on the other -juices of the body. The result is that the little glands -which make these other juices are overworked, or else the -starch is not digested at all and therefore furnishes no -nourishment to the body. When bread is sticky (we -sometimes call it soggy) in the middle of the loaf, it is -because the flour has not been thoroughly cooked and the -little grains or granules of starch are still hard. You cannot -feel these granules between your fingers, but they are -hard just the same, and very little of such food is made -use of in the body.</p> - -<p>Remember that all starchy foods should be thoroughly -cooked, and remember, too, that all vegetables are chiefly -starchy in character.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How fats -should be -cooked</div> - -<p>When fats are cooked over a very hot fire, an acid is -developed that is injurious to the body. This does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -mean that when the fire is hot enough to broil a steak -well, it causes this acid to form; neither does it mean that -heat sufficient to boil the grease for cooking doughnuts -will cause it to form. Every cook knows that when she -fries fat meat over a fire that is too hot, it has a bitter -taste. This bitter taste is caused by an acid which will -destroy a part of the usefulness of the food in the body -and will cause many of the cells to stop doing their work -properly.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How meats -should be -cooked</div> - -<p>There is a great difference of opinion in regard to cooking -foods, especially meats. Some people will tell you -that meats should not be cooked at all; that man originally -ate his meat raw and that this is the proper way. -Others will tell you that all meat should be cooked until -it does not show a particle of red, even until it is dry -throughout. These are the two extremes; and it is never -well to go to extremes in anything, especially in matters -that concern the health.</p> - -<p>Meat should always be cooked, because by being cooked -it is made more easily digestible; but it should not be -cooked, until all the juices, which contain much of the -nourishing matter, are dried up and the meat made -hard. Meat that is cooked until it is dry and hard is -more difficult to digest than meat that is not cooked -at all.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What effect has improper cooking on foods? -2. Why should starches be thoroughly cooked? 3. What is -the objection to starchy foods fried in grease? 4. What -changes take place in fatty food when it is fried over a very -hot fire? 5. Why should all meats be cooked? 6. What is -the objection to cooking meat until the juices are dried out?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked so -that the fine grains may be softened and the food thus made -more easy to digest. 2. Fats should not be fried over a very -hot fire because too much heat causes a poison to form in the -fat. 3. Meats should be cooked, but never until they become -dry, as the juices in the meat contain most of the nourishing -material.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IX</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW NEATNESS, CHEERFULNESS, AND GOOD MANNERS -PROMOTE HEALTH</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Why mealtime -should be -pleasant</div> - -<p>The dining table should be the pleasantest and most -inviting place in the house. If you are complaining and -quarreling during the meal, you cannot enjoy the food; -you cannot eat it properly; and your ill temper will so -affect your body that you cannot properly digest what -you eat. A dirty table, with flies swarming over the food, -is not very tempting, and when seated at such a table, -one does not eat the things that are best for him and -sometimes does not eat anything at all.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure021.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> A clean, inviting dining-room.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How uninviting -luncheons -affect -the appetite</div> - -<p>The luncheons that boys and girls take to school with -them are often prepared in so careless a way that they are -extremely uninviting. The substantial school lunch can be -made just as appetizing as the dainty refreshments at an -afternoon tea or at a party. If the same care is devoted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -the preparation of the one as of the other, boys and girls -will eat their lunches with enjoyment and good appetites.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why an attractive -table -calls for -pleasing -guests</div> - -<p>If the table is made to look clean and inviting, do you -not think that you, in your turn, should make yourself -as neat and clean as possible before you come to it? Dirt -on your hands and face not only does not look well, but -contains a great many germs that may get into your food -and thus find their way into your body and try to make -you ill.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure022.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span> Two lunches. Which is the more tempting?</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How foods -should be -eaten</div> - -<p>Besides being eaten in pleasant surroundings, all food -should be eaten slowly. Let us suppose that we are all -seated at a clean, inviting table and everyone is clean and -happy. Before the children is the very kind of food that -is best for them. It looks good and they know it is good, -and they want to eat all they can of it. But they think of -a game of jacks or of ball that they want to play as soon -as dinner is over, so they simply "bolt" their food.</p> - -<p>What are teeth made for? Why, to chew with, of -course. But why are we given some teeth that are sharp -like knives, and some that are flat like millstones? It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -seems probable that these different kinds of teeth are intended -for special purposes, and so they are. If our teeth -were intended only for cutting our food into bits small -enough to swallow without causing pain, there would be -no need for any except the sharp, knife-like teeth. But -we have the big grinders, which were made to use, and it -is very important that they be used in the right way.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why food -should be -thoroughly -chewed</div> - -<p>We do not chew our food simply to make it fine -enough to swallow, but for quite another reason as well. -In our mouths there is a fluid called <em>saliva</em>. Think of -something that you are very fond of eating, and the mere -thought of it makes the saliva come into your mouth. -This saliva has a very important duty to perform in connection -with preparing the food for the little cells of the -body. Each little grain of starch—and you will remember -that all vegetable foods are composed largely of starch—has -a capsule about it. This simply means that it is done -up in a little package. The saliva helps to open this -capsule by making it soft (just as water will soften the -paper on a package of candy), so that the other digestive -juices can reach the starch and turn it into the kind of -sugar that is used in the body. If you do not chew your -food very fine, the saliva will not reach the starch granules, -the little packages of starch will be hard to open when -they go into the stomach, and much of the starch will -never be made use of in the body. The saliva has much -the same action on the coverings of the little packages of -meat, for all the meat that we eat is done up in similar -packages.</p> - -<p>A great Englishman, Mr. Gladstone, who lived to be -eighty-three, made a practice of chewing every bite of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -food twenty times, and he thought this had a great deal -to do with his being such a strong and well man and living -to such an old age.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">When desserts -are -not harmful</div> - -<p>After you have eaten meats, bread, and vegetables, it -will do no harm to eat a piece of pie or cake, or a dish of -ice-cream or some other dessert. It is not easy, as a rule, -to digest these things (that is, to get them into such shape -that they can be used as food by the little cells in the body), -but a moderate amount of them is very good for boys and -girls, as well as for grown people. If you refuse to eat the -meat and bread, but wait until the dessert is served and -then fill your stomach with sweet things, you will be -starving some of the little cells, and you will be reminded -of this very soon. Sometimes you may be reminded of -it by having a pain in your stomach, but more often by -getting low grades in your lessons at school. Your teacher -will know it, too, because you will be so restless and inattentive -in your classes that she will have to give you a -low grade in deportment as well.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What kind of topics should be discussed at -mealtime? 2. What is the objection to an untidy table? -3. What kind of luncheon do you like best? 4. What does a -clean table call for? 5. What is the importance of eating -slowly? 6. Why should we chew our food thoroughly? -7. When are desserts not harmful?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. The dining table should be the most inviting -place in the house. 2. Unpleasant subjects should be avoided -at mealtime. 3. A clean table calls for clean people. 4. Eat -slowly and chew your food thoroughly, that the saliva may -reach each grain of starch. 5. Desserts are not harmful if -eaten at the end of a meal composed of good building and -heat-producing materials.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER X</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">DANGERS FROM POOR TEETH</span></h3> - - -<p>We have learned that chewing is not merely a process -of cutting our food into such lumps as we can swallow -without hurting ourselves; but that the food must be -ground up fine and thoroughly mixed with the saliva, that -the saliva may reach every particle of starch. If we do not -have good teeth, we cannot grind our food as fine as it -ought to be ground, and, as a result, a great deal of the -starch will not be reached by the saliva.</p> - -<p>Nature starts every child with a full set of good, strong, -clean teeth. These teeth, which we call first, or milk, teeth, -are not very large, but they are perfect in every respect and -last until the second, or permanent, teeth come in. That -is, they will last so long <em>if they are taken care of</em>. If they -are not taken care of, they will decay just as the later teeth -will decay, and they must be cared for in the same way.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why we -have baby -or milk -teeth</div> - -<p>Boys and girls sometimes wonder why they have a set -of teeth that come out before they can have the teeth that -must last them the rest of their lives. This is simply -because there is not room enough in a child's mouth for -the big, permanent teeth. We must have teeth while our -jaws are growing, so we have first a set of little teeth. -Then just as soon as our jaws get large enough for the big -teeth, the little teeth come out and the big ones come in.</p> - -<p>Teeth are about the hardest substance in the body. If -we take care of our second teeth, they should last as long -as we live. The only reason they do not last is because we -do not take care of them. If a person would keep his -teeth clean all the time, he would rarely be obliged to have -a single permanent tooth pulled.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why teeth -break easily</div> - -<p>Teeth are so hard that they are brittle, that is, they -break easily. Glass is brittle, and you can chip off a piece -of glass with a pin by sticking the pin into a crack in the -glass. In just the same way you can chip off a piece of a -tooth by sticking a pin between two teeth. That is what -often happens when people -pick their teeth with pins, or -with any other hard substance. -A metal toothpick is just as -bad as a pin.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure023.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span> Teeth were not intended -for nutcrackers.</div> -</div> - -<p>Another way by which little -pieces are chipped off the -teeth is by biting hard things. -Sometimes we see boys and -girls cracking nuts with their teeth; again we see them trying -to bite wires in two. They put their teeth to many uses -for which teeth were never made. They do not realize, -while they are abusing their teeth in this way, that they -are probably chipping the enamel, which is the hard, shiny -covering of the tooth, and are destroying the one protection -that their teeth have against decay.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why teeth -decay</div> - -<p>When a little piece is chipped off a tooth, an opening is -made through the enamel. Through this opening germs -may lodge in the inner part of the tooth, which is soft. -When this happens, a little black speck appears on the -tooth, and after a while the tooth begins to ache. If you -have a toothache, you go to a dentist, and he probably -finds that germs have caused the tooth to decay until -there is a hole extending into the very center of it.</p> - -<p>Teeth grow very close together, but there is always a -little space between them. Whenever you eat anything,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -particles of the food get into these spaces and if allowed -to remain there, soon decompose. These decomposing -particles of food between the teeth will gradually soften -even the enamel, and in this way little openings are made -for germs to get into the teeth.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to care -for the -teeth</div> - -<p>Never pick the teeth. You cannot make them clean -by picking them. Every -morning and night brush -your teeth with a stiff -toothbrush and a little -tooth powder. Brush them -both crosswise and up and -down, to get out everything -from between them. Do -not think you have done -your duty if you brush only -your front teeth, the ones -that show. Brush the back -teeth just as thoroughly as you do the front teeth. Very -few people will see your back teeth, but these decay just -as fast as your front teeth, if they are not kept clean.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure024.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span> A sanitary wash-basin -with a separate bowl for washing -the teeth.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How often -one should -go to the -dentist</div> - -<p>Twice each year you should have a dentist examine -your teeth, to see if there are any little spots where decay -has started. If you have kept your teeth perfectly clean -all the time, and have not chipped off little pieces, there -will be none of these decayed spots. But it is a safe plan to -have the teeth looked over at least twice a year, for you may -have broken a tooth without knowing it, and by the time -a decayed spot is large enough to cause pain, or has made -a hole that you can feel with your tongue, it has advanced -much farther than it should have been permitted to do.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Why should you chew your food thoroughly? -2. Why is it necessary to have baby teeth? 3. How are teeth -easily broken? 4. Why do teeth decay? 5. What must you -avoid in order to protect your teeth? 6. How should your -teeth be brushed? 7. Why should you have your teeth examined -twice each year by a dentist?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Take care of your teeth and they will last -you as long as you live. 2. Do not pick them with pins, or -toothpicks of any kind. 3. Do not use them for nutcrackers -or wire-cutters. 4. Do not use them for tack pullers. 5. Keep -them clean at all times. 6. Brush them up and down as well -as crosswise.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XI</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">NECESSITY FOR PURE AIR AND HOW TO SECURE IT</span></h3> - - -<p>We have learned how the cells of the body are killed by -starvation. Now let us learn how they are choked to death, -or killed by lack of air.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How air is -changed in -the body</div> - -<p>The cells of the body need <em>oxygen</em>, and the only way we -can give it to them is by means of air. Every time we take -air into our lungs we are giving oxygen to the red corpuscles -or cells in the blood, which distribute it to the other -cells in the body. The air that goes into our lungs, if it is -fresh and pure, contains a great deal of oxygen and a very -little of another gas called <em>carbon dioxid</em>. The air that -comes out of the lungs contains a very little oxygen and a -great deal of carbon dioxid. The blood not only takes the -oxygen out of the air, but gives carbon dioxid to the air. -This carbon dioxid is very poisonous, and would kill the -cells if it remained in the blood; hence we should never -breathe the same air twice. There is no lack of fresh air -in the world, and no excuse for anyone's ever breathing air -that is not pure.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Effects of -impure air</div> - -<p>If you close all the windows and doors in the schoolroom -and shut up the ventilators, you will soon find that you are -not able to pay close attention to your studies, and in a -little while you will begin to feel drowsy. This is because -you have used up so much of the oxygen in the air that -there is no longer enough to supply the demands of the little -cells, and because, in addition, you are taking into your -bodies the poisonous carbon dioxid that has been breathed -out into the room. It takes a great deal of fresh air to -supply the body with oxygen—about 1,250 cubic feet of air -each hour. With thirty or forty children in a room, it does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -not take long to use up all the oxygen. So there should -be a constant supply of fresh air coming into the room.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 60%;"> -<img src="images/figure025.jpg" width="300" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span> Results of breathing -good and bad air.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Methods -of ventilation</div> - -<p>It is not only in the schoolroom that you need oxygen. -When you are out-of-doors you get an abundance of fresh -air, but from a great many -houses every bit of fresh air -is shut out. It is always -possible to let an abundance -of fresh air into any -house without causing a -draft. A piece of board can -be made to fit into a window -frame so that when the -window is raised, the air will -be directed upward and will -not cause a draft. Hot-air -furnaces are made with cold-air -pipes. The fresh air from -outdoors comes through -these cold-air pipes and, after being heated, is driven into -the rooms of the house. Some people think they will save -coal by closing these drafts. Not only do they not save -coal (for the furnace does not give as much heat when this -draft is closed), but they kill their body cells by refusing to -give them oxygen. The cold-air pipe in a hot-air furnace -should always be kept wide open.</p> - -<p>In houses heated with steam or hot water, either the windows -must be kept open, or some other way must be provided -for admitting fresh air and taking out foul air. These -arrangements constitute a system of ventilation. Houses -heated with stoves must also be provided with some means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -of ventilation. The stove, by its draft, takes out a little -of the foul air, but it will not take out more air than one -person poisons.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> -<img src="images/figure026.jpg" width="225" alt="" /> -<img src="images/figure027.jpg" width="225" alt="" /> -<div class="textcolx"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span> Restfulness: Effect of -good ventilation in a sleeping-room, -with the right position for -sleeping.</p> -</div> -<div class="textcolx"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span> Restlessness: Effect of -poor ventilation in a sleeping-room, -with the wrong position for -sleeping.</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why windows -should -be kept open -at night</div> - -<p>Many people seem to think that they do not need fresh -air at night, and they close their bedroom windows as tight -as they can. Those people do not sleep well and often -have bad colds. You should always sleep with your windows -open. If it is impossible for you to have your windows -open without having a draft, choose the draft; it -will do you no harm if you are well covered, and under no -circumstances will it do you as much harm as the foul air -that you breathe if your window is closed. Some persons -(fortunately they are few nowadays) will tell you that night -air is dangerous. I wonder what kind of air these people -expect to breathe at night. Do they expect to fill the room<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -in the daytime with enough air for use at night? Such air -would certainly not be very fresh. Night air is the only -kind of air that it is possible to breathe at night.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The ventilation -of -public assembly -rooms</div> - -<p>Churches, theaters, and ten-cent shows are often very -poorly ventilated. You can always tell a poorly ventilated -room by the foul odor when you go into it from the fresh -air, and it is not wise to stay in such a room. You are -killing the cells in your body when you do so, and you will -very probably come out of it with a bad cold. When the -fresh air strikes you, you feel chilly and you may think you -are taking cold then, but in reality you took cold in that -room full of foul air.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Ventilation -of -workshops</div> - -<p>Workshops are often poorly ventilated. No person -should ever work in a badly ventilated place. The labor -unions frequently strike for higher wages, but until recently -a strike for better ventilation was rarely heard of. Better -ventilation would be practically equal to an increase in -wages, because there would be fewer doctors' bills to pay, -and less likelihood of losing work through illness. Always -have plenty of pure, fresh air wherever you are—in school, -in bed, at work, or at play.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why we -should -breathe -through -the nose</div> - -<p>The cells in the skin of the nose secrete a watery fluid, -and this fluid serves to moisten the air as it passes through -the nose. Dry air irritates the mucous membrane which -lines the nose, throat, and lungs, and it is very important -that the air be moistened before it reaches the throat. Air -is also warmed as it passes through the nose. Cold air is -irritating to the throat and lungs. The small hairs in the -nose catch the dust and dirt in the air and prevent it from -going into the lungs.</p> - -<p>The nose was made to breathe through, and all the air<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -that goes into your lungs should pass through your nose, in -order that it may be moistened, warmed, and cleansed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure028.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span> Showing position of adenoids and tonsils in the throat.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why some -children -breathe -through -the mouth</div> - -<p>Frequently we see boys and girls breathing through the -mouth. They do this because there is something in the -nose that prevents the air from passing freely through it. -If there were nothing in the way, the child would breathe -through the nose instead of the mouth, because the natural -way of breathing is through the nose.</p> - -<p>The most common reason for mouth-breathing is the -growth of small lumps in the throat just behind the nose. -These little lumps are called adenoids. They are not -natural, and should be taken out. We do not know why -they grow in some children and not in others, but we do -know that they should be taken out so that the child can -breathe easily through the nose. Large tonsils also cause<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -boys and girls to breathe through the mouth. Tonsils that -are large enough to cause the child to breathe through the -mouth ought always to be taken out. Large tonsils and -adenoids are often found in the same child.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Effects of -mouth-breathing</div> - -<p>When a child breathes through his mouth all the time, -his face takes on a peculiar shape. His upper lip grows -long, his lower jaw drops back, and his whole face looks -flat. His voice has a peculiar sound, and he finds it very -hard to keep up in his classes at school. Children with -adenoids and large tonsils are always backward in their -school work, and may become deaf if the adenoids and -tonsils are not removed.</p> - -<p>If you breathe through your mouth instead of through -the nose, go to the doctor and let him see if you have adenoids -or large tonsils; if you have, let him take them out. -You cannot possibly grow into a strong, healthy man or -woman if you have adenoids and do not have them removed.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What does the body take out of the air? -2. What does the body put into the air? 3. What effect does -impure air have on the body? 4. Why should one sleep with -windows open? 5. What causes the unpleasant odor in a -crowded room? 6. How would workmen benefit by properly -ventilated workshops? 7. Name the helpful ways in which -the air is changed while passing through the nose. 8. Why do -some children breathe through the mouth? 9. What effect -comes from mouth-breathing?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Impure air destroys health. 2. Never sleep -in a room where the window is closed. 3. Avoid going into -public places or workshops that are not well ventilated. 4. Air -must pass through the nose before it is fit for the lungs. -5. Mouth-breathing is not natural and is usually due to some -defect that can easily be cured.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">REST ESSENTIAL TO HEALTH</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Why exercise -is necessary</div> - -<p>Exercise is necessary to make our bodies grow and become -strong. If we stayed in bed all the time, our muscles -would not grow and we could not even walk. If we did -not exercise them, the cells in our brains would not grow -and we should not know anything. Every part of our -body must have exercise, that is, each part must do some -work every day. If we used only one part of the body and -did not give the other parts any work to do, only the -part that we used would grow, while all the rest of the -body would be small and weak.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Proportion -of rest -required</div> - -<p>While every part should do some work each day, the -whole body needs also to have a proper amount of rest. -Even the heart, which seems to be working all the time, -must rest. It rests between each beat. The muscles with -which we breathe rest between each breath. Every person -must have a certain amount of rest each day. A man should -have at least eight hours' sleep in every twenty-four hours; -boys and girls should have from nine to ten hours' sleep in -every twenty-four. It is only while we are sleeping that we -have complete rest.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Effect of -overwork</div> - -<p>Everybody should have some work to do. Boys and -girls should learn that work is a part of life, though -they should not be expected to do too much. They -should not be required to get up at four o'clock in -the morning and work until eight, then go to school -until four in the afternoon, and then work again until -dark. They cannot do this and keep well. Such -children will surely neglect their lessons and will fail -to keep up in their classes. It is not the children's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -fault, but the fault of the people who give them so -much to do outside of school.</p> - -<p>Sometimes bright children fall behind in their classes -and seem to be sleepy during school hours. Very often -these children do not have to do any work at home, but -play all the time they are out of school. We usually find -that these children not only play all the afternoon, but also -go to parties at night and often stay up until midnight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure029.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span> Children work when they play. The little girl skipping -rope is killing the body cells by overwork; she has skipped more -than one hundred times and is exhausted.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Ways in -which children -overwork -their -bodies</div> - -<p>You may think it is not work to go to a party, but it really -is. You are working the muscles and the cells of your -brain when you are playing games, and these get tired -from play work just as they do from working. It is more -fun to do play work than to do real work, but the cells are -tired and need rest after either kind of exercise. When you -go to a party and stay up until midnight, you do not get nine -hours of sleep. How do you expect the cells of your bodies -to get enough rest when you treat them in this way?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> - -<p>Another thing you do at parties is to eat food that -tastes good, but which is not good building material or -nourishing for the cells of the body. These things eaten -late at night stay in your stomach long after you have -gone to bed, and the cells of your stomach do not have a -chance to rest at all.</p> - -<p>Children should have their parties in the afternoon. -You can have just as much fun at a party in the afternoon -as you can at night, and then your stomach will have time to -dispose of the cake and candies you have eaten, and will be -ready to rest when you go to bed.</p> - -<p>Small children should be in bed by eight o'clock at -night, and even big girls and boys should be asleep by ten -o'clock every night. If you do not give your bodies rest, -you can never grow into strong men and women.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The importance -of -regular -meals</div> - -<p>We have learned that every part of the body needs regular -rest. Your stomach is a part of your body. In the -stomach and intestines all the food is changed so that the -little cells can make use of it. Do you think the cook would -serve good meals if she were kept cooking all the time, -both night and day? You know she would soon stop cooking -for you if you did not give her time to rest. Your -stomach does work that is even more important to you -than cooking.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why meals -should be -at least -four hours -apart</div> - -<p>It takes about four hours for your stomach to dispose -of what you give it at a single meal. If you eat your breakfast -at eight o'clock, your stomach is going to be kept busy -to get rid of it by noon. Of course you expect to give it -more work to do at noon; that is, you expect to eat a good -luncheon. It will be after four o'clock by the time your -stomach has finished the task you put on it at noon, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -there will be only about an hour and a half for the stomach -to rest before you will be ready to give it another four hours' -task, digesting your supper. This means that your stomach -cannot go to sleep until ten o'clock. If you eat three meals -a day, you will give your stomach just about two hours' -rest between eight in the morning and ten at night. If you -let it rest from ten at night until eight in the morning, it -is not likely to give you any trouble.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">When and -why candy -eating is -harmful</div> - -<p>Some people will not let their stomachs rest at all. Often -boys and girls give their stomachs extra work to do by eating -sweetmeats in the middle of the morning while their -stomachs are still busy with breakfast. Then, as soon -as school is out in the afternoon, they want to eat more cake -and candy, and thus take away from the stomach the little -rest it has a right to expect before it goes to work on supper. -Then suppose they go to a party and eat again about midnight. -How much time will the stomach have to rest before -breakfast?</p> - -<div class="sidenote">When candy -eating is -not harmful</div> - -<p>Now, I have not said that boys and girls must not eat -candy; and what is more, I am not going to say any such -thing. You may go home and tell your mother that candy -is good for girls and boys and that they like it so well they -ought to have it—no, not all the time. Here is the part -that some of you will not like. Girls and boys ought to -have all they want just after eating luncheon or dinner. -If you have eaten a hearty meal, it is entirely safe for you -to eat candy then; you will not be giving extra work to your -stomach, for the candy will be taken care of along with the -rest of the meal.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Why should we all take exercise? 2. How -much rest is needed each day? 3. Name some of the effects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -of overwork. 4. How do children overwork their bodies? -5. Why should children have their parties in the afternoon? -6. Why should meal hours be regular? 7. When and why is -candy eating harmful? 8. When is candy eating not harmful?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Proper rest is necessary to health. 2. Rest -from play is as necessary as rest from work. 3. You must give -the stomach rest by having regular meal hours and by eating -nothing between meals.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">CARE OF THE EYE AND EAR</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">The loss of -sight</div> - -<p>Sight is one of the greatest blessings we have. Think -how dreadful it is to be blind. If you take care of your -eyes, there is no reason why you should be blind; but if -you do not take care of your eyes, there is a possibility that -you may lose your sight. Most of the blind people in the -world became blind because their eyes were not given -proper care, and most of this lack of care happened when -these people were babies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure030-031.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 30 and 31. The roller towel is a common source of infection -of eyes in schools; every school should have properly constructed -wash-rooms, with individual towels.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How germs -get into -the eyes</div> - -<p>Many of the diseases that affect the eyes are catching. -They are not carried through the air, but are transmitted -by the use of a towel or handkerchief used by someone -who had the disease. Never use the towel or handkerchief -that another has used.</p> - -<p>Germs may be rubbed into the eyes. Keep your hands -away from your eyes. Your hands may have disease germs -on them, and when you rub your eyes you may put the -disease germs into them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">How eyes -are overworked</div> - -<p>Many boys and girls ruin their eyes by making them do -too much work. They do this by reading in a poor light, by -reading where the light strikes into the eyes, or by reading -in a bad position, as when in bed or lying down. When -you are reading, drawing, or doing any work with the eyes, -always have the best light possible, which means that the -light should fall on your book or work over your left shoulder. -If you are only reading, it does not make much difference -which shoulder the light comes over, provided it -comes from behind. If you are writing or drawing, and -the light comes over your right shoulder, it makes the -shadow of your hand fall just where you want to see.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure032-033.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 32 and 33. Correct positions for reading and writing.</div> -</div> - -<p>Another way of working your eyes too much is by trying -to see when the eyes are not focused right. Sometimes -people are said to be near-sighted, because they cannot -see very well at a distance. This is due to the fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -eyeball is too long, so that the lens does not cause the rays -of light to focus on the retina. Some people are called far-sighted. -This means that they can see well at a distance, -but that it is hard for them to see things close to them. -Far-sighted children can usually see things near by, but -they do this by making the muscle that rules the lens of -the eye work too hard.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Method of -testing -the eyes</div> - -<p>Probably your teacher has a test chart and can tell you -whether your eyes are properly focused. If your eyes are -not focused right, that is, if you cannot see the line of -letters marked <b>20</b> when you are twenty feet from this -chart, there is something wrong with your eyes. In that -case, you are not only injuring them by trying to study, -but you are hurting the whole body by overworking a part -of it. If you cannot see the letters on the test card clearly -at a distance of twenty feet, ask your father to send you -to a specialist who will fit you with the proper glasses or -will treat your eyes so that you can see well.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to -test the -hearing</div> - -<p>Sometimes children are backward in their school work -because they cannot hear well. Your teacher can test -your hearing by holding a watch near your ear. If you -cannot hear a watch tick when it is held six feet from your -ear, ask your father to take you to your doctor, that he may -treat your ears.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to -care for -the ears</div> - -<p>If your hearing is perfect, the best way to take care of -the ears is to let them alone. Never try to dig into the canal -that leads to the middle ear. The ears must of course be -washed to keep them clean, but in washing the ear you -should not touch the delicate canal leading to the drum. -A great specialist once said, "Never put anything smaller -than your elbow into your ear," to which another great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -specialist added, "And wrap a towel around your elbow." -Never try to dig the wax out of your ears; it belongs in your -ears; it is there for a purpose, so let it alone. If it becomes -hardened, you cannot get it out and will only injure your -ears in trying to do so. An ear spoon is a dangerous thing.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. State the chief cause of loss of sight. 2. How -can you keep germs out of your eyes? 3. Name three ways -by which you may overwork the eyes. 4. Tell how to take -care of the ears.</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Overworking the eyes is as injurious as overworking -the stomach. 2. Keep your hands away from your -eyes; germs on your hands may get into your eyes and cause -them to become sore. 3. You overwork your eyes when you -try to read or write in a poor light or in a bad position, as when -lying down. 4. You overwork your eyes when you try to study -with eyes that are not properly focused. 5. Keep your fingers -out of your ears. 6. Take care of your ears by letting them -alone.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIV</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">CARE OF THE SKIN</span></h3> - - -<p>If you break or cut the skin on your body, you make an -opening through which germs can get in. You cannot -always help breaking your skin, but you can always wash -the break with soap and -water, and put a clean cloth -over it to keep out germs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The work -of the sweat -glands</div> - -<p>The work of the little sweat -glands is very important to -your health. These glands -are just as important as the -kidneys, and if they did not -do their work, you would die -very quickly. If your body is -covered with dirt, the work of -these glands is seriously interfered -with; and when the -sweat glands are not doing -their full amount of work, the -kidneys must do more than their share. It is never right -to make one part of your body do the work intended for -another part.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure034.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span> A model bathroom.</div> -</div> - -<p>When the body is dirty, not only are the sweat glands -interfered with, but the little sebaceous (oil) glands become -plugged up, and blackheads appear on the face and -body.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Importance -of bathing</div> - -<p>In order that the various glands of the skin may be kept -in good health, it is necessary for us to keep clean. To -do this we wash our faces and hands and bathe our bodies. -Someone may ask, "How often ought a person to take a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -bath?" The question cannot be answered, except to say, -"Just as often as may be necessary for you to keep absolutely -clean." Some people do not have to bathe as often -as others, but no one can keep clean unless he takes a bath -at least twice a week.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Hot or -cold baths</div> - -<p>Another question that is frequently asked is, "Is it -better to take a bath in cold or hot water?" This is another -question that cannot be -answered in the same way for -every person. A cold bath is -more stimulating than a warm -bath. If, after you have taken -a cold bath and rubbed yourself -briskly with a rough towel, -the skin becomes red and warm, -a cold bath is best for you. -But if, after you have taken a -cold bath and rubbed yourself for not more than ten minutes, -the skin appears bluish and cold, a cold bath is not -good for you, and you should not take it. A cold bath -should always be taken in the morning, just after getting -out of bed, and a warm bath should always be taken in the -evening, just before going to bed.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure035.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span> A nail properly -cared for, and a nail not -properly cared for. Which -should you prefer to have?</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How to -care for -the nails</div> - -<p>The finger nails and toe nails are a part of the skin and -they also need to be taken care of. You will see at the -root of your finger nails a thin layer of skin that is inclined -to grow out with the nail. If this skin is not kept pushed -back it becomes rough, breaks into little shreds, and forms -"hang nails." This little band of skin should always be -kept carefully pushed back. The finger nails should be -kept evenly and neatly trimmed, but they should not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -cut so close to the skin that the ends of the fingers project beyond -the nails. The nails are for the protection of the ends -of the fingers and toes. Nails that are trimmed unevenly -and nails that are bitten off are ugly and indicate untidy -habits. The shape of the nails should follow the outline of -the ends of the finger. Neither is it a sensible fashion -to trim the nails to points or to let them grow very long.</p> - -<p>The toe nails need attention just as much as do the finger -nails. They should be trimmed to follow the shape of the -toe. Failure to trim the toe nails properly will result in -ingrowing nails.</p> - -<p>Dirt is very likely to collect under the nails. This should -always be carefully cleaned out. You cannot wash this -dirt out unless you use a stiff nail brush. If you clean your -nails just after you wash your hands, you will find that it -will be much easier to get the dirt out while the dirt and -the nail are both softened by the soap and water. In -cleaning your nails, use a dull nail cleaner or a smooth -wooden stick. Do not scrape the inside of the nail with a -sharp knife. This scraping of the inside of the nails will -cause them to catch the dirt more easily, as well as to grow -thicker and thicker until they become very ugly. Neat, -clean finger nails help to make pretty hands; dirty, untidy -nails spoil the prettiest hands.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What are the uses of the sweat glands? -2. How often should people take baths? 3. How can you tell -whether a hot or a cold bath is better for you? 4. Tell how -finger nails should be cared for. 5. How should toe nails be -treated?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. If you do not keep your body clean, the glands -of the skin cannot do their work properly. 2. Every person<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -should take a bath at least twice a week; some persons need -a bath every day in order to keep clean. 3. If you take a bath -in cold water, and the skin does not become warm and pink -when you rub it with a rough towel, a cold bath is not good -for you. 4. Cold baths should be taken in the morning on -getting up. 5. Warm baths should be taken in the evening -before going to bed. 6. Finger nails should always be kept -clean and neat; dirty, untidy nails make ugly hands.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XV</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">COMMON POISONS TO BE AVOIDED</span></h3> - - -<p>Many people are killing the cells of their bodies by -taking certain poisons into them. There are many kinds -of poisons that can be taken into the body, but we are going -to learn now about only two. -These are tobacco and alcohol.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure036.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span> Effect of cigarette -smoking.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Proof that -tobacco is -a poison</div> - -<p>Tobacco is a poison. Those -of you who have tried to smoke -know this, because it made you -sick the first time you tried it. -There are many other indications -that tobacco is a poison. -We know that it affects the red -blood cells in such a way that -they do not carry the oxygen -as well as do those of people -who do not smoke. We know -that it has a very bad effect on -the heart and that it interferes -with the action of the nervous system.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The extra -work caused -by tobacco</div> - -<p>When certain poisons get into the body, the blood makes -something that will counteract the effects of those poisons. -After one has used tobacco for some time, the cells of -the body will take care of the tobacco poison by making an -antidote for it. More than this, they begin to want it all -the time. The tobacco user forces the cells of his body -to make an antidote for this poison every time he -uses tobacco. Thus he makes the cells do work that -is unnecessary, and keeps them from doing work that -is necessary.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Other bad -effects of -tobacco: -(<em>1</em>) On the -nose and -throat</div> - -<p>Tobacco smoke irritates the cells that line the throat and -nose and causes inflammation. This is why so many -smokers have catarrh. Smoking is not the only cause of -catarrh, for people who do not smoke often have this -trouble, but it is one of the most frequent causes. Smoking -also irritates the throat so badly that many of those who -smoke have "smoker's throat." This is a bad form of sore -throat that can be cured only by stopping the use of tobacco.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure037.jpg" width="300" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span> The athlete knows that alcohol and tobacco are foes to -speed, strength, and nervous control. (<em>From photograph of "The -Sprinter," modelled by Dr. R. Tait McKenzie.</em>)</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) On the -blood</div> - -<p>People who smoke a great deal have fewer red corpuscles -(the little red cells of the blood) than those who do -not smoke. Especially is this true of cigarette smokers. -It is the lack of red blood cells that causes the cigarette -smoker to look pale and sallow.</p> - -<p>It is probably not the direct effect of tobacco that -causes the loss of red blood cells, but something that is -connected with the act of smoking. When you take smoke -into your mouth, you take in at the same time a gas known<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -as <em>carbon monoxid</em>. This gas is very poisonous to the -body, and combines with the red blood cells in such a way -that they cannot take up the oxygen in the lungs and carry -it to the rest of the cells in the body. The cigarette smoker -almost always inhales the smoke, and thus he absorbs a -great deal more of the carbon monoxid than the man who -does not inhale the smoke. Of course, the more of this -gas he takes into his body, the more red blood cells will be -affected and the less oxygen will be taken to the other cells.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) On the -nervous -system</div> - -<p>We do not know just how tobacco affects the cells of -the nervous system. It may be that they are affected mostly -by being deprived of oxygen, or it may be that the tobacco -affects them directly. However the harm is done, we know -that the cells of the nervous system are affected by tobacco. -One of the nerves that is most commonly affected by the -use of tobacco is the nerve of the eye, the nerve that enables -us to see. We know that when people use tobacco a -great deal they sometimes lose their sight. This does not -happen to everyone who uses tobacco, but you can never -tell whom it will affect in this way. The only safe thing to -do is not to use tobacco, and then you will know that you -will not lose your sight from this cause.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>4</em>) On the -stomach</div> - -<p>The use of tobacco affects the stomach. People who use -tobacco a great deal are likely to have indigestion. The -tobacco causes this probably by depriving the stomach -cells of oxygen through its effect on the blood cells.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>5</em>) On the -heart</div> - -<p>Tobacco has a very bad effect on the heart. People -who use much tobacco have what they call "palpitation of -the heart," but doctors call it "tobacco heart," because it -is caused by the use of tobacco. No insurance company -will insure a person who has "tobacco heart."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> - -<p>Most boys grow up to be men before they manage to use -enough tobacco to cause tobacco heart. However, long -before they are grown, they show that the tobacco has affected -their hearts, because they are short of breath and -stand about as much chance of winning a race as does a -mouth-breather.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Effects of -alcohol:</div> - -<p>The effect of alcohol is a subject on which I want to -speak very plainly and frankly, because I do not want the boys -and girls who read this to get the same idea that I got -when I was in school, or to be affected by it as I was. When -I was a little boy I was taught that if a person drank alcohol -in any form the lining of his stomach would be eaten up. In -proof of this statement I was shown a picture of an ulcerated -stomach that was said to have resulted from drinking -whisky. Naturally I expected to find that people who -drank whisky would not be able to eat anything at all, or -would be troubled a great deal with pain in their stomachs. -To my surprise, I found that many people had ulcers of -the stomach who never took an alcoholic drink, while many -of those who drank a great deal seemed to have the best -of appetites and were never troubled with their stomachs. -As a result, I came to the conclusion that all this talk about -the evil effects of alcohol was foolishness. Later I studied -medicine, and learned that the effect of alcohol on the -stomach is, in reality, the least of its evils. But I want to -impress upon you that, as a result of forty years' study, I -consider alcohol the most dangerous thing in the world -to-day. By "alcohol" we mean any drink that contains -alcohol, such as whisky, wine, brandy, beer, etc.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) On the -stomach</div> - -<p>When alcohol is taken into the stomach, it first causes -a congestion; that is, it causes an increase in the quantity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -of blood in the blood vessels of the stomach. It might -seem that this would aid digestion in the stomach, but it -does not, because alcohol affects the food in the stomach -in such a way that it prevents the gastric juice from acting -on the food. If the use of alcohol is persisted in, it causes -the little cells in the stomach that make the gastric juice -to become filled with fat, and then those cells cannot make -the gastric juice. Thus, continued use of alcohol causes a -smaller supply of gastric juice, and the food passes from -the stomach into the intestines without having been acted -upon by the gastric juice, as it should have been. The -result is that the food decomposes in the intestines and -a poison is formed. This poison is taken up by the vessels -that carry the food from the intestines and kills a great -many of the cells of the body.</p> - -<p>Alcohol does not burn holes in the stomach, but it destroys -the usefulness of the stomach by its action on the -cells that secrete the gastric juice.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) On the -liver</div> - -<p>When alcohol is taken into the stomach, very little of it -reaches the intestines. It is rapidly absorbed by the lining -of the stomach and passes into the blood. The blood -from the stomach goes directly to the liver. The alcohol -makes the cells of the liver hard and causes them to become -filled with fat, as it does the cells of the stomach. In this -way it destroys the action of these cells and prevents their -doing the work for which they are intended. From the -liver the alcohol goes with the blood to all parts of the body, -and it has its influence on all the cells in the body. This -influence is always harmful.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) On the -body's -powers of -resistance</div> - -<p>We know that when a man who is in the habit of drinking -gets pneumonia, he is far more likely to die than is one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -who is not in the habit of using alcoholic drinks. The -man who drinks cannot resist the effects of disease as -can one who does not drink. This shows that the use of -alcohol reduces our resisting powers, and puts our cells -in such condition that we cannot overcome the effects of -disease.</p> - -<p>People who are sick with a slow disease like consumption -are often advised by their friends to take whisky to -brace them up. It is true that the immediate effect of the -whisky is to make the patient feel a little better, but the -final effect is to leave him in a much weaker condition -than before. More than this, the cells are much less able -to resist the disease germs than they were before the alcohol -was taken. When people are exposed to such diseases -as scarlet fever and smallpox, they may think that if they -take a drink of whisky they will not be so liable to contract -the disease. It is just the other way. The alcohol -reduces the resisting powers of the cells of the body, and -anything that does this renders a person more liable to -contract any disease to which he is exposed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>4</em>) On the -nervous -system</div> - -<p>The effect of alcohol on the cells of the nervous system -is very marked. Continued use will injure the nervous -system and result in a kind of insanity called delirium -tremens. It will also cause other forms of insanity. The -effect of alcohol on the parent is passed on to the children -of the next generation, and even beyond this. A large -percentage of idiotic children are the offspring of alcoholic -parents.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>5</em>) On the -morals</div> - -<p>The use of alcohol numbs the sense of right and wrong. -More young men have become criminals from the use of -alcohol than from any other one cause. Anyone who reads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -the daily papers can see that many criminals give the use -of alcohol as an excuse for having committed a crime.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>6</em>) On brain -work</div> - -<p>Some people will tell you that alcohol stimulates the -brain, so that one can work faster and better. This is not -true. Tests have been made in this matter, and it has been -found that men doing mental work will work about one -tenth slower and make one fourth more mistakes when -given one drink of whisky a day, than they will when not -given any whisky. If <em>one</em> drink of whisky a day thus reduces -a man's power and accuracy in doing mental work, -what do you think three drinks, or ten drinks will do?</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure038.jpg" width="225" alt="" /> -<img src="images/figure039.jpg" width="225" alt="" /> -<div class="textcolx"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span> The mind not clouded -by alcohol works quickly and -makes few mistakes.</p> -</div> -<div class="textcolx"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span> The mind clouded -by alcohol works slowly and -makes many mistakes.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">What business -men -think of -men who -drink</div> - -<p>Many business men drink, and they know the results of -alcohol not only from the effects they have observed in -others, but also from the effect they know it to have on -themselves. When a man applies to them for a position, -these business men almost invariably ask him if he drinks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -The man who does not drink stands nine chances in ten of -securing the position, while the man who drinks stands -only one chance in ten. This shows what business men -think of the effect of alcohol, even when taken in moderate -quantities. They know that it reduces a man's power to -do mental as well as physical work, that it causes him to -make mistakes, and that it may finally destroy his morals -and result in his becoming a thief or a criminal.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. How do we know that tobacco is a poison? -2. How does tobacco make extra work for the body? 3. What -effect does tobacco have on the nose and throat? 4. What is -the effect of tobacco on the blood? 5. On the nervous system? -6. On the heart? 7. Mention some of the false ideas about the -effect of alcohol. 8. How does alcohol affect the stomach? -9. The liver? 10. In what ways does alcohol reduce the resisting -powers of the body? 11. How does alcohol affect the -nervous system? 12. How does it influence mental work? -13. What do business men think of drinkers? 14. What influence -has alcohol on the next generation?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Tobacco is a poison that has a very bad effect -on the nervous system, the blood, the heart, the stomach, the -nose, and the throat. 2. Alcohol is a poison and not a food. -3. Alcohol injures the stomach, the liver, and the nervous -system. 4. Alcohol reduces the power to do accurate mental -work. 5. Alcohol numbs the sense of right and wrong, and -encourages crime.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PART II<br /> - -<span class="medium bold">THE ENEMIES OF HEALTH</span></h2> - - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVI</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">DISEASE GERMS</span></h3> - - -<p>We have learned that the body is made up of cells, and -that each cell is alive. The cells in our bodies cannot live -separately. There are, however, certain animals and plants -that are each made up of a single cell. These animals and -plants are called germs, and some of them cause disease.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Different -germs cause -different -diseases</div> - -<p>These germs are so exceedingly small that we can see -them only with the aid of a microscope. They differ -in appearance one from another, as a pine tree differs -from an ash, or an American child from a Chinese child. -When you plant your garden, you put sweet peas in one -place and asters in another, and you know that you will -have sweet peas growing where you planted the pea seeds, -and asters growing where the aster seeds were put. So -it is with these little germs; you will no more get tuberculosis -from typhoid fever germs than you would get asters -from pea seeds.</p> - -<p>Now, while there are many, many kinds of germs in the -world, there are only certain ones that cause certain diseases, -and we have learned where these germs like to live -and how to kill them. We also know that they come only -from some person or animal sick with the particular disease -which they cause. Typhoid fever germs are not given -off by a person suffering with tuberculosis, nor are diphtheria -germs given off by a typhoid fever patient, but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -germ of each disease is given off by some person or animal -suffering from that particular disease.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How sickness -due to germs -can be -prevented</div> - -<p>If we kill all the germs that come from people sick with a -certain disease, no one else can catch that disease. Knowing -this, it seems unnecessary for anyone ever to be sick with -disease that is caused by a germ. This is literally true, -and the only reason that we have germ diseases is because -we do not kill the germs that come from the sick people.</p> - -<p>Professor Irving Fisher of Yale University has said, "It -is entirely possible to wipe out consumption within a -single generation." It may not actually be done so -quickly, but it is certain that the disease can finally be -wiped out, though it may require many generations to -accomplish it.</p> - -<p>Why, then, are germ diseases allowed to exist? Simply -because so many people do not know the facts; and -because many who do know will not take the trouble to -kill the germs, even when they realize that some one else -may get the disease as a result of their carelessness. What -do you think of a woman who said, "I do not care if my -neighbor's children do get scarlet fever from us; she is not -a friend of mine, any way"? A woman has been heard -to make such a statement to a health officer. It is just such -people as this who spread disease.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. How may germs be compared to seeds? -2. What do we know about disease germs that will help us to -get rid of them? 3. How is it possible for us to get rid of consumption -and other germ diseases?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. While there are many kinds of germs in the -world, only a few cause disease. 2. The germ that causes a -certain disease will cause that disease and no other. 3. It is -entirely possible to kill all the germs that cause disease.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">ENCOURAGEMENT OF DISEASE BY UNCLEANLY HABITS</span></h3> - - -<p>We shall not try to learn here all the ways by which it -is possible to destroy the germs of disease as they come -from sick people. But there are certain rules (we sometimes -call them fundamental -principles) that -you must know, if you -hope to keep well and -to prevent others from -getting sick.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure040.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span> How diseases are frequently -transmitted to children.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why we -should stay -away from -the sickroom</div> - -<p>The first of these rules -is: <em>Do not go into the -room where any one is sick -unless it is absolutely necessary</em>. -No one but the -nurse should sleep in the -room with a sick person. -We know that certain diseases -are communicable -(catching), but it has not yet been determined whether -some others are communicable or not. It has not been -proved, for instance, that we cannot catch rheumatism from -another person. Only a few years ago it was believed that -one could not take consumption from another person, but -now we know that this is the very way to get it. Therefore, -stay away from sick people as much as possible. It is -not good for the patient to have people around him, and it -is dangerous for the well to come in contact with the sick.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Not using -things used -by the sick</div> - -<p>The second rule is: <em>Do not use anything used by a sick -person until it has been washed</em>. This is a good rule to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -apply to things used by a well person also. It is neither -safe nor pleasant to eat from the spoon or fork, or to use -the napkin or towel which has been used by someone else.</p> - -<p>Sometimes children think the food prepared for a sick -person is ever so much nicer than that set before themselves, -and wish they could have a little of it. How often have -we seen a sick mother give her little ones "a taste" from -the spoon with which she is eating. This is very dangerous, -and if she knew it, the mother would cut her hand off -before exposing her children to this danger.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Reason for -scalding -things used -by the sick</div> - -<p>Third: <em>Everything taken from a sickroom should be -boiled before it is used again</em>. The knives, forks, and plates -should not be put with other dishes until after they have -been separately washed and boiled. Towels, napkins, bedding, -and clothing from a sickroom should not be washed -with other bedding and clothing, but should be washed -and boiled separately. Some people send out the clothes -from the sickroom with the rest of their washing, and in -this way give disease to others.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How excreta -from -the sick -should be -treated</div> - -<p>Fourth: <em>All discharges (sputum, urine, bowel discharges, -and matter from sores) from any sick person should be -thoroughly disinfected before being finally disposed of</em>. The -sputum should be received on little rags or paper napkins, -and burned; and the other discharges should be disinfected -with some poison that will kill the germs. We shall say -more about disinfection when we come to study the prevention -of special diseases.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Necessity -of washing -the hands -after touching -the sick</div> - -<p>Fifth: <em>Every person who touches a sick person, or handles -anything that comes from a sickroom, should immediately -wash his hands</em>. Unless he washes his hands at once, -the germs which may be on them may get into his mouth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">How dirt -causes disease</div> - -<p>Sixth: <em>Dirt, which is an indirect cause of disease, must not -be allowed to accumulate</em>. If your yard were full of dirt, garbage, -and manure, it would not cause disease unless the -germs of some disease became planted there. But such a -place is an indirect cause of disease, in that it furnishes a -fine place for germs to grow in. If a fly with typhoid germs -on its feet were to alight in such a yard, the germs would be -planted in a most favorable spot and would grow very fast.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure041.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span> A place that is an indirect cause of disease, since it -furnishes a fine place for germs to grow in.</div> -</div> - -<p>None of the disease germs like sunshine; neither do -they like dry places. They die very quickly in the sunlight, -and grow very slowly, if at all, in dry places; but in -damp, dark places they grow very fast. Dirty back yards -make ideal gardens for germs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> - -<p>Let a fly with germs on its feet alight in a clean yard -where sunshine can reach every corner, and what chance -will the germs have to grow? They will not even get a -start. Hence, while disease cannot be caused by dirt, -disease germs stand a very good chance of living where -there is plenty of dirt and no sunshine. Filthy habits are -on an equality with filthy conditions, and go hand in hand -with them. One of the worst of habits, and a cause of -much sickness, is that of answering Nature's calls in places -other than the closet.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Why should you never make unnecessary -visits to a sick person? 2. Why should you avoid anything -used by a sick person? 3. Why should everything taken from -a sickroom be scalded? 4. What should be done with all -discharges from a sick person? 5. How is dirt a source of -disease?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Unless it is necessary, do not go into a room -where anyone is sick. 2. Never sleep in a room with a sick -person. 3. Never eat from a spoon or plate that has been used -by another. 4. Boil all the articles taken from the room of a -sick person. 5. Always wash your hands after touching a sick -person or anything that comes from his room. 6. Sunshine -kills germs; let the sunshine into every corner of your house.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVIII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">FLIES AS CARRIERS OF DISEASE</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">How germs -get into -our bodies</div> - -<p>Disease germs get into our bodies in three principal -ways: they are eaten with our food; they are taken in with -the air we breathe; and they get in through breaks in our -skin, even though these breaks be very small, as when made -by the bite of a mosquito or other insect.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How germs -get into -our food:<br /> -<br /> -(<em>1</em>) From -the air</div> - -<p>How do germs get into our food or drink? You must -remember that these germs are extremely small, so small -that many of them can be carried by a particle of dust that -you can see only in a ray of sunshine. When the germs -become dried, they float about on these particles of dust, -the dust alights on our food, which is moist and warm, and -the germs immediately begin to grow.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) From -the hands</div> - -<p>Another way by which germs get on food is from the -hands through which it passes. Did you ever think how -many people handle an apple? First, the man who picks -it from the tree; then the examiner in the packing house -where apples are taken to see that they are the right kind -to be packed in a certain box. Then it is wiped off by a boy -or girl—handling number three; then it is wrapped in -paper—number four. Next it is packed in a box, but in -this case the paper protects the apple from dirty hands. -When the merchant buys the apples he feels several -of them, and puts them out on the display shelf; -this makes handling number five. Everyone who thinks -of buying apples will touch one or more of them, -and when they are sold the clerk handles them again. -In other words, every apple goes through the hands of -at least seven people before you get it. Do you not -think it needs washing?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> - -<p>Go into a butcher shop and see how many people -will put their dirty fingers on the meat. Some of -them even keep their gloves on when they do this. -Imagine how many germs may be planted on the finger of -a glove.</p> - -<p>Our whole method of displaying foods for sale is wrong. -The customer can see the fruits, vegetables, and meats just -as well in a glass case as when they are -on an open counter or shelf, and nothing -is gained by poking a dirty finger -into a piece of beef, or by rubbing your -hands over the apples. A glass case -not only will protect the fruits and -meats from such practices, but will -keep out germ-laden dust and flies -whose feet are covered with germs.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 30%;"> -<img src="images/figure042.jpg" width="150" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span> The foot -of a fly, highly magnified.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) From -flies</div> - -<p><em>Probably the most common source of -germs on food is the fly.</em> Did you ever watch a fly very -closely for a long time? Did you ever happen to see a -manure pile early in the morning and notice how many -tiny flies are on it? These flies have just been hatched.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Breeding -places of -flies</div> - -<p>Flies like manure because it is the best place they can find -in which to lay their eggs. Each female fly lays about three -hundred eggs. They do not hatch directly into flies, as -hen's eggs hatch into chickens, but when the fly's eggs hatch -you find maggots, and these maggots later hatch into flies.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The journey -of the fly</div> - -<p>Turn over the manure some spring morning, and you -will see it full of white specks. These specks are maggots -that will hatch into flies. Watch the flies as they leave the -manure pile and see where they go. If there is a dead dog -or cat or a filthy garbage can near, they will fly to it. Then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -they will go into the water-closet and crawl over the filth -there. Their next trip will probably bring them to the -kitchen, where they will crawl over the food. From here -they will go to the cuspidor and take a drink of water, and -will get their feet covered with the dirt that is in the cuspidor. -Next they will try a walk over the nipple of the -baby's bottle, or they will light -on your face, or get into the -butter or milk.</p> - -<p>After the fly has been in dirty -places, he "washes" his face and -hands, that is, he rubs his feet -together and then rubs them -over his head. Did you ever see -a fly wash himself with water? -No, you never did.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure043.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span> Where a fly has -walked; each little spot represents -a growth of germs left -by the fly.</div> -</div> - -<p>After a fly has made his journey, -you would suppose that -his feet would be covered with -dirt and germs, and so they are. Not only does he carry -germs on his feet and body but he also eats dirty and -diseased things. Moreover, fly specks contain the germs -of disease, and the fly is not at all particular about where -he puts his specks.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Proof that -the fly is a -germ carrier</div> - -<p>If you let a fly walk over a culture plate, there will be a -growth of germs wherever his feet touch. A culture plate -is simply a glass plate covered with gelatine or something -else in which these germs like to grow, and where they can -easily be seen. Each germ will multiply so fast that there -will soon be a spot of them large enough to be seen readily -with the naked eye. In the picture showing a culture plate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -over which a fly has walked (Fig. 43), the -little specks are not single germs, but each -speck represents a growth containing many -thousands of germs.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 25%;"> -<img src="images/figure044.jpg" width="125" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span> Flies go -from filth to food.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How to get -rid of the -fly:</div> - -<p>How are we going to get rid of flies? We -cannot get rid of them entirely, but there -are a great many ways by which we can -prevent there being so many of them, and -whereby we may keep them out of our -houses and away from our food.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) By removal -of -manure</div> - -<p>We have learned that flies are always -found about horse manure, because it -makes a good place in which to hatch their -eggs. If we could dispose of the manure, -there would be one place less for the fly to -lay her eggs. Behind barns we usually find -piles of manure. It is in these heaps that -the fly lays her eggs, not in the little lumps -found in the streets. Now, there is no -sense in keeping this great pile of manure -about any barn. In towns the manure can -be put into a box with a cover, so that the -flies cannot get at it. In the country every -well-managed farm has the barns cleaned -out every day, and it would not be much -more trouble for the farmer to throw the -manure into a wagon and take it to the -fields with him, than it is to pile it up beside -his barn. If he did this, he would find -that there would be few flies about his -house.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) By covering -garbage -cans</div> - -<p>Even if we were to take every particle of manure away -as fast as possible, we should still have some flies, for when -flies do not find manure for their hatching places, they will -take the next best thing. It must be something dirty; clean -things will not answer at all for a fly's home. Next to the -manure pile, the fly likes a dirty garbage can, a dead animal, -or anything that is decomposing. If she cannot find anything -better, she will take a rotting apple; but she does not -really like this, and if she cannot find anything better than -an old apple in your yard, she will probably go elsewhere -to lay her eggs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) By keeping -clean yards</div> - -<p>We cannot entirely stop the hatching of flies, but if we -do away with the old manure piles, keep fresh manure -and garbage cans covered, and keep our yards free from -everything that can decompose, we shall have very few -flies about our houses.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to -keep flies -out of the -house</div> - -<p>Since we cannot get rid of all the flies, the next best -thing is to keep the few that may be left out of our houses -and away from our food. This we can do by means of wire -screens and netting. Wire screens are very cheap, and if -there are no wire screens on your house, you should persuade -your father to buy some. But a screen will not keep -flies out unless it is kept closed, so do your part by never -leaving the screen door open for a second longer than is -necessary for you to go in or out.</p> - -<p>Our houses are not the only places that need -screens. Slaughterhouses, butcher shops, candy stores, -grocery stores—every place where any kind of food is -handled or sold—should be screened. Flies should -never be allowed to alight on anything which is to be -eaten.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Name three ways by which germs get into -our bodies. 2. How do germs get into our food? 3. Why -should foods be screened? 4. Trace the fly from his birth-place -to our food. 5. How do we know that flies have germs -on their feet? 6. Tell how we can get rid of most of the -flies. 7. How can we keep flies out of the house? 8. What -can boys and girls do to help keep them out?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Always wash an apple, pear, or any other -fruit before you eat it. 2. All foods are handled by many people, -and are not clean until they have been washed. 3. Flies like -to live in dirty places, and their feet and legs are covered with -germs; get rid of the flies. 4. Flies hatch in manure piles and -other dirty places; keep your yard and lot clean so that flies -will have no place to lay their eggs. 5. Put screens on the house -to keep flies out, and keep the screens closed.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIX</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW DISEASE GERMS GET INTO WATER</span></h3> - - -<p>The water that we drink frequently contains disease -germs. It is not always the clearest water that is freest -from disease germs, for the germs do not make the water -cloudy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure045.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span> An improperly located well; notice lines of seepage.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why sewage -should -not be -put into -streams</div> - -<p>Water does not get disease germs from the ground, but -from man. Almost every town has a sewer system that -empties into some stream. This practice was started a long -time ago when men thought that running water would -purify itself in the course of a few miles. We have learned, -however, that this is not true. Germs will continue to -live in running water just as they do in any other water, -and disease germs will live in a stream from twenty-five -to thirty-five days. Estimate how far a stream will flow in -that length of time, and you will know how far disease germs -will travel in that way. No sewage should ever be allowed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -to get into a stream until the germs in the sewage have -been killed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Other -sources of -germs in -streams</div> - -<p>Sewage is not the only means by which disease germs are -carried into streams. Often we find people building barns, -slaughterhouses, and mills on the banks of a stream. -The filth from barns and slaughterhouses always contains -disease germs, and often the filth of mills contains -poisons that are just as harmful as germs when taken into -our bodies. None of these things should ever be allowed -to get into a stream. Water is a very important article of -food, and we should take every care to keep it pure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure046.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span> A properly located well.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How germs -get into -wells</div> - -<p>The water from most wells is clear and cool, but nevertheless -may contain many disease germs. "How does this -happen?" you ask. Because the well is too close to an -out-house or some other source of filth. When a man in -the country or in a small town builds a house, he immediately -thinks of digging a well just as close to the house -as he can, so that he need not carry the water far. Next he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -thinks of locating the closet, and this, too, he wants near -the house. The well and the closet are often near each -other, and often the closet is on higher ground than the -well. The vault under the closet is seldom water-tight. -In fact, the intention of the owner is that a great part of -the vault contents shall soak away.</p> - -<p>In many localities the ground is an open gravel, and the -vault contents run through this gravel into the well, carrying -disease germs with them. In one little town, with wells -as a source of drinking water, the health officers found -that the closet of every house was draining directly into -its well. In some countries vaults can be used; but in any -region where there is a gravel subsoil, the contents of the -closet will find their way into the well, unless the closet is -lower than the bottom of the well. In such places the -vault must be made water-tight, in order to keep the vault -contents out of the well.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why springs -are not -always pure</div> - -<p>Springs are usually sources of pure water, but do not -think that every particle of water that oozes from the ground -is a spring. Near a certain town is a so-called "very fine -spring." This "spring" appeared after a man had made -a cesspool on the hill above, and is simply the drainage -from the cesspool. Springs that come from deep sources, -however, nearly always contain pure water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">The safest -sources of -water</div> - -<p>The safest source of water for domestic use is a stream -that is known to be free from contamination, or a well so -deep in the ground that it is hard for any polluting matter -to reach it. But remember that sewage may follow a well -pipe along the outside and thus reach even a deep well, if -the well is not properly protected at the top.</p> - -<p>Keep disease germs out of your drinking water. You -cannot drown them out and you cannot strain them out, -so do not let them get in, for you cannot drink water containing -disease germs without running the risk of becoming -sick.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Mention more than one way in which germs get -into streams. 2. How long may disease germs live in running -water? 3. Mention some instances showing that running -water does not purify itself. 4. How do disease germs get -into milk? 5. Describe the proper location of a well in regard -to refuse. 6. How may springs become polluted? 7. What -are the best sources of water for domestic use?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Disease germs get into water from dirty -places along the banks of the streams; they do not come from -the ground. 2. Clear water is not always pure; germs do not -make the water cloudy or muddy. 3. Wells often become infected -by matter from closets seeping into them; make your -closet water-tight. 4. Spring water is usually pure, but not all -water that oozes out of the ground is spring water.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XX</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE THROUGH THE AIR</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Disease -germs in -the air</div> - -<p>We take germs into our bodies with the air that we -breathe. Since we cannot stop breathing and live, we -must see to it that the air we breathe is kept pure.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure047.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span> (a) Prevalence of germs -in air of thickly populated districts. -(b) Prevalence of germs in -air of sparsely populated districts.</div> -</div> - -<p>There are always more germs in the air of places in -which people live closely crowded together than where -there are only a few people. -This is proved by Figure -47, which shows that many -more germs were found on -a culture plate exposed in -the downtown part of New -York City than on another -plate exposed far uptown, -where there are not so many -people. Remember, however, -that all germs are not disease germs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How we -may keep -disease -germs out -of the air:</div> - -<p>How do the disease germs get into the air? When -one sneezes, a spray of droplets is thrown into the -air. If the person sneezing has the grip, these droplets -contain the germs that cause grip. Whenever a person -with consumption coughs, he sprays droplets which contain -the germs that cause consumption.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) When -coughing or -sneezing</div> - -<p>If a person would hold a handkerchief before his mouth -when he coughs or sneezes, these droplets of moisture -would not be sprayed into the air, and the disease germs -in them would not be scattered about. You ask, "Shall -everyone who is sick hold a handkerchief before the -mouth when sneezing or coughing?" Everyone, whether -sick or well, ought to hold a handkerchief before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -mouth when sneezing or coughing. Learn to do this at -once, and never forget it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) When -spitting</div> - -<p>Another way by which disease germs get into the air is -from the sputum. People spit on the floor or the sidewalk, -and the sputum becomes dried; it is then blown about -as dust. The germs of disease are not killed by drying, and -when they get into our bodies with the dust which we -breathe in, they immediately begin to grow. Disease germs -get into the air chiefly through careless habits of coughing, -sneezing, and spitting, and these careless habits can easily -be prevented.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why well -people -should not -spit on -floor or -sidewalk</div> - -<p>A boy once said that if he saw a consumptive spit on the -sidewalk, he would want to hit him, and to emphasize his -remarks he spat on the floor of the room, just as you have -seen boys spit on the ground when they were thinking of -fighting. There might have been some germs of consumption -in the sputum this boy left on the floor. Of course -he was very positive that he did not have consumption, but -this was no proof that his sputum was free from the germs -of this disease.</p> - -<p>Remember that it is not only the sick who should never -spit on the floor or sidewalk, but that no person should -ever spit on any floor or sidewalk, or into any place -except into a cuspidor, handkerchief, or spit-cup of some -kind. If you spit into a handkerchief, a paper napkin, or -a bit of cloth, be sure to burn it as soon as you can, -before it becomes dry.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. In what places do we find germs most abundant -in the air? 2. How do well-bred people avoid putting -disease germs into the air? 3. Why is it important for well -people to take the same precautions as sick people?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Every person should hold a handkerchief before -the face when coughing or sneezing. 2. Never spit except -into a cuspidor, handkerchief, spit-cup, or other special -receptacle. 3. If well people will practice clean habits, the -sick will be helped and encouraged to follow their example. -4. Remember: No spit, no consumption.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXI</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">INSECTS AS CARRIERS OF DISEASE</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Some insects -that -carry disease</div> - -<p>Certain diseases are given to human beings by the bites -of insects. We know that certain ticks and mosquitoes -carry certain germs. It is also probable that disease germs -are transferred from diseased -to well persons by bedbugs and -other insects that bite.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How yellow -fever is -transmitted</div> - -<p>For a long time it was -thought that yellow fever was -carried through the air, but -now it has been proved that -yellow fever is not carried in -this way. A well person can -sleep with one who has yellow -fever and not catch the disease. -Yellow fever infection is carried -from a yellow fever patient to -a healthy person only by a certain mosquito. Keep this -mosquito away from the yellow fever patients and there -can be no spread of the disease.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure048.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span> The mosquito that -carries yellow fever.</div> -</div> - -<p>It is not many years since yellow fever was one of the -most dreaded diseases in warm countries. To-day there -is not the same fear of it, for the source of the disease has -been discovered and practical methods have been devised -to get rid of the mosquito which carries it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How malaria -is transmitted</div> - -<p>Malarial fever is another disease transmitted by the -bite of a mosquito, but the mosquito that carries malarial -fever is not the same as the one that carries yellow fever. -For a long time it was supposed that malaria came from -the gases which rise from marshes. To-day it is known<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -that it is not the gases that cause -the sickness, but a mosquito -which lives and grows in the -marshes. Many countries that -have heretofore been practically -worthless on account of malarial -fever, are being made valuable -by draining the marshes and doing -away with places where mosquitoes -can hatch.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 35%;"> -<img src="images/figure049.jpg" width="150" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span> One of the -places where mosquitoes -hatch.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How to get -rid of the -mosquito</div> - -<p>It might seem a very hard task -to get rid of mosquitoes in countries -where there are so many of -them; but it can be done. The -mosquito must have still water in -which to lay her eggs. In countries -where there is danger of -yellow fever or malaria, the rain -barrel and the cistern should be -screened, and the swamps and -water holes filled up. Puddles of -water should not be allowed to -form anywhere, and low places -where water might stand should be -drained. By giving her no place -in which to lay her eggs, we can -get rid of the mosquito; and when -the mosquito disappears, yellow -fever and malaria disappear also.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How wood-ticks -transmit -disease</div> - -<p>In certain portions of Montana, -Washington, Idaho, Utah,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -and Wyoming, there is a peculiar disease known as -Rocky Mountain spotted (tick) fever. It is now known -that this disease is transmitted to people by the bite of a -wood-tick. Not all wood-ticks carry this fever, and for -people living in districts where this disease does not exist -there is no danger in the bite of a wood-tick; but in a -part of the country where the disease prevails, the wood-tick -should be avoided.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How disease-bearing -insects -can -be destroyed</div> - -<p>All insects that are known to transmit diseases can be -destroyed. If we will do away with stagnant water, the -mosquito cannot hatch; if we will cut out underbrush and -oil the domestic animals, the wood-tick will not find a -place to grow. If we wish to get rid of disease, we must -spend money and labor; but it is worth while, for human -life is at stake.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What insects are known to transmit diseases -to man? 2. How is yellow fever transmitted? 3. Malarial -fever? 4. What disease is transmitted by the wood-tick? -5. How can we get rid of the mosquito? 6. How can we get -rid of ticks?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. It is a proved fact that diseases are transmitted -to man by the bites of mosquitoes and wood-ticks. 2. It is -possible to do away with both the mosquito and the wood-tick -almost completely, although it requires a great deal of work and -the expenditure of a large amount of money. 3. Health is the -most valuable thing we have, and it is foolish to hesitate in -giving the work and money necessary to exterminate disease-bearing -insects, as well as the many other causes of sickness.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW TO KEEP GERMS OUT OF WOUNDS</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">How germs -get through -the skin</div> - -<p>Germs get into our bodies through breaks in the skin. -These breaks may be made by a cut or a scratch, by the -bite of an insect, or even by the -pulling out of a hair. There -are some special germs, such as -those which cause yellow fever, -which are introduced by the -bite of an insect; but at present -we will consider only those -germs that would naturally -enter through any break in -the skin.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 40%;"> -<img src="images/figure050.jpg" width="200" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span> Small, deep wounds -are very liable to become -infected.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Effect of -germs -in wounds</div> - -<p>The skin of the human body -acts as an armor against certain -germs that are constantly trying -to get through it. There -are several germs of this class. -Some of them cause white pus, -or matter, but this is the least -dangerous kind of all. Another -kind causes boils or even blood -poisoning, and another kind -causes erysipelas.</p> - -<p>We cannot get rid of these -germs, for they are everywhere, -to a greater or less degree; but -they are more abundant in dirty than in clean places. -They cause every degree of inflammation, from a slight -redness of the skin to the blood poisoning that brings death.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Real cause -of suppuration</div> - -<p>Sometimes you will hear people say that a wound suppurated -(that is, became inflamed and full of matter) because -the blood was in bad condition. As a matter of -fact, there would have been no suppuration if germs had not -got into the wound. It was not the condition of the blood -that caused the suppuration, but the germs.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, when only a few germs get into a wound, and -when the cells of the body are all in good condition and -doing their work properly, the suppuration will be very -slight, because the healthy cells of the body will kill the -germs. But if very many germs get in, even healthy body -cells cannot kill them all.</p> - -<p>We have said that the germs which cause suppuration are -everywhere, so it would seem almost impossible to keep -them out of a wound. This is true in a sense; but even -after they have got into a wound, you can wash them out if -you use plenty of soap and water to cleanse the wound -thoroughly. When I said that it is impossible to keep them -out of a wound, I meant an accidental wound, for it is -quite possible to keep them out of a wound that is made -intentionally, as is done by the surgeon.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How the -surgeon -prevents -suppuration</div> - -<p>Do you know how a surgeon gets ready to do an operation? -The first thing he does is to see that the room is -perfectly clean. He has the carpet taken up, the curtains -taken down, and the floor and walls washed. This -is to get rid of all the dirt and germs in the room. If you -should look at the surgeon's instruments, so clean and -bright, you would think it impossible for a germ to find a -place to live on; but the surgeon knows how closely the -germs cling, and therefore he boils all the instruments he is -going to use. Then he puts the towels into a place where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -they are made so hot by steam that all the germs on them -are killed. After everything in the room is perfectly clean, -the surgeon cleans his patient with a very stiff brush, -using plenty of soap and water which has been boiled to -kill all the germs in it. He scrubs the part where the -wound is to be made and the skin around it until it is -red. Even then he is not satisfied, for he washes it off with -alcohol and ether, to be sure that any germs that might be -sticking in the fat are removed. He scrubs his hands in -the same way. After all this is done, he can perform the -operation without fear that any of the germs which cause -suppuration will get in, for he knows that he has killed all -of them that would touch the wound.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure051-052.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 51 and 52. Always wash the simplest cut with soap and -water; failure to do this may result in infection and much suffering.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How to -prevent -suppuration</div> - -<p>Boys and girls cannot do all this before they cut their -hands or skin their shins, but they can do the next best<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -thing—they can keep their hands and the rest of their -bodies clean at all times, and thus have as few germs on -them as possible. Then, when they have cut themselves, -they can go straight to some place where there is soap and -water, and can wash the wound thoroughly. After this is -done, a clean bandage should be placed on the cut part to -prevent any other germs from getting in. If this is done -every time you cut yourself, you will probably never have -an infection—that is, a wound that suppurates.</p> - -<p>Two boys were playing together one day. They ran into -each other and each got a little cut on his hand. One boy -went home at once, washed the wound, and put on a clean -bandage. He lost a little time from his play, but was soon -back and never had any trouble on account of the cut. -The other boy thought it was foolish to quit his play to take -care of such a little thing, so he tied his hand up in a dirty -handkerchief. Two weeks later he was very ill. His arm -was badly swollen and had to be cut open in several places; -indeed, he came near losing his arm. It always pays to -take care of a wound, be it never so slight.</p> - -<p>Deep wounds made with small instruments, such as -small knives, nails or toy pistols, are especially dangerous, -because they are hard to clean and because they quickly -heal up on the surface and leave the germs to grow at the -bottom of the wound. Such wounds as these are dangerous -for another reason.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Where -germs of -lockjaw -grow</div> - -<p>There is a germ that gets into wounds but does not cause -suppuration. It is the germ of tetanus, or lockjaw. It -lives in the ground, especially in the ground about barns, -and its peculiar feature is that it will not grow in the air. -If it gets into a large, open wound, it is easily killed, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -it cannot grow where there is air. But when it gets into a -small, deep wound where it cannot be reached, it stays -there until the wound heals over on the surface, and then it -begins to grow. It does not make the parts swell, as the -germs of suppuration do, but quietly continues to grow, -without the wound showing any sign of infection. Finally -it develops a very severe poison that is taken up by the -blood; then the victim suddenly begins to have spasms -about the face, and finally these spasms extend to the entire -body and kill him. Whenever you get a wound so deep -that you cannot wash it thoroughly, go to a doctor and let -him clean it out with some medicine that will kill the germs -that cannot be reached by washing.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How boils -are caused</div> - -<p>Sometimes the germs that cause suppuration get under -the skin at a point where a hair has been pulled out, or -even work down beside the hair itself. When this happens, -they cause suppuration under the skin, and the result -is a boil. A boil is merely an infection with the germs that -cause suppuration.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. How do germs get through the skin? 2. Can -we get rid of all the germs that cause suppuration? 3. Why is -it impossible for "bad blood" alone to cause suppuration? -4. How does the surgeon prevent suppuration? 5. How may -you prevent suppuration? 6. What is the danger of cutting -corns with an ordinary knife or razor? 7. Where do germs of -lockjaw grow? 8. What causes boils?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Germs and not "bad blood" are the cause of -suppuration. 2. Always keep as clean as possible, and immediately -wash any cut, no matter how small. 3. If you have -a deep wound, go at once to a doctor, and let him clean it out -and kill the germs that may be at the bottom of the wound.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXIII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">TRANSMISSION OF DIPHTHERIA</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">How germs -may cause -sickness -without -entering the -body</div> - -<p>Some germs that cause disease do not get into the body, -but grow upon its surface, that is, they grow on the mucous -membranes—the skin of the mouth, the throat, and the -nose. As they grow, they develop poisons that are absorbed -by the body, and that make us very sick. The -germs that cause diphtheria belong to this class.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Prevalence -of diphtheria</div> - -<p>Diphtheria is one of the most common of all the preventable -diseases. It causes more deaths than any of the -other diseases that can be prevented, except tuberculosis. -The great prevalence of diphtheria is due to lack of care -on the part of those who have this disease and of those -who come in contact with them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Where the -diphtheria -germ comes -from</div> - -<p>The germ that causes diphtheria always comes from -some person or animal that has diphtheria. It never -"just happens." If you went into your yard in the morning -and found some beets growing in your flower bed, you -would know positively that beet seeds had got into your -flower bed in some way. You would not say that the beets -just happened to grow there. So diphtheria will not "just -happen." Diphtheria is always caused by germs that come -from some one who has diphtheria. They may have come -in a letter that was written in the room with the sick person. -They may have come from the library in a book that -had been used by some one ill with diphtheria. They may -have come on some toy that had been played with by a -child that had the disease. There are a thousand ways by -which the germs may be brought to you without your -knowing where they come from.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to -confine -diphtheria -germs</div> - -<p>The public health officers try hard to keep these germs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -from being brought to you. In order to do this, they have -to shut away from other people those who have diphtheria -germs; that is, they make the sick ones stay at home until -they are free from the germs of the disease. We call this -<em>quarantine</em>. Quarantine means that you must stay away -from other people when you are sick with a communicable -disease, and that other people must stay away from you. -People are not put in quarantine because they are sick, but -because they are dangerous, and because we are trying to -prevent other people from getting the same disease. Do -not think the health officers unreasonable when they -tell you that you must stay at home and that no one -can come in to see you. This is done to protect other -people and to keep them from getting the same disease -that you have. If you ever have diphtheria, or any other -communicable disease, you must remember that if any -of your playmates come in to see you, they may get the -same disease.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure053.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span> Disease germs are as deadly as guns.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Seriousness -of breaking -quarantine</div> - -<p>Diphtheria kills a great many children, and to play with -your friends after you have had diphtheria, and before the -health officer tells you that you may, is almost like trying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -to kill them. They might be very sick and die, or they -might be very sick and get well, or they might not be sick -at all; but you never can tell what will happen if they are -exposed to the disease. If you were to take a gun and -shoot at a friend, you might kill him, or you might shoot -his leg off, or you might not hit him at all; but you would -be trying to hit him, and it would not be your fault if you -did not. It is just the same if you play with a friend when -you have a communicable disease; you shoot the disease -germ at him, and if you do not hit him, it is not your fault.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why -quarantine -is not raised -sooner</div> - -<p>Sometimes people who have been sick with a communicable -disease feel perfectly well, but the health officer tells -them he cannot let them out of quarantine. This is because -he knows that such people still have in their bodies -the germs that cause the disease, and that as long as these -germs are there they can give the disease to other people. -It is not pleasant to have to stay in quarantine when you -feel that you are well, and children, as well as older people, -are very likely to become restless under the circumstances. -You see an illustration of such a patient in Figure 60, where -the little girl, who is under quarantine for scarlet fever, but -who is feeling quite well, is giving a book to two of her -friends. The book contains the germs that cause scarlet -fever, and the boys are very likely to contract the disease -by handling the book.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why some -cases of -diphtheria -escape -quarantine:<br /> -<br />(<em>1</em>) From -failure to -detect mild -cases</div> - -<p>If every case of diphtheria were quarantined, and the -people obeyed the health officer, there would soon be -no more diphtheria. But how does it happen that every -case of diphtheria is not quarantined? Diphtheria is a -very peculiar disease. Sometimes it makes people so sick -that they die in spite of everything that can be done for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -them; sometimes it makes the throat only a little sore, -and the child seems so slightly ill that his mother says to -herself, "He is fretful," and does not call the doctor. In -the latter case the child often keeps on going to school, and -exposes other children to the disease; some of them catch -it, and become very sick or -even die. In still other cases, -the mother thinks that a child -has only a case of tonsillitis -and does not call a doctor; -the child's brothers and sisters -go to school and may carry -the germs to other children. -I have known a great many -cases of diphtheria to be spread -in this way.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 40%;"> -<img src="images/figure054.jpg" width="200" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span> The old, insanitary -slates and sponges have gone -out of use, but many people -of to-day still follow the dangerous -habit of putting pencils -into their mouths.</div> -</div> - -<p>Sometimes a dairyman -thinks that his child has nothing -more serious than tonsillitis, -and goes on selling milk. -A great many epidemics have -resulted from such cases. Sore -throats should not be treated lightly, for the most severe -forms of diphtheria may develop from germs that come -from a throat that is only slightly sore. If there is a -case of diphtheria in the town where you live, and if your -throat feels the least bit sore, have your doctor examine -it at once. If you do not wish to have your family doctor -look at your throat, go to the health officer. Had you not -rather stay at home for a week or two than see your best -friends ill or dead because of your carelessness?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) From -diphtheria -germs in -throats that -are not sore</div> - -<p>There is another peculiar thing about the germ of diphtheria. -It will often get into a throat and grow a little, -just enough to keep alive, but without making the throat -sore at all. The person in whose throat the germs are will -have no idea that they are there, but when he comes in contact -with some one who has a delicate throat, he may give -diphtheria to that person. The disease does not develop -in some throats because the body cells are all healthy and -doing their work so well that, when the diphtheria germs -try to take hold, they are driven off and not allowed to -grow. This is the reason that, before he raises the quarantine, -the careful health officer takes a "culture" from -the throat of everyone in a house where there has been -diphtheria.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How mild -cases may -be detected</div> - -<p>The health officer takes a culture by wiping the throat -with a little cotton on a long stick, which he then puts down -into a long glass tube containing some substance that diphtheria -germs like to grow on. If there are any diphtheria -germs in the throat, they will soon show on this culture -material. Then the health officer will say, "No, we cannot -let you out yet, for the germs are still in your throat." No -person who has been staying in a house where there is -diphtheria should be allowed to go out until a culture proves -that his throat is free from the germs of diphtheria.</p> - -<p>You see how hard it is to quarantine all cases of diphtheria, -when children are sometimes allowed even to go to -school with sore throats that are really diphtheritic. Only -two things are necessary for getting rid of diphtheria: one -is to quarantine every case, and the other, to have the -people do just what they are told when under quarantine. -This latter is just as important as the quarantine itself,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -for people often do not obey the health officer's directions. -Now let us see what are some of these directions.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 35%;"> -<img src="images/figure055.jpg" width="175" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span> How pets may -become carriers of disease.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Rules of -quarantine</div> - -<p>If you are the patient, the health officer will say that you -must be put in a room where there is just enough furniture -to make you comfortable, and that -no one except the nurse and the -doctor is to go into that room. He -will say that the nurse must stay in -your room all the time, or that she -must at least not go into any other -room in the house; that your meals -must be left outside your door, and -that the person who brings them -must go away before the door is -opened by the nurse. Furthermore, -as everything in the room that cannot -be boiled, or otherwise disinfected, -will have to be burned when -you are well, your pet books and -toys had better not be taken in.</p> - -<p>Finally, nothing is to be carried -from the room until it has been put -into a solution that will kill the -germs, and this means not only -dishes, bedding, and clothing, but -even books and letters. The nurse -must see that all discharges from -the throat and nose are received on -little cloths, which are to be burned immediately.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How quarantine -rules -are broken</div> - -<p>These are the things that the health officer will tell your -parents must be done. Now let us see what sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -happens. Your mother will want to see her little child so -much that she cannot wait until you are well, so she will -slip into your room, kiss your forehead, and hold you tight -against her. When a little later she kisses your baby -brother, and is so thankful that he is not sick too, she does -not realize that she is kissing the very same disease into his -little throat. Or, perhaps your mother is the nurse, and in -the night she hears your little brother crying; she thinks, -"Surely I can slip out and just cover him up; it will not -hurt him just for once," and she does so. What happens? -In a few days your doctor tells you that your little brother -will have to come in and stay with you.</p> - -<p>Perhaps your father grows anxious to see you, and one -morning he says he cannot stand it another minute, -so he slips in for a few moments before going to business. -In a few days one of his clerks fails to come to work. Your -father sends a messenger to see what the trouble is, and -the word comes back, "He has diphtheria." Then your -father says, "What are these health officers doing that they -do not stop this thing?" He is very indignant, but it never -occurs to him that he himself has spread the disease by doing -just what he promised the health officer he would not do.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How dogs -and cats -carry disease -germs</div> - -<p>The doctor told your mother not to take anything from -the room until it had been disinfected. But you do not consider -Towser, your dog, and Tabby, your cat, "anything," -so you persuade your mother to let them come in, and you -have a good play with them. You let them rub against -your face and romp on your bed, and do everything that -pet dogs and cats like to do, and in the meantime their fur -is getting full of diphtheria germs. Then Towser and -Tabby run out-of-doors and play with the boys and girls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -of the neighborhood. Soon the parents are wondering why -the health officers do not stop the spread of the disease. -No dog or cat should ever be permitted to come into a -house where there is a contagious disease.</p> - -<p>These are not all the ways in which people disobey the -orders of the health officer and of the doctor, but these are -enough to show you that it is a very important thing to do -just what they tell you. It is not always easy to follow all -these rules, but it is far better to follow these, and many -more, than to have to think that you have caused the death -of either a friend or a stranger.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. How does the poison of diphtheria get into -the system? 2. Where does the diphtheria germ come from? -3. What is quarantine? 4. What is the danger in breaking -quarantine? 5. Why is quarantine continued after you feel -well? 6. How does it happen that some cases of diphtheria -are not quarantined? 7. What is a diphtheria culture? -8. What rules should you observe while in quarantine? 9. -Tell some of the ways by which quarantine is broken. 10. -How do pet dogs and cats sometimes get disease germs?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. The germs that cause diphtheria always come -from some person or animal that carries diphtheria germs. -2. Diphtheria is always caused by the diphtheria germ, and -the diphtheria germ cannot cause any other disease. 3. People -are quarantined to prevent other people from getting the disease. -4. If there is diphtheria in your neighborhood, and -your throat becomes sore, have the doctor examine it. 5. Every -person who has been staying in a house where there is a case of -diphtheria should have his throat examined to make sure he is -not carrying germs. 6. Never play with dogs or cats when you -have a contagious disease. 7. People who do not obey quarantine -regulations cause a great deal of suffering and many -deaths.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXIV</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">THE CURE OF DIPHTHERIA</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Nature of -diphtheria -poison</div> - -<p>The germs of diphtheria do not get into the blood through -the skin, but grow on the surface of the mucous membrane -(skin of the throat), and there produce a poison that gets -into the blood through this membrane. It is this poison -that makes you sick, and it is called a <em>toxin</em>. You already -know that when people have diphtheria, they are sometimes -very sick and sometimes only slightly sick, and that -the germ can live in some throats without causing any ill -effects whatever.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote">How diphtheria -toxin -is fought</div> - -<p>As soon as the diphtheria germ begins to grow in a -throat, the little cells of the body begin to make a certain -substance and to pour it into the blood. This substance -we call <em>antitoxin</em>, which means opposed to the toxin in the -blood. If the little cells make the substance fast enough, -the germs will stop growing, or in some cases they never -really get started growing, because they cannot exist where -there is much antitoxin. Antitoxin looks like clear water. -The following experiment will show you something that -acts in very much the same way that antitoxin does.</p> - -<p>If you take a solution of litmus that is made alkaline, -it will be very blue, like indigo; but if you drop a few drops -of lemon juice into this solution it will turn red.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Lemon -juice is acid, and is just the opposite of alkali. Now, if -you put a few drops of ammonia, which is alkali, into the -red solution, it will turn blue again. If you put a little -more lemon juice, very carefully, drop by drop, into the -blue solution, it will gradually turn lighter, until it is -entirely clear.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">How antitoxin -acts</div> - -<p>We will suppose that the blue is due to the toxin produced -by the diphtheria germ, and that the lemon juice -is the antitoxin produced by the cells in the body. If the -antitoxin is made fast enough, the blue disappears; but -if the toxin is made faster than the antitoxin, the blue -remains. It is the same way in the body, only it is not -litmus and acids and alkalies that we have to deal with. -If the toxin is made faster than the antitoxin, the germs -grow, and we get sicker and sicker; but if the antitoxin is -made faster than the toxin, then the germs cannot grow, -and we soon get well, or perhaps do not get sick at all.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How antitoxin -was -discovered</div> - -<p>Doctors knew that this was what happened, but for a -great many years they could not discover the composition of -the antitoxin that is made in the body. One day a doctor -suggested, "If we cannot find out the chemical nature of -this thing that is made in the body, why can we not make -it in the body of some animal and then use the blood of the -animal?" And that is just what they did. They put -diphtheria germs into beef tea, and let them grow very -fast and make all the toxin they could. Then the doctors -strained the germs out by passing the beef tea through a -fine filter, in this way getting the poison, and not the germs. -Then they gave a strong, healthy horse a small quantity of -this poison; they did not feed it to him, but injected it into -his blood. Of course the horse was sick for a while, but -soon he began to get well again, for the cells in his body -immediately went to work making antitoxin.</p> - -<p>When the horse was well, the doctors gave him more of -the poison; this time he was not so sick and got well even -more quickly. This treatment with toxin was repeated in -gradually increasing doses until the poison did not affect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -the horse at all. Then the doctors said, "His blood is full -of antitoxin, and we will see what it will do when injected -into some other animal." So they drew off some of the -horse's blood and took out all the little red cells, leaving -nothing but the clear fluid of the blood. They planted diphtheria -germs in a rabbit's throat, and when the rabbit -became very sick, they gave him -some of the antitoxin from the horse. -The rabbit immediately got well. -Afterward they gave some of this -antitoxin to a little boy who was -very sick with diphtheria, and he, -too, got well. Ever since then the -doctors have been saving many lives -by the use of antitoxin.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 40%;"> -<img src="images/figure056.jpg" width="200" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span> Showing the -number of deaths in -100 cases of diphtheria -when antitoxin is used -on the first, second, -third, fourth, and fifth -days.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Evidences -that antitoxin -saves -lives</div> - -<p>Someone may ask, "How do we -know that it is the antitoxin that -saves lives?" In just this way: before -we knew anything about antitoxin, -about half of all the people -with diphtheria died; but since we -have had antitoxin, only about -twelve die out of every hundred -who have this disease. More than this, we know that -when the antitoxin is given within the first twenty-four -hours after the patient is taken sick, there is only about -one death for every one thousand cases of diphtheria. -Do you not think that this is strong proof that antitoxin -saves lives?</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How antitoxin -saves lives</div> - -<p>Antitoxin saves lives not only by curing those who have -diphtheria, but by preventing others from having it. If<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -a person who has been where there is a case of diphtheria -is given a dose of antitoxin, he will not have the disease, -because his blood will contain enough antitoxin to destroy -the diphtheria toxin present. If you will watch a careful -doctor when he makes his first visit to a case of diphtheria, -you will notice that, as soon as he gets through treating the -patient, he gives all members of the family who have been -near the patient a dose of antitoxin to keep them from -getting sick.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Antitoxin -not a -poison</div> - -<p>Some people may tell you that antitoxin is a poison and -should not be used. The statement that it is in itself a -poison is true. But it is also true that in your body there -are many things that would poison you if you got too much -of them. For instance, there is a gland in your throat -(the thyroid) which secretes a substance that is necessary -for your health, but if you were to take the secretion of -ten such glands it would kill you at once. Now, if the cells -in your body make antitoxin when you have diphtheria, it -is probable that antitoxin is the very thing needed. And -if you can help these cells by giving them antitoxin, ready-made, -does it not seem a reasonable thing to do? People -who give the name of poison to a substance which is known -to have saved many lives are not worthy of attention. -Anything may prove a poison if taken in excess; too much -play will prove a poison, and too much work also.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. What is the poison of diphtheria called? -2. What is antitoxin? 3. Compare the action of antitoxin -on the blood with the action of an acid on the litmus solution. -4. Tell about the discovery of antitoxin. 5. How do we know -that antitoxin saves lives? 6. How does antitoxin prevent -diphtheria? 7. Why should antitoxin not be regarded as a -poison?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Antitoxin is what the cells in your body make -when you have diphtheria. 2. By using the antitoxin taken -from a horse, you save your own cells the struggle necessary to -make it fast enough to kill the diphtheria germs. 3. If you -have diphtheria, and antitoxin is given promptly, you will get -well. 4. If you have been exposed to diphtheria, antitoxin will -prevent your having the disease. 5. Antitoxin is no more a -poison than are many other medicines.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXV</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW TYPHOID FEVER GERMS ARE CARRIED</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">How typhoid -fever -germs get -into the -system</div> - -<p>There are certain diseases, the germs of which get into -bodies through our mouths. That is, we eat or drink -them. Some of these diseases are typhoid fever, cholera, -the summer complaints of children, tuberculosis, and -diphtheria. At present we shall learn about the germ -that causes typhoid fever, how it gets into our food and -drink, and how we may prevent the disease by getting -rid of this germ.</p> - -<p>Typhoid fever, like all other diseases caused by germs, -is caused by one kind of germ, and one kind only. You -cannot get typhoid fever by eating cholera germs any more -than you can get diphtheria from typhoid germs.</p> - - -<div class="sidenote">Animals -free from -typhoid</div> - -<p>So far as we know, there is no animal except man that -has typhoid fever. Since the germs of any disease must -come from an animal suffering from that disease, and as -man is the only animal that has typhoid fever, it naturally -follows that the only way to get typhoid fever is from -some person who has the fever or has had it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How typhoid -germs -leave the -body</div> - -<p>We know that typhoid fever germs get into the body with -food, but how do they get out? Once in a great while germs -are found in the matter that the patient vomits, or spits up, -but this is a rare occurrence, so rare that we need hardly -consider it. The germs are present in the blood of the -sufferer, but other people do not get his blood on their -hands or in their food. There are two things that come from -the patient that are loaded with these germs, and these are -the urine and bowel discharges. In these two excretions -of the body are found practically all the typhoid germs that -come from the patient, and these are the causes of other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -infections. In other words, it is from these two excretions -that the germs get into food and drink.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How typhoid -germs -get into -water</div> - -<p>How do the typhoid germs -get into our food? What is -done with the excretions after -they come from the body? -You will probably say that the -nurse throws them into the -sewer. Very true; but where do -they go when they are thrown -into the sewer? The sewer -must empty somewhere, and in -most instances it empties into -a stream, the water of which -is used for drinking purposes.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure057.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span> Pollution of a stream -with sewage.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The widespread -evil -due to the -sickness of -one person</div> - -<p>You may think that the -germs from one person would -not make much difference, but -that is where you are mistaken. -There is a town in Pennsylvania -of about eight thousand -inhabitants, which gets its -water from a stream that flows -down from the mountains. One cold winter, while the -stream was frozen, a man living on the bank of the stream -was taken sick with typhoid fever. His nurse threw the -urine and the discharges from his bowels on the ice on the -bank of the creek. When the ice melted, the typhoid -germs in the discharges found their way to the stream -that furnished drinking water to people farther down, and -in a very short time there were over one thousand cases of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -typhoid fever in that town. Before the ice melted there -had not been a single case of typhoid, and every one of the -thousand cases came from the water into which had been -allowed to flow the discharges from one man with typhoid -fever. You see what germs from one person may do.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How long -typhoid -fever germs -live in a stream</div> - -<p>Sometimes people say that a stream purifies itself every -few miles. It does purify itself of some things, but disease -germs live from twenty-five to thirty-five days in water, and -a stream flows a long way in thirty days.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The pollution -of streams -with sewage</div> - -<p>Sometimes we hear people say that it is safe to put sewage -into a certain stream, because no town uses that stream for -drinking water. But of this they can never be sure. Not -long ago certain people said that the water from the river -which flowed through their town was used only by two -dairymen and a vegetable gardener, and therefore there was -no danger in running sewage into the stream. Yet the -dairymen and the gardener sold all their produce in that -very town. The townspeople never considered that the -water into which they ran their sewage was used by the -dairymen for washing their milk vessels (and perhaps for -diluting the milk), and by the gardener for washing his -lettuce and other vegetables. Thus the germs of disease -were brought directly back to the town.</p> - -<p>Do not think that you are safe in polluting a stream -with sewage because no town uses the water from that -stream. The individual on the farm is entitled to protection -just as much as the individual in the town. Always -remember that when you pollute with disease the -water used by the farmer, he may bring that disease back -into the town with the produce of his farm.</p> - -<p>No sewage, no matter how small the amount, should ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -be permitted to go into a stream until all the disease germs -it contains have been killed. This can be done, though -it will cost something; but we cannot get rid of disease -germs without work, and work cannot be done without -being paid for.</p> - -<p>There are other ways of scattering typhoid germs -besides running sewage into streams. Sometimes the -nurse does not throw the discharges from a typhoid -fever patient into a sewer at all, but into a closet vault. -Remember how the material from a closet vault goes -through open ground into a well, and you will understand -what happens. The germs get into the well, and the -whole family may then have typhoid fever.</p> - -<p>Let us suppose that the nurse did not throw the discharges -either into the closet or into the sewer, but carelessly -threw them out on the ground behind the house, where, as -it was winter time, they froze as hard as rocks. It does not -seem to hurt typhoid germs in the least to be frozen; when -they get warm again they are as lively as ever. Let us -suppose these particular germs lay there all winter, but in -the spring when everything melted the germs were still -alive and ready to spread disease. It happened that they -did not get into the well or into the milk, but they did get -on your food, and made you ill with typhoid fever.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How flies -carry typhoid -germs</div> - -<p>How did the germs get to your food? About the time that -the germs were thawed out, and were beginning to double -in number every hour or two, along came a fly and thought -that spot an attractive one for a lunch. Accordingly he -walked over this mass of filth, collecting a supply of germs -on his feet, and then came in and tracked them over your -bread and butter or other food.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 35%;"> -<img src="images/figure058.jpg" width="175" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span> Flies crawling -on the edge of the -glass or falling into the -milk leave germs that -cause disease.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How typhoid -germs -get into -milk</div> - -<p>That is how you got the fever; but the trouble did not -stop with you. When you fell sick, your father thought it -was time to clean the yard, but he was not very careful -what he did with the dirt, including the typhoid fever -discharges which the nurse threw out on the snow during -the winter. There was a low place -in the barnyard and there he dumped -the dirt. One of the cows thought -this fresh pile of dirt would make -a comfortable place to lie down -in. The next morning the milkman -milked her without first washing -her sides and udder, and hundreds -of little particles of dirt, each -one loaded with germs, fell into the -milk. The milk from all the cows -was mixed together, and by the time -it got to town these germs had -grown into many thousands. Some -of the people who drank the milk became ill with -typhoid fever and wondered afterward where they had -taken this disease.</p> - -<div class="sidenotex">Why the -recovered -patient is -dangerous</div> - -<p>The discharges from a typhoid fever patient contain -typhoid germs not only while the disease lasts, but for -many months after the patient is well. In some cases -they are present for years after the illness is over.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The story -of the careless -nurses</div> - -<p>Here is a story about typhoid fever that illustrates the -importance of washing and boiling everything that comes -from a sickroom. A few years ago there was an epidemic -of typhoid fever in a certain town. One of the hospitals -was very much crowded, and it became necessary to employ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -several extra nurses. All the nurses knew the importance -of washing their hands after handling the patients, and the -old nurses had seen so many bad results from failure to -observe this rule that they were very careful. Three of the -new nurses, however, thought it a great deal of trouble to be -washing their hands all the time, so more and more they -neglected this important duty. The result was that all -three of these girls got typhoid fever and died. They paid -the penalty for neglecting the duty that they well knew -they should have performed.</p> - -<p>Typhoid fever can be wiped out by attention to neglected -details—that is, by disinfecting discharges before -throwing them away; by disposing of excretions only in -places that are made for them; by adding lime to the -closet vault every day to kill any germs present; by making -the closet in such a way that flies cannot get into it; -and by not permitting sewage to enter any stream until all -the disease germs have been killed. All these things can be -done. It will require a little work; but had you not rather -take a little extra care than run the risk of catching or -spreading typhoid fever?</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. How do typhoid fever germs get into the body? -2. What is one source of these germs? 3. How do these germs -leave the body? 4. Name several ways by which typhoid -germs in a stream may get into foods. 5. How do flies carry typhoid -fever germs? 6. How do these germs get into milk?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Typhoid germs come from people who have -typhoid fever; they are found in the urine and bowel discharges. -2. No one should ever answer Nature's calls except in a place -provided for that purpose. 3. No sewage should be allowed to -go into any stream until all the germs in it have been killed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -4. Disease germs will live in running water fully as long as -they will in still water. 5. The discharges from a single person -may infect a whole city. 6. When typhoid fever germs get into -milk, they grow very rapidly; hundreds of people have been -given typhoid fever by drinking the milk from a dairy where -there was a single person sick with this disease. 7. People -who have had typhoid often carry the germs for several months -after they are well.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXVI</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOOKWORM DISEASE AND AMOEBIC DYSENTERY</span></h3> - - -<p>Hookworm disease and amoebic dysentery resemble -typhoid fever in one respect, in that they, too are spread -by the improper disposal of human excreta.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Where -hookworm -disease -prevails</div> - -<p>Hookworm disease is found almost exclusively in tropical -or subtropical climates. In the United States it is -rarely seen north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure059.jpg" width="500" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span> A full-grown hookworm, magnified; the short line shows -the average length of the hookworm.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">What the -hookworm -is</div> - -<p>This disease is not caused by a germ, as is typhoid fever, -but by a worm from a quarter to half an inch long, and -about as thick as a small hairpin. These worms get into a -person's intestinal canal, and there lay their eggs, which are -later given off in the bowel discharges. When these discharges -are thrown on the ground, or are put into an open -water-closet, they may be carried about by chickens, flies, -and pigs. Then the eggs hatch in the soil and tiny hookworms -result. When human excreta are not properly disposed -of, in climates where hookworm disease prevails, the -soil becomes practically full of these little worms, and from -the soil they find their way into the bodies of the people.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">How it -enters the -body</div> - -<p>There are two principal ways by which the hookworm -may enter the body. One is through the mouth, which these -worms reach in practically the same way as do typhoid -fever germs. The hookworm may enter the body through -the skin also. Some authorities state that the worm bores -its way in; but it is probable that it does not actually bore -through sound skin, but enters at some point where there -is a small break.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Where it -lives in the -body</div> - -<p>After the worm gets through the skin, it is taken into -the blood and carried to the lungs, and from there it finds its -way to the throat and is swallowed. It makes no difference -whether the hookworm is swallowed or enters the -body through the skin; it finally reaches the intestinal -canal, where it then makes its home. Sometimes thousands -of these worms are found in a single person, and each one -of them entered the body through the mouth or through -the skin. The worms do not multiply in the body, and the -eggs they lay never hatch until after they have left the -body.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How it -affects the -patient</div> - -<p>When the hookworm gets into the intestinal canal, it -fastens itself to the wall and sucks the blood from it, at the -same time giving off a poison that enters the blood of the -victim. The loss of blood and the effects of the poison soon -cause the person in whose body these worms are living to -become weak, pale, and thin. He is not able to do much -work, if any, and the result is that people suffering from -this disease are often called lazy. They are not lazy; they -are sick, and many of them die.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How hookworm -disease -can be -prevented</div> - -<p>All this sickness and all these deaths might be prevented -simply by the proper disposal of human excreta. -No human excreta should ever be put anywhere except into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -a properly constructed sewer or properly constructed privy. -If this rule were always observed, both hookworm disease -and typhoid fever would be abolished.</p> - -<div class="sidenotex">Where -amoebic -dysentery -prevails</div> - -<p>Amoebic dysentery is another disease that is confined -almost entirely to tropical and subtropical climates, though -cases sometimes occur in colder regions.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How it is -spread and -how it may -be prevented</div> - -<p>This disease, like typhoid fever, is caused by a germ that -leaves the body with the bowel discharges. The germ -makes its way into the body in the same way that the typhoid -germ enters; that is, it is taken in with food or -drink. The various means by which this germ gets into -our food are the same as those by which the typhoid germ -gets in; and the precautions that will prevent the spread of -typhoid fever will also prevent dysentery. Amoebic dysentery -kills a great many people in warm climates, though it -does not kill as many as does typhoid fever. If it does not -cause immediate death, it often leaves the patient very weak -and sickly for months or years.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. In what climates are hookworm disease and -amoebic dysentery commonly found? 2. In what respects do -they resemble typhoid fever? 3. How does the hookworm -enter the body? 4. Where do the hookworm eggs hatch? -5. How can hookworm disease be prevented? 6. What other -diseases can be prevented by the same precautions?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Typhoid fever, hookworm disease, and amoebic -dysentery are all caused by the improper disposal of human -excreta. 2. Most of the sickness that can be prevented is the -result of dirty habits; if all people would keep clean and see -that everything about them was kept clean, a great deal of sickness -would be prevented and a great many lives would be -saved.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXVII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW SCARLET FEVER IS CARRIED</span></h3> - - -<p>There are certain diseases that we know to be communicable -(that is, "catching"), but as yet we do not know -the germ that causes them, and therefore we cannot tell -just how they are carried about. We do know that they -are transferred from one person to another; but not being -able to locate the cause, as we can in the diseases of which -we do know the germ, we cannot explain how it is done.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How scarlet -fever is like -diphtheria</div> - -<p>Among the diseases of this class we find scarlet fever. -In one respect scarlet fever acts much the same as diphtheria. -A person may have it and not be very sick, sometimes -hardly sick at all. At night a child may have a -high fever, with a slightly sore throat, and the next -morning he may feel perfectly well. The mother supposes -that the fever was due to an "upset stomach," -thinks no more about it, and sends the child to school. -The next time the child takes a bath, he perhaps notices -that the skin peels off over some parts of the body. This -means that the high fever was due to scarlet fever, but the -breaking-out (rash) was so fine that it was not noticed. It -also means that all the children in the school have been -exposed to the disease. These very mild cases are the -most dangerous because so often they are not recognized.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why mild -cases are -dangerous:<br /> -<br /> -(<em>1</em>) For the -severe cases -they cause</div> - -<p>There are two things to be remembered in connection -with these mild forms of scarlet fever, as well as of every -other communicable disease. The first is that the same -cause which produces a mild form of the disease in one -child may produce its most severe form in another child. -You can contract a mild form of the disease from exposure -to a severe case; and you can contract a severe form from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -exposure to a mild case. The character of the case to -which you are exposed will give no indication of the form -the disease will assume in your body.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) For the -bad after -effects</div> - -<p>The next thing to be remembered about the mild form of -scarlet fever is that, though the child may not be made -very sick at the time, there may later be very bad results. -A child who has had scarlet fever in such a mild form that -he hardly knew he was sick, may, for a while, appear to be -quite well; then suddenly he has an earache, and an -abscess forms. This abscess is due to the scarlet fever -germs which have gone from the throat to the ear, and as a -result the child may lose his hearing entirely.</p> - -<p>The child may not, perhaps, have an abscess, but after -a time he may begin to lose flesh, and to grow pale. He -does not care for his meals, does not care to play, says he -is tired, and wants to lie still all the time. Finally his -mother thinks it might be a good idea to have a doctor see -him. The doctor examines his body carefully, and then -asks for a sample of his urine. When he has examined -this, he looks very serious and asks the mother when the -child was sick last, and what the disease was. Perhaps she -has forgotten all about the slight attack of fever, and the -doctor must question her very carefully before she recalls it. -At length it occurs to her, and then the doctor asks, "After -this attack of fever, did you notice that the skin came off his -hands and body?" She replies that she did, and then the -doctor tells her that the child really had scarlet fever, and, -owing to lack of care, he now has kidney disease. This is -a very serious trouble, from which he may never recover, -or, in case of recovery, he may always be weak and sickly. -Even a mild attack of scarlet fever is not to be neglected;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -it is a severe and dangerous disease in its very mildest form. -It not only kills a great many boys and girls, but it makes -delicate in health for all their lives many of those who apparently -recover.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 60%;"> -<img src="images/figure060.jpg" width="300" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span> One of the ways by -which quarantine is broken.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How confusion -of -names -causes mild -cases to go -undetected</div> - -<p>We often hear people -speak of two diseases -which they think are not -scarlet fever. These two -diseases are scarlatina and -scarlet rash. Now scarlatina -is simply the scientific -name for scarlet fever. -Some doctors will tell you -that you have scarlatina -and that it is not exactly -scarlet fever. A doctor -who says this either is -deceiving you or does not -know any better. In either -case, he ought not to be a -doctor, for he lets children be exposed to a disease that -is likely to kill many of them. It is the same with -scarlet rash. This, too, is simply another name for scarlet -fever. Changing the name does not change the disease, and -you may call it scarlet fever, scarlatina, or scarlet rash—it -makes no difference which; the disease is one and the -same.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why quarantine -is necessary for -scarlet fever</div> - -<p>Quarantine is the only way known for preventing the -spread of scarlet fever, as well as of diphtheria. If every -case of scarlet fever were quarantined, we could soon -stop this disease; but every case is not quarantined,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -because some of them are so mild that they are not -recognized.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How breaking -quarantine -shows -selfishness</div> - -<p>Even when a case is quarantined, the people sometimes -neglect the instructions given, just as they do -when there is a case of diphtheria. Then there are -cases that are known to be scarlet fever but are not reported -to the health officers, because the people do not want -to be quarantined. They simply do not want to be put to -any inconvenience themselves, and although this seems a -very strange way for people to act, it happens very often. -There are many selfish people in the world; there are -even people who will not report a case of scarlet fever -because to do so might prevent their going to a party. -Selfishness is at the bottom of it.</p> - -<p>It is extremely important that a child should be absolutely -free from all the little scales of skin which are thrown -off after scarlet fever, before he returns to school or mingles -again with others. If there is a discharge from the nose -or ears after the scales have disappeared from the skin, -there is still danger of spreading the disease, for these discharges -often retain the infection for many months.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Give two reasons why mild cases of scarlet -fever should be carefully treated. 2. Why is quarantine necessary? -3. How does selfishness lead people to spread -scarlet fever? 4. When is it safe to let a scarlet fever patient -mingle with well people?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. If you have scarlet fever and are not very -sick, do not think that you will not be dangerous to others; -severe cases sometimes come from exposure to the mildest -cases. 2. Mild cases of scarlet fever often leave very bad results, -if the patient is not cared for. 3. Be very careful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -until you are entirely well. 4. Scarlatina and scarlet rash -are nothing but scarlet fever; keep away from people who -have them. 5. Quarantine is the only way by which we can -prevent the spread of scarlet fever; there is no medicine that -will prevent it. 6. People who violate quarantine regulations -are both selfish and stupid.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXVIII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">MEASLES AND WHOOPING COUGH DANGEROUS -DISEASES</span></h3> - - -<p>Measles is a disease in the same class as scarlet fever. -We do not know the cause, but we do know that it is communicable.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why measles -should be -avoided</div> - -<p>Measles is usually not a severe disease; that is, it does -not kill as many persons in proportion to the number of -cases as does scarlet fever. It does, however, kill more -people than most of us think; a great many little babies -die of it. How often we hear mothers say, "I wish my -children would have measles and be done with it." It -would be very convenient if they could have measles in a -mild way and "be done with it." The trouble is, that we -cannot tell whether it will take a mild form, and, worse -than this, we do not know when they will be done with it.</p> - -<p>If you should go into the children's wards of a large -hospital, you would know why measles should be avoided. -There you would hear the doctors questioning the mothers -about the previous diseases of the little ones. You would -be surprised at the number who replied, "He has not -had anything but measles." Then you would hear the -question, "How long since he had the measles?" "He -was just over it when he was taken sick with this trouble." -What is "this trouble"? Follow the doctor along from -bed to bed and see the cases of pneumonia that started -when the child "was just over measles"; see how many -cases of empyema (abscess in the chest) began just after -the measles ended; how many cases of abscess in the bone, -how many cases of disease of the kidneys appeared after -the child recovered from the measles. Then go down into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -the eye and ear wards and see how many diseased eyes -and ears have followed an attack of the measles. The -children would not have had these troubles had they not -first had measles.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Necessity -of care in -measles</div> - -<p>If you have measles, do not let others come near you, -and do not think that, because you do not feel very sick, -you can run about as usual. If you do not take good care of -yourself, you may have some of the diseases that so often -begin when children are getting over measles. Measles -causes more deaths than is commonly supposed, especially -among young children and very old people; and a great -many children die of diseases which they never would have -had if they had not first had the measles. Avoid people -who have measles, and if you should get the disease, do -not treat it as a slight thing, but consult your doctor at -once.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="100%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc wd30"><em>Whooping Cough</em></td><td class="tdc wd25"><em>Scarlet Fever</em></td><td class="tdc wd25"><em>Measles</em></td><td class="tdc wd20"><em>Smallpox</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>4,856</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>4,309</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>4,302</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>74</em></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<img src="images/figure061.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span> Deaths in 1907 from four common communicable diseases -reported to the United States Census Bureau.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Evil effects -of whooping -cough</div> - -<p>Whooping cough is much the same as measles in this -respect. It kills many children, and, in cases where it does -not kill them, their bodies become so weakened that they -are liable to contract some other disease that may prove -fatal. Avoid people who have whooping cough.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Why should people avoid measles? 2. Why -should one take care of himself when he has measles? 3. Why -is whooping cough to be avoided?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Measles is more fatal, especially among babies, -than people realize. 2. Measles causes more diseases of the -bones, ears, and eyes than any other communicable disease. -3. Measles is not dangerous if properly cared for, but when -neglected, it causes much suffering and many deaths. 4. -Whooping cough causes almost as many deaths as does measles.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXIX</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW SMALLPOX IS PREVENTED</span></h3> - - -<p>We now come to the study of a disease, the cause of -which has not been positively recognized. We know that it -is very communicable; but we know also that there is absolutely -no reason for anyone's ever contracting it, since -there is a way by which it may easily be prevented.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Fatality of -smallpox -before the -discovery of -vaccination</div> - -<p>Something over a hundred years ago, smallpox was one -of the most fatal diseases known. It is estimated that -during the eighteenth century it killed over 60,000,000 -people.</p> - -<p>Up to the time when the Spaniards invaded Mexico, -there had been no smallpox there. The Spaniards brought -the disease with them, and historians tell us that out of the -12,000,000 people living in Mexico at that time, at least -6,000,000 died from smallpox. At that time the disease -was considered fatal throughout the world; when it broke -out in a community, people fled without stopping to bury -their dead. It was a rare thing to see a person not more -or less disfigured by the marks the disease leaves on the -face and body.</p> - -<p>To-day we find a very different condition. There are -now fewer fatalities from smallpox than from almost any -other communicable disease. During 1906 and 1907 only -169 deaths from smallpox were reported from all over the -United States to the Census Bureau at Washington. What -has caused this marked falling off in the fatality of the -disease?</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Discovery -of vaccination</div> - -<p>During the time that smallpox was killing so many -people, all the doctors were trying to find something that -would cure the disease or that would prevent it. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -latter part of the eighteenth century Dr. Edward Jenner, -an English physician, noticed that milkmaids did not -have smallpox as much as did people of other occupations. -He also noticed cows with little sores on their udders that -looked very much like the sores that come with smallpox. -He therefore tried making on the arms of people sores -just like those on the udders of the cows. He did this -by taking a little of the matter from the sores on the -cows and putting it into the scratches on the people's -arms. After these sores had healed, the people who -had been thus treated did not have smallpox. This -simple practice has caused one of the most deadly diseases -known to man to become one of the most easily -controlled.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Prevention -of smallpox -by vaccination:</div> - -<p>Though it is well known that before the discovery of -vaccination smallpox was a fatal disease, there are still -some persons who say that vaccination has done nothing -to reduce the mortality. When you learn some of the -facts, you can judge for yourself whether or not vaccination -does prevent smallpox.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) In the -Franco-Prussian -War</div> - -<p>During the Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71, the German -soldiers were all vaccinated, and only a part of the -French army was vaccinated. Smallpox broke out in the -two armies. As a result, 6,000 of the French died from -smallpox and only 278 of the Germans. In many instances, -the German and the French soldiers were confined in the -same hospitals, with exactly the same opportunities to -contract the disease. But, you might ask, if vaccination -prevents smallpox, how did it happen that there were <em>any</em> -cases among the German soldiers? In order to prevent -smallpox, vaccination must be successful; that is, it must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -"take." We will tell you about different kinds of vaccination -a little later.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure062.jpg" width="400" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span> In Sweden, before vaccination, smallpox caused 2,050 -deaths per million population (represented by the large square). Since -the introduction of vaccination the death rate has dropped to 2 per -million population (represented by the two small squares).</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) In -Sweden</div> - -<p>In Sweden we find strong evidence that vaccination -prevents smallpox. Up to 1801, before vaccination was -introduced into that country, the yearly death rate from -smallpox was 2,050 out of each million of the population. -In 1801 vaccination was introduced into Sweden, but the -people were allowed to be vaccinated or not, just as they -pleased. During the ten years ending with 1811, the annual -death rate from smallpox had dropped from 2,050 -per million of the population to 686 per million. Later, -vaccination was made compulsory (that is, everybody in -Sweden was obliged to be vaccinated), and in 1894 the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -death rate had dropped to only two deaths a year per million -population. Is it merely a coincidence that this great -falling off in deaths from smallpox came after vaccination -was discovered, or was it due to vaccination?</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) In the -Philippine -Islands</div> - -<p>Before the Philippine Islands were occupied by the -Americans, vaccination was very little practiced, and a -large percentage of the deaths in those islands was caused -by smallpox. In 1897 smallpox caused about 40,000 deaths. -A few years later the Americans enforced vaccination among -the inhabitants of the Philippines, and the result was that -in 1907 there were only 304 deaths from smallpox. There -has been practically no quarantine for smallpox and no -disinfection; the only cause of the suppression of the disease -in the Philippine Islands is vaccination—nothing else.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>4</em>) In -Gloucester, -England</div> - -<p>In Gloucester, England, there used to be a great many -people who did not believe in vaccination, though it is -doubtful if they themselves could have explained why they -did not. They seem to have been much like the man who, -when asked, "What do you think of this?" replied, "I -don't know anything about it, but I am against it." In -1890 Gloucester had a population of 42,000 people, most -of whom had never been vaccinated. In the latter part of -1895, smallpox broke out. Quarantine was strictly carried -out, but the disease continued to spread. As the people saw -the number of victims rapidly increasing, many of them -concluded that they had rather be vaccinated than have -smallpox, even though they did not really believe in vaccination. -By the first of April, 1896, over 36,000 people -had been vaccinated in Gloucester, and by the first of -August there was not a case of smallpox in the city. But -what had happened in the meantime? There had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -1,979 cases of smallpox; a very large amount of money had -been expended in quarantining; hundreds of persons had -been disfigured for life; and 439 lives had been lost. -And all this simply because the people did not believe in -vaccination.</p> - -<p>Quarantining smallpox is a most expensive luxury, -which may possibly retard the progress of this disease, but -was never known to check an epidemic of it. Every -epidemic of smallpox during the last one hundred years -has been checked by vaccination.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Why some -diseases do -not return</div> - -<p>There are certain diseases which you are not likely to -have more than once; one attack protects against another. -Why and how does one attack of a certain disease protect -against another? When a person is taken sick with one -of these diseases, the cells of his body immediately begin -to make a substance called antitoxin. We learned something -about antitoxin when we were studying diphtheria. -In diseases like scarlet fever, measles, and smallpox, in -which one attack protects against another, the antitoxin -that is formed in the body when you are sick stays there -for a long time, in some cases as long as you live. While -this antitoxin is present in the blood, the cause of the disease -cannot live in the body; hence you cannot have the -disease again. After some diseases this antitoxin seems to -disappear from the blood in a short time; after others, it -seems to remain for several years; and after still others it -remains as long as you live. After diphtheria it stays in -the blood only a short time, so that one may have diphtheria -a second time within a few years. Some people -have smallpox, measles, or scarlet fever a second time, but -with most people these diseases never return.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> - -<p>If we knew how to make the cells of our bodies produce -this antitoxin and keep it stored up in the blood all the -time, we should never have any of these diseases. But in -many cases we do not know how to cause the cells to manufacture -this antitoxin. However, in one or two diseases -we do know how to persuade them to make the antitoxin, -and the one in which we know how to accomplish this best -is smallpox. This is just what is done by vaccination.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How vaccination -prevents -smallpox</div> - -<p>The object of vaccination is to put the cells of the body -to work making antitoxin. To do this, it is necessary to get -some of the toxin into the body. We want to get in just -enough to make the cells work, and no more. Therefore we -make a very small scratch, and put into it some of the -vaccine which contains the toxin of smallpox. It is impossible -to have these germs in your body and not be -affected by them to some degree. If you did not feel a -little sick, the cells would not be making antitoxin, for the -thing that makes you sick is what makes the cells go to -work. But this sickness is only a matter of a day or two, -and after the cells have made the antitoxin, it will stay -in your body a long time, longer in some cases than in -others.</p> - -<p>Some people, after they have once been vaccinated, can -never be successfully vaccinated again; neither can such -people ever have smallpox. Most people, however, can be -successfully vaccinated every five to seven years, and there -are a few people who will "take" if vaccinated every year -or two. These conditions indicate the length of time that -the antitoxin of smallpox will live in the bodies of these -different persons. If vaccination, properly performed, does -not take, the person is not in a condition at that time to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -catch smallpox; and if vaccination, properly performed, -does take, it is positive evidence that if this person had been -exposed to smallpox, he would have taken the disease.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Necessity of -repeated -vaccination</div> - -<p>It is frequently asked, "How long will vaccination protect -against smallpox?" You can no more answer this -question than you can tell how long the antitoxin will live in -the blood of any particular person. The only safe thing to -do is to be vaccinated every few years, and if smallpox is -present in your community, get vaccinated every year until -the vaccination takes. If it takes, it shows that you were -in a condition to catch the disease; and if it does not take, -you may feel safe from smallpox for a while, at least.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Why was smallpox formerly more widespread -and more often fatal than it is now? 2. Tell of the discovery -of vaccination. 3. Give instances to show the influence of -vaccination on smallpox epidemics. 4. Why must there be repeated -vaccinations? 5. Show how vaccinating for smallpox -is like taking antitoxin to prevent diphtheria.</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Before the introduction of vaccination, smallpox -was one of the most dangerous diseases known. 2. All -evidence of history tends to show that vaccination has caused -smallpox to become a very mild disease and a comparatively -rare one. 3. Successful vaccination repeated at proper intervals -will prevent smallpox. 4. Vaccination must be repeated -because we do not know just how long the material developed -in the body from a single vaccination will last.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXX</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">WHY VACCINATION SOMETIMES SEEMS A FAILURE</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">What constitutes -a successful -vaccination</div> - -<p>How does it happen that those who have been recently -vaccinated sometimes have smallpox? It is <em>successful</em> -vaccination that prevents smallpox, not recent vaccination; -there is a vast difference between the two. A <em>successful</em> -vaccination is one that results in a sore identical with the -sores of smallpox. Such a sore is secured only as a result -of the action of the germs that cause smallpox.</p> - -<p>If the arm is red from the shoulder to the wrist and so -swollen that you cannot use it for weeks, it does not necessarily -mean that you have had a successful vaccination.</p> - -<p>Such arms are not the result of vaccination itself, any -more than a railroad wreck is the result of the fact that -there is steam in the engine. The railroad wreck is caused -by carelessness on the part of some operator, and the badly -inflamed and swollen arm is due to lack of care or knowledge -on the part of the vaccinator or the person -vaccinated.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Some pretended -vaccinations</div> - -<p>A fly blister is not a successful vaccination. Such a statement -may not seem necessary, until you hear this story. -A man showed a sore on his arm, asserting that it was a -successful vaccination. He was told that it was nothing but -the result of a blister, and not vaccination, and that the work -had been done by putting a small bit of blistering plaster -on his arm. He admitted this to be the fact, and said that -the "doctor" who did it told him that it was a new way of -vaccinating. The doctors who say that vaccination will -not prevent smallpox belong to the class who use fly blisters -and call them vaccinations. When the patient gets smallpox, -those who are opposed to vaccinations say that here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -is an illustration of their claim that vaccination will not -prevent smallpox.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 35%;"> -<img src="images/figure063.jpg" width="175" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span> How vaccinated -arms are sometimes -infected.</div> -</div> - -<p>Some people who honestly think they were vaccinated -have smallpox. There are sometimes instances in which a -person recently vaccinated with apparent success nevertheless -contracts smallpox; there are still other cases in which -the disease develops after a vaccination -that would not take. Here -is an example:</p> - -<p>A doctor vaccinates a child in -the usual manner. At the end of -four or five days, the dressing is -taken from the arm, and the only -thing to be seen is a little black -scab. The child scratches this off. -In a few days the spot becomes -red and a small abscess forms, resembling -a smallpox sore. Naturally, -this is taken for a completely -successful vaccination, but it is not -really so. When the child scratched -off the scab, the vaccination wound was nearly healed, and -the little abscess was caused by some very mild pus germs, -which were under the finger nails with which he scratched -the wound. The abscess was in no wise connected with -the vaccination, but was simply such an infection as a child -might get at any time that he scratched his arm. No one -has ever claimed that such an abscess will prevent smallpox -any more than that a boil will prevent it.</p> - -<p><em>A successful vaccination will prevent smallpox.</em> The -length of time for which it will prevent the disease varies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -in different individuals. Some it will protect only for a -year or two, while in others it will last through life.</p> - -<p>Dr. H. W. Bond, Health Commissioner of St. Louis, -Missouri, states:</p> - -<p>"The experience of this department, based on the observation -of thousands of cases, is that a well-pitted mark -gives at least ten years' immunity. We have never seen a -case of smallpox in a person with a well-pitted scar less -than ten years old—that is, the scar less than ten years -old."</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A sore arm -not always -due to successful -vaccination</div> - -<p>One of the strongest objections made against vaccination -is that the arm sometimes becomes very sore from it. This -is true, but the sore arm is not a common occurrence and is -never caused by vaccination properly performed. There is -always some cause for the bad arm besides the vaccination.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Cause of -sore arms</div> - -<p>The usual cause of a bad arm is improper vaccination; -this means the lack of proper precautions on the part of -the person who does the vaccinating. Years ago, before -vaccination was performed with the great care which is -given it to-day, bad arms could not be prevented; but -to-day the cause of the trouble is not the vaccine, but the -vaccinator. Sometimes a father thinks he will save a dollar -by vaccinating his child himself, and he is likely to injure -the child by attempting to vaccinate him without taking -antiseptic precautions. The same surgical preparations -must be made for a vaccination as for an operation. If -this is not done, a bad arm will result, not because of the -vaccination, but because of the negligence of the vaccinator.</p> - -<p>Never allow any person, doctor or otherwise, to vaccinate -you until the skin surface has been well washed with soap -and water, rinsed clean, and wiped off with alcohol. See<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -that the vaccine is fresh and has been properly kept. When -it begins to "take," keep the spot absolutely clean and -covered with a clean cloth, renewed daily. <em>Never scratch -or rub it.</em> These precautions will prevent the dreaded soreness -of the arm.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How people -themselves -infect their -arms with -pus germs</div> - -<p>The person operated on is himself often responsible for -the bad arm. A careful doctor will put a dressing on the -arm, after he has supplied the vaccine, and will tell you to -let that dressing alone, for he wishes to take it off himself. -About the third or fourth day after the vaccination, your -arm begins to itch. Possibly you have forgotten what -the doctor told you; at any rate, you pay no attention to -directions and take the dressing off to scratch the arm. -When you scratch the wound, you introduce pus germs into -it, and you have no reason to expect anything but a sore -arm. In this case, it is not the fault of the vaccinator or of -the vaccination; it is your own fault. Never touch a vaccination -sore; in fact, it is dangerous to touch any sore.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. How is a successful vaccination determined? -2. What are some pretended vaccinations? 3. Mention some -of the things that cause bad arms after vaccination.</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. A successful vaccination causes a sore identical -with the sores that result from smallpox. 2. A fly blister -is not a vaccination in any sense of the word. 3. A very sore -arm does not result from a properly performed vaccination, but -from carelessness on the part of the vaccinator or the person -vaccinated.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXXI" id="CHAPTER_XXXI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXXI</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">CONSUMPTION, THE GREAT WHITE PLAGUE</span></h3> - - -<p>Tuberculosis, or consumption, has been known for many -centuries. It was known long before Rome was ever heard -of. Hippocrates, a Greek physician, studied it, and said -that if it were treated in its early stages, it could be cured.</p> - -<div class="sidenotex">Why consumption -is -called the -Great White -Plague</div> - -<p>Tuberculosis is called the Great White Plague. It is -called the Great Plague, because it kills more people than -does any other one disease; the White Plague, because -people who suffer from it become so pale and white.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Consumption -more -destructive -than war</div> - -<p>It is estimated that nearly 200,000 people die from tuberculosis -every year in the United States. This means that -in this country there is one death from consumption every -two minutes and thirty-six seconds. Is it not fearful to think -of nearly 200,000 people dying every year, in the United -States alone, from a disease that we know can be prevented? -Do you not think that we ought to do everything -we can to prevent this disease from spreading?</p> - -<p>During the Civil War 205,070 soldiers were killed in both -armies. This war lasted four years. During the same -length of time there were 640,000 deaths from tuberculosis -in the United States. This means that consumption killed -over three times as many people as were killed during the -same length of time in the Civil War. In some parts of the -country one out of every seven deaths is caused by this -disease, but the average throughout the country is one -death out of every ten.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 30%;"> -<img src="images/figure064.jpg" width="150" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span> Comparing -640,000 deaths -from tuberculosis -the United States -during four years -with the 205,070 -deaths in the Civil -War.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Prevalence -of tuberculosis</div> - -<p>There are more than 700,000 people sick from tuberculosis -every year in the United States alone. Of this number -nearly 200,000 die every year. Tuberculosis is a disease -that can be prevented. It may take a long time to get rid of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -it, but it can be abolished. When you think of all the -people that are sick from tuberculosis, and of all those -who die from it every year, you will surely -want to do all you can to help prevent -this suffering and death.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Tuberculosis -a disease -of various -parts of the -body:</div> - -<p>When people speak of consumption -they usually mean tuberculosis of the -lungs; but tuberculosis is not confined -to the lungs. The germs that cause -tuberculosis may attack any part of the -body, and from one part may go to -other parts, setting up a growth wherever -they go.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) Of the -throat</div> - -<p>Tuberculosis of the throat is a common -form of the disease. When the -germs of tuberculosis settle in the -throat, they destroy the tissues very -rapidly and, as a rule, kill the patient -much more quickly than they do when -they start in the lungs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) Of the -joints</div> - -<p>Another frequent form of tuberculosis -in occurs in the knee; this is popularly -called "white swelling." It quickly destroys -the knee joint and results in a stiff -leg. The growth may stop there, but -more often it extends from the knee to -other parts of the body.</p> - -<p>Often we see a little boy or girl wearing one shoe with a -sole much thicker than the other. This is because one leg -is shorter than the other, and we notice that the shortened -leg is deformed as well. This condition sometimes results<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -from an injury, but it is far more likely to be caused by -tuberculosis of the hip joint.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) Of the -spine</div> - -<p>Again we see boys and girls with diseases of the spine, -so that they have "hunch backs" or are twisted to one side. -These conditions result from tuberculosis of the bones of the -spine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure065.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span> One of the effects of tuberculosis.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>4</em>) Of the -glands</div> - -<p>Sometimes we see children and grown people with swellings -on their necks. These swellings may look smooth, but -they feel as if they were made up of little bunches of grapes -or plums under the skin. They are almost always due to -the growth of the germs that cause tuberculosis of the little -glands of the neck.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>5</em>) Of the -stomach</div> - -<p>Any one of the other glands of the body is just as liable to -become affected by tuberculosis as are the glands of the -neck. Tuberculosis of the stomach or bowels is not at all -uncommon.</p> - -<p>The germs of tuberculosis are likely to attack any of the -tissues of the body, especially if the cells composing these -tissues are for any reason weakened so that they cannot do -the work required of them. When the tuberculosis germs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -grow in tissues, the tissues finally break down and an abscess -forms. A tubercular abscess is sometimes called a -"cold abscess."</p> - -<p>All such abscesses finally break and an open sore results. -The matter that comes from the open sore and from the abscess -when it is first opened is full of the germs that cause -tuberculosis. If this matter is allowed to become dry, the -germs are blown about in the dust. Then other people may -inhale them or take them into their bodies through the -mouth or skin and thus contract consumption.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The old -belief that -consumption -is inherited</div> - -<p>Until a few years ago it was generally believed that consumption -was inherited. That is, it was thought that -children whose father or mother had consumption were -born with the disease. Even to-day many people hold to this -idea, because they have not studied or learned of the discoveries -made in recent years. These people still believe -that if a child's father or mother dies of tuberculosis, the -child will die of tuberculosis, too, no matter how careful he -may be or how much of a fight he may make against it.</p> - -<p>It is true that many people whose parents have died of -consumption also die from this disease; but this does not -prove that they were born with consumption. It merely -shows that they had a good chance to catch the disease by -being continually with some one who had it. It is also true -that a great many people die from consumption whose -parents did not have it. If consumption is an inherited -disease, where did these people get it?</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How the -germ of -tuberculosis -was -discovered</div> - -<p>About thirty years ago, Dr. Robert Koch discovered -that all consumptives have in their sputum a long, slender -germ which he called the tubercle bacillus. Some of these -germs he injected into guinea pigs, and he found that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -caused the pigs to have consumption. Then he made -many other experiments, and proved beyond question that it -is this very germ that causes tuberculosis, and that no one -has consumption unless he has this germ in his body.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Evidence -that consumption -is not inherited</div> - -<p>Then the question arose, "Is the baby whose parents -have consumption born with this germ in its body?" This -question could not at first be answered; but tests were -made by taking the children of consumptive parents away -from their parents, and keeping them in homes where there -were no consumptives. It was found that these babies did -not develop the disease. From these and many other tests, -it has been proved that consumption is not inherited, and -that the reason the child of the consumptive so often has -consumption is because he lives with people having the -disease.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Evidence -that consumption -is -a house -disease</div> - -<p>Consumption seems to be confined to certain families, -and this has led many people to think that the disease is -inherited, regardless of the proof that it is not. When we -carefully study the facts in various cases, we find that the -disease is not confined to a certain family, so much as it is -to the <em>house</em> in which the family lives.</p> - -<p>The record of a single house will illustrate how tuberculosis -sticks to the house rather than to the family. From -1880 to 1901, a particular house was occupied by a father, -mother, and six children, of whom four died of consumption. -From 1902 to 1903 the house was occupied by another -father and mother with eight children. They moved -away because of the great amount of sickness in the family. -At present this father and one of his children have tuberculosis. -In 1904 the house was occupied by still another -family, consisting likewise of a father, mother, and eight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -children. Now it is known that four of the children have -tuberculosis, and it is feared that three others have also -contracted the disease. In 1905 a son of the first occupant, -with his wife and two -children, returned to live -in the house. The father -of this family died of tuberculosis. -Up to 1906 -the total results from this -house, scattered through -four families, were as -follows: five deaths, six -cases in people still living, -and three suspected cases.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure066.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span> The constant danger of -infection in railway cars, where -germs can live as well as in a -house.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why consumption -is a house -disease</div> - -<p>When the consumptive coughs, -he sends fine droplets -of moisture into the air. -These droplets contain the -germs that cause tuberculosis. -The moisture evaporates -and the germs are -left sticking to the floors, -the walls, the curtains, -and the furniture of the -room. When the room is swept or dusted, the germs are -stirred up with the dust and people inhale them. The -germ that causes consumption will live for a long time -in a house; you cannot see it, but it is there. Wherever -a consumptive has lived, he has left the germs of this -disease behind him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to -disinfect -houses</div> - -<p>If a house in which a consumptive has lived is thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -disinfected, all the germs he left there will be killed. Scattering -disinfectants about a room does no good. The only -proper way to disinfect is to close the house, for if the disinfectant -is strong enough to kill the disease germs, no -human being can stay in the house while it is being -used. Disinfecting should be done by the health officer, -because he knows how much disinfectant is needed -to kill every germ in the house and how it should be -used.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Fraudulent -disinfectants</div> - -<p>Sometimes you will see an advertisement saying that certain -disinfectants will kill the germs of disease but will not -affect the people. Always remember that any disinfectant -that is strong enough to kill the disease germs will also -kill human beings, and do not be fooled by such advertisements.</p> - -<p><em>Never move into a house that has been previously occupied, -until the house has been disinfected.</em> Do not take it for -granted that the people who lived there before had no -communicable disease. Do not take the word of the agent -or of any one else that there has never been sickness in -the house. People sometimes have tuberculosis without -knowing it; people sometimes have tuberculosis or other -communicable diseases without telling of it.</p> - -<p>It does not cost much to disinfect a house, and if the disinfection -is properly done the disease germs will be killed. -"An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." Try -to convince your father that by having the new home disinfected -he may save not only doctor's fees, but perhaps -the lives of himself and his family.</p> - -<p>There are a great many things that boys and girls can do -to help fight this disease. This "scourge" can be wiped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -out; but if the boys and girls do not help in this great work, -it will never be done.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. Why do people call consumption the Great -White Plague? 2. What is the annual death rate from consumption -in the United States? 3. Compare the fatality from -consumption with the number of soldiers killed during the -Civil War. 4. What amount of illness in the United States is -due to consumption? 5. Describe at least four forms of -tuberculosis. 6. What determines the part of the body in which -the germ of tuberculosis grows?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Tuberculosis and consumption are the same -disease. 2. This disease kills more people than war, although -it might be prevented. 3. Tuberculosis is not confined to the -lungs but may attack the tissues of any part of the body. 4. -Consumption is not inherited; it is a house disease rather than -a family disease. 5. A house should be disinfected by the -health officer before it is occupied by a new tenant.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXXII" id="CHAPTER_XXXII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXXII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW CONSUMPTION IS SPREAD AND HOW PREVENTED</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">How tuberculosis -germs leave -the body:</div> - -<p>The sputum (spit) of the consumptive and the discharges -from tubercular sores contain the germs that cause tuberculosis. -Sometimes these germs are so numerous that thousands -of them would be found clinging to the point of a -needle dipped into the sputum or discharges from a patient. -When the consumptive coughs, he sends into the air many -of the germs that cause tuberculosis.</p> - -<p>We cannot kill the germs while they are in the body of the -consumptive; but we can kill them after they have left the -body, by seeing that none of the sputum or discharge from -tubercular wounds or sores is allowed to become dried and -blown about as dust.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) In discharges -from sores</div> - -<p>When the discharge from a tubercular sore becomes -dried and blows about with the dust, the germs are inhaled -into the lungs of other people, or fall into other sores and -cause them to become tubercular. Since this is one of the -most frequent ways by which this dread disease is spread, -you will say at once, "Why, every particle of matter from a -tubercular sore ought to be burned, so that there would be -no possibility of the germs being scattered." This of -course ought to be done, but this is not enough.</p> - -<p>People sometimes have consumption and are not aware -that they have it. Others may have tubercular sores and -not know them to be such. Any sore, whether it is tubercular -or not, contains disease germs. They may not be the -germs of tuberculosis, but even the least dangerous of them -is the germ that causes pus (matter).</p> - -<p>Since we are trying to get rid not only of the germs that -cause tuberculosis, but also of the germs that cause all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -communicable diseases, it would be better to say, "All -discharges from <em>any</em> sore should be burned immediately."</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) In the -sputum</div> - -<p>When people spit on the sidewalk or on the floor, the -sputum will of course become dry. Sometimes a lady -drags her dress through the sputum on the sidewalk or on -the floor; it sticks to her dress and she takes the germs -home with her. The sputum of the consumptive -is loaded with the germs that -cause tuberculosis, and if this sputum is -allowed to be blown about with the dust, -people will inhale it and thus get the -germs into their lungs. Certainly the -consumptive should never spit on the -sidewalk or on the floor, or in the mine, -workshop, or in any place where the -sputum may become dry and form dust. Of course he -should not fill the air about him with germs by coughing -into it; everybody knows that.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> -<img src="images/figure067.jpg" width="150" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span> A sputum -cup of waterproof -pasteboard.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Why everybody -should -be careful -about spitting -and -coughing</div> - -<p>But <em>no</em> man or woman, boy or girl, should ever spit on the -floor or sidewalk. In the first place it is bad manners. -No person does this who is well brought up. In the second place, -we must remember that the consumptive does not -like to have others know that he has consumption; this -feeling is a part of the disease. If you expect the consumptive -to refrain from spitting on the floor or sidewalk, -you must help him by your example. You cannot expect -him to be the only one to hunt up a cuspidor, when you -yourself are spitting on floor or sidewalk. If you expect -the consumptive to take the precaution necessary to protect -you from this disease, you must take the same precaution -yourself.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the matter of coughing, the same rules hold true. -If you expect the consumptive to hold a handkerchief before -his mouth when he coughs, you must -do the same.</p> - -<div class="sidenotex">How to avoid -spitting on -the floor or -sidewalk:</div> - -<p>Since it is not right that the consumptive -should spit on the floor or sidewalk, -it will naturally be asked, "What is the -consumptive to do with what he coughs -up?"</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) By -using paper -napkins</div> - -<p>At a very small cost he can buy paper -napkins and envelopes which have been -treated with paraffin to prevent moisture -going through them. If every one -with a cough or with any such trouble as catarrh, which -makes him want to spit frequently, would carry a supply -of these paper napkins and paraffin envelopes, he would -always have a suitable place in which to spit. When you -cough up anything, spit into one of these little napkins, -put the napkin into the envelope, and when you get home -burn the whole thing.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> -<img src="images/figure068.jpg" width="150" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span> A pocket -cuspidor.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) By -using -pocket -cuspidors</div> - -<p>There are other conveniences which can easily be carried -in the pocket, called pocket cuspidors. Some are made of -thin cardboard, treated with paraffin, and filled with -cotton to hold all the moisture of the sputum; others are -made of glass, shaped like a bottle, with a wide mouth. -Those made of cardboard should be burned as soon as -possible and the glass ones should be thoroughly washed -with boiling water.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) By having -public -cuspidors</div> - -<p>In some cities cuspidors have been placed at the edge -of the sidewalk in an effort to lessen the spread of disease -caused by spitting. These cuspidors have a stream of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -water running through them constantly and are connected -with the sewer. They are so made that they cannot easily -be kicked over or upset, and they are placed on stands just -high enough to make it easy to spit into them. If properly -made, they are not unsightly. Would it not be a good thing -if your town would put such cuspidors on your streets, and -if the merchants would put them into their stores? Every -office, every workshop, every store, every railway and -street car should be provided with cuspidors.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure069.jpg" width="225" alt="" /> -<img src="images/figure070.jpg" width="225" alt="" /> -<div class="textcol"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span> The common drinking -cup—a fruitful source of infection.</p> -</div> -<div class="textcol"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span> The individual drinking -cup—each cup clean and -free from disease germs.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How consumption -is spread -from the -lips:</div> - -<p>We know that the substance which people cough up -when they have consumption contains the germs that cause -this disease. When they spit this matter out, many of the -germs stick to the lips. This is true not only of consumption, -but of the germs of other diseases, such as diphtheria, -measles, and scarlet fever.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) By drinking -cups</div> - -<p>When there are disease germs on the lips, it is impossible -for a person to drink and not leave some of the germs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -sticking to the edge of the cup or glass. If the germs of -disease are in the mouth, every time that the person suffering -from this disease drinks from a cup, he leaves some of -the germs on the edge of it. The next person to drink -from that cup may get the germs into his mouth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure071.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span> A sanitary drinking fountain for public places.</div> -</div> - -<p>Always avoid drinking from a cup or glass from which -another person has been drinking. You can never tell -who may have disease germs in his mouth, or when you -may get them on your lips by drinking from the same cup. -Each individual should have his own cup and should never -let any one else drink from it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) By putting -pencils -into the -mouth</div> - -<p>When you put the point of your pencil into your mouth, -you will leave germs on it just as you do on the edge of a -cup when you drink. Never put your pencil into your -mouth; never use any other person's pencil; never trade -pencils.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) By the -common -bite</div> - -<p>Sometimes we see a child giving his friends a bite of his -apple or candy or cake. Of course when disease germs are -in the mouth of the one who takes a bite, the germs will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -left on the apple, candy, or cake. By no means should a -boy or girl be selfish, but if you have something to share -with your friends, break it or cut it into pieces. Never -take into your mouth anything from which another person -has taken a bite.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How tubercular -cows -cause consumption</div> - -<p>Milk that comes from consumptive cows may contain the -germs that cause tuberculosis. When you drink the milk -from such cows, you take these germs into your body. -They find their way from the stomach and intestine into -the blood, and there they travel about until they find a spot -where the cells are dead or are not doing their work properly. -When they find such a place, they settle down and -begin to grow; and the first thing you know, you will have -tuberculosis in that part of your body. Sometimes the -germs do not have to go out of the stomach or intestines to -find a favorable opportunity to take hold and grow. When -this happens, we have consumption of the bowels.</p> - -<p>One cannot tell by looking at milk or by tasting it -whether or not the germs of tuberculosis are present. They -do not make the milk sour; neither do they make it look -different from pure milk.</p> - -<p>One cannot tell by looking at a cow whether or not she -has tuberculosis. Sometimes a cow will have tuberculosis -and yet look very healthy. There is, however, a way by -which we can tell when a cow has this disease, no matter -how healthy she may look. This is what is known as the -tuberculin test.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How to detect -tuberculosis in -a cow</div> - -<p>If a little tuberculin is injected under the skin of a cow that -has tuberculosis, it will make her have a fever and -appear sick for a day or two. If she is free from tuberculosis, -it will not make her sick at all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> - -<p>It would seem as if all people who sell milk would want -to know whether their cows have consumption so as not to -run any risk of conveying the disease to their customers. -Some of them do take this precaution, but a great many of -them do not want to go to this trouble. Sometimes you will -hear them say, "Oh, I do not believe in this tuberculin test." -They do not want to believe in it because they know that -the cows, if tested and found to have tuberculosis, will -have to be killed.</p> - -<p>The reason that dairymen sell us milk from tubercular -cows is the same that makes the man with scarlet fever in -his house fail to tell the health officer about it; the same -that makes the butcher buy and sell meat from diseased -cattle; the same that makes some people absolutely regardless -of the welfare of others—it is selfishness.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. How does a patient give off tuberculosis -germs? 2. Why should even well people refrain from spitting -in public? 3. Why should the sputum be taken care of? -4. Why should we avoid the common drinking cup? 5. What -is the danger from putting pencils into the mouth? 6. Is it -safe to use another person's pencil? 7. What is the best way of -sharing food? 8. How can one be protected from tubercular -milk?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. The sputum and discharges from all sores -should be immediately burned or disposed of in such a way that -they cannot become dry and be blown about as dust. 2. Consumption -may be contracted by the use of the common drinking -cup, or by putting into your mouth such things as pencils -and coins. 3. The milk from a cow suffering from consumption -contains the germ of tuberculosis. 4. A cow may have tuberculosis -and not appear to be sick. 5. The only way to determine -whether a cow has tuberculosis is by using the tuberculin -test. 6. Every milch cow should be tuberculin tested.</p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXXIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXXIII</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">HOW CONSUMPTION IS CURED</span></h3> - - -<div class="sidenote">Consumption -should be -recognized -early</div> - -<p>When people first get consumption, they seldom realize -that they are seriously sick. Most of them think they -have a bad cold, or are overworked, or that they have been -staying too closely in the house. Often they will not even -see a doctor until they are so sick that the doctor cannot do -much for them.</p> - -<p>When you have a slight cough that "hangs on"; when -you feel feverish every afternoon; when you are short of -breath; when you get tired very easily; when you do not -feel like eating anything except candies and cakes—then -you should think of consumption. These are not all the -signs, but they are enough to make you go at once to a -doctor.</p> - -<p>A long time ago the doctor would have felt badly if he -had been obliged to tell you that you had consumption; -but now he knows that if you go to him early in the disease -and follow his directions, you will get well.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">How consumption -is -cured: -(<em>1</em>) By rest</div> - -<p>When the doctor finds that a person has consumption, the -first thing he orders is rest. By this he means absolute <em>rest</em>. -He does not mean that the patient can go to school or to -the office part of the day and rest the remainder of the day. -The doctor will want to watch him constantly. Then -there comes a time when he must begin to take a little exercise; -the doctor tells him just how much exercise to take, -and just what form of exercise is best for him.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) By fresh -air</div> - -<p>The consumptive must have plenty of fresh air all the -time; he must be out-of-doors as much as possible. You -will wonder how the doctor expects him to be out-of-doors -when he has been told that he must have absolute rest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -Later we will show you how one can practically be out-of-doors -and yet at the same time be in bed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) By sunshine</div> - -<p>Sunshine will kill the germs of any disease more quickly -than almost anything we know of, and a consumptive must -have all the sunshine that he can get. Of course it cannot -get into the body to kill the germs, but it strengthens the -cells of the body so much that they can fight with just that -much more energy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure072-073.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 72 and 73. Living outdoors in cold weather.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>4</em>) By nourishing -food</div> - -<p>Nothing is more important than pure food in building -up the body and in making heat and power. In consumption -the food that is stored up in the body burns itself up -very fast. The consumptive must therefore take not only -the food needed to supply the usual demands of the body, -but enough to make something extra for the disease to -burn up without drawing on the reserve fund stored in -the body. In order to do this, he will have to eat a great -deal, and what he eats must be of the kind that makes the -best building material and the most nourishing material.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -He cannot tax his stomach by eating things that are not -nourishing; all the work his stomach can do must be -devoted to the foods he really needs.</p> - -<p>The weapons with which we fight consumption are rest, -good food, fresh air, and sunshine. These will do more -good than all the medicine in the world. Fresh air is not -only one of the best things for the cure of consumption, but -it is one of the best things for the prevention of consumption. -You should always breathe plenty of fresh air night -and day, and there is plenty of fresh air to be had if you -will take it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure074.jpg" width="500" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span> A window tent. (Invented by Dr. W. E. Walsh.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How to have -fresh air at -home:</div> - -<p>If you have only a single window in your room, try to -sleep with your head in the fresh air. It is not always easy -to arrange a room in such a way that you can have fresh -air without placing your bed in a draft, but even this -difficulty can be overcome.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>1</em>) By window -tents</div> - -<p>There are several devices, called window tents, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -you can buy. By the use of such a tent, your head will -be out-of-doors all the time; yet the draft cannot strike -your body, because a part of the tent fits around your -neck and cuts off the air from the rest of your body. One -of these tents is shown in Figure 74. You do not put your -head out of the window; your -head is on your pillow just as -if the tent were not there. -Your bed is placed directly in -front of the window and the tent -comes down over your pillow, -allowing your head practically -to be out-of-doors, but keeping -the cold air out of the room. -Sleeping under a window tent -is the next best thing to sleeping -out-of-doors.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure075.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span> A sleeping porch built -in a house.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>2</em>) By sleeping -porches</div> - -<p>Many of our modern houses -are built with sleeping porches -on which one can sleep outdoors -summer and winter. Where there is not a special -sleeping porch on the house, an ordinary porch may often -be made to serve the purpose, or a very inexpensive sleeping -porch can be added to the house.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">(<em>3</em>) By tent -cots</div> - -<p>Sometimes people cannot get the use of a porch of -any kind. In such cases it may be possible to put up -a tent in the yard. If the yard is very small, a tent -cot may be used. This is simply a cot with a tent on -it, which can be closed up and put away in the daytime -and set up again at night. In a large city where -the houses have no yards at all, this arrangement can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -be used by setting it up on the roof of the house. There -is almost always some way of securing fresh air at night -if we will only give a little thought to the matter.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Fresh air in -schoolrooms</div> - -<p>Unfortunately, many of our school buildings are not -provided with good ventilating plants. A proper system -of ventilation furnishes at least 1200 cubic feet of fresh air -per hour for each child in each room.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure076.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span> An open-air schoolroom for consumptive children.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The necessity -for playgrounds</div> - -<p>In large cities it is often impossible to find outdoor space -in which boys and girls may play during recess. -Even this difficulty can be overcome by turning the roof -of the school building into a playground, with a high wire -netting around it.</p> - -<p>Every school yard should be provided with swings, bars, -and gymnasium apparatus to encourage the children to take -plenty of exercise. Children who live in crowded towns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -need exercise during vacation as well as during school -days, and the school yards should be open to them at all -times. A summer teacher who shows the children the -best way to exercise, has work fully as important as that of -any other teacher during the school term.</p> - -<p>A sound body is more valuable than education itself, -but a good education and a sound body together are the -best assets any man or woman can have.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Questions.</b> 1. State the four things necessary to cure consumption; -show the value of each. 2. What is the value of -fresh air to every one? 3. How may an abundance of fresh -air be secured in the home? 4. In the school?</p> - -<p><b>Remember.</b> 1. Rest, fresh air, sunshine, and nourishing -food are the cures for consumption. 2. All these things can -be secured in any climate and by every person. 3. <b>Tuberculosis -is a communicable disease.</b> 4. <b>Tuberculosis can be -prevented.</b> 5. <b>Tuberculosis can be cured.</b></p></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">APPENDIX</a><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a><br /><br /> - -<span class="small bold">A SUMMARY OF ANATOMY</span></h3> - - -<div class="appendix"> - -<h4>BONES AND JOINTS</h4> - -<div class="sidenote">The framework -of the -body</div> - -<p>The framework of the body is composed of bones. There -are 206 bones (not including the teeth) in the body. The -bones of the body are divided into four classes—long bones, -short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Construction -of bones</div> - -<p>Regardless of their shape, all bones are composed in the -same way. Every bone has an outer and an inner portion. -The outer portion is a dense layer called <em>compact bone</em>. The -inner portion is more open, and is much weaker; this is -called <em>cancellated bone</em> (from <em>cancella</em>, a sponge). In the -smaller bones, the marrow, which is quite soft, runs through -the spongy bone; in the larger long bones, the marrow is -distinct and is enclosed by the spongy bone.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The periosteum</div> - -<p>Every bone is covered by a thick, tough layer, the <em>periosteum</em>, -which has three uses. When the bone is injured by -disease or accident, the periosteum makes new bone to fill -in and repair the break. It also builds new bone on the surface -of the old as long as the body is growing. Finally, the -periosteum gives strong and firm attachment to the muscles, -which send tendons into it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Joints</div> - -<p>Every bone in the body (except the hyoid bone, to which -the tongue is attached) is joined with some other bone. -Most of them join with two or more bones. In most instances -the end of a bone which joins with another is rounded off -and made very smooth, so that it can slide easily over the -other bone. There are three principal kinds of joints in the -body. They are called the <em>ball and socket</em> joint, the <em>hinge</em> -joint, and the <em>serrated</em> or <em>saw-tooth</em> joint.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure077.jpg" width="400" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span> The skeleton.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The ball and -socket joint</div> - -<p>The ball and socket joint is one that can move freely in all -directions. We see it illustrated in the joints of the shoulder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -and hip. In these joints one of the bones has a deep depression -in it, and this depression forms the <em>socket</em>. The other -bone has a rounded head that fits into the depression. We -call this rounded head the <em>ball</em>.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 45%;"> -<img src="images/figure078.jpg" width="225" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span> The structure of a -bone.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The hinge -joint</div> - -<p>The hinge joint is illustrated in -the knee and elbow joints. These -joints can move backward and -forward in one plane like a hinge, -but they cannot move in a circle -like the ball and socket joints. -You cannot swing your forearm -about on a pivot at the elbow as -you can your whole arm, nor will -the knee joint bend in every direction -as does the joint at the hip.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Serrated -joints</div> - -<p>Serrated joints do not move. The -bones having serrated joints are -fitted tightly together so that they -form practically one bone. We -find this kind of joint illustrated -in the way the bones of the skull -are put together.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Ligaments</div> - -<p>The joints of the body are not -held together by rivets, pins or -bolts as are the joints of a machine, -but by bands of very tough -tissue placed about a joint in such a way as to allow it -to move freely, although the bones are all the time -held firmly together. These bands are called <em>ligaments</em>. -Ligaments are much better than bolts or pegs would be, -because they stretch a little, and thus prevent the breaking -of the bones when the joint is put under a severe strain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure079.jpg" width="275" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span> The muscles.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p> - - -<h4>MUSCLES AND TENDONS</h4> - -<div class="sidenote">What muscle -is</div> - -<p>The lean meat of any animal is composed entirely of -muscle tissue. It is the function of the muscles to move -the body.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure080.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span> The biceps muscle -contracted.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">How the -muscles -work</div> - -<p>The muscles are nearly all attached to the bones. They -are just long enough to let the joint straighten out when -the muscles are at rest, but -when the joint bends the -muscle contracts. When a -muscle contracts it becomes -shorter and thicker. Sometimes -it becomes very much -thicker in one place. Every -boy knows how much thicker -the arm muscle (<em>biceps</em>) becomes -when he bends his -elbow hard. He calls this -"showing his muscle."</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Tendons</div> - -<p>There is not room enough -on most of the bones for all -the muscles to be attached directly to them. Instead of -being thus attached directly to the bone, they end in what -we call <em>tendons</em>. These tendons are hard and strong, and -a very small tendon will lift as much without breaking as -quite a large muscle. The muscles are soft and would have -to be attached over a large area in order to secure the required -strength. The tendons, being so much stronger than the -muscles, can be attached to a very small area and yet secure -the same amount of power as would result from attaching -the muscle itself.</p> - -<p>The tendons pass directly into the periosteum, the thick, -strong covering of the bones. So strong is this attachment -that the bone will often break before the tendon will pull -loose.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> - - -<h4>THE SKIN</h4> - -<div class="sidenote">The skin as -an armor</div> - -<p>The entire body is covered with skin, which regulates the -heat of the body and acts as an armor against blows and cuts -which would otherwise injure the delicate nerves and blood -vessels beneath. It also serves to some extent to keep out -the germs of disease. The skin -appears to be smooth, but if you -examine it through a strong -magnifying glass you will see -that it is divided into little -areas. The dividing lines do -not run straight, however, and -the areas are not square like -those you find on a checkerboard.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure081.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span> A section of the -skin, highly magnified.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Sweat -glands</div> - -<p>After looking at the skin with -a strong magnifying glass you -will think that you must have -seen all its irregularities, but if -you will look at it with a powerful -microscope you will find out -many other things. In the first -place you will see many little -openings in the skin. These -little openings make the ridges -which divide the skin into little -areas. Some of the openings are -<em>sweat glands</em>, and there is always -some perspiration coming out of them. When you are very -warm you can see, without the aid of the glass, the drops of -perspiration as they come out on the surface of the skin. -When you are not very warm you cannot see these drops of -perspiration, but they are nevertheless coming out all the -time. When the perspiration comes so slowly that you -cannot see it, it is called <em>insensible perspiration</em>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Hair</div> - -<p>The whole body is covered with hair. You can see the -hair on your head and some of the hair on your arms and -the backs of your hands, but most of the hair on the body -is so fine that you cannot see it without a microscope. Each -of the fine hairs on the body has a root that goes through -the skin just as the root from each hair on your head goes -through it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Sebaceous -glands</div> - -<p>Opening into the little pockets in which the hairs stand, -are glands that secrete a kind of oily material. They are -called <em>sebaceous glands</em> or <em>follicles</em>. Sometimes these follicles -become stopped up; then the material they secrete becomes -thick and cheesy, and the little black points appear on the -skin which we call <em>blackheads</em>. The white matter which -comes out of these blackheads is merely the secretion of the -glands from which the water has been absorbed, leaving the -solid or cheesy portion.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Nails</div> - -<p>There is a part of the skin that we do not usually think of -as skin. We mean the <em>nails</em>. The finger nails and the toe -nails do not look like the rest of the skin of the body, but -they are made of just the same kind of cells. The cells of -the nails are flat, dead, and closely packed together. There -are no sweat glands, or sebaceous glands, or any hairs in -the nails.</p> - - -<h4>THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM</h4> - -<div class="sidenote">The alimentary -canal</div> - -<p>The digestive system is the part of our bodies in which -the food we eat is so changed that it can be made use of by -the little cells in the body. It is composed of a long canal -with many parts and enlargements, each part necessary for -a certain required work. This canal as a whole is called the -<em>alimentary canal</em>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Teeth</div> - -<p>The mouth does the first part of the work for the digestive -system. Here we find the teeth, which are used for -grinding the food. The teeth are composed of three parts, -the <em>head</em> (or <em>crown</em>), the <em>neck</em> and the <em>root</em>. The head, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -crown, is very hard. Each tooth is hollow, and in the hollow -portion there are nerves and blood vessels.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The salivary -glands</div> - -<p>Opening into the mouth are three pairs of glands known -as <em>salivary glands</em>. One pair of glands is located just above -the angle of the jaw. It -is these glands that become -swollen when we -have mumps. Another -pair of glands is placed -just inside the jaw bone, -near the root of the -tongue, and the third -pair is located under the -tongue. These three -pairs of glands secrete the -saliva which moistens -the food and aids in -digesting the starch.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 60%;"> -<img src="images/figure082.jpg" width="300" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span> The alimentary canal.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The -esophagus</div> - -<p>The food passes from -the mouth; through a -passage called the <em>esophagus</em>, -or gullet, to the -<em>stomach</em>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The stomach</div> - -<p>The stomach is one of the enlarged parts of the alimentary -canal. Its walls are quite thick, and in these walls are thousands -of little glands. These glands secrete a fluid called -<em>gastric juice</em>. When the food enters the stomach it is held -there for a long time, and the walls of the stomach squeeze -upon it so that the food is mixed with the gastric juice until -every bit of it that will be of any use to the body has become -fluid in character. Not only does the gastric juice make the -food liquid, but it acts on it and changes some of it so that -it will be suitable for use by the little cells of the body. As -fast as the food is made liquid by the juices of the stomach -it is allowed to pass into the intestine through an opening -called the <em>pyloric opening</em>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">The -intestine</div> - -<p>The intestine is a long, narrow, twisting and turning tube -that is divided into two principal parts, the large and small -intestine. In the walls of the intestine are many little glands -that secrete a fluid that helps in digesting the food. Two -fluids, one made by the liver, the other by the pancreas, are -brought into the intestine by two small tubes, which come -together in the wall of the intestine six or seven inches below -the pyloric opening. These fluids perform a very important -part in the digestion of all the different foodstuffs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Villi and -lymphatics</div> - -<p>Besides the little glands in the walls of the intestine there -are many thousands of little finger-like projections standing -up from the walls. These are called <em>villi</em>. Each villus has -in it very small vessels, into which the food passes after it -has been digested. These vessels are of two sorts: blood -vessels, which take up the digested starch and proteid -foods, and another sort known as <em>lymphatics</em>, which take -up the fats. All the lymphatics combine into a single -vessel which empties into the great vein at the base of -the neck. Thus the fatty foods pass into the blood and are -mingled with the food materials taken up directly by the -blood vessels.</p> - - -<h4>CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD</h4> - -<div class="sidenote">Two kinds -of blood -vessels</div> - -<p>There are two kinds of blood vessels in the body. We -call them <em>arteries</em> and <em>veins</em>. The arteries serve to carry the -blood from the heart to all parts of the body, and the veins -serve to carry the blood back to the heart. The heart is -really a part of the blood vessels, half of each side being like -the veins and half like the arteries.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Arteries -and veins</div> - -<p>The walls of the arteries are thicker than those of the -veins. Two sets of arteries leave the heart, one from each -side. The artery that starts from the right side of the heart -goes to the lungs and carries <em>venous blood</em>, which has a very -poor supply of oxygen and is full of impurities. We call this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -the <em>pulmonary artery</em>. The artery that leaves the left side -of the heart goes to all parts of the body but the lungs and -carries <em>arterial blood</em>, which has much more oxygen and is -much more free from impurities.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Capillaries</div> - -<p>If we follow the blood as it circulates we will see how it -reaches all parts of the body. The big artery that leaves the -left side of the heart divides into smaller and smaller arteries -until there are branches going to every part of the body. -These branches keep dividing until they are so small that -we call them <em>arterioles</em>, and these little arterioles again divide -and become so small that we call them <em>capillaries</em>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Changes in -the blood</div> - -<p>While the blood is passing through the arterioles and the -capillaries, something is happening to it. The little cells -with which these small vessels come in contact have been -taking the oxygen and the nourishing material out of the -blood. At the same time they have been putting something -into the blood. In place of the oxygen they have been putting -in carbon dioxid and in place of the nourishing material they -have been putting in the worn-out materials from the cells. -As the blood passes through certain parts of the body, such -as the kidneys, the worn-out materials from the cells are -taken out of the blood and sent out of the body. The carbon -dioxid is left in the blood until it goes to the lungs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure083.jpg" width="500" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span> The white vessels represent the circulation of the arterial -blood; the gray, the circulation of the venous blood.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Venous -blood</div> - -<p>The blood has now been followed to the capillaries, where -oxygen and nourishing material have been taken out of it, -and where something else has been added to it. As we follow -a little capillary, we find that instead of dividing again, it -joins others and gradually grows larger. As these blood -vessels grow larger the walls do not become so thick as the -walls of the arteries of the same size. These larger vessels -formed by the union of capillaries are called <em>veins</em>. In other -words, the veins are simply continuations of the arteries -that have divided into extremely small branches and have -now come together again. The blood which has been changed -is now called <em>venous blood</em>. It has much less oxygen in it, -but has received a great deal of carbon dioxid. The veins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -continue to come together, until finally they form a single -large vein which empties into the upper half of the right -side of the heart. From there the blood is driven into the -lower half of the right side of the heart and thence to the -pulmonary artery, which goes to the lungs. The blood is -not changed in the heart, so what goes into the pulmonary -artery is still venous blood.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Arterial -blood</div> - -<p>The blood goes straight from the heart to the lungs and -there it is changed into arterial blood. The change consists -in taking oxygen from the air and giving off carbon dioxid -to the air. From the lungs the blood goes through the capillaries -again into the veins, the small capillaries in the lungs -uniting to form the pulmonary veins. These veins finally -unite into one vein that empties into the upper half of the -left side of the heart, and from there the blood goes to the -lower half of the same side. The blood has now reached its -starting point and is ready to begin its journey again. The -journey of the blood is as follows:</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Entire -circulation</div> - -<p>From the right side of the heart to the arteries; from -arteries into arterioles; from arterioles to capillaries; from -capillaries into veins; from veins into the heart; from the -heart to the lungs; and from the lungs back to the heart -again.</p> - - -<h4>THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM</h4> - -<div class="sidenote">Use of the -respiratory -system</div> - -<p>That portion of the body by which we breathe is called -the respiratory system. This system is composed of the -<em>nasal passage</em>, the <em>pharynx</em>, the <em>larynx</em>, the <em>trachea</em>, the <em>bronchi</em>, -and the <em>lungs</em>. The mouth is not a part of the respiratory -system; we should never breathe through our mouths.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The use of -the nose in -breathing</div> - -<p>As the air passes through the nasal passage it is warmed -and moistened, and a great deal of dust and dirt is taken out -of it. Thus the nasal passage serves to warm, to moisten, -and to clean the air we breathe, and is a very important part -of the respiratory system, since either cold or dry air is very -irritating to the lungs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure084.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span> The air passages of the -head and throat.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Pharynx, -larynx, and -trachea</div> - -<p>There is only one tube leading from the back of the nasal -passage to the lungs. Different parts of this tube are given -different names. The pharynx is that part that extends -from the back of the nose -to the vocal chords. The -larynx is the part of the -throat where the vocal -chords are located. We -sometimes call it the "Adam's -apple." It is very -prominent in some men, -but seldom noticeable in -women. The trachea is -the part of the tube leading -down from the larynx. -At the lower end of the -trachea the tube divides -into two parts that we -call the bronchi, one leading -to each lung.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The bronchi</div> - -<p>The bronchi carry the -air from the trachea to -the lungs. They divide -again and again until they -become so small that -there is a branch for each -little air cell in the lungs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure085.jpg" width="450" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span> The lungs.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The lungs</div> - -<p>The lungs are the most important part of the respiratory -system. They are made up of lobes. There are two lobes -in the left lung and three in the right. Each lobe is divided -into <em>lobules</em>, which means small lobes. Each lobule is divided -into air spaces. In these air spaces, or cells, the work of the -lungs is performed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Air cells</div> - -<p>The capillaries run in the thin walls of the air spaces. -The walls of these fine blood vessels are so very thin that -the air in the air cells comes in almost direct contact with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -blood in the vessels. While the blood is passing through the -vessels in the walls of the air spaces, something happens to -both the blood and the air. The air we take into our lungs -contains a great deal of oxygen and very little carbon dioxid. -The air that comes out of our lungs contains a great deal of -carbon dioxid and much less oxygen. In other words, the -oxygen from the air goes into the blood, and the carbon -dioxid from the blood goes out into the air.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Necessity of -pure air</div> - -<p>If the air we breathe is not pure and does not contain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -enough oxygen, the blood cannot get all the oxygen we need, -and the cells of the body become sick and die. If, when we -breathe, we do not fill each little air cell in our lungs with -air, a great deal of the blood sent to the lungs for oxygen -cannot get it. If we wear very tight clothing we cannot take -a full breath and hence cannot fill all the air spaces with air. -If the air spaces in the lungs are not filled, the blood does not -get the oxygen it needs, as there is no other place in the body -to get it.</p> - - -<h4>THE EYE AND THE EAR</h4> - -<div class="sidenotex">The eye -compared -to a camera</div> - -<p>The eye is one of the most important organs in the body -and also one of the most delicate. It is very much like a -camera.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The cornea -and the -sclera</div> - -<p>When you look at an eye you are likely to think that the -front of it is blue or brown. The colored part is not the front -of the eye. If you look at the eye from the side you will -see that there is a curved part in front of the colored part -and that the curved part is perfectly clear. This curved -clear part of the eye we call the <em>cornea</em>. The cornea connects -with the white part of the eye, and this white part extends -all around the rest of the eye, except at a small point in the -back where the <em>optic nerve</em> comes through. This white part -we call the <em>sclera</em>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Aqueous -humor</div> - -<p>The space between the cornea and the colored part of the -eye is filled with a clear fluid that is called the <em>aqueous humor</em>, -which means watery fluid. The space occupied by this fluid -is called the <em>anterior chamber</em> of the eye.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The iris</div> - -<p>The iris, which is the colored portion of the eye, is a curtain -that is hung between the anterior and posterior chambers -of the eye. It prevents any light getting into the posterior -chamber except that which passes through a round hole in -the iris called the <em>pupil</em>. The pupil grows larger or smaller -according to the amount of light needed by the eye. If you -look away from a bright light at something in the dark, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -pupil grows larger; if you look back at the light, it grows -smaller. You can see this in a hand mirror.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Lens</div> - -<p>Behind the pupil is a clear mass shaped like a very strong -magnifying glass. This is the <em>lens</em>. The lens causes to be -formed on the back of the eye a clear picture of whatever -you are looking at. When you focus a camera, you move -the back towards or away from the lens. When you focus -your eye you cannot move the back of the eye, but you can -make the lens more or less -convex as may be needed to -make a clear picture.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 50%;"> -<img src="images/figure086.jpg" width="250" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span> A cross-section of the eye.</div> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Vitreous -humor</div> - -<p>Behind the iris and the -lens, we find the posterior -chamber of the eye. This -occupies by far the greater -portion of the ball and corresponds -to the dark chamber -of a camera. This -chamber is filled with a -clear fluid called the <em>vitreous -humor</em>, which means -jelly-like fluid. It is a clear, gelatinous substance.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The retina -and the optic -nerve</div> - -<p>The optic nerve enters the eyeball from the back and -spreads its fibers out in a thin membrane called the <em>retina</em>, -which corresponds to the sensitive plate in a camera. The -lens focuses on the retina the image of any object you look -at. The impression made on the minute nerve endings in -the retina is carried by the optic nerve fibers to the brain. -When this impression reaches the brain we see the object.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Movements -of the eye</div> - -<p>Each eye has six muscles that turn it in whatever direction -you want to look. These muscles are very delicate, and for -true sight they must be exactly adjusted. If the muscles on -one side of the eye are stronger than those on the other side, -you will be cross-eyed or wall-eyed. If one of the muscles in -one eye is stronger than the corresponding muscle in the other -eye, it pulls the eyeball out of place and you "see double."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">The use of -the outer ear</div> - -<p>The portion of the ear that you see on the side of your -head has as much to do with hearing as the outer rim of -the horn into which you speak has to do with making a -record for the phonograph. You know that the record is -really made at the little end of the horn, while the big end -simply collects the sound. The outside portion of the ear -simply collects sounds, and the real hearing is done with the -portion of the ear that is not seen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure087.jpg" width="600" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span> The ear, showing the outer, middle, and the inner part.</div> -</div> - -<p>The outer ear connects with the short tube that leads to -the <em>drum</em>, which is a thin membrane that separates the -middle ear from the outer ear. This drum does not have -so much to do with hearing as is supposed. To have a hole -in the drum does not mean that you cannot hear.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The middle -ear</div> - -<p>The middle ear is that portion which is just inside the -drum. In this we find a chain of little bones. The one -attached to the drum is shaped much like a hammer, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -is called the <em>malleus</em>, which means mallet or hammer. The -next one is shaped like an anvil and is called <em>incus</em>, which -means anvil, and the third is called <em>stapes</em>, which means -stirrup. The flat part of the stapes fits into a small opening -that leads to the internal ear.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">The inner -ear</div> - -<p>The internal ear is shaped like a snail shell. It makes -several turns, which are hollow like the ends of a conch shell. -In these channels the nerve that receives the impressions -made by the sounds is distributed. This nerve carries the -impressions to the brain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/figure088.jpg" width="400" alt="" /> -<div class="cap-center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span> The nervous system.</div> -</div> - - -<h4>THE NERVOUS SYSTEM</h4> - -<div class="sidenote">Importance -of the -nervous -system</div> - -<p>This system is so important in its use and so difficult to -understand in its details, that a description of it should have -more space than can be given in this summary. Can you -imagine having no feeling and being unable to move? This -would be your condition if you had no nerves.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Nerves compared -to -telegraph -system</div> - -<p>Briefly, the nerves might be called the telegraph system of -the body. There is a great central station called the brain -where messages are received and sent out; there are many -sub-stations that make up the spinal cord. Twelve great -nerves pass directly from the brain to the body; all others -pass from the spinal cord.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Extent of -nervous -system</div> - -<p>Every nerve leaving these centres divides and sub-divides -into little threads as the arteries divide and sub-divide into -arterioles and capillaries, until every part of the body—every -muscle and part of the skin—has its nerve.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Voluntary -and reflex -action</div> - -<p>Every time you <em>choose</em> to move your hand, your brain sends -to the necessary muscles an instantaneous order to act. This -is called <em>voluntary action</em>. If you put your finger against a hot -stove you jerk it away before you could have time to <em>choose</em> -to do it. This happens as an order from a sub-station and -is called <em>reflex action</em>.</p> - -<p>Messages travel both ways and it is necessary that the nervous -connection with every part of the body remain unbroken, -and important that the nervous condition be kept healthy.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="SUGGESTIONS" id="SUGGESTIONS"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">NOTES TO THE TEACHER</a></h3> - - -<div class="appendix"> - -<p>A false delicacy has often prevented the teaching of vital -lessons to growing children. The day is how at hand when -foolish sentiment must no longer prevent the spread of any -knowledge which is necessary to exterminate the plagues -that have afflicted the race.</p> - -<p>In chapters 17, 18, 19 and 32, unpleasant facts are given -in plain language. They are facts that parents do not -teach their children and that most teachers will not frankly -treat with classes in a school. Though they are disagreeable -to discuss, they are essential for children of school -age to know. Now that the dependence of public health -upon personal hygiene is recognized, personal habits and -sanitary conditions are more frankly dealt with than -formerly.</p> - -<p>It is an excellent thing occasionally, to have one or two -points of an assigned lesson answered in writing. Any -topic that the teacher may think advisable to treat in this -manner may be discussed on paper at the beginning of -the recitation, five or six minutes being allowed for that -purpose. Even a whole chapter may be assigned to be -studied with a view of answering in writing the questions at -the end of the chapter. The written test can then take the -place of the usual oral recitation. This method is suggested -to the teacher who hesitates to discuss orally certain -plain but essential facts.</p> - -<p>Chapter 32 on the Spread and Prevention of Consumption -can be treated with best results orally, if the pupils are -first made to <em>feel</em> the great danger of consumption and to -realize the possibility of preventing the vast havoc wrought -by that dread disease. The attitude of teacher and pupils -should be that while the discussion may be disagreeable, the -disgusting habits referred to in the text are so commonly -practised that unless their dangers are taught this disease -can never be wiped out.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">INDEX</a></h3> - - -<div class="index"> -<br /> - -<p>Adenoids, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Air, amount necessary for health, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br /> - effects of impure, <a href="#Page_45">45–48</a>;<br /> - fresh air, when needed, <a href="#Page_45">45–48</a>;<br /> - how secured, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;<br /> - how changed in body, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br /> - necessity of pure air, <a href="#Page_45">45–48</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Air cells, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Alcohol, effect of, on body, <a href="#Page_67">67–70</a>;<br /> - on brain work, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;<br /> - on consumptives, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> - on descendants, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> - on liver, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;<br /> - on morals, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> - on nervous system, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> - on powers of resistance, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;<br /> - on stomach, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> - false ideas about effects of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> - what business men think of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Alimentary canal, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Amoebic dysentery, how prevented, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;<br /> - how spread, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;<br /> - where prevalent, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Animals free from typhoid fever, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Antitoxin, how it acts, <a href="#Page_108">108–110</a>;<br /> - how discovered, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<br /> - sometimes considered a poison, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;<br /> - prevents diphtheria, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;<br /> - saves lives, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Aqueous humor, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Arterial blood, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Arteries, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Articles used by the sick, dangers from, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br /> - how to treat, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Bathing, importance of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> - frequency of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Baths, hot, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> - cold, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Bedtime for children, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Blood, arterial, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;<br /> - how changed in the body, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;<br /> - venous, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Boils, how caused, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Bones, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Bronchi, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Building foods, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Candy, when harmful, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> - when not harmful, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Canned meats, why poisonous, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Capillaries, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Cells, are alive, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> - body made of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> - body needs new, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> - how killed, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> - must not be killed, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> - size of a, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> - what they are like, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Circulation of the blood, <a href="#Page_171">171–174</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Clothing, effect of damp, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br /> - promotes health, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<br /> - proper weight of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Common drinking cup, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Consumption. <em>See <a href="#TUB">Tuberculosis</a></em><br /> -</p> - -<p>Cooking, effects of improper, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> - fatty foods, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> - meats, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> - starchy foods, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Cornea, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Coughing, dangers from, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150–153</a>;<br /> - how to prevent dangers from, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Cuspidors, in public buildings, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> - pocket, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> - street, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Dairy, sickness about a, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Decomposed foods dangerous, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Decomposition, cause of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> - effect of cold on, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> - of foods, <a href="#Page_30">30–32</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Desserts, when harmful, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;<br /> - when not harmful, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Dining table, effect of dirty, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br /> - cheerfulness at, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Diphtheria, cure of, <a href="#Page_108">108–111</a>;<br /> - germs present after recovery, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;<br /> - germs present when throat is not sore, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;<br /> - how to confine germs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;<br /> - how poison is fought, <a href="#Page_108">108–110</a>;<br /> - mild cases, how detected, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;<br /> - nature of the poison, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;<br /> - prevalence of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;<br /> - where germs come from, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;<br /> - why some cases are not quarantined, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Dirt, a cause of sickness, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br /> - getting into milk from cows, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> - from cow barns, <a href="#Page_23">23–25</a>;<br /> - from milk cans and bottles, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> - from milkmen, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;<br /> - from flies, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Diseased animals, effect on meats, <a href="#Page_19">19–21</a>;<br /> - effect on milk, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> - tuberculosis from, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Drafts, evil effects of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> - how to prevent harm from, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Ear, care of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<br /> - drum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;<br /> - inner ear, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> - middle ear, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;<br /> - outer ear, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Esophagus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Excreta from sick, how dispose of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Exercise, necessity of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Eye, how germs get into, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br /> - how overworked, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> - method of testing, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Far sight, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Flies, breeding places for, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;<br /> - as germ carriers, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;<br /> - how to get rid of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;<br /> - how to keep out, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Fly screens, where needed, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Foods, advertised, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> - building, <a href="#Page_14">14–16</a>;<br /> - decomposition of, <a href="#Page_30">30–32</a>;<br /> - heat-producing, <a href="#Page_14">14–16</a>;<br /> - improper cooking of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> - cost of suitable, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> - uses of foods, <a href="#Page_14">14–17</a>;<br /> - uses of starches, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> - uses of fats, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<br /> - value of meat as a, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<br /> - value of milk as a, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Garbage cans, should be covered, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Germs, cause of poison in meats, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> - carried by dogs and cats, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;<br /> - effect of, in wounds, <a href="#Page_95">95–99</a>;<br /> - how, get through the skin, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;<br /> - how, get into the body, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;<br /> - how, get into foods, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;<br /> - how put into the air, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br /> - how kept out of the air, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> - how to fight, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br /> - of lockjaw, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;<br /> - man's greatest foe, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;<br /> - nature of a, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> - not alike, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> - not killed by running water, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Hair, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Hearing, how tested, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Heat, how kept up in the body, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Hookworm disease, character of the worm, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;<br /> - how it enters the body, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br /> - how prevented, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;<br /> - nature of the disease, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br /> - where worm lives in the body, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br /> - where prevalent, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Insects that carry disease, <a href="#Page_92">92–94</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Intestines, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Iris, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Joints, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Larynx, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Lens, the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Ligaments, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Lungs, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Lymphatics, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Malaria, how transmitted, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;<br /> - how prevented, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Manure, a hatching place for flies, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;<br /> - how to dispose of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Meal times, frequency of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> - regularity of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> - should be pleasant, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Measles, after effects of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;<br /> - fatality of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;<br /> - necessity of care in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;<br /> - seriousness of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;<br /> - why to avoid, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> - Meats, characteristics of good, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> - Clean Meat League, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br /> - from diseased animals, <a href="#Page_19">19–21</a>;<br /> - germs cause poison in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> - how kept clean, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> - should be cooked, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> - value of, as a food, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Milk, as carrier of disease, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> - effect of germs on, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> - effect of disease in cow on, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> - flies in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> - how germs get into, <a href="#Page_23">23–28</a>;<br /> - impure, dangerous, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> - polluted water in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> - typhoid fever carried by, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> - value of, as a food, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Mosquitoes, as disease carriers, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br /> - how to get rid of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Mouth, why some breathe through, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Mouth-breathing, effect of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Muscles, attachment of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Nails, how to care for, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Near sight, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Nerves, compared to telegraph system, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> - distribution of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Nose, importance of breathing through, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Overcoats, necessity of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Overwork, effect of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Paper napkins for consumptives, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Parties, time for, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Pencils in mouth, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Pharynx, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Play a form of work, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Playgrounds, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Pocket cuspidors, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Ptomaines, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Quarantine, breaking, shows selfishness, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;<br /> - how broken by family, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<br /> - rules of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<br /> - seriousness of breaking, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;<br /> - when safe to raise, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;<br /> - why necessary, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;<br /> - why some cases escape, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Reflex action, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Respiratory system, <a href="#Page_174">174–177</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Rest, proper amount of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Retina, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Rocky Mountain Spotted (Tick) Fever, how transmitted, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Rubbers, necessity of wearing, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Saliva, effect of, on starches, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Salivary glands, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Scarlet fever, a dangerous disease, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;<br /> - mild cases dangerous, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Scarlatina, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Scarlet rash, why quarantine is necessary in, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>School lunches, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Sclera, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Sebaceous glands, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Sewage, effect of, on water, <a href="#Page_85">85–87</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Sickness about a dairy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;<br /> - due to germs, how prevented, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Sick room, stay away from, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Skin, care of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Smallpox, fatality of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;<br /> - how prevented, <a href="#Page_135">135–137</a>;<br /> - during Franco-Prussian War, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;<br /> - in Sweden, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;<br /> - in Gloucester, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;<br /> - in the Philippine Islands, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Spitting, dangers from, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> - how avoided, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<br /> - where to spit, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;<br /> - where not to spit, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Springs, how polluted, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Street cuspidors, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Sunshine, effect of, on germs, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> - Suppuration, how the surgeon prevents, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;<br /> - how you may prevent, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;<br /> - real cause of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Sweat glands, the work of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Teeth, brittle, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br /> - dangers from poor, <a href="#Page_41">41–43</a>;<br /> - how to care for, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;<br /> - necessity of baby teeth, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> - uses of teeth, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> - why, decay, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Tendons, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Tobacco, a poison, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br /> - effect of, on blood, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br /> - on heart, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> - on nervous system, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> - on nose and throat, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br /> - on stomach, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> - extra work caused by, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Toilets, improper construction of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;<br /> - proper construction of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;<br /> - relation to wells, <a href="#Page_85">85–87</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Tonsils, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Trachea, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Tuberculin test, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> -</p> - -<a name="TUB" id="TUB"></a> -<p>Tuberculosis, can be prevented, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<br /> - fatality of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;<br /> - fresh air in, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;<br /> - germ, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;<br /> - how to get, out of a house, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;<br /> - how germs leave the body, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> - how spread from cows, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;<br /> - how spread from the lips, <a href="#Page_153">153–155</a>;<br /> - how detected in cows, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;<br /> - a house disease, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br /> - not inherited, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;<br /> - of the glands, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> - of the joints, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<br /> - of the spine, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> - of the stomach, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> - of the throat, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<br /> - prevalence of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;<br /> - pure food in, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;<br /> - rest in, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<br /> - should be recognized early, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<br /> - sunshine in, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;<br /> - why called the Great White Plague, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Typhoid fever, animals free from, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;<br /> - carried by flies, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;<br /> - carried by milk, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> - effect of a single case, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;<br /> - how germs leave the body, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;<br /> - how germs get into the body, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;<br /> - how germs get into water, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;<br /> - importance of cleanliness, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br /> - life of germs in a stream, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;<br /> - recovered patient dangerous, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Umbrellas, necessity of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Vaccination, cause of sore arms after, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;<br /> - discovery of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;<br /> - how, prevents smallpox, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;<br /> - necessity of repeating, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;<br /> - pretended vaccination, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br /> - when successful, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Ventilation, in homes, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;<br /> - in public buildings, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;<br /> - in workshops, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Veins, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Venous blood, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Villi, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Vitreous humor, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Voluntary action, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Water, avoid polluting, <a href="#Page_85">85–88</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;<br /> - effect of sewage on, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;<br /> - how germs get into, <a href="#Page_85">85–88</a>;<br /> - polluted, in milk, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> - safe sources of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Wells, how polluted, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;<br /> - relation of toilets to, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Windows, should be kept open, <a href="#Page_45">45–47</a>;<br /> - should be screened, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Wood-ticks, as disease carriers, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br /> - how abolished, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Wounds, importance of keeping clean, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> -</p> -<br /> - -<p>Yards should be clean, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> -</p> - -<p>Yellow fever, how transmitted, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;<br /> - how prevented, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> -</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="footnotes"> - -<h3><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</a></h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Bujar and Baier state that the nourishing power of bacon is represented -by 2,767, while the nourishing power of butter is represented -by 2,610.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The cleaning out of these cemented vaults is an exceedingly unpleasant -task. Some prefer to have a strong, water-tight box placed under -the closet seats. When this box is nearly full, it can be removed to some -place where fertilizer is needed, and there emptied, the contents being -plowed into the ground. In order to make this task as simple as possible, -it is a good plan to put the box on skids, and have a heavy strip in -one end with a bolt and ring through it, so that a horse can be hitched -to the box to draw it away. If a little dry earth or lime is put into the -box each day, there will be no unpleasant odor.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The teacher should demonstrate the action of acids and alkalies on -a solution of litmus.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> At the request of many practical teachers the author has appended -this brief summary of anatomy. The material is intended to be used -for reference or to be assigned as lessons in connection with the chapters -of the book, at the discretion of the teacher.</p></div> -</div> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/back-cover.jpg"> - <img src="images/back-cover-tn.jpg" width="100" alt="" /> -</a></div> -<p class="p2" /> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Principles of Public Health, by Thos. D. 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D. Tuttle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Principles of Public Health - A Simple Text Book on Hygene Presenting the Principles - Fundamental to the Conservation of Individual and Community - Health - -Author: Thos. D. Tuttle - -Release Date: January 16, 2017 [EBook #53974] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC HEALTH *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. Misspellings in - the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. - - - - - PRINCIPLES OF - PUBLIC HEALTH - - A SIMPLE TEXT BOOK ON HYGIENE - PRESENTING THE PRINCIPLES FUNDAMENTAL - TO THE CONSERVATION OF - INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY HEALTH - - BY THOS. D. TUTTLE, B.S., M.D. - - SECRETARY AND EXECUTIVE OFFICER OF - THE STATE BOARD OF HEALTH OF MONTANA - - [Illustration: (publisher's colophon)] - - YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK - WORLD BOOK COMPANY - 1910 - - - - -CONSERVATION OF HEALTH - - "Our national health is physically our greatest asset. To prevent - any possible deterioration of the American stock should be a - national ambition."--THEODORE ROOSEVELT. - - -_The conservation of individual and national health is the keynote -of these books_ - -PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC HEALTH - - By THOS. D. TUTTLE, M.D., Secretary and Executive Officer of the - State Board of Health of Montana. Illustrated. Cloth. vii + 186 - pages. List price 50 cents, mailing price 60 cents. - -PRIMER OF HYGIENE - - By JOHN W. RITCHIE, of the College of William and Mary in - Virginia, and JOSEPH S. CALDWELL, of the George Peabody College - for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee. Illustrated. Cloth. vi + 184 - pages. List price 40 cents, mailing price 48 cents. - -PRIMER OF SANITATION - - By JOHN W. RITCHIE. Illustrated. Cloth. vi + 200 pages. List - price 50 cents, mailing price 60 cents. - -HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY - - By JOHN W. RITCHIE. Illustrated in black and colors. Cloth. vi + - 362 pages. List price 80 cents, mailing price 96 cents. - - - WORLD BOOK COMPANY - CASPAR W. HODGSON, _Manager_ - YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK - - - _Copyright, 1910, by World Book Company. All rights reserved_ - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The earliest history of remote ages describes methods employed in -combating disease, and down through all the centuries the struggle -against infection has been going on. The science of health as -applied in recent years reveals wonderful progress in the avoidance -of disease, and in the control of the violent epidemics by which -in the past nations were almost exterminated. Modern methods of -hygiene and sanitation as applied to public health have robbed -smallpox and diphtheria of their death-dealing power; cholera and -yellow fever have been forced to retreat before the victorious -hosts of applied medical science; tuberculosis, the greatest foe -of human life, is slowly but surely receding before the determined -efforts of modern preventive medicine. - -By nature man is endowed with resistive power sufficient to ward -off most forms of disease, provided he keeps his health at a normal -standard by right living. If, however, he allows his health to -become impaired by reason of overwork, bad habits, wilful exposure -to contagion or unhealthful surroundings, he readily falls a prey -to disease. - -The author of _Principles of Public Health_ has here set forth the -general rules of life by the observance of which every adult and -every child not only can do much to preserve his own health but -also can prove himself a prominent factor in raising the standard -of public health. A campaign of education is demanded to arrest the -enormous loss of life which is carrying so many to untimely graves, -and the instruction given in this volume will be of inestimable -value in teaching people how to avoid avoidable disease. - -The author has not attempted to deal with all the diseases that -may be classed as preventable; as the work is intended for use in -the public schools, only such diseases are mentioned as it seems -fitting to present to school children. To teach our children a -proper respect for their own health and for the community welfare -is to fit them for the best citizenship. - - E. A. PIERCE, M. D. - - PORTLAND, OREGON - - - - -ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - - -The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation of the -valuable assistance rendered in the preparation of this work -by Dr. S. T. Armstrong, of New York City; Dr. H. Wheeler Bond, -Commissioner of Health, St. Louis, Missouri; Dr. H. M. Bracken, -Secretary and Executive Officer of the State Board of Health of -Minnesota; J. S. Caldwell, Professor of Biology, George Peabody -College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee; R. J. Condon, -Superintendent of Schools, Providence, Rhode Island; Mrs. Nona B. -Eddy, of the Public Schools of Helena, Montana; Dr. F. M. McMurray, -of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Miss -Jessie B. Montgomery, Supervising Critic in Training School, State -Normal School, Terre Haute, Indiana; Dr. E. A. Pierce, Secretary -and Executive Officer of the State Board of Health of Oregon. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PART I--THE FIGHT FOR HEALTH - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. CONSTANT DANGER OF ILLNESS 1 - - II. THE NECESSITY OF CARING FOR THE BODY 4 - - III. HOW CLOTHING AFFECTS HEALTH 9 - - IV. THE USES OF FOOD 14 - - V. CARE OF FOOD--MEATS 18 - - VI. CARE OF FOOD--MILK 22 - - VII. DECOMPOSITION OF FOOD 30 - - VIII. HARM DONE BY IMPROPER COOKING 34 - - IX. HOW NEATNESS, CHEERFULNESS, AND GOOD MANNERS - PROMOTE HEALTH 37 - - X. DANGERS FROM POOR TEETH 41 - - XI. NECESSITY FOR PURE AIR AND HOW TO SECURE IT 45 - - XII. REST ESSENTIAL TO HEALTH 51 - - XIII. CARE OF THE EYE AND EAR 56 - - XIV. CARE OF THE SKIN 60 - - XV. COMMON POISONS TO BE AVOIDED 64 - - - PART II--THE ENEMIES OF HEALTH - - XVI. DISEASE GERMS 73 - - XVII. ENCOURAGEMENT OF DISEASE BY UNCLEANLY - HABITS 75 - - XVIII. FLIES AS CARRIERS OF DISEASE 79 - - XIX. HOW DISEASE GERMS GET INTO WATER 85 - - XX. TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE THROUGH THE AIR 89 - - XXI. INSECTS AS CARRIERS OF DISEASE 92 - - XXII. HOW TO KEEP GERMS OUT OF WOUNDS 95 - - XXIII. TRANSMISSION OF DIPHTHERIA 100 - - XXIV. THE CURE OF DIPHTHERIA 108 - - XXV. HOW TYPHOID FEVER GERMS ARE CARRIED 113 - - XXVI. HOOKWORM DISEASE AND AMOEBIC DYSENTERY 120 - - XXVII. HOW SCARLET FEVER IS CARRIED 123 - - XXVIII. MEASLES AND WHOOPING COUGH DANGEROUS - DISEASES 128 - - XXIX. HOW SMALLPOX IS PREVENTED 131 - - XXX. WHY VACCINATION SOMETIMES SEEMS A FAILURE 138 - - XXXI. CONSUMPTION, THE GREAT WHITE PLAGUE 142 - - XXXII. HOW CONSUMPTION IS SPREAD AND HOW PREVENTED 150 - - XXXIII. HOW CONSUMPTION IS CURED 157 - - - APPENDIX--SUMMARY OF ANATOMY 163 - - SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 182 - - INDEX 183 - - - - -PART I - -THE FIGHT FOR HEALTH - - - - -CHAPTER I - -CONSTANT DANGER OF ILLNESS - - -Every boy and girl confidently expects to grow into a strong and -healthy man or woman. How often we hear a child say, "When I am a -man," or "When I am a woman;" but I have never heard a boy or a -girl say, "If I live to be a man or woman." When you think of what -you will do when you are grown into men or women, it never occurs -to you that you may be weak and sickly and therefore not able to -do the very things that you would most like to do. This suggests -that sickness is not natural, else the thought that you may perhaps -become sick would enter your mind. As a matter of fact, most -sickness is not natural. - -[Sidenote: The fight for life] - -There is a constant struggle going on in the world. You see a fight -about you every day among the animals. You see the spider catch the -fly, the snake catch the frog, the bird catch the insect, and the -big fish catch the minnow; and you have heard of wars where men -kill one another. - -The greatest enemies that men have to fight, however, are not -other men, or wild animals, but foes that kill more men, women and -children every year than were ever killed in the same length of -time by war. These foes are small, very small, but you must not -think that because things are small they are not dangerous. We -call these foes _disease germs_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. Looking at cells through a microscope.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. Some skin cells as seen through a -microscope.] - -[Sidenote: The nature of a germ] - -The germ is a very, very small body; it is the smallest living -body that we know. Later we shall learn that our bodies are made -up of cells, and that these cells are extremely small--so small -that it takes a very powerful microscope to see one of them. The -germ is still smaller than the cells in our bodies, and it is -made of a single cell. There are a great many kinds of germs in -the world. Fortunately, most of them are not harmful. Some germs -cause disease, but there are other germs that not only are not -harmful, but are actually helpful to men. Among the helpful germs -are those that enrich the ground, and these should be protected; -but all germs that cause disease should be destroyed as rapidly -as possible. These germs are fighting all the time against our -health. They are not armed with guns and cannon, neither do they -build forts from which to fight; but they get inside our bodies and -attack us there. - -[Sidenote: How to fight germs] - -There are three principal ways by which we fight disease germs: -_first_, by keeping our bodies so well and strong that germs -cannot live in them; _second_, by keeping germs out of our bodies; -_third_, by preventing germs from accumulating in the world--that -is, by killing as many of them as possible. - -If it is possible to keep so well and strong that disease germs -cannot live in our bodies, you will naturally infer that there are -other causes of sickness besides disease germs. That is true, for -there are a great many things beside germs that cause our bodies to -get into such a condition that disease germs can enter and grow and -make us ill. We sometimes call this a "run-down" condition. Before -we begin, then, to study the germs that cause disease, we must -learn how to keep our bodies strong and ready to fight these germs. - - =Questions.= 1. What evidence have we that sickness is not - natural? 2. Name some of the fights going on in the animal world. - 3. What can you say of the amount of illness caused by germs? 4. - Tell what you have learned about germs. 5. Name three ways of - fighting germs. - - =Remember.= 1. Most sickness comes from failure to observe - Nature's laws. 2. We must keep up a constant fight against germs - that cause sickness. 3. We fight germs by killing as many of them - as we can, and by keeping our bodies so strong that if a disease - germ enters it cannot grow. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE NECESSITY OF CARING FOR THE BODY - - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. The organs of the body.] - -[Sidenote: How the body is like an automobile] - -These bodies of ours are built somewhat like automobiles. An -automobile is made up of a framework, wheels, body, gasoline tank, -engine, and steering-gear. The human body has much the same form of -construction. We have a frame, which is made of the bones of the -body. We have arms and legs, which correspond to the wheels of the -automobile. We have many little pockets in our bodies in which fat -is stored, and these little pockets answer to the gasoline tank -of the automobile. We have an engine which, like the automobile -engine, is made up of many parts; and we have a head or brain, that -plays the same part as the steering-gear of the automobile. - -The automobile has a tank in which is carried the gasoline -necessary to develop power for the machine. If the gasoline gives -out, the engine will not run, and before the owner starts on a -trip, he is always careful to see that the tank is well filled. -In the same way, if we do not provide new fat for the pockets in -our bodies in which the fat is stored, our supply will soon give -out and our bodies will refuse to work, just as the engine of the -automobile will refuse to work when the gasoline is used up. - -[Sidenote: What cells are like] - -The automobile is made of iron and wood and rubber, and each bit -of iron and wood and rubber is made up of tiny particles. The body -is made of bones and muscles, covered with skin, and all these are -made up of very fine particles that we call cells. Every part of -the body is made of these fine cells. The cells are so small that -they can be seen only with a powerful microscope. If you look at -your hand you cannot see a cell, because it takes a great many -cells to make a spot large enough for you to see. In Figure 1 you -see a boy looking through a microscope, and beside him you see a -picture of what he sees. This picture does not look like the skin -on your hand, neither does it look like the skin on the boy's hand; -but it is nothing more nor less than a piece of skin taken from -that boy's hand, and it looks just as a piece of skin from your -own hand would look if you were to see it through a very strong -microscope. - -[Sidenote: Why cells must not be killed] - -The whole body is made up of just such little cells as you see in -Figure 4, and each cell is alive and has a certain work to perform. -It is very important that we keep these cells from dying and that -they perform the work for which they are intended, for if these -cells die or fail to act, the body becomes sick or dies. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. A cell. (a) Cell body; (b) nucleus; (c) -nucleolus.] - -You can scratch some of the paint from your automobile and the -machine will work just as well as ever. Apparently no harm has been -done, but an opening has been made through which moisture and germs -can enter and cause the wood to rot and the iron to rust. You can -remove certain parts of the automobile and still the machine will -do its work; but you cannot take away too much of any one part -without weakening the automobile, and if certain parts are missing -(such as the sparker, the battery, or the steering-gear), the -usefulness of the machine is destroyed. So it is with the body. You -can scratch off some of the skin and not do any apparent harm, but -you have made an opening through which germs may get into the body. -You can remove certain parts of the body, such as the arm or leg, -and still the body will do efficient service. But there are certain -parts of the body that are necessary to life, just as certain parts -of the automobile are necessary to the usefulness of the machine. -You cannot remove the heart and live; you cannot remove the brain -and live. - -[Sidenote: How cells are killed] - -You are probably thinking that it must be easy to kill such a -little thing as a cell; and so it is. Cells can be killed by too -much heat or too much cold. When you skin your hand, you kill many -cells, and at the same time make an opening for germs to get in and -cause sickness. You can kill cells also by starving them, for they -must have not only enough food, but the right kind of food. If you -feed your bodies on nothing but candy, pie, and cake, most of the -cells will refuse to perform their work and many of them will die. -These cells must have also an abundance of air, and the air must be -pure and fresh. If you breathe the air that others have breathed or -that contains poison of any kind, you will soon find that you are -not feeling well. This simply means that so many of the cells are -being starved for fresh air, that not enough strong ones are left -to do the necessary work. You can kill these cells by overwork, for -they must have a proper amount of rest. If you go to school all -day long and then sit up until midnight every night, you must not -expect the cells of your body to keep strong and well. You can kill -these cells by the use of certain things that act as poisons to -them, such as tobacco, beer, wine, or whisky. - - =Questions.= 1. In what way is the body like an automobile? 2. - What are cells like? 3. Why must cells not be killed? 4. Name - five ways by which we kill cells. - - =Remember.= 1. Each part of the body is important to the welfare - of the whole body. 2. Each part of the body is made up of very - small particles that we call cells; each cell in the body is - alive and has a certain work to perform. 3. Cells are very easily - weakened and killed. 4. There are five principal ways by which - we kill the cells in our bodies: by too much heat or cold; by not - giving them the proper kinds of foods; by not giving them enough - fresh air; by giving them too much work to do; and by poisoning - them. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -HOW CLOTHING AFFECTS HEALTH - - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. Warm, dry clothing necessary for health.] - -[Sidenote: Why the body should be equally covered] - -The body should always be kept at as nearly uniform a temperature -as possible. In order to do this we wear clothing. Clothing keeps -out the heat on a hot day, just as it keeps the heat in and the -cold out on a cold day. The clothing should be equally heavy on -all parts of the body. It is not right to wear a thick dress over -your chest and leave your shoulders and arms bare, or nearly so. -People who do this are killing a great many cells by letting part -of their bodies become chilled while the rest is warm, probably too -warm. - -[Sidenote: Why clothing should not be too heavy] - -The clothing should be just heavy enough to keep the body warm. -If you wear such heavy clothing indoors that you are constantly -perspiring, your underclothes become damp, and when you go out, -even though you put on your overcoat, your body becomes chilled. If -you begin to sneeze, that is Nature's way of telling you that you -are killing many of your cells by too much cold. - -People sometimes get warm from exercising, and then take off their -coats. They should have removed their coats before they began to -exercise. If you take off your coat after you are too warm, your -body becomes chilled. Baseball pitchers know this, and if you watch -a good pitcher, you will see that he always puts on his sweater as -soon as he stops pitching, even though he is very warm. He knows -that if he cools off too quickly, he will become stiff and sore and -cannot pitch good ball. - -[Sidenote: When a draft is dangerous] - -Sometimes a person sits in a warm room until he begins to perspire -freely. Then he opens a window and sits in the draft. Under -ordinary conditions, the cool wind alone would chill the body, but -now the rapid drying of the perspiration makes the body cool still -more quickly. The sudden chill causes the person to take cold, -which is simply another way of saying that he has killed many cells -and caused others to fall sick, so that they cannot perform their -work. We cannot get too much fresh air. Drafts do not hurt us if -we are thoroughly wrapped up; but it is very dangerous to allow -the wind to strike the body when it is not well protected, and -especially when it is damp with perspiration. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. Properly prepared for wet weather.] - -[Sidenote: Why damp clothing is dangerous] - -Damp clothing chills the body very rapidly and kills many cells. -Indeed, if a single one of the germs that cause pneumonia were to -enter your lungs while you were wearing damp clothing, it would -grow so rapidly that you might have pneumonia in a very little -while. That is why it is important to change your shoes and -stockings as soon as you get them wet, and to take off immediately -any clothing that becomes damp. It is hard for boys and girls to -keep their feet dry in the winter and spring months, and rubbers -are a nuisance; but if you expect to grow into the strong man or -woman you picture yourself becoming, you must take care to wear -your rubbers. Otherwise you may become weak and sickly, and never -be able to do the things you hope to do. - -The feet are not the only part of the body that needs to be kept -dry. A wet coat is just as harmful as wet shoes and stockings; -hence, you should always carry an umbrella or wear a raincoat when -you go out into the rain. Umbrellas are unhandy for boys and girls -to carry, but if you will remember that thousands of little cells -in your body are being injured when you get wet and chilled, you -will be willing to take your umbrella. - -[Sidenote: When to wear an overcoat] - -In cold weather the same amount of clothing should not be worn in -the house and outdoors; for this reason, we have overcoats. If you -wear your overcoat in the house, you will become overwarm and your -underclothing will then become damp with perspiration; when you go -outdoors into the cold air, this dampness will have just the same -effect as would dampness that comes from outside. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 7 and 8. If you keep your overcoat on in the -house, your underclothes become damp from perspiration, and when -you go outdoors your body becomes chilled.] - -As soon as the weather gets cold, put on your overcoat every time -you go outdoors, and take it off as soon as you come into the -house. This is troublesome for boys and girls to do, because they -want to run in and out of the house so often; but on the other -hand, think of all the cells you will kill if you do not do this, -and you will certainly consider it worth while to take off your -coat and put it on again. - - =Questions.= 1. How does keeping the body equally covered protect - the cells? 2. Give reasons for not wearing too heavy clothing. 3. - When is it safe to sit in a draft, and when dangerous? 4. What - is the danger of keeping on wet shoes or other damp clothing? 5. - When and why should overcoats be worn? - - =Remember.= 1. Clothing should be just heavy enough to keep the - body warm all the time. 2. Never take off your coat or sit in - a draft when you are too warm. 3. Since wearing damp clothing - causes a great deal of sickness, change your clothes as soon as - they become wet or damp. 4. Do not forget to take your umbrella - when it is raining and to wear your rubbers when the ground is - wet. 5. In cold weather wear your overcoat when you are outdoors, - but take it off when you come into the house. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE USES OF FOOD - - -We kill a great many of the cells in our bodies by starving them; -either we do not give them enough food or we do not supply the -right kind of food. - -[Sidenote: Why the body needs new cells] - -Not only must we feed the cells in our bodies, but we must be -constantly making new ones, for in all our work or play, awake or -asleep, we are constantly using up certain cells. These cells are -used to make the body go, just as the engine uses coal to form the -steam that gives it power to run. Boys and girls grow fast and, of -course, if they expect to become well men and women, they must make -a great many new cells all the time, in addition to those used in -doing the work of the body. If we are to make new cells we must -have the right kind of food with which to make them. - -[Sidenote: How the body keeps itself warm] - -We want to do something besides make new cells; we want to keep -warm and well the cells we already have. No amount of clothing -would keep you warm if you were not making heat inside your body -all the time, any more than you could make a telephone post warm -by putting your coat on it. Therefore it is necessary to have food -that makes heat in the body, in addition to food that builds cells. - -We eat a great many kinds of foods, and all that we eat is used -either for building new cells or for producing heat in the body. -Thus we can divide all our foods into two classes--building -material and heat-producing material. The type of building material -is lean meat, and the type of heat-producing material is fat meat -and starches, such as potatoes and bread. Milk contains much -building material as well as heat-producing material. That is why -a baby grows and keeps warm while he takes nothing but milk. - -[Sidenote: The building foods] - -Lean meat is the best of all building foods. Eggs are largely a -form of lean meat, and hence constitute a good article of food for -building purposes. Certain vegetables contain a large per cent of -building material; this is especially true of dried beans and peas. -Wheat flour and corn meal (particularly when made of whole wheat -and unbolted meal) contain much building material. - -It is possible for one to live and grow when eating only vegetable -matter. But the boy or girl who tries to become a strong man or -woman by eating only vegetables will be disappointed; these are -mostly heat-producing foods and will not make strong bodies. -Experience has proved that the best results are obtained by eating -what is called "a mixed diet," that is, a diet composed partly of -lean meats and partly of fats and vegetables. - -[Sidenote: The heat-producing foods] - -Of the heat-producing foods, fat is the most powerful. Most of the -fat that we eat is used immediately for producing in the body heat, -and therefore power, but a part of it is stored up for future use. -We see it in all healthy young persons. It is this stored-up fat -that gives the body its rounded form. When any one has been sick he -is thin, because, to produce heat and power while he was sick, he -has had to use the fat stored up in his body. To have such a supply -of fat is like having a bank account to draw on when out of work. -We might call the deposits of fat in our bodies our health banks. - -Fat meat is not the only form in which we eat fats; we eat them -in a great many other ways. Certain vegetables, such as beans, -contain an oil that forms fat. Ripe olives contain a great deal -of fatty oil. Butter is a very important form of fat, and cream -contains a large amount of it. - -[Sidenote: Cost of suitable foods] - -In selecting our foods we should think of two things: _first_, the -value of the food as a heat-producer or as a building material; -and _second_, the cost of the food. We may like butter much better -than bacon, but we should remember that, pound for pound, bacon has -a greater nourishing power than butter, and a pound of bacon will -cost far less than a pound of butter.[1] - -Vegetable foods produce heat by means of the starch which they -contain. All vegetables contain starch. This starch is changed -into a kind of sugar in the body, and when thus changed it is used -to produce heat and power. All vegetable foods do not have the -same heat-producing power. There is more heat-producing power in -a pound of oatmeal than there is in ten pounds of cabbage. Ten -cents' worth of dried beans will produce more heat in the body -than will a dollar's worth of lettuce. Thirty cents' worth of corn -meal will do more building in the body than will a piece of mutton -worth a dollar and a half; but you would have to eat a large amount -of corn meal in order to secure the building effect that would -result from eating a small quantity of mutton. In most fruits the -only nourishing quality is in the sugar they contain. This sugar -produces heat in the body just as starch does. - -[Sidenote: The real value of advertised foods] - -You will see some foods advertised as possessing a wonderful -nourishing power. Do not let such statements deceive you, for no -food can have a greater nourishing power than the things from which -it is made. If the particular food advertised is made from wheat -flour, its nourishing power is just the same as that of an equal -quantity of wheat flour. If it is made from corn meal, it can have -no greater nourishing power than has the meal itself. - -We have learned something about the materials necessary in food and -why they are needed. We must now learn why foods that contain these -materials sometimes do not give us as good results as we might hope -for. - - =Questions.= 1. What use does the body make of new cells? 2. How - does the body keep itself warm? 3. Name two uses that the body - makes of food. 4. What foods are especially useful for making - cells? 5. What foods are chiefly used for making heat? 6. Select - articles of food for two meals of equal nourishing value, one - meal to be expensive and the other inexpensive. 7. How would you - determine the real value of any food? - - =Remember.= 1. Foods are used to make heat and power in the body - and to make the body grow. 2. The foods that make the body grow - are called building materials, and lean meat is the best kind - of building material. 3. The foods that produce heat and power - in the body are called heat-producing materials, and fats and - starches are the best heat-producers. 4. All vegetables contain - starch, some of them contain a fatty oil, and most of them - contain some building material. 5. You can get as much building - and heat-producing material from cheap foods as you can from - expensive foods. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CARE OF FOOD--MEATS - - -[Sidenote: Value of meat as a food] - -Meat is one of the most important articles of our diet. It -furnishes essential materials for building cells, and it furnishes -fat for making heat and power in the body. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9. A double menace to health; the -slaughterhouse is dirty, and the filth is drained into a stream.] - -[Sidenote: Characteristics of good meat] - -Since meat is so important an article of food, we should be very -careful to see that it is handled in a way to keep it always -perfectly clean. We should make sure that it comes from animals -absolutely free from any kind of disease, and that no germs have -been allowed to develop poisons in it. - -[Sidenote: How meat may be kept clean] - -While people know that they ought to pay attention to these things, -as a matter of fact they do not do it. They take very little -interest in the way the meat that they are to eat is handled, and -very few ever go to the slaughterhouse or into the back room of the -butcher shop to see whether things are kept clean or not. Some -people say, "Oh, we do not like to go there because it is such a -horrid place." If these places were kept clean, as they should be, -they would not be "horrid." And if the people who buy the meat -would occasionally visit them, these places would be kept clean. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10. Properly displayed foods, protected from -handling and from dirt and flies.] - -If the slaughterhouse and the butcher shop where your meats are -handled are not kept clean, the meat is sure to have germs growing -in it, and these germs will cause poisons called _ptomaines_ to -form in the meat. There may not be enough of them to make you -sick, but there will be enough to injure some of the cells of your -body, and to deprive you of much of the nourishment that you would -otherwise get from the meat. - -All boys and girls should belong to a "Clean Meat League" and -should try to persuade their parents not to buy meat from any -butcher who does not keep his slaughterhouse and butcher shop clean. - -[Sidenote: Dangers from diseased meat] - -Sometimes butchers are anxious to make money fast and take little -thought for the number of people they may make ill. They can buy -sick cows very much cheaper than well ones. The meat from a sick -cow looks just like the meat from a healthy cow, and the dishonest -butcher sells both at the same price. The meat from the diseased -cow is not suitable for food. It may cause you to have the same -disease that the cow had, or it may only be changed to such an -extent that it will not give you the nourishment that you should -get from good meat. The butcher who sells you meat from a sick cow -is of course dishonest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11. Improperly displayed foods, exposed to -handling and to dirt and flies.] - -[Sidenote: How to prevent the sale of diseased meats] - -Ask your father to visit the slaughterhouse where your meat is -killed. The only thing you need to do is to persuade him to go and -see whether the cattle are sick or not. If the cattle look sick, -you will not have to ask him not to buy the meat. No person should -ever eat meat that comes from a diseased animal, no matter what the -nature of the sickness may be. People who will take the trouble to -visit the slaughterhouses occasionally, to investigate these things -for themselves, will not have such meat offered them. - -[Sidenote: Importance of giving animals clean food] - -Animals that are fed on filthy food are not fit for human -consumption. Butchers often feed the offal (the insides) of animals -to the hogs. This makes the hogs fatten quickly, but it also makes -them diseased. When you go to the slaughterhouse with your father, -ask him to go around to the back door, and if you see hogs eating -this filth, do not buy any more meat from that butcher. - - =Questions.= 1. What use does the body make of meat? 2. What - conditions are essential for good meat? 3. How can meat be kept - clean? 4. Why is meat from a diseased animal unfit for food? 5. - How can you help in preventing the sale of meat from diseased - animals? 6. Why should animals not be fed with offal? - - =Remember.= 1. Meat that is not handled in a clean manner - is sure to contain germs that cause a poison to form in the - meat. 2. Never buy meat from a butcher who does not keep his - slaughterhouse and butcher shop clean. 3. Meat from a diseased - animal is not fit for food. 4. Meat from animals fed on filthy - food should not be eaten. 5. Form a "Clean Meat League" and visit - the slaughterhouse where your meat is killed. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -CARE OF FOOD--MILK - - -[Sidenote: Value of milk as a food] - -Milk is another important article of food. The Department of -Agriculture at Washington says that milk furnishes sixteen per -cent of the nourishment of the people of the country. Milk is an -excellent food when it is pure, but when it is not pure it is very -dangerous. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12. A clean dairy.] - -[Sidenote: Milk as a carrier of germs] - -Milk has carried the germs of every disease of which the germ is -known; it has also carried many diseases of which we do not know -the germ. Disease germs grow rapidly in milk, and they do not -make the milk look different or taste different from milk that is -perfectly pure. If you could take two bottles of milk entirely free -from disease germs and put typhoid fever germs in one, and should -set both bottles in an ice box for twenty-four hours, you would -not then be able to tell into which one you had put the germs. The -milk in both bottles would look and taste just the same. The only -difference between the milk in the two bottles would be that if you -drank from one it would make you stronger and would furnish you -with both building material and power-producing material, while -if you drank from the other you would become very ill and would -probably die. - -[Sidenote: How disease germs get into milk:] - -Since we cannot tell from the taste or the appearance of milk -whether or not there are disease germs in it, we must take every -precaution possible to keep them out. The first step is to learn -where the disease germs come from and how they get into the milk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13. Polluted milk is sure to come from a dairy -where cleanliness is not observed.] - -[Sidenote: (_1_) By dirt on the cow] - -Every cow has more or less dirt on her sides and udder; some have -a great deal. When the cow is milked, much of the dirt falls into -the milk bucket. This dirt always contains a great many germs of -different kinds, and many of them are germs that cause disease. -Straining the milk will take out much of the dirt, but disease -germs will go through the finest strainer that was ever made. - -In Figure 13 we see a man milking a dirty cow. The owner has -allowed his lot to become so dirty that the cow cannot find a clean -place in which to lie down. If the man kept his lot clean, and if -before milking the light dirt on the cow's sides and udder were -wiped off with a damp cloth, no germs would fall into the milk. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) By dirt in the cow barn] - -Another source of dirt and disease germs in milk is the barn. The -walls of a barn where cows are milked should always be kept clean -and should be whitewashed frequently. If this is done, there will -be comparatively little dirt on the walls to fall into the milk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14. Only clean milk will come from a dairy -where proper precautions are taken.] - -Of course the walls and floors of a barn cannot be kept absolutely -clean. There will always be some dirt, and the movements of the -cows shifting their position and switching their tails, will stir -up the dust; so it is important to remove the milk from the barn as -soon as possible. Milk cans should never be kept in the barn. The -milk should be taken directly from the barn to a cooling house and -there strained. - -All barns where cows are kept should have plenty of windows, that -there may be an abundance of light and fresh air. Cows need fresh -air just as much as people do, while a barn that is not supplied -with plenty of light is very likely to be a dirty barn. - -Keep dirt and disease germs out of the milk by keeping the barn -clean and by taking the milk away from the barn as soon as possible. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15. A dirty, insanitary milk-house.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 16. A clean, inexpensive milk-house.] - -[Sidenote: (3) By dirt on the milkman] - -Another source of dirt and disease germs in milk is the milkman or -milkmaid. No matter how careful we may be, our clothes hold more or -less dust, and all dust contains germs, very often disease germs. -When a person is milking a cow, the dust from his clothes is shaken -off into the milk. The only way to avoid this is to wear, while -milking, a special suit of clothes made of white cloth, which may -be washed as soon as it shows the least particle of dirt. - -The milker's hands, too, are often dirty. Perhaps he carefully -washes his hands after milking, but not before. It is a common -custom for milkers to moisten their hands with milk while milking, -and to do this frequently. The result is that dirty milk from their -hands is constantly dropping into the milk pail. This is a very -bad habit, and doubly bad if the milkman has not washed his hands -before milking. - -Sometimes there are sick people at the dairy farm. Often some one -nurses a sick person until milking time and then goes out and milks -the cows. When this is done, the milker is almost sure to plant the -germs of the disease in the milk. No milk should ever be used from -any dairy where there is an infectious disease; and no one who has -charge of a sick person, no matter what the nature of the sickness, -should ever handle milk that is to be used by others. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17. A model bottling establishment.] - -[Sidenote: (4) By dirt in cans and bottles] - -The cans and bottles in which the milk is placed are frequently -sources of dirt and germs. Milk cans and bottles are supposed to be -thoroughly washed before milk is put into them, and they should be -thoroughly scalded after they are washed. This is not always done, -and sometimes the bottles are not washed at all. - -Some dairymen will tell you that the bottles and cans are always -washed and scalded just before the milk is put into them, and that -this is never neglected by any dairyman. That is what a dairyman -once told me. Then I asked him how he accounted for the fact that -I had found a milk ticket in the bottle with the fresh milk. Of -course he could not explain this, though I thought I could explain -it for him. The old milk bottle was returned to the milkman with -the ticket for the new milk inside it. The deliveryman left the -fresh milk, but forgot to take the ticket out of the bottle; and -the man who "washed" the bottles must have forgotten to take out -the ticket too. Of course, the bottle was not washed at all, and if -one bottle goes unwashed, it is reasonable to assume that others -are neglected in the same way. - -Milk bottles and cans should always be thoroughly washed before -fresh milk is put into them. This washing cannot be done by little -children; it is work for a man or woman, and careful work at that. - -[Sidenote: (5) By polluted water] - -I have just told you that milk vessels should be thoroughly washed. -It is true, however, that disease germs may get into the milk -through this very process of washing the vessels. Water sometimes -contains disease germs, especially the germs that cause typhoid -fever, cholera, and other diseases of the intestines. Such water -is said to be polluted. When milk vessels are washed with polluted -water, the germs are left in them and thus get into the milk. If -the water used to wash the cans is thoroughly boiled, the germs -will be killed; hence it is important to scald all milk vessels. - -All water used about a dairy should be perfectly pure. If there is -the least suspicion about the quality of the water, it should be -examined by a chemist; and if it is not pure, the milk from such -a dairy should not be used. In order to prevent the possibility -of any infection, all water used to wash milk vessels should be -thoroughly boiled even when the water is known to be pure, and the -vessels should afterward be scalded, to kill any germs that may be -left after washing. - -[Sidenote: (6) By flies falling into the milk] - -Flies very frequently get into the milk. Later we shall learn more -about how flies carry germs, but at present it is enough to know -that on every fly there are a great many germs, and whenever a fly -gets into milk it plants those germs and they grow very rapidly. -As soon as a cow is milked, the milk should be taken to a clean -cooling house, with screens at all the windows and doors, and there -strained into a vessel and cooled. - -[Sidenote: (7) By disease in the cow] - -The last way that we will mention by which germs get into milk is -by disease in the cow herself. Cows suffer from many diseases, -just as men do; and when a cow is sick, her milk is very likely -to contain the germs of the disease that is making her sick. -Especially is this true of tuberculosis, or consumption, as it is -called. A great many children get consumption by drinking milk -from consumptive cows. No milk should ever be used from a cow that -is not healthy. All dairy cows should be examined at frequent -intervals by a competent veterinarian to make sure that they are -free from any disease. - - =Questions.= 1. Milk forms what per cent of the food of the - people of the United States? 2. Why is it important that milk - should be kept clean? 3. Name some ways by which germs get into - milk. 4. What is the danger from a dirty cow and barn? 5. How can - this danger be prevented? 6. How does the milkman allow germs to - get into the milk, and how can he avoid doing so? 7. How should - milk cans and bottles be washed? 8. Why is it important that only - pure water be used about the dairy? 9. How can flies be kept out - of milk? 10. How should milch cows be tested to make sure that - they are free from tuberculosis? - - =Remember.= 1. Milk is a very important article of food; it is - both a building and a heat-producing material. 2. When milk is - not properly handled, it contains many disease germs. 3. Disease - germs often get into milk from unwashed bottles and cans; from - dirty barns; from dirty milkmen; from dirty water used to wash - the cans and bottles; from flies falling into the milk; from - diseased cows. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -DECOMPOSITION OF FOOD - - -[Illustration: FIG. 18. Partially decayed fruit is not fit for -food.] - -[Sidenote: Why partially decomposed foods should not be eaten] - -Vegetables and fruits that are partially decayed should not be -eaten. Even if an orange is decayed only on one side, the products -of decomposition--that is, the poisons produced by decay--have -extended all through the orange. You cannot see them, but they are -there. It is the same with a decaying apple, potato, or melon. It -never pays to buy partially decayed or stale fruits or vegetables, -for not only are they dangerous to health, but they are so reduced -in nourishing qualities by decomposition that you get little value -for the money you spend. It is always better economy to buy fresh -fruits and vegetables, or even canned vegetables, when the latter -are properly put up. - -[Sidenote: What causes decomposition] - -All decomposition (rotting) in fruits and vegetables is due to the -action of germs. If you will look at a bunch of old grapes, you -will notice that some of the grapes are rotten, while others have -dried up. Now, if you examine them very carefully, you will find -that all the decomposed grapes have breaks in the skin. The break -may be very small, but it is there, and through this break the -germs that cause decomposition have entered. You will find also -that there is not the slightest break in the skin of any grape that -has dried up. The germs could not enter, hence there has been no -decomposition. It is the same with other fruits and vegetables: if -the germs that cause decomposition cannot get inside, the fruit or -vegetable will dry up, but will not rot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19. Fruits displayed for sale, but properly -protected from flies, dust, and dirty hands.] - -Germs can go through a very small opening--so small that you may -not be able to find it; but if there is decomposition, the hole is -there. - -The skin of the body acts in the same way as the skin of the grape -and keeps out a great many germs that would make us sick were they -able to get through the skin. They often get through the skin when -we cut ourselves. - -Meats decompose as well as fruits and vegetables, and the -decomposition is due to the presence of germs in the meat. We -cannot keep all germs out of meat, but we can keep out a great many -of them by having everything clean about the meat, by keeping it -covered as much of the time as possible, and by handling it only -with clean hands. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20. Fruits for sale, not properly protected -from flies, dirt, and other sources of filth.] - -[Sidenote: Why foods do not decompose in very cold places] - -When meat is kept so cold that it is almost frozen, the germs -cannot grow, and decomposition is prevented. In this way meat can -be kept perfectly free from decomposition for several weeks. After -the meat is taken from the cold storage room, it should be cut as -soon as possible into steaks, roasts, and other pieces for cooking; -and when taken to your home, it should be kept in an ice box until -the time to cook it. You cannot keep meat very long at home without -decomposition starting, because small ice boxes are not cold enough -to check entirely the growth of germs. - -Unless the meat is to be eaten hot, it should be cooled after -cooking and placed again in the ice box as soon as possible. -Cooking kills the germs that are in the meat before it is cooked; -but unless it is kept in a very cold place and protected from flies -after it is cooked, germs will get into it again as soon as it is -cold. Cooked meat will decompose just the same as uncooked meat. - -[Sidenote: What is formed in food by decomposition] - -When germs are allowed to grow in meat, as always happens when it -is not kept in a very cold place, these germs cause the poisons -that we call ptomaines. The people who eat such meat become sick, -and in many cases do not recover. Cooking meat that contains -ptomaines will kill the germs that caused the poison, but it will -not destroy the poison that has already been formed. - -[Sidenote: Why some canned meats are poisonous] - -People not infrequently are poisoned by eating canned meat. -Sometimes you will hear it said that the poison formed because the -meat was in cans. This is not true; the cans had nothing to do -with the forming of the poison. This was caused by germs that were -allowed to grow in the meat before it was cooked. When the meat was -cooked the germs were killed, but the poison was not destroyed. In -other words, the poison developed before the meat was canned, and -not after it was put into the cans. - - =Questions.= 1. What is the objection to eating fruits when they - are partially decayed? 2. Why do some foods shrivel while others - decay? 3. Why does decomposition not go on in cold places? 4. - What are ptomaines? 5. When are ptomaines formed in canned meats? - - =Remember.= 1. Partially decomposed fruits or vegetables are not - suitable for foods. 2. Meats in which germs have been allowed to - grow should not be eaten. 3. Cooking meat kills the germs in it, - but does not destroy the poisons that the germs have formed. 4. - When canned meats are poisonous, it is because the poison was - formed before the meat was canned; the poison is not caused by - the can. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -HARM DONE BY IMPROPER COOKING - - -[Sidenote: Effects of improper cooking] - -Nearly all food should be cooked before it is eaten; but if the -cooking is not properly done, much of the nourishing power of the -food is destroyed, and in some instances the food is rendered -actually injurious. - -[Sidenote: Why starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked] - -Starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked in order that the -coverings which surround the little granules may be broken or -made soft. If starchy foods are not thoroughly cooked, the little -grains go into the stomach as hard as grains of sand; then most of -them are not digested at all, but pass out of the system without -furnishing any nourishment to the body. If starchy foods are fried -in fats, as is the case with doughnuts, the granules of starch -become coated with fat. As the fat is not digested until it comes -to the intestines, the saliva never reaches the coverings of the -starch, and more work is thrown on the other juices of the body. -The result is that the little glands which make these other juices -are overworked, or else the starch is not digested at all and -therefore furnishes no nourishment to the body. When bread is -sticky (we sometimes call it soggy) in the middle of the loaf, it -is because the flour has not been thoroughly cooked and the little -grains or granules of starch are still hard. You cannot feel these -granules between your fingers, but they are hard just the same, and -very little of such food is made use of in the body. - -Remember that all starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked, and -remember, too, that all vegetables are chiefly starchy in character. - -[Sidenote: How fats should be cooked] - -When fats are cooked over a very hot fire, an acid is developed -that is injurious to the body. This does not mean that when the -fire is hot enough to broil a steak well, it causes this acid to -form; neither does it mean that heat sufficient to boil the grease -for cooking doughnuts will cause it to form. Every cook knows -that when she fries fat meat over a fire that is too hot, it has -a bitter taste. This bitter taste is caused by an acid which will -destroy a part of the usefulness of the food in the body and will -cause many of the cells to stop doing their work properly. - -[Sidenote: How meats should be cooked] - -There is a great difference of opinion in regard to cooking foods, -especially meats. Some people will tell you that meats should not -be cooked at all; that man originally ate his meat raw and that -this is the proper way. Others will tell you that all meat should -be cooked until it does not show a particle of red, even until it -is dry throughout. These are the two extremes; and it is never well -to go to extremes in anything, especially in matters that concern -the health. - -Meat should always be cooked, because by being cooked it is made -more easily digestible; but it should not be cooked, until all the -juices, which contain much of the nourishing matter, are dried up -and the meat made hard. Meat that is cooked until it is dry and -hard is more difficult to digest than meat that is not cooked at -all. - - =Questions.= 1. What effect has improper cooking on foods? 2. Why - should starches be thoroughly cooked? 3. What is the objection - to starchy foods fried in grease? 4. What changes take place in - fatty food when it is fried over a very hot fire? 5. Why should - all meats be cooked? 6. What is the objection to cooking meat - until the juices are dried out? - - =Remember.= 1. Starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked so that - the fine grains may be softened and the food thus made more easy - to digest. 2. Fats should not be fried over a very hot fire - because too much heat causes a poison to form in the fat. 3. - Meats should be cooked, but never until they become dry, as the - juices in the meat contain most of the nourishing material. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -HOW NEATNESS, CHEERFULNESS, AND GOOD MANNERS PROMOTE HEALTH - - -[Sidenote: Why mealtime should be pleasant] - -The dining table should be the pleasantest and most inviting place -in the house. If you are complaining and quarreling during the -meal, you cannot enjoy the food; you cannot eat it properly; and -your ill temper will so affect your body that you cannot properly -digest what you eat. A dirty table, with flies swarming over the -food, is not very tempting, and when seated at such a table, one -does not eat the things that are best for him and sometimes does -not eat anything at all. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21. A clean, inviting dining-room.] - -[Sidenote: How uninviting luncheons affect the appetite] - -The luncheons that boys and girls take to school with them are -often prepared in so careless a way that they are extremely -uninviting. The substantial school lunch can be made just as -appetizing as the dainty refreshments at an afternoon tea or at -a party. If the same care is devoted to the preparation of the -one as of the other, boys and girls will eat their lunches with -enjoyment and good appetites. - -[Sidenote: Why an attractive table calls for pleasing guests] - -If the table is made to look clean and inviting, do you not think -that you, in your turn, should make yourself as neat and clean as -possible before you come to it? Dirt on your hands and face not -only does not look well, but contains a great many germs that may -get into your food and thus find their way into your body and try -to make you ill. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22. Two lunches. Which is the more tempting?] - -[Sidenote: How foods should be eaten] - -Besides being eaten in pleasant surroundings, all food should be -eaten slowly. Let us suppose that we are all seated at a clean, -inviting table and everyone is clean and happy. Before the children -is the very kind of food that is best for them. It looks good and -they know it is good, and they want to eat all they can of it. But -they think of a game of jacks or of ball that they want to play as -soon as dinner is over, so they simply "bolt" their food. - -What are teeth made for? Why, to chew with, of course. But why are -we given some teeth that are sharp like knives, and some that are -flat like millstones? It seems probable that these different kinds -of teeth are intended for special purposes, and so they are. If -our teeth were intended only for cutting our food into bits small -enough to swallow without causing pain, there would be no need -for any except the sharp, knife-like teeth. But we have the big -grinders, which were made to use, and it is very important that -they be used in the right way. - -[Sidenote: Why food should be thoroughly chewed] - -We do not chew our food simply to make it fine enough to swallow, -but for quite another reason as well. In our mouths there is a -fluid called _saliva_. Think of something that you are very fond -of eating, and the mere thought of it makes the saliva come into -your mouth. This saliva has a very important duty to perform in -connection with preparing the food for the little cells of the -body. Each little grain of starch--and you will remember that all -vegetable foods are composed largely of starch--has a capsule about -it. This simply means that it is done up in a little package. The -saliva helps to open this capsule by making it soft (just as water -will soften the paper on a package of candy), so that the other -digestive juices can reach the starch and turn it into the kind of -sugar that is used in the body. If you do not chew your food very -fine, the saliva will not reach the starch granules, the little -packages of starch will be hard to open when they go into the -stomach, and much of the starch will never be made use of in the -body. The saliva has much the same action on the coverings of the -little packages of meat, for all the meat that we eat is done up in -similar packages. - -A great Englishman, Mr. Gladstone, who lived to be eighty-three, -made a practice of chewing every bite of food twenty times, and he -thought this had a great deal to do with his being such a strong -and well man and living to such an old age. - -[Sidenote: When desserts are not harmful] - -After you have eaten meats, bread, and vegetables, it will do no -harm to eat a piece of pie or cake, or a dish of ice-cream or some -other dessert. It is not easy, as a rule, to digest these things -(that is, to get them into such shape that they can be used as food -by the little cells in the body), but a moderate amount of them is -very good for boys and girls, as well as for grown people. If you -refuse to eat the meat and bread, but wait until the dessert is -served and then fill your stomach with sweet things, you will be -starving some of the little cells, and you will be reminded of this -very soon. Sometimes you may be reminded of it by having a pain in -your stomach, but more often by getting low grades in your lessons -at school. Your teacher will know it, too, because you will be so -restless and inattentive in your classes that she will have to give -you a low grade in deportment as well. - - =Questions.= 1. What kind of topics should be discussed at - mealtime? 2. What is the objection to an untidy table? 3. What - kind of luncheon do you like best? 4. What does a clean table - call for? 5. What is the importance of eating slowly? 6. Why - should we chew our food thoroughly? 7. When are desserts not - harmful? - - =Remember.= 1. The dining table should be the most inviting - place in the house. 2. Unpleasant subjects should be avoided at - mealtime. 3. A clean table calls for clean people. 4. Eat slowly - and chew your food thoroughly, that the saliva may reach each - grain of starch. 5. Desserts are not harmful if eaten at the end - of a meal composed of good building and heat-producing materials. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -DANGERS FROM POOR TEETH - - -We have learned that chewing is not merely a process of cutting our -food into such lumps as we can swallow without hurting ourselves; -but that the food must be ground up fine and thoroughly mixed with -the saliva, that the saliva may reach every particle of starch. If -we do not have good teeth, we cannot grind our food as fine as it -ought to be ground, and, as a result, a great deal of the starch -will not be reached by the saliva. - -Nature starts every child with a full set of good, strong, clean -teeth. These teeth, which we call first, or milk, teeth, are not -very large, but they are perfect in every respect and last until -the second, or permanent, teeth come in. That is, they will last so -long _if they are taken care of_. If they are not taken care of, -they will decay just as the later teeth will decay, and they must -be cared for in the same way. - -[Sidenote: Why we have baby or milk teeth] - -Boys and girls sometimes wonder why they have a set of teeth that -come out before they can have the teeth that must last them the -rest of their lives. This is simply because there is not room -enough in a child's mouth for the big, permanent teeth. We must -have teeth while our jaws are growing, so we have first a set of -little teeth. Then just as soon as our jaws get large enough for -the big teeth, the little teeth come out and the big ones come in. - -Teeth are about the hardest substance in the body. If we take care -of our second teeth, they should last as long as we live. The only -reason they do not last is because we do not take care of them. If -a person would keep his teeth clean all the time, he would rarely -be obliged to have a single permanent tooth pulled. - -[Sidenote: Why teeth break easily] - -Teeth are so hard that they are brittle, that is, they break -easily. Glass is brittle, and you can chip off a piece of glass -with a pin by sticking the pin into a crack in the glass. In just -the same way you can chip off a piece of a tooth by sticking a pin -between two teeth. That is what often happens when people pick -their teeth with pins, or with any other hard substance. A metal -toothpick is just as bad as a pin. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23. Teeth were not intended for nutcrackers.] - -Another way by which little pieces are chipped off the teeth is by -biting hard things. Sometimes we see boys and girls cracking nuts -with their teeth; again we see them trying to bite wires in two. -They put their teeth to many uses for which teeth were never made. -They do not realize, while they are abusing their teeth in this -way, that they are probably chipping the enamel, which is the hard, -shiny covering of the tooth, and are destroying the one protection -that their teeth have against decay. - -[Sidenote: Why teeth decay] - -When a little piece is chipped off a tooth, an opening is made -through the enamel. Through this opening germs may lodge in the -inner part of the tooth, which is soft. When this happens, a little -black speck appears on the tooth, and after a while the tooth -begins to ache. If you have a toothache, you go to a dentist, and -he probably finds that germs have caused the tooth to decay until -there is a hole extending into the very center of it. - -Teeth grow very close together, but there is always a little space -between them. Whenever you eat anything, particles of the food get -into these spaces and if allowed to remain there, soon decompose. -These decomposing particles of food between the teeth will -gradually soften even the enamel, and in this way little openings -are made for germs to get into the teeth. - -[Sidenote: How to care for the teeth] - -Never pick the teeth. You cannot make them clean by picking them. -Every morning and night brush your teeth with a stiff toothbrush -and a little tooth powder. Brush them both crosswise and up and -down, to get out everything from between them. Do not think you -have done your duty if you brush only your front teeth, the ones -that show. Brush the back teeth just as thoroughly as you do the -front teeth. Very few people will see your back teeth, but these -decay just as fast as your front teeth, if they are not kept clean. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24. A sanitary wash-basin with a separate bowl -for washing the teeth.] - -[Sidenote: How often one should go to the dentist] - -Twice each year you should have a dentist examine your teeth, to -see if there are any little spots where decay has started. If you -have kept your teeth perfectly clean all the time, and have not -chipped off little pieces, there will be none of these decayed -spots. But it is a safe plan to have the teeth looked over at least -twice a year, for you may have broken a tooth without knowing it, -and by the time a decayed spot is large enough to cause pain, or -has made a hole that you can feel with your tongue, it has advanced -much farther than it should have been permitted to do. - - =Questions.= 1. Why should you chew your food thoroughly? 2. - Why is it necessary to have baby teeth? 3. How are teeth easily - broken? 4. Why do teeth decay? 5. What must you avoid in order to - protect your teeth? 6. How should your teeth be brushed? 7. Why - should you have your teeth examined twice each year by a dentist? - - =Remember.= 1. Take care of your teeth and they will last you as - long as you live. 2. Do not pick them with pins, or toothpicks - of any kind. 3. Do not use them for nutcrackers or wire-cutters. - 4. Do not use them for tack pullers. 5. Keep them clean at all - times. 6. Brush them up and down as well as crosswise. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -NECESSITY FOR PURE AIR AND HOW TO SECURE IT - - -We have learned how the cells of the body are killed by starvation. -Now let us learn how they are choked to death, or killed by lack of -air. - -[Sidenote: How air is changed in the body] - -The cells of the body need _oxygen_, and the only way we can give -it to them is by means of air. Every time we take air into our -lungs we are giving oxygen to the red corpuscles or cells in the -blood, which distribute it to the other cells in the body. The air -that goes into our lungs, if it is fresh and pure, contains a great -deal of oxygen and a very little of another gas called _carbon -dioxid_. The air that comes out of the lungs contains a very little -oxygen and a great deal of carbon dioxid. The blood not only takes -the oxygen out of the air, but gives carbon dioxid to the air. This -carbon dioxid is very poisonous, and would kill the cells if it -remained in the blood; hence we should never breathe the same air -twice. There is no lack of fresh air in the world, and no excuse -for anyone's ever breathing air that is not pure. - -[Sidenote: Effects of impure air] - -If you close all the windows and doors in the schoolroom and shut -up the ventilators, you will soon find that you are not able to pay -close attention to your studies, and in a little while you will -begin to feel drowsy. This is because you have used up so much of -the oxygen in the air that there is no longer enough to supply the -demands of the little cells, and because, in addition, you are -taking into your bodies the poisonous carbon dioxid that has been -breathed out into the room. It takes a great deal of fresh air to -supply the body with oxygen--about 1,250 cubic feet of air each -hour. With thirty or forty children in a room, it does not take -long to use up all the oxygen. So there should be a constant supply -of fresh air coming into the room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25. Results of breathing good and bad air.] - -[Sidenote: Methods of ventilation] - -It is not only in the schoolroom that you need oxygen. When you -are out-of-doors you get an abundance of fresh air, but from a -great many houses every bit of fresh air is shut out. It is always -possible to let an abundance of fresh air into any house without -causing a draft. A piece of board can be made to fit into a window -frame so that when the window is raised, the air will be directed -upward and will not cause a draft. Hot-air furnaces are made with -cold-air pipes. The fresh air from outdoors comes through these -cold-air pipes and, after being heated, is driven into the rooms of -the house. Some people think they will save coal by closing these -drafts. Not only do they not save coal (for the furnace does not -give as much heat when this draft is closed), but they kill their -body cells by refusing to give them oxygen. The cold-air pipe in a -hot-air furnace should always be kept wide open. - -In houses heated with steam or hot water, either the windows must -be kept open, or some other way must be provided for admitting -fresh air and taking out foul air. These arrangements constitute -a system of ventilation. Houses heated with stoves must also be -provided with some means of ventilation. The stove, by its draft, -takes out a little of the foul air, but it will not take out more -air than one person poisons. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26. Restfulness: Effect of good ventilation in -a sleeping-room, with the right position for sleeping.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27. Restlessness: Effect of poor ventilation in -a sleeping-room, with the wrong position for sleeping.] - -[Sidenote: Why windows should be kept open at night] - -Many people seem to think that they do not need fresh air at night, -and they close their bedroom windows as tight as they can. Those -people do not sleep well and often have bad colds. You should -always sleep with your windows open. If it is impossible for you -to have your windows open without having a draft, choose the -draft; it will do you no harm if you are well covered, and under -no circumstances will it do you as much harm as the foul air that -you breathe if your window is closed. Some persons (fortunately -they are few nowadays) will tell you that night air is dangerous. -I wonder what kind of air these people expect to breathe at night. -Do they expect to fill the room in the daytime with enough air for -use at night? Such air would certainly not be very fresh. Night air -is the only kind of air that it is possible to breathe at night. - -[Sidenote: The ventilation of public assembly rooms] - -Churches, theaters, and ten-cent shows are often very poorly -ventilated. You can always tell a poorly ventilated room by the -foul odor when you go into it from the fresh air, and it is not -wise to stay in such a room. You are killing the cells in your body -when you do so, and you will very probably come out of it with a -bad cold. When the fresh air strikes you, you feel chilly and you -may think you are taking cold then, but in reality you took cold in -that room full of foul air. - -[Sidenote: Ventilation of workshops] - -Workshops are often poorly ventilated. No person should ever work -in a badly ventilated place. The labor unions frequently strike for -higher wages, but until recently a strike for better ventilation -was rarely heard of. Better ventilation would be practically equal -to an increase in wages, because there would be fewer doctors' -bills to pay, and less likelihood of losing work through illness. -Always have plenty of pure, fresh air wherever you are--in school, -in bed, at work, or at play. - -[Sidenote: Why we should breathe through the nose] - -The cells in the skin of the nose secrete a watery fluid, and this -fluid serves to moisten the air as it passes through the nose. Dry -air irritates the mucous membrane which lines the nose, throat, and -lungs, and it is very important that the air be moistened before -it reaches the throat. Air is also warmed as it passes through the -nose. Cold air is irritating to the throat and lungs. The small -hairs in the nose catch the dust and dirt in the air and prevent it -from going into the lungs. - -The nose was made to breathe through, and all the air that goes -into your lungs should pass through your nose, in order that it may -be moistened, warmed, and cleansed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28. Showing position of adenoids and tonsils in -the throat.] - -[Sidenote: Why some children breathe through the mouth] - -Frequently we see boys and girls breathing through the mouth. They -do this because there is something in the nose that prevents the -air from passing freely through it. If there were nothing in the -way, the child would breathe through the nose instead of the mouth, -because the natural way of breathing is through the nose. - -The most common reason for mouth-breathing is the growth of small -lumps in the throat just behind the nose. These little lumps are -called adenoids. They are not natural, and should be taken out. -We do not know why they grow in some children and not in others, -but we do know that they should be taken out so that the child can -breathe easily through the nose. Large tonsils also cause boys and -girls to breathe through the mouth. Tonsils that are large enough -to cause the child to breathe through the mouth ought always to be -taken out. Large tonsils and adenoids are often found in the same -child. - -[Sidenote: Effects of mouth-breathing] - -When a child breathes through his mouth all the time, his face -takes on a peculiar shape. His upper lip grows long, his lower -jaw drops back, and his whole face looks flat. His voice has a -peculiar sound, and he finds it very hard to keep up in his classes -at school. Children with adenoids and large tonsils are always -backward in their school work, and may become deaf if the adenoids -and tonsils are not removed. - -If you breathe through your mouth instead of through the nose, -go to the doctor and let him see if you have adenoids or large -tonsils; if you have, let him take them out. You cannot possibly -grow into a strong, healthy man or woman if you have adenoids and -do not have them removed. - - =Questions.= 1. What does the body take out of the air? 2. What - does the body put into the air? 3. What effect does impure air - have on the body? 4. Why should one sleep with windows open? 5. - What causes the unpleasant odor in a crowded room? 6. How would - workmen benefit by properly ventilated workshops? 7. Name the - helpful ways in which the air is changed while passing through - the nose. 8. Why do some children breathe through the mouth? 9. - What effect comes from mouth-breathing? - - =Remember.= 1. Impure air destroys health. 2. Never sleep in - a room where the window is closed. 3. Avoid going into public - places or workshops that are not well ventilated. 4. Air must - pass through the nose before it is fit for the lungs. 5. - Mouth-breathing is not natural and is usually due to some defect - that can easily be cured. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -REST ESSENTIAL TO HEALTH - - -[Sidenote: Why exercise is necessary] - -Exercise is necessary to make our bodies grow and become strong. -If we stayed in bed all the time, our muscles would not grow and -we could not even walk. If we did not exercise them, the cells in -our brains would not grow and we should not know anything. Every -part of our body must have exercise, that is, each part must do -some work every day. If we used only one part of the body and did -not give the other parts any work to do, only the part that we used -would grow, while all the rest of the body would be small and weak. - -[Sidenote: Proportion of rest required] - -While every part should do some work each day, the whole body -needs also to have a proper amount of rest. Even the heart, which -seems to be working all the time, must rest. It rests between each -beat. The muscles with which we breathe rest between each breath. -Every person must have a certain amount of rest each day. A man -should have at least eight hours' sleep in every twenty-four hours; -boys and girls should have from nine to ten hours' sleep in every -twenty-four. It is only while we are sleeping that we have complete -rest. - -[Sidenote: Effect of overwork] - -Everybody should have some work to do. Boys and girls should learn -that work is a part of life, though they should not be expected to -do too much. They should not be required to get up at four o'clock -in the morning and work until eight, then go to school until four -in the afternoon, and then work again until dark. They cannot -do this and keep well. Such children will surely neglect their -lessons and will fail to keep up in their classes. It is not the -children's fault, but the fault of the people who give them so -much to do outside of school. - -Sometimes bright children fall behind in their classes and seem to -be sleepy during school hours. Very often these children do not -have to do any work at home, but play all the time they are out of -school. We usually find that these children not only play all the -afternoon, but also go to parties at night and often stay up until -midnight. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29. Children work when they play. The little -girl skipping rope is killing the body cells by overwork; she has -skipped more than one hundred times and is exhausted.] - -[Sidenote: Ways in which children overwork their bodies] - -You may think it is not work to go to a party, but it really is. -You are working the muscles and the cells of your brain when you -are playing games, and these get tired from play work just as they -do from working. It is more fun to do play work than to do real -work, but the cells are tired and need rest after either kind of -exercise. When you go to a party and stay up until midnight, you do -not get nine hours of sleep. How do you expect the cells of your -bodies to get enough rest when you treat them in this way? - -Another thing you do at parties is to eat food that tastes good, -but which is not good building material or nourishing for the cells -of the body. These things eaten late at night stay in your stomach -long after you have gone to bed, and the cells of your stomach do -not have a chance to rest at all. - -Children should have their parties in the afternoon. You can have -just as much fun at a party in the afternoon as you can at night, -and then your stomach will have time to dispose of the cake and -candies you have eaten, and will be ready to rest when you go to -bed. - -Small children should be in bed by eight o'clock at night, and even -big girls and boys should be asleep by ten o'clock every night. If -you do not give your bodies rest, you can never grow into strong -men and women. - -[Sidenote: The importance of regular meals] - -We have learned that every part of the body needs regular rest. -Your stomach is a part of your body. In the stomach and intestines -all the food is changed so that the little cells can make use of -it. Do you think the cook would serve good meals if she were kept -cooking all the time, both night and day? You know she would soon -stop cooking for you if you did not give her time to rest. Your -stomach does work that is even more important to you than cooking. - -[Sidenote: Why meals should be at least four hours apart] - -It takes about four hours for your stomach to dispose of what -you give it at a single meal. If you eat your breakfast at eight -o'clock, your stomach is going to be kept busy to get rid of it -by noon. Of course you expect to give it more work to do at noon; -that is, you expect to eat a good luncheon. It will be after four -o'clock by the time your stomach has finished the task you put on -it at noon, and there will be only about an hour and a half for -the stomach to rest before you will be ready to give it another -four hours' task, digesting your supper. This means that your -stomach cannot go to sleep until ten o'clock. If you eat three -meals a day, you will give your stomach just about two hours' rest -between eight in the morning and ten at night. If you let it rest -from ten at night until eight in the morning, it is not likely to -give you any trouble. - -[Sidenote: When and why candy eating is harmful] - -Some people will not let their stomachs rest at all. Often boys and -girls give their stomachs extra work to do by eating sweetmeats -in the middle of the morning while their stomachs are still busy -with breakfast. Then, as soon as school is out in the afternoon, -they want to eat more cake and candy, and thus take away from the -stomach the little rest it has a right to expect before it goes -to work on supper. Then suppose they go to a party and eat again -about midnight. How much time will the stomach have to rest before -breakfast? - -[Sidenote: When candy eating is not harmful] - -Now, I have not said that boys and girls must not eat candy; and -what is more, I am not going to say any such thing. You may go home -and tell your mother that candy is good for girls and boys and that -they like it so well they ought to have it--no, not all the time. -Here is the part that some of you will not like. Girls and boys -ought to have all they want just after eating luncheon or dinner. -If you have eaten a hearty meal, it is entirely safe for you to eat -candy then; you will not be giving extra work to your stomach, for -the candy will be taken care of along with the rest of the meal. - - =Questions.= 1. Why should we all take exercise? 2. How much rest - is needed each day? 3. Name some of the effects of overwork. 4. - How do children overwork their bodies? 5. Why should children - have their parties in the afternoon? 6. Why should meal hours - be regular? 7. When and why is candy eating harmful? 8. When is - candy eating not harmful? - - =Remember.= 1. Proper rest is necessary to health. 2. Rest from - play is as necessary as rest from work. 3. You must give the - stomach rest by having regular meal hours and by eating nothing - between meals. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -CARE OF THE EYE AND EAR - - -[Sidenote: The loss of sight] - -Sight is one of the greatest blessings we have. Think how dreadful -it is to be blind. If you take care of your eyes, there is no -reason why you should be blind; but if you do not take care of your -eyes, there is a possibility that you may lose your sight. Most of -the blind people in the world became blind because their eyes were -not given proper care, and most of this lack of care happened when -these people were babies. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 30 and 31. The roller towel is a common source -of infection of eyes in schools; every school should have properly -constructed wash-rooms, with individual towels.] - -[Sidenote: How germs get into the eyes] - -Many of the diseases that affect the eyes are catching. They are -not carried through the air, but are transmitted by the use of a -towel or handkerchief used by someone who had the disease. Never -use the towel or handkerchief that another has used. - -Germs may be rubbed into the eyes. Keep your hands away from your -eyes. Your hands may have disease germs on them, and when you rub -your eyes you may put the disease germs into them. - -[Sidenote: How eyes are overworked] - -Many boys and girls ruin their eyes by making them do too much -work. They do this by reading in a poor light, by reading where -the light strikes into the eyes, or by reading in a bad position, -as when in bed or lying down. When you are reading, drawing, or -doing any work with the eyes, always have the best light possible, -which means that the light should fall on your book or work over -your left shoulder. If you are only reading, it does not make much -difference which shoulder the light comes over, provided it comes -from behind. If you are writing or drawing, and the light comes -over your right shoulder, it makes the shadow of your hand fall -just where you want to see. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 32 and 33. Correct positions for reading and -writing.] - -Another way of working your eyes too much is by trying to see when -the eyes are not focused right. Sometimes people are said to be -near-sighted, because they cannot see very well at a distance. -This is due to the fact that the eyeball is too long, so that the -lens does not cause the rays of light to focus on the retina. Some -people are called far-sighted. This means that they can see well -at a distance, but that it is hard for them to see things close to -them. Far-sighted children can usually see things near by, but they -do this by making the muscle that rules the lens of the eye work -too hard. - -[Sidenote: Method of testing the eyes] - -Probably your teacher has a test chart and can tell you whether -your eyes are properly focused. If your eyes are not focused right, -that is, if you cannot see the line of letters marked =20= when -you are twenty feet from this chart, there is something wrong with -your eyes. In that case, you are not only injuring them by trying -to study, but you are hurting the whole body by overworking a part -of it. If you cannot see the letters on the test card clearly -at a distance of twenty feet, ask your father to send you to a -specialist who will fit you with the proper glasses or will treat -your eyes so that you can see well. - -[Sidenote: How to test the hearing] - -Sometimes children are backward in their school work because they -cannot hear well. Your teacher can test your hearing by holding a -watch near your ear. If you cannot hear a watch tick when it is -held six feet from your ear, ask your father to take you to your -doctor, that he may treat your ears. - -[Sidenote: How to care for the ears] - -If your hearing is perfect, the best way to take care of the ears -is to let them alone. Never try to dig into the canal that leads -to the middle ear. The ears must of course be washed to keep them -clean, but in washing the ear you should not touch the delicate -canal leading to the drum. A great specialist once said, "Never put -anything smaller than your elbow into your ear," to which another -great specialist added, "And wrap a towel around your elbow." -Never try to dig the wax out of your ears; it belongs in your ears; -it is there for a purpose, so let it alone. If it becomes hardened, -you cannot get it out and will only injure your ears in trying to -do so. An ear spoon is a dangerous thing. - - =Questions.= 1. State the chief cause of loss of sight. 2. How - can you keep germs out of your eyes? 3. Name three ways by which - you may overwork the eyes. 4. Tell how to take care of the ears. - - =Remember.= 1. Overworking the eyes is as injurious as - overworking the stomach. 2. Keep your hands away from your eyes; - germs on your hands may get into your eyes and cause them to - become sore. 3. You overwork your eyes when you try to read or - write in a poor light or in a bad position, as when lying down. - 4. You overwork your eyes when you try to study with eyes that - are not properly focused. 5. Keep your fingers out of your ears. - 6. Take care of your ears by letting them alone. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -CARE OF THE SKIN - - -If you break or cut the skin on your body, you make an opening -through which germs can get in. You cannot always help breaking -your skin, but you can always wash the break with soap and water, -and put a clean cloth over it to keep out germs. - -[Sidenote: The work of the sweat glands] - -The work of the little sweat glands is very important to your -health. These glands are just as important as the kidneys, and if -they did not do their work, you would die very quickly. If your -body is covered with dirt, the work of these glands is seriously -interfered with; and when the sweat glands are not doing their full -amount of work, the kidneys must do more than their share. It is -never right to make one part of your body do the work intended for -another part. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34. A model bathroom.] - -When the body is dirty, not only are the sweat glands interfered -with, but the little sebaceous (oil) glands become plugged up, and -blackheads appear on the face and body. - -[Sidenote: Importance of bathing] - -In order that the various glands of the skin may be kept in good -health, it is necessary for us to keep clean. To do this we wash -our faces and hands and bathe our bodies. Someone may ask, "How -often ought a person to take a bath?" The question cannot be -answered, except to say, "Just as often as may be necessary for -you to keep absolutely clean." Some people do not have to bathe as -often as others, but no one can keep clean unless he takes a bath -at least twice a week. - -[Sidenote: Hot or cold baths] - -Another question that is frequently asked is, "Is it better to -take a bath in cold or hot water?" This is another question that -cannot be answered in the same way for every person. A cold bath -is more stimulating than a warm bath. If, after you have taken a -cold bath and rubbed yourself briskly with a rough towel, the skin -becomes red and warm, a cold bath is best for you. But if, after -you have taken a cold bath and rubbed yourself for not more than -ten minutes, the skin appears bluish and cold, a cold bath is not -good for you, and you should not take it. A cold bath should always -be taken in the morning, just after getting out of bed, and a warm -bath should always be taken in the evening, just before going to -bed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35. A nail properly cared for, and a nail not -properly cared for. Which should you prefer to have?] - -[Sidenote: How to care for the nails] - -The finger nails and toe nails are a part of the skin and they also -need to be taken care of. You will see at the root of your finger -nails a thin layer of skin that is inclined to grow out with the -nail. If this skin is not kept pushed back it becomes rough, breaks -into little shreds, and forms "hang nails." This little band of -skin should always be kept carefully pushed back. The finger nails -should be kept evenly and neatly trimmed, but they should not be -cut so close to the skin that the ends of the fingers project -beyond the nails. The nails are for the protection of the ends of -the fingers and toes. Nails that are trimmed unevenly and nails -that are bitten off are ugly and indicate untidy habits. The shape -of the nails should follow the outline of the ends of the finger. -Neither is it a sensible fashion to trim the nails to points or to -let them grow very long. - -The toe nails need attention just as much as do the finger nails. -They should be trimmed to follow the shape of the toe. Failure to -trim the toe nails properly will result in ingrowing nails. - -Dirt is very likely to collect under the nails. This should always -be carefully cleaned out. You cannot wash this dirt out unless you -use a stiff nail brush. If you clean your nails just after you wash -your hands, you will find that it will be much easier to get the -dirt out while the dirt and the nail are both softened by the soap -and water. In cleaning your nails, use a dull nail cleaner or a -smooth wooden stick. Do not scrape the inside of the nail with a -sharp knife. This scraping of the inside of the nails will cause -them to catch the dirt more easily, as well as to grow thicker and -thicker until they become very ugly. Neat, clean finger nails help -to make pretty hands; dirty, untidy nails spoil the prettiest hands. - - =Questions.= 1. What are the uses of the sweat glands? 2. How - often should people take baths? 3. How can you tell whether a hot - or a cold bath is better for you? 4. Tell how finger nails should - be cared for. 5. How should toe nails be treated? - - =Remember.= 1. If you do not keep your body clean, the glands of - the skin cannot do their work properly. 2. Every person should - take a bath at least twice a week; some persons need a bath - every day in order to keep clean. 3. If you take a bath in cold - water, and the skin does not become warm and pink when you rub - it with a rough towel, a cold bath is not good for you. 4. Cold - baths should be taken in the morning on getting up. 5. Warm baths - should be taken in the evening before going to bed. 6. Finger - nails should always be kept clean and neat; dirty, untidy nails - make ugly hands. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -COMMON POISONS TO BE AVOIDED - - -Many people are killing the cells of their bodies by taking certain -poisons into them. There are many kinds of poisons that can be -taken into the body, but we are going to learn now about only two. -These are tobacco and alcohol. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36. Effect of cigarette smoking.] - -[Sidenote: Proof that tobacco is a poison] - -Tobacco is a poison. Those of you who have tried to smoke know -this, because it made you sick the first time you tried it. There -are many other indications that tobacco is a poison. We know that -it affects the red blood cells in such a way that they do not carry -the oxygen as well as do those of people who do not smoke. We know -that it has a very bad effect on the heart and that it interferes -with the action of the nervous system. - -[Sidenote: The extra work caused by tobacco] - -When certain poisons get into the body, the blood makes something -that will counteract the effects of those poisons. After one has -used tobacco for some time, the cells of the body will take care of -the tobacco poison by making an antidote for it. More than this, -they begin to want it all the time. The tobacco user forces the -cells of his body to make an antidote for this poison every time he -uses tobacco. Thus he makes the cells do work that is unnecessary, -and keeps them from doing work that is necessary. - -[Sidenote: Other bad effects of tobacco: (_1_) On the nose and -throat] - -Tobacco smoke irritates the cells that line the throat and nose -and causes inflammation. This is why so many smokers have catarrh. -Smoking is not the only cause of catarrh, for people who do not -smoke often have this trouble, but it is one of the most frequent -causes. Smoking also irritates the throat so badly that many of -those who smoke have "smoker's throat." This is a bad form of sore -throat that can be cured only by stopping the use of tobacco. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37. The athlete knows that alcohol and tobacco -are foes to speed, strength, and nervous control. (_From photograph -of "The Sprinter," modelled by Dr. R. Tait McKenzie._)] - -[Sidenote: (_2_) On the blood] - -People who smoke a great deal have fewer red corpuscles (the little -red cells of the blood) than those who do not smoke. Especially is -this true of cigarette smokers. It is the lack of red blood cells -that causes the cigarette smoker to look pale and sallow. - -It is probably not the direct effect of tobacco that causes the -loss of red blood cells, but something that is connected with the -act of smoking. When you take smoke into your mouth, you take in -at the same time a gas known as _carbon monoxid_. This gas is -very poisonous to the body, and combines with the red blood cells -in such a way that they cannot take up the oxygen in the lungs and -carry it to the rest of the cells in the body. The cigarette smoker -almost always inhales the smoke, and thus he absorbs a great deal -more of the carbon monoxid than the man who does not inhale the -smoke. Of course, the more of this gas he takes into his body, the -more red blood cells will be affected and the less oxygen will be -taken to the other cells. - -[Sidenote: (_3_) On the nervous system] - -We do not know just how tobacco affects the cells of the nervous -system. It may be that they are affected mostly by being deprived -of oxygen, or it may be that the tobacco affects them directly. -However the harm is done, we know that the cells of the nervous -system are affected by tobacco. One of the nerves that is most -commonly affected by the use of tobacco is the nerve of the eye, -the nerve that enables us to see. We know that when people use -tobacco a great deal they sometimes lose their sight. This does not -happen to everyone who uses tobacco, but you can never tell whom it -will affect in this way. The only safe thing to do is not to use -tobacco, and then you will know that you will not lose your sight -from this cause. - -[Sidenote: (_4_) On the stomach] - -The use of tobacco affects the stomach. People who use tobacco -a great deal are likely to have indigestion. The tobacco causes -this probably by depriving the stomach cells of oxygen through its -effect on the blood cells. - -[Sidenote: (_5_) On the heart] - -Tobacco has a very bad effect on the heart. People who use much -tobacco have what they call "palpitation of the heart," but doctors -call it "tobacco heart," because it is caused by the use of -tobacco. No insurance company will insure a person who has "tobacco -heart." - -Most boys grow up to be men before they manage to use enough -tobacco to cause tobacco heart. However, long before they are -grown, they show that the tobacco has affected their hearts, -because they are short of breath and stand about as much chance of -winning a race as does a mouth-breather. - -[Sidenote: Effects of alcohol:] - -The effect of alcohol is a subject on which I want to speak very -plainly and frankly, because I do not want the boys and girls who -read this to get the same idea that I got when I was in school, -or to be affected by it as I was. When I was a little boy I was -taught that if a person drank alcohol in any form the lining of his -stomach would be eaten up. In proof of this statement I was shown -a picture of an ulcerated stomach that was said to have resulted -from drinking whisky. Naturally I expected to find that people who -drank whisky would not be able to eat anything at all, or would be -troubled a great deal with pain in their stomachs. To my surprise, -I found that many people had ulcers of the stomach who never took -an alcoholic drink, while many of those who drank a great deal -seemed to have the best of appetites and were never troubled -with their stomachs. As a result, I came to the conclusion that -all this talk about the evil effects of alcohol was foolishness. -Later I studied medicine, and learned that the effect of alcohol -on the stomach is, in reality, the least of its evils. But I want -to impress upon you that, as a result of forty years' study, I -consider alcohol the most dangerous thing in the world to-day. By -"alcohol" we mean any drink that contains alcohol, such as whisky, -wine, brandy, beer, etc. - -[Sidenote: (_1_) On the stomach] - -When alcohol is taken into the stomach, it first causes a -congestion; that is, it causes an increase in the quantity of -blood in the blood vessels of the stomach. It might seem that -this would aid digestion in the stomach, but it does not, because -alcohol affects the food in the stomach in such a way that it -prevents the gastric juice from acting on the food. If the use of -alcohol is persisted in, it causes the little cells in the stomach -that make the gastric juice to become filled with fat, and then -those cells cannot make the gastric juice. Thus, continued use of -alcohol causes a smaller supply of gastric juice, and the food -passes from the stomach into the intestines without having been -acted upon by the gastric juice, as it should have been. The result -is that the food decomposes in the intestines and a poison is -formed. This poison is taken up by the vessels that carry the food -from the intestines and kills a great many of the cells of the body. - -Alcohol does not burn holes in the stomach, but it destroys the -usefulness of the stomach by its action on the cells that secrete -the gastric juice. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) On the liver] - -When alcohol is taken into the stomach, very little of it reaches -the intestines. It is rapidly absorbed by the lining of the stomach -and passes into the blood. The blood from the stomach goes directly -to the liver. The alcohol makes the cells of the liver hard and -causes them to become filled with fat, as it does the cells of the -stomach. In this way it destroys the action of these cells and -prevents their doing the work for which they are intended. From the -liver the alcohol goes with the blood to all parts of the body, and -it has its influence on all the cells in the body. This influence -is always harmful. - -[Sidenote: (_3_) On the body's powers of resistance] - -We know that when a man who is in the habit of drinking gets -pneumonia, he is far more likely to die than is one who is not -in the habit of using alcoholic drinks. The man who drinks cannot -resist the effects of disease as can one who does not drink. -This shows that the use of alcohol reduces our resisting powers, -and puts our cells in such condition that we cannot overcome the -effects of disease. - -People who are sick with a slow disease like consumption are often -advised by their friends to take whisky to brace them up. It is -true that the immediate effect of the whisky is to make the patient -feel a little better, but the final effect is to leave him in a -much weaker condition than before. More than this, the cells are -much less able to resist the disease germs than they were before -the alcohol was taken. When people are exposed to such diseases -as scarlet fever and smallpox, they may think that if they take a -drink of whisky they will not be so liable to contract the disease. -It is just the other way. The alcohol reduces the resisting powers -of the cells of the body, and anything that does this renders a -person more liable to contract any disease to which he is exposed. - -[Sidenote: (_4_) On the nervous system] - -The effect of alcohol on the cells of the nervous system is very -marked. Continued use will injure the nervous system and result -in a kind of insanity called delirium tremens. It will also cause -other forms of insanity. The effect of alcohol on the parent is -passed on to the children of the next generation, and even beyond -this. A large percentage of idiotic children are the offspring of -alcoholic parents. - -[Sidenote: (_5_) On the morals] - -The use of alcohol numbs the sense of right and wrong. More young -men have become criminals from the use of alcohol than from any -other one cause. Anyone who reads the daily papers can see that -many criminals give the use of alcohol as an excuse for having -committed a crime. - -[Sidenote: (_6_) On brain work] - -Some people will tell you that alcohol stimulates the brain, so -that one can work faster and better. This is not true. Tests have -been made in this matter, and it has been found that men doing -mental work will work about one tenth slower and make one fourth -more mistakes when given one drink of whisky a day, than they will -when not given any whisky. If _one_ drink of whisky a day thus -reduces a man's power and accuracy in doing mental work, what do -you think three drinks, or ten drinks will do? - -[Illustration: FIG. 38. The mind not clouded by alcohol works -quickly and makes few mistakes.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39. The mind clouded by alcohol works slowly -and makes many mistakes.] - -[Sidenote: What business men think of men who drink] - -Many business men drink, and they know the results of alcohol not -only from the effects they have observed in others, but also from -the effect they know it to have on themselves. When a man applies -to them for a position, these business men almost invariably ask -him if he drinks. The man who does not drink stands nine chances -in ten of securing the position, while the man who drinks stands -only one chance in ten. This shows what business men think of the -effect of alcohol, even when taken in moderate quantities. They -know that it reduces a man's power to do mental as well as physical -work, that it causes him to make mistakes, and that it may finally -destroy his morals and result in his becoming a thief or a criminal. - - =Questions.= 1. How do we know that tobacco is a poison? 2. How - does tobacco make extra work for the body? 3. What effect does - tobacco have on the nose and throat? 4. What is the effect of - tobacco on the blood? 5. On the nervous system? 6. On the heart? - 7. Mention some of the false ideas about the effect of alcohol. - 8. How does alcohol affect the stomach? 9. The liver? 10. In - what ways does alcohol reduce the resisting powers of the body? - 11. How does alcohol affect the nervous system? 12. How does - it influence mental work? 13. What do business men think of - drinkers? 14. What influence has alcohol on the next generation? - - =Remember.= 1. Tobacco is a poison that has a very bad effect on - the nervous system, the blood, the heart, the stomach, the nose, - and the throat. 2. Alcohol is a poison and not a food. 3. Alcohol - injures the stomach, the liver, and the nervous system. 4. - Alcohol reduces the power to do accurate mental work. 5. Alcohol - numbs the sense of right and wrong, and encourages crime. - - - - -PART II - -THE ENEMIES OF HEALTH - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -DISEASE GERMS - - -We have learned that the body is made up of cells, and that each -cell is alive. The cells in our bodies cannot live separately. -There are, however, certain animals and plants that are each made -up of a single cell. These animals and plants are called germs, and -some of them cause disease. - -[Sidenote: Different germs cause different diseases] - -These germs are so exceedingly small that we can see them only -with the aid of a microscope. They differ in appearance one from -another, as a pine tree differs from an ash, or an American child -from a Chinese child. When you plant your garden, you put sweet -peas in one place and asters in another, and you know that you will -have sweet peas growing where you planted the pea seeds, and asters -growing where the aster seeds were put. So it is with these little -germs; you will no more get tuberculosis from typhoid fever germs -than you would get asters from pea seeds. - -Now, while there are many, many kinds of germs in the world, there -are only certain ones that cause certain diseases, and we have -learned where these germs like to live and how to kill them. We -also know that they come only from some person or animal sick -with the particular disease which they cause. Typhoid fever germs -are not given off by a person suffering with tuberculosis, nor -are diphtheria germs given off by a typhoid fever patient, but -the germ of each disease is given off by some person or animal -suffering from that particular disease. - -[Sidenote: How sickness due to germs can be prevented] - -If we kill all the germs that come from people sick with a certain -disease, no one else can catch that disease. Knowing this, it seems -unnecessary for anyone ever to be sick with disease that is caused -by a germ. This is literally true, and the only reason that we have -germ diseases is because we do not kill the germs that come from -the sick people. - -Professor Irving Fisher of Yale University has said, "It is -entirely possible to wipe out consumption within a single -generation." It may not actually be done so quickly, but it is -certain that the disease can finally be wiped out, though it may -require many generations to accomplish it. - -Why, then, are germ diseases allowed to exist? Simply because -so many people do not know the facts; and because many who do -know will not take the trouble to kill the germs, even when they -realize that some one else may get the disease as a result of their -carelessness. What do you think of a woman who said, "I do not care -if my neighbor's children do get scarlet fever from us; she is not -a friend of mine, any way"? A woman has been heard to make such a -statement to a health officer. It is just such people as this who -spread disease. - - =Questions.= 1. How may germs be compared to seeds? 2. What do we - know about disease germs that will help us to get rid of them? - 3. How is it possible for us to get rid of consumption and other - germ diseases? - - =Remember.= 1. While there are many kinds of germs in the world, - only a few cause disease. 2. The germ that causes a certain - disease will cause that disease and no other. 3. It is entirely - possible to kill all the germs that cause disease. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -ENCOURAGEMENT OF DISEASE BY UNCLEANLY HABITS - - -We shall not try to learn here all the ways by which it is possible -to destroy the germs of disease as they come from sick people. -But there are certain rules (we sometimes call them fundamental -principles) that you must know, if you hope to keep well and to -prevent others from getting sick. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40. How diseases are frequently transmitted to -children.] - -[Sidenote: Why we should stay away from the sickroom] - -The first of these rules is: _Do not go into the room where any one -is sick unless it is absolutely necessary_. No one but the nurse -should sleep in the room with a sick person. We know that certain -diseases are communicable (catching), but it has not yet been -determined whether some others are communicable or not. It has not -been proved, for instance, that we cannot catch rheumatism from -another person. Only a few years ago it was believed that one could -not take consumption from another person, but now we know that this -is the very way to get it. Therefore, stay away from sick people -as much as possible. It is not good for the patient to have people -around him, and it is dangerous for the well to come in contact -with the sick. - -[Sidenote: Not using things used by the sick] - -The second rule is: _Do not use anything used by a sick person -until it has been washed_. This is a good rule to apply to things -used by a well person also. It is neither safe nor pleasant to eat -from the spoon or fork, or to use the napkin or towel which has -been used by someone else. - -Sometimes children think the food prepared for a sick person is -ever so much nicer than that set before themselves, and wish they -could have a little of it. How often have we seen a sick mother -give her little ones "a taste" from the spoon with which she is -eating. This is very dangerous, and if she knew it, the mother -would cut her hand off before exposing her children to this danger. - -[Sidenote: Reason for scalding things used by the sick] - -Third: _Everything taken from a sickroom should be boiled before -it is used again_. The knives, forks, and plates should not be put -with other dishes until after they have been separately washed and -boiled. Towels, napkins, bedding, and clothing from a sickroom -should not be washed with other bedding and clothing, but should be -washed and boiled separately. Some people send out the clothes from -the sickroom with the rest of their washing, and in this way give -disease to others. - -[Sidenote: How excreta from the sick should be treated] - -Fourth: _All discharges (sputum, urine, bowel discharges, and -matter from sores) from any sick person should be thoroughly -disinfected before being finally disposed of_. The sputum should be -received on little rags or paper napkins, and burned; and the other -discharges should be disinfected with some poison that will kill -the germs. We shall say more about disinfection when we come to -study the prevention of special diseases. - -[Sidenote: Necessity of washing the hands after touching the sick] - -Fifth: _Every person who touches a sick person, or handles anything -that comes from a sickroom, should immediately wash his hands_. -Unless he washes his hands at once, the germs which may be on them -may get into his mouth. - -[Sidenote: How dirt causes disease] - -Sixth: _Dirt, which is an indirect cause of disease, must not be -allowed to accumulate_. If your yard were full of dirt, garbage, -and manure, it would not cause disease unless the germs of some -disease became planted there. But such a place is an indirect cause -of disease, in that it furnishes a fine place for germs to grow in. -If a fly with typhoid germs on its feet were to alight in such a -yard, the germs would be planted in a most favorable spot and would -grow very fast. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41. A place that is an indirect cause of -disease, since it furnishes a fine place for germs to grow in.] - -None of the disease germs like sunshine; neither do they like -dry places. They die very quickly in the sunlight, and grow very -slowly, if at all, in dry places; but in damp, dark places they -grow very fast. Dirty back yards make ideal gardens for germs. - -Let a fly with germs on its feet alight in a clean yard where -sunshine can reach every corner, and what chance will the germs -have to grow? They will not even get a start. Hence, while disease -cannot be caused by dirt, disease germs stand a very good chance of -living where there is plenty of dirt and no sunshine. Filthy habits -are on an equality with filthy conditions, and go hand in hand with -them. One of the worst of habits, and a cause of much sickness, is -that of answering Nature's calls in places other than the closet. - - =Questions.= 1. Why should you never make unnecessary visits - to a sick person? 2. Why should you avoid anything used by a - sick person? 3. Why should everything taken from a sickroom be - scalded? 4. What should be done with all discharges from a sick - person? 5. How is dirt a source of disease? - - =Remember.= 1. Unless it is necessary, do not go into a room - where anyone is sick. 2. Never sleep in a room with a sick - person. 3. Never eat from a spoon or plate that has been used by - another. 4. Boil all the articles taken from the room of a sick - person. 5. Always wash your hands after touching a sick person or - anything that comes from his room. 6. Sunshine kills germs; let - the sunshine into every corner of your house. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -FLIES AS CARRIERS OF DISEASE - - -[Sidenote: How germs get into our bodies] - -Disease germs get into our bodies in three principal ways: they are -eaten with our food; they are taken in with the air we breathe; and -they get in through breaks in our skin, even though these breaks be -very small, as when made by the bite of a mosquito or other insect. - -[Sidenote: How germs get into our food:] - -[Sidenote: (_1_) From the air] - -How do germs get into our food or drink? You must remember that -these germs are extremely small, so small that many of them can be -carried by a particle of dust that you can see only in a ray of -sunshine. When the germs become dried, they float about on these -particles of dust, the dust alights on our food, which is moist and -warm, and the germs immediately begin to grow. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) From the hands] - -Another way by which germs get on food is from the hands through -which it passes. Did you ever think how many people handle an -apple? First, the man who picks it from the tree; then the examiner -in the packing house where apples are taken to see that they are -the right kind to be packed in a certain box. Then it is wiped off -by a boy or girl--handling number three; then it is wrapped in -paper--number four. Next it is packed in a box, but in this case -the paper protects the apple from dirty hands. When the merchant -buys the apples he feels several of them, and puts them out on the -display shelf; this makes handling number five. Everyone who thinks -of buying apples will touch one or more of them, and when they are -sold the clerk handles them again. In other words, every apple goes -through the hands of at least seven people before you get it. Do -you not think it needs washing? - -Go into a butcher shop and see how many people will put their dirty -fingers on the meat. Some of them even keep their gloves on when -they do this. Imagine how many germs may be planted on the finger -of a glove. - -Our whole method of displaying foods for sale is wrong. The -customer can see the fruits, vegetables, and meats just as well -in a glass case as when they are on an open counter or shelf, and -nothing is gained by poking a dirty finger into a piece of beef, or -by rubbing your hands over the apples. A glass case not only will -protect the fruits and meats from such practices, but will keep out -germ-laden dust and flies whose feet are covered with germs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42. The foot of a fly, highly magnified.] - -[Sidenote: (_3_) From flies] - -_Probably the most common source of germs on food is the fly._ Did -you ever watch a fly very closely for a long time? Did you ever -happen to see a manure pile early in the morning and notice how -many tiny flies are on it? These flies have just been hatched. - -[Sidenote: Breeding places of flies] - -Flies like manure because it is the best place they can find in -which to lay their eggs. Each female fly lays about three hundred -eggs. They do not hatch directly into flies, as hen's eggs hatch -into chickens, but when the fly's eggs hatch you find maggots, and -these maggots later hatch into flies. - -[Sidenote: The journey of the fly] - -Turn over the manure some spring morning, and you will see it full -of white specks. These specks are maggots that will hatch into -flies. Watch the flies as they leave the manure pile and see where -they go. If there is a dead dog or cat or a filthy garbage can -near, they will fly to it. Then they will go into the water-closet -and crawl over the filth there. Their next trip will probably bring -them to the kitchen, where they will crawl over the food. From here -they will go to the cuspidor and take a drink of water, and will -get their feet covered with the dirt that is in the cuspidor. Next -they will try a walk over the nipple of the baby's bottle, or they -will light on your face, or get into the butter or milk. - -After the fly has been in dirty places, he "washes" his face and -hands, that is, he rubs his feet together and then rubs them over -his head. Did you ever see a fly wash himself with water? No, you -never did. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43. Where a fly has walked; each little spot -represents a growth of germs left by the fly.] - -After a fly has made his journey, you would suppose that his feet -would be covered with dirt and germs, and so they are. Not only -does he carry germs on his feet and body but he also eats dirty and -diseased things. Moreover, fly specks contain the germs of disease, -and the fly is not at all particular about where he puts his specks. - -[Sidenote: Proof that the fly is a germ carrier] - -If you let a fly walk over a culture plate, there will be a growth -of germs wherever his feet touch. A culture plate is simply a -glass plate covered with gelatine or something else in which -these germs like to grow, and where they can easily be seen. Each -germ will multiply so fast that there will soon be a spot of them -large enough to be seen readily with the naked eye. In the picture -showing a culture plate over which a fly has walked (Fig. 43), the -little specks are not single germs, but each speck represents a -growth containing many thousands of germs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44. Flies go from filth to food.] - -[Sidenote: How to get rid of the fly:] - -How are we going to get rid of flies? We cannot get rid of them -entirely, but there are a great many ways by which we can prevent -there being so many of them, and whereby we may keep them out of -our houses and away from our food. - -[Sidenote: (_1_) By removal of manure] - -We have learned that flies are always found about horse manure, -because it makes a good place in which to hatch their eggs. If we -could dispose of the manure, there would be one place less for the -fly to lay her eggs. Behind barns we usually find piles of manure. -It is in these heaps that the fly lays her eggs, not in the little -lumps found in the streets. Now, there is no sense in keeping this -great pile of manure about any barn. In towns the manure can be put -into a box with a cover, so that the flies cannot get at it. In the -country every well-managed farm has the barns cleaned out every -day, and it would not be much more trouble for the farmer to throw -the manure into a wagon and take it to the fields with him, than -it is to pile it up beside his barn. If he did this, he would find -that there would be few flies about his house. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) By covering garbage cans] - -Even if we were to take every particle of manure away as fast as -possible, we should still have some flies, for when flies do not -find manure for their hatching places, they will take the next best -thing. It must be something dirty; clean things will not answer -at all for a fly's home. Next to the manure pile, the fly likes a -dirty garbage can, a dead animal, or anything that is decomposing. -If she cannot find anything better, she will take a rotting apple; -but she does not really like this, and if she cannot find anything -better than an old apple in your yard, she will probably go -elsewhere to lay her eggs. - -[Sidenote: (_3_) By keeping clean yards] - -We cannot entirely stop the hatching of flies, but if we do -away with the old manure piles, keep fresh manure and garbage -cans covered, and keep our yards free from everything that can -decompose, we shall have very few flies about our houses. - -[Sidenote: How to keep flies out of the house] - -Since we cannot get rid of all the flies, the next best thing is -to keep the few that may be left out of our houses and away from -our food. This we can do by means of wire screens and netting. Wire -screens are very cheap, and if there are no wire screens on your -house, you should persuade your father to buy some. But a screen -will not keep flies out unless it is kept closed, so do your part -by never leaving the screen door open for a second longer than is -necessary for you to go in or out. - -Our houses are not the only places that need screens. -Slaughterhouses, butcher shops, candy stores, grocery stores--every -place where any kind of food is handled or sold--should be -screened. Flies should never be allowed to alight on anything which -is to be eaten. - - =Questions.= 1. Name three ways by which germs get into our - bodies. 2. How do germs get into our food? 3. Why should foods be - screened? 4. Trace the fly from his birth-place to our food. 5. - How do we know that flies have germs on their feet? 6. Tell how - we can get rid of most of the flies. 7. How can we keep flies out - of the house? 8. What can boys and girls do to help keep them out? - - =Remember.= 1. Always wash an apple, pear, or any other fruit - before you eat it. 2. All foods are handled by many people, and - are not clean until they have been washed. 3. Flies like to live - in dirty places, and their feet and legs are covered with germs; - get rid of the flies. 4. Flies hatch in manure piles and other - dirty places; keep your yard and lot clean so that flies will - have no place to lay their eggs. 5. Put screens on the house to - keep flies out, and keep the screens closed. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -HOW DISEASE GERMS GET INTO WATER - - -The water that we drink frequently contains disease germs. It is -not always the clearest water that is freest from disease germs, -for the germs do not make the water cloudy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45. An improperly located well; notice lines of -seepage.] - -[Sidenote: Why sewage should not be put into streams] - -Water does not get disease germs from the ground, but from man. -Almost every town has a sewer system that empties into some stream. -This practice was started a long time ago when men thought that -running water would purify itself in the course of a few miles. We -have learned, however, that this is not true. Germs will continue -to live in running water just as they do in any other water, and -disease germs will live in a stream from twenty-five to thirty-five -days. Estimate how far a stream will flow in that length of time, -and you will know how far disease germs will travel in that way. No -sewage should ever be allowed to get into a stream until the germs -in the sewage have been killed. - -[Sidenote: Other sources of germs in streams] - -Sewage is not the only means by which disease germs are carried -into streams. Often we find people building barns, slaughterhouses, -and mills on the banks of a stream. The filth from barns and -slaughterhouses always contains disease germs, and often the filth -of mills contains poisons that are just as harmful as germs when -taken into our bodies. None of these things should ever be allowed -to get into a stream. Water is a very important article of food, -and we should take every care to keep it pure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46. A properly located well.] - -[Sidenote: How germs get into wells] - -The water from most wells is clear and cool, but nevertheless -may contain many disease germs. "How does this happen?" you ask. -Because the well is too close to an out-house or some other source -of filth. When a man in the country or in a small town builds a -house, he immediately thinks of digging a well just as close to the -house as he can, so that he need not carry the water far. Next he -thinks of locating the closet, and this, too, he wants near the -house. The well and the closet are often near each other, and often -the closet is on higher ground than the well. The vault under the -closet is seldom water-tight. In fact, the intention of the owner -is that a great part of the vault contents shall soak away. - -In many localities the ground is an open gravel, and the vault -contents run through this gravel into the well, carrying disease -germs with them. In one little town, with wells as a source of -drinking water, the health officers found that the closet of every -house was draining directly into its well. In some countries vaults -can be used; but in any region where there is a gravel subsoil, the -contents of the closet will find their way into the well, unless -the closet is lower than the bottom of the well. In such places the -vault must be made water-tight, in order to keep the vault contents -out of the well.[2] - -[Sidenote: Why springs are not always pure] - -Springs are usually sources of pure water, but do not think that -every particle of water that oozes from the ground is a spring. -Near a certain town is a so-called "very fine spring." This -"spring" appeared after a man had made a cesspool on the hill -above, and is simply the drainage from the cesspool. Springs that -come from deep sources, however, nearly always contain pure water. - -[Sidenote: The safest sources of water] - -The safest source of water for domestic use is a stream that is -known to be free from contamination, or a well so deep in the -ground that it is hard for any polluting matter to reach it. But -remember that sewage may follow a well pipe along the outside and -thus reach even a deep well, if the well is not properly protected -at the top. - -Keep disease germs out of your drinking water. You cannot drown -them out and you cannot strain them out, so do not let them get in, -for you cannot drink water containing disease germs without running -the risk of becoming sick. - - =Questions.= 1. Mention more than one way in which germs get into - streams. 2. How long may disease germs live in running water? - 3. Mention some instances showing that running water does not - purify itself. 4. How do disease germs get into milk? 5. Describe - the proper location of a well in regard to refuse. 6. How may - springs become polluted? 7. What are the best sources of water - for domestic use? - - =Remember.= 1. Disease germs get into water from dirty places - along the banks of the streams; they do not come from the ground. - 2. Clear water is not always pure; germs do not make the water - cloudy or muddy. 3. Wells often become infected by matter from - closets seeping into them; make your closet water-tight. 4. - Spring water is usually pure, but not all water that oozes out of - the ground is spring water. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE THROUGH THE AIR - - -[Sidenote: Disease germs in the air] - -We take germs into our bodies with the air that we breathe. Since -we cannot stop breathing and live, we must see to it that the air -we breathe is kept pure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47. (a) Prevalence of germs in air of thickly -populated districts. (b) Prevalence of germs in air of sparsely -populated districts.] - -There are always more germs in the air of places in which people -live closely crowded together than where there are only a few -people. This is proved by Figure 47, which shows that many more -germs were found on a culture plate exposed in the downtown part of -New York City than on another plate exposed far uptown, where there -are not so many people. Remember, however, that all germs are not -disease germs. - -[Sidenote: How we may keep disease germs out of the air:] - -How do the disease germs get into the air? When one sneezes, a -spray of droplets is thrown into the air. If the person sneezing -has the grip, these droplets contain the germs that cause grip. -Whenever a person with consumption coughs, he sprays droplets which -contain the germs that cause consumption. - -[Sidenote: (_1_) When coughing or sneezing] - -If a person would hold a handkerchief before his mouth when he -coughs or sneezes, these droplets of moisture would not be sprayed -into the air, and the disease germs in them would not be scattered -about. You ask, "Shall everyone who is sick hold a handkerchief -before the mouth when sneezing or coughing?" Everyone, whether -sick or well, ought to hold a handkerchief before the mouth when -sneezing or coughing. Learn to do this at once, and never forget it. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) When spitting] - -Another way by which disease germs get into the air is from the -sputum. People spit on the floor or the sidewalk, and the sputum -becomes dried; it is then blown about as dust. The germs of disease -are not killed by drying, and when they get into our bodies with -the dust which we breathe in, they immediately begin to grow. -Disease germs get into the air chiefly through careless habits of -coughing, sneezing, and spitting, and these careless habits can -easily be prevented. - -[Sidenote: Why well people should not spit on floor or sidewalk] - -A boy once said that if he saw a consumptive spit on the sidewalk, -he would want to hit him, and to emphasize his remarks he spat -on the floor of the room, just as you have seen boys spit on the -ground when they were thinking of fighting. There might have been -some germs of consumption in the sputum this boy left on the floor. -Of course he was very positive that he did not have consumption, -but this was no proof that his sputum was free from the germs of -this disease. - -Remember that it is not only the sick who should never spit on -the floor or sidewalk, but that no person should ever spit on -any floor or sidewalk, or into any place except into a cuspidor, -handkerchief, or spit-cup of some kind. If you spit into a -handkerchief, a paper napkin, or a bit of cloth, be sure to burn it -as soon as you can, before it becomes dry. - - =Questions.= 1. In what places do we find germs most abundant in - the air? 2. How do well-bred people avoid putting disease germs - into the air? 3. Why is it important for well people to take the - same precautions as sick people? - - =Remember.= 1. Every person should hold a handkerchief before - the face when coughing or sneezing. 2. Never spit except into a - cuspidor, handkerchief, spit-cup, or other special receptacle. - 3. If well people will practice clean habits, the sick will be - helped and encouraged to follow their example. 4. Remember: No - spit, no consumption. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -INSECTS AS CARRIERS OF DISEASE - - -[Sidenote: Some insects that carry disease] - -Certain diseases are given to human beings by the bites of insects. -We know that certain ticks and mosquitoes carry certain germs. It -is also probable that disease germs are transferred from diseased -to well persons by bedbugs and other insects that bite. - -[Sidenote: How yellow fever is transmitted] - -For a long time it was thought that yellow fever was carried -through the air, but now it has been proved that yellow fever is -not carried in this way. A well person can sleep with one who has -yellow fever and not catch the disease. Yellow fever infection is -carried from a yellow fever patient to a healthy person only by a -certain mosquito. Keep this mosquito away from the yellow fever -patients and there can be no spread of the disease. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48. The mosquito that carries yellow fever.] - -It is not many years since yellow fever was one of the most dreaded -diseases in warm countries. To-day there is not the same fear of -it, for the source of the disease has been discovered and practical -methods have been devised to get rid of the mosquito which carries -it. - -[Sidenote: How malaria is transmitted] - -Malarial fever is another disease transmitted by the bite of a -mosquito, but the mosquito that carries malarial fever is not -the same as the one that carries yellow fever. For a long time -it was supposed that malaria came from the gases which rise from -marshes. To-day it is known that it is not the gases that cause -the sickness, but a mosquito which lives and grows in the marshes. -Many countries that have heretofore been practically worthless on -account of malarial fever, are being made valuable by draining the -marshes and doing away with places where mosquitoes can hatch. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49. One of the places where mosquitoes hatch.] - -[Sidenote: How to get rid of the mosquito] - -It might seem a very hard task to get rid of mosquitoes in -countries where there are so many of them; but it can be done. -The mosquito must have still water in which to lay her eggs. In -countries where there is danger of yellow fever or malaria, the -rain barrel and the cistern should be screened, and the swamps and -water holes filled up. Puddles of water should not be allowed to -form anywhere, and low places where water might stand should be -drained. By giving her no place in which to lay her eggs, we can -get rid of the mosquito; and when the mosquito disappears, yellow -fever and malaria disappear also. - -[Sidenote: How wood-ticks transmit disease] - -In certain portions of Montana, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and -Wyoming, there is a peculiar disease known as Rocky Mountain -spotted (tick) fever. It is now known that this disease is -transmitted to people by the bite of a wood-tick. Not all -wood-ticks carry this fever, and for people living in districts -where this disease does not exist there is no danger in the bite -of a wood-tick; but in a part of the country where the disease -prevails, the wood-tick should be avoided. - -[Sidenote: How disease-bearing insects can be destroyed] - -All insects that are known to transmit diseases can be destroyed. -If we will do away with stagnant water, the mosquito cannot hatch; -if we will cut out underbrush and oil the domestic animals, the -wood-tick will not find a place to grow. If we wish to get rid of -disease, we must spend money and labor; but it is worth while, for -human life is at stake. - - =Questions.= 1. What insects are known to transmit diseases to - man? 2. How is yellow fever transmitted? 3. Malarial fever? 4. - What disease is transmitted by the wood-tick? 5. How can we get - rid of the mosquito? 6. How can we get rid of ticks? - - =Remember.= 1. It is a proved fact that diseases are transmitted - to man by the bites of mosquitoes and wood-ticks. 2. It is - possible to do away with both the mosquito and the wood-tick - almost completely, although it requires a great deal of work and - the expenditure of a large amount of money. 3. Health is the most - valuable thing we have, and it is foolish to hesitate in giving - the work and money necessary to exterminate disease-bearing - insects, as well as the many other causes of sickness. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -HOW TO KEEP GERMS OUT OF WOUNDS - - -[Sidenote: How germs get through the skin] - -Germs get into our bodies through breaks in the skin. These breaks -may be made by a cut or a scratch, by the bite of an insect, or -even by the pulling out of a hair. There are some special germs, -such as those which cause yellow fever, which are introduced by the -bite of an insect; but at present we will consider only those germs -that would naturally enter through any break in the skin. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50. Small, deep wounds are very liable to -become infected.] - -[Sidenote: Effect of germs in wounds] - -The skin of the human body acts as an armor against certain germs -that are constantly trying to get through it. There are several -germs of this class. Some of them cause white pus, or matter, but -this is the least dangerous kind of all. Another kind causes boils -or even blood poisoning, and another kind causes erysipelas. - -We cannot get rid of these germs, for they are everywhere, to a -greater or less degree; but they are more abundant in dirty than -in clean places. They cause every degree of inflammation, from -a slight redness of the skin to the blood poisoning that brings -death. - -[Sidenote: Real cause of suppuration] - -Sometimes you will hear people say that a wound suppurated (that -is, became inflamed and full of matter) because the blood was -in bad condition. As a matter of fact, there would have been no -suppuration if germs had not got into the wound. It was not the -condition of the blood that caused the suppuration, but the germs. - -Sometimes, when only a few germs get into a wound, and when the -cells of the body are all in good condition and doing their work -properly, the suppuration will be very slight, because the healthy -cells of the body will kill the germs. But if very many germs get -in, even healthy body cells cannot kill them all. - -We have said that the germs which cause suppuration are everywhere, -so it would seem almost impossible to keep them out of a wound. -This is true in a sense; but even after they have got into a -wound, you can wash them out if you use plenty of soap and water -to cleanse the wound thoroughly. When I said that it is impossible -to keep them out of a wound, I meant an accidental wound, for -it is quite possible to keep them out of a wound that is made -intentionally, as is done by the surgeon. - -[Sidenote: How the surgeon prevents suppuration] - -Do you know how a surgeon gets ready to do an operation? The first -thing he does is to see that the room is perfectly clean. He has -the carpet taken up, the curtains taken down, and the floor and -walls washed. This is to get rid of all the dirt and germs in the -room. If you should look at the surgeon's instruments, so clean and -bright, you would think it impossible for a germ to find a place -to live on; but the surgeon knows how closely the germs cling, and -therefore he boils all the instruments he is going to use. Then he -puts the towels into a place where they are made so hot by steam -that all the germs on them are killed. After everything in the room -is perfectly clean, the surgeon cleans his patient with a very -stiff brush, using plenty of soap and water which has been boiled -to kill all the germs in it. He scrubs the part where the wound is -to be made and the skin around it until it is red. Even then he is -not satisfied, for he washes it off with alcohol and ether, to be -sure that any germs that might be sticking in the fat are removed. -He scrubs his hands in the same way. After all this is done, he -can perform the operation without fear that any of the germs which -cause suppuration will get in, for he knows that he has killed all -of them that would touch the wound. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 51 and 52. Always wash the simplest cut with -soap and water; failure to do this may result in infection and much -suffering.] - -[Sidenote: How to prevent suppuration] - -Boys and girls cannot do all this before they cut their hands or -skin their shins, but they can do the next best thing--they can -keep their hands and the rest of their bodies clean at all times, -and thus have as few germs on them as possible. Then, when they -have cut themselves, they can go straight to some place where there -is soap and water, and can wash the wound thoroughly. After this is -done, a clean bandage should be placed on the cut part to prevent -any other germs from getting in. If this is done every time you cut -yourself, you will probably never have an infection--that is, a -wound that suppurates. - -Two boys were playing together one day. They ran into each other -and each got a little cut on his hand. One boy went home at once, -washed the wound, and put on a clean bandage. He lost a little -time from his play, but was soon back and never had any trouble on -account of the cut. The other boy thought it was foolish to quit -his play to take care of such a little thing, so he tied his hand -up in a dirty handkerchief. Two weeks later he was very ill. His -arm was badly swollen and had to be cut open in several places; -indeed, he came near losing his arm. It always pays to take care of -a wound, be it never so slight. - -Deep wounds made with small instruments, such as small knives, -nails or toy pistols, are especially dangerous, because they are -hard to clean and because they quickly heal up on the surface and -leave the germs to grow at the bottom of the wound. Such wounds as -these are dangerous for another reason. - -[Sidenote: Where germs of lockjaw grow] - -There is a germ that gets into wounds but does not cause -suppuration. It is the germ of tetanus, or lockjaw. It lives in -the ground, especially in the ground about barns, and its peculiar -feature is that it will not grow in the air. If it gets into a -large, open wound, it is easily killed, because it cannot grow -where there is air. But when it gets into a small, deep wound -where it cannot be reached, it stays there until the wound heals -over on the surface, and then it begins to grow. It does not make -the parts swell, as the germs of suppuration do, but quietly -continues to grow, without the wound showing any sign of infection. -Finally it develops a very severe poison that is taken up by the -blood; then the victim suddenly begins to have spasms about the -face, and finally these spasms extend to the entire body and -kill him. Whenever you get a wound so deep that you cannot wash -it thoroughly, go to a doctor and let him clean it out with some -medicine that will kill the germs that cannot be reached by washing. - -[Sidenote: How boils are caused] - -Sometimes the germs that cause suppuration get under the skin at a -point where a hair has been pulled out, or even work down beside -the hair itself. When this happens, they cause suppuration under -the skin, and the result is a boil. A boil is merely an infection -with the germs that cause suppuration. - - =Questions.= 1. How do germs get through the skin? 2. Can we - get rid of all the germs that cause suppuration? 3. Why is it - impossible for "bad blood" alone to cause suppuration? 4. How - does the surgeon prevent suppuration? 5. How may you prevent - suppuration? 6. What is the danger of cutting corns with an - ordinary knife or razor? 7. Where do germs of lockjaw grow? 8. - What causes boils? - - =Remember.= 1. Germs and not "bad blood" are the cause of - suppuration. 2. Always keep as clean as possible, and immediately - wash any cut, no matter how small. 3. If you have a deep wound, - go at once to a doctor, and let him clean it out and kill the - germs that may be at the bottom of the wound. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -TRANSMISSION OF DIPHTHERIA - - -[Sidenote: How germs may cause sickness without entering the body] - -Some germs that cause disease do not get into the body, but grow -upon its surface, that is, they grow on the mucous membranes--the -skin of the mouth, the throat, and the nose. As they grow, they -develop poisons that are absorbed by the body, and that make us -very sick. The germs that cause diphtheria belong to this class. - -[Sidenote: Prevalence of diphtheria] - -Diphtheria is one of the most common of all the preventable -diseases. It causes more deaths than any of the other diseases -that can be prevented, except tuberculosis. The great prevalence -of diphtheria is due to lack of care on the part of those who have -this disease and of those who come in contact with them. - -[Sidenote: Where the diphtheria germ comes from] - -The germ that causes diphtheria always comes from some person or -animal that has diphtheria. It never "just happens." If you went -into your yard in the morning and found some beets growing in your -flower bed, you would know positively that beet seeds had got into -your flower bed in some way. You would not say that the beets just -happened to grow there. So diphtheria will not "just happen." -Diphtheria is always caused by germs that come from some one who -has diphtheria. They may have come in a letter that was written in -the room with the sick person. They may have come from the library -in a book that had been used by some one ill with diphtheria. They -may have come on some toy that had been played with by a child that -had the disease. There are a thousand ways by which the germs may -be brought to you without your knowing where they come from. - -[Sidenote: How to confine diphtheria germs] - -The public health officers try hard to keep these germs from -being brought to you. In order to do this, they have to shut away -from other people those who have diphtheria germs; that is, they -make the sick ones stay at home until they are free from the germs -of the disease. We call this _quarantine_. Quarantine means that -you must stay away from other people when you are sick with a -communicable disease, and that other people must stay away from -you. People are not put in quarantine because they are sick, but -because they are dangerous, and because we are trying to prevent -other people from getting the same disease. Do not think the health -officers unreasonable when they tell you that you must stay at home -and that no one can come in to see you. This is done to protect -other people and to keep them from getting the same disease that -you have. If you ever have diphtheria, or any other communicable -disease, you must remember that if any of your playmates come in to -see you, they may get the same disease. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53. Disease germs are as deadly as guns.] - -[Sidenote: Seriousness of breaking quarantine] - -Diphtheria kills a great many children, and to play with your -friends after you have had diphtheria, and before the health -officer tells you that you may, is almost like trying to kill -them. They might be very sick and die, or they might be very sick -and get well, or they might not be sick at all; but you never can -tell what will happen if they are exposed to the disease. If you -were to take a gun and shoot at a friend, you might kill him, or -you might shoot his leg off, or you might not hit him at all; but -you would be trying to hit him, and it would not be your fault if -you did not. It is just the same if you play with a friend when you -have a communicable disease; you shoot the disease germ at him, and -if you do not hit him, it is not your fault. - -[Sidenote: Why quarantine is not raised sooner] - -Sometimes people who have been sick with a communicable disease -feel perfectly well, but the health officer tells them he cannot -let them out of quarantine. This is because he knows that such -people still have in their bodies the germs that cause the disease, -and that as long as these germs are there they can give the disease -to other people. It is not pleasant to have to stay in quarantine -when you feel that you are well, and children, as well as older -people, are very likely to become restless under the circumstances. -You see an illustration of such a patient in Figure 60, where the -little girl, who is under quarantine for scarlet fever, but who is -feeling quite well, is giving a book to two of her friends. The -book contains the germs that cause scarlet fever, and the boys are -very likely to contract the disease by handling the book. - -[Sidenote: Why some cases of diphtheria escape quarantine:] - -[Sidenote: (_1_) From failure to detect mild cases] - -If every case of diphtheria were quarantined, and the people obeyed -the health officer, there would soon be no more diphtheria. But how -does it happen that every case of diphtheria is not quarantined? -Diphtheria is a very peculiar disease. Sometimes it makes people -so sick that they die in spite of everything that can be done for -them; sometimes it makes the throat only a little sore, and the -child seems so slightly ill that his mother says to herself, "He -is fretful," and does not call the doctor. In the latter case the -child often keeps on going to school, and exposes other children -to the disease; some of them catch it, and become very sick or -even die. In still other cases, the mother thinks that a child has -only a case of tonsillitis and does not call a doctor; the child's -brothers and sisters go to school and may carry the germs to other -children. I have known a great many cases of diphtheria to be -spread in this way. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54. The old, insanitary slates and sponges -have gone out of use, but many people of to-day still follow the -dangerous habit of putting pencils into their mouths.] - -Sometimes a dairyman thinks that his child has nothing more serious -than tonsillitis, and goes on selling milk. A great many epidemics -have resulted from such cases. Sore throats should not be treated -lightly, for the most severe forms of diphtheria may develop from -germs that come from a throat that is only slightly sore. If there -is a case of diphtheria in the town where you live, and if your -throat feels the least bit sore, have your doctor examine it at -once. If you do not wish to have your family doctor look at your -throat, go to the health officer. Had you not rather stay at home -for a week or two than see your best friends ill or dead because of -your carelessness? - -[Sidenote: (_2_) From diphtheria germs in throats that are not sore] - -There is another peculiar thing about the germ of diphtheria. It -will often get into a throat and grow a little, just enough to keep -alive, but without making the throat sore at all. The person in -whose throat the germs are will have no idea that they are there, -but when he comes in contact with some one who has a delicate -throat, he may give diphtheria to that person. The disease does not -develop in some throats because the body cells are all healthy and -doing their work so well that, when the diphtheria germs try to -take hold, they are driven off and not allowed to grow. This is the -reason that, before he raises the quarantine, the careful health -officer takes a "culture" from the throat of everyone in a house -where there has been diphtheria. - -[Sidenote: How mild cases may be detected] - -The health officer takes a culture by wiping the throat with a -little cotton on a long stick, which he then puts down into a long -glass tube containing some substance that diphtheria germs like to -grow on. If there are any diphtheria germs in the throat, they will -soon show on this culture material. Then the health officer will -say, "No, we cannot let you out yet, for the germs are still in -your throat." No person who has been staying in a house where there -is diphtheria should be allowed to go out until a culture proves -that his throat is free from the germs of diphtheria. - -You see how hard it is to quarantine all cases of diphtheria, when -children are sometimes allowed even to go to school with sore -throats that are really diphtheritic. Only two things are necessary -for getting rid of diphtheria: one is to quarantine every case, and -the other, to have the people do just what they are told when under -quarantine. This latter is just as important as the quarantine -itself, for people often do not obey the health officer's -directions. Now let us see what are some of these directions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55. How pets may become carriers of disease.] - -[Sidenote: Rules of quarantine] - -If you are the patient, the health officer will say that you must -be put in a room where there is just enough furniture to make you -comfortable, and that no one except the nurse and the doctor is to -go into that room. He will say that the nurse must stay in your -room all the time, or that she must at least not go into any other -room in the house; that your meals must be left outside your door, -and that the person who brings them must go away before the door is -opened by the nurse. Furthermore, as everything in the room that -cannot be boiled, or otherwise disinfected, will have to be burned -when you are well, your pet books and toys had better not be taken -in. - -Finally, nothing is to be carried from the room until it has been -put into a solution that will kill the germs, and this means not -only dishes, bedding, and clothing, but even books and letters. The -nurse must see that all discharges from the throat and nose are -received on little cloths, which are to be burned immediately. - -[Sidenote: How quarantine rules are broken] - -These are the things that the health officer will tell your parents -must be done. Now let us see what sometimes happens. Your mother -will want to see her little child so much that she cannot wait -until you are well, so she will slip into your room, kiss your -forehead, and hold you tight against her. When a little later she -kisses your baby brother, and is so thankful that he is not sick -too, she does not realize that she is kissing the very same disease -into his little throat. Or, perhaps your mother is the nurse, and -in the night she hears your little brother crying; she thinks, -"Surely I can slip out and just cover him up; it will not hurt him -just for once," and she does so. What happens? In a few days your -doctor tells you that your little brother will have to come in and -stay with you. - -Perhaps your father grows anxious to see you, and one morning he -says he cannot stand it another minute, so he slips in for a few -moments before going to business. In a few days one of his clerks -fails to come to work. Your father sends a messenger to see what -the trouble is, and the word comes back, "He has diphtheria." Then -your father says, "What are these health officers doing that they -do not stop this thing?" He is very indignant, but it never occurs -to him that he himself has spread the disease by doing just what he -promised the health officer he would not do. - -[Sidenote: How dogs and cats carry disease germs] - -The doctor told your mother not to take anything from the room -until it had been disinfected. But you do not consider Towser, your -dog, and Tabby, your cat, "anything," so you persuade your mother -to let them come in, and you have a good play with them. You let -them rub against your face and romp on your bed, and do everything -that pet dogs and cats like to do, and in the meantime their fur -is getting full of diphtheria germs. Then Towser and Tabby run -out-of-doors and play with the boys and girls of the neighborhood. -Soon the parents are wondering why the health officers do not stop -the spread of the disease. No dog or cat should ever be permitted -to come into a house where there is a contagious disease. - -These are not all the ways in which people disobey the orders of -the health officer and of the doctor, but these are enough to show -you that it is a very important thing to do just what they tell -you. It is not always easy to follow all these rules, but it is far -better to follow these, and many more, than to have to think that -you have caused the death of either a friend or a stranger. - - =Questions.= 1. How does the poison of diphtheria get into the - system? 2. Where does the diphtheria germ come from? 3. What is - quarantine? 4. What is the danger in breaking quarantine? 5. - Why is quarantine continued after you feel well? 6. How does it - happen that some cases of diphtheria are not quarantined? 7. What - is a diphtheria culture? 8. What rules should you observe while - in quarantine? 9. Tell some of the ways by which quarantine is - broken. 10. How do pet dogs and cats sometimes get disease germs? - - =Remember.= 1. The germs that cause diphtheria always come - from some person or animal that carries diphtheria germs. 2. - Diphtheria is always caused by the diphtheria germ, and the - diphtheria germ cannot cause any other disease. 3. People are - quarantined to prevent other people from getting the disease. - 4. If there is diphtheria in your neighborhood, and your throat - becomes sore, have the doctor examine it. 5. Every person who - has been staying in a house where there is a case of diphtheria - should have his throat examined to make sure he is not carrying - germs. 6. Never play with dogs or cats when you have a contagious - disease. 7. People who do not obey quarantine regulations cause a - great deal of suffering and many deaths. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -THE CURE OF DIPHTHERIA - - -[Sidenote: Nature of diphtheria poison] - -The germs of diphtheria do not get into the blood through the -skin, but grow on the surface of the mucous membrane (skin of -the throat), and there produce a poison that gets into the blood -through this membrane. It is this poison that makes you sick, -and it is called a _toxin_. You already know that when people -have diphtheria, they are sometimes very sick and sometimes only -slightly sick, and that the germ can live in some throats without -causing any ill effects whatever. - - -[Sidenote: How diphtheria toxin is fought] - -As soon as the diphtheria germ begins to grow in a throat, the -little cells of the body begin to make a certain substance and to -pour it into the blood. This substance we call _antitoxin_, which -means opposed to the toxin in the blood. If the little cells make -the substance fast enough, the germs will stop growing, or in some -cases they never really get started growing, because they cannot -exist where there is much antitoxin. Antitoxin looks like clear -water. The following experiment will show you something that acts -in very much the same way that antitoxin does. - -If you take a solution of litmus that is made alkaline, it will -be very blue, like indigo; but if you drop a few drops of lemon -juice into this solution it will turn red.[3] Lemon juice is acid, -and is just the opposite of alkali. Now, if you put a few drops of -ammonia, which is alkali, into the red solution, it will turn blue -again. If you put a little more lemon juice, very carefully, drop -by drop, into the blue solution, it will gradually turn lighter, -until it is entirely clear. - -[Sidenote: How antitoxin acts] - -We will suppose that the blue is due to the toxin produced by the -diphtheria germ, and that the lemon juice is the antitoxin produced -by the cells in the body. If the antitoxin is made fast enough, -the blue disappears; but if the toxin is made faster than the -antitoxin, the blue remains. It is the same way in the body, only -it is not litmus and acids and alkalies that we have to deal with. -If the toxin is made faster than the antitoxin, the germs grow, and -we get sicker and sicker; but if the antitoxin is made faster than -the toxin, then the germs cannot grow, and we soon get well, or -perhaps do not get sick at all. - -[Sidenote: How antitoxin was discovered] - -Doctors knew that this was what happened, but for a great many -years they could not discover the composition of the antitoxin that -is made in the body. One day a doctor suggested, "If we cannot -find out the chemical nature of this thing that is made in the -body, why can we not make it in the body of some animal and then -use the blood of the animal?" And that is just what they did. They -put diphtheria germs into beef tea, and let them grow very fast -and make all the toxin they could. Then the doctors strained the -germs out by passing the beef tea through a fine filter, in this -way getting the poison, and not the germs. Then they gave a strong, -healthy horse a small quantity of this poison; they did not feed -it to him, but injected it into his blood. Of course the horse was -sick for a while, but soon he began to get well again, for the -cells in his body immediately went to work making antitoxin. - -When the horse was well, the doctors gave him more of the poison; -this time he was not so sick and got well even more quickly. This -treatment with toxin was repeated in gradually increasing doses -until the poison did not affect the horse at all. Then the doctors -said, "His blood is full of antitoxin, and we will see what it will -do when injected into some other animal." So they drew off some of -the horse's blood and took out all the little red cells, leaving -nothing but the clear fluid of the blood. They planted diphtheria -germs in a rabbit's throat, and when the rabbit became very sick, -they gave him some of the antitoxin from the horse. The rabbit -immediately got well. Afterward they gave some of this antitoxin to -a little boy who was very sick with diphtheria, and he, too, got -well. Ever since then the doctors have been saving many lives by -the use of antitoxin. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56. Showing the number of deaths in 100 cases -of diphtheria when antitoxin is used on the first, second, third, -fourth, and fifth days.] - -[Sidenote: Evidences that antitoxin saves lives] - -Someone may ask, "How do we know that it is the antitoxin that -saves lives?" In just this way: before we knew anything about -antitoxin, about half of all the people with diphtheria died; but -since we have had antitoxin, only about twelve die out of every -hundred who have this disease. More than this, we know that when -the antitoxin is given within the first twenty-four hours after the -patient is taken sick, there is only about one death for every one -thousand cases of diphtheria. Do you not think that this is strong -proof that antitoxin saves lives? - -[Sidenote: How antitoxin saves lives] - -Antitoxin saves lives not only by curing those who have diphtheria, -but by preventing others from having it. If a person who has been -where there is a case of diphtheria is given a dose of antitoxin, -he will not have the disease, because his blood will contain enough -antitoxin to destroy the diphtheria toxin present. If you will -watch a careful doctor when he makes his first visit to a case -of diphtheria, you will notice that, as soon as he gets through -treating the patient, he gives all members of the family who have -been near the patient a dose of antitoxin to keep them from getting -sick. - -[Sidenote: Antitoxin not a poison] - -Some people may tell you that antitoxin is a poison and should not -be used. The statement that it is in itself a poison is true. But -it is also true that in your body there are many things that would -poison you if you got too much of them. For instance, there is a -gland in your throat (the thyroid) which secretes a substance that -is necessary for your health, but if you were to take the secretion -of ten such glands it would kill you at once. Now, if the cells in -your body make antitoxin when you have diphtheria, it is probable -that antitoxin is the very thing needed. And if you can help these -cells by giving them antitoxin, ready-made, does it not seem a -reasonable thing to do? People who give the name of poison to a -substance which is known to have saved many lives are not worthy of -attention. Anything may prove a poison if taken in excess; too much -play will prove a poison, and too much work also. - - =Questions.= 1. What is the poison of diphtheria called? 2. What - is antitoxin? 3. Compare the action of antitoxin on the blood - with the action of an acid on the litmus solution. 4. Tell about - the discovery of antitoxin. 5. How do we know that antitoxin - saves lives? 6. How does antitoxin prevent diphtheria? 7. Why - should antitoxin not be regarded as a poison? - - =Remember.= 1. Antitoxin is what the cells in your body make - when you have diphtheria. 2. By using the antitoxin taken from - a horse, you save your own cells the struggle necessary to make - it fast enough to kill the diphtheria germs. 3. If you have - diphtheria, and antitoxin is given promptly, you will get well. - 4. If you have been exposed to diphtheria, antitoxin will prevent - your having the disease. 5. Antitoxin is no more a poison than - are many other medicines. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -HOW TYPHOID FEVER GERMS ARE CARRIED - - -[Sidenote: How typhoid fever germs get into the system] - -There are certain diseases, the germs of which get into bodies -through our mouths. That is, we eat or drink them. Some of these -diseases are typhoid fever, cholera, the summer complaints of -children, tuberculosis, and diphtheria. At present we shall learn -about the germ that causes typhoid fever, how it gets into our food -and drink, and how we may prevent the disease by getting rid of -this germ. - -Typhoid fever, like all other diseases caused by germs, is caused -by one kind of germ, and one kind only. You cannot get typhoid -fever by eating cholera germs any more than you can get diphtheria -from typhoid germs. - - -[Sidenote: Animals free from typhoid] - -So far as we know, there is no animal except man that has typhoid -fever. Since the germs of any disease must come from an animal -suffering from that disease, and as man is the only animal that -has typhoid fever, it naturally follows that the only way to get -typhoid fever is from some person who has the fever or has had it. - -[Sidenote: How typhoid germs leave the body] - -We know that typhoid fever germs get into the body with food, but -how do they get out? Once in a great while germs are found in the -matter that the patient vomits, or spits up, but this is a rare -occurrence, so rare that we need hardly consider it. The germs are -present in the blood of the sufferer, but other people do not get -his blood on their hands or in their food. There are two things -that come from the patient that are loaded with these germs, and -these are the urine and bowel discharges. In these two excretions -of the body are found practically all the typhoid germs that come -from the patient, and these are the causes of other infections. -In other words, it is from these two excretions that the germs get -into food and drink. - -[Sidenote: How typhoid germs get into water] - -How do the typhoid germs get into our food? What is done with the -excretions after they come from the body? You will probably say -that the nurse throws them into the sewer. Very true; but where do -they go when they are thrown into the sewer? The sewer must empty -somewhere, and in most instances it empties into a stream, the -water of which is used for drinking purposes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57. Pollution of a stream with sewage.] - -[Sidenote: The widespread evil due to the sickness of one person] - -You may think that the germs from one person would not make much -difference, but that is where you are mistaken. There is a town -in Pennsylvania of about eight thousand inhabitants, which gets -its water from a stream that flows down from the mountains. One -cold winter, while the stream was frozen, a man living on the bank -of the stream was taken sick with typhoid fever. His nurse threw -the urine and the discharges from his bowels on the ice on the -bank of the creek. When the ice melted, the typhoid germs in the -discharges found their way to the stream that furnished drinking -water to people farther down, and in a very short time there were -over one thousand cases of typhoid fever in that town. Before the -ice melted there had not been a single case of typhoid, and every -one of the thousand cases came from the water into which had been -allowed to flow the discharges from one man with typhoid fever. You -see what germs from one person may do. - -[Sidenote: How long typhoid fever germs live in a stream] - -Sometimes people say that a stream purifies itself every few miles. -It does purify itself of some things, but disease germs live from -twenty-five to thirty-five days in water, and a stream flows a long -way in thirty days. - -[Sidenote: The pollution of streams with sewage] - -Sometimes we hear people say that it is safe to put sewage into -a certain stream, because no town uses that stream for drinking -water. But of this they can never be sure. Not long ago certain -people said that the water from the river which flowed through -their town was used only by two dairymen and a vegetable gardener, -and therefore there was no danger in running sewage into the -stream. Yet the dairymen and the gardener sold all their produce -in that very town. The townspeople never considered that the water -into which they ran their sewage was used by the dairymen for -washing their milk vessels (and perhaps for diluting the milk), and -by the gardener for washing his lettuce and other vegetables. Thus -the germs of disease were brought directly back to the town. - -Do not think that you are safe in polluting a stream with sewage -because no town uses the water from that stream. The individual on -the farm is entitled to protection just as much as the individual -in the town. Always remember that when you pollute with disease the -water used by the farmer, he may bring that disease back into the -town with the produce of his farm. - -No sewage, no matter how small the amount, should ever be -permitted to go into a stream until all the disease germs it -contains have been killed. This can be done, though it will cost -something; but we cannot get rid of disease germs without work, and -work cannot be done without being paid for. - -There are other ways of scattering typhoid germs besides running -sewage into streams. Sometimes the nurse does not throw the -discharges from a typhoid fever patient into a sewer at all, but -into a closet vault. Remember how the material from a closet vault -goes through open ground into a well, and you will understand what -happens. The germs get into the well, and the whole family may then -have typhoid fever. - -Let us suppose that the nurse did not throw the discharges either -into the closet or into the sewer, but carelessly threw them out -on the ground behind the house, where, as it was winter time, they -froze as hard as rocks. It does not seem to hurt typhoid germs -in the least to be frozen; when they get warm again they are as -lively as ever. Let us suppose these particular germs lay there all -winter, but in the spring when everything melted the germs were -still alive and ready to spread disease. It happened that they did -not get into the well or into the milk, but they did get on your -food, and made you ill with typhoid fever. - -[Sidenote: How flies carry typhoid germs] - -How did the germs get to your food? About the time that the germs -were thawed out, and were beginning to double in number every -hour or two, along came a fly and thought that spot an attractive -one for a lunch. Accordingly he walked over this mass of filth, -collecting a supply of germs on his feet, and then came in and -tracked them over your bread and butter or other food. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58. Flies crawling on the edge of the glass or -falling into the milk leave germs that cause disease.] - -[Sidenote: How typhoid germs get into milk] - -That is how you got the fever; but the trouble did not stop with -you. When you fell sick, your father thought it was time to clean -the yard, but he was not very careful what he did with the dirt, -including the typhoid fever discharges which the nurse threw out on -the snow during the winter. There was a low place in the barnyard -and there he dumped the dirt. One of the cows thought this fresh -pile of dirt would make a comfortable place to lie down in. The -next morning the milkman milked her without first washing her sides -and udder, and hundreds of little particles of dirt, each one -loaded with germs, fell into the milk. The milk from all the cows -was mixed together, and by the time it got to town these germs had -grown into many thousands. Some of the people who drank the milk -became ill with typhoid fever and wondered afterward where they had -taken this disease. - -[Sidenote: Why the recovered patient is dangerous] - -The discharges from a typhoid fever patient contain typhoid germs -not only while the disease lasts, but for many months after the -patient is well. In some cases they are present for years after the -illness is over. - -[Sidenote: The story of the careless nurses] - -Here is a story about typhoid fever that illustrates the importance -of washing and boiling everything that comes from a sickroom. A few -years ago there was an epidemic of typhoid fever in a certain town. -One of the hospitals was very much crowded, and it became necessary -to employ several extra nurses. All the nurses knew the importance -of washing their hands after handling the patients, and the old -nurses had seen so many bad results from failure to observe this -rule that they were very careful. Three of the new nurses, however, -thought it a great deal of trouble to be washing their hands all -the time, so more and more they neglected this important duty. The -result was that all three of these girls got typhoid fever and -died. They paid the penalty for neglecting the duty that they well -knew they should have performed. - -Typhoid fever can be wiped out by attention to neglected -details--that is, by disinfecting discharges before throwing them -away; by disposing of excretions only in places that are made for -them; by adding lime to the closet vault every day to kill any -germs present; by making the closet in such a way that flies cannot -get into it; and by not permitting sewage to enter any stream until -all the disease germs have been killed. All these things can be -done. It will require a little work; but had you not rather take -a little extra care than run the risk of catching or spreading -typhoid fever? - - =Questions.= 1. How do typhoid fever germs get into the body? 2. - What is one source of these germs? 3. How do these germs leave - the body? 4. Name several ways by which typhoid germs in a stream - may get into foods. 5. How do flies carry typhoid fever germs? 6. - How do these germs get into milk? - - =Remember.= 1. Typhoid germs come from people who have typhoid - fever; they are found in the urine and bowel discharges. 2. No - one should ever answer Nature's calls except in a place provided - for that purpose. 3. No sewage should be allowed to go into any - stream until all the germs in it have been killed. 4. Disease - germs will live in running water fully as long as they will in - still water. 5. The discharges from a single person may infect a - whole city. 6. When typhoid fever germs get into milk, they grow - very rapidly; hundreds of people have been given typhoid fever by - drinking the milk from a dairy where there was a single person - sick with this disease. 7. People who have had typhoid often - carry the germs for several months after they are well. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -HOOKWORM DISEASE AND AMOEBIC DYSENTERY - - -Hookworm disease and amoebic dysentery resemble typhoid fever in -one respect, in that they, too are spread by the improper disposal -of human excreta. - -[Sidenote: Where hookworm disease prevails] - -Hookworm disease is found almost exclusively in tropical or -subtropical climates. In the United States it is rarely seen north -of the Potomac and Ohio rivers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59. A full-grown hookworm, magnified; the short -line shows the average length of the hookworm.] - -[Sidenote: What the hookworm is] - -This disease is not caused by a germ, as is typhoid fever, but by -a worm from a quarter to half an inch long, and about as thick -as a small hairpin. These worms get into a person's intestinal -canal, and there lay their eggs, which are later given off in the -bowel discharges. When these discharges are thrown on the ground, -or are put into an open water-closet, they may be carried about -by chickens, flies, and pigs. Then the eggs hatch in the soil and -tiny hookworms result. When human excreta are not properly disposed -of, in climates where hookworm disease prevails, the soil becomes -practically full of these little worms, and from the soil they find -their way into the bodies of the people. - -[Sidenote: How it enters the body] - -There are two principal ways by which the hookworm may enter -the body. One is through the mouth, which these worms reach in -practically the same way as do typhoid fever germs. The hookworm -may enter the body through the skin also. Some authorities state -that the worm bores its way in; but it is probable that it does not -actually bore through sound skin, but enters at some point where -there is a small break. - -[Sidenote: Where it lives in the body] - -After the worm gets through the skin, it is taken into the blood -and carried to the lungs, and from there it finds its way to -the throat and is swallowed. It makes no difference whether the -hookworm is swallowed or enters the body through the skin; it -finally reaches the intestinal canal, where it then makes its home. -Sometimes thousands of these worms are found in a single person, -and each one of them entered the body through the mouth or through -the skin. The worms do not multiply in the body, and the eggs they -lay never hatch until after they have left the body. - -[Sidenote: How it affects the patient] - -When the hookworm gets into the intestinal canal, it fastens itself -to the wall and sucks the blood from it, at the same time giving -off a poison that enters the blood of the victim. The loss of -blood and the effects of the poison soon cause the person in whose -body these worms are living to become weak, pale, and thin. He is -not able to do much work, if any, and the result is that people -suffering from this disease are often called lazy. They are not -lazy; they are sick, and many of them die. - -[Sidenote: How hookworm disease can be prevented] - -All this sickness and all these deaths might be prevented simply -by the proper disposal of human excreta. No human excreta should -ever be put anywhere except into a properly constructed sewer or -properly constructed privy. If this rule were always observed, both -hookworm disease and typhoid fever would be abolished. - -[Sidenote: Where amoebic dysentery prevails] - -Amoebic dysentery is another disease that is confined almost -entirely to tropical and subtropical climates, though cases -sometimes occur in colder regions. - -[Sidenote: How it is spread and how it may be prevented] - -This disease, like typhoid fever, is caused by a germ that leaves -the body with the bowel discharges. The germ makes its way into -the body in the same way that the typhoid germ enters; that is, it -is taken in with food or drink. The various means by which this -germ gets into our food are the same as those by which the typhoid -germ gets in; and the precautions that will prevent the spread of -typhoid fever will also prevent dysentery. Amoebic dysentery kills -a great many people in warm climates, though it does not kill as -many as does typhoid fever. If it does not cause immediate death, -it often leaves the patient very weak and sickly for months or -years. - - =Questions.= 1. In what climates are hookworm disease and amoebic - dysentery commonly found? 2. In what respects do they resemble - typhoid fever? 3. How does the hookworm enter the body? 4. Where - do the hookworm eggs hatch? 5. How can hookworm disease be - prevented? 6. What other diseases can be prevented by the same - precautions? - - =Remember.= 1. Typhoid fever, hookworm disease, and amoebic - dysentery are all caused by the improper disposal of human - excreta. 2. Most of the sickness that can be prevented is the - result of dirty habits; if all people would keep clean and see - that everything about them was kept clean, a great deal of - sickness would be prevented and a great many lives would be saved. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -HOW SCARLET FEVER IS CARRIED - - -There are certain diseases that we know to be communicable (that -is, "catching"), but as yet we do not know the germ that causes -them, and therefore we cannot tell just how they are carried about. -We do know that they are transferred from one person to another; -but not being able to locate the cause, as we can in the diseases -of which we do know the germ, we cannot explain how it is done. - -[Sidenote: How scarlet fever is like diphtheria] - -Among the diseases of this class we find scarlet fever. In one -respect scarlet fever acts much the same as diphtheria. A person -may have it and not be very sick, sometimes hardly sick at all. -At night a child may have a high fever, with a slightly sore -throat, and the next morning he may feel perfectly well. The mother -supposes that the fever was due to an "upset stomach," thinks no -more about it, and sends the child to school. The next time the -child takes a bath, he perhaps notices that the skin peels off over -some parts of the body. This means that the high fever was due to -scarlet fever, but the breaking-out (rash) was so fine that it was -not noticed. It also means that all the children in the school have -been exposed to the disease. These very mild cases are the most -dangerous because so often they are not recognized. - -[Sidenote: Why mild cases are dangerous:] - -[Sidenote: (_1_) For the severe cases they cause] - -There are two things to be remembered in connection with these mild -forms of scarlet fever, as well as of every other communicable -disease. The first is that the same cause which produces a mild -form of the disease in one child may produce its most severe form -in another child. You can contract a mild form of the disease from -exposure to a severe case; and you can contract a severe form from -exposure to a mild case. The character of the case to which you are -exposed will give no indication of the form the disease will assume -in your body. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) For the bad after effects] - -The next thing to be remembered about the mild form of scarlet -fever is that, though the child may not be made very sick at the -time, there may later be very bad results. A child who has had -scarlet fever in such a mild form that he hardly knew he was sick, -may, for a while, appear to be quite well; then suddenly he has an -earache, and an abscess forms. This abscess is due to the scarlet -fever germs which have gone from the throat to the ear, and as a -result the child may lose his hearing entirely. - -The child may not, perhaps, have an abscess, but after a time he -may begin to lose flesh, and to grow pale. He does not care for -his meals, does not care to play, says he is tired, and wants to -lie still all the time. Finally his mother thinks it might be a -good idea to have a doctor see him. The doctor examines his body -carefully, and then asks for a sample of his urine. When he has -examined this, he looks very serious and asks the mother when the -child was sick last, and what the disease was. Perhaps she has -forgotten all about the slight attack of fever, and the doctor -must question her very carefully before she recalls it. At length -it occurs to her, and then the doctor asks, "After this attack of -fever, did you notice that the skin came off his hands and body?" -She replies that she did, and then the doctor tells her that the -child really had scarlet fever, and, owing to lack of care, he now -has kidney disease. This is a very serious trouble, from which -he may never recover, or, in case of recovery, he may always be -weak and sickly. Even a mild attack of scarlet fever is not to -be neglected; it is a severe and dangerous disease in its very -mildest form. It not only kills a great many boys and girls, but -it makes delicate in health for all their lives many of those who -apparently recover. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60. One of the ways by which quarantine is -broken.] - -[Sidenote: How confusion of names causes mild cases to go -undetected] - -We often hear people speak of two diseases which they think are -not scarlet fever. These two diseases are scarlatina and scarlet -rash. Now scarlatina is simply the scientific name for scarlet -fever. Some doctors will tell you that you have scarlatina and that -it is not exactly scarlet fever. A doctor who says this either is -deceiving you or does not know any better. In either case, he ought -not to be a doctor, for he lets children be exposed to a disease -that is likely to kill many of them. It is the same with scarlet -rash. This, too, is simply another name for scarlet fever. Changing -the name does not change the disease, and you may call it scarlet -fever, scarlatina, or scarlet rash--it makes no difference which; -the disease is one and the same. - -[Sidenote: Why quarantine is necessary for scarlet fever] - -Quarantine is the only way known for preventing the spread of -scarlet fever, as well as of diphtheria. If every case of scarlet -fever were quarantined, we could soon stop this disease; but every -case is not quarantined, because some of them are so mild that -they are not recognized. - -[Sidenote: How breaking quarantine shows selfishness] - -Even when a case is quarantined, the people sometimes neglect -the instructions given, just as they do when there is a case of -diphtheria. Then there are cases that are known to be scarlet fever -but are not reported to the health officers, because the people -do not want to be quarantined. They simply do not want to be put -to any inconvenience themselves, and although this seems a very -strange way for people to act, it happens very often. There are -many selfish people in the world; there are even people who will -not report a case of scarlet fever because to do so might prevent -their going to a party. Selfishness is at the bottom of it. - -It is extremely important that a child should be absolutely free -from all the little scales of skin which are thrown off after -scarlet fever, before he returns to school or mingles again with -others. If there is a discharge from the nose or ears after the -scales have disappeared from the skin, there is still danger of -spreading the disease, for these discharges often retain the -infection for many months. - - =Questions.= 1. Give two reasons why mild cases of scarlet fever - should be carefully treated. 2. Why is quarantine necessary? 3. - How does selfishness lead people to spread scarlet fever? 4. When - is it safe to let a scarlet fever patient mingle with well people? - - =Remember.= 1. If you have scarlet fever and are not very sick, - do not think that you will not be dangerous to others; severe - cases sometimes come from exposure to the mildest cases. 2. - Mild cases of scarlet fever often leave very bad results, if - the patient is not cared for. 3. Be very careful until you are - entirely well. 4. Scarlatina and scarlet rash are nothing but - scarlet fever; keep away from people who have them. 5. Quarantine - is the only way by which we can prevent the spread of scarlet - fever; there is no medicine that will prevent it. 6. People who - violate quarantine regulations are both selfish and stupid. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -MEASLES AND WHOOPING COUGH DANGEROUS DISEASES - - -Measles is a disease in the same class as scarlet fever. We do not -know the cause, but we do know that it is communicable. - -[Sidenote: Why measles should be avoided] - -Measles is usually not a severe disease; that is, it does not -kill as many persons in proportion to the number of cases as does -scarlet fever. It does, however, kill more people than most of us -think; a great many little babies die of it. How often we hear -mothers say, "I wish my children would have measles and be done -with it." It would be very convenient if they could have measles in -a mild way and "be done with it." The trouble is, that we cannot -tell whether it will take a mild form, and, worse than this, we do -not know when they will be done with it. - -If you should go into the children's wards of a large hospital, -you would know why measles should be avoided. There you would hear -the doctors questioning the mothers about the previous diseases of -the little ones. You would be surprised at the number who replied, -"He has not had anything but measles." Then you would hear the -question, "How long since he had the measles?" "He was just over it -when he was taken sick with this trouble." What is "this trouble"? -Follow the doctor along from bed to bed and see the cases of -pneumonia that started when the child "was just over measles"; see -how many cases of empyema (abscess in the chest) began just after -the measles ended; how many cases of abscess in the bone, how many -cases of disease of the kidneys appeared after the child recovered -from the measles. Then go down into the eye and ear wards and see -how many diseased eyes and ears have followed an attack of the -measles. The children would not have had these troubles had they -not first had measles. - -[Sidenote: Necessity of care in measles] - -If you have measles, do not let others come near you, and do not -think that, because you do not feel very sick, you can run about -as usual. If you do not take good care of yourself, you may have -some of the diseases that so often begin when children are getting -over measles. Measles causes more deaths than is commonly supposed, -especially among young children and very old people; and a great -many children die of diseases which they never would have had if -they had not first had the measles. Avoid people who have measles, -and if you should get the disease, do not treat it as a slight -thing, but consult your doctor at once. - -[Illustration: - - _Whooping Cough_ _Scarlet Fever_ _Measles_ _Smallpox_ - _4,856_ _4,309_ _4,302_ _74_ - -FIG. 61. Deaths in 1907 from four common communicable diseases -reported to the United States Census Bureau.] - -[Sidenote: Evil effects of whooping cough] - -Whooping cough is much the same as measles in this respect. It -kills many children, and, in cases where it does not kill them, -their bodies become so weakened that they are liable to contract -some other disease that may prove fatal. Avoid people who have -whooping cough. - - =Questions.= 1. Why should people avoid measles? 2. Why should - one take care of himself when he has measles? 3. Why is whooping - cough to be avoided? - - =Remember.= 1. Measles is more fatal, especially among babies, - than people realize. 2. Measles causes more diseases of the - bones, ears, and eyes than any other communicable disease. - 3. Measles is not dangerous if properly cared for, but when - neglected, it causes much suffering and many deaths. 4. Whooping - cough causes almost as many deaths as does measles. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -HOW SMALLPOX IS PREVENTED - - -We now come to the study of a disease, the cause of which has not -been positively recognized. We know that it is very communicable; -but we know also that there is absolutely no reason for anyone's -ever contracting it, since there is a way by which it may easily be -prevented. - -[Sidenote: Fatality of smallpox before the discovery of vaccination] - -Something over a hundred years ago, smallpox was one of the most -fatal diseases known. It is estimated that during the eighteenth -century it killed over 60,000,000 people. - -Up to the time when the Spaniards invaded Mexico, there had been -no smallpox there. The Spaniards brought the disease with them, -and historians tell us that out of the 12,000,000 people living in -Mexico at that time, at least 6,000,000 died from smallpox. At that -time the disease was considered fatal throughout the world; when -it broke out in a community, people fled without stopping to bury -their dead. It was a rare thing to see a person not more or less -disfigured by the marks the disease leaves on the face and body. - -To-day we find a very different condition. There are now fewer -fatalities from smallpox than from almost any other communicable -disease. During 1906 and 1907 only 169 deaths from smallpox were -reported from all over the United States to the Census Bureau at -Washington. What has caused this marked falling off in the fatality -of the disease? - -[Sidenote: Discovery of vaccination] - -During the time that smallpox was killing so many people, all the -doctors were trying to find something that would cure the disease -or that would prevent it. In the latter part of the eighteenth -century Dr. Edward Jenner, an English physician, noticed that -milkmaids did not have smallpox as much as did people of other -occupations. He also noticed cows with little sores on their udders -that looked very much like the sores that come with smallpox. He -therefore tried making on the arms of people sores just like those -on the udders of the cows. He did this by taking a little of the -matter from the sores on the cows and putting it into the scratches -on the people's arms. After these sores had healed, the people who -had been thus treated did not have smallpox. This simple practice -has caused one of the most deadly diseases known to man to become -one of the most easily controlled. - -[Sidenote: Prevention of smallpox by vaccination:] - -Though it is well known that before the discovery of vaccination -smallpox was a fatal disease, there are still some persons who say -that vaccination has done nothing to reduce the mortality. When you -learn some of the facts, you can judge for yourself whether or not -vaccination does prevent smallpox. - -[Sidenote: (_1_) In the Franco-Prussian War] - -During the Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71, the German soldiers were -all vaccinated, and only a part of the French army was vaccinated. -Smallpox broke out in the two armies. As a result, 6,000 of the -French died from smallpox and only 278 of the Germans. In many -instances, the German and the French soldiers were confined -in the same hospitals, with exactly the same opportunities to -contract the disease. But, you might ask, if vaccination prevents -smallpox, how did it happen that there were _any_ cases among the -German soldiers? In order to prevent smallpox, vaccination must -be successful; that is, it must "take." We will tell you about -different kinds of vaccination a little later. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62. In Sweden, before vaccination, smallpox -caused 2,050 deaths per million population (represented by the -large square). Since the introduction of vaccination the death rate -has dropped to 2 per million population (represented by the two -small squares).] - -[Sidenote: (_2_) In Sweden] - -In Sweden we find strong evidence that vaccination prevents -smallpox. Up to 1801, before vaccination was introduced into that -country, the yearly death rate from smallpox was 2,050 out of each -million of the population. In 1801 vaccination was introduced -into Sweden, but the people were allowed to be vaccinated or not, -just as they pleased. During the ten years ending with 1811, the -annual death rate from smallpox had dropped from 2,050 per million -of the population to 686 per million. Later, vaccination was -made compulsory (that is, everybody in Sweden was obliged to be -vaccinated), and in 1894 the death rate had dropped to only two -deaths a year per million population. Is it merely a coincidence -that this great falling off in deaths from smallpox came after -vaccination was discovered, or was it due to vaccination? - -[Sidenote: (_3_) In the Philippine Islands] - -Before the Philippine Islands were occupied by the Americans, -vaccination was very little practiced, and a large percentage -of the deaths in those islands was caused by smallpox. In 1897 -smallpox caused about 40,000 deaths. A few years later the -Americans enforced vaccination among the inhabitants of the -Philippines, and the result was that in 1907 there were only 304 -deaths from smallpox. There has been practically no quarantine for -smallpox and no disinfection; the only cause of the suppression of -the disease in the Philippine Islands is vaccination--nothing else. - -[Sidenote: (_4_) In Gloucester, England] - -In Gloucester, England, there used to be a great many people who -did not believe in vaccination, though it is doubtful if they -themselves could have explained why they did not. They seem to -have been much like the man who, when asked, "What do you think of -this?" replied, "I don't know anything about it, but I am against -it." In 1890 Gloucester had a population of 42,000 people, most -of whom had never been vaccinated. In the latter part of 1895, -smallpox broke out. Quarantine was strictly carried out, but the -disease continued to spread. As the people saw the number of -victims rapidly increasing, many of them concluded that they had -rather be vaccinated than have smallpox, even though they did -not really believe in vaccination. By the first of April, 1896, -over 36,000 people had been vaccinated in Gloucester, and by the -first of August there was not a case of smallpox in the city. But -what had happened in the meantime? There had been 1,979 cases -of smallpox; a very large amount of money had been expended in -quarantining; hundreds of persons had been disfigured for life; and -439 lives had been lost. And all this simply because the people did -not believe in vaccination. - -Quarantining smallpox is a most expensive luxury, which may -possibly retard the progress of this disease, but was never known -to check an epidemic of it. Every epidemic of smallpox during the -last one hundred years has been checked by vaccination. - -[Sidenote: Why some diseases do not return] - -There are certain diseases which you are not likely to have more -than once; one attack protects against another. Why and how does -one attack of a certain disease protect against another? When a -person is taken sick with one of these diseases, the cells of his -body immediately begin to make a substance called antitoxin. We -learned something about antitoxin when we were studying diphtheria. -In diseases like scarlet fever, measles, and smallpox, in which -one attack protects against another, the antitoxin that is formed -in the body when you are sick stays there for a long time, in some -cases as long as you live. While this antitoxin is present in the -blood, the cause of the disease cannot live in the body; hence you -cannot have the disease again. After some diseases this antitoxin -seems to disappear from the blood in a short time; after others, -it seems to remain for several years; and after still others it -remains as long as you live. After diphtheria it stays in the blood -only a short time, so that one may have diphtheria a second time -within a few years. Some people have smallpox, measles, or scarlet -fever a second time, but with most people these diseases never -return. - -If we knew how to make the cells of our bodies produce this -antitoxin and keep it stored up in the blood all the time, we -should never have any of these diseases. But in many cases we do -not know how to cause the cells to manufacture this antitoxin. -However, in one or two diseases we do know how to persuade them to -make the antitoxin, and the one in which we know how to accomplish -this best is smallpox. This is just what is done by vaccination. - -[Sidenote: How vaccination prevents smallpox] - -The object of vaccination is to put the cells of the body to work -making antitoxin. To do this, it is necessary to get some of the -toxin into the body. We want to get in just enough to make the -cells work, and no more. Therefore we make a very small scratch, -and put into it some of the vaccine which contains the toxin of -smallpox. It is impossible to have these germs in your body and -not be affected by them to some degree. If you did not feel a -little sick, the cells would not be making antitoxin, for the thing -that makes you sick is what makes the cells go to work. But this -sickness is only a matter of a day or two, and after the cells have -made the antitoxin, it will stay in your body a long time, longer -in some cases than in others. - -Some people, after they have once been vaccinated, can never be -successfully vaccinated again; neither can such people ever have -smallpox. Most people, however, can be successfully vaccinated -every five to seven years, and there are a few people who will -"take" if vaccinated every year or two. These conditions indicate -the length of time that the antitoxin of smallpox will live in -the bodies of these different persons. If vaccination, properly -performed, does not take, the person is not in a condition at that -time to catch smallpox; and if vaccination, properly performed, -does take, it is positive evidence that if this person had been -exposed to smallpox, he would have taken the disease. - -[Sidenote: Necessity of repeated vaccination] - -It is frequently asked, "How long will vaccination protect against -smallpox?" You can no more answer this question than you can tell -how long the antitoxin will live in the blood of any particular -person. The only safe thing to do is to be vaccinated every few -years, and if smallpox is present in your community, get vaccinated -every year until the vaccination takes. If it takes, it shows that -you were in a condition to catch the disease; and if it does not -take, you may feel safe from smallpox for a while, at least. - - =Questions.= 1. Why was smallpox formerly more widespread and - more often fatal than it is now? 2. Tell of the discovery - of vaccination. 3. Give instances to show the influence of - vaccination on smallpox epidemics. 4. Why must there be repeated - vaccinations? 5. Show how vaccinating for smallpox is like taking - antitoxin to prevent diphtheria. - - =Remember.= 1. Before the introduction of vaccination, smallpox - was one of the most dangerous diseases known. 2. All evidence - of history tends to show that vaccination has caused smallpox - to become a very mild disease and a comparatively rare one. 3. - Successful vaccination repeated at proper intervals will prevent - smallpox. 4. Vaccination must be repeated because we do not know - just how long the material developed in the body from a single - vaccination will last. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - -WHY VACCINATION SOMETIMES SEEMS A FAILURE - - -[Sidenote: What constitutes a successful vaccination] - -How does it happen that those who have been recently vaccinated -sometimes have smallpox? It is _successful_ vaccination that -prevents smallpox, not recent vaccination; there is a vast -difference between the two. A _successful_ vaccination is one that -results in a sore identical with the sores of smallpox. Such a sore -is secured only as a result of the action of the germs that cause -smallpox. - -If the arm is red from the shoulder to the wrist and so swollen -that you cannot use it for weeks, it does not necessarily mean that -you have had a successful vaccination. - -Such arms are not the result of vaccination itself, any more than a -railroad wreck is the result of the fact that there is steam in the -engine. The railroad wreck is caused by carelessness on the part -of some operator, and the badly inflamed and swollen arm is due -to lack of care or knowledge on the part of the vaccinator or the -person vaccinated. - -[Sidenote: Some pretended vaccinations] - -A fly blister is not a successful vaccination. Such a statement -may not seem necessary, until you hear this story. A man showed a -sore on his arm, asserting that it was a successful vaccination. He -was told that it was nothing but the result of a blister, and not -vaccination, and that the work had been done by putting a small bit -of blistering plaster on his arm. He admitted this to be the fact, -and said that the "doctor" who did it told him that it was a new -way of vaccinating. The doctors who say that vaccination will not -prevent smallpox belong to the class who use fly blisters and call -them vaccinations. When the patient gets smallpox, those who are -opposed to vaccinations say that here is an illustration of their -claim that vaccination will not prevent smallpox. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63. How vaccinated arms are sometimes infected.] - -Some people who honestly think they were vaccinated have smallpox. -There are sometimes instances in which a person recently vaccinated -with apparent success nevertheless contracts smallpox; there are -still other cases in which the disease develops after a vaccination -that would not take. Here is an example: - -A doctor vaccinates a child in the usual manner. At the end of -four or five days, the dressing is taken from the arm, and the -only thing to be seen is a little black scab. The child scratches -this off. In a few days the spot becomes red and a small abscess -forms, resembling a smallpox sore. Naturally, this is taken for -a completely successful vaccination, but it is not really so. -When the child scratched off the scab, the vaccination wound was -nearly healed, and the little abscess was caused by some very -mild pus germs, which were under the finger nails with which he -scratched the wound. The abscess was in no wise connected with the -vaccination, but was simply such an infection as a child might get -at any time that he scratched his arm. No one has ever claimed that -such an abscess will prevent smallpox any more than that a boil -will prevent it. - -_A successful vaccination will prevent smallpox._ The length of -time for which it will prevent the disease varies in different -individuals. Some it will protect only for a year or two, while in -others it will last through life. - -Dr. H. W. Bond, Health Commissioner of St. Louis, Missouri, states: - -"The experience of this department, based on the observation of -thousands of cases, is that a well-pitted mark gives at least ten -years' immunity. We have never seen a case of smallpox in a person -with a well-pitted scar less than ten years old--that is, the scar -less than ten years old." - -[Sidenote: A sore arm not always due to successful vaccination] - -One of the strongest objections made against vaccination is that -the arm sometimes becomes very sore from it. This is true, but -the sore arm is not a common occurrence and is never caused by -vaccination properly performed. There is always some cause for the -bad arm besides the vaccination. - -[Sidenote: Cause of sore arms] - -The usual cause of a bad arm is improper vaccination; this means -the lack of proper precautions on the part of the person who does -the vaccinating. Years ago, before vaccination was performed with -the great care which is given it to-day, bad arms could not be -prevented; but to-day the cause of the trouble is not the vaccine, -but the vaccinator. Sometimes a father thinks he will save a dollar -by vaccinating his child himself, and he is likely to injure the -child by attempting to vaccinate him without taking antiseptic -precautions. The same surgical preparations must be made for a -vaccination as for an operation. If this is not done, a bad arm -will result, not because of the vaccination, but because of the -negligence of the vaccinator. - -Never allow any person, doctor or otherwise, to vaccinate you until -the skin surface has been well washed with soap and water, rinsed -clean, and wiped off with alcohol. See that the vaccine is fresh -and has been properly kept. When it begins to "take," keep the spot -absolutely clean and covered with a clean cloth, renewed daily. -_Never scratch or rub it._ These precautions will prevent the -dreaded soreness of the arm. - -[Sidenote: How people themselves infect their arms with pus germs] - -The person operated on is himself often responsible for the bad -arm. A careful doctor will put a dressing on the arm, after he has -supplied the vaccine, and will tell you to let that dressing alone, -for he wishes to take it off himself. About the third or fourth -day after the vaccination, your arm begins to itch. Possibly you -have forgotten what the doctor told you; at any rate, you pay no -attention to directions and take the dressing off to scratch the -arm. When you scratch the wound, you introduce pus germs into it, -and you have no reason to expect anything but a sore arm. In this -case, it is not the fault of the vaccinator or of the vaccination; -it is your own fault. Never touch a vaccination sore; in fact, it -is dangerous to touch any sore. - - =Questions.= 1. How is a successful vaccination determined? 2. - What are some pretended vaccinations? 3. Mention some of the - things that cause bad arms after vaccination. - - =Remember.= 1. A successful vaccination causes a sore identical - with the sores that result from smallpox. 2. A fly blister is - not a vaccination in any sense of the word. 3. A very sore arm - does not result from a properly performed vaccination, but - from carelessness on the part of the vaccinator or the person - vaccinated. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI - -CONSUMPTION, THE GREAT WHITE PLAGUE - - -Tuberculosis, or consumption, has been known for many centuries. It -was known long before Rome was ever heard of. Hippocrates, a Greek -physician, studied it, and said that if it were treated in its -early stages, it could be cured. - -[Sidenote: Why consumption is called the Great White Plague] - -Tuberculosis is called the Great White Plague. It is called the -Great Plague, because it kills more people than does any other one -disease; the White Plague, because people who suffer from it become -so pale and white. - -[Sidenote: Consumption more destructive than war] - -It is estimated that nearly 200,000 people die from tuberculosis -every year in the United States. This means that in this country -there is one death from consumption every two minutes and -thirty-six seconds. Is it not fearful to think of nearly 200,000 -people dying every year, in the United States alone, from a disease -that we know can be prevented? Do you not think that we ought to do -everything we can to prevent this disease from spreading? - -During the Civil War 205,070 soldiers were killed in both armies. -This war lasted four years. During the same length of time there -were 640,000 deaths from tuberculosis in the United States. This -means that consumption killed over three times as many people as -were killed during the same length of time in the Civil War. In -some parts of the country one out of every seven deaths is caused -by this disease, but the average throughout the country is one -death out of every ten. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64. Comparing 640,000 deaths from tuberculosis -the United States during four years with the 205,070 deaths in the -Civil War.] - -[Sidenote: Prevalence of tuberculosis] - -There are more than 700,000 people sick from tuberculosis every -year in the United States alone. Of this number nearly 200,000 die -every year. Tuberculosis is a disease that can be prevented. It may -take a long time to get rid of it, but it can be abolished. When -you think of all the people that are sick from tuberculosis, and of -all those who die from it every year, you will surely want to do -all you can to help prevent this suffering and death. - -[Sidenote: Tuberculosis a disease of various parts of the body:] - -When people speak of consumption they usually mean tuberculosis of -the lungs; but tuberculosis is not confined to the lungs. The germs -that cause tuberculosis may attack any part of the body, and from -one part may go to other parts, setting up a growth wherever they -go. - -[Sidenote: (_1_) Of the throat] - -Tuberculosis of the throat is a common form of the disease. When -the germs of tuberculosis settle in the throat, they destroy the -tissues very rapidly and, as a rule, kill the patient much more -quickly than they do when they start in the lungs. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) Of the joints] - -Another frequent form of tuberculosis in occurs in the knee; this -is popularly called "white swelling." It quickly destroys the knee -joint and results in a stiff leg. The growth may stop there, but -more often it extends from the knee to other parts of the body. - -Often we see a little boy or girl wearing one shoe with a sole much -thicker than the other. This is because one leg is shorter than the -other, and we notice that the shortened leg is deformed as well. -This condition sometimes results from an injury, but it is far -more likely to be caused by tuberculosis of the hip joint. - -[Sidenote: (_3_) Of the spine] - -Again we see boys and girls with diseases of the spine, so -that they have "hunch backs" or are twisted to one side. These -conditions result from tuberculosis of the bones of the spine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65. One of the effects of tuberculosis.] - -[Sidenote: (_4_) Of the glands] - -Sometimes we see children and grown people with swellings on their -necks. These swellings may look smooth, but they feel as if they -were made up of little bunches of grapes or plums under the skin. -They are almost always due to the growth of the germs that cause -tuberculosis of the little glands of the neck. - -[Sidenote: (_5_) Of the stomach] - -Any one of the other glands of the body is just as liable to -become affected by tuberculosis as are the glands of the neck. -Tuberculosis of the stomach or bowels is not at all uncommon. - -The germs of tuberculosis are likely to attack any of the tissues -of the body, especially if the cells composing these tissues are -for any reason weakened so that they cannot do the work required -of them. When the tuberculosis germs grow in tissues, the tissues -finally break down and an abscess forms. A tubercular abscess is -sometimes called a "cold abscess." - -All such abscesses finally break and an open sore results. The -matter that comes from the open sore and from the abscess when it -is first opened is full of the germs that cause tuberculosis. If -this matter is allowed to become dry, the germs are blown about in -the dust. Then other people may inhale them or take them into their -bodies through the mouth or skin and thus contract consumption. - -[Sidenote: The old belief that consumption is inherited] - -Until a few years ago it was generally believed that consumption -was inherited. That is, it was thought that children whose father -or mother had consumption were born with the disease. Even to-day -many people hold to this idea, because they have not studied or -learned of the discoveries made in recent years. These people still -believe that if a child's father or mother dies of tuberculosis, -the child will die of tuberculosis, too, no matter how careful he -may be or how much of a fight he may make against it. - -It is true that many people whose parents have died of consumption -also die from this disease; but this does not prove that they were -born with consumption. It merely shows that they had a good chance -to catch the disease by being continually with some one who had it. -It is also true that a great many people die from consumption whose -parents did not have it. If consumption is an inherited disease, -where did these people get it? - -[Sidenote: How the germ of tuberculosis was discovered] - -About thirty years ago, Dr. Robert Koch discovered that all -consumptives have in their sputum a long, slender germ which he -called the tubercle bacillus. Some of these germs he injected -into guinea pigs, and he found that they caused the pigs to have -consumption. Then he made many other experiments, and proved beyond -question that it is this very germ that causes tuberculosis, and -that no one has consumption unless he has this germ in his body. - -[Sidenote: Evidence that consumption is not inherited] - -Then the question arose, "Is the baby whose parents have -consumption born with this germ in its body?" This question -could not at first be answered; but tests were made by taking -the children of consumptive parents away from their parents, and -keeping them in homes where there were no consumptives. It was -found that these babies did not develop the disease. From these -and many other tests, it has been proved that consumption is not -inherited, and that the reason the child of the consumptive so -often has consumption is because he lives with people having the -disease. - -[Sidenote: Evidence that consumption is a house disease] - -Consumption seems to be confined to certain families, and this has -led many people to think that the disease is inherited, regardless -of the proof that it is not. When we carefully study the facts -in various cases, we find that the disease is not confined to a -certain family, so much as it is to the _house_ in which the family -lives. - -The record of a single house will illustrate how tuberculosis -sticks to the house rather than to the family. From 1880 to -1901, a particular house was occupied by a father, mother, and -six children, of whom four died of consumption. From 1902 to -1903 the house was occupied by another father and mother with -eight children. They moved away because of the great amount of -sickness in the family. At present this father and one of his -children have tuberculosis. In 1904 the house was occupied by -still another family, consisting likewise of a father, mother, -and eight children. Now it is known that four of the children -have tuberculosis, and it is feared that three others have also -contracted the disease. In 1905 a son of the first occupant, with -his wife and two children, returned to live in the house. The -father of this family died of tuberculosis. Up to 1906 the total -results from this house, scattered through four families, were as -follows: five deaths, six cases in people still living, and three -suspected cases. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66. The constant danger of infection in railway -cars, where germs can live as well as in a house.] - -[Sidenote: Why consumption is a house disease] - -When the consumptive coughs, he sends fine droplets of moisture -into the air. These droplets contain the germs that cause -tuberculosis. The moisture evaporates and the germs are left -sticking to the floors, the walls, the curtains, and the furniture -of the room. When the room is swept or dusted, the germs are -stirred up with the dust and people inhale them. The germ that -causes consumption will live for a long time in a house; you cannot -see it, but it is there. Wherever a consumptive has lived, he has -left the germs of this disease behind him. - -[Sidenote: How to disinfect houses] - -If a house in which a consumptive has lived is thoroughly -disinfected, all the germs he left there will be killed. Scattering -disinfectants about a room does no good. The only proper way to -disinfect is to close the house, for if the disinfectant is strong -enough to kill the disease germs, no human being can stay in the -house while it is being used. Disinfecting should be done by the -health officer, because he knows how much disinfectant is needed to -kill every germ in the house and how it should be used. - -[Sidenote: Fraudulent disinfectants] - -Sometimes you will see an advertisement saying that certain -disinfectants will kill the germs of disease but will not affect -the people. Always remember that any disinfectant that is strong -enough to kill the disease germs will also kill human beings, and -do not be fooled by such advertisements. - -_Never move into a house that has been previously occupied, until -the house has been disinfected._ Do not take it for granted that -the people who lived there before had no communicable disease. -Do not take the word of the agent or of any one else that there -has never been sickness in the house. People sometimes have -tuberculosis without knowing it; people sometimes have tuberculosis -or other communicable diseases without telling of it. - -It does not cost much to disinfect a house, and if the disinfection -is properly done the disease germs will be killed. "An ounce of -prevention is worth a pound of cure." Try to convince your father -that by having the new home disinfected he may save not only -doctor's fees, but perhaps the lives of himself and his family. - -There are a great many things that boys and girls can do to help -fight this disease. This "scourge" can be wiped out; but if the -boys and girls do not help in this great work, it will never be -done. - - =Questions.= 1. Why do people call consumption the Great White - Plague? 2. What is the annual death rate from consumption in the - United States? 3. Compare the fatality from consumption with the - number of soldiers killed during the Civil War. 4. What amount of - illness in the United States is due to consumption? 5. Describe - at least four forms of tuberculosis. 6. What determines the part - of the body in which the germ of tuberculosis grows? - - =Remember.= 1. Tuberculosis and consumption are the same disease. - 2. This disease kills more people than war, although it might be - prevented. 3. Tuberculosis is not confined to the lungs but may - attack the tissues of any part of the body. 4. Consumption is not - inherited; it is a house disease rather than a family disease. 5. - A house should be disinfected by the health officer before it is - occupied by a new tenant. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII - -HOW CONSUMPTION IS SPREAD AND HOW PREVENTED - - -[Sidenote: How tuberculosis germs leave the body:] - -The sputum (spit) of the consumptive and the discharges from -tubercular sores contain the germs that cause tuberculosis. -Sometimes these germs are so numerous that thousands of them would -be found clinging to the point of a needle dipped into the sputum -or discharges from a patient. When the consumptive coughs, he sends -into the air many of the germs that cause tuberculosis. - -We cannot kill the germs while they are in the body of the -consumptive; but we can kill them after they have left the body, by -seeing that none of the sputum or discharge from tubercular wounds -or sores is allowed to become dried and blown about as dust. - -[Sidenote: (_1_) In discharges from sores] - -When the discharge from a tubercular sore becomes dried and blows -about with the dust, the germs are inhaled into the lungs of -other people, or fall into other sores and cause them to become -tubercular. Since this is one of the most frequent ways by which -this dread disease is spread, you will say at once, "Why, every -particle of matter from a tubercular sore ought to be burned, so -that there would be no possibility of the germs being scattered." -This of course ought to be done, but this is not enough. - -People sometimes have consumption and are not aware that they have -it. Others may have tubercular sores and not know them to be such. -Any sore, whether it is tubercular or not, contains disease germs. -They may not be the germs of tuberculosis, but even the least -dangerous of them is the germ that causes pus (matter). - -Since we are trying to get rid not only of the germs that cause -tuberculosis, but also of the germs that cause all communicable -diseases, it would be better to say, "All discharges from _any_ -sore should be burned immediately." - -[Sidenote: (_2_) In the sputum] - -When people spit on the sidewalk or on the floor, the sputum will -of course become dry. Sometimes a lady drags her dress through the -sputum on the sidewalk or on the floor; it sticks to her dress and -she takes the germs home with her. The sputum of the consumptive is -loaded with the germs that cause tuberculosis, and if this sputum -is allowed to be blown about with the dust, people will inhale it -and thus get the germs into their lungs. Certainly the consumptive -should never spit on the sidewalk or on the floor, or in the mine, -workshop, or in any place where the sputum may become dry and form -dust. Of course he should not fill the air about him with germs by -coughing into it; everybody knows that. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67. A sputum cup of waterproof pasteboard.] - -[Sidenote: Why everybody should be careful about spitting and -coughing] - -But _no_ man or woman, boy or girl, should ever spit on the floor -or sidewalk. In the first place it is bad manners. No person does -this who is well brought up. In the second place, we must remember -that the consumptive does not like to have others know that he has -consumption; this feeling is a part of the disease. If you expect -the consumptive to refrain from spitting on the floor or sidewalk, -you must help him by your example. You cannot expect him to be the -only one to hunt up a cuspidor, when you yourself are spitting -on floor or sidewalk. If you expect the consumptive to take the -precaution necessary to protect you from this disease, you must -take the same precaution yourself. - -In the matter of coughing, the same rules hold true. If you expect -the consumptive to hold a handkerchief before his mouth when he -coughs, you must do the same. - -[Sidenote: How to avoid spitting on the floor or sidewalk:] - -Since it is not right that the consumptive should spit on the floor -or sidewalk, it will naturally be asked, "What is the consumptive -to do with what he coughs up?" - -[Sidenote: (_1_) By using paper napkins] - -At a very small cost he can buy paper napkins and envelopes -which have been treated with paraffin to prevent moisture going -through them. If every one with a cough or with any such trouble -as catarrh, which makes him want to spit frequently, would carry -a supply of these paper napkins and paraffin envelopes, he would -always have a suitable place in which to spit. When you cough up -anything, spit into one of these little napkins, put the napkin -into the envelope, and when you get home burn the whole thing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68. A pocket cuspidor.] - -[Sidenote: (_2_) By using pocket cuspidors] - -There are other conveniences which can easily be carried in the -pocket, called pocket cuspidors. Some are made of thin cardboard, -treated with paraffin, and filled with cotton to hold all the -moisture of the sputum; others are made of glass, shaped like a -bottle, with a wide mouth. Those made of cardboard should be burned -as soon as possible and the glass ones should be thoroughly washed -with boiling water. - -[Sidenote: (_3_) By having public cuspidors] - -In some cities cuspidors have been placed at the edge of the -sidewalk in an effort to lessen the spread of disease caused by -spitting. These cuspidors have a stream of water running through -them constantly and are connected with the sewer. They are so made -that they cannot easily be kicked over or upset, and they are -placed on stands just high enough to make it easy to spit into -them. If properly made, they are not unsightly. Would it not be a -good thing if your town would put such cuspidors on your streets, -and if the merchants would put them into their stores? Every -office, every workshop, every store, every railway and street car -should be provided with cuspidors. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69. The common drinking cup--a fruitful source -of infection.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70. The individual drinking cup--each cup clean -and free from disease germs.] - -[Sidenote: How consumption is spread from the lips:] - -We know that the substance which people cough up when they have -consumption contains the germs that cause this disease. When they -spit this matter out, many of the germs stick to the lips. This is -true not only of consumption, but of the germs of other diseases, -such as diphtheria, measles, and scarlet fever. - -[Sidenote: (_1_) By drinking cups] - -When there are disease germs on the lips, it is impossible for a -person to drink and not leave some of the germs sticking to the -edge of the cup or glass. If the germs of disease are in the mouth, -every time that the person suffering from this disease drinks from -a cup, he leaves some of the germs on the edge of it. The next -person to drink from that cup may get the germs into his mouth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71. A sanitary drinking fountain for public -places.] - -Always avoid drinking from a cup or glass from which another person -has been drinking. You can never tell who may have disease germs in -his mouth, or when you may get them on your lips by drinking from -the same cup. Each individual should have his own cup and should -never let any one else drink from it. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) By putting pencils into the mouth] - -When you put the point of your pencil into your mouth, you will -leave germs on it just as you do on the edge of a cup when you -drink. Never put your pencil into your mouth; never use any other -person's pencil; never trade pencils. - -[Sidenote: (_3_) By the common bite] - -Sometimes we see a child giving his friends a bite of his apple or -candy or cake. Of course when disease germs are in the mouth of the -one who takes a bite, the germs will be left on the apple, candy, -or cake. By no means should a boy or girl be selfish, but if you -have something to share with your friends, break it or cut it into -pieces. Never take into your mouth anything from which another -person has taken a bite. - -[Sidenote: How tubercular cows cause consumption] - -Milk that comes from consumptive cows may contain the germs that -cause tuberculosis. When you drink the milk from such cows, you -take these germs into your body. They find their way from the -stomach and intestine into the blood, and there they travel about -until they find a spot where the cells are dead or are not doing -their work properly. When they find such a place, they settle down -and begin to grow; and the first thing you know, you will have -tuberculosis in that part of your body. Sometimes the germs do not -have to go out of the stomach or intestines to find a favorable -opportunity to take hold and grow. When this happens, we have -consumption of the bowels. - -One cannot tell by looking at milk or by tasting it whether or not -the germs of tuberculosis are present. They do not make the milk -sour; neither do they make it look different from pure milk. - -One cannot tell by looking at a cow whether or not she has -tuberculosis. Sometimes a cow will have tuberculosis and yet look -very healthy. There is, however, a way by which we can tell when a -cow has this disease, no matter how healthy she may look. This is -what is known as the tuberculin test. - -[Sidenote: How to detect tuberculosis in a cow] - -If a little tuberculin is injected under the skin of a cow that has -tuberculosis, it will make her have a fever and appear sick for a -day or two. If she is free from tuberculosis, it will not make her -sick at all. - -It would seem as if all people who sell milk would want to know -whether their cows have consumption so as not to run any risk of -conveying the disease to their customers. Some of them do take this -precaution, but a great many of them do not want to go to this -trouble. Sometimes you will hear them say, "Oh, I do not believe in -this tuberculin test." They do not want to believe in it because -they know that the cows, if tested and found to have tuberculosis, -will have to be killed. - -The reason that dairymen sell us milk from tubercular cows is the -same that makes the man with scarlet fever in his house fail to -tell the health officer about it; the same that makes the butcher -buy and sell meat from diseased cattle; the same that makes some -people absolutely regardless of the welfare of others--it is -selfishness. - - =Questions.= 1. How does a patient give off tuberculosis germs? - 2. Why should even well people refrain from spitting in public? - 3. Why should the sputum be taken care of? 4. Why should we avoid - the common drinking cup? 5. What is the danger from putting - pencils into the mouth? 6. Is it safe to use another person's - pencil? 7. What is the best way of sharing food? 8. How can one - be protected from tubercular milk? - - =Remember.= 1. The sputum and discharges from all sores should - be immediately burned or disposed of in such a way that they - cannot become dry and be blown about as dust. 2. Consumption - may be contracted by the use of the common drinking cup, or by - putting into your mouth such things as pencils and coins. 3. The - milk from a cow suffering from consumption contains the germ of - tuberculosis. 4. A cow may have tuberculosis and not appear to be - sick. 5. The only way to determine whether a cow has tuberculosis - is by using the tuberculin test. 6. Every milch cow should be - tuberculin tested. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII - -HOW CONSUMPTION IS CURED - - -[Sidenote: Consumption should be recognized early] - -When people first get consumption, they seldom realize that they -are seriously sick. Most of them think they have a bad cold, or -are overworked, or that they have been staying too closely in the -house. Often they will not even see a doctor until they are so sick -that the doctor cannot do much for them. - -When you have a slight cough that "hangs on"; when you feel -feverish every afternoon; when you are short of breath; when you -get tired very easily; when you do not feel like eating anything -except candies and cakes--then you should think of consumption. -These are not all the signs, but they are enough to make you go at -once to a doctor. - -A long time ago the doctor would have felt badly if he had been -obliged to tell you that you had consumption; but now he knows that -if you go to him early in the disease and follow his directions, -you will get well. - -[Sidenote: How consumption is cured: (_1_) By rest] - -When the doctor finds that a person has consumption, the first -thing he orders is rest. By this he means absolute _rest_. He does -not mean that the patient can go to school or to the office part of -the day and rest the remainder of the day. The doctor will want to -watch him constantly. Then there comes a time when he must begin to -take a little exercise; the doctor tells him just how much exercise -to take, and just what form of exercise is best for him. - -[Sidenote: (_2_) By fresh air] - -The consumptive must have plenty of fresh air all the time; he must -be out-of-doors as much as possible. You will wonder how the doctor -expects him to be out-of-doors when he has been told that he must -have absolute rest. Later we will show you how one can practically -be out-of-doors and yet at the same time be in bed. - -[Sidenote: (_3_) By sunshine] - -Sunshine will kill the germs of any disease more quickly than -almost anything we know of, and a consumptive must have all the -sunshine that he can get. Of course it cannot get into the body to -kill the germs, but it strengthens the cells of the body so much -that they can fight with just that much more energy. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 72 and 73. Living outdoors in cold weather.] - -[Sidenote: (_4_) By nourishing food] - -Nothing is more important than pure food in building up the body -and in making heat and power. In consumption the food that is -stored up in the body burns itself up very fast. The consumptive -must therefore take not only the food needed to supply the usual -demands of the body, but enough to make something extra for the -disease to burn up without drawing on the reserve fund stored in -the body. In order to do this, he will have to eat a great deal, -and what he eats must be of the kind that makes the best building -material and the most nourishing material. He cannot tax his -stomach by eating things that are not nourishing; all the work his -stomach can do must be devoted to the foods he really needs. - -The weapons with which we fight consumption are rest, good food, -fresh air, and sunshine. These will do more good than all the -medicine in the world. Fresh air is not only one of the best things -for the cure of consumption, but it is one of the best things for -the prevention of consumption. You should always breathe plenty of -fresh air night and day, and there is plenty of fresh air to be had -if you will take it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74. A window tent. (Invented by Dr. W. E. -Walsh.)] - -[Sidenote: How to have fresh air at home:] - -If you have only a single window in your room, try to sleep with -your head in the fresh air. It is not always easy to arrange a room -in such a way that you can have fresh air without placing your bed -in a draft, but even this difficulty can be overcome. - -[Sidenote: (_1_) By window tents] - -There are several devices, called window tents, which you can buy. -By the use of such a tent, your head will be out-of-doors all the -time; yet the draft cannot strike your body, because a part of the -tent fits around your neck and cuts off the air from the rest of -your body. One of these tents is shown in Figure 74. You do not put -your head out of the window; your head is on your pillow just as if -the tent were not there. Your bed is placed directly in front of -the window and the tent comes down over your pillow, allowing your -head practically to be out-of-doors, but keeping the cold air out -of the room. Sleeping under a window tent is the next best thing to -sleeping out-of-doors. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75. A sleeping porch built in a house.] - -[Sidenote: (_2_) By sleeping porches] - -Many of our modern houses are built with sleeping porches on which -one can sleep outdoors summer and winter. Where there is not a -special sleeping porch on the house, an ordinary porch may often be -made to serve the purpose, or a very inexpensive sleeping porch can -be added to the house. - -[Sidenote: (_3_) By tent cots] - -Sometimes people cannot get the use of a porch of any kind. In such -cases it may be possible to put up a tent in the yard. If the yard -is very small, a tent cot may be used. This is simply a cot with -a tent on it, which can be closed up and put away in the daytime -and set up again at night. In a large city where the houses have -no yards at all, this arrangement can be used by setting it up on -the roof of the house. There is almost always some way of securing -fresh air at night if we will only give a little thought to the -matter. - -[Sidenote: Fresh air in schoolrooms] - -Unfortunately, many of our school buildings are not provided with -good ventilating plants. A proper system of ventilation furnishes -at least 1200 cubic feet of fresh air per hour for each child in -each room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76. An open-air schoolroom for consumptive -children.] - -[Sidenote: The necessity for playgrounds] - -In large cities it is often impossible to find outdoor space in -which boys and girls may play during recess. Even this difficulty -can be overcome by turning the roof of the school building into a -playground, with a high wire netting around it. - -Every school yard should be provided with swings, bars, and -gymnasium apparatus to encourage the children to take plenty of -exercise. Children who live in crowded towns need exercise during -vacation as well as during school days, and the school yards should -be open to them at all times. A summer teacher who shows the -children the best way to exercise, has work fully as important as -that of any other teacher during the school term. - -A sound body is more valuable than education itself, but a good -education and a sound body together are the best assets any man or -woman can have. - - =Questions.= 1. State the four things necessary to cure - consumption; show the value of each. 2. What is the value of - fresh air to every one? 3. How may an abundance of fresh air be - secured in the home? 4. In the school? - - =Remember.= 1. Rest, fresh air, sunshine, and nourishing food - are the cures for consumption. 2. All these things can be - secured in any climate and by every person. 3. =Tuberculosis is - a communicable disease.= 4. =Tuberculosis can be prevented.= 5. - =Tuberculosis can be cured.= - - - - -APPENDIX[4] - -A SUMMARY OF ANATOMY - - -BONES AND JOINTS - -[Sidenote: The framework of the body] - -The framework of the body is composed of bones. There are 206 bones -(not including the teeth) in the body. The bones of the body are -divided into four classes--long bones, short bones, flat bones, and -irregular bones. - -[Sidenote: Construction of bones] - -Regardless of their shape, all bones are composed in the same way. -Every bone has an outer and an inner portion. The outer portion -is a dense layer called _compact bone_. The inner portion is more -open, and is much weaker; this is called _cancellated bone_ (from -_cancella_, a sponge). In the smaller bones, the marrow, which is -quite soft, runs through the spongy bone; in the larger long bones, -the marrow is distinct and is enclosed by the spongy bone. - -[Sidenote: The periosteum] - -Every bone is covered by a thick, tough layer, the _periosteum_, -which has three uses. When the bone is injured by disease or -accident, the periosteum makes new bone to fill in and repair the -break. It also builds new bone on the surface of the old as long as -the body is growing. Finally, the periosteum gives strong and firm -attachment to the muscles, which send tendons into it. - -[Sidenote: Joints] - -Every bone in the body (except the hyoid bone, to which the tongue -is attached) is joined with some other bone. Most of them join with -two or more bones. In most instances the end of a bone which joins -with another is rounded off and made very smooth, so that it can -slide easily over the other bone. There are three principal kinds -of joints in the body. They are called the _ball and socket_ joint, -the _hinge_ joint, and the _serrated_ or _saw-tooth_ joint. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77. The skeleton.] - -[Sidenote: The ball and socket joint] - -The ball and socket joint is one that can move freely in all -directions. We see it illustrated in the joints of the shoulder -and hip. In these joints one of the bones has a deep depression -in it, and this depression forms the _socket_. The other bone has -a rounded head that fits into the depression. We call this rounded -head the _ball_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78. The structure of a bone.] - -[Sidenote: The hinge joint] - -The hinge joint is illustrated in the knee and elbow joints. These -joints can move backward and forward in one plane like a hinge, but -they cannot move in a circle like the ball and socket joints. You -cannot swing your forearm about on a pivot at the elbow as you can -your whole arm, nor will the knee joint bend in every direction as -does the joint at the hip. - -[Sidenote: Serrated joints] - -Serrated joints do not move. The bones having serrated joints are -fitted tightly together so that they form practically one bone. We -find this kind of joint illustrated in the way the bones of the -skull are put together. - -[Sidenote: Ligaments] - -The joints of the body are not held together by rivets, pins or -bolts as are the joints of a machine, but by bands of very tough -tissue placed about a joint in such a way as to allow it to move -freely, although the bones are all the time held firmly together. -These bands are called _ligaments_. Ligaments are much better than -bolts or pegs would be, because they stretch a little, and thus -prevent the breaking of the bones when the joint is put under a -severe strain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79. The muscles.] - - -MUSCLES AND TENDONS - -[Sidenote: What muscle is] - -The lean meat of any animal is composed entirely of muscle tissue. -It is the function of the muscles to move the body. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80. The biceps muscle contracted.] - -[Sidenote: How the muscles work] - -The muscles are nearly all attached to the bones. They are just -long enough to let the joint straighten out when the muscles are at -rest, but when the joint bends the muscle contracts. When a muscle -contracts it becomes shorter and thicker. Sometimes it becomes very -much thicker in one place. Every boy knows how much thicker the arm -muscle (_biceps_) becomes when he bends his elbow hard. He calls -this "showing his muscle." - -[Sidenote: Tendons] - -There is not room enough on most of the bones for all the muscles -to be attached directly to them. Instead of being thus attached -directly to the bone, they end in what we call _tendons_. These -tendons are hard and strong, and a very small tendon will lift as -much without breaking as quite a large muscle. The muscles are soft -and would have to be attached over a large area in order to secure -the required strength. The tendons, being so much stronger than -the muscles, can be attached to a very small area and yet secure -the same amount of power as would result from attaching the muscle -itself. - -The tendons pass directly into the periosteum, the thick, strong -covering of the bones. So strong is this attachment that the bone -will often break before the tendon will pull loose. - - -THE SKIN - -[Sidenote: The skin as an armor] - -The entire body is covered with skin, which regulates the heat of -the body and acts as an armor against blows and cuts which would -otherwise injure the delicate nerves and blood vessels beneath. It -also serves to some extent to keep out the germs of disease. The -skin appears to be smooth, but if you examine it through a strong -magnifying glass you will see that it is divided into little areas. -The dividing lines do not run straight, however, and the areas are -not square like those you find on a checkerboard. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81. A section of the skin, highly magnified.] - -[Sidenote: Sweat glands] - -After looking at the skin with a strong magnifying glass you will -think that you must have seen all its irregularities, but if you -will look at it with a powerful microscope you will find out many -other things. In the first place you will see many little openings -in the skin. These little openings make the ridges which divide the -skin into little areas. Some of the openings are _sweat glands_, -and there is always some perspiration coming out of them. When you -are very warm you can see, without the aid of the glass, the drops -of perspiration as they come out on the surface of the skin. When -you are not very warm you cannot see these drops of perspiration, -but they are nevertheless coming out all the time. When the -perspiration comes so slowly that you cannot see it, it is called -_insensible perspiration_. - -[Sidenote: Hair] - -The whole body is covered with hair. You can see the hair on your -head and some of the hair on your arms and the backs of your hands, -but most of the hair on the body is so fine that you cannot see it -without a microscope. Each of the fine hairs on the body has a root -that goes through the skin just as the root from each hair on your -head goes through it. - -[Sidenote: Sebaceous glands] - -Opening into the little pockets in which the hairs stand, are -glands that secrete a kind of oily material. They are called -_sebaceous glands_ or _follicles_. Sometimes these follicles -become stopped up; then the material they secrete becomes thick -and cheesy, and the little black points appear on the skin which -we call _blackheads_. The white matter which comes out of these -blackheads is merely the secretion of the glands from which the -water has been absorbed, leaving the solid or cheesy portion. - -[Sidenote: Nails] - -There is a part of the skin that we do not usually think of as -skin. We mean the _nails_. The finger nails and the toe nails do -not look like the rest of the skin of the body, but they are made -of just the same kind of cells. The cells of the nails are flat, -dead, and closely packed together. There are no sweat glands, or -sebaceous glands, or any hairs in the nails. - - -THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - -[Sidenote: The alimentary canal] - -The digestive system is the part of our bodies in which the food we -eat is so changed that it can be made use of by the little cells -in the body. It is composed of a long canal with many parts and -enlargements, each part necessary for a certain required work. This -canal as a whole is called the _alimentary canal_. - -[Sidenote: Teeth] - -The mouth does the first part of the work for the digestive system. -Here we find the teeth, which are used for grinding the food. The -teeth are composed of three parts, the _head_ (or _crown_), the -_neck_ and the _root_. The head, or crown, is very hard. Each -tooth is hollow, and in the hollow portion there are nerves and -blood vessels. - -[Sidenote: The salivary glands] - -Opening into the mouth are three pairs of glands known as _salivary -glands_. One pair of glands is located just above the angle of the -jaw. It is these glands that become swollen when we have mumps. -Another pair of glands is placed just inside the jaw bone, near the -root of the tongue, and the third pair is located under the tongue. -These three pairs of glands secrete the saliva which moistens the -food and aids in digesting the starch. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82. The alimentary canal.] - -[Sidenote: The esophagus] - -The food passes from the mouth; through a passage called the -_esophagus_, or gullet, to the _stomach_. - -[Sidenote: The stomach] - -The stomach is one of the enlarged parts of the alimentary canal. -Its walls are quite thick, and in these walls are thousands of -little glands. These glands secrete a fluid called _gastric juice_. -When the food enters the stomach it is held there for a long time, -and the walls of the stomach squeeze upon it so that the food is -mixed with the gastric juice until every bit of it that will be -of any use to the body has become fluid in character. Not only -does the gastric juice make the food liquid, but it acts on it -and changes some of it so that it will be suitable for use by the -little cells of the body. As fast as the food is made liquid by -the juices of the stomach it is allowed to pass into the intestine -through an opening called the _pyloric opening_. - -[Sidenote: The intestine] - -The intestine is a long, narrow, twisting and turning tube that is -divided into two principal parts, the large and small intestine. In -the walls of the intestine are many little glands that secrete a -fluid that helps in digesting the food. Two fluids, one made by the -liver, the other by the pancreas, are brought into the intestine by -two small tubes, which come together in the wall of the intestine -six or seven inches below the pyloric opening. These fluids perform -a very important part in the digestion of all the different -foodstuffs. - -[Sidenote: Villi and lymphatics] - -Besides the little glands in the walls of the intestine there -are many thousands of little finger-like projections standing up -from the walls. These are called _villi_. Each villus has in it -very small vessels, into which the food passes after it has been -digested. These vessels are of two sorts: blood vessels, which -take up the digested starch and proteid foods, and another sort -known as _lymphatics_, which take up the fats. All the lymphatics -combine into a single vessel which empties into the great vein at -the base of the neck. Thus the fatty foods pass into the blood and -are mingled with the food materials taken up directly by the blood -vessels. - - -CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD - -[Sidenote: Two kinds of blood vessels] - -There are two kinds of blood vessels in the body. We call them -_arteries_ and _veins_. The arteries serve to carry the blood from -the heart to all parts of the body, and the veins serve to carry -the blood back to the heart. The heart is really a part of the -blood vessels, half of each side being like the veins and half like -the arteries. - -[Sidenote: Arteries and veins] - -The walls of the arteries are thicker than those of the veins. Two -sets of arteries leave the heart, one from each side. The artery -that starts from the right side of the heart goes to the lungs and -carries _venous blood_, which has a very poor supply of oxygen and -is full of impurities. We call this the _pulmonary artery_. The -artery that leaves the left side of the heart goes to all parts of -the body but the lungs and carries _arterial blood_, which has much -more oxygen and is much more free from impurities. - -[Sidenote: Capillaries] - -If we follow the blood as it circulates we will see how it reaches -all parts of the body. The big artery that leaves the left side of -the heart divides into smaller and smaller arteries until there -are branches going to every part of the body. These branches keep -dividing until they are so small that we call them _arterioles_, -and these little arterioles again divide and become so small that -we call them _capillaries_. - -[Sidenote: Changes in the blood] - -While the blood is passing through the arterioles and the -capillaries, something is happening to it. The little cells with -which these small vessels come in contact have been taking the -oxygen and the nourishing material out of the blood. At the same -time they have been putting something into the blood. In place of -the oxygen they have been putting in carbon dioxid and in place -of the nourishing material they have been putting in the worn-out -materials from the cells. As the blood passes through certain parts -of the body, such as the kidneys, the worn-out materials from the -cells are taken out of the blood and sent out of the body. The -carbon dioxid is left in the blood until it goes to the lungs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83. The white vessels represent the circulation -of the arterial blood; the gray, the circulation of the venous -blood.] - -[Sidenote: Venous blood] - -The blood has now been followed to the capillaries, where oxygen -and nourishing material have been taken out of it, and where -something else has been added to it. As we follow a little -capillary, we find that instead of dividing again, it joins others -and gradually grows larger. As these blood vessels grow larger the -walls do not become so thick as the walls of the arteries of the -same size. These larger vessels formed by the union of capillaries -are called _veins_. In other words, the veins are simply -continuations of the arteries that have divided into extremely -small branches and have now come together again. The blood which -has been changed is now called _venous blood_. It has much less -oxygen in it, but has received a great deal of carbon dioxid. The -veins continue to come together, until finally they form a single -large vein which empties into the upper half of the right side of -the heart. From there the blood is driven into the lower half of -the right side of the heart and thence to the pulmonary artery, -which goes to the lungs. The blood is not changed in the heart, so -what goes into the pulmonary artery is still venous blood. - -[Sidenote: Arterial blood] - -The blood goes straight from the heart to the lungs and there it is -changed into arterial blood. The change consists in taking oxygen -from the air and giving off carbon dioxid to the air. From the -lungs the blood goes through the capillaries again into the veins, -the small capillaries in the lungs uniting to form the pulmonary -veins. These veins finally unite into one vein that empties into -the upper half of the left side of the heart, and from there the -blood goes to the lower half of the same side. The blood has now -reached its starting point and is ready to begin its journey again. -The journey of the blood is as follows: - -[Sidenote: Entire circulation] - -From the right side of the heart to the arteries; from arteries -into arterioles; from arterioles to capillaries; from capillaries -into veins; from veins into the heart; from the heart to the lungs; -and from the lungs back to the heart again. - - -THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - -[Sidenote: Use of the respiratory system] - -That portion of the body by which we breathe is called the -respiratory system. This system is composed of the _nasal passage_, -the _pharynx_, the _larynx_, the _trachea_, the _bronchi_, and the -_lungs_. The mouth is not a part of the respiratory system; we -should never breathe through our mouths. - -[Sidenote: The use of the nose in breathing] - -As the air passes through the nasal passage it is warmed and -moistened, and a great deal of dust and dirt is taken out of it. -Thus the nasal passage serves to warm, to moisten, and to clean the -air we breathe, and is a very important part of the respiratory -system, since either cold or dry air is very irritating to the -lungs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84. The air passages of the head and throat.] - -[Sidenote: Pharynx, larynx, and trachea] - -There is only one tube leading from the back of the nasal passage -to the lungs. Different parts of this tube are given different -names. The pharynx is that part that extends from the back of -the nose to the vocal chords. The larynx is the part of the -throat where the vocal chords are located. We sometimes call it -the "Adam's apple." It is very prominent in some men, but seldom -noticeable in women. The trachea is the part of the tube leading -down from the larynx. At the lower end of the trachea the tube -divides into two parts that we call the bronchi, one leading to -each lung. - -[Sidenote: The bronchi] - -The bronchi carry the air from the trachea to the lungs. They -divide again and again until they become so small that there is a -branch for each little air cell in the lungs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85. The lungs.] - -[Sidenote: The lungs] - -The lungs are the most important part of the respiratory system. -They are made up of lobes. There are two lobes in the left lung -and three in the right. Each lobe is divided into _lobules_, which -means small lobes. Each lobule is divided into air spaces. In these -air spaces, or cells, the work of the lungs is performed. - -[Sidenote: Air cells] - -The capillaries run in the thin walls of the air spaces. The walls -of these fine blood vessels are so very thin that the air in the -air cells comes in almost direct contact with the blood in the -vessels. While the blood is passing through the vessels in the -walls of the air spaces, something happens to both the blood and -the air. The air we take into our lungs contains a great deal of -oxygen and very little carbon dioxid. The air that comes out of our -lungs contains a great deal of carbon dioxid and much less oxygen. -In other words, the oxygen from the air goes into the blood, and -the carbon dioxid from the blood goes out into the air. - -[Sidenote: Necessity of pure air] - -If the air we breathe is not pure and does not contain enough -oxygen, the blood cannot get all the oxygen we need, and the cells -of the body become sick and die. If, when we breathe, we do not -fill each little air cell in our lungs with air, a great deal of -the blood sent to the lungs for oxygen cannot get it. If we wear -very tight clothing we cannot take a full breath and hence cannot -fill all the air spaces with air. If the air spaces in the lungs -are not filled, the blood does not get the oxygen it needs, as -there is no other place in the body to get it. - - -THE EYE AND THE EAR - -[Sidenote: The eye compared to a camera] - -The eye is one of the most important organs in the body and also -one of the most delicate. It is very much like a camera. - -[Sidenote: The cornea and the sclera] - -When you look at an eye you are likely to think that the front of -it is blue or brown. The colored part is not the front of the eye. -If you look at the eye from the side you will see that there is a -curved part in front of the colored part and that the curved part -is perfectly clear. This curved clear part of the eye we call the -_cornea_. The cornea connects with the white part of the eye, and -this white part extends all around the rest of the eye, except at a -small point in the back where the _optic nerve_ comes through. This -white part we call the _sclera_. - -[Sidenote: Aqueous humor] - -The space between the cornea and the colored part of the eye is -filled with a clear fluid that is called the _aqueous humor_, which -means watery fluid. The space occupied by this fluid is called the -_anterior chamber_ of the eye. - -[Sidenote: The iris] - -The iris, which is the colored portion of the eye, is a curtain -that is hung between the anterior and posterior chambers of the -eye. It prevents any light getting into the posterior chamber -except that which passes through a round hole in the iris called -the _pupil_. The pupil grows larger or smaller according to the -amount of light needed by the eye. If you look away from a bright -light at something in the dark, the pupil grows larger; if you -look back at the light, it grows smaller. You can see this in a -hand mirror. - -[Sidenote: Lens] - -Behind the pupil is a clear mass shaped like a very strong -magnifying glass. This is the _lens_. The lens causes to be formed -on the back of the eye a clear picture of whatever you are looking -at. When you focus a camera, you move the back towards or away from -the lens. When you focus your eye you cannot move the back of the -eye, but you can make the lens more or less convex as may be needed -to make a clear picture. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86. A cross-section of the eye.] - -[Sidenote: Vitreous humor] - -Behind the iris and the lens, we find the posterior chamber of -the eye. This occupies by far the greater portion of the ball -and corresponds to the dark chamber of a camera. This chamber is -filled with a clear fluid called the _vitreous humor_, which means -jelly-like fluid. It is a clear, gelatinous substance. - -[Sidenote: The retina and the optic nerve] - -The optic nerve enters the eyeball from the back and spreads -its fibers out in a thin membrane called the _retina_, which -corresponds to the sensitive plate in a camera. The lens focuses on -the retina the image of any object you look at. The impression made -on the minute nerve endings in the retina is carried by the optic -nerve fibers to the brain. When this impression reaches the brain -we see the object. - -[Sidenote: Movements of the eye] - -Each eye has six muscles that turn it in whatever direction you -want to look. These muscles are very delicate, and for true -sight they must be exactly adjusted. If the muscles on one side -of the eye are stronger than those on the other side, you will -be cross-eyed or wall-eyed. If one of the muscles in one eye is -stronger than the corresponding muscle in the other eye, it pulls -the eyeball out of place and you "see double." - -[Sidenote: The use of the outer ear] - -The portion of the ear that you see on the side of your head has as -much to do with hearing as the outer rim of the horn into which you -speak has to do with making a record for the phonograph. You know -that the record is really made at the little end of the horn, while -the big end simply collects the sound. The outside portion of the -ear simply collects sounds, and the real hearing is done with the -portion of the ear that is not seen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87. The ear, showing the outer, middle, and the -inner part.] - -The outer ear connects with the short tube that leads to the -_drum_, which is a thin membrane that separates the middle ear from -the outer ear. This drum does not have so much to do with hearing -as is supposed. To have a hole in the drum does not mean that you -cannot hear. - -[Sidenote: The middle ear] - -The middle ear is that portion which is just inside the drum. In -this we find a chain of little bones. The one attached to the -drum is shaped much like a hammer, and is called the _malleus_, -which means mallet or hammer. The next one is shaped like an anvil -and is called _incus_, which means anvil, and the third is called -_stapes_, which means stirrup. The flat part of the stapes fits -into a small opening that leads to the internal ear. - -[Sidenote: The inner ear] - -The internal ear is shaped like a snail shell. It makes several -turns, which are hollow like the ends of a conch shell. In these -channels the nerve that receives the impressions made by the sounds -is distributed. This nerve carries the impressions to the brain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88. The nervous system.] - - -THE NERVOUS SYSTEM - -[Sidenote: Importance of the nervous system] - -This system is so important in its use and so difficult to -understand in its details, that a description of it should have -more space than can be given in this summary. Can you imagine -having no feeling and being unable to move? This would be your -condition if you had no nerves. - -[Sidenote: Nerves compared to telegraph system] - -Briefly, the nerves might be called the telegraph system of the -body. There is a great central station called the brain where -messages are received and sent out; there are many sub-stations -that make up the spinal cord. Twelve great nerves pass directly -from the brain to the body; all others pass from the spinal cord. - -[Sidenote: Extent of nervous system] - -Every nerve leaving these centres divides and sub-divides into -little threads as the arteries divide and sub-divide into -arterioles and capillaries, until every part of the body--every -muscle and part of the skin--has its nerve. - -[Sidenote: Voluntary and reflex action] - -Every time you _choose_ to move your hand, your brain sends to the -necessary muscles an instantaneous order to act. This is called -_voluntary action_. If you put your finger against a hot stove -you jerk it away before you could have time to _choose_ to do it. -This happens as an order from a sub-station and is called _reflex -action_. - -Messages travel both ways and it is necessary that the nervous -connection with every part of the body remain unbroken, and -important that the nervous condition be kept healthy. - - - - -NOTES TO THE TEACHER - - -A false delicacy has often prevented the teaching of vital lessons -to growing children. The day is how at hand when foolish sentiment -must no longer prevent the spread of any knowledge which is -necessary to exterminate the plagues that have afflicted the race. - -In chapters 17, 18, 19 and 32, unpleasant facts are given in plain -language. They are facts that parents do not teach their children -and that most teachers will not frankly treat with classes in a -school. Though they are disagreeable to discuss, they are essential -for children of school age to know. Now that the dependence of -public health upon personal hygiene is recognized, personal habits -and sanitary conditions are more frankly dealt with than formerly. - -It is an excellent thing occasionally, to have one or two points of -an assigned lesson answered in writing. Any topic that the teacher -may think advisable to treat in this manner may be discussed on -paper at the beginning of the recitation, five or six minutes being -allowed for that purpose. Even a whole chapter may be assigned to -be studied with a view of answering in writing the questions at the -end of the chapter. The written test can then take the place of the -usual oral recitation. This method is suggested to the teacher who -hesitates to discuss orally certain plain but essential facts. - -Chapter 32 on the Spread and Prevention of Consumption can be -treated with best results orally, if the pupils are first made -to _feel_ the great danger of consumption and to realize the -possibility of preventing the vast havoc wrought by that dread -disease. The attitude of teacher and pupils should be that while -the discussion may be disagreeable, the disgusting habits referred -to in the text are so commonly practised that unless their dangers -are taught this disease can never be wiped out. - - - - -INDEX - - - Adenoids, 49, 50 - - Air, amount necessary for health, 45; - effects of impure, 45-48; - fresh air, when needed, 45-48; - how secured, 46, 47; - how changed in body, 45; - necessity of pure air, 45-48 - - Air cells, 175 - - Alcohol, effect of, on body, 67-70; - on brain work, 70; - on consumptives, 69; - on descendants, 69; - on liver, 68; - on morals, 69; - on nervous system, 69; - on powers of resistance, 68; - on stomach, 67; - false ideas about effects of, 67; - what business men think of, 70 - - Alimentary canal, 169, 170 - - Amoebic dysentery, how prevented, 122; - how spread, 122; - where prevalent, 122 - - Animals free from typhoid fever, 113 - - Antitoxin, how it acts, 108-110; - how discovered, 109; - sometimes considered a poison, 111; - prevents diphtheria, 110; - saves lives, 110 - - Aqueous humor, 177 - - Arterial blood, 172 - - Arteries, 171 - - Articles used by the sick, dangers from, 75; - how to treat, 76 - - - Bathing, importance of, 60; - frequency of, 60 - - Baths, hot, 61; - cold, 61 - - Bedtime for children, 51 - - Blood, arterial, 172; - how changed in the body, 174; - venous, 171, 172 - - Boils, how caused, 95, 99 - - Bones, 163 - - Bronchi, 175 - - Building foods, 14, 15 - - - Candy, when harmful, 54; - when not harmful, 54 - - Canned meats, why poisonous, 32 - - Capillaries, 172 - - Cells, are alive, 6; - body made of, 6; - body needs new, 14; - how killed, 7; - must not be killed, 6; - size of a, 5; - what they are like, 5 - - Circulation of the blood, 171-174 - - Clothing, effect of damp, 11; - promotes health, 9; - proper weight of, 10 - - Common drinking cup, 153 - - Consumption. _See Tuberculosis_ - - Cooking, effects of improper, 34, 35; - fatty foods, 34; - meats, 35; - starchy foods, 34 - - Cornea, 177 - - Coughing, dangers from, 147, 150-153; - how to prevent dangers from, 152, 153 - - Cuspidors, in public buildings, 152; - pocket, 152; - street, 152 - - - Dairy, sickness about a, 26, 103, 115 - - Decomposed foods dangerous, 30, 32 - - Decomposition, cause of, 30; - effect of cold on, 31; - of foods, 30-32 - - Desserts, when harmful, 40; - when not harmful, 40 - - Dining table, effect of dirty, 37; - cheerfulness at, 37 - - Diphtheria, cure of, 108-111; - germs present after recovery, 101, 102; - germs present when throat is not sore, 104; - how to confine germs, 100; - how poison is fought, 108-110; - mild cases, how detected, 104; - nature of the poison, 108; - prevalence of, 100; - where germs come from, 100; - why some cases are not quarantined, 102-104 - - Dirt, a cause of sickness, 77, 78; - getting into milk from cows, 23, 117; - from cow barns, 23-25; - from milk cans and bottles, 26, 27; - from milkmen, 25; - from flies, 28, 80, 81 - - Diseased animals, effect on meats, 19-21; - effect on milk, 28; - tuberculosis from, 28, 155 - - Drafts, evil effects of, 10; - how to prevent harm from, 10 - - - Ear, care of, 58; - drum, 179; - inner ear, 181; - middle ear, 179; - outer ear, 179 - - Esophagus, 170 - - Excreta from sick, how dispose of, 76, 118 - - Exercise, necessity of, 51, 161 - - Eye, how germs get into, 56; - how overworked, 57; - method of testing, 58 - - - Far sight, 58 - - Flies, breeding places for, 77, 80; - as germ carriers, 80, 81, 116; - how to get rid of, 82, 83; - how to keep out, 83 - - Fly screens, where needed, 83 - - Foods, advertised, 16; - building, 14-16; - decomposition of, 30-32; - heat-producing, 14-16; - improper cooking of, 34, 35; - cost of suitable, 16; - uses of foods, 14-17; - uses of starches, 14; - uses of fats, 15; - value of meat as a, 15; - value of milk as a, 14 - - - Garbage cans, should be covered, 83 - - Germs, cause of poison in meats, 31, 32; - carried by dogs and cats, 106; - effect of, in wounds, 95-99; - how, get through the skin, 95; - how, get into the body, 79; - how, get into foods, 79, 80; - how put into the air, 147, 150; - how kept out of the air, 151, 152; - how to fight, 74; - of lockjaw, 98; - man's greatest foe, 1; - nature of a, 73; - not alike, 73; - not killed by running water, 115 - - - Hair, 169 - - Hearing, how tested, 58 - - Heat, how kept up in the body, 14 - - Hookworm disease, character of the worm, 120; - how it enters the body, 121; - how prevented, 122; - nature of the disease, 121; - where worm lives in the body, 121; - where prevalent, 122 - - - Insects that carry disease, 92-94 - - Intestines, 171 - - Iris, 177 - - - Joints, 163 - - - Larynx, 174, 175 - - Lens, the, 178 - - Ligaments, 165 - - Lungs, 175 - - Lymphatics, 171 - - - Malaria, how transmitted, 92; - how prevented, 93 - - Manure, a hatching place for flies, 80, 82; - how to dispose of, 82 - - Meal times, frequency of, 53; - regularity of, 53; - should be pleasant, 37, 38 - - Measles, after effects of, 128; - fatality of, 128; - necessity of care in, 129; - seriousness of, 128; - why to avoid, 128 - - Meats, characteristics of good, 18; - Clean Meat League, 19; - from diseased animals, 19-21; - germs cause poison in, 19, 32; - how kept clean, 18; - should be cooked, 35; - value of, as a food, 18 - - Milk, as carrier of disease, 22, 117; - effect of germs on, 22; - effect of disease in cow on, 28; - flies in, 28; - how germs get into, 23-28; - impure, dangerous, 22; - polluted water in, 27; - typhoid fever carried by, 117; - value of, as a food, 14, 20 - - Mosquitoes, as disease carriers, 92, 93; - how to get rid of, 94 - - Mouth, why some breathe through, 49 - - Mouth-breathing, effect of, 50 - - Muscles, attachment of, 167 - - - Nails, how to care for, 61, 62 - - Near sight, 57 - - Nerves, compared to telegraph system, 181; - distribution of, 181 - - Nose, importance of breathing through, 48 - - - Overcoats, necessity of, 12 - - Overwork, effect of, 51, 52 - - - Paper napkins for consumptives, 152 - - Parties, time for, 53 - - Pencils in mouth, 155 - - Pharynx, 175 - - Play a form of work, 52 - - Playgrounds, 161 - - Pocket cuspidors, 152 - - Ptomaines, 19 - - - Quarantine, breaking, shows selfishness, 126; - how broken by family, 105; - rules of, 105; - seriousness of breaking, 101; - when safe to raise, 102; - why necessary, 101; - why some cases escape, 102-104 - - - Reflex action, 181 - - Respiratory system, 174-177 - - Rest, proper amount of, 51 - - Retina, 178 - - Rocky Mountain Spotted (Tick) Fever, how transmitted, 94 - - Rubbers, necessity of wearing, 11 - - - Saliva, effect of, on starches, 39, 41 - - Salivary glands, 170 - - Scarlet fever, a dangerous disease, 124; - mild cases dangerous, 123, 124 - - Scarlatina, 125 - - Scarlet rash, why quarantine is necessary in, 125 - - School lunches, 37 - - Sclera, 177 - - Sebaceous glands, 169 - - Sewage, effect of, on water, 85-87, 115 - - Sickness about a dairy, 26, 103, 115; - due to germs, how prevented, 3 - - Sick room, stay away from, 75 - - Skin, care of, 60, 61 - - Smallpox, fatality of, 131; - how prevented, 135-137; - during Franco-Prussian War, 132; - in Sweden, 133; - in Gloucester, 134; - in the Philippine Islands, 134 - - Spitting, dangers from, 151; - how avoided, 152; - where to spit, 152, 153; - where not to spit, 151 - - Springs, how polluted, 87 - - Street cuspidors, 152 - - Sunshine, effect of, on germs, 77, 78 - - Suppuration, how the surgeon prevents, 96; - how you may prevent, 97; - real cause of, 96 - - Sweat glands, the work of, 60 - - - Teeth, brittle, 42; - dangers from poor, 41-43; - how to care for, 43; - necessity of baby teeth, 41; - uses of teeth, 41; - why, decay, 42 - - Tendons, 167 - - Tobacco, a poison, 64; - effect of, on blood, 65; - on heart, 66; - on nervous system, 66; - on nose and throat, 65; - on stomach, 66; - extra work caused by, 64 - - Toilets, improper construction of, 86; - proper construction of, 87; - relation to wells, 85-87 - - Tonsils, 49, 50 - - Trachea, 175 - - Tuberculin test, 155, 156 - - Tuberculosis, can be prevented, 142, 148, 157; - fatality of, 142; - fresh air in, 157, 158; - germ, discovery of the, 145; - how to get, out of a house, 147, 148; - how germs leave the body, 150, 151; - how spread from cows, 28, 155; - how spread from the lips, 153-155; - how detected in cows, 155; - a house disease, 146, 147; - not inherited, 146; - of the glands, 144; - of the joints, 143; - of the spine, 144; - of the stomach, 144; - of the throat, 143; - prevalence of, 142; - pure food in, 158; - rest in, 157; - should be recognized early, 157; - sunshine in, 158; - why called the Great White Plague, 142 - - Typhoid fever, animals free from, 113; - carried by flies, 80, 81, 116; - carried by milk, 22, 117; - effect of a single case, 114; - how germs leave the body, 113; - how germs get into the body, 113; - how germs get into water, 114; - importance of cleanliness, 117, 118; - life of germs in a stream, 115; - recovered patient dangerous, 117 - - - Umbrellas, necessity of, 11 - - - Vaccination, cause of sore arms after, 140, 141; - discovery of, 132; - how, prevents smallpox, 135; - necessity of repeating, 137; - pretended vaccination, 138; - when successful, 138 - - Ventilation, in homes, 46, 159; - in public buildings, 48, 161; - in workshops, 48 - - Veins, 171 - - Venous blood, 171, 172 - - Villi, 171 - - Vitreous humor, 178 - - Voluntary action, 181 - - - Water, avoid polluting, 85-88, 115; - effect of sewage on, 85, 115; - how germs get into, 85-88; - polluted, in milk, 27; - safe sources of, 88 - - Wells, how polluted, 86, 87; - relation of toilets to, 86, 87 - - Windows, should be kept open, 45-47; - should be screened, 83 - - Wood-ticks, as disease carriers, 93; - how abolished, 94 - - Wounds, importance of keeping clean, 97 - - - Yards should be clean, 77 - - Yellow fever, how transmitted, 92; - how prevented, 92 - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Bujar and Baier state that the nourishing power of bacon is -represented by 2,767, while the nourishing power of butter is -represented by 2,610. - -[2] The cleaning out of these cemented vaults is an exceedingly -unpleasant task. Some prefer to have a strong, water-tight box -placed under the closet seats. When this box is nearly full, it -can be removed to some place where fertilizer is needed, and there -emptied, the contents being plowed into the ground. In order to -make this task as simple as possible, it is a good plan to put the -box on skids, and have a heavy strip in one end with a bolt and -ring through it, so that a horse can be hitched to the box to draw -it away. If a little dry earth or lime is put into the box each -day, there will be no unpleasant odor. - -[3] The teacher should demonstrate the action of acids and alkalies -on a solution of litmus. - -[4] At the request of many practical teachers the author has -appended this brief summary of anatomy. The material is intended to -be used for reference or to be assigned as lessons in connection -with the chapters of the book, at the discretion of the teacher. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Principles of Public Health, by Thos. D. 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