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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b44eb6c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53954 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53954) diff --git a/old/53954-8.txt b/old/53954-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2c09be4..0000000 --- a/old/53954-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6518 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of William Morris to Whistler, by Walter Crane - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: William Morris to Whistler - Papers and addresses on art and craft and the commonweal. - -Author: Walter Crane - -Illustrator: Walter Crane - -Release Date: January 13, 2017 [EBook #53954] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILLIAM MORRIS TO WHISTLER *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lesley Halamek and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Other Works by Walter Crane - - - _Crown 8vo, 6s. net each_ - - THE BASES OF DESIGN - - WITH 200 ILLUSTRATIONS - - - LINE AND FORM - - WITH 157 ILLUSTRATIONS - - - THE DECORATIVE ILLUSTRATION - OF BOOKS OLD AND NEW - - WITH 165 ILLUSTRATIONS - - - - - _Medium 8vo. 10s. 6d. net_ - - IDEALS IN ART - - PAPERS THEORETICAL, PRACTICAL, - CRITICAL - - WITH TITLE-PAGE, END-PAPERS, AND COVER - DESIGNED BY THE AUTHOR, AND - NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS - - - - - LONDON: G. BELL AND SONS, LTD. - - - - - WILLIAM MORRIS - TO WHISTLER - - - - -[Illustration: - - WILLIAM MORRIS - TO WHISTLER - - PAPERS AND ADDRESSES ON - ART AND CRAFT AND THE - COMMONWEAL - - BY WALTER CRANE - - WITH ILLUSTRATIONS - FROM DRAWINGS BY THE - AUTHOR & OTHER SOURCES - - - LONDON: G BELL & SONS LTD - YORK HOUSE PORTUGAL S^T W.C. - 1911 -] - - - - - CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. - TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Of the collected papers and addresses which form this book, the -opening one upon William Morris was composed of an address to the Art -Workers' Guild, an article which appeared in "The Progressive Review," -at the instance of Mr. J. A. Hobson, and a longer illustrated article -written for "The Century Magazine," and now reprinted with the -illustrations by permission of Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons, to -whom my thanks are due. - -"The Socialist Ideal as a New Inspiration in Art" was written for "The -International Review," when it appeared under the editorship of Dr. -Rudolph Broda, as the English edition of "Documents du Progrès." - -"The English Revival in Decorative Art" appeared in the "Fortnightly -Review," and I have to thank Mr. W. L. Courtney for allowing me to -reprint it. It has some additions. - -"Notes on Early Italian Gesso Work," was written for Messrs. George -Newnes's Magazine of the Fine Arts with the illustrations, and I am -obliged to them for leave to use both again. - -"Notes on Colour Embroidery and its Treatment" was written at Mrs. -Christie's request for "Embroidery," which she edited, and I have -Messrs. Pearsall's authority to include it here. - -"The Apotheosis of 'The Butterfly'" was a review written for "The -Evening News," and I thank the editor for letting me print it again. -It appears now, however, with a different title, and considerable -additions. - -"A Short Survey of the Art of the Century" appeared in a journal, the -name of which has escaped me, but it has been largely rewritten and -added to since. - -For the rest, "Modern Aspects of Life and the Sense of Beauty" was -originally addressed as the opening of a debate at the Pioneer Club, -in which my late friend Lewis F. Day was my opponent, and my chief -supporter was Mr. J. Ramsay Macdonald, M.P. - -"Art and the Commonweal" was an address to the Students of Art at -Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and the paper "On Some of -the Arts allied to Architecture" was given before the Architectural -Association. That "On the Study and Practice of Art" was delivered in -Manchester before the Art School Committee and City authorities, and -the "Notes on Animals in Art" to the Art Workers' Guild in London. - - WALTER CRANE. - - KENSINGTON, - _September 1911_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - WILLIAM MORRIS AND HIS WORK 3 - - THE ENGLISH REVIVAL IN DECORATIVE ART 47 - - THE SOCIALIST IDEAL AS A NEW INSPIRATION IN ART 83 - - ON THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF ART 105 - - ON SOME OF THE ARTS AND CRAFTS ALLIED TO ARCHITECTURE 125 - - NOTES ON COLOUR EMBROIDERY AND ITS TREATMENT 149 - - NOTES ON EARLY ITALIAN GESSO WORK 163 - - NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS IN ART 185 - - MODERN ASPECTS OF LIFE AND THE SENSE OF BEAUTY 207 - - A SHORT SURVEY OF THE ART OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, - CHIEFLY IN ENGLAND, WITH SOME NOTES ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 223 - - ART AND THE COMMONWEAL 241 - - THE APOTHEOSIS OF "THE BUTTERFLY" 259 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - Portrait of William Morris. From a photograph by Emery Walker 2 - - Pen-Sketch of Morris Speaking from a Wagon in Hyde Park. - By Walter Crane 15 - - Design for Wall-paper. "The Daisy" 18 - - Design for Wall-paper. "Rose Trellis" 19 - - Woollen Hanging. "The Peacock" 22 - - Design for Silk Hanging 23 - - Cotton Print. "Evenlode" 25 - - Kelmscott House. Meeting Room of the Hammersmith - Socialist Society 27 - - Pages from Morris's MS. of Omar Khayyám 30, 31, 32, 33 - - Pen Design by Walter Crane 47, 83 - - Progressive blackboard practice in Bi-Manual Training - from "New Methods in Education" by Liberty Tadd 109 - - Patterns of Roman Mosaic Pavement, from the Baths of - Caracalla 129, 130, 131 - - Patterns in Plain Leading, from "The Glazier's Booke" 143 - - Russian Peasant Embroidery: Blouse in Cross Stitch 151 - - Cretan Embroidery 153 - - Embroidered Cover from Bokhara 155 - - Original Design for Embroidered Hanging, by Walter Crane 157 - - Examples of Early Italian Gesso Work - (Victoria and Albert Museum) 167-181 - - Egyptian Treatment of Birds. Eighteenth dynasty, Hieroglyphics. - Thebes 186 - - Assyrian Lion 187 - - Persian Lion 188 - - Egyptian Lion 188 - - Graeco-Buddhist Lions from Sarnath 189 - - Animal Forms from Early Greek Pottery 191 - - English Heraldic Lions. Thirteenth Century 193 - - Birds and Animals in Sicilian Textiles. Thirteenth Century. - (From Fishbach) 195, 196, 197 - - Japanese Birds. From the "Hundred Birds" of Bari 199 - - Stone Carvings at Gwalior 200, 201, 202, 203 - - Lion by Alfred Stevens 204 - - Pen Designs by Walter Crane 207, 223, 241 - - Butterfly Device 259 - - Portrait of Whistler. After Charcoal Drawing by Himself 261 - - "The Thames in Ice" 267 - - Panels from the Peacock Room 269 - - - - -ERRATA (TN: These corrections have been applied.) - - -Page 50, line 4 from foot, _for_ "Burgess" _read_ "Burges." - -Page 92, line 2, _for_ "Le Thangue" _read_ "La Thangue." - -Page 134, line 14, _for_ "give" _read_ "gives." - -Page 190, line 7 from foot, _for_ "Fringe" _read_ "Frieze." - -Page 198, line 2 from foot, _for_ "Central Provinces" _read_ "Central -India." - - - - -WILLIAM MORRIS AND HIS WORK - - [Illustration: PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM MORRIS. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH - BY EMERY WALKER.] - - - - -WILLIAM MORRIS AND HIS WORK - - -If it is agreed that art, after all, may be summed up as the -expression of character, it follows that the more we realize an -artist's personality the clearer understanding we shall get of his -work. So remarkable a personality as that of William Morris must have -left many distinct, and at the same time different, impressions upon -the minds of those who knew him, or enjoyed his friendship in life. - -It is difficult to realize that fifteen years have passed away since -he left us; but from the dark and blurred background of changing -years his character and work define themselves, and his position and -influence take their true place, while his memory, like some masterly -portrait, remains clear and vivid in our minds--re-presented as it -were in the severe but refined draughtsmanship of time. - -With so distinct and massive an individuality it was strange to hear -him say, as I once did, that of the six different personalities he -recognized within himself at different times he often wondered which -was the real William Morris! Those who knew him, however, were aware -of many different sides, and we know that the "idle dreamer of an -empty day" was also the enthusiastic artist and craftsman, and could -become the man of passionate action on occasion, or the shrewd man of -business, or the keen politician also, as well as the quiet observer -of nature and life. Even the somewhat Johnsonian absoluteness and -emphasis of expression which characterized him generally, would -occasionally give way to an open-to-conviction manner, when tackled by -a sincere and straightforward questioner. - -But Morris was above and before all else a poet--a _practical_ poet, -if one may use such a term--and this explains the whole of his work. -Not that personally he at all answered to the popular conventional -idea of a poet, rather the reverse, and he was anything but a -sentimentalist. He hated both the introspective and the rhetorical -school, and he never posed. He loved romance and was steeped in -mediaeval lore, but it was a real living world to him, and the -glimpses he gives us are those of an actual spectator. It is not -archaeology, it is _life_, quite as vivid to him, perhaps more so than -that of the present day. He loved nature, he loved beautiful detail, -he loved pattern, he loved colour--"_red_ and _blue_" he used to say -in his full-blooded way. _His patterns are decorative poems_ in terms -of form and colour. _His poems and romances are decorative patterns_ -in forms of speech and rhyme. His dream world and his ideal world -were like one of his own tapestries--a green field starred with -vivid flowers upon which moved the noble and beautiful figures of -his romantic imagination, as distinct in type and colour as heraldic -charges. Textile design interested him profoundly and occupied him -greatly, and one may trace its influence, I think, throughout his -work--even in his Kelmscott Press borders. One might almost say that -he had a textile imagination, his poems and romances seem to be woven -in the loom of his mind, and to enfold the reader like a magic web. - -But though he cast his conceptions in the forms and dress of a past -age, he took his inspiration straight from nature and life. His poems -are full of English landscapes, and through the woods of his romances -one might come upon a reach of the silvery Thames at any moment. The -river he loved winds through the whole of his delightful Socialistic -Utopia in "News from Nowhere." - -As a craftsman and an artist working with assistants and in the course -of his business he was brought face to face with the modern conditions -of labour and manufacture, and was forced to think about the political -economy of art. Accepting the economic teaching of John Ruskin, he -went much further and gave his allegiance to the banner of Socialism, -under which, however, he founded his own school and had his own -following, and conducted his own newspaper. From the dream world of -romance, and from the sequestered garden of design, he plunged into -the thick of the fight for human freedom, in which, he held, was -involved the very existence of art. - -Ever and anon he returned to his sanctuary--his workshop--to fashion -some new thing of beauty, in verse or craftsmanship, in which we see -the results of his labour in so many directions. - -He certainly seemed to have possessed a larger and fuller measure of -vitality and energy than most men--perhaps such extra vitality is -the distinction of genius--but the very strenuousness of his nature -probably shortened the duration of his life. There were never any -half-measures with him, but everything he took up, he went into -seriously, nay, passionately, with the whole force of his being. His -power of concentration (the secret of great workers) was enormous, and -was spent from time to time in a multitude of ways, but whether in the -eager search for decorative beauty, his care for the preservation of -ancient buildings, in the delight of ancient saga, story, or romance, -or in the battle for the welfare of mankind, like one of his own -chieftains and heroes, he always made his presence felt, and as the -practical pioneer and the master-craftsman in the revival of English -design and handicraft his memory will always be held in honour. - -His death marked an epoch both in art and in social and economic -thought. The press notices and appreciations that have appeared from -time to time for the most part have dwelt upon his work as a poet -and an artist and craftsman, and have but lightly passed over his -connection with Socialism and advanced thought. - -But, even apart from prejudice, a hundred will note the beauty and -splendour of the flower to one who will notice the leaf and the stem, -or the roots and the soil from which the tree springs. - -Yet the greatness of a man must be measured by the number of spheres -in which he is distinguished--the width of his range and appeal to his -fellows. - -In the different branches of his work William Morris commanded the -admiration, or, what is equally a tribute to his force, excited the -opposition--of as many different sections of specialists. - -As a poet he appealed to poets by reason of many distinct qualities. -He united pre-Raphaelite vividness (as in "The Haystack in the -Floods"), with a dream-like, wistful sweetness and charm of flowing -narrative, woven in a kind of rich mediaeval tapestry of verse, and -steeped with the very essence of legendary romance as in "The Earthly -Paradise"; or with the heroic spirit of earlier time, as in "Sigurd -the Volsung," while all these qualities are combined in his later -prose romances. - -His architectural and archaeological knowledge again was complete -enough for the architect and the antiquary. - -His classical and historical lore won him the respect of scholars. - -His equipment as a designer and craftsman, based upon his -architectural knowledge and training enabled him to exercise an -extraordinary influence over all the arts of design, and gave him his -place as leader of our latter-day English revival of handicraft--a -position perhaps in which he is widest known. - -In all these capacities the strength and beauty of William Morris's -work has been freely acknowledged by his brother craftsmen, as well as -by a very large public. - -There was, however, still another direction in which his vigour and -personal weight were thrown with all the ardour of an exceptionally -ardent nature, wherein the importance and significance of his work -is as yet but partially apprehended--I mean his work in the cause of -Socialism, in which he might severally be regarded as an economist, a -public lecturer, a propagandist, a controversialist. - -No doubt many even of the most emphatic admirers of William Morris's -work as an artist, a poet, and a decorator have been unable to follow -him in this direction, while others have deplored, or even denounced, -his self-sacrificing enthusiasm. There seems to have been insuperable -difficulty to some minds in realizing that the man who wrote "The -Earthly Paradise" should have lent a hand to try to bring it about, -when once the new hope had dawned upon him. - -There is no greater mistake than to think of William Morris as a -sentimentalist, who, having built himself a dream-house of art and -poetry, sighs over the turmoil of the world, and calls himself a -Socialist because factory chimneys obtrude themselves upon his view. - -It seems to have escaped those who have inclined to such an opinion -that a man, in Emerson's phrase, "can only obey his own polarity." His -life must gravitate necessarily towards its centre. The accident that -he should have reached economics and politics through poetry and art, -so far from disqualifying a man to be heard, only establishes his -claim to bring a cultivated mind and imaginative force to bear upon -the hard facts of nature and science. - -The practice of his art, his position as an employer of labour, his -intensely practical knowledge of certain handicrafts, all these things -brought him face to face with the great Labour question; and the fact -that he was an artist and a poet, a man of imagination and feeling as -well as intellect, gave him exceptional advantages in solving it--at -least theoretically. His practical nature and sincerity moved him to -join hands with men who offered a practical programme, or at least who -opened up possibilities of action towards bringing about a new social -system. - -His own personal view of a society based upon an entire change of -economic system is most attractively and picturesquely described in -"News from Nowhere, some Chapters of a Utopian Romance." He called -it _Utopian_, but, in his view, and granting the conditions, it was a -perfectly practical Utopia. He even gave an account (through the mouth -of a survivor of the old order) of the probable course of events which -might lead up to such a change. The book was written as a sort of -counterblast to Edward Bellamy's "Looking Backward," which on its -appearance was very widely read on both sides of the water, and -there seemed at the time some danger of the picture there given of a -socialized state being accepted as the only possible one. It may be -partly answerable for an impression in some quarters that a Socialist -system must necessarily be mechanical. But the society described in -"Looking Backward" is, after all, only a little more developed along -the present lines of American social life--a sublimation of the -universal supply of average citizen wants by mechanical means, with -the mainspring of the machine altered from individual profit to -collective interest. This book, most ingeniously thought out as it -was, did its work, no doubt, and appealed with remarkable force to -minds of a certain construction and bias, and it is only just to -Bellamy to say that he claimed no finality for it. - -But "News from Nowhere" may be considered--apart from the underlying -principle, common to both, of the collective welfare as the -determining constructive factor of the social system--as its complete -antithesis. - -According to Bellamy, it is apparently the _city_ life that is the -only one likely to be worth anything, and it is to the organization -of production and distribution of things contributing to the supposed -necessities and comforts of inhabitants of cities that the reader's -thoughts are directed. - -With Morris the country life is obviously the most important, the -ideal life. Groups of houses, not too large to be neighbourly, each -with a common guest-hall, with large proportions of gardens and -woodland, take the place of crowded towns. Thus London, as we know it, -disappears. - -What is this but building upon the ascertained scientific facts of -our day, that the inhabitants of large cities tend to deteriorate in -physique, and would die out were it not for the constant infusion of -new blood from the country districts? - -Work is still a hard necessity in "Looking Backward," a thing to -be got rid of as soon as possible, so citizens, after serving -the community as clerks, waiters, or what not, until the age of -forty-five, are exempt. - -With Morris, work gives the zest to life, and all labour has its own -touch of art--even the dustman can indulge in it in the form of rich -embroidery upon his coat. The bogey of labour is thus routed by its -own pleasurable exercise, with ample leisure, and delight in external -beauty in both art and nature. - -As regards the woman's question, it never, in his Utopia, appears to -be asked. He evidently himself thought that with the disappearance of -the commercial competitive struggle for existence and what he termed -"artificial famine" caused by monopoly of the means of existence, the -claim of women to compete with men in the scramble for a living would -not exist. There would be no necessity for either men or women to sell -themselves, since in a truly co-operative commonwealth each one would -find some congenial sphere of work. - -In fact, as Morris once said, "settle the economic question and you -settle all other questions. It is the Aaron's rod which swallows up -the rest." - -I gather that while he thought both men and women should be -economically free, and therefore socially and politically free, and -free to choose their occupation, he by no means wished to ignore or -obliterate sex distinctions, and all those subtle and fine feelings -which arise from it, which really form the warp and weft of the -courtesies and relationships of life. - -Now, whatever criticisms might be offered, or whatever objections -might be raised, such a conception of a possible social order, such -a view of life upon a new economic basis as is painted in this -delightful book, is surely, before all things, remarkably wholesome, -human, and sane, and pleasurable. If wholesome, human, sane, and -pleasurable lives are not possible to the greater part of humanity -under existing institutions, so much the worse for those institutions. -Humanity has generally proved itself better than its institutions, -and man is chiefly distinguished above other animals by his power to -modify his conditions. Life, at least, means growth and change, and -human evolution shows us a gradual progression--a gradual triumph -of higher organization and intelligence over lower, checked by -the inexorable action of natural laws, which demand reparation -for breaches of moral and social law, and continually probe the -foundations of society. Man has become what he is through his capacity -for co-operative social action. The particular forms of social -organization are the crystallization of this capacity. They are but -shells to be cast away when they retard growth or progress, and it is -then that the living organism, collective or individual, seeks out or -slowly forms a new home. - -As to the construction and colour of such a new house for reorganized -society and regenerated life, William Morris has left us in no doubt -as to his own ideas and ideals. It may seem strange that a man who -might be said to have been steeped in mediaeval lore,[1] and whose -delight seemed to be in a beautifully imagined world of romance -peopled with heroic figures, should yet be able to turn from that -dream world with a clear and penetrating gaze upon the movements of -his own time, and to have thrown himself with all the strength of -his nature into the seething social and industrial battle of modern -England. That the "idle singer of an empty day" should voice the -claims and hopes of Labour, stand up for the rights of free speech -in Trafalgar Square, and speak from a wagon in Hyde Park, may have -surprised those who only knew him upon one side, but to those who -fully apprehended the reality, ardour, and sincerity of his nature, -such action was but its logical outcome and complement, and assuredly -it redounds to the honour of the artist, the scholar, and the poet -whose loss we still feel, that he was also a man. - -Few men seemed to drink so full a measure of life as William Morris, -and, indeed, he frankly admitted in his last days that he _had_ -enjoyed his life. I have heard him say that he only knew what it was -to be alive. He could not conceive of death, and the thought of it did -not trouble him. - - [Illustration: William Morris speaking from a wagon in Hyde Park, - May 1 1894] - -I first met William Morris in 1870, at a dinner at the house of -the late Earl of Carlisle, a man of keen artistic sympathies and -considerable artistic ability, notably in water-colour landscapes. He -was an enthusiast for the work of Morris and Burne-Jones, and had just -built his house at Palace Green from the designs of Mr. Philip Webb, -and Morris and Company had decorated it. Morris, I remember, had just -returned from a visit to Iceland, and could hardly talk of anything -else. It seemed to have laid so strong a hold upon his imagination; -and no doubt its literary fruits were the translations of the -Icelandic sagas he produced with Professor Magnússon, and also the -heroic poem of "Sigurd the Volsung." He never, indeed, seemed to lose -the impressions of that Icelandic visit, and was ever ready to talk of -his experiences there--the primitive life of the people, the long pony -rides, the strange, stony deserts, the remote mountains, the -geysers and the suggestions of volcanic force everywhere, and the -romance-haunted coasts. - -I well remember, too, the impression produced by the first volume of -"The Earthly Paradise," which had appeared, I think, shortly before -the time of which I speak: the rich and fluent verse, with its simple, -direct, Old World diction; the distinct vision, the romantic charm, -the sense of external beauty everywhere, with a touch of wistfulness. -The voice was the voice of a poet, but the eye was the eye of an -artist and a craftsman. - -It was not so long before that the fame began to spread of the little -brotherhood of artists who gathered together at the Red House, Bexley -Heath, built by Mr. Philip Webb, it was said, in an orchard without -cutting down a single tree. Dante Gabriel Rossetti was the centre of -the group, the leading spirit, and he had absorbed the spirit of the -pre-Raphaelite movement and centralized it both in painting and verse. -But others co-operated at first, such as his master, Ford Madox Brown, -and Mr. Arthur Hughes, until the committee of artists narrowed down, -and became a firm, establishing workshops in one of the old-fashioned -houses on the east side of Queen Square, Bloomsbury, a retired place, -closed by a garden to through traffic at the northern end. Here -Messrs. Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Co. (which included a very -notable man, Mr. Philip Webb, the architect) began their practical -protest against prevailing modes and methods of domestic decoration -and furniture, which had fallen since the great exhibition of 1851 -chiefly under the influence of the Second Empire taste in upholstery, -which was the antithesis of the new English movement. This latter -represented in the main a revival of the mediaeval spirit (not the -letter) in design; a return to simplicity, to sincerity; to good -materials and sound workmanship; to rich and suggestive surface -decoration, and simple constructive forms. - - [Illustration: DESIGN FOR WALL-PAPER. "THE DAISY."] - -The simple, black-framed, old English Buckinghamshire elbow-chair, -with its rush-bottomed seat, was substituted for the wavy-backed and -curly-legged stuffed chair of the period, with its French polish and -concealed, and often very unreliable, construction. Bordered Eastern -rugs, and fringed Axminster carpets, on plain or stained boards, or -India matting, took the place of the stuffy planned carpet; rich, -or simple, flat patterns acknowledged the wall, and expressed the -proportions of the room, instead of trying to hide both under bunches -of sketchy roses and vertical stripes; while, instead of the big -plate-glass mirror, with ormolu frame, which had long reigned over the -cold white marble mantel-piece, small bevelled glasses were inserted -in the panelling of the high wood mantel-shelf, or hung over it in -convex circular form. Slender black wood or light brass curtain rods, -and curtains to match the coverings, or carry out the colour of the -room, displaced the heavy mahogany and ormolu battering-rams, -with their fringed and festooned upholstery, which had hitherto -overshadowed the window of the so-called comfortable classes. Plain -white or green paint for interior wood-work drove graining and -marbling to the public-house; blue and white Nankin, Delft, or Grès -de Flandres routed Dresden and Sèvres from the cabinet; plain -oaken boards and trestles were preferred before the heavy mahogany -telescopic British dining-table of the mid-nineteenth century; and -the deep, high-backed, canopied settle with loose cushions ousted the -castored and padded couch from the fireside. - - [Illustration: DESIGN FOR WALL-PAPER. "ROSE TRELLIS."] - -Such were the principal ways, as to outward form, in which the new -artistic movement made itself felt in domestic decoration. Beginning -with the houses of a comparatively limited circle, mostly artists, -the taste rapidly spread, and in a few years Morrisian patterns and -furniture became the vogue. Cheap imitation on all sides set in, and -commercial and fantastic persons, perceiving the set of the current, -floated themselves upon it, tricked themselves out like jackdaws with -peacocks' feathers, and called it "the aesthetic movement." The usual -excesses were indulged in by excitable persons, and the inner meaning -of the movement was temporarily lost sight of under a cloud of -travesty and ridicule, until, like a shuttlecock, the idea had been -sufficiently played with and tossed about by society and the big -public, it was thrown aside, like a child's toy, for some new -catch-word. These things were, however, but the ripples or falling -leaves upon the surface of the stream, and had but little to do with -its sources or its depth, though they might serve as indications of -the strength of the current. - -The art of Morris and those associated with him was really but the -outward and visible sign of a great movement of protest and reaction -against the commercial and conventional conceptions and standards of -life and art which had obtained so strong a hold in the industrial -nineteenth century. - -Essentially Gothic and romantic and free in spirit as opposed to the -authoritative and classical, its leader was emphatically and even -passionately Gothic in his conception of art and ideals of life. - -The inspiration of his poetry was no less mediaeval than the spirit -of his designs, and it was united with a strong love of nature and an -ardent love of beauty. - - [Illustration: WOOLLEN HANGING. "THE PEACOCK."] - -One knows but little of William Morris's progenitors. His name -suggests Welsh origin, though his birthplace was Walthamstow. Born -24th March 1834, one of a well-to-do family, it was a fortunate -circumstance that he was never cramped by poverty in the development -of his aims. Escaping the ecclesiastical influence of Oxford and -a Church career, his prophets being rather John Ruskin and Thomas -Carlyle, he approached the study and practice of art from the -architectural side under one of our principal English Gothic -revivalists, George Edmund Street, although he at one time entertained -the idea of becoming a painter, and the very interesting picture of -"Guinevere" which was shown at one of the Arts and Crafts Exhibitions -makes one regret he did not do more in this way. Few men had a better -understanding of the nature of Gothic architecture, and a wider -knowledge of the historic buildings of his own country, than William -Morris, and there can be no doubt that this grasp of the true root -and stem of the art was of enormous advantage when he came to turn his -attention to the various subsidiary arts and handicrafts comprehended -under decorative design. The thoroughness of his methods of work and -workmanlike practicality were no less remarkable than his amazing -energy and capacity for work. - - [Illustration: DESIGN FOR SILK HANGING.] - -In one of his earlier papers he said that it appeared to be the object -with most people to get rid of, or out of, the necessity of work, -but for his part he only wanted to find time for more work, or (as it -might be put) to live in order to work, rather than to work in order -to live. - -While as a decorative designer he was, of course, interested in _all_ -methods, materials, and artistic expression, he concentrated himself -generally upon one particular kind at a time, as in the course of -his study and practice he mastered the difficulties and technical -conditions of each. - -At one time it was dyeing, upon which he held strong views as to the -superiority, permanency, and beauty of vegetable dyes over the mineral -and aniline dyes, so much used in ordinary commerce, and his practice -in this craft, and the charm of his tints, did much to check the taste -for the vivid but fugitive colours of coal-tar. - -His way was to tackle the thing with his own hands, and so he worked -at the vat, like the practical man that he was in these matters. An -old friend tells the story of his calling at the works one day and, on -inquiring for the master, hearing a strong, cheery voice call out -from some inner den, "I'm dyeing, I'm dyeing, I'm dyeing!" and the -well-known robust figure of the craftsman presently appeared in his -blue shirt-sleeves, his hands stained blue from the vat where he had -been at work. - - [Illustration: COTTON PRINT. "EVENLODE."] - -At another time it was weaving that absorbed him, and the study -of dyeing naturally led him to textiles, and, indeed, was probably -undertaken with the view of reviving their manufacture in new forms, -and from rugs and carpets he conceived the idea of reviving Arras -tapestry. I remember the man who claimed to have taught Morris to -work on the high-warp loom. His name was Wentworth Buller. He was an -enthusiast for Persian art, and he had travelled in that country -and found out the secret of the weaving of the fine Persian carpets, -discovering, I believe, that they were made of goats' hair. He made -some attempt to revive this method in England, but from one cause or -another was not successful. William Morris, when he had learned the -craft of tapestry weaving himself, set about teaching others, and -trained two youths, one of whom (Mr. Dearle) is now chief at the -Merton Abbey Works, who became exceedingly skilful at the work, -executing the large and elaborate design of Sir Edward Burne-Jones -(_The Adoration of the Magi_), which was first worked for the chapel -of his own and Morris's college (Exeter College) at Oxford. - -In this tapestry, as was his wont, Morris enriched the design with -a foreground of flowers, through which the Magi approach with their -gifts the group of the Virgin and Child, with St. Joseph. - -In fact, the designs of William Morris are so associated with and -so often form part of the work of others or only appear in some -conditioned material form, that little or no idea of his individual -work, or of his wide influence, could be gathered from any existing -autograph work of his. That he was a facile designer of floral -ornament his numerous beautiful wall-papers and textile hangings -prove, but he always considered that the finished and final form of a -particular design, complete in the material for which it was intended, -was the only one to be looked at, and always objected to showing -preliminary sketches and working drawings. He was a keen judge and -examiner of work, and fastidious, and as he did not mind taking -trouble himself he expected it from those who worked for him. His -artistic influence was really due to the way he supervised work under -his control, carried out by many different craftsmen under his eye, -and not so much by his own actual handiwork. - -In any estimate of William Morris's power and influence as an artist, -this should always be borne in mind. He always described himself as -an artist working with assistants, which is distinct from the -manufacturer who simply directs a business from the business point -of view. Nothing went out of the works at Queen Square, or, later, at -Merton Abbey, without his sanction from the artistic point of view. - - [Illustration: KELMSCOTT HOUSE. MEETING ROOM OF THE HAMMERSMITH - SOCIALIST SOCIETY.] - -The wave of taste which he had done so much to create certainly -brought prosperity to the firm, and larger premises had to be taken; -so Morris and Company emerged from the seclusion of Queen Square and -opened a large shop in Oxford Street, and set up extensive works at -Merton Abbey--a most charming and picturesque group of workshops, -surrounded by trees and kitchen gardens, on the banks of the river -Wandle in Surrey, not far from Wimbledon. The tapestry and carpet -looms which were first set up at Kelmscott House, on the Upper Mall -at Hammersmith,[2] were moved to Merton, where also the dyeing and -painted glass-work were carried on. - -This latter art had long been an important part of the work of the -firm. In early days designs were supplied by Ford Madox Brown and D. -G. Rossetti, but later they were entirely from the hands of Morris's -closest friend, Edward Burne-Jones; that is to say, the figure-work. -Floral and subsidiary design were frequently added by William -Morris, as was also the leading of the cartoons. The results of their -co-operation in this way have been the many fine windows scattered -over the land, chiefly at Oxford and Cambridge, where the Christ -Church window and those at Jesus College may be named, while the -churches of Birmingham have been enriched by many splendid examples, -more particularly at St. Philip's. Their glass has also found place in -the United States, in Richardson's famous church at Boston, and at the -late Miss Catherine Wolfe's house, Vinland, Newport. - -An exquisite autograph work of William Morris's is the copy of "The -Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyám," which he wrote out and illuminated with -his own hand, though even to this work Burne-Jones contributed a -miniature, and Mr. Fairfax Murray worked out other designs in some of -the borders. This beautiful work was exhibited at the first Arts -and Crafts Exhibition in 1888. It is in the possession of Lady -Burne-Jones, and by her special permission I am enabled to give some -reproductions of four of the pages here. - -It is so beautiful that one wonders the artist was not induced to do -more work of the kind; but there is only known to be one or two -other manuscripts partially completed by him. Certainly his love for -mediaeval illuminated MSS. was intense and his knowledge great, and -his collection of choice and rare works of this kind probably unique. -The same might be said of his collection of early printed books, which -was wonderfully rich with wood-cuts of the best time and from the most -notable presses of Germany, Flanders, Italy, and France. - - - [Illustration: - - 8 OMAR KHAYYAM - - Alike for those who for today prepare - And those that after a tomorrow stare - A muezzin from the Tower of Darkness cries - Fools, your reward is neither here nor there - - 25 - - Why, all the saints and sages who discussed - Of the Two Worlds so learnedly, are thrust - Like foolish prophets forth, their words to scorn - Are scattered, and their mouths are stopt with dust - - 26 - - O come with old Khayyam, and leave the wise - To talk; one thing is certain, that Life flies; - One thing is certain, and the rest is lies - The flower that once has blown for ever dies - - 27 - - Myself when young did eagerly frequent - Doctor and saint, and heard great argument - - FROM MORRIS'S MS. OF OMAR KHAYYÁM.] - - - [Illustration: - - About it and about, and evermore - Came out by the same door as in I went. - - 28 - - With them the seed of Wisdom did I sow, - And with my own hand laboured it to grow: - And this was all the harvest that I reaped-- - I came like water, and like wind I go. - - 29 - - Into this Universe, and why not knowing - Nor whence, like water willy-nilly flowing - And out of it as wind along the waste - I know not whither, willy-nilly blowing - - 30 - - What without asking hither hurried whence - And without asking whither hurried hence - Another, and another cup to drown - The memory of this impertinence! - - FROM MORRIS'S MS. OF OMAR KHAYYÁM.] - - - [Illustration: - - My thread-bare penitence apieces tore. - - 71 - - And much as wine has played the infidel, - And robbed me of my robe of honour--well, - I often wonder what the vintners buy - One half so precious as the goods they sell. - - 72 - - Alas, that Spring should vanish with the rose, - That Youth's sweet-scented manuscript should close - The Nightingale that in the branches sang, - Ah whence, and whither flown again, who knows! - - 73 - - Ah, Love! could thou and I with Fate conspire - To grasp this sorry scheme of things entire, - Would we not shatter it to bits, and then - Remould it nearer to the heart's desire? - - FROM MORRIS'S MS. OF OMAR KHAYYÁM.] - - - [Illustration: - - Ah Moon of my delight who knowest no wane, - The Moon of Heaven is rising once again; - How oft hereafter rising shall she look - Through this same garden after me--in vain. - - 75 - - And when Thyself with shining foot shall pass - Among the guests star-scattered on the grass, - And in thy joyous errand reach the spot - Where I made one--turn down an empty glass! - - TAMAM SHUD - - FROM MORRIS'S MS. OF OMAR KHAYYÁM.] - - -This brings us to William Morris's next and, as it proved, last -development in art--the revival of the craft of the printer, and its -pursuit as an art. - -I recall the time when the project was first discussed. It was in -the autumn of 1889. It was the year of an Art Congress at Edinburgh, -following the initial one at Liverpool the preceding year, held under -the auspices of the National Association for the Advancement of Art. -Some of us afterwards went over to Glasgow to lecture; and a small -group, of which Morris was one, found themselves at the Central -Station Hotel together. It was here that William Morris spoke of his -new scheme, his mind being evidently centred upon it. Mr. Emery -Walker (who has supplied me with the photographs which illustrate this -article) was there, and he became his constant and faithful helper in -all the technicalities of the printer's craft; Mr. Cobden-Sanderson -also was of the party; he may be said to have introduced a new epoch -in book-binding, and his name was often associated with Morris as -binder of some of his books. - -Morris took up the craft of printing with characteristic thoroughness. -He began at the beginning and went into the paper question, informing -himself as to the best materials and methods, and learning to make a -sheet of paper himself. The Kelmscott Press paper is made by hand, of -fine white linen rags only, and is not touched with chemicals. It has -the toughness and something of the quality of fine Whatman or O.W. -drawing-paper. - -When he set to work to design his types he obtained enlarged -photographs of some of the finest specimens of both Gothic and Roman -type from the books of the early printers, chiefly of Bale and Venice. -He studied and compared these, and as the result of his analysis -designed two or three different kinds of type for his press, beginning -with the "Golden" type, which might be described as Roman type under -Gothic influence, and developing the more frankly Gothic forms known -as the "Troy" and the "Chaucer" types. He also used Roman capitals -founded upon the best forms of the early Italian printers. - -Morris was wont to say that he considered the glory of the Roman -alphabet was in its capitals, but the glory of the Gothic alphabet was -in its lower-case letters. - -He was asked why he did not use types after the style of the lettering -in some of his title-pages, but he said this would not be reasonable, -as the lettering of the titles was specially designed to fit into the -given spaces, and could not be used as movable type. - -The initial letters are Gothic in feeling, and form agreeably bold -quantities in black and white in relation to the close and rich matter -of the type, which is still further relieved occasionally by floral -sprays in bold open line upon the inner margins, while when woodcut -pictures are used they were led up to by rich borderings. - -The margins of the title and opening chapter which faced it are -occupied by richly designed broad borders of floral arabesques upon -black grounds, the lettering of the title forming an essential part of -the ornamental effect, and often placed upon a mat or net of lighter, -more open arabesque, in contrast to the heavy quantities of the solid -border. - -The Kelmscott Chaucer is the monumental work of Morris's Press, -and the border designs, made specially for this volume, surpass -in richness and sumptuousness all his others, and fitly frame the -woodcuts after the designs of Sir Edward Burne-Jones. - -The arabesque borders and initial letters of the Kelmscott books were -all drawn by Morris himself, the engraving on wood was mostly done -by Mr. W. H. Hooper--almost the only first-rate facsimile engraver -on wood left--and a good artist and craftsman besides. Mr. Arthur -Leverett engraved the designs to the "The Glittering Plain," which -were my contribution to the Kelmscott Press, but I believe Mr. Hooper -did all the other work, while Mr. Fairfax Murray and Mr. Catteson -Smith drafted the Burne-Jones designs upon the wood. - -It was not, perhaps, generally known, at least before the appearance -of Miss May Morris's fine edition of her father's works, published -by Messrs. Longman, that many years before the Kelmscott Press was -thought of an illustrated edition of "The Earthly Paradise" was in -contemplation, and not only were many designs made by Burne-Jones, but -a set of them was actually engraved by Morris himself upon wood for -the "Cupid and Psyche," though they were never issued to the public. - -I have spoken of the movement in art represented by William Morris -and his colleagues as really part of a great movement of protest--a -crusade against the purely commercial, industrial, and material -tendencies of the day. - -This protest culminated with William Morris when he espoused the cause -of Socialism. - -Now some have tried to minimize the Socialism of William Morris, but -it was, in the circumstances of his time, the logical and natural -outcome of his ideas and opinions, and is in direct relation with his -artistic theories and practice. - -For a thorough understanding of the conditions of modern manufacture -and industrial production, of the ordinary influences which govern the -producers of marketable commodities, of wares offered in the name of -art, of the condition of worker, and the pressure of competition, he -was in a particularly advantageous position. - -So far from being a sentimentalist who was content melodiously and -pensively to regret that things were not otherwise, he was driven by -contact with the life around him to his economic conclusions. As he -said himself, it was art led him to Socialism, not economics, though -he confirmed his convictions by economic study. - -As an artist, no doubt at first he saw the uglification of the world -going on, and the vast industrial and commercial machine grinding the -joy and the leisure out of human life as regarded the great mass of -humanity. But as an employer he was brought into direct relation with -the worker as well as the market and the public, and he became fully -convinced that the modern system of production for profit and the -world-market, however inevitable as a stage in economic and social -evolution, was not only most detrimental to a healthy and spontaneous -development of art and to conditions of labour, but that it would be -bound, ultimately, by the natural working of economic laws, to devour -itself. - -Never cramped by poverty in his experiments and in his endeavours -to realize his ideals, singularly favoured by fortune in all his -undertakings, he could have had no personal reasons on these scores -for protesting against the economic and social tendencies and -characteristics of his own time. He hated what is called modern -civilization and all its works from the first, with a whole heart, and -made no secret of it. For all that, he was a shrewd and keen man in -his dealings with the world. If he set its fashions and habits at -defiance, and persisted in producing his work to please himself, it -was not his fault that his countrymen eagerly sought them and paid -lavishly for their possession. A common reproach hurled at Morris has -been that he produced costly works for the rich while he professed -Socialism. This kind of thing, however, it may be remarked, is not -said by those friendly to Socialism, or anxious for the consistency of -its advocates--quite the contrary. Such objectors appear to ignore, -or to be ignorant of, the fact that according to the quality of the -production must be its cost; and that the cheapness of the cheapest -things of modern manufacture is generally at the cost of the -cheapening of human labour and life, which is a costly kind of -cheapness after all. - -If anyone cares for good work, a good price must be paid. Under -existing conditions possession of such work is only possible to those -who can pay the price, but this seems to work out rather as part of an -indictment against the present system of production, which Socialists -wish to alter. - -If a wealthy man were to divest himself of his property and distribute -it, he would not bring Socialism any nearer, and his self-sacrifice -would hardly benefit the poor at large (except, perhaps, a few -individuals), but under the working of the present system his wealth -would ultimately enrich the rich--would gravitate to those who _had_, -and not to those who _had not_. The object of Socialism is to win -justice, not charity. - -A true commonwealth can only be established by a change of feeling, -and by the will of the people, deliberately, in the common interest, -declaring for common and collective possession of the means of life -and of wealth, as against individual property and monopoly. Since the -wealth of a country is only produced by common and collective effort, -and even the most individual of individualists is dependent for every -necessary, comfort, or luxury of life upon the labour of untold crowds -of workers, there is no inherent unreasonableness in such a view, -or in the advocacy of such a system, which might be proved to be as -beneficial, in the higher sense, for the rich as for the poor, as of -course it would abolish both. It is quite possible to cling to the -contrary opinion, but it should be fully understood that Socialism -does not mean "dividing up," and that a man is not necessarily not a -Socialist who does not sell all that he has to give to the poor. "A -poor widow is gathering nettles to stew for her dinner. A perfumed -seigneur lounging in the _[oe]il de b[oe]uf_ hath an alchemy whereby -he can extract from her every third nettle and call it rent." Thus -wrote Carlyle. Men like William Morris would make such alchemy -impracticable; but no man can change a social (or unsocial) system by -himself, however willing; nor can anyone, however gifted or farseeing, -get beyond the conditions of his time, or afford to ignore them in -the daily conduct of life, although at the same time his life and -expressed opinions may all the while count as factors in the evolution -by which a new form of society comes about. - -Thus much seems due to the memory of a man like William Morris, who -was frequently taunted with not doing, as a Socialist, things that, as -a Socialist, he did not at all believe in; things, for which, too, -one knows perfectly well, his censors, if he had done them, would have -been the first to denounce him for a fool. - -At all events, it is certain that William Morris spent some of the -best years of his life, he gave his time, his voice, his thought, his -pen, and much money to put Socialism before his countrymen. This can -never be gainsaid. Those who have been accustomed to regard him from -this point of view as a dangerous revolutionary might be referred to -the writings of John Ball, and Sir Thomas More, his predecessors in -England's history, who upheld the claims of labour and simple life, -against waste, want, and luxury. Indeed, it might be contended that it -was a conservative clinging to the really solid foundations of a -happy human life which made Morris a Socialist as much as artistic -conviction and study of modern economics. The enormous light which -has been recently thrown by historic research upon mediaeval life and -conditions of labour, upon the craft guilds, and the position of the -craftsman in the Middle Ages--light to which Morris himself in no -small degree contributed--must also be counted as a factor in the -formation of his opinions. - -But whether accounted conservative or revolutionary in social -economics and political opinion, there can be no doubt of William -Morris's conservatism in another field, important enough in its -bearings upon modern life, national and historic sentiment, and -education--I mean the protection of Ancient Buildings. He was one of -the founders of the society having that object, and remained to the -last one of the most energetic members of the committee, and in -such important work his architectural knowledge was of course of the -greatest value. At a time when, owing to the action of a multitude of -causes, the historic buildings of the past are in constant danger, -not only from the ravages of time, weather, and neglect, but also, -and even to a greater extent, from the zeal of the "restorer," the -importance of the work which Morris did with his society--the work -which that society carries on--can hardly be overestimated. - -The pressure of commercial competition and the struggle for life in -our cities--the mere necessity for more room for traffic--the dead -weight of vested interest, the market value of a site, the claims of -convenience, fashion, ecclesiastical or otherwise, or sometimes sheer -utilitarianism, entirely oblivious of the social value of historic -associations of architectural beauty--all are apt to be arrayed at -one time or another, or even, perhaps, all combined, against the -preservation of an ancient building if it happens to stand in their -way. - -The variety, too, of the cases in which the difference of the artistic -conditions which govern the art and craft of building in the past and -in the present is another element which often prevents the defenders -and destroyers from meeting on the same plane. It is the old tragic -conflict between old and new, but enormously complicated, and with the -forces of destruction and innovation tremendously increased. - -William Morris was a singularly sane and what is called a -"level-headed" man. He had the vehemence, on occasion, of a strong -nature and powerful physique. He cared greatly for his convictions. -Art and life were real to him, and his love of beauty was a passion. -His artistic and poetic vision was clear and intense--all the more -so, perhaps, for being exclusive on some points. The directness of -his nature, as of his speech, might have seemed singularly unmodern -to some who prefer to wrap their meaning with many envelopes. He might -occasionally have seemed brusque, and even rough; but so does the -north wind when it encounters obstacles. Men are judged by the -touchstones of personal sympathy or antipathy; but whether attracted -or repelled in such a presence, no one could come away without an -impression that he had met a man of strong character and personal -force, whether he realized any individual preconception of the poet, -the artist, and the craftsman, or not. - -He was certainly all these, yet those who only knew him through his -works would have but a partial and incomplete idea of his many-sided -nature, his practicality, personal force, sense of humour,[3] and -all those side-lights which personal acquaintance throws upon the -character of a man like William Morris. - - - [Footnote 1: At the same time, it must be remembered, his - knowledge of mediaeval life, the craft guilds, and the - condition of the labourer in England in the fifteenth - century, helped him in his economic studies and his Socialist - propaganda.] - - [Footnote 2: Here Morris lived when in London and his press - was set up close by at Sussex House, opposite to which is the - Doves Bindery of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson. Much of Morris's time - was spent at Kelmscott, near Lechlade, Gloucestershire, a - delightful old manor house close to the Thames stream. This - house was formerly held by D. G. Rossetti conjointly with - Morris. At Hammersmith the room outside the house, after the - carpet looms went to Merton, was used as the meeting room of - the Hammersmith Socialist Society.] - - [Footnote 3: It is noteworthy that one who excluded humour - from his own work, whether literary, or artistic, had a keen - appreciation of it in the work of others. Few who only knew - Morris through his poems, romances, and designs would imagine - that among his most favourite books were "Huckleberry Finn," - by Mark Twain, and "Uncle Remus." I have often heard him - recall passages of the first-named book with immense enjoyment - of the fun. He was, besides, always an admirer of Dickens.] - - - - -THE ENGLISH REVIVAL IN DECORATIVE ART - - - - - [Illustration] - - - - -THE ENGLISH REVIVAL IN DECORATIVE ART - - -The sense of beauty, like the enchanted princess in the wood, seems -liable, both in communities and individuals, to periods of hypnotism. -These periods of slumber or suspended animation, are not, however, -free from distorted dreams, having a certain tyrannical compulsion -which causes those under their influence blindly to accept arbitrary -ideas and cast-iron customs as if they were parts of the irreversible -order of nature--until the hour of the awakening comes and the -household gods of wood and stone, so ignorantly worshipped, are cast -from their pedestals. - -Such a period of apathetic slumber and of awakening in the arts we -have been passing through in England during the last quarter of the -nineteenth century, and since, side by side with analogous movements -in the political and social world. - -As regards domestic architecture, the streets of London will -illustrate the successive waves of taste or fashion which the past and -present century have seen, from the quasi-classical, represented in -the Peloponnesus of Regent's Park, to the eclectic Queen Anne-ism -of the aesthetic village at Turnham Green; or the more recent -developments which have followed newer ideas of town-planning, the -modern hotel such as the Savoy or the Piccadilly, or the New Aero Club -in Pall Mall, the modern store, such as Selfridge's. Contrast such -examples of what one might call our new Imperial Renascence style -with the types of simple cottage dwellings in the Garden City at -Letchworth, or in the Hampstead garden suburb, and elsewhere; or these -again with the larger country mansions some of our best architects -are raising in the land. These extremes, with all the various -modifications of the outward aspect of the English home--degrees -indicating the arc of architectural fashion, as it were--imply a -series of corresponding transformations of interiors with all their -modern complexities of furniture and decorations. - -But the wheat of artistic thought and invention is a good deal -encumbered with chaff--the chaff of commerce and of fashion--and it -needs some pains to find the real vital germs. To trace the genesis of -our English revival we must go back to the days of the pre-Raphaelite -Brotherhood, and although none of that famous group were decorative -designers in the strict sense--unless we except D. G. Rossetti--yet by -their resolute and enthusiastic return to the direct symbolism, frank -naturalism, and poetic or romantic sentiment of mediaeval art, -with the power of modern analysis superadded, and the more profound -intellectual study of both nature and art, which the severity of their -practice demanded, and last, but not least, their intense love -of detail, turned the attention to other branches of design than -painting. The very marked character of their pictures, standing -out with almost startling effect from among the works of the older -Academic School, demanded at least a special architecture in the -frames of their pictures, and this led to the practice of painters -designing their own frames, at least those who were concerned for -unity and decorative effect. Mr. Holman Hunt, for instance, I believe -always designed his own frames, as well as some of the ornamental -accessories of his pictures--such as the pot for the basil in his -"Isabella." D. G. Rossetti the poet-painter, and perhaps the central -and inspiring luminary of the remarkable group, evidently cared -greatly for decorative effect, and bestowed the utmost pains upon -tributary detail, designing the frames to his pictures, the cover -and lining for his own poems, and various title-pages. Many of -his pictures, too, are remarkable for their beauty and richness of -accessory details which give a distinct decorative charm to his work, -closely associated as they are with its motive and poetic purpose. - -The researches of Henry Shaw, and his fine works upon art of the -middle ages, first published in the "Forties" by Pickering, and -printed by the Chiswick Press, no doubt had their share in directing -the attention of artists to the beauty and intention bestowed upon -every accessory of daily life in mediaeval times. - -Above all influences from the literary side, however, must be placed -the work of John Ruskin, an enormously vitalizing and still living -force, powerful to awaken thought, and by its kindling enthusiasm -to stir the dormant sense of beauty in the minds that come under the -spell of his eloquence, which always turns the eyes to some new or -unregarded or forgotten beauty in nature or in art. The secret of his -powers as a writer on art lies no doubt in the fact that he approached -the whole question from the fundamental architectural side, and saw -clearly the close connection of artistic development with social -life. The whole drift of his teaching is towards sincerity and -Gothic freedom in the arts, and is a strong protest against Academic -convention and classical coldness. - -Among architects, men like Pugin and William Burges, enthusiasts -in the Gothic revival, gave a great deal of care and thought to -decorative detail and the design of furniture and accessories. The -latter, in the quaint house which he built for himself in Melbury -Road, showed a true Gothic spirit of inventiveness and whimsicality -applied to things of everyday use as well as the mural decorator's -instinct for symbolism. Since their day Mr. Norman Shaw may almost be -said to have carried all before him, and has quite created a type of -later Victorian architecture, and his advice is still sought in the -design of various buildings and street improvements of modern London. -His work, beautiful, well proportioned, and decorative as it often is, -however, has not the peculiar character and reserve of the work of Mr. -Philip Webb, and the latter is a decorative designer, especially of -animals, of remarkable originality and power. His work in architecture -and other designs is generally seen in association with that of -William Morris in decoration. - -The impulse towards Greek and Roman forms in furniture and decoration, -which had held sway with designers since the French Revolution, -appeared to be dead. The elegant lines and limbs of quasi-classical -couches and chairs on which our grandfathers and grandmothers -reclined--the former in high coat-collars and the latter in short -waists--had grown gouty and clumsy, in the hands of Victorian -upholsterers. The carved scrolls and garlands had lost even the -attenuated grace they once possessed and a certain feeling for -naturalism creeping in made matters worse, and utterly deranged the -ornamental design of the period. An illustrated catalogue of the -exhibition of 1851 will sufficiently indicate the monstrosities in -furniture and decoration which were supposed to be artistic. The last -stage of decomposition had been reached, and a period of, perhaps, -unexampled hideousness in furniture, dress, and decoration set in -which lasted the life of the second empire, and fitly perished with -it. Relics of this period I believe are still to be discovered in the -cold shade of remote drawing-rooms, and "apartments to let," which -take the form of big looking-glasses, and machine-lace curtains, and -where the furniture is afflicted with curvature of the spine, and -dreary lumps of bronze and ormolu repose on marble slabs at every -opportunity, where monstrosities of every kind are encouraged under -glass shades, while every species of design-debauchery is indulged -in upon carpets, curtains, chintzes and wall-papers, and where the -antimacassar is made to cover a multitude of sins. When such ideas of -decoration prevailed, having their origin or prototypes, in the vapid -splendours of imperial saloons, and had to be reduced to the scale of -the ordinary citizen's house and pocket, the thing became absurd as -well as hideous. Besides, the cheap curly legs of the _un_easy chairs -and couches came off, and the stuffed seats, with a specious show of -padded comfort, were delusions and snares. Long ago the old English -house-place with its big chimney-corner had given way to the bourgeois -arrangement of dining and drawing-room--even down to the smallest -slated hut with a Doric portico. The parlour had become a kind of -sanctuary veiled in machine-lace, where the lightness of the curtains -was compensated for by the massiveness of their poles, and where -Berlin wool-work and bead mats flourished exceedingly. - -Enter to such an interior a plain unvarnished rush-bottomed chair from -Buckinghamshire, sound in wind and limb--"C'est impossible!" And yet -the rush-bottomed chair and the printed cotton of frank design and -colour from an unpretending and somewhat inaccessible house in Queen -Square may be said to have routed the false ideals, vulgar smartness -and stuffiness in domestic furniture and decoration--at least wherever -refinement and feeling have been exercised at all. - -"Lost in the contemplation of palaces we have forgotten to look about -us for a chair," wrote Mr. Charles L. Eastlake in an article which -appeared in "The Cornhill Magazine" some time in the "sixties," or -early "seventies." The same writer (afterwards Keeper of the National -Gallery) brought out "Hints on Household Taste" shortly afterwards, -and he, too, was "on the side of the angels" of sense and fitness in -these things. The "chair" at any rate was now discovered, if only a -rush-bottomed one. - -Nowadays it might perhaps be said that the chair gets more -contemplation and attention than the palace, as since then the -influence of our old English eighteenth-century furniture designers -has been restored, and Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite -are again held in honour in our interiors, and to judge from the -innumerable specimens offered in their name by our furniture dealers -the industry of these famous designers must have been prodigious! - -The first practical steps towards actually producing things combining -use and beauty and thus enabling people so minded to deck their homes -after the older and simpler English manner was taken by William -Morris and his associates, who founded the house in Queen Square -afore-mentioned. Appealing at first only to a limited circle of -friends mostly engaged in the arts, the new ideas began to get abroad, -the new designs were eagerly seized upon. Morris and Company had to -extend their operations, and soon no home with any claim to decorative -charm was felt to be complete without its vine and fig-tree so to -speak--from Queen Square; and before long a typical Morris room was -given to the British Public to dine in at the South Kensington (now -the Victoria and Albert) Museum. - -The great advantage and charm of the Morrisian method is that it lends -itself to either simplicity or to splendour. You might be almost -plain enough to please Thoreau, with a rush-bottomed chair, piece of -matting, and oaken trestle-table; or you might have gold and lustre -(the choice ware of William de Morgan) gleaming from the sideboard, -and jewelled light in your windows, and walls hung with rich arras -tapestry. - -Of course, a host of imitators appeared, and manufacturers and -upholsterers were quick to adapt the more superficial characteristics, -watering down the character a good deal for the average taste--that -is, the timid taste of the person who has not made up his mind, which -may be described as the "wonder-what-so-and-so-will-think-of-it" -state--but its effects upon the older ideas of house decoration were -definite. Plain painting displaced graining and marbling, frankly -but freely conventionalized patterns routed the imitative and nosegay -kinds. Leaded and stained glass filled the places which were wont to -be filled with the blank despair of ground glass. The white -marble mantelpiece turned pale before rich hangings and deep-toned -wall-papers, and was dismantled and sent to the churchyard. - -These were some of the most marked effects of the adoption of the new, -or a return to older and sounder ideas in domestic decoration. - -The quiet influence of the superb collections at the Victoria and -Albert Museum, and the opportunities of study, open to all, of the -most beautiful specimens of mediaeval, renascence, and oriental design -and craftsmanship of all kinds must not be forgotten--an influence -which cannot be rated as of too much importance and value, and which -has been probably of more far-reaching influence in its effect on -designers and craftsman than the more direct efforts of the Art -Department to reach them through its school system. By means of this, -as is well known, it was sought to improve the taste and culture of -artisans by putting within their reach courses of study and exercises -in drawing and design, the results of which, it was hoped, carried -back into the practice of their various trades and handicrafts, would -make them better craftsmen because better draughtsmen. Now, if we were -to ask why on the whole the system has not been so fruitful of result -in this direction we should find ourselves plunged at once into the -deep waters of economic conditions, of the relations of employer and -employed, of hours, of wages, of commercial competition, trade unions, -and, in fact, should bring the whole Labour question about our ears. - -Of course the whole scheme of the schools of design was based upon the -idea of improvement _downwards_, and like many modern improvements, -or reforms, its contrivers sought to make the tree of art flourish and -put forth new leaves without attending to the nourishment of the roots -or touching the soil. But the drawing-board and the workshop-bench -are after all two very different things, and it is by no means certain -that proficiency at one would necessarily produce a corresponding -improvement at the other, except indeed, it be on the principle that -if a man acquires one language it will be easier for him to learn -others. But at this point another consideration comes in. You get your -student seated at his drawing-board, you set him to represent at the -point of his pencil or chalk certain objects, casts, for instance, and -encourage him to portray their appearance with all relief of light -and shade, dwelling solely on the necessity of his attaining a certain -degree of purely pictorial skill, which in itself is really of no -practical use to a designer of ornament intended to be worked out in -some other material such as a textile, wood, or metal. In fact, the -development of pictorial skill has a strong tendency to lead the -student to devote himself entirely to pictorial work, and hitherto -there have been plenty of other inducements, such as the chance of -larger monetary reward and social position. If he is not ultimately -drawn into the already overcrowded ranks of the picture producers, he -is too likely to carry back into his own particular craft a certain -love of pictorial treatment and effect which may really be injurious -to his sense of fitness in adapting design and material. This indeed -is what evidently has happened as the result of much so-called -art-education, and we are only now slowly awakening to the conception -that art is not necessarily the painting of pictures, but that the -most refined artistic feeling may be put into every work of man's -hand, and that each after its kind gives more delight and becomes more -and more beautiful in proportion as it follows the laws of its own -existence--when a design is in perfect harmony with its material, and -one does not feel one would want it reproduced in any other way. - -It is next to impossible to get this unity of design and material -unless the craftsman fashions the thing he designs, or unless the -designer thoroughly understands the conditions and allows them to -determine the character of his design, which he can hardly do -unless he is in close and constant touch with the craftsman. Now -the industrial conditions under which the great mass of things are -produced, which have gradually been developed in the interests of -trade rather than of art have tended to separate the designer -and craftsman more and more and to subdivide their functions. Our -enterprising manufacturers are quick enough to adopt or adapt an idea, -and some will pay liberally for it, but they do not always realize -that it does not follow because _one_ good thing is produced in a -limited quantity that therefore it must be much better if a cheap -imitation of it can be produced by the thousand--but then we no longer -produce for _use_ but for _profit_. Demand and supply--"thou shalt -have no other gods but these," says the trader in effect; although the -demand in these days may be as artificial as the supply. - -The Nemesis of trade pursues the invention of the artist, as the -steamers on the river on boat-race day pursue, almost as if they would -run down, the slender craft of the oarsmen straining every nerve for -victory. It is a suggestive spectacle. Someone's brain and hand must -set to work--must give the initiative before the steam-engine can be -set going. But how many brains and hands, nay lives, has it devoured -since our industrial epoch began? - -Up to about 1880 artists working independently in decoration were -few and far between, mostly isolated units, and their work was often -absorbed by various manufacturing firms. About that time, in response -to a feeling for more fellowship and opportunity for interchange of -ideas on the various branches of their own craft, a few workers in -decorative design were gathered together under the roof of the late -Mr. Lewis F. Day on a certain January evening known as hurricane -Tuesday and a small society was formed for the discussion of various -problems in decorative design and kindred topics; meeting in rotation -at the houses or studios of the members. The society had a happy if -obscure life for several years, and was ultimately absorbed into a -larger society of designers, architects, and craftsmen called "The -Art Workers' Guild," which met once a month with much the same -objects--fellowship and interchange of ideas and papers and -demonstrations in various arts and crafts. In fact, since artists more -or less concerned with decoration had increased, owing to the revived -activity and demand arising for design of all kinds, the feeling grew -stronger among men of very different proclivities for some common -ground of meeting. A desire among artists of different crafts to know -something of the technicalities of other crafts made itself felt, and -the result has been the rapid and continual growth of the Guild which -now includes, beside the principal designers in decoration, painters, -architects, sculptors, wood-carvers, metal-workers, engravers, and -representatives of various other crafts. - -A junior Art Workers' Guild has also been established in connection -with the older body, and there are besides two Societies of Designers -in London, while in the provinces there is the Northern Art Workers' -Guild at Manchester and various local Arts and Crafts societies all -over the country. - -We have, of course, our Royal Academy, or as it ought to be called, -Royal Guild of Painters in Oil, always with us; but its use of the -term "Arts" applies only (and almost exclusively so) to painting, -sculpture, architecture, and engraving, and while absorbing gifted -artists from time to time, often after they have done their best work, -it has never, as a body, shown any wide or comprehensive conception -of art, although it has done a certain amount of educational work, -chiefly through its valuable exhibitions of old masters and its -lectures and teaching in the schools, which are free, and where famous -artists act as visitors. Its influence in the main it is to be feared -has been to encourage an enormous overproduction of pictures every -year, and to foster in the popular mind the impression that there -was no art in England before Sir Joshua Reynolds, and none of any -consequence since, outside the easel picture. - -The magnificently arranged and deeply interesting "Town-planning -Exhibition," held last year in connection with the International -Congress on that subject, however, was a new departure and most -welcome as an example of what might be done by the Royal Academy under -the influence of wider conceptions of art. - -Nevertheless, the work of such fine decorative artists as Albert -Moore, Alfred Gilbert, Harry Bates has been introduced to the public -through the Royal Academy, these two last-named being members; and -once upon a time even a picture by Sir E. Burne-Jones appeared there. - -Many gifted artists have strengthened the institution since these -passed away. The names of Watts and Leighton will always shed lustre -and distinction upon it, but of course the Academy necessarily -depends for its continued vitality upon new blood. The advantages of -membership are generally too strong a temptation to our rising artists -to encourage the formation of anything like an English "secession," -though according to our British ideas of the wholesomeness of -competition or, let us say _emulation_, a strong body of independent -artists might have a good effect all round. - -I have often wondered that no attempt has been made by the Royal -Academy to give a lead in the arrangement and hanging of an -exhibition. With the fine rooms at their disposal it would be possible -to make their great annual show of pictures far more striking and -attractive by some kind of classification or sympathetic grouping. -The best system, of course, would be to group the works of each artist -together. This, however, would take up more wall space and lead to -more exclusions than at present; but, still the plan might be tried -of placing all the portraits together, and, say, the subject pictures -according to scale, and the landscapes, arranging them in separate -rooms. Sculpture and architecture, and water colours and engravings -are already given separate rooms, so that it would only be extending a -principle already adopted. The effect of the whole exhibition would -be much finer, I venture to think, and also less fatiguing, and there -would probably be less chance of pictures being falsified or injured -by juxtaposition with unsympathetic neighbours. Surely some advance -is possible on eighteenth-century ideas of hanging, or the old days of -Somerset House? I respectfully commend the above suggestion to their -consideration. - -While mentioning names we must not forget (although I have hitherto -dwelt rather on the Gothic side of the English revival) such -distinguished designers as the late Alfred Stevens and his able -followers Godfrey Sykes and Moody. These artists drew their -inspiration largely from the work of the Italian Renascence, and it -is a testimony to their remarkable powers--especially of the -first-named--that they should have achieved such distinction on the -lines of so marked a style, and one which, as it appears to me, had -already reached its maturity in the country of its birth, unlike -Gothic design, which might almost be said to have been arrested in its -development by the advent of the Renascence. - -Another influence upon modern decorative art cannot be left out -of account, and that is the Japanese influence. The extraordinary -decorative daring, and intimate naturalism; the frank or delicate -colouration, the freshness, as of newly gathered flowers of many of -their inventions and combinations: the wonderful vivacity and truth of -the designs of such a master as Hokusai, for instance--these and the -whole disclosure of the history of their art (which, however, was -entirely derived from and inspired by the still finer art of the -Chinese), from the early, highly wrought, religious and symbolic -designs, up to the vigorous freedom and naturalism of the later time, -together with their extraordinary precision of technique, inevitably -took the artistic world by storm. Its immediate effects, much as we -may be indebted to such a source, cannot be set down altogether to -the good so far as we can trace them in contemporary European art; -but perhaps on the whole there is no more definitely marked streak of -influence than this of the Japanese. In French art it was at one time -more palpable still. In fact it might almost be said to have taken -entire possession of French decorative art, or a large part of it; or -rather, it is Japanese translated into French with that ease and chic -for which our lively neighbours are remarkable. - -Whistler, by the way, who must be numbered with the decorators, showed -unmistakably in his work the results of a close study of Japanese -art. His methods of composition, his arrangements of tones of colour -declare how he had absorbed it, and applied it to different methods -and subjects, in fact, his work shows most of the qualities of much -Japanese art, except precision of drawing, although his earlier -etchings have this quality. - -In modern decoration, the most obvious and superficial qualities of -Japanese art have generally been seized upon, and its general effect -has been to loosen the restraining and architectonic sense of balance -and fitness, and a definite ordered plan of construction, which are -essential in the finest types of design. On the whole, the effects -of the discovery of Japanese art on the modern artistic mind, may -be likened to a sudden and unexpected access of fortune to an -impoverished man. It is certain to disorganize if not demoralize him. -The sudden contact with a fresh and vigorous art, alive with potent -tradition, yet intimate with the subtler forms and changes of nature, -and in the full possession and mastery of its own technique--the -sudden contact of such an art with the highly artificial and eclectic -art of a complex and effete civilization must be more or less of the -nature of a shock. Shocks are said to be good for sound constitutions, -but their effect on the unsound are as likely as not to be fatal. - -While fully acknowledging the brilliancy of Japanese art, however, one -feels how enormously they were indebted to the art of China, and the -greater dignity and impressiveness of the latter becomes more and more -apparent on comparison. Both in graphic characterization of birds -and animals and flowers and splendour of ornament, the Chinese both -preceded and excelled the Japanese. There were recently some striking -demonstrations of this at the British Museum, when Mr. Laurence Binyon -arranged a series of most remarkable ancient Chinese paintings on silk -side by side with Japanese work. - -The opening of the Grosvenor Gallery in 1877, owing to the enterprise -of Sir Coutts Lindsay, was the means of bringing the decorative school -in English painting to the front, and did much towards directing -public attention in that direction. - -What was known as "aestheticism" has, of course, been freely satirized -both by press and stage, which latter, however, was not slow to -avail itself of some of its results in the increased variety and -picturesqueness of its interior scenes, and the charm of delicate -harmonies of colour in draperies and costume. The movement was seized -upon by the commercial instinct, which always hastens to make hay -while the sun shines, and the aesthetic sun shone very gaily for -a time, in the society sense. It was somewhat amusing to see the -travesties of ideas which had been current in artistic circles for -long before, now proclaimed as the new gospel of aesthetic salvation. -But in spite of all the clamour, fashionable extravagance, and -ridicule, which obscured the real meaning of the movement, so far as -it was a sincere search after more beauty in daily life, its influence -is just as strong as ever, and is likely to increase with the growth -and spread of greater refinement, and the desire for more harmonious -social conditions. - -Organizations continued to increase and multiply, having for their -object, in one way or another, the "encouragement" of the arts and -crafts of design, and whether for good or for evil, it cannot be -denied that their number and activity were, and are, remarkable signs -of the times--of an awakening interest in decorative art and a general -impulse towards ornamental expression. It is true in some instances -this impulse runs rather wild, and to some of its ruder results we -might even apply the words of the poet Cowper describing the gambols -of the kine at high noon: - - Though wild their strange vagaries, and uncouth - Their efforts, yet resolved with one consent, - To give act and utt'rance as they may - To ecstasy, too big to be suppress'd. - -It would be difficult to enumerate all the different associations -having for their object the teaching, or the spread of a knowledge -or love of decorative art and handicraft, outside the big trade -organizations and decorating firms, but among those who contributed -from various sides to the main stream mention may be made of "The -Century Guild," identified chiefly with the publication of its "Hobby -Horse," with its careful attention to the printer's art under the fine -taste in type and book ornaments of Mr. Herbert P. Horne. "The Home -Arts and Industries Association," which has started village classes in -various handicrafts all over the kingdom, has held annual exhibitions -at the Albert Hall, The Royal School of Art Needlework, now in noble -premises in Imperial Institute Road, The School of Art Woodcarving in -Pelham Place; while design on the strictly industrial and technical -side is cared for by the City and Guilds of London Institute under Sir -Philip Magnus. - -Since these and the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society were -established, the London County Council came into being and founded -its schools of Art and Craft all over London with the assistance of -members of that Society; it has now become the central authority in -technical education, and extends a helping hand (with a grant in aid) -to some of the schools above named. - -All these institutions, and many more, invoke the name of art, and -desire to unite good design and workmanship, and also to find a market -for it. (Some of our large decorating firms would claim to have the -same objects perhaps.) Their great difficulty is how to produce good -designing ability out of nothing, as it were. All the crafts which -they specially address themselves to teach and cultivate are, after -all, entirely dependent for their interest and value upon vigour of -design and vital expression, and this cannot suddenly be forced into -existence by artificial heat. It is a power of slow development and -is nourished from all sorts of sources, and is as many sided as life -itself, being in fact only another form of life. You can lead a horse -to the water but you cannot make him drink. You can provide any number -of words but you cannot make people think, and the possession -of rhyming dictionaries will never make a poet, neither will the -possession of tools and a method make artists. This is, of course, -obvious enough. At the same time it may fairly be urged on the other -side that no one can learn to swim without entering the water, and it -is only by repeated experiments and years of patient labour that we -arrive at good results. - -Genius is always rare, but efficiency is what keeps the world going, -and it must be said that admirable work in various crafts has been -produced in the London County Council Technical Schools. Their system -of scholarships gives opportunities to young people of promise to -carry on their studies, and pupils and apprentices in various trades -are enabled to gain a more complete knowledge of their craft and its -various branches than is possible in any ordinary workshop, as well as -tasteful ideas in design generally. - -In the summer of 1886 the smouldering discontent which always exists -among artists in regard to the Royal Academy, although very often -only the result of personal disappointment, threatened to burst into -something like a flame. A letter appeared in the leading dailies -proposing the establishment of a really National Exhibition of -the Arts, which should include not only painting, sculpture, and -architecture, but also the arts of design generally. This letter was -signed by George Clausen, W. Holman Hunt, and the present writer. The -stronghold of the movement at first was among the group of painters, -distinguished as the Anglo-French school, whose headquarters were at -Chelsea, and who were the founders of the New English Art Club. The -idea of such a comprehensive exhibition was an exciting one, and -large and enthusiastic meetings of artists were held. It was however -discovered before long that the mass of the painters attracted by the -movement intended no more than to press a measure of reform on the -Royal Academy--to induce them to take, in fact, a leaf out of the book -of the French Salon as regards the mode of election of the hanging -committees of each year. - -The decorative designers, however, perceiving their vision of a really -representative exhibition of contemporary works in all the arts fading -away, and the whole force of the movement being wasted in the forlorn -hope of forcing reforms upon the Academy, left the agitators in a -body, and proceeded to take counsel together as to the best means of -furthering their aims, and the immediate result was the founding of -the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society which, after many difficulties -opened its first exhibition at the New Gallery in the autumn of 1888. - -The members of the Society, who were also most of them members of the -Art Workers' Guild aforementioned, were well aware of the difficulties -they would have to face in the endeavour to realize their aims, -and carry out their principles. Their main object, however, was to -demonstrate by means of a representative public exhibition the actual -state of decorative art in all its kinds as far as possible. They -desired to assert the claims of the decorative designer and craftsman -to the position of artist, and give every one responsible in any way -for the artistic character of a work full individual credit, by giving -his name in the catalogue, whether the work was exhibited by a firm or -not. - -In spite of all drawbacks the richness and artistic interest of the -Exhibition was generally acknowledged, and the novelty of the idea -attracted the public. - -An exhibition of designs and cartoons for decoration had been held by -the directors of the Grosvenor Gallery in 1881, but it was limited -to that class of work, so that this Arts and Crafts Exhibition may -be said to have been really the first which attempted anything like a -representative and comprehensive display of not only designs for work -but the actual work itself, for its artistic and decorative quality -alone. It comprised designs and cartoons, modelled work, woodcarving, -furniture, tapestry and embroidery and printed cottons, pottery, -tiles, and glass-metal work, jewellery, printed books, binding, -calligraphy and illuminations, and undoubtedly included some of the -best contemporary work which had been produced in England up to that -time. The Exhibition was repeated at the same place the following -year, at the same time, and also the year after. Since then, however, -the exhibitions of the Society have been held triennially, the latest -in January 1910 being the ninth. - -It is obvious that exhibitions of this kind involve many more -difficulties of organization and management than ordinary picture -shows. The very fact of having to deal with such a variety of work as -was submitted, and the conditions under which work in decoration -is generally done (making it difficult for the artist to retain -possession of his work for exhibition purposes) make the formation of -such an exhibition at all no easy matter. Then there were two open and -palpable dangers to be encountered. The danger of being swamped by a -great influx of amateur work, as it is generally understood, on the -one hand, and the danger of merely commercial work getting the upper -hand on the other. To keep - - Along the narrow strip of herbage strown - That just divides the desert from the sown - -was a delicate matter, and it was easy to wander off into the regions -on either hand. For in spite of the immense activity and industry, -the independent artists in design and handicraft were but few, and -although many inventive brains and skilled hands might be disguised -as "---- and Company," they had to be discovered; the bushel had to -be taken away and the light put upon the candlestick of publicity, -and this appeared to be a trial to some. It might be thought to be -of small importance, this matter of assigning artistic authorship or -credit for any part of the work, where it was due; and it may be quite -true that when men have reached the point when artistic tradition and -social condition both favour a fraternal co-operation in production, -they can afford to sink the individual claim to distinction in the -collective pride of saying, "This is _our_ work." But we have -not reached that stage yet, and it seems only common fairness, if -individual and artistic responsibility is attached to a work, the -credit should go with these, and be assigned in the proper quarter. In -these days of commercial competition, and sculptor's "ghosts," it is -perhaps hardly surprising that the assertion of such a principle -might produce a little consternation, and also in cases of a great -multiplicity of cooks it might easily be understood to be embarrassing -to distribute properly the individual responsibility for spoiling the -broth, and therefore not wonderful that it should in some instances -have been shirked altogether. - -As another indication of the way the wind was blowing, an Association -was formed this same year (1888) for the Advancement of Art in -Association with Industry--a somewhat large order. Almost everything -and everybody had had their congresses and why not Art? So an Art -Congress was arranged to take place at Liverpool in December of -that year. It was properly divided into sections for the separate -discussion of painting, architecture, sculpture, and decorative or -applied art, as the phrase goes. It may be mentioned here that the -Society of Arts had before this formed a special committee to arrange -for lectures and discussions on "The Applied Arts," and had also -offered prizes to art-workmen for excellence in various departments -of handicraft, and had held a small exhibition of such works in their -rooms in the Adelphi. Well, the Congress at Liverpool duly met, and -every one having a particular axe to grind brought it to the common -grindstone of public discussion. It was a fairly representative -parliament. The royal academician sat down with the socialist; the -scientific colour theorist fed with the practical decorator; the -industrial villager faced the manufacturer; the art critic and the -painter mingled their tears, and all were led to the pasture by a -gentle Fine Art professor. Some home truths were spoken and there were -many interesting papers and discussions, but whether we were really -nearer solving the problem how to bring about the marriage of Art and -Industry is doubtful, though the Association had another campaign at -Edinburgh the following year and one since at Birmingham. Association -and discussion among people of common interests is of course good, but -Art is a subject by its very nature difficult to deal with in words, -although perhaps more is said about it in these days than almost any -other subject--and here am I still adding to the sum! - - A hair perhaps divides the false and true. - -We have no word-symbols for defining those delicate shades of -difference so important to the artist, and to be perpetually -qualifying is fatiguing. It is useful to consider art in its relation -to life; to consider how it is affected by economic conditions, to -study its history and influence, and the lives of its workers. One can -even proceed a certain distance with general principles, but finally -we must get down to the solid ground of practice to solve its real -problems. - -All these movements may be but fluttering leaves in the wind, but -at least they serve to show its direction. The colours of spring -sometimes resemble those of autumn; but the former are distinguished -by a certain daintiness and delicacy: a soft bloom of silver and -russet comes over the woods before the cloud-like green drapes them -for the coming summer. When we see delicate and harmonious dyes and -patterns in the fabrics of the windows of commerce, when we see dainty -gowns in the street, expressing the fair forms of their wearers with -the grace of flowers; when we see a certain sense of relation and -harmony of tint in the most ordinary arrangements of paint and paper -in the interiors of our houses: when our chairs and couches not -unfrequently show lines of good breeding; when we find books on the -table which have been considered by their printers and designers -as works of art as well as of literature, and thus give a double -pleasure, since they satisfy more than one of the senses--well, we -begin to think that something has happened to us; some new spirit has -breathed upon the land, that such refinements should be possible to -the moderate citizen, remembering that such things but a few years ago -could not be had for love or money. We might still be happy were it -not for the whirlwind of trade, and the whirligig of fashion which -occasionally seem to coquette with art, as a child plays with a toy, -but soon turn away to continue their mad chase after a supposititious -"novelty." Happily they leave some quiet corners unswept, as they -have always done, or we could never have known what the homes of our -ancestors were like. But how many still does England hold of those -delightful places full of the pathos of old time, where each dumb -thing of wood or iron, or copper, each fragment of faded tapestry -seems to have the speech of romance. - - Full of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet breathing. - -When the utilitarian would destroy such relics for the sake of "modern -improvements" we do not realize what priceless things we lose. We can -only realize it when we live for a time in country or city without -antiquity of any sort. Here in England there are still many places -where one might have the suggestion that we moderns were like children -playing with new toys in front of a rich tapestried background full of -great deeds and romances. In America the idea could not occur, and the -absence of such suggestion is no doubt much felt by the more cultured -and thoughtful, especially after visiting Europe. It may partly -account, too, for the more fantastic character in the architecture of -some of their recent country dwellings, which are full of nooks and -corners and odd gables and stairways, as if their designer wished to -make up by his invention for the absence of old time sentiment. - -Some of us appear to be trying to turn England into another -America--for ever scheming railways where they are not wanted, cutting -down trees, and clearing away old dwelling places, and insulting even -the green fields with advertisements. Anything that interferes with -extra percentages is as dust in the balance to such. - -In the destruction of beauty of any kind, however, is involved the -destruction of the faculty of its perception and appreciation. The -artistic capacity and sense of beauty must be fed by the contemplation -of beauty or both will in time perish. We cannot really satisfy one -of the senses unless we satisfy them all. It is often said, "you must -sacrifice this or that to comfort and convenience;" but it is quite -possible to have every so-called comfort and convenience, and yet to -be anything but happy or comfortable--especially if the comfort of the -eye is forgotten. Unless the utilitarian succeeds in eliminating the -sense of beauty and art altogether, the natural man will still revolt -against the tyranny of mechanical and artificial conditions. Such -revolts make epochs, and when the human mind is deeply stirred it is -sure sooner or later to find expression in some revival, or new form -of art. - -A great intellectual revolution has taken place in the last half -century: a great social and industrial revolution is preparing, or -even now progressing. Whether art will again be able to sum up -and express adequately in monumental form the new life and its -aspirations, as it expressed the heart of ancient life in Greece and -mediaeval Europe, must depend upon its power of appeal, and this again -must depend upon the sensitiveness to form and colour on the part -of the people. In England the domestic sentiment is so strong that -enthusiasm for large public works is rare, and opportunities for -sculptor or painter to express anything like the generic thought -of their time, or to touch the pride or hopes of the nation rarer -still.[4] The art that is capable of illustrating this spirit is what -is called decorative art: but the art which can cover large mural -spaces with a peoples' history and legend in noble and typical forms, -the art which can lift our souls with large thoughts, or enchant them -with a sense of mystery and romance, can also be a familiar friend -at our firesides, and touch each common thing of every day use with -beauty, weaving its golden threads into the joys and sorrows of common -life, and making happy both young and old. - - - [Footnote 4: It is true we have our frescoes of English - history at the Houses of Parliament, but they cannot be said, - with the exception of the work of Mr. G. F. Watts, to have - been conceived in an epic spirit, but are rather anecdotic or - incidental. Though the new pictures for the House of Lords - by some of our ablest men of the younger school, such as - Mr. Payne and Mr. Cadogan Cowper, show much finer mural and - decorative feeling.] - - - - -THE SOCIALIST IDEAL AS A NEW INSPIRATION IN ART - - - - - [Illustration] - - - - -THE SOCIALIST IDEAL AS A NEW INSPIRATION IN ART - - -Art as the commentator or the recorder of human life, reflecting not -only its physical aspects but its mental attitude, must necessarily be -influenced by every change which modifies the course and character of -that life. It is the sensitive plate in the camera of the mind of the -age which receives every image, every shadow which passes before the -lens of its vision, and, over and above the fleeting shows of the -hour, registers the prevailing sentiment of its period. - -In proof of this we have only to look around us and see how intimately -the life and spirit of our own times are represented in the art of the -day, more especially pictorial art. - -In any of our large annual popular mixed picture shows we may see the -effects of the modern commercial principle of individual competition. -Pictures of the utmost diversity of subject and treatment are crowded -together, clamorous for attention, often injured by the juxtaposition -of unsympathetic neighbours, the principal quality telling in such -a conflict being force. Certain dominant, or privileged, individuals -hold front places, but even the marked individual style of some -leading painters is apt to be discounted by numerous more or less -successful imitations. - -Painters are said to be extreme individualists as a rule, and while, -no doubt, the economic conditions of the day tend to encourage this, -and to make painting more and more a matter of personal expression or -impression, yet, I think, the individuality of modern artists is more -apparent than real, and that it would not be difficult to classify -them in types, or to trace the main influences in their work to some -well-known artistic source either in the present or the past, or both. -This, however, would be in no way to their discredit, but it shows how -art, even in its most individualistic forms, is essentially a social -product, and that each artist benefits enormously by the work of his -contemporaries and his predecessors. - -Our mixed picture exhibition also discloses another prominent -characteristic of our time--the domination of money, and the influence -of the possessing classes and material wealth. This appears in the -preponderance of portraits and the comparative absence of imaginative -works. - -We may see the monarch and the political, financial, or commercial -magnate in all their glory; generals and admirals, slayers and -destroyers, in scarlet and blue and gold; the fashionable dame in -purple and fine linen; the motorist in his career; national pride -or imperialism is appealed to by pictures of battle and triumph over -inferior races; and sports and pastimes, especially those involving -the pursuit and death of birds and animals. - -Nor is the reverse of the medal unrepresented, for we may see side by -side with brilliant ballroom scenes and banquets in marble halls, as -a picturesque contrast or foil perhaps, various aspects of poverty -and rags, sometimes sincere, sometimes sentimental, and occasionally -flashes of insight reveal the pathos of the toiler's lot in the field, -the factory, or on the treacherous ocean. - -The genuine modern love of wild nature and landscape, and the roaming -spirit of travel is generally catered for by our painters; in -these directions, perhaps, may be detected the suppressed sigh of -super-civilized man for primitive freedom and natural conditions of -life, or, - - The devotion to something afar - From the sphere of our sorrow. - -With such mixed elements we may find some false sentiment, and -also sensationalism, not infrequently connected with Christian -sentimentality, and amid a fair allowance of military exploits, and -flag-waving imperialism, there may be a few well-staged masquerades -of past history, some grim and stark realism, perhaps, or gloomy -pictorial pessimism, and for the rest, decorative or amatory posings, -painted anecdotes and domesticities, flowers, babies, and bric-à-brac. - -Thus, in pictorial form, with more or less completeness, the mixed -drama of our age is presented, its very discords even, and the absence -of any prevailing idea or unity of sentiment (except bourgeois) and -artistic aim is characteristic, as the pictures jostle one another in -a competitive crowd, each struggling for a share of attention. - -Painters of the Latin and the Teutonic races are more dramatic, and -also more daring in their conceptions, and often appear to strip the -mask (or the fig-leaf) from objects and subjects which the more timid -or prudish Anglo-Saxon would discreetly veil. Grim pictures of the -industrial war not unfrequently appear in Italian and French salons, -and in that of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts I have seen large -and lurid canvases depicting strikers on the march with a background -of factory chimneys looming through the smoke. Apart from their -economic and historical significance, however, such subjects may -fall in with a certain mood of gloom and pessimism which, in violent -reaction from superficial grace and beauty, and classical tradition, -manifests itself in some quarters. Now and again a new sensation is -made by some eccentric genius, as it were, dragging a weird aesthetic -red herring across the fashionable artistic scent, and diverting -attention to side tracks in artistic development, often mixed with -morbidity, or, as a change from the pursuit of superficial and -ephemeral types of beauty, debased and revolting types and loathly -subjects are drawn under the pictorial limelight and analysed. - -So, in the pictorial world, the economic system under which we live -makes itself felt by encouraging each artist to fight for his own -hand, and to become a specialist of one sort or another, unless he can -live by exploiting some other artist's discovery and method. - -Few, probably, among artists are fully conscious of this compulsion, -or, at least, of its cause, and but few trouble themselves about the -economic system, but mostly, though not without social sympathies, -take the risks, as individuals, of swimming or sinking, with the off -chance of fortune and fame, as in the necessary order (or disorder) of -things. - -Yet the economic position of the modern artist can hardly be -considered as at all satisfactory, dependent as he is mainly upon -the caprice of the rich, or the control of the dealer, and upon -the surplus value and unearned increment it may be in the power of -individuals to spend upon art. - -Painting, however, though the most individual, popular, vivid, and -intimate of the arts, is not the _only_ art, and the arts, like -humanity, do not flourish under Imperial rule. They are a brotherhood -or a sisterhood (they are traditionally represented as the latter) -though, in neither case are they necessarily celibate; on the -contrary, for it is by the union of art with a human character and -personality that living offspring are produced. - -From the point of view of the necessities of the community (and -amongst these necessities I would certainly count beauty of -environment) the constructive arts come first in order. - -Man needs shelter and security, and therefore architecture and the -craft of building take the first place, since without roof and walls -it would be difficult to enjoy the other arts which minister to our -comfort, refinement, and pleasure (nor would it be hardly possible -for many of them to exist) unless we could satisfy our aesthetic -predilections by textiles and a tent, or by painting or chiselling the -walls of a cave. - -Now architecture or the art of building is essentially a co-operative -art. The planning and general scheme of the design of a building may -indeed emanate from one mind, but its realization needs an army of -skilled artificers and artists--stonemasons, carvers, carpenters, -smiths, tilers and plasterers, and a host of labourers working -harmoniously together. And yet, in order to make the building really -expressive--a work of art, in short--something more than training -and manual skill, something above learned tradition, and beyond even -organized co-operative labour is wanted. - -What, then, is this something--this unknown quantity or quality? - -What makes the great difference between ancient and modern -architecture, we might ask, for it is in the answer to this question -that we find the answer to our first? - -Unity of sentiment--the inspiration of a great ideal, this it was -which enabled the artists and craftsmen of past great periods in art -to work in harmony on great public monuments, but without losing their -character or individuality, as the different parts of the work might -be full of invention and variety, and yet conduce to a harmonious -whole, as in a Gothic cathedral. - -Mr. Halsey Ricardo, in an interesting address recently given to the -Architectural Association of London, aptly described the architecture -of Ancient Egypt as "priest's architecture"; that of Ancient Assyria -as "the architecture of kings"; the architecture of Greece he -considered as "sculptor's architecture," and that of the revived -classicism of the Renascence as "the architecture of scholars." Well, -these have all had their day. The turn of the people must come, and -in the architecture of the future, under the inspiration of the -great Socialist Ideal we may realize what may be described as the -architecture of humanity. - -And, looking to the probable requirements of a co-operative -commonwealth, this hope seems to be well founded in view of the -likelihood of the construction of collective dwellings (already -projected in the garden city) of noble public halls and schools. - -The unifying effect of a great Ideal, a Hope, a Faith, is obviously -wanting generally in modern architecture, wherein the influence most -paramount is too often the limits of the builders' contract. - -The golden image (which yet is never, like Nebuchadnezzar's, actually -"set up") is the real god bowed down to, whosesoever the image and -superscription over the porchway, and so modern art is everywhere tied -to the purse strings. - -But the money-bag makes a poor device for an escutcheon, and is still -less effective as an inspirer in art. The standard of the man in -possession is "market value," and art under capitalism has become -mostly a kind of personal and often portable property, and as much a -matter for speculative investment as stocks and shares. - -As money cannot write history or ancestry, every portable bit of -antiquity is now in danger of being bought up by dealers for the use -of millionaires, and we shall soon have no visible history but in our -museums. - -But, above the din of the market and the confusion of political -tongues, a clarion call is heard, and through the darkness breaks a -new dawn. - -The Socialist Ideal comes, scattering the clouds of pessimism and -decadence which have lain heavily on the spirit of modern art. - -Artists have already been touched by the stress and stir of the -struggle of Labour and the pathos of the life of the toiler, who, as -a patient Atlas, sustains the earthy heaven of wealth and luxury. In -contact with the earth again, and in sympathy with the life of the -people, many painters have found inspiration. - -One of the greatest of modern sculptors--Meunier, the Belgian (alas! -now no more) was himself a Socialist, and devoted himself to the study -and realization of types of heroic labour--the labour that takes its -life in its hand in every ordinary day's work--at the furnace mouth -or in the coal mine. A group of his figures and reliefs forms a noble -epic in bronze of the modern toiler. - -François Millet may be said to have painted the epic of the French -agricultural labourer, though not, apparently, from any conscious -or revolutionary point of view, but rather as a sympathetic observer -recording its pathos. - -Much in the same spirit Joseph Israels in Holland, and Liebermann in -Germany, have painted aspects of the worker's life. - -Many of our island painters from a similar standpoint have painted -the English workers--such as George Clausen, H. H. La Thangue, Frank -Brangwyn, Stanhope Forbes, H. S. Tuke, Prof. Frederick Brown, the late -Charles Furse, and the late F. Madox Brown--and shown us the toilers -of the sea and land, and the nameless heroes of the life-boat, and the -tragedies of the fishing village. - -The aspects of labour under modern conditions, indeed, have a -deep significance, more, perhaps, than the artist or the labourer, -unconscious of Socialism, is probably aware of. - -To the artist it is always invigorating to get down to the roots of -life, and draw fresh inspiration from the simple life of simple people -meeting nature face to face every day of their lives. - -The representation of types and aspects of modern labour, however, -may or may not always be an indication of the effect of Socialist -sympathies or the inspiration of the Socialist Ideal, and in any case -it only exhibits one phase of such sympathy. But the Socialist ideal -has undoubtedly had a great influence in another direction, namely, -in what are generally known as the "Arts and Crafts"; and it is not a -little remarkable that the modern revival in Design and Handicraft may -claim manufacturing and individualistic England as its birthplace. - -This fact has been freely and generously acknowledged by our -Continental brethren. - -The perception of the essentially social character of the arts that -minister to daily life, and the dependence of Design and Handicraft -upon effective and sympathetic co-operation among groups of workers -have drawn craftsmen together, and has led in some sort to a revival -of guilds. Some of these guilds, like the Art Workers' Guild (founded -as long ago as 1884) are for discussion of a demonstration in the -various artistic handicrafts, and for mutual information and help. - -The influence of such guilds in the revival of many beautiful crafts -on sound lines, and, above all, in imbuing artists of different crafts -with a sense of the unity of art can hardly be overestimated. - -Other guilds, groups of workers, and industrial associations have -been formed in many parts of the country for the practice of the -handicrafts, influenced by the teaching of John Ruskin and William -Morris. Others, again, are hardly more than commercial enterprises, -but all endeavour to meet in one way or another the increasing public -interest in hand-work. - -This English movement of the last twenty-five or thirty years or so is -usually traced to the workshop of William Morris, who, with a group of -distinguished artists, represented the advanced school in English art -at that time, founded the firm which still bears his name some time in -the sixties, mainly, at first, to supply artists and people of refined -taste with simple furniture and domestic decoration that they could -live with. - -Morris, who became so conspicuous an instance later, of the influence -of the Socialist Ideal, was not then a conscious Socialist, though -he was from the first in constant protest against the false taste and -pretentiousness of modern decorative art, which had sunk to a very -commercial and common-place level under mid-nineteenth century -industrial conditions, controlled by division of labour and the -machine. - -The fact that he was a poet and a man of letters as well as an -artist gave additional force to his revolution in English taste, -and increased his influence very much, while his own position as -an employer, and man of business brought him face to face with the -conditions of labour and modern industry. Although in his own work and -the work he controlled he was highly successful, and by the vigour and -beauty of his designs, under mediaeval influence, especially in woven -stuffs and wall coverings, he quite turned the tide of taste, he -abandoned hope that there could be any real or lasting improvement in -the arts under the existing economic and social conditions, and he did -not seem to share in the belief which has animated some of his friends -and followers, that the Arts and Crafts movement itself would prove -a means of revolutionizing methods of production and carrying on an -effective propaganda for Socialism. - -The next step forward was made by the Arts and Crafts Exhibition -Society which was founded in 1888 by a group of artists which included -architects, painters, sculptors, as well as designers and craftsmen of -different kinds. - -The society arose from the ruins of a sort of secessionist movement -of painters against the Royal Academy and its narrow views of art and -exclusiveness. Among its members were men of very different ideas, -but with these were several fully convinced and conscious Socialists, -strongly imbued with Morris's ideals, though Morris himself did not at -first join us, the present writer being elected as first president -and serving in that office for the first three years of the society's -existence, when Morris was elected to the chair and served till his -death in 1896. - -Our main and ostensible purpose was to advance the state of the -decorative arts by uniting design and handicraft, and by acknowledging -the share and artistic responsibility of the individual workmen -who co-operated in the production of a work of art, also to give -opportunities to designers and craftsmen to exhibit their work and -appeal directly to the public, and by holding selected exhibitions -of design and handicraft from time to time to maintain a standard of -taste and workmanship which hitherto there had been no means of doing. - -Courses of lectures on the arts by members of the society accompanied -our earlier exhibitions, and these have since been published, and by -such means our propaganda was greatly extended. - -If we cannot claim to have solved the Labour question, which, of -course, nothing short of a Socialist system can do, we have asserted -the claims of decorative and industrial art and of the craftsman, and -we have enabled a body of artistic craftsmen to appeal direct to the -public, while many of our members through teaching bodies, such as -the Board of Education and the County Councils have been the means -of inculcating sound traditions of workmanship among large numbers of -young students and apprentices from various trades who go to study in -the evening schools, and so carry back into their ordinary work fresh -ideas and enhanced skill and taste. - -The influence of the Arts and Crafts movement has certainly been -socialistic in increasing the respect for workmanship, and in -awakening the sense of the public to the need of humane and healthful -conditions for the workers, over and above the inculcation of the -desire for beauty in common things, and harmonious surroundings of a -refined if simple life. - -Its quiet methods still serve indirectly the propaganda of the -Socialist Ideal. - -Only recently, for instance, an exhibition was organized in London of -the work of various Guilds of Handicraft, by a lady on the staff of -a well-known Socialist weekly journal, which demonstrated on the one -hand the joy in art and handicraft under happy and fair conditions for -the worker, and on the other showed the conditions of "sweated" labour -by living examples working at their miserably paid trades. - -A river gathers volume by the contributions of the small streams which -flow into it, and so with the great movement of Socialism, which, -comprehending as it does, the whole range of human effort and -aspiration, is continually widening and increasing in depth and force, -not only by the direct action of its leaders, and the support of its -conscious followers, but in many indirect ways. The sum of which it -would be difficult to estimate though every influence counts, and even -the very opposition of enemies often has the contrary effect to -that intended by them, and not only so, but as we may observe in the -political arena these are sometimes driven to defend their position -by borrowing palliative weapons from the armoury of those they profess -bitterly to oppose. - -The forms which art will take when Socialism is actually established -will probably be very different from those which herald its advent. -The consideration of such a large subject involves much speculation, -but from the analogy of the inspiring influence of the ancient -religions which have held sway over mankind, and which, controlling -the whole of human life, focussed the most beautiful art upon its -mysteries and beatitudes, and drew both the senses and the intellect -of man into their service, we cannot but believe that the feeling -of the solidarity of humanity, and all that it implies, which would -dominate all social thought and conduct in a collective socialized -community, would become a religion, when its full significance and its -bearing on every department of life was fully realized; but a religion -free from the shadow of degrading superstitions, and from the taint of -asceticism, and under which there would be no shirking of either the -work or the enjoyment of the earth--a religion whose highest sanction -would be human happiness, and in which its votaries would discover -not only a sound rule of conduct for every-day life, but an inspiring -ideal to lead the spirit ever onwards. - -Human history would acquire a new significance in the mind of the poet -and the artist, as they beheld, in the long course of evolution, the -race in a vast procession emerging from the mists of primaeval time; -from its early struggles with wild nature; from the gens and the -tribal state, finding safety in primitive communism, and in that state -beholding the invention of the essential fundamental necessities and -appliances, such as the spade, the plough, and the wheel, the spinning -and weaving of cloth, pottery, and the birth of song and art. - -From the tragic vicissitudes of history, of race-conflict, of conquest -and domination of warlike tribes and the institution of slavery, the -foundation and influence of the great ancient states and empires, -and their inevitable decay and fall, and the new order springing from -their ruins; the tragic tale of wars and pestilence and famine, of -flood and of fire and of earthquake, and yet onward still through all -these perils and disasters we may see humanity marching beneath the -banner of social justice to fulfil its destiny; the hero spirits still -passing the torch of enlightenment and freedom from hand to hand, and -as one sinks into the silence another advances towards the full flush -of the new morning. - -Transfigured in that new light may we not see a recreated earth, and -her children set free from the bondage of gold whether of spirit or -of body--the race of man entering into its inheritance at last, having -triumphed over the worst and most insidious of all the despotisms that -have ever dominated the earth--Capitalism. - -Then under the collective control of the means of existence, when -none shall be crippled or stunted by want, or degraded by forced or -unhealthy labour, what a different thing life will mean to the people. -The cloud of care and anxiety to secure a bare subsistence which -now darkens the spirit of millions shall be lifted, as well as its -inverted reflection in the parsimonious spirit of some who have never -known want, and all the sordid ingenuity, toil, scheming, craft, and -trouble to win a lucky throw in the commercial speculative gamble will -pass away, and we may begin to live. - -The whole noxious and squalid brood of vices and crimes connected with -the individual possession of riches, or the desire for them, or -the want of them, being swept away, we may begin to understand the -possibilities of life upon this earth, in so far as they may be in the -collective power of man. With all the resources of science, and the -potential glories of art in our hands, with unprecedented control -over the forces of nature, and in full knowledge of the essentials -of health, these being all dedicated to the service of the whole -community, who would thus be in possession of the elements and -materials for a full and happy human life, surely we shall find new -and abundant inspiration for art, and constant social use and demand -for its powers. - -In depicting the story of man, and the drama of life; in great public -monuments; in commemoration of the past, in the education of the -present; in the adorning of domestic and public buildings and -places; in the accompaniments of great festivals, processions, and -celebrations--in such directions, surely, we shall find the -widest possible field for the exercise of all the capacities of -art--architecture, painting, sculpture and the arts of design and -handicraft, with music and poesy, as in the fullness of communal -life we shall possess the materials for building and maintaining fair -cities, and dwelling places surpassing in beauty anything that the -history of the world has yet recorded, since their foundations will -rest upon the welfare of the whole people. - - - - -ON THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF ART - - - - -ON THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF ART - - -Various views of an artist's life, and motives for following art are -apt to present themselves to those on the threshold of the vast field -of its study, but these after all may mostly be summed up in one of -the two governing reasons, which may be expressed as follows: - - 1. The pure love of art. - - 2. The sake of a livelihood. - -(A third, _for pastime_, sometimes comes in, but may be dismissed as -art cannot be studied to any purpose except in a serious spirit.) - -In practice it generally comes about that these first two have to be -reconciled in some way, and it becomes a pressing question sooner or -later as to _how_ to do so, though it is always well to remember that -there is no _natural_ connection between love and money in the arts -and, indeed, it would be better if all work could be inspired by and -done for love. At the same time, under present economic arrangements, -the labourer is at least worthy of his hire; and it might also be -said that when poverty comes in at the door art--if not love--is -apt (though not always) to fly out of the window. The same sequence -sometimes happens also with the sudden advent of riches, which also -has a way of throwing domestic arrangements out of harmony, so that -here, as in other cases, extremes meet, and _too much_ may be as bad -as _not enough_ in its effects upon art. - -To paint great masterpieces and make fame and fortune is an ambition -given to few to realize. The masterpiece at all events must be a -labour of love, whether fame or fortune follow or not, and in the -history of art it has happened over and over again that masterpieces -have not been instantly recognized, and the master usually has had to -wait for recognition and reward--if that can be said in any real sense -to lie outside the accomplishment of his work. Good art, like virtue, -is its own reward. Yet, as a financial character remarks, in a play of -Mr. George Moore's, "Man cannot live by virtue alone." Virtue itself -indeed requires appropriate conditions for its development and -sustenance, just as the artist requires support and sympathy. - -The warm breath of appreciation will draw up the sap of creative -impulse and it will put forth bud and leaf, blossom and fruit. - -This potentiality for art, exists in a rudimentary way though in very -varying degrees in perhaps all individuals, but as a general rule -skill and facility are only acquired at the price of constant -devotion, a devotion spontaneous and sincere. Even great gifts and -natural or inherited adaptability require to be strengthened and made -supple by study and constant practice and observation. I have alluded -to the importance of a sympathetic atmosphere, and it sometimes -happens that the germ of artistic impulse has to struggle with adverse -circumstances, and it becomes a question of its strength and endurance -whether it will survive till more favourable opportunities for its -development arrive. - -Where from the earliest the student has been surrounded by the tools -and implements of art, when he has seen it progressing before his -eyes, the gain is enormous over those who take up their studies late, -and to whom the world of art is comparatively mysterious and strange. -The mere imitative impulse, which appears to be possessed in common -by all mankind in a certain degree, will in the first instance gain a -certain ease and facility of hand in dealing with tools--say pencil, -brush and colour, which itself is a very great advantage to begin -with. In fact, the first consideration in studying art is _facility -of hand_. Without it, really nothing can be done since the power of -expression is so much dependent upon it. - -In this connection I was much struck, while in America, with a method -adopted by a teacher (Mr. Liberty Tadd)[5] in Philadelphia, a city in -which very great attention was being paid to all forms of technical -instruction. Well, this teacher did not profess to train artists at -all. His object was to give _facility of hand_. He took children of -various ages--quite young to begin with--from the ordinary primary -schools, and set them to draw on the black board with a piece of -chalk in each hand certain figures. Circles to begin with, and certain -symmetric forms of ornament as shown in the diagram. The facility -they acquired was extraordinary. He then set them to what he called -"memorize" these forms and combine them in design as they best could, -and to model such designs in clay, and to carve them in wood. - -Well, it struck me this might be capable of development. At any rate, -clearly, facility of hand could be developed by exercise, just as -muscular strength can be. - - [Illustration: PROGRESSIVE BLACKBOARD PRACTICE IN BI-MANUAL TRAINING. - - (From "New Methods in Education," by Liberty Tadd).] - -From such simple exercises a student might advance, and those who -developed more faculty or taste in certain directions rather than -others--say in modelling rather than drawing, or in carving--might -pursue further those particular branches, making them main studies to -which other side studies would contribute. The use of colour, and -the habit of working directly on the paper with the brush, like the -Japanese, would again give enormous facility and precision of touch, -of great value both to the designer of patterns and also to the -pictorial artist. The direct brush method has been, since this was -first written, practised in our schools, often with surprising results -indicating considerable design faculty in young children. Method is -so much a question of habit, and in so many departments of -design precision of touch and directness of execution are of such -importance--in the preparation of working designs for cotton printing -for instance. The india-rubber, I am inclined to think, sometimes is -the root (or the sap) of all evil. - -It is for this quality of precision and technical adaptability to -the conditions of manufacture which has, I believe, induced many -manufacturers to seek their designs and working drawings on the -continent. From the specimens I have seen however, I cannot say I am -impressed with the originality or fertility of the designs, and when, -too--though I am by no means of the Jingo persuasion--it came to -getting your British lion designed abroad, unicorn and all the rest of -the national heraldry, it seemed rather a _reductio ad absurdum_. Yet -after all, of course, we must concede morally our French or German -brother has as much right to life as we. Competitive commerce -certainly is no respecter of nationality. We must all take our chance -in the world market nowadays. We are all chained to the conqueror's -car. We want a new Petrarch to write the triumph of commercialism, and -a new designer to picture it, as the old triumphs are depicted with -every splendour of inventive accessory, and magnificence of decorative -effect in those Burgundian tapestries at Hampton Court and South -Kensington. Well, I am afraid the modern triumph, such as it is, is -pictured for us in the rampant poster, which pursues us in and out of -stations, up and down streets, and even along the railway lines, which -last vantage ground hitherto has been the prerogative of our American -cousins. I do not say the poster has no place in art, and many very -able artists have designed posters, and, on the whole, our free -popular exhibitions on the hoardings have gained both in interest -and printing skill, and decorative effect of late years. Under -considerable restraint and chastening it might be possible to make -the announcement of useful wares and theatrical events at least -inoffensive, perhaps, and it may be that the mere working of -competition will produce a demand for more refined productions, since -when all shout together no one voice is likely to be heard, and the -accepted theory of a poster is that it _must_ shout--but let us keep -it out of our scenery. Any way the subject is important since our -hoardings are evidently the most obviously public education in -pictorial and typographical design. It is, after all, what meets our -eyes every day that influences us. It is the surrounding--the set -scene of every-day life that affects our artistic sense more than -anything. While a visit to a museum or art gallery is only an -occasional matter, except for students, the mass of mankind must take -their impressions of colour and form from what they see around them. - -It is, we know, the persistence and aggregation of small causes that -have played the chief part in the modelling of the earth as we see -it, and which are continually changing its aspect. In like manner the -general sense or sensitiveness to beauty is acted upon unconsciously, -I have no doubt, by the aspects of every-day life, by the colours -and forms of the street and the market as well as by the pictures and -furniture of our domestic interiors. If this theory is correct, it -follows that anything which impairs that sensitiveness must injure the -faculty of its appreciation and production. - -We have been too careless in this matter, and constant toleration -and familiarity with hideous surroundings brutalizes and blunts -the perceptions, and seeing how largely ugliness of form and colour -prevails in at least the externals of modern life, especially of our -manufacturing centres, it is perhaps not surprising that a certain -cult, a certain worship of the ugly should have obtained a footing -even in art. - -I do not deny there are certain tragic aspects of industrialism, a -certain weird fascination in drifting clouds of smoke, and beauty in -the forms of escaping steam, and that graphic representations of the -various restless aspects of modern life, have, in proportion to their -sincerity, historic value. It is at all events _our_ life and must -be recorded, though it leads to the art of the newspaper--but a great -deal of clever art can be put into a newspaper. Our newspapers are -perhaps getting the better of us; like Chronos the press devours its -own children, and no one knows how many geniuses are yearly swallowed -up, or how many lives and talents consumed in order that the -comfortable world shall have its dish of news and views at the -breakfast table, as well as in successive relays, served up like -muffins, from the rising of the sun to the going down of the electric -light. Well, Art, like literature, may be said to be divided into -prose, poetry, and penny-a-lining, or, to find equivalents we might -say, the creative, the pictorial, and the pot-boiling kinds. The first -two are governed by their own laws and the individual preferences of -the artist, the third depends upon fashion, the state of the markets, -averages and the laws of supply and demand. - -Now it seems quite possible in an artistic life, while preserving -an ideal of beauty of design and workmanship in whatever direction -without sacrifice of principle, to remain in touch with the ordinary -wants of humanity--to realize that that art is not necessarily the -highest which is always in the clouds, but, indeed, that all kinds -of art gain in character and beauty in proportion as the ideas they -express are incarnate as it were--inseparable from the particular -materials in which they are embodied. Their peculiar conditions and -limitations openly and frankly acknowledged, and so far from being -felt in the nature of a bondage, really are aids to distinct and -beautiful decoration, as is the case in all the arts and crafts of -design, showing that sincerity is the fundamental condition of good -design and workmanship, which never pride themselves on imitating -qualities which properly belong to other forms of art and other -materials. - -There are two systems, or methods, or principles of education in art. - - i. The Academic or absolute. - - ii. The Experimental, or relative, and adaptive. - -The one teaching art or design in the abstract on certain -cut-and-dried principles and methods, and fixed canons and standards, -passing every mind through the same mill, without special reference to -any particular conditions of craftsmanship or individual preference. - -The other teaching design in concrete forms and in direct relation -to tools, methods and materials, with the object of calling out the -individual feeling and setting it free to express itself under the -natural limitations of art in its own way. - -The latter is the method of our new technical and Arts and Crafts -schools, so that a student may really acquire a practical working -knowledge of the peculiar requirements of design to be reproduced in -any process of manufacture, instead of being launched on the world -with vague general ideas of drawing and painting, but ignorant of how -to apply them. - -It of course remains to be proved how far technical schools can really -efficiently take the place of the old workshop training under the -apprenticeship system, which led to good results in the past, but -while one must of course recognize that changed times require new -methods, we ought also clearly to realize that efficiency in the use -of tools and materials, and adaptability to materials, with the view -of bearing on the prosperity of trade and supplying manufacturers with -more highly skilled designers and workmen, with increased competition, -go to form _one_ aim and ultimate object. Quite another is the like -efficiency, governed by the fresh creative impulse of artists and -craftsman taking keen pleasure in their work, with leisure for -reflection and enjoyment, and the gathering of fresh ideas from -no poor, mean or stinted life, and not deprived of the stimulating -influences of natural or architectural beauty, or the touch of -refinement, and with the stimulating emulation and co-operation of -fellowship instead of cut-throat competition. - -These are two ideals somewhat distinct. It remains to be seen which -goal we shall ultimately reach, but much depends upon which we -each individually work for, since individual impulse and action are -precipitated in the collective force which finally moves the world. - -At present the requirements of artistic ideals are not always -identical with the demands of commerce, and sometimes not so in any -sense at all. There must be always I should think some particular -individual reserve in the artist which must bide its time and the -fitting medium and opportunity for its expression. The world is slow -to apprehend new manifestations of original talent and will not -accept immature masterpieces. It becomes a question therefore for the -individual artist how far he can, without casting away or losing sight -of his higher ideals and aspirations, associate himself with work of a -less ambitious, more immediately serviceable, but not necessarily less -artistic kind. It is here that technical knowledge will come in to -help him, and there is room for the very best talents and invention -in design in the work of the loom, and the printing press, iron, -wood, stone, metal, glass, in a thousand materials and forms which -contribute to build up the life of ordinary civilized man. When the -design and construction of our furniture, and the various patterns and -accessories which minister to the daily wants of humanity fall into -purely mechanical hands, and artistic craftsmen no longer concern -themselves with the unity of use and beauty, the sense of beauty and -pleasure in life which comes of the exercise of the artistic -faculty and of its appreciation, both are in a fair way to perish of -inanition. - -It cannot too often be insisted on that the vital springs which -nourish the growth of the tree of art to its topmost branches must be -looked for in the harmonious character of all things connected with -life itself, and since human happiness is bound up with harmonious -social arrangements in all ways, the importance of such considerations -cannot well be exaggerated. - -As in the pursuit of art we advance in the possession and -interpretation of beauty and in the power of conferring higher -pleasure to the cultivated senses and intellect, so are the forms of -art apt to be placed higher in the scale: but High Art can only mean -the art which embodies the highest beauty and conveys the most lasting -and ennobling pleasure. It is its _quality_ more than its particular -_form_ which settles this. Sharp lines of demarcation are often drawn -between fine art and decorative, or industrial, art, for instance, -which have proved very misleading. A good design is far and away -better than a bad picture any day, but the arts are really an equal -brotherhood. Excellence in any one branch probably requires as fine -capacities as excellence in another. Beauty is of different kinds, but -perfect beauty of design and workmanship must be acknowledged to be -so, after its kind, whenever we meet with it, and who shall hold the -scales between one kind of beauty and another. - -If an exquisite work of the loom--say such a Persian carpet as may be -seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum, satisfies the eye with lovely -and subtle harmonies of colour, with delicate and beautiful and -inventive design, and even suggestions of romance and poetry: can -the finest work of the painter give us more? Are threads and dyes -necessarily inferior to pigments and palettes, or the loom less a work -of ingenious joinery than the easel? - -Whatever may be the official and scientific classification of the arts -agreed on, there is but one spirit in which to study and practice -in any or all of them--sincerity and the love of beauty. "Strive to -attain excellence in the things which are themselves excellent" -sounds a good dictum but it is thoroughly Academic. Certain things are -assumed to be excellent, and then excellence is to be striven for in -them and in them alone. But how often in life--in the history of art -and humanity has it been that some great artist and inventor has taken -some poor despised thing and made it excellent. Think of the wealth of -beauty and invention which makes alive the smallest fragment of -Gothic carving, and invests every cup and bowl, every bench end and -knife-handle of the middle ages with beauty and romance. The commonest -weed may contain a fine motive in design, just as, in another way, -the whole spirit of Japanese art in its weird, half-supernatural -naturalism and magic delicacy of touch, may haunt a tiny ivory button, -or be wrought into a sword hilt. - -It does not follow that everything should be ornamented. Artistic -feeling is shown often as much in the judgement which restrains -or forbids ornament as in the fertility of invention from which it -springs. - -Organic consistency, adaptation to purpose, harmony and relation to -surroundings. These are qualities at least as important as ornament. - -Yet it seems often to be thought that decorative art means ornamenting -something: but the very word decoration must mean something -appropriate--fitting, perfectly adapted. - -The engineer who borrows cast-iron Roman capitals and mouldings -to adorn the iron railing and supports of his gasometer is not -necessarily making it more artistic. A wrought-iron screen veiling the -cylinder altogether, full of fancy and grace of treatment, might be -more artistic--though it might raise the price of gas. - -The skeleton has a beauty of its own, "Thou art nor modelled, glazed, -or framed," says Tennyson, to his "rough sketch of man." Yet we should -not like to live in a world of skeletons, however valuable a knowledge -of the bones and mechanism of the joints is to students of the human -form. - -Engineers are good skeleton makers, but their skeleton structures do -not often appeal to the sense of the beautiful--from the Eiffel Tower -to the Forth Bridge. They can never be mistaken for architecture, they -are triumphs of engineering, but they remain skeletons, and they are -too big to be put in the cupboard. Perhaps our engineers are busy -devising skeletons for the future to clothe and invest with life and -beauty--or to _bury_! Yet for all that constructive lines--at least, -simple ones which the eye can follow are, as a rule, beautiful lines. -But I think if the sense of beauty was really a living and -effective force, we should consider it a crime to destroy natural -or architectural beauty, or to take away the public possession or -enjoyment of it by any means, and should insist that the problem of -utility was but half solved unless the result was harmonious. - -At present the world seems too busy about other matters--dissecting -and analysing, experimenting, buying and selling, manufacturing and -speculating, to care collectively for beauty, perhaps, and truth is -at present too many-sided and composite to be easily reconciled with -beauty. All is tumult and conflict, and through the smoke and dust of -the commercial competitive battle in which we spend our lives we are -not quite sure when the sun is shining, and when we _are_ sure, are -perhaps too busy making the proverbial hay to notice the beauty of it. -That is only for artists and idlers, and the world has such a horror -of idleness that people, not condemned to hard labour, have acquired -a habit of being extremely busy about nothing in particular, and it -is supposed to be a conclusive argument against Socialism to ask -"What will you do with the idle?" which seems a little like raising an -objection to eating your dinner because you don't know what you will -do when you are not hungry! - -Artistic ability and power of design are often talked of as if they -were in the nature of conjuring tricks, and their exponents like those -automatic machines at the stations which only require "a penny in -the slot" to satisfy every ordinary modern human requirement from -butter-scotch to green spectacles. - -It is not sufficiently realized that the sense of art and the power -of its creation is a growth of the mind (as well as facility of hand) -which must have its processes of germination and fruition. - -Art is not nature. It is a commentary or creative variation upon it, -but in the progress of its own development art follows natural laws. -Truth and Beauty are true lovers, but the course of true love never -did run smooth. While Truth in various disguises is roaming desert -places, sometimes like a knight errant fighting with sphinxes and -dragons, sometimes, like Thor with his hammer, striking blows, the -effects of which are only seen long afterwards; Beauty, like an -enchanted princess, is often shut up in gloomy castles closed round -with thorny woods or thronging factory chimneys. It is our business -to re-discover her, to awaken her, to interpret her afresh to the -world--to show that if beauty sleeps, our senses are only half awake, -and our lives a meaningless monotony. - - - [Footnote 5: Mr. Liberty Tadd has since developed his system - and has embodied his teaching in a large and fully illustrated - work--"New Methods in Education." He has visited this country - and given lectures in exposition of his method, a part of - which is known as bi-manual training, or ambidexterity, - upon which there is an interesting book by Mr. John Jackson, - F.E.I.S., with an introduction by Major-General R. S. S. - Baden-Powell, C.B., published by Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench - and Co.] - - - - -ON SOME OF THE ARTS AND CRAFTS ALLIED TO ARCHITECTURE - - - - -ON SOME OF THE ARTS AND CRAFTS ALLIED TO ARCHITECTURE. - -AN ADDRESS TO THE STUDENTS OF THE ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION - - -I have been asked to address you on the Arts allied to Architecture. -Now, as students of Architecture you will feel, considering how -closely associated all the arts of design have been in the past, with -Architecture as the mother-art, that it would be very difficult to -draw a line between them, or to define the precise point at which any -one of them naturally part company to be considered as a separate art. -In the course of evolution many causes and forces have combined to -change their relationship, however, and to give some of them a more or -less independent position relatively to what they once had, as in the -case of modern painting and sculpture; although these arts in their -origin appear to be more closely related and essential to the forms of -architecture with which they are combined than almost any of the other -crafts. Indeed, it would almost seem as if sculpture might dispute the -claim of primogeniture with architecture itself, since cave-dwelling -and rock-cut temples seem more of the nature of the former; and also -when we come to the wall sculptures of Nineveh and find winged bulls -forming gateways; or see, as at the gate of Mycenae, beyond the -builders' cyclopean craft of stone on stone, the only architectural -forms and ornament in the sculpture of the slab over the gateway -itself, in the column each side of which the lions stand, and in the -carved discs and spirals below them. - -Again, when we come to the buildings of ancient Athens, temples of the -Parthenon type might almost be described as frames or pedestals for -sculpture, although in the case of the Parthenon the architecture and -sculpture are so perfectly united that we hardly think of them apart. -The sculptor seizes upon the deep pediments and the triglyphs to tell -his mythical and symbolic story, and emphasizes them in bold relief -and counterbalancing mass; to which the lines of roof and cornice, of -entablature and column play a harmonious accompaniment, while the more -delicate frieze completes and unites the whole scheme. Though we know -that sculpture was not left to the cold embrace of white marble, but -must have been beautiful in colour as it now is in form, the genius -of sculpture seems to dominate here. Greek architecture, too, only -repeats in stone and marble and on a large scale the primitive -construction of wood; and this takes us back to the days of the sacred -ark, or the tabernacle of the Israelites, more of a shrine or tent -than a building, which depended so much for its beauty upon the -adornment it received from--"The cunning workman, the engraver, the -embroiderer in blue, and in purple, in scarlet, and in fine linen, and -of the weaver, even of them that do any work, and of those that devise -cunning work" (Ex. xxxv, 35). Certainly here, as in the descriptions -of the building of Solomon's temple all the arts appeared to -co-operate and were equally important to the beauty of the result, and -we get a splendid picture of oriental colour and ornament. The account -of the olive-tree doors of the temple carved with cherubim and palm -trees and open flowers and overlaid with gold, shows the early use of -a craft very dear to the modern decorator--gilding: though it probably -means a more substantial kind than that of the modern frame-maker, -since the text has it that "he covered them with gold fitted upon the -carved work" (1 Kings, vi, 35). - -The craft of working thin plates of gold and other metals in repoussé -is clearly a very ancient one, and contributed to what must have been -a very splendid effect in interior decoration. Our use of silvered or -gilded metal in modern wall sconces and door plates may be a relic of -times when it was more extensively used and on larger surfaces, but -one can hardly imagine a more splendid effect than a wall covering of -beaten gold. - -The ordinary brass or copper repoussé work of our own day is either -worked from the surface only by following the lines of the design -drawn on the metal by a tool called a tracer, straight or curved, -as may be required for straight or curved lines, although a straight -tracer will follow all but very small curves. The tracer is tapped -with a broad-ended hammer according to the amount of relief intended. -I should have said the sheet of metal is fastened down over a sheet -of lead by screws or nails to a deal board before working on. When the -outlines of the design are hammered out, the background, which bumps -up between the traced lines, has to be matted. This may be done by -various patterned tools called matting tools. Your design, when the -matting is done, will stand in low relief from its ground, and may be -polished as much as desired. Although a pleasing effect of soft relief -is obtained, this is not carrying the work very far, and would only -satisfy amateurs. True repoussé work consists in actually modelling by -the hammer and punch, and for this both for delicate and bold relief -it is necessary to reverse the metal on the pitch block. This is -formed of a mixture of pitch and Russian tallow sprinkled with plaster -of paris, which forms a somewhat firm but easily indentable substance -when warmed, and can be held together in tin trays. While the pitch is -soft you must press in your metal plate the reverse side up and then -beat up the hollows of the design as they have been defined by the -tracer on the face of the work and which show clearly on the back. The -tools used for doing this are rounded punches of various forms. The -hammering is done rather persuasively, as sudden blows make sudden -dents, which are not easily smoothed. Parts of the work, again, may -be hammered on the surface over a lead or pitch block, or it may -be hammered over a pattern carved in wood. This method is used when -several forms recur, or it is desired to repeat the same pattern. - - [Illustration: Black & white marble - Roman mosaic pavement. - Baths of Caracalla. - From sketch made in 1871.] - - [Illustration: Patterns of Roman mosaic - pavements. - Baths of Caracalla. - From sketches made in 1871.] - -Another art of very early association with Architecture is mosaic, -which may be said to be perhaps the most permanent and most splendid -kind of architectural decoration ever used. In the matter of marble -mosaic the Romans, though not the inventors of the art, in their -pavements carried it to great elaboration, and worked it in many -forms, the most successful being, to my mind, the simpler forms of -flat pattern-work such as are seen in the baths of Caracalla at Rome, -where white marble, or black, or black or white, is very effectively -used, and there are some admirable scale-pattern borders. These make -more reserved and satisfactory decorations for a floor than the shaded -pictorial battle-pieces and figures of gladiators such as are seen -at the Borghese Villa. In the Bardo Palace Museum at Tunis there is a -very fine collection of Roman mosaic pavements. There has been a very -extensive revived use of marble mosaic for the covering of entrance -floors and halls in our own time; but it has been rather too much of -the second-hand Roman type, although at its best it is a good type, -and, as we know, many original Roman examples have been discovered, -so that we are not without historic models in our own country. Marble -mosaic is usually somewhat limited in colour but looking to the -variety and beauty of tint to be found in marbles there is perhaps -more restriction than need be, as well as in type of design. I made a -design for the floor of a bank at Cleveland, Ohio, when I was in the -States, which I am afraid might have tried the colour-resources of the -mosaicist, since I introduced a symbolical figure of Columbia coining, -wrapped in a robe of stars and stripes, which, however, would look -sober enough when translated into marble tones. - - [Illustration: PATTERN OF ROMAN MOSAIC PAVEMENT, FROM THE - BATHS OF CARACALLA.] - -For real splendour of colour we must turn to glass mosaic, and for -magnificent examples of its architectural use we cannot do better -than look at the churches of Ravenna. My friend, the late J. T. -Micklethwaite, speaking of mosaic, once humorously remarked that -mosaic in decoration was "like beer--of no use unless you had a lot of -it." (That is all very well for those who can imbibe, and the dictum -should appeal to Britons.) However, the use of mosaic at Ravenna and -St. Mark's shows what my friend meant. In the mausoleum of Gallia -Placida, a small rounded arched and vaulted Byzantine building of -the fifth century, there are no mouldings or carving, or any kind of -architectural enrichment, to interfere with the effect of the complete -lining of mosaic, chiefly in pale tones of gold and colour on a deep, -subdued but rich blue ground. The effect is very solemn and splendid. -The actual workmanship of the Ravenna mosaics would no doubt be -considered rough by the more mechanical modern mosaicist who does not -accept the cube principle in using tesserae. The head of the Empress -Theodora at San Vitale, for instance, is very simply done. The -tesserae are few--but since the effect from the proper distance is -fine, they must be fit though few. Then these mosaics like all the -ancient ones, must have been worked from the surface. This gives -a certain play of surface and depth and richness of colour, each -tesserae not having been set at precisely the same angle to the plane -of the wall, or to its neighbour cube. - -The modern Venetian way is to make the panels perfectly flat on the -surface, the cement being spread over the tesserae when arranged face -downwards. The modern Venetian workmen will copy a cartoon properly -tesserated with the utmost precision, as I have discovered, but his -panels have not the surface sparkle and variety of the old work. The -method of putting in the tesserae from the front has however been -revived since I made my designs. The design by Sir Edward Burne-Jones -for the dome of the New American Church at Rome was worked in this -way, and recently a mosaic altar-piece of "The Last Supper," for a -church in Philadelphia, was executed in this way by Mr. and Mrs. Henry -Holiday, the tesserae being inserted in a layer of putty. - -In London we have the great work of Sir W. B. Richmond in the choir of -St. Paul's, which was all worked from the surface--the tesserae being -set in red lead putty which, occasionally allowed to show at the -joints, gives a certain warmth of tone to the whole. Whatever -difference of opinion there may be about the decoration of St. Paul's, -the designs of Sir William Richmond are exceedingly fine and conceived -in a noble spirit. - -Mr. Anning Bell has carried out a charming design in mosaic worked -from the surface for the exterior of the Horniman Museum. One -projected for the exterior of the Whitechapel Picture Gallery, from a -design of my own, has not so far been executed for want of funds. - -I have often thought, when looking at the beautiful arrangements -of tint in the fine shingle of some of our sea beaches, that the -materials for a very effective kind of mosaic, at small cost, might be -found there, and adapted for the ornamentation of the external walls -of seaside houses, in friezes, strings, panels, or even entire walls. -In thus reviving the ancient art of pebble-mosaic, a charming local -character might thus be given to the buildings of certain of our coast -places which would add very greatly to their attractions. The thing, -of course, would need some intelligence and taste, without which -indeed the most costly and beautiful materials in the world may be -wasted. - -One of the most charming and simple ways of decorating external walls -is to be found in the patterns indented in the plaster of the surface -filling of half-timbered houses such as are so plentiful in Suffolk -and Essex. It is a characteristic and ancient method which it is -gratifying to note is made use of by modern architects and builders in -that district. Figures and ornament in relief are also used. A mixture -of Portland cement and lime is a good material for this purpose, as it -does not set too quickly, but finally sets hard and is durable. - -Delicate plaster relief-work for ceilings and friezes is also a -very charming method of interior decoration, and there are very fine -examples scattered over the country, though its original home was, I -presume, in Italy, whose craftsmen still maintain their pre-eminence -in the skill with which they deal with the manipulation of all kinds -of plaster-work. Plaster and stucco must have been largely used in -ancient Rome, and there are very beautiful, both bold and delicate, -examples in the decorations of the famous tombs of the Via Latina. In -one instance, on a wagon vault, the figures appear to have been worked -directly in the soft plaster and the relief-work is used with vigorous -indented lines. The effect of the work is wonderfully direct, simple, -and fresh, and suggests having been done with speed and certainty. -Raphael, influenced no doubt by old Roman work, introduced modelled -portions in his painted designs for the Loggia of the Vatican. The -usual modern method is to model the design in clay, mould it in -gelatine, and then cast it in fibrous plaster panels (supposing it -is for relief work) and screw them in position, stopping the joints -afterwards. This, though it has many conveniences, is not so artistic -in its results as when the design is worked directly in stucco or -gesso in its proper position; but if we could be sure of finding -the plasterers and craftsman to do it, we should but rarely find the -opportunity, or the client who would allow time for such work _in -situ_. - -A middle course is to model your design--say, for a frieze or -ceiling--in gesso or stucco of some kind on fibrous plaster panels; -and the design may be planned so as to cut up into convenient-sized -panels to work on an easel in the studio, and be fixed in position -afterwards. - -I have worked panels in this way using plaster of paris, thin glue, -and cotton wool. The ground should be wetted, or the suction stopped -by a coat of shellac, or the work is apt to dry too quickly and peel -off. - -For delicate relief ornamentation, say, in wall panelling and -furniture, a kind of gesso duro is good. This is a mixture of -whitening, glue, boiled linseed oil and resin. It is mixed to a creamy -consistency, the whitening being first soaked in water. The gesso -is laid on with a brush--long pointed sable is best. The gesso sets -slowly, but very hard, so that any part of the work could be scraped -down if necessary. - -Another effective method for external and interior work in decoration -is sgraffito, also of Italian origin. It consists in cutting or -scratching a design through one or more layers of mixed lime and -cement on to coloured grounds. A ground is laid on the plaster of -the wall, say, of black, made by mixing black oxide of manganese and -breeze from a smith's forge with the cement. When this is set, a layer -of mixed lime and cement is laid over the black, about a quarter of an -inch or more thick. When this layer has partly set, and is about the -consistency of cheese, you cut your design out, its lines and masses -defined by the black ground beneath as you cut away the top layer. Two -or three colours may be used in the same way, one being laid over the -other, and the effect produced by cutting down to the different layers -as you wish. - -I once came to a town in Bohemia, Pracatic, a wonderful old place, -with a fine deep Gothic gateway, with a fresco of a knight-at-arms -over it. The walls of the principal houses appear to have been -entirely decorated with designs in sgraffito. The Rathaus or town -hall was the most elaborate and best preserved, and was covered with -designs from Bible story, divided by pilasters, and panelled in scroll -ornament. - -Sgraffito is still extensively used in Italy and Germany, where one -sees much more elaborate work in it, and on a more extensive scale -than anything here, unless we except the considerable and excellent -work of Mr. Heywood Sumner in this material. He, however, has used it -chiefly for interior wall decoration and churches. He generally uses -three colours, red, green, and black, by which his large, simple, and -bold designs are well expressed. Our climate--more especially town -climate--is generally unfavourable to the effectiveness and permanence -of the work as exterior decoration. There is, however, an excellent -object lesson in sgraffito of various kinds to be seen on the back -wall of the Science Schools at South Kensington, the work of the late -Mr. Moody. - -It seems curious that more has not been attempted in the way of -external decoration by means of coloured and glazed tiles. The colour -in these is permanent enough, and good quality of colour can be -obtained. I fancy pleasant effects could be produced by facing the -front of houses with coloured tiles, and introducing friezes and -plaques beneath and between the windows. The ground story of many -brick houses in London streets are cemented and painted. Why not try -the effect of coloured tiles instead? Mr. Halsey Ricardo, it may be -mentioned, has used De Morgan tile panels most effectively in a house -he designed in Addison Road, Kensington, which is distinguished also -by a beautiful roof of green glazed tiles from Spain. Mr. Conrad -Dressler has also designed extensive mural decorations in a kind of -Luca della Robbia manner, which is very effective. For splendour of -effect, too, few things could equal designs produced in lustre. - -Tiles, of course, have long held an undisputed position as decorative -linings for fire-places. A new domestic application of them is -suggested in that little gem of a picture by Van der Meer of Delft, -recently added to our National Gallery, where white Dutch tiles with -blue figures are fixed along the wall on the floor line, where one -usually sees the wooden skirting. - -Of the beauty of the effect of raised figures treated in faïence -colours and glazes as an architectural decoration there is a splendid -example in the frieze of archers from the palace wall of Darius, now -at Paris, apparently made of moulded bricks glazed with colour, a -good reproduction of which was to be seen in what was formerly the -architectural court at the Victoria and Albert Museum; where also we -could study the bold and beautiful frieze of Luca della Robbia from -the Ospedale at Pistoia. One wants to see it in the full Italian -sunshine and in its proper architectural setting fully to appreciate -its fine decorative effect, and it is to be regretted that these -reproductions of architectural decorative works are not exhibited -in the Museum with an indication of their framework to show their -relation to the buildings of which they form part.[6] It would be -better to have fewer examples properly displayed, I believe, than a -multitude crowded together, with no means of judging of them in -their proper relation to their surroundings. If the examples were -accompanied by good and clear drawings or photographs of the entire -buildings it would be useful. - -At Pistoia, also, there is a charming porch to the cathedral covered -with Robbia ware in white, yellow, and blue, in association with black -and white banded marble.[7] Such examples show with what beautiful -decorative effect majolica can be associated with architecture. - -To Italy, again, we must look for the most beautiful illustrations of -the unity of painting with architecture, from the work of Giotto at -Padua and Assisi to the crowning work of the Renascence, the ceiling -of the Sistine Chapel by Michael Angelo. The most perfect example of -mural decoration in Italy I have seen, is, however, to be found in the -Appartimenti Borgia in the Vatican, painted by Pinturrichio, a very -beautiful model of which can be studied in the Victoria and Albert -Museum (it was formerly in the Italian Court). Here we have a scheme -of decoration at once restrained and rich, in strict relation to the -construction, and yet full of variety and beauty of detail; and it is -interesting, too, as an example of the use of gilded gesso used both -for details in the wall pictures, as well as for arabesque ornament, -and bordering on the vaulted ceiling. The lower wall was evidently -originally intended to be covered with tapestry hangings, as there -is a moulding with the little hooks to hold them; and this would have -completed the effect of the whole in a rich and reposeful way. Another -very rich and beautiful instance of the earlier Renascence mural -painting may be seen in the Riccardi Chapel at Florence by Benozzo -Gozzoli. Some full-sized copies are at South Kensington, notably one -of Lorenzo de Medici in a gilded dress going a-hunting. - -The famous Campo Santo at Pisa, and the frescoes in the town hall of -Siena are fine instances of the days when mural painting was a living -and popular art, frankly appealing to the love of story and romance, -vivid, dramatic, and yet superbly decorative. Superior modern critics -might scorn such types of art as "literary," and their _naïveté_ as -"childish"; but their story-telling power is an inseparable part of -their artistic form, and never oversteps it, just as their decorative -instinct is in perfect accord and harmony with their architectural -conditions. - -This was long before the days of academies and art schools, when there -was no technical art education outside the workshop, no competitive -examinations, and a man learnt his craft by apprenticeship to it, -beginning at the beginning, under a master craftsman. - -I fail to see how any art can be wholly taught or learned on general -principles, since it is of the nature of art to address itself to -particular problems, the conditions of which constantly vary. Certain -general principles have been evolved out of collective practice of -more or less value, no doubt, in a general way, but they must always -be liable to qualification in their adaptation to particular cases. -Nothing of the nature of art can be formulated as an exact science, -happily, or the limits of its invention and variety would soon be -reached. Art, however, has its scientific side, though the science of -art is not exactly scientific or theoretic, but practical, and rather -consists in recognizing particular necessities of conditions and -materials, and the realizing that the frank acknowledgment of the -nature of these conditions and materials leads, in all the varieties -of design, in association with craftsmanship and architecture, to the -highest beauty. - - [Illustration: Patterns in plain leading, - from "THE GLAZIER'S BOOKE."] - -The peculiar beauty of a stained glass window, for instance, is -entirely dependent upon this frank acknowledgment of conditions. A -screen of transparent colour and pattern, defined and united by leads, -and held in position by iron bars. Directly any attempt is made to -overstep its natural limits--to make it look like a painted picture, -to get chiaroscuro and vanishing points, or to try to ignore the -leading as an essential condition of its existence--the charm and the -joy of it is lost. There is a distinct character and beauty both in -plain leaded glass and roundels throwing a pleasant network of simple -geometric lines over the blankness of window-panes. Henry Shaw, in -his Glazier's Book,[8] gives a great variety of delightful leading -patterns. - -Now, any design for a coloured glass window should, in the first -place, be a good arrangement of lead-lines, I think--a good pattern, -in short, whether figure subject or not--and, secondly, a good pattern -considered as an arrangement of colour or jewelled light. - -The artistic designer and maker of a wrought-iron gate, grille, or -railing, whatever phantasy he might introduce, would never forget the -essential requirements of a gate, grille, or railing. He would never -forget the architectural relation of his work, or rather he would make -the chief beauty and inventiveness of his treatment of wrought iron -spring out of that relation. - -The practice of modelling in clay (though it may be useful in a -student's training) designs intended to be carved in wood, has, it -seems to me, been most destructive of the beauty and character of true -woodcarving. The same may be said of stone and marble. The essential -spirit and go of the thing, the characteristic touch and treatment -which each material in which the designer works claims as its own, and -which is its own particular reason for existing, these are, of course, -lost or tamed out of recognition when a copy is made of something -already existing in a material and produced by a method totally -different. - -Much better keep to simple mouldings and plain painting than bring -in ornament which has no character or meaning of its own. We must not -confuse the mere spreading of ornament with decoration in its true -sense, for Design in all its forms may be said to be governed by an -architectural instinct of its own, which makes it a harmonious part of -the building with which it is united, and which unites it, and puts it -in harmony with itself. - -In the limits of a short paper it is impossible to do more than -deal very lightly with so vast a subject as the Arts allied to -Architecture, and there are many that I have not been able to touch -at all, since, properly considered, _all_ the arts are, or should be, -allied to architecture, and the history of architecture covers the -history of human life itself; and what, let us ask, would architecture -be without the associated arts which help to express and adorn it and -fit each part for the use and service of man. - - - [Footnote 6: This was written before the arrangement of the - collections in the new building of the Victoria and Albert - Museum was complete.] - - [Footnote 7: An illustration of this porch is given in my - "Bases of Design."] - - [Footnote 8: The full title is "A Booke of Sundry Draughtes. - Principally serving for Glasiers: And not impertinent for - plasterers, and gardeners: besides sundry other professions. - London. William Pickering 1848." It is almost wholly copied - from an older work "printed in Shoolane at the sign of the - Falcon by Walter Dwight 1615."] - - - - -NOTES ON COLOUR EMBROIDERY AND ITS TREATMENT - - - - -NOTES ON COLOUR EMBROIDERY AND ITS TREATMENT - - -Embroidery as an art of design may be considered from many different -points of view--but none of these are more important than those of -colour and its treatment. It is indeed to colour that decorative -needlework owes its chief charm, and in no direction is the influence -of controlling taste more essential, and in its absence the most -elaborate workmanship and technical accomplishment are apt to be -wasted. - -The choice and treatment of colour must naturally depend, in the -first place, upon the object and purpose of the work, which would, of -course, decide the scale and motive of its pattern. - -As applied to costume, in which direction we find some of its most -delicate and beautiful examples, nearness to the eye, the construction -of the garment and the proportions of figure would have to be -considered. - -The Russian peasants have a form of frock or long blouse worn by young -girls, which affords an instance of effective use of frank and bright -colour upon a white ground. The garment itself is of homespun linen. -It has a square opening for the neck, and is put on over the head, -like a smock frock. The sleeves are quite simple, full on the upper -arm and narrowing to a band on the wrist. The skirt, which falls -straight from the shoulders, is decorated with a series of horizontal -bands of pattern worked in cross-stitch, the principal colours -being red and green, colours which always tell well upon white. -The square-cut opening at the neck and the cuffs are emphasized -by embroidered pattern of similar kind but on a smaller scale. The -garment is ingeniously adapted to the growth of its wearer by adding -extra rings of pattern to the skirt, and by enlarging a square piece -let in at the arm-pits. - -The Hungarian peasant women are most admirable embroiderers, and in -their festal costumes display an extraordinary wealth of brilliant -colour, employing, like the Russian, principally the cross-stitch -on white linen. They are fond of decorating the ends of their -pillow-cases which are piled up one upon the other on the bed, usually -set against the wall in their cottages, so that only the outside ends -show, and these alone are embroidered. Both the patterns, which are -traditional and have an oriental character, and their colour show a -strong decorative sense and natural taste. Many of them being worked -in a single tone of red or blue, always effective on white. In some -parts short sleeveless leather jackets lined with sheep's wool are -worn. These are made incredibly gorgeous in colour by a kind of -combined _appliqué_ and stitch embroidery, the vivid greens, reds, -blues, and purples being kept in their place by the broad white of the -shirt sleeves which flank them on each side when worn. - - [Illustration: RUSSIAN PEASANT EMBROIDERY - - CHILD'S BLOUSE - in home spun linen worked in cross-stitch - - Red pattern in - cross stitch - - Red band - - Neck opening - - Red band - - Red pattern in cross stitch - - Square enlarging piece - - Red band - herring bone stitched - - Blue (stitched) - - Pattern in Red - (Cross stitch) - - Blue (stitched) - - Red band - - Red band - ] - -More austere arrangements are however found. There is a large heavy -overcoat, with hanging sleeves and deep collar, worn by the Hungarian -farmers, made of white wool. This is ornamented most judiciously -by _appliqué_ embroidery in black and green. The chief points of -decoration being the collar, the cuffs, and the hem. - -In the Montenegrin section of the Balkan States Exhibition at Earl's -Court there were some charming shirts and blouses embroidered with -gold thread and colour, in bands. The constructive points, such as -the neck opening, the junction of the yoke and sleeves, sometimes the -sleeves themselves were richly ornamented with designs in gold and -colour with excellent effect. - -Good examples of treatment of rich colour in combination with light -pattern are to be found among Cretan embroideries. The decoration in -bands of the ends of the muslin scarves, relieved with silver and -gold thread, often recalls the effect of the illuminated borders of -fourteenth and fifteenth-century manuscripts, having a delightfully -gay and sparkling effect. These Cretan embroideries are examples of -the harmonious effect in the arrangement of a number of different -colours in the same pattern, grouped around a central feature which -forms the dominating note; this is generally in the form of a large -red flower with a gold centre, and this is surrounded with smaller -detached star-like flowers, and formal cypress trees in leaf-shaped -enclosures of gold or silver thread. The design being repeated, with -slight variations, to form a band or border of pattern decorating -the ends of the scarf. In a sample before me eight colours are used, -besides gold and silver thread. The colours are: (1) red, in centre -flower (a light vermilion); (2) crimson (sometimes, alas, magenta); -(3) pink (pale salmon); (4) orange; (5) light (lemon) yellow (of -greenish tone); (6) olive (dark); (7) pale blue, and (8) dark blue. - - [Illustration: CRETAN EMBROIDERY. Silk on Muslin, heightened with - gold and silver thread. - - Colours: - 1. Orange - 2. Crimson - 3. Red - 4. Pink - 5. Olive - 6. Yellow (green) - 7. Light blue - 8. Dark blue - 9. Gold - 10. Silver - ] - -As every embroideress knows, colour in embroidery is very much -influenced by texture. The colour of a skein of silk looking different -from the same colour when worked. Juxtaposition with other colours, -again, alters the effect of a colour. As a general principle, -especially where many colours are employed, we are more likely to -secure harmony if we choose reds, for instance, inclining to orange, -blues inclining to green, yellows inclining to green or brown, -blacks of a greenish or olive tone. Perfectly frank and pure colours, -however, may be harmonized, especially with the use of gold, though -they are more difficult to deal with--unless one can command the -natural, primitive instinct of the Hungarian, the Greek, or the -Persian peasant. - -For bold decorative work few kinds of embroidery design are more -delightful than the bordered cloths and covers from Bokhara. Here, -again, the colours are chiefly red and green in different shades, the -reds concentrated in the form of big flowers in the intervals of an -open arabesque of thin stems and curved and pointed leaves in green, -the whole design upon a white linen ground. - - [Illustration: BOKHARA EMBROIDERY. Silk on linen, chiefly in chain - stitch. - The large flowers are worked in two shades of rich red inclining - to crimson with yellow centres relieved by dark blue. The blue & - yellow & red are repeated in the smaller flowers. - - The leaves are blueish green with a red line down centre. They - are outlined with bronze brown which I also used for the stems & - spirals. - - Inner border, between red lines. The star flowers are alternately - blue & red with yellow centres with bronze leaves. The outer - border, also between red lines. The flowers are red with blue & - yellow centres alternately, & green & bronze leaves.] - -Such joyful, frank, and bold colour, however, would be usually -considered too bright for the ordinary English interior, and under our -gray skies; and colour, after all, is so much a question of climate, -and though for its full splendour we turn to the south and east, we -need not want for models of beautiful, if quieter, harmonies in the -natural tints of our native country at different seasons of the year. -There are abundant suggestions to be had from field and hedgerow at -all times--arrangements in russet, or gold, or green. What can be -more beautiful as a colour motive than the frail pink or white of the -blossoms of the briar rose, starring the green arabesque of thorny -stem and leaf; or its scarlet hip and bronze green leaf in the autumn; -or the crisp, white pattern of the field daisy on the pale green -of the hay field, relieved by the yellow centres and by the red -of sorrel; or the brave scarlet of the poppy between the thin gold -threads of the ripe corn. Then, too, there are beautiful schemes of -colour to be found in the plumage of our birds. Take the colours of a -jay, for instance--a mass of fawn-coloured gray with a pinkish tinge, -relieved with touches of intense black and white and small bars of -turquoise blue and white. A charming scheme for an embroidered pattern -might be made of such an arrangement, if the colours were used in -similar proportions to those of nature--say in a costume. - -The mainspring of colour suggestion, as of design, in embroidery, -however, must be found in Nature's own embroidery--flowers, and the -garden must always be an unfailing source of fresh suggestion for -floral design both in colour and form. But, of course, everything in -the process of adaptation to artistic purposes is under the necessity -of translation or transformation, and any form or tint in nature must -be re-stated in the terms proper to the art or craft under its own -conditions and limitations as being essential to the character and -beauty of the result, _suggestion_, rather than imitation of nature, -being the principle to follow. - -But while we must go to nature for fresh inspiration in colour -invention or combination, we have a guide in the traditions and -examples of the craft and the choice of stitches to influence our -treatment. - -The colour principles, too, we may find in allied arts may help us. - - [Illustration: DESIGN FOR AN EMBROIDERED HANGING - Showing the use of shields of arms as contrasting - elements in colour & pattern - - COLOURS: - - oak leaves - sage green. - - stone & acorns - golden brown - on pale green or unbleached - linen ground. - - Heraldic colours as noted - on sketch - - ORIGINAL DESIGN BY WALTER CRANE.] - -Heraldry, for instance, while shields of arms, crests, and mottoes, -are in themselves excellent material for embroidery, as units -of embroidered pattern. The principles of the disposition and -countercharge of colour in heraldry, and the methods of its display -and treatment in form as exemplified in the heraldic design of the -best periods--say, from the twelfth to the fifteenth century--will be -found full of useful lessons. A repeating pattern of leaves or flowers -in a hanging is pleasantly enriched and varied by the introduction -of heraldic badges or shields at intervals, the emphatic concentrated -colour and accent of the heraldry contrasting with the less formal, -open, but evenly dispersed design with its recurring units and -counterbalancing curves which form the main field of the hanging. -Interesting heraldic devices for such purposes may be found in every -locality, either of family, civic, or general historic interest, our -village churches being generally valuable treasuries from this point -of view. - -Where it is desired to restrict colour in embroidery to two or -three tints, and restricted colour is generally suitable to simple -decorative purposes with corresponding simplicity of design, it is -safe to follow the principle of complementary colours in nature. -Red and green, blue and orange, brown and yellow, and so on, but, of -course, this would leave an immense range of choice of actual tint of -any one colour open. Your red, for instance, might be salmon pink or -deep crimson, your green that of the first lime shoots in spring to -the metallic bronze of the holly leaf; your blue might be that of -larkspur or the turquoise of the palest forget-me-not, while -your orange might be that of the ripe fruit or the tint of faded -beech-leaf. Tasteful work, however, may be done in two or three shades -of the same colour. - -The choice of tint for the embroidery must depend largely upon the -tint and material of the ground, and also upon the material in which -the work itself is to be carried out--silk, cotton thread, or crewels. -Whether, however, for designs which entirely cover the ground, or for -the lightest open floral pattern, linen seems the material on which -the best results are produced. - - - - -NOTES ON EARLY ITALIAN GESSO WORK - - - - -NOTES ON EARLY ITALIAN GESSO WORK - - -The charming varieties of decoration in relief by means of modelled -gesso and stucco which attained to such richness and beauty in the -hands of Italian artists in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, -are traceable to very early origins, and come down from Graeco-Roman -and Roman times, and probably had a still earlier existence in the -East, since decoration in raised gesso was long practised by the -Persians and the Arabs, and plaster-work goes back to the ancient -Egyptians, who also used gesso grounds for the painting and gilding of -their mummy cases. Existing examples of Roman and Pompeian relief -work belong mostly to the first century B.C., and are of the nature -of architectural enrichments, being chiefly mural and ceiling -decorations, worked in plaster and stucco, _in situ_. Many of these -are very delicate and show the influence of Greek feeling in design -and treatment, such, for instance, as those from the ceilings of -the tombs on the Via Latina at Rome, which in their simple panelled -treatment, enclosing groups of finely modelled figures seem to be the -forerunners of the rich and delicate gesso relief work, stamped, or -modelled with the brush, which the Italians used with such tact in the -decoration of caskets, marriage coffers, and other furniture in the -early renascence period. Mr. Millar in his comprehensive work on -"Plastering" speaks of a very fine example of gesso work as existing -in the old cathedral church at Coire, a box which is said to be as old -as the ninth century. It is entirely covered with gesso, on which -a design in relief has been roughly scrolled. The gesso has been -polished so as to give the appearance of ivory, and he further says, -"at the corners, where it has got chipped off, the ends of the linen -can be seen which has evidently been put next the wood, as Cennino -Cennini advises." - -Cennino, indeed, in his very interesting "Trattato" (which was -translated by Mrs. Merrifield in 1844, for the first time into -English, and recently, more accurately and completely, by Mrs. -Herringham) gives very full and ample accounts of the methods in use -in his time in painting and the allied arts, and gives recipes, also, -both for making and working gesso. He lays great stress on the care -necessary in preparing grounds on wood both for painting and raised -work, and in advocating the use of "linen cloth, old, fine, and white, -and free from all grease," writes "take your best size, cut or tear -large or small strips of this linen, soak these in the size, and -spread them with your hands over the surface of the panel; remove -the seams, and spread the strips out with the palms of the hands, and -leave them to dry for two days." He further enjoined one to "remember -it is best to use size when the weather is dry and windy. Size is -stronger in the winter than in summer, and in winter gilding must be -done in damp and rainy weather." Then--Chapter 115--he proceeds to -describe the process of laying on the ground of gesso over the linen. -His "gesso grosso" used for the ground, is burnt gypsum or what we -know as plaster of paris. The same, well-slaked, he uses for finer -grounds, and also for working in relief upon such grounds. - -In Chapter 116 Cennino describes how to prepare gesso sottile (slaked -plaster of paris). The plaster, he says, "must be well purified, and -kept moist in a large tub for at least a month; renew the water every -day until it (the plaster) almost rots, and is completely slaked, and -all fiery heat goes out of it, and it becomes as soft as silk." This -gesso is afterwards dried in cakes and Cennino speaks of it in this -form as "sold by the druggists to our painters," and that "it is used -for grounding, for gilding, for _working in relief_, and other fine -works." These cakes were scraped or soaked and ground to powder and -mixed with size for using as grounds and for relief work, as occasion -required (Chapters 117, 119). In speaking further on (Chapter 124) of -"how works in relief are executed on panels with gesso sottile," he -says, "take a little of the gesso on the point of the brush (the brush -must be of minever, and the hairs fine and rather long), and with that -quickly raise whatever figures you wish to make in relief; and if you -raise any foliage, draw the design previously, like the figures, and -be careful not to relieve too many things, or confusedly, for the -clearer you make your foliage ornaments, the better you will be able -to display the ingraining with stamps and they can be better burnished -with the stone." He describes (Chapter 125) also methods of casting -relief work, "to adorn some parts of the picture" which shows he is -thinking of gesso enrichments in painting, so much used by the early -painters. - -Cennino is said to have been living in Padua in the year 1398. His -treatise shows the care and patience necessary to good workmanship in -the various arts and crafts he describes, and throws much light upon -the methods of the artist craftsman of his time, and is of particular -value and interest as touching the subjects of tempera painting, -gilding, and, incidentally, of gesso-relief decoration, to the -ornamental effect of which both the former are important contributors. -Now there are several distinct varieties of gesso work. Firstly we -have gesso relief used to adorn and enrich painted panels, or as an -adjunct to decorative painting. Of this there are many instances: -a notable one may be cited in the frescoes of Pinturrichio in the -Appartamenti Borgia in the Vatican at Rome where the paintings are -heightened by gilded parts in relief, such as weapons and ornaments, -embroidery or robes, and even architectural mouldings. The late Mr. -Spencer Stanhope revived this union of gilded gesso with decorative -painting, as in his work in the chapel at Marlborough College. Other -examples may be found in our National Gallery. The superb collection -of Italian gesso work in the Victoria and Albert Museum, unrivalled -anywhere, from which, by the courtesy of the late Mr. Skinner, who was -Sir C. Purdon Clarke's successor in the directorship,[9] I am enabled -to give my illustrations, may be referred to as furnishing examples of -every variety of treatment in the craft, as well as of the taste and -invention and richness of early Italian decorative design. - - [Illustration: MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 5804--1859 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - -As an adjunct to painting gilded gesso was frequently used burnished -and enriched with stamped or punctured patterns (_granare_), often in -the form of nimbi around the heads of saints and angels in devotional -works, and in backgrounds. Cennino (Chapter 142) speaks of this method -and gives directions in it. The Marriage Coffer from the Museum, No. -5804--1859, illustrates this treatment and is a good example of -its highly decorative effect. The front panel shows a very rich and -interesting design of figures in fifteenth century Florentine costume, -heightened with gilded parts in gesso having small punctured patterns -upon it, which give sparkle and variety to the gold. This method seems -to have been continued for several centuries in Florence. I have an -alms-dish of early seventeenth century date, the centre of which -is treated in this way with punctured or hollow pin-head patterns -impressed upon a gilded gesso ground. - -This method, it may be noted, has lately been revived by Mrs. Adrian -Stokes in association with tempera painting. - - [Illustration: ITALIAN CASSONE, NO. 317--1894 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - -Stamped work, again, mentioned by Cennino, is another distinct method -in gesso decoration. Of this a very beautiful example is the early -fourteenth-century Italian cassone (No. 317--1894). This cassone is -decorated with figures of knights and ladies on horseback, in hawking -and hunting array, each figure being silhouetted in clear profile in -a separate square panel, in white, upon a black or a red ground, -alternately. These spaces or panels are divided horizontally by -bands of running ornament in relief, and, vertically by bands of -thin wrought iron foliated at the edges which form protecting and -strengthening bands for the chest. The stamps from which these figures -were produced must have been most delicately cut. They are full of -fine detail and charming in design. It is not quite clear how they -could have been so cleanly stamped upon the ground, unless perhaps, -the edges and outlines were carefully gone round and cleared -afterwards, or the paste in which they were stamped, perhaps being -slow in setting and more or less elastic, might have allowed of their -being stamped cleanly out of the material separately and applied to -the gesso ground or the chest afterwards.[10] - -In design these figures (on the cassone illustrated) are characterized -by a certain graceful severity, almost Greek-like in its ornamental -restraint, yet in the delicate invention and richness of the -decorative details of the costumes and housings of the horses they are -oriental in treatment. - -It has often been said that human figures cannot be repeated with -satisfactory decorative effect, but this cassone is surely a striking -instance to the contrary, as the recurring effect of these delicately -silhouetted and slightly formalized figures and horses is extremely -refined and beautiful. - - [Illustration: SHIELD IN GILDED GESSO, - NO. 3--1865 (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - -We might be able to discover examples of gesso decoration in which -stamped work or moulded work was used for repeating parts, and -freehand work for other parts. In the Museum examples the majority -seem to have been worked directly with a free hand. There is a fine -example of how gesso lends itself to a bold heraldic treatment in -the Museum collection (No. 3--1865), a tournament shield on which a -griffin, sable, is emblazoned on a field, or. The sable griffin in -bold relief is not only a fine heraldic beast, but is decoratively -spaced and relieved upon the gold field, the richness of which is -greatly enhanced by the fine raised diaper pattern worked all over it -in effective ornamental contrast to the bolder relief and treatment of -the charge. It is possible stamps may have been used for the diaper -of the field. The work belongs to the second half of the fifteenth -century and is from the Palazzo Guadagni, Florence. - - [Illustration: FRONT OF CASSONE IN GILDED GESSO, NO. 727--1884 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM)] - -One of the charms of gesso work in ornamental effect is the softened, -floated, or half melted look given to the forms which take the lustre -of gilding so agreeably. This character no doubt is given by the use -of the brush in floating or dropping on the forms of the ornament. -In No. 727--1884 of the Museum collection a particularly rich and -dignified ornamental effect is produced by the contrasting allied -elements of the figure reliefs in the large lozenge-shaped enclosures, -with the rich gilded formal diaper of the heraldic sphinx, or -human-headed lion, which, in close repetition, forms the diaper on the -main field of the decoration. The raised work in this example has -the softened molten or beaten character above spoken of. The marriage -coffer (No. 718--1884) is an instance of purely ornamental treatment -in raised and gilded gesso on wood, consisting mainly of foliated -scroll forms characteristic of the early Italian Renascence work, -and here again the raised patterns have the soft rich look, as if the -ornament had been squeezed or floated upon the surface of the wood, -somewhat in the way in which confectioners squeeze sugar ornaments -upon cakes. Sugar, by the way was an occasional ingredient in the -preparation of gesso, as Cennino mentions. - - [Illustration: MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 718--1884 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - - [Illustration: MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 247--1894 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - -No. 247--1894, is a marriage coffer of walnut which has a -symmetrically and formally planned scheme of raised decoration in -gesso upon its front which suggests an earlier ornamental origin than -the actual date of its production, perhaps, given as the end of the -fourteenth century, as it resembles in character the textile patterns -of the thirteenth century or earlier. The treatment of the gesso -relief work is peculiar, and it appears as if an extremely softened, -even and almost flattened effect had been aimed at, without any -special emphasis on particular parts. - - [Illustration: MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 58--1867 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - -The rich encrusted effect of another treatment of gesso decoration -characteristic of later fifteenth century work is shown in the -beautiful coffer, No. 58--1867, the painted shields of arms being in -ornamental contrast. Here we have an instance of the use of painting -to relieve gesso decoration, as distinct from the use of gesso work to -enrich the effect in painting. - -Gesso decoration was also finely and freely used for small caskets -and other objects and with delightful results, as the rich Museum -collection again demonstrates. - - [Illustration: COFFER, NO. 9--1890 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - -The coffret, No. 9--1890, is an interesting instance of this -adaptability of gesso and the extraordinary variety and richness of -effect obtainable; almost emulating carved work in the bolder parts -of its relief, and yet with a softness and richness of its own. The -designs are singularly interesting and spirited, and the whole work -fully deserves the encomium suggested by its motto (in Lombardic -letters on the lid) "Onesta e bella." - - [Illustration: GESSO BOX, NO. 5757--1859 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - -In No. 5757--1859 we have another good example of gesso decoration -on a small scale, and its rich ornate effect in a well-balanced -distribution of ornament adapted to a circular form, showing the fine -sense of scale and quantity in ornament which distinguishes Italian -work of this period--the first half of the fifteenth century. - - [Illustration: FRONT OF A COFFER, NO. 7830--1861 - (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).] - -Finally, in my last example (No. 7830--1861), the panel of a coffer -belonging to the early sixteenth century, we see another use and -treatment of gesso--to soften and enrich the effect of woodcarving -and to make a good surface for gilding. The figures here are carved in -bold relief and overlaid with a coating of gesso. - -All carved work to be gilded was treated in this way with gesso, which -greatly softens the effect, giving a smooth surface for the gilding -and increases its richness, especially when done over Armenian bole, -which we may see was used under the gilding of these raised gesso -ornaments generally--another method which is being revived with the -general revival of the forgotten arts of design and handicraft in our -own time. - - NOTE.--With reference to the early use of gesso, the extremely - interesting and remarkable recent discoveries of Prof. - Flinders Petrie in Egypt in the shape of mummies of the Roman - period of the first century A.D., in addition to the light - they throw on antique portrait painting, show that gilded - gesso enrichment over linen was freely used at that period, - some of the masks being moulded, and the ornament apparently - stamped, the toes of each mummy being modelled and gilded and - burnished, and the wrappings relieved with gilded buttons of - gesso. - - - [Footnote 9: Before the appointment of Sir Cecil Smith.] - - [Footnote 10: Cennino describes a method of cutting stamps in - _stone_ (Chapter 170) to be used as moulds for figures to be - applied to the decoration of chests or coffers, but he speaks - of beating tin into these moulds and forming the figures in - this way, afterwards backing them or filling them in with - gesso grosso, cutting them out and sticking them on the chest - with glue, gilding them and adding colour and varnish.] - - - - -NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS IN ART - - - - -NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS IN ART - - -Looking back over the vast field of historic art it is obvious -that the representation of animals has occupied a very important -position--even the prehistoric cave-men display their artistic -instinct in animal draughtsmanship, and in that alone, and their -naturalistic scratched and incised outlines have set down for us in -unerring characterization, the forms of the mastodon, reindeer, and -other animals of the primitive hunter. - -Judging from these relics it would seem as if naturalistic sketching -preceded systematic ornamental or decorative treatment of animals in -design such as distinguishes the art of the ancient civilizations of -the East. - - [Illustration: Egyptian treatment of birds. - from hieroglyphics of the 18^{th} Dynasty. - - Tombs of the kings. Thebes.] - -Long before such systematization as we find in ancient Egyptian art, -no doubt the power of depicting animals became important in the -tribal state, when it was necessary for each tribe to have their -distinguishing totem, and to be able to establish their identity or -respectability by unmistakable portraits, if not of their ancestors, -at least of their protecting animal deities and symbolic progenitors. -Nature worship, which became elaborated in a symbolic religious system -under the ancient Egyptians, under the conditions of mural and glyptic -art led to that severe and dignified formalism combined with essential -characterization in the treatment of birds and animals which has -never been surpassed and which have given splendid types for the -mural painter and sculptor for all time. Heavier and more formal and -architectural in their sculptural treatment of symbolic animals, such -as the winged bulls which form essential architectural features, the -Assyrians, when they came to the treatment of actual scenes of life -(such as the lion-hunts of their kings, carved in low relief on the -walls of their palaces,) showed a freer and more naturalistic feeling -which breaks through a prevailing formalism and convention sometimes -with almost startling power, as in the celebrated wounded lioness of -the Nineveh slabs in the British Museum. - - [Illustration: Lion from Assyrian Bas-relief.] - - [Illustration: Persian Lion from the frieze at Susa - (Perrot & chipiez)] - - [Illustration: Lion from a Theban bas-relief. - (Perrot & chipiez)] - -There is a considerable resemblance in treatment between the Assyrian -lion in sculpture and the lion of ancient Persia as he appears at the -palace of Susa, though, heightened with enamel, the latter acquires -a certain decorative and distinctive ferocity. A lion from a Theban -bas-relief shows the simpler and more abstract treatment of Egyptian -art. - -This Perso-Assyrian type of lion might almost be called a central -Asian type, and is curiously perpetuated in the well-known supporters -of the pillar over the gate of Mycenæ. - -In fact the later Greek lion shows marked traces of his descent from -his Asian prototypes. The influence of the same decorative formalism, -more especially of the mane and hirsute appendages, is indeed -traceable through Byzantine times, from the bronze lion of St. Mark -to the heraldic lions of the middle ages. The same influence is seen -again in the remarkable group of lions forming the capital of a column -discovered at Sarnath near Benares in India, associated with many -other sculptures of Graeco-Buddhist origin. - - [Illustration: Græco-Buddhist Group of Lions carved in marble - forming summit of a column excavated at Sarnath n^r. Benares] - -For perfect monumental treatment of horses, when truthful action -and vitality are perfectly united with linear rhythm and decorative -effect, we must still turn to the pan-athenaic frieze--despite the -opinion of the Yorkshire horse-dealer who pronounced them "only damned -galloways, not worth ten pounds apiece!" They remain full of life and -movement and as examples of most delicate relief sculpture governed by -ornamental feeling. - - [Illustration: Animal forms from early Greek pottery] - -I should just like to mention, while speaking of Greek art, the -practice of the early vase painter, who, frequently using animals -as his main decorative motive, had a system by which he was able -to harmonize many different kinds in, say, a running border, or -succession of borders. This was done partly through the influence of -the brush and partly by the recognition of typical resemblances even -in apparently diverse forms. The basis of unity was the oval or ovoid -shape of the bodies of all animals and birds. The vase painter with -his ornamental purpose in view exaggerated this resemblance, governing -his individual shapes by a sort of invisible volute-like curves, he -gained a rhythmic decorative effect without loss of identity in his -forms. - -With the development of heraldry in mediaeval times we come upon a -world of spirited and vividly decorative design in which the forms of -animals play a very important part. A very instructive study might be -made of the mediaeval heraldic lion alone. The heraldic designer -had to be emphatic in his forms, and distinct though simple in -characterization. As with the Greek vase painter, profile best served -his purpose, and effective silhouette became all important. When the -lion is "passant regardant" in mediaeval heraldry the full face has -a curiously human character, as in the arms of Prince John at Eltham -which Mr. G. W. Eve gives in his "Heraldry as Art." - - [Illustration: The Lion in English heraldry. - Arms of Prince John of Eltham, Westminster Abbey.] - -Among the finest examples of the treatment of animals in decorative -art of an heraldic and symbolic character are the designs of the -twelfth and thirteenth-century textiles, in the celebrated Sicilian -silks, or those of Lucca of the fourteenth century. In these fabrics -the animal forms are used with the greatest ornamental effect, the -conditions of the repeat of the pattern and the exigences of the -loom being essential, and, frankly acknowledged, contribute to the -character and beauty of the result. - -It has always been the frank and workmanlike acceptance of the -necessary conditions of the materials and methods of production, -which, while defining the character of the treatment, gives both -character and beauty to decorative art, and we find this especially -true in regard to the treatment of animal forms in all kinds of -design. - - [Illustration: SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH).] - - [Illustration: SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH).] - - [Illustration: SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH).] - -The pursuit of superficial imitation in modern times, the pictorial -aim which includes atmospheric effect and the representation of -values, textures, and surfaces, extending its influence over all the -arts of design has done much to destroy the dignity, the character, -and the decorative reserve of ancient and mediaeval design in the -treatment of animals; the so-called naturalistic aim producing -palpably absurd effects in sculpture and in heraldry, for instance. -With the modern revival of design and knowledge of the handicrafts -this mistake has been largely corrected. Artists have discovered the -peculiar qualities proper to different materials and processes and -their value as means of expression in design is much more generally -understood and acknowledged, while fresh study of nature has helped, -with these, to make a fresh and appropriate convention in the -treatment of animals possible. The Japanese have taught us that -marvellous fidelity to nature may be united with decorative effect -in the treatment of animals--especially birds and fishes, and that -certain facts of structure and surface or colour may become, under -skilful treatment, brilliant parts of a design--as the scales of a -fish in inlays of pearl, or in lacquer: the plumage of a bird in silk -embroidery, or the system of structure of the feathers expressed in -the delicate lines of cloisonné enamel. Examples of Chinese art might -be referred to also for excellence in the same qualities united with -more decorative reserve and dignity. - - [Illustration: FROM THE "HUNDRED BIRDS" OF BARI.] - - [Illustration: Peacock bracket. - Man Mandir Palace. Gwalior.] - -I have not mentioned Indian art, except the example at Sarnath, which, -at least, as regards the Hindu side abounds with examples of the -decorative treatment of animals, the temples being frequently a -mass of animal life in carving, continuous courses being formed of -elephants, horses, and bulls in succession. The peacock, too, being -a sacred bird, constantly appears. At the old palace of Man Mandir -at Gwalior, Central India, I saw a carved stone bracket in which -a peacock had been very effectively treated for its constructive -purpose: and in the south, at Tanjore, I saw the splendid bird, in -the quick, with tail like a sweeping robe, perched upon the sacred -colossal bull which, carved in black stone (or marble, darkened with -successive libations of votive oil) reposes in the court of the great -temple, and whose living prototype might easily be found drawing an -ox-cart in the town. - - [Illustration: Elephant bracket - Man Mandir Palace Gwalior] - -At Gwalior, too, I noted a treatment of the elephant in a carved stone -bracket in the old palace of Man Mandir, which in structure recalled -the wondrous columns of the temple at Steerungum at Trichinopoly -in the south, though in the latter case the subject is mainly the -horseman, but the resemblance is in the arrangement which seems -characteristic of Indian (Hindu) carving. At the Guest House, Gwalior, -also, elephants' heads were treated ingeniously as the corbels -supporting balconies. It was modern work, but evidently influenced by -the carvings in the old palace above mentioned. There was an abundance -of floral carving and geometric pierced work in this Guest House, -besides, extremely skilful and beautiful in detail, showing that the -modern Hindu architectural carver had by no means lost his cunning. -This, of course, was a native state. - - [Illustration: Elephant corbels Guest House Gwalior] - -One almost wonders that golden images of favourite race-horses are not -set up in--well, some of our public places, for it cannot be said -that there is no animal worship in our own country, though the -votive offerings in art usually take the form of sporting prints, or -paintings of fat stock with straight backs and short horns. - - [Illustration: ELEPHANT CORBELS, GUEST HOUSE, GWALIOR.] - -Animal painting was once an honoured and prosperous career in England, -and prints after Landseer covered a considerable acreage in the early -Victorian epoch. Do not his lions still support Nelson in Trafalgar -Square, and perhaps afford some protection to unpopular speakers on -that historic plinth? I think, however, most of us would prefer the -little lion which was modelled by Alfred Stevens, both as a dignified -representation of our National Totem and as an example of native -artistic style and treatment. - - [Illustration: Lion by Alfred Stevens, - formerly part of the outer iron railing of the British Museum.] - - - - -MODERN ASPECTS OF LIFE AND THE SENSE OF BEAUTY - - - - - [Illustration] - - - - -MODERN ASPECTS OF LIFE AND THE SENSE OF BEAUTY - - -That modern social and economic conditions tend to destroy beauty in -the outward aspects of human life and nature: the thesis, thus stated, -would seem almost a self-evident proposition; yet I am by no means -sure that sensitiveness to beauty--or to its absence--in our daily -surroundings is so very common (or even that there is a common -understanding as to the idea of beauty) that it would obtain general -assent without further explanation; and as I have undertaken to open -the case for the prosecution, if I may so term it, I will try to put -before you my reasons and conclusions on the matter. - -My first witness shall be London, as London is typical and focusses -most of the effects of modern social and economic conditions. Now, we -hear a great deal of the beauty of London, but probably those who -talk of her beauty are really thinking of certain beauty spots or the -picturesqueness of certain favoured localities where the Thames and -the parks come in. Vast as London is, most of us really live for the -most part in a comparatively small London. Outside our usual haunts -lies a vast unknown region, of which indeed occasional glimpses are -obtained on being obliged to travel across or through the desert of -the multi-county-city. - -Those whose London is bounded on the west by Kensington Gardens and -on the east by Mayfair, do not figure to themselves Clerkenwell or -Ratcliffe Highway, Bethnal Green or Bow, and would not care to -embrace the vast new suburbs spreading over the green fields in every -direction, or even to notice the comparatively select slums in the -shadow of Belgravian mansions. Supposing we approached our metropolis -by any of the great railway lines, there is nothing to indicate that -we are entering the greatest and wealthiest city in the world. We pass -rows and rows of mean dwellings--yellow brick boxes with blue slate -lids--crowded close to the railway in many places, with squalid little -backyards. We fly over narrow streets, and complex webs and networks -of railway lines, and thread our way through telegraph and telephone -wires, myriad smoking chimney-pots, steaming, throbbing works of -all kinds, sky signs, and the wonders of the parti-coloured poster -hoardings--which pursue one into the station itself, flaring on -the reluctant and jaded sight with ever-increasing importunity and -iteration, until one recalls the philosopher who remarked "Strange -that the world should need so much pressing to accept such apparently -obvious advantages!" - -Inside the station, however large, all sense of architectural -proportion is lost by the strident labels of all sorts and sizes, and -banal devices on every scale and in every variety of crude colour, -stuck, like huge postage stamps, wherever likely to catch the eye. - -The same thing meets us in the streets: in the busier commercial -quarters, too, it is a common device to hang the name of the firm in -gigantic gilt letters all over the windows and upper stories of the -shops; while the shops themselves become huge warehouses of goods, -protected by sheets of plate glass, upon the edges of which apparently -rest vast superstructures of flats and offices, playfully pinned -together by telegraph poles, and hung with a black spider's web of -wires, as if to catch any soaring ideas of better things that might -escape the _melée_ of the street. In the streets a vast crowd of -all sorts, sizes and conditions is perpetually hurrying to and fro, -presenting the sharpest contrasts in appearance and bearing. Here the -spruce and prosperous business man, there the ragged cadger, the club -idler, and the out-o'-work; there the lady in her luxurious carriage -or motor, in purple and fine linen, and there the wretched seller of -matches. - -Modern street traffic, too, is of the most mixed and bewildering kind, -and the already too perilous London streets have been made much more -so by the motor in its various forms of van and 'bus, business or -private car. The aspect of a London street during one of the frequent -traffic blocks is certainly extraordinary, so variously sorted and -sized are the vehicles, wedged in an apparently inextricable jumble, -while the railways and tubes burrowed underground only add fresh -streams of humanity to the traffic, instead of relieving it. - -Yet it has been principally to relieve the congested traffic of -London that the great changes have been made which have practically -transformed the town, sweeping away historic buildings and relics of -the past, and giving a general impression of rapid scene-shifting to -our streets. - -The most costly and tempting wares are displayed in the shops in -clothing, food, and all the necessities of life, as well as fantastic -luxuries and superfluities in the greatest profusion--"things that -nobody wants made to give to people who have no use for them"--yet, -necessities or not, removed only by the thickness of the plate-glass -from the famished eyes of penury and want. - -The shops, too, are not workshops. The goods appear in the windows -as if by magic. Their producers are hidden away in distant factories, -working like parts of a machine upon portions of wholes which perhaps -they never see complete. - -Turning to the residential quarters, we see ostentation and luxury on -the one hand, and cheap imitation, pretentiousness, or meanness -and squalor on the other. We see the aforesaid brick boxes packed -together, which have ruined the aspect of most of our towns: we have -the pretentious suburban villa, with its visitors' and servants' -bells; we have the stucco-porticoed town "mansion," with its squeezy -hall and umbrella stand; or we have the "desirable" flat, nearer to -heaven, like the cell of a cliff-dweller, where the modern citizen -seeks seclusion in populous caravansaries which throw every street out -of scale where they rear their Babel-like heads. - -I have not spoken of the gloom of older-fashioned residential -quarters, frigid in their respectability, which, whatever centres of -light and leading they may conceal, seem outwardly to turn the cold -shoulder to ordinary humanity, or peep distrustfully at a wicked world -through their fanlights. - -Many of the features I have described are found also in most modern -cities in different degrees, and are still more evident in the -United States, where there is nothing ancient to stem the tide of -modern--shall we say progress? It is only fair to note, however, -that there is a movement in New York, in which leading architects and -artists are joining with municipal reformers, for the preservation of -beauty in the better ordering of street improvements, the laying out -of public places, and the general recognition of the social importance -of harmony and pleasant effect in cities, which has lately found -expression in schemes of town-planning and garden cities and suburbs -in this country. - -Turning from the aspects of their houses to the humans who inhabit -them--take modern dress in our search for the beautiful! Well, -national if not distinctive costume--except of the working and -sporting sort, court dress, collegiate and municipal robes, and -uniforms--has practically disappeared, and, apart from working dress -in working hours, one type of ceremonial, or full dress is common -to the people at large, and that of the plainest kind--with whatever -differences and niceties of cut and taste in detail--I mean the type -for men, of course. - -Among the undisputed rights of women the liberty to dress as she -pleases, even under recognized types for set occasions, and with -constant variety and change of style, is not a little important, and -it is a liberty that has very striking effects upon the aspects -of modern life we are considering. It is true, this liberty may be -checked by the decrees of eminent _modistes_, and limited by the -opinion of Mrs. Grundy, or the frank criticism of the boy in the -street; and it is even more than probable that the exigencies of trade -have something to do with it also. - -It is, however, too important an element in the _ensemble_ of life to -be ignored or undervalued in any way, as women's dress affords one of -the few opportunities of indulging in the joy of colour that is left -to civilization. - -Men suffer the tyranny of the tall silk hat as the outward and visible -sign of respectability--surely a far more obvious one nowadays -than Carlyle's "gig." "Gigmanity" has become top-hat-manity. The -"stove-pipe" is the crown of the modern king--financier--the business -man--_He_ "who must be obeyed." I understand it is still as much as a -city clerk's place is worth for him to appear in any other head-gear. -Ladies, too, encourage it, with the black-frock coat and the rest of -the funereally festive attire of modern correct mankind. I suppose the -garb is considered to act as an effective foil to the feast of colour -indulged in by the ladies, and that it may act as a sort of black -framing to fair pictures--black commas, semi-colons, or full-stops, -agreeably punctuating passages of delicate colour! - -The worst of it is that the beauty of woman's dress, when it happens -to follow or revive a fashion with great possibilities of beauty, as -at present, seems to be a matter almost of accident, and entirely at -the mercy of the mode (or the trade?)--here to-day and gone to-morrow; -and, alas, lovely woman, our only hope for variety in colour and form -in modern life, in her determination to descend into the industrial -and professional arena and compete commercially with men, not -unfrequently shows a tendency to take a leaf out of her rival's -tailor's pattern-book, and to adopt or adapt more or less of the -features of modern man's prosaic, though possibly convenient and -durable, but certainly summary and unromantic attire. - -Well, I think, on the whole, the pictures which modern life in London -or any great capital discloses may be striking in their -contrasts, vivid in their suggestions, dramatic or tragic in their -aspects--anything or everything, in fact, _except_ beautiful; except, -of course, in so far as accidental effects of light and atmosphere -are beautiful, mainly, perhaps, because they disguise or transfigure -actually unlovely form and substance. - -The essential qualities of beauty being harmony, proportion, balance, -simplicity, charm of form and colour, can we expect to find much of -it in conditions which make life a mere scramble for existence for the -greater part of mankind? Bellamy, in his "Looking Backward," gives a -striking and succinct image of modern social and economic conditions -in his illustration or allegory of the coach and horses. The coach is -Capitalism. It carries a minority, but even these struggle for a seat, -and to maintain their position, frequently falling off, when they -either go under altogether, or must help to pull the coach with the -majority toiling in the traces of commercial competition. - -However these conditions may, among individuals, be softened by human -kindness, or some of their aspects modified by artistic effort, they -do not change the cruelty or injustice of the system, or its brutal -and ugly aspects in the main. - -But if modern civilization is only tolerable in proportion to the -number and facility of the means of escape from it, perhaps we may -find at least the beauty of the country and of wild nature unimpaired? - -Do we? We may escape the town by train or motor--running the risk in -either case of a smash--but we cannot escape commercial enterprise. -The very trees and houses sprout with business cards, and the -landscape along some of our principal railway lines seems owned by -the vendors of drugs. Turning away our eyes from such annoyances, -commercial enterprise, again, has us in all sorts of alluring -announcements of all sorts and sizes in innumerable newspapers and -magazines, which, like paper kites, can only maintain their position -by extensive tails. The tail--that is, the advertisement sheets--keeps -the kite flying--and the serial tale keeps the advertisers going, -perhaps, also. Anyhow, the gentle reader is obliged to take his news -and views, social or political, sandwiched or flavoured with very -various and unsought and unwanted condiments, pictorial or otherwise. -Thus, public attention is diverted and--nobody minds! But it is in -these insidious ways that that repose or detachment of mind favourable -to the sense of beauty is destroyed, and thus, to put it in another -way, we are in danger of losing our lives, or the best that life can -give, in getting our living--or, well, perhaps it might be true to say -in some cases, a substantial percentage on our investments. - -In obedience, too, to the requirements of the great god Trade, whole -districts of our fair country are blighted and blackened, and whole -populations are made dependent upon mechanical, monotonous, and often -dangerous toil to support the international commercial race for the -precarious world-market. - -Under the same desperate compulsion of commercial competition, -agriculture declines, and the country side is deserted. The old -country life, with its festivals and picturesque customs, has -disappeared. Old houses, churches, and cottages have tumbled into -ruin, or have suffered worse destruction by a process of smartening -up called "restoration." The people have crowded into the overcrowded -towns, increasing the competition for employment, the chances of which -are lessened by the very industry of the workers themselves, and so -our great cities blindly become huger, more dangerous, and generally -unlovely, losing, too, by degrees their relics of historic interest -and romance they once possessed. - -Even in the art-world, and among the very cultivators of beauty we -detect the canker of commercialism. The compulsion of the market rules -supply and demand, and the dealer becomes more and more dominant. The -idea of the shop dominates picture shows, and painters become almost -as specialized as men of science, while genius, or even ordinary -talent, requires as much puffing as a patent medicine. Everyone -must have his trade label, and woe to the artist who experiments, -or discovers capacities in himself for other things than his label -covers. - -Every new and sincere movement in art has been in direct protest and -conflict with the prevailing conditions, and has measured its progress -by its degree of success in counteracting them, and, in some sense, -producing new conditions. The remarkable revival of the handicrafts, -or arts and crafts movement, of late years may be quoted as an -instance; but it is a world within a world; a minority producing for -a minority; although the movement has done valuable work even as a -protest, and has raised the banner of handwork and its beauty in an -age of machine industry. - -Other notable movements of a protesting, protective, or mitigating -nature are at work in the form of societies for the protection of -ancient buildings, for the preservation of historic spots and the -beauty of natural scenery, for the abolition or abatement of the smoke -nuisance, for checking the abuses of public advertisement, for the -increase of parks and open spaces, and for spreading the love of art -among the people. - -Indeed, it would seem as if the welfare of humanity and the prospects -of a tolerable life under modern conditions were handed over to such -societies, since it does not seem to be anybody's business to attend -to what should be everybody's business, and we have not even a -minister to look after such interests. The very existence of such -societies, however, is a proof of the danger and destruction to which -beauty is exposed under modern conditions. - -Social conditions are the outcome of economic conditions. In all ages -it has been the system under which property is held--the ownership of -the means of production and exchange--which has decided the forms of -social life. The expansion of capital and the power of the financier -are essentially modern developments, as also is unrestricted -commercial competition, though this seems to lead to monopoly--a -heretofore unexpected climax. Modern existence in such circumstances -becomes an unequal race or scramble for money, place, power, or mere -employment. The social (or rather _un_social) pressure which results -really causes those sordid aspects, pretences, aggressions, and brutal -contrasts we deplore. Private ownership is constantly opposed to -public interest. The habit of regarding everything from the narrow -point of view of money value and immediate profit as the determining -factors in all transactions obscures larger issues and stultifies -collective action for the public good. - -Ladies and gentlemen of the jury of public opinion, perhaps I have -said enough to support the case of beauty against modern social and -economic conditions. I do not ask for damages--they are incalculable. -She stands before you, a pathetic figure, obscured in shreds and -patches, driven from pillar to post, disinherited, a casual, and -obliged to beg her bread, who should be a welcome and an honoured -guest in every city and country, and in every house, bearing the lamp -of art and bringing comfort and joy to all. - - - - -A SHORT SURVEY OF THE ART OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY - -WITH SOME NOTES ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS - - - - - [Illustration] - - - - -A SHORT SURVEY OF THE ART OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, CHIEFLY IN -ENGLAND, WITH SOME NOTES ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS - - -A hundred years is but an arbitrary division of time, and yet one -cannot help investing the centuries with a sort of personality as -they pass, each distinguished by certain characteristics, particular -movements, and habits of thought as well as of life and its aspects, -and above all by the spirit and forms of the art to which they have -given birth. - -If we could summon a typical figure with proper accessories to -illustrate each epoch we should get a vivid if somewhat symbolical -idea of the varying phases of thought and art, and the passing -fashions in taste which the past has witnessed. - -Few centuries, perhaps, would be more difficult to comprehend in a -single figure than the nineteenth, displaying as it does in the course -of its history so many diversities--revolutions we might say--in -artistic development. - -In its early years, inheriting its taste and fashions from the -eighteenth century, when handicraft was still the principal means for -the production of things of both use and adornment, the nineteenth -century has witnessed a complete revolution in commercial and -industrial conditions, with the development of the factory system, -competition, and the demands of the world-market. It has seen -the great machine industries take the place of the former minute -subdivision of labour, and in the process of both subdivision of -labour and the development of machine industry all forms of production -have been affected. - -The former local centres of supply have disappeared with -self-dependent homesteads and village industries, and with the decline -of handicraft traditions of design and construction have been in this -country well-nigh completely broken, except in some trades, such as -the cartwright's and the wheelwright's and the harness maker's. We -still see in our beautiful country wagons the chamfers and ogee forms -in the woodwork and the gay painting of mediaeval times, and our -noble shire horses are often brave with bright brass ornaments -which perpetuate traditional patterns, moulded or pierced; while the -descendants of Wayland Smith still ply their trade at the village -forge, though mainly limited to horseshoes. - -But machine industry and the factory and production for profit -rather than for use, having nearly extinguished all sense of art and -individual taste in the useful arts which contribute to the comfort -and decoration of the home, in the later years of the century, seem to -have evoked, by the mere force of reaction and revulsion of feeling, -that remarkable revival of decorative design and handicraft which has -distinguished its closing years, under the influence of which many -beautiful crafts have been successfully recovered and practised with -success, while trade itself has not been slow to derive new ideas from -the Arts and Crafts movement. - -The main principles inspiring the promoters of this movement have been -the unity of the arts allied with and controlled by architecture, and -the due acknowledgement of the artistic responsibility of the designer -and craftsman. - -With regard to the architecture of the nineteenth century we may see -nearly every past fashion of its history revived in turn, until some -of our eclectic architects seem to have evolved something like a -characteristic domestic style, at least, characteristically mixed in -its constructive and decorative features, but certainly adapted to -modern requirements. - -The classical forms in building, which attained a certain heaviness -and Dutch plainness under the Georges, underwent a transformation with -the revival of Greek and Roman taste in the Empire period. From that -time onward classical columns and pilasters and classical details -of varying proportions became embedded, as it were, in our domestic -architecture, and as a consequence the more-or-less-Doric portico -still dominates large residential districts of London. Their columned -ranks, however, have latterly been greatly broken in some quarters -by the cheerful red brick fronts and white sashes of the Queen Anne -revival, which have, in some instances, in response to the demand -for "residential flats," even got upon stilts and nod at us from the -many-gabled top stories of the modern caravansary. - -Street architecture in later Victorian days became a masquerade in -building materials, since the design of the façade bears little or -no relation to the hidden structure of steel framing by which our -many-storied piles are held together, while, apparently, when there -are shops on the ground floor the whole mass has the effect of -playfully reposing upon the edges of great sheets of plate glass. - -The use of terra-cotta, or cut-brick enrichments have been a -welcome relief from the doleful gentility of the white brick, or -the depressing gray stucco which has cast a peculiar gloom over some -respectable neighbourhoods. - -In church architecture the Gothic revivalists have carried all before -them. At one period of the nineteenth century, indeed, when the -restoring zeal was at its height and nothing was acceptable but -something "early English," there was considerable reason to fear that -the architects would leave nothing behind them! - -But we have had really distinguished work from men like Butterfield -(the architect of All Saints, Margaret Street), William Burges, and J. -D. Sedding, while domestic architecture both in town and country has -been developed on new lines by Mr. Norman Shaw, Mr. Philip Webb, and -their able followers of the younger generation. - -In sculpture we may trace an analogous line of development, from the -severe, graceful, but somewhat cold classical style of Flaxman and the -more dramatic Canova, or the sentiment of Thorvaldsen, freezing into -the later classicism of Gibson on the one hand, or breaking out -into the realisms and trivialities of the modern Italian School. In -England, inspired by the study of nature and cultivation of style -chiefly under the influence of the works of Phidias and the Florentine -masters of the fifteenth century, a school of considerable distinction -and force has arisen. We had one, at least, really great master -in Alfred Stevens standing almost alone as a modern expositor of -renascence traditions. He has been succeeded by men of taste and -refinement like the late Onslow Ford, or the accomplishment, beauty -of design, and vigour of expression of the late Harry Bates, not to -mention living exponents of sculpture quite as distinguished. Among -the younger school the continental influence of Meunier and of Rodin -may be noted. - -To continue our rapid and necessarily imperfect survey, in the field -of painting, again, the course of development through changes of -feeling and aim is even more emphatically marked, as might be expected -from that most sensitive and impressionable of the arts. - -The domination of the older Academic traditions in artistic education -and practice was only broken fitfully in the first quarter of the -century by such meteoric influences as that of William Blake, who with -his vivid and inspired vision of a world of spiritual, imaginative, -and symbolic beauty was in open revolt against the classical coldness -and the conscious prettinesses and pretences of his time in art, as -well as against the prosaic calculating spirit of a commercial epoch. - -Sir Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough as well as Hogarth left -their mark on the methods in English painting and raised a standard -of workmanship in the eighteenth century which has not since been -approached in the same direction, though many charming artists in the -figure and landscape, such as George Morland, succeeded them; while -later we have the anecdotic and incident pictures of David Wilkie -which established a characteristic British type. - -The remarkable work of J. M. W. Turner is perhaps more characteristic -of the first half of the nineteenth century than that of any other -English painter. Trained in the restricted and reserved methods of -the early landscape school learned from Italy and France, with -extraordinary industry and facility as a draughtsman, and a keen sense -of composition, his development under different influences, from the -classical landscape school of Claude Lorraine and Nicolas Poussin to -the romantic feeling of Titian and Salvator Rosa, or the quiet pathos -and precision of touch of the Dutch masters, and above all of the -close and constant observation of nature in all her varying moods, and -in nearly all European countries, may be seen in the unrivalled record -of work he has left, and in the splendid collection in the National -Gallery. - -Turner seems to express the general movement of the half-century's -life and moods of thought more completely than any other artist. -Classical, romantic, mythological, naturalistic, impressionistic, in -turn; from the serene atmosphere, lucent skies, and deep umbrage of -classical landscapes, with their nymphs and shepherds, we may follow -the course of his mind to the "Rain, Steam, and Speed" of the Great -Western Railway. - -It is a wide reach, but Turner's art illuminates the smoke and -the stir and stress of the industrial and revolutionary nineteenth -century, like a rainbow spanning a stormy sky. - -And what of its last fifty years? They have seen the rise, formation -and decline of the pre-Raphaelite School. That strong and earnest -movement emanating from a small group of enthusiastic young painters, -seeking sincerity of expression with thoroughness of workmanship and -profound study of nature. The names of Holman Hunt, J. E. Millais, D. -G. Rossetti and Ford Madox Brown and Frederick Sandys will always be -associated with this important epoch in English painting. Their works -have exercised a potent influence far beyond their own immediate -circle, and have affected many different developments, forming the -root and stem as it were of many different branches. - -To this source (whether as reactive or related influences) we may -trace back the two chief and vital distinctive directions into which -modern painting may be broadly divided--impressionism on the one hand -and the pursuit of decorative beauty tinged with poetic feeling -and romance on the other, this latter being allied with a further -important movement concerned with the revival of design and the -artistic handicrafts, known as the Arts and Crafts movement. - -With this the names of William Morris and Burne-Jones will always be -associated, and they both link hands with the original group of the -pre-Raphaelites. - -Among later influences upon art generally that of the Japanese cannot -be left out of account as its effects have been considerable in many -directions and may be said to have had an enormous influence upon the -art of Whistler. Despite, however, the marvellous skill of Japanese -craftsmanship, owing to the fantastic spirit of their design, and -the absence of the steadying and controlling influence of stone -construction in their architecture, their art has had more effect upon -our impressionistic school than upon our arts and craftsmen, and it is -rather by the work of the latter type and the movement it represents -that the art of the close of the last century is more distinctively -characterized. - -The study of Japanese art, however, leads us back to its source in -the graver and more serious art of China, where its prototypes may be -found in nobler forms. - -The opening of the twentieth century has brought great -changes--changes in the aspects of life, changes in the temper of the -nation. Action and reaction which govern the world, also influence the -world of thought and of art. The pendulum of taste swings between the -classic and the romantic moods and modes. It has of late swung -again towards the classical side and manifests itself, as regards -decoration, in the vogue of plain white walls, classical columns and -pilasters and cornices, and an almost puritan fear of any other kind -of ornament. When colour and pattern _are_ indulged in they mostly -show a reversion to the fashions of the early Victorian age of French -origin or pre-Morrisian types. What was once denounced as hideous has -now become old fashioned enough to be found historically interesting. - -In painting, what might be termed a cult of the ugly, indeed, seems to -have fascinated many of our vigorous artists. This may be the result -of a reaction against early Victorian prettiness, and quasi-classical -elegance. There has also been a decadent influence at work in our -latter-day art. This also manifested itself in that strange decorative -disease known as "L'Art Nouveau," which some writers have actually -asserted was the offspring of what properly considered was really -its antithesis--the Morris school of decoration. Some of the forms -of "L'Art Nouveau" may have been the result of the translation into -continental modes of some kinds of British, or rather Scottish, -design, initiated by certain designers of the Glasgow school, and -it is in this direction, I think, that we should be more likely to -discover its true genesis. To father it on the Morris school is much -as if one were to say that impressionism was a development of the -pre-Raphaelite movement, whereas it was a reaction. The followers of -both schools, no doubt, sought to restate natural fact or phase, but -on totally different principles and in absolutely opposed terms of -art. - -With the passing of the impressionist masters, again, we see a counter -movement in what are called the "post impressionists." Here, again, -principles, methods of conception, observation, selection, -and execution are totally different. There are many different -individualities, and their works are so diverse that it can hardly -be considered a concerted movement in painting, though, regarded -collectively, it appears to be a reaction against previously accepted -canons or standards in art. Yet curiously enough there are suggestions -of the influence of early Byzantine work and of Roman mosaic in the -work of some of these painters, the mosaic method of producing form -and colour by the juxtaposition of small tesserae or cubes, being -actually followed as closely as possible in some instances, by laying -on paint in small squares or parallelograms. By such means a -certain effect of vibrating light is obtained, but it seems rather a -misapplication of the method, and would be more satisfactory to work -in actual mosaic and for the artist to avail himself of the decorative -beauty which the conditions of working in that material would give. - -The movement, so far as it is sincere, appears to be a reflex in -art of the feeling which is apt to possess members of a civilized -community occasionally--the feeling which urges a man to break away -from the restraints and formalities, as well as the comforts and -luxuries of modern life, and seek a return to nature or the bed-rock -of existence in the backwoods, or some primitive country, where a -simple life is possible. - -It also reflects a view which has a certain influence among -educationalists--a desire to realize and to possess the unprejudiced -unprepossessed attitude of a child's mind and its outlook and vision -of nature and life. There is a charm in the _naïveté_ of primitive art -of all kinds which is akin to the charm we often find in children's -drawings. In seeking to cultivate artificially such a mental -attitude and its expression in art, however, there is the danger of -affectation, and even the sincerest efforts in that direction may give -the impression of being affected; also, when, as is nearly always the -case in our time, the question of art becomes hopelessly mixed up with -the question of commercialism, and personal interests, and crossed by -waves of fashionable caprice, like the wind blowing where it listeth, -it becomes exceedingly difficult to discover the proverbial "hair" -which "perhaps divides the false and the true." - -Another point to be noted is this, that whereas the trend of -impressionism in art has been towards the opposite pole to conscious -and formal design, among some of the painters of the newer school -there appears to be a feeling towards its recovery to some extent, -at least, there is evidence of the desire to regard a picture as a -pattern of colour which necessarily involves some sort of arrangement. -This may be some indication of a return to sanity and a desire to -restore the art of painting as an art of design. - -But over and above all these movements and varieties the desire for -something antique seems to be dominant. The old masters eclipse the -moderns in painting; and in decoration and furniture, if genuine old -work is not to be had, the closest imitation is in demand, and the -tone of time must, if possible, be anticipated in counterfeit. Mr. -Hardcastle, in "She Stoops to Conquer," would be quite in fashion with -his old house and everything old in it. - -Apart from the trade interests no doubt concerned, this love of -antiquity growing side by side with the most rapid development of -mechanical invention and the consequent transformation of the aspects -and habits of life, is a curious fact and seems to show, so far as it -is genuine, the growth of an unsatisfied historic sense or feeling -for romance, which at one time seemed threatened with extinction in a -utilitarian world. - -This taste for antiquity in all things, however, is often very -artificial in its manifestations, and does not lead to any keener -appreciation of good contemporary art, but rather encourages the -simulation of past styles than original invention, which does not seem -quite healthy. - -Another recent development is the taste for pageantry. This is in -itself another indication of the revival of the love of romance and -antiquity, perhaps, and may to some extent have also encouraged that -revival. - -Certainly in pageantry we have a popular and picturesque means of -vivifying past history, and encouraging a knowledge of and pride in -the story of their own country among our people which could hardly be -gained from the study of books or pictures alone. Historic episodes -arranged in dramatic form enacted by living men and women, with all -the vivid effect of life and movement, and heightened by all the -resources of costume and heraldry and accessories proper to each -period, the scenes, too, taking place in the open air, with green -swards, noble trees, and the wide sky for proscenium leave an -ineffaceable impression upon the eyes and minds of the spectators. - -But what is wanted is a wider appeal. We might make the pageant a -means of centralizing and unifying national life. We should not be -content to limit such shows to a means of raising money for charitable -objects, or as an expensive amusement for the few; we should aim -at making our pageants free public spectacles in which the people -themselves should co-operate. Mr. Frank Henson and Mr. Frank Lascelles -have done and are doing excellent work in this direction. Every town -might have its commemorative processions in celebration of certain -important local historic events, especially such as illustrate the -growth of the great structure of English Freedom. - -If we consider the amount of artistic and archaeological knowledge, -the training and discipline involved, the opportunities for personal -distinction, and the cultivation of the sense of beauty in the -externals of life, we have in the pageant a very important educational -factor of far-reaching influence, and a powerful means of unifying -public sentiment and public spirit, and fostering the national -character. - - - - -ART AND THE COMMONWEAL - -AN ADDRESS DELIVERED AT ARMSTRONG COLLEGE TO THE STUDENTS OF THE -SCHOOL OF ART - - - - - [Illustration] - - - - -ART AND THE COMMONWEAL - -AN ADDRESS DELIVERED AT ARMSTRONG COLLEGE, NEWCASTLE, TO THE STUDENTS -OF THE SCHOOL OF ART - - -Art in our time is regarded from many different points of view--for -instance, (1) as an accessory in general education--generally some -way after the fact; or (2) as the servant or slave of commerce and -industry; or (3) as a polite amusement for persons of leisure; or -(4) as a profession or means of livelihood; (5) as a luxury only for -persons of wealth and leisure; or (6) as an investment or speculation; -or (7) as a necessity of life and its indispensable accompaniment and -means of record and expression. - -Art may be, and indeed actually is, each and all of these at the -present moment, but, apart from economic and other considerations, -the latter is the larger and truer view of the function of art, and -it necessarily, too, includes the first, or educational value, which -cannot be over estimated. - -The education of the eye is second to none in importance if we -consider it fully in all its bearings, but this is far from being -generally sufficiently realized (or ugliness might come to -be considered a crime), and as the first avenue of human -intelligence--though the mouth perhaps might make out a case for -priority, its interests are singularly neglected. It is true we have -the words "unsightly" and "eyesore," which seem to recognize that the -eye is capable of being affronted or distressed or even wounded by -hideous objects; this perhaps is something, but for all that the eye -has to be a very tolerant organ in these days. - -The best test of power or accuracy of observation is drawing, and -power of drawing is the basis of all art, which might in all its -varieties be described as different kinds or degrees of drawing; what -is painting but drawing in colour and tone? What is modelling but -drawing in relief or in three dimensions? What is weaving pattern but -drawing in textile? And so with each artistic craft by means of which -beautiful form and colour is created, each after its manner is a -method of drawing, and, as a matter of fact, each is actually based on -a drawing as a preliminary stage of its existence. - -Great, then, is drawing. It has now taken a place in our ordinary -educational course as a "compulsory subject" although it must be said -that amid the innumerable subjects with which the modern student is -expected to be crammed a very small proportion of time is generally -allowed for its pursuit--a pursuit indeed which generally ends in -catching it like a mouse, by the tail, for it appears that about -two hours a week is the time spent in the drawing classes of some -colleges. This does not seem to give much chance to either teacher or -student of drawing! Nevertheless, as one who has examined the results -of such drawing, a certain power of simple definition of form in an -abstract way appears to be acquired,--the capacity, varying a good -deal, to give in simple bold chalk outline the salient characteristics -of some common object, or living form, such as a piece of pottery, -a flower, a bird, a fish. Even regarded merely as an aid to the -comprehension of an object or subject, drawing is obviously of the -greatest practical use. In the newer methods of teaching to read the -word is accompanied by the pictured object, for mere brain-puzzling -has no place in any national educational system. - -It has been said that the _worst_ drawing of an object gives a clearer -idea of it than the best verbal description. That seems rather rough -on literature! But there is a good deal of truth in it. It is just -this definiteness of statement in a drawing which makes it so -valuable an exponent of form and detail, whereby its services -become indispensable in demonstration and description, and therefore -invaluable to all teachers. If anyone can draw an object in -ground-plan, in elevation, in longitudinal and transverse section, and -give its appearance in silhouette and in light and shade, he will -not only learn all about the form, character and construction of the -thing, but will be able to impart his knowledge to others. - -To begin with, then, from the purely practical point of view and -regarded as an aid in education, the chief aim in the study of drawing -is to acquire knowledge of form and fact and the power of describing -or demonstrating them. We cannot therefore be too definite and need -not be afraid of being hard, even from the art-student's point of -view. Studies should be studies, thorough and searching. But drawing, -pursued as an introduction to the world of art, may lead the student -on through a course of practically endless evolution and development, -as he perceives that it is indeed a language of a most sensitive and -varied kind, of many styles and methods, which, though beginning with -simple statements of fact and form, may become in gifted hands an -instrument of the most powerful or delicate feeling and an exponent of -character and a vehicle of the imagination, having a rhythm and -beauty peculiar to itself. Consider the amount of beauty that has been -expressed by means of outline alone, from early Egyptian work to the -exquisite figures of the Greek vase painter, or to the flowers and -birds of Japanese artists. In these instances, as in all the best, -drawing is united with design,--only another kind of drawing. We -happen to have the words Drawing and Design in our language, and they -signify distinct things, because of course there is drawing which -may be simply copying or transcript, and there is drawing allied to -invention and imagination, drawing with the mind, with ideas as well -as with the eye and hand, which becomes design. I heard of an artist -endeavouring to define design the other day, and he said. "Well, you -make _a think_, and then you draw a line round it." It is certainly -thought that makes the difference. - -When we come to composition we perceive that line has a further -function and significance, and it becomes an important factor in that -harmonizing, unifying process which is involved in making a design of -any kind. This is not merely an indulgence in idle or aimless fancy, -but is the outcome, over and above its imaginative quality, of meeting -certain conditions, such as the object and purpose of the work, its -material, and the necessities of its production. There is a certain -logic, too, in the language of line which the designer is bound to -observe, and he soon sees that in committing himself to a particular -form or system of line in his design of composition that form cannot -stand alone but has to be counterbalanced, led up to, and allied with -corresponding lines and forms, or perhaps emphasized by contrasts. - -Now in pictorial composition or anything of that nature, a design -is complete in itself, the plain surface-panel canvas, or paper it -covers, determines its proportions and definite limits and the -only necessary technical considerations resolve themselves into -the necessity of unity with itself and suitability to the process -employed. But whereas the pictorial artist or picture painter carries -his own work through to completion, is designer and craftsman in one; -in short, the designer for some industrial purpose, unless he is his -own craftsman, must make his design also a working drawing to conform -to certain strict technical conditions, such as the nature of the -material and the method of reproduction, certain limits of size and -number of colours to be used and so forth. His work is not complete in -itself, but is a draft for a process of manufacture, and depends for -its ultimate success, beyond what beauty it may possess, upon the -completeness with which the technical requirements have been met and -upon the co-operative labour of perhaps a multitude of craftsmen. - -With the establishment of modern competitive capitalistic commerce -and industry, the factory system, division of labour, and machinery, -designer and craftsman have been widely separated, to the detriment of -both. Shops are no longer workshops, but only _dépôts_ for the display -of the finished products of industry, so that the public remain -largely in ignorance of how and where and under what conditions things -are made. Even building, which was said to be the only craft carried -on under the public eye, is now largely a mysterious process developed -behind hoardings and posters. As to machinery, I do not deny that it -has its uses or that wonderful (and sometimes fearful) things have -been produced; the commercial output is prodigious, in fact, modern -existence has come to depend upon machinery in nearly every direction, -but the machines themselves remain as a rule far more wonderful things -than the things they produce, and the less machinery has to do with -art the better. Machinery has been called "labour-saving," but the -immediate result of its introduction has been to throw people out of -work--labour-saving in the sense of taking their work from them, or -the bread out of their mouths. Profit-making being the real object of -modern manufacture, the cheapening of the cost of production becomes -more important than human lives. Everything appears to be sacrificed -to the Moloch of Trade, which, according to our public men, is the -_one_ object of a nation's life. Yet trade on the competitive system -is devouring itself--or being devoured by monopoly, which again -devours the people. There seems some danger of humanity being -considered to exist for trade and not trade for the service of -humanity. - -The old idea of a self-supporting country producing the necessities of -life for its own use seems only appreciated by Socialists. - -These thoughts bring one to that aspect of art I spoke of at the -outset, as the servant or slave of commerce and industry. - -Until the revival of design and handicraft in this country during the -last twenty-five or thirty years, decorative design, despite a few -distinguished artists, such as Alfred Stevens, might certainly be -described as the slave of commerce, and even now the revivers of -design and handicraft are not altogether free from the danger of being -devoured by commercial methods. - -However, a protest has been made, the hand and the brain have asserted -themselves; a new standard in the decorative arts has been set up, -and since the time of William Morris and his group of pioneers, many -English artists and craftsmen have shown that they have successfully -revived and can do beautiful work in many forgotten crafts. - -In founding the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society we desired to give -opportunities of personal distinction for artistic work in design and -craftsmanship, to put designers and craftsmen in the same position as -other artists, such as painters and sculptors, before the public in -this respect by giving the names of all responsible executants of a -work. Here, again, trade interests and competitive commerce have been -against us, although commerce has not been slow to imitate or adapt -some of the ideas in taste and design discovered in our exhibitions. - -However, the movement has spread all over the country, Arts and Crafts -Societies and Exhibitions flourish everywhere, and the art schools -of the country have been largely reorganized and craft classes -established in connection with design. After many years' work some -of us think that so remarkable a movement might attain something like -national recognition, and its progress or permanence not be left -to depend upon the efforts of a few hard-working artists, with -ever-diminishing opportunities for exhibition, in the absence of a -suitable building. Painting and sculpture, and in a lesser degree -architecture, are officially recognized and housed rent free at -Burlington House. Why should the decorative arts have nowhere to lay -their heads? - -After all, it is these arts, intimately connected as they are with a -people's daily life and well-being, that may be said to be really of -more immediate consequence than what are called the Fine Arts. Though, -personally, I do not admit the justice of the distinction usually -accepted between _Fine_ and Decorative or Industrial Art. - -Art is a language--of many dialects it may be, but its greatness must -not be measured by inches, or the power or beauty of its thoughts and -conceptions determined by the material or method of their expression. -The spirit of art, imagination, romance, and the sense of beauty may -inspire the smaller accessories of life as they may the larger. It is -not a question of size or quantity, it is a question of quality. - -As regards the art schools of the country, both state-aided and -municipal, whatever their shortcomings, it is only fair to say that -they have been from their establishment the only means, outside the -efforts of individual artists, of maintaining a standard of artistic -taste and accomplishment in decorative art, as distinct from the -influences of trade and fashion. - -It has often been made a reproach that they have not been in closer -touch and association with the industries of the country, but schools -of art and technology cannot be turned into factories with the sole -object of supplying the immediate demands of ephemeral fashion--often -trivial and vulgar. This would only end in the raising of a crop -of narrow specialists, incapable of producing more than one sort of -thing, to be exploited by commerce, and unemployed when the boom was -over. The business of a school of art is to train capable designers -and craftsmen, competent both to practise and to teach. The progress, -both in taste and accomplishment, shown by the works exhibited every -year in the national competition under the auspices, first of the old -Science and Art Department and now of the Board of Education at South -Kensington, is most remarkable and striking, especially to one who can -look back twenty or thirty years. Yet we are still without a proper -building in which to show these works, which are generally housed in -temporary sheds in an out-of-the-way corner, and consequently attract -little public attention. - -Turning now to the more theoretical side of art, and regarding its -general purport and social influence, it would appear as though -every age--one might almost say each generation--demanded a different -interpretation of life and nature, being inspired by different ideals; -for the forms of art depend upon the aims and ideals in the mind of -artists, who are but children of their age and reflect its thought and -sentiment. Pictorial art being the most popular because more intimate, -direct, and immediately concerned with the aspects of life, is perhaps -more sensitive to such changes of thought and sentiment than -other forms of art. This accounts in a great measure for the -constantly-shifting point of view of the painter in dealing with the -aspects of nature, for instance, if we compare the work of one age, -or one school with another, or examine the differences of treatment by -different individual artists. - -Whereas religion, and the beauty and splendour of life have of old -largely inspired painters, nowadays it seems as if the interest was -centred upon the wonder and dramatic variety of the world, the aspects -of life in different countries, vivid and instantaneous presentment, -individual impressions, snap-shots of nature. No doubt the photograph -has had a great influence both upon painters and the public. The -public eye must be largely influenced by the photograph, but the -photograph in the hands of some of its professors has lately taken -to imitate the effects and methods of artists. So that it is turn and -turn about. - -The object of painting however is not _illusion_, otherwise, in the -presence of the cinematograph and its marvellous living and moving -transcripts from nature, as presented in the fascinating picture -theatres, painting would have no chance, for even colour is sometimes -given. - -But, however wonderful, it is scientific mechanism and not art. The -true province of painting is untouched, our national galleries have -not lost their attraction, and are not old masters more valuable than -ever? The very illusory powers of photography serve to define the true -sphere of art, which is a product of the human mind as well as of the -eye and hand. - -There is another form of pictorial appeal which has, owing to the -association of art with commercial enterprise, attained such vast -proportions as to count as a popular education of the eye--for good or -for evil. I mean the pictorial poster, which might be said to be the -most original flourishing and vigorous type of popular art existing, -and the only popular form of mural painting. Its too frequent banality -and vulgarity are to be deplored, but to a great extent they are -inseparable from the conditions of the existence of the poster; but -undoubtedly there is a great amount of artistic ability employed in -these designs, which often show, too, the great resources of modern -colour-printing. It is part of the wastefulness of our system that -so much skill, talent, and labour should be spent on such ephemeral -purposes and placed in such incongruous positions and injurious -juxtapositions, often appearing in the mass as a sort of -sticking-plaster of varied colour upon the doleful face of a dingy -street. The same ability under different influences and inspired by -different ideals might serve to make eloquent the bare walls of our -schools and public buildings with painted histories and legends of our -country and race, which might foster the public spirit of our future -citizens. Every town should have its history painted in its Town -Hall--as Manchester has done in that wonderful series of mural -pictures by Madox Brown. There might be competitions in schemes of -decoration and mural design of this sort among the students of the -local art schools. Is this an ideal? - -Well, after all, the great thing is to _have_ an ideal, an ideal, too, -may be of enormous practical value, for it is capable of inspiring men -to accomplish great works which they would never have touched without -such a stimulus. Every great work, every great achievement in art, in -social service--in all human effort, has been the result of an ideal -in the mind, a vision, a lamp, a torch that has lighted the path that -has enabled its bearer to clear away often apparently insuperable -difficulties and attain the goal. - -Nor is the possession of an ideal less necessary to a people--the -nation collectively--than it is to the individual if real progress is -to be made. From ideals in art we are led to ideals in life and to -the greatest art of all--_The art of Life_. An ideal of national life -which would give purpose and impetus and unity to all social efforts -at amelioration, something beyond the strife of parties, personal -jealousies, and parliamentary man[oe]uvres. Such an ideal may be found -in that growing conception of the new age we are entering of _a true -co-operative commonwealth_, when the public good, being the main -motive, all things that add to the beauty, health, dignity, and -comfort of our cities, would be considered as of the first importance, -and when, while our ancient history and monuments should be preserved, -natural growth and expansion should not be impeded; a state wherein -every citizen, every man and woman would find a useful and congenial -sphere of work, and each and all would be prepared to do their part in -the service of the community, secure of a place at life's table, when -friendly emulation should take the place of cut-throat competition; -when every mother and every child would be cared for, and there would -be ample provision for old age. Labour being so organized that there -would be neither overwork nor unemployment, while there remained -abundant leisure for the cultivation of the arts and sciences and the -pleasures of life--poverty being unknown, and disease conquered by -knowledge and enforcement of the laws of health; death itself faced -with calmness or fearlessly met at need in the service or defence of -the community. - - - - -THE APOTHEOSIS OF "THE BUTTERFLY" - - - - - [Illustration] - - - - -THE APOTHEOSIS OF "THE BUTTERFLY"[11] - - -The world, it has been said, takes a man at his own valuation, and, -certainly it seems to have accepted even Whistler, at last, at his own -by no means modest estimate, and in the commercial sense, indeed, to -have considerably exceeded it. - -It is true that Whistler had, as an original artist, to pass through -the usual stages of neglect and contumely. It is only the common -experience of what is called genius, albeit varied and complicated in -his case by his combative and whimsical personality. - -What a pity it is that there are no means of obtaining a just and -sober estimate of an artist's powers (as well as a sympathetic one) -except by the long wait necessary for the verdict of that Court of -Final Appeal--Time. - -At present the system seems to be, in the case of any one who shows -individuality or independence in art, at first to ridicule, underrate, -or abuse. If the innovator survives this process--well, the impression -gains ground that there must be something in him, and, if he can only -struggle on long enough, and keep his head above water, the tide may -turn in his favour--even to such an extent, sometimes, as to carry -the genius on the top of it to quite the other extreme of laudatory -appreciation, which may land him eventually in almost as dangerous -a position, as regards his artistic safety, as that in which he was -first discovered. - -Between the bitterness of his enemies and the extravagant eulogies of -his friends, it becomes almost as difficult for an artist to find his -real latitude and longitude as for a ship in a fog. Still more so for -other navigators on critical seas anxious to take his true bearings. - -Well, "The Butterfly" is caught at last! We have him in Mr. and Mrs. -Pennell's two sumptuous volumes, pinned down, as it were, in a glass -case, his natural history fully accounted for, both as an artist and -as a man. We can study the Whistlerian genius in its various stages, -from caterpillar to chrysalis, up to when it flutters gaily over -everybody and everything in the garden of life--a butterfly with the -sting of a wasp! - - [Illustration: PORTRAIT STUDY OF WHISTLER BY HIMSELF. - - (From a black and white drawing.)] - -The authors have indeed, in a literary sense, adopted the -pre-Raphaelite methods, to which in art they appear to be opposed, in -painting their literary portrait of the great Impressionist. No one -will doubt the patience, care, and zeal with which they have carried -out the work, or the devoted loyalty of spirit in which what was -evidently regarded as a sacred trust has been fulfilled; but in their -natural anxiety to give full relief to the portrait of their hero and -idol, the authors have not always been able to be fair to some of his -contemporaries or predecessors, or to other forms of art than those -which he practised, and they are apt to become a little extravagant in -their terms. To assert, for instance, that Whistler was "the greatest -artist and most remarkable personality of the nineteenth century" is -a little "tall"; but no doubt the authors did not wish, any more than -Mr. Wedmore, to "understate." The insertion of the little words -_one of_ in the above-quoted sentence would have been advisable, -considering the number of remarkable personalities and artists the -nineteenth century produced. This presentation of Whistler dominating -and overtopping everybody reminds one of the method of the mural -artists of ancient Egypt, who, in order to glorify their kings and -impress beholders with his powers, represented the monarch as a -gigantic figure clutching a handful of diminutive enemies trembling in -his grasp, while he flourishes his sword over their heads. - -It is, perhaps, one of "life's little ironies" that Whistler, who -maintained in his "Ten o'clock" philosophy that the artist, like the -unexpected, always "happens," and who took a purely individualistic -view of artistic history should be at last fully accounted for on -evolutionary principles. It seems strange that he, who apparently held -that artists occurred accidentally here and there in the history of -the world--like very sparing currants in a suet pudding, the pudding, -or public, being always of the same materials, equally "stodgy," -indifferent, or ignorant as to art--that Whistler, who might almost -be described as the artist of accident, should be portrayed in minute -detail under the glare of the limelight, and shown in relation to, and -accounted for by, his heredity and environment. - -A member of a most respectable family (like "The Newcomes") hailing -originally from the Islanders he professed to hate, we may trace the -origins of his personal characteristics, the germs of his development -and the foundations of his art. His mastery in etching, for instance -(perhaps destined to be considered the strongest and most enduring -side of his art), had its roots in the technical experience and -training of the United States Coast Survey. It is to be regretted that -it was not found possible to include later illustrations of his etched -plates in the book, as, with the exception of the pastels and water -colours and the earlier pictures, the reproductions generally lose -much of the charm, with the colour, of the originals, and most of -their atmosphere. - -Whistler in himself furnishes another illustration of the different -side of his nature an artist often presents in his serious work from -that usually perceived in him, by the world in general, as a man. -If nothing of his self-assertive, combative, caustic and whimsical -personality had been known, such traits could hardly have been -suspected in the possessor of the refined taste, the delicate justness -of tone, the somewhat austere and restrained decorative sense combined -with a certain poetic vagueness, which generally characterize his -works. - -The work of Whistler at different periods of his life also illustrates -the curious fact that artists of the most pronounced individuality of -style and method often show how strongly they may become influenced by -the work of others. - -What Whistler's art would have been had he never seen the work -of Courbet, of Velasquez, of Fantin, of Albert Moore, and of the -Japanese, who can say? The power of assimilation itself may be an -attribute of genius, and it is not so much what he may have absorbed, -or from what source he may have derived suggestions, as what use an -artist makes of his derivations that really matters. - -The first time I saw Whistler's work was in the old rooms of the Royal -Academy when that Institution shared the Gallery in Trafalgar Square -with the National Collection, and the old masters and the moderns were -next-door neighbours. - -There was a certain obscure den opening out of a passage between two -of the principal picture galleries, named the Octagon Room, almost as -dark as a cellar, but it was here that Whistler's early and wonderful -etchings of the Thames side first saw the light--such as it was! in -the sixties. - -I well remember, too, his early pictures, which also first appeared in -the Royal Academy exhibitions in the Trafalgar Square rooms. The quiet -power, rich tone, and distinction of "At the Piano," in 1860; the -picture of a rocky seashore with a figure of a fisher-girl lying -on the sand ("The Coast of Brittany," 1862), "skyed," if I remember -rightly, which, Mr. Pennell says, "might have been signed by Courbet"; -the lady in a Japanese robe painting a blue pot ("The Lange Leizen--of -the Six Marks," 1864); I recall the striking effect of these works -among the commonplaces of the usual mixed exhibition. They struck new -notes. I also remember the "Wapping," "The Thames in Ice," "The Music -Room," and "The Little White Girl," all of which were exhibited at the -Royal Academy in the early sixties. These impressed me more than any -other, or later, of Whistler's works. All the above-mentioned early -pictures are reproduced in Mr. and Mrs. Pennell's book, and, to -my mind, they still hold their place as the strongest and most -interesting of the works of the artist in painting. - - [Illustration: - - [_T. R. Annan and Sons, photo_ - - "THE THAMES IN ICE."] - -Later, too, visitors to the winter exhibitions of oil pictures at the -Dudley Gallery were surprised by certain "Nocturnes," visions of the -Thames in misty twilight with shadowy bridges and ghostly figures and -gliding barges, illuminated by twinkling golden lights; these were set -in moulded frames of unusual refinement, in green and other tones of -gold to suit the key of colour in the picture, and painted on the -flat with decorative patterns of a Japanese character in dull blue, -including a mysterious unit of pattern or mark, afterwards known as -"The Butterfly," and used as a signature upon all Whistler's works. - -Then there was a "one man show" in a gallery in Pall Mall (No. 48), -opposite Marlborough House, in which "Old Battersea Bridge, Nocturne -in blue and gold" loomed large, I remember, and the town was surprised -by something fresh in the decorative arrangement of the exhibition, -yellow and gray predominating, if I remember rightly, relieved with -blue pots and palms. This is mentioned in the Life at p. 179. Then -came the famous "Peacock Room" in Prince's Gate, which chiefly -sustains Whistler's repute as what one may call a practical decorator. -It is to be deplored that the room itself was not more beautiful in -structure and arrangement, cut up as it was with fidgetty details, -with pendants from the ceiling and shelves for china. Still, of -course, the business of a decorator is to adapt his scheme to the -place decorated, and certainly this was done quite thoroughly -by Whistler, and the blue and gold scheme was worked out very -consistently and ingeniously upon the theme of the peacock. - -It seems rather pitiful to read of the miserable squabbles over the -money, and the personalities and petty spite, however seasoned with -the wit of the artist, which seemed to raise a cloud of dust around -every transaction in which Whistler was concerned. - -A little later, at the Grosvenor Gallery in 1877, he is in the -limelight again, and this time is fallen foul of by John Ruskin. - -Much as one may owe to that great writer, and while, however biassed -or occasionally mistaken, the wholesome and ennobling influence of -his work on the whole must be acknowledged, there could be no -justification for his very injudicious and uncritical pronouncement -upon that nocturne of Whistler's, but it only meant that Ruskin, as -might be supposed, was utterly out of sympathy with that form of art, -and did not understand it. - -Yet great as was the provocation, it would surely have been more -dignified for the artist attacked to have let the words recoil upon -the writer, and to have confidently awaited the verdict of time, -rather than to have dragged the matter into a law-court to be made -game of by counsel, judge, and jury, an utterly incompetent tribunal -to form any serious opinion upon a question of art. - - [Illustration: PANELS FROM THE PEACOCK ROOM.] - -One feels, however, to a nature like Whistler's, the sort of -notoriety which such situations give to the principals had a distinct -attraction, added to the fighting instinct which possessed him. - -From this time onward this attraction seems to have grown more and -more powerful and to have influenced the life and work of the artist -in anything but a fortunate way, and it becomes fatiguing to follow -the course of the continual brawls in which he was involved. - -He was a conspicuous figure at the Grosvenor Gallery private views in -the early days, with his white lock and his long wand, but I never -got further than a slight acquaintance with him, personally, which may -have been as much my fault (or misfortune) as his. - -When we come to his "Ten o'clock," in which Whistler gives us his -philosophy of art, we find his views, characteristically, intensely -individualistic. Period, traditions, gradual evolution in art and -artists, are nothing to him. It is always the "one man show," a -purely personal view of art, from the first etcher on a cave-bone to -Rembrandt. The artist is always an accident. His predecessors or his -contemporaries are nothing. Heredity and environment, economic and -social conditions, are of no account. Race or country don't matter. -The inspiration of symbol and story is ignored or despised as -"literary." The unifying and ennobling influence of architecture, the -co-operation of the crafts, the associated chain of human endeavour -and experiment in the arts, which link the ages together, and find -their highest expression in great public monuments, do not interest -him apparently. "Art happened." This is as much as to say one is -only concerned with the flower, and the roots, the soil from which -it springs or the evolution of the plant itself are matters of no -account! Thus the individualistic artist kicks away the ladder by -which he arrived and expects the stage to be cleared for him. Ah, -well, "Ten o'clock" suited the hour, the audience, and the man. It -would be too much to expect brilliant artists and witty inventors of -_bons mots_, or butterflies to be profound philosophers as well. - -In many ways Whistler, though distinctly a decorative artist, was the -complete antithesis of William Morris. Mr. Pennell makes a true remark -in his book in speaking of Whistler's ideas in decoration when he says -(p. 221, vol. i): "Colour for him (Whistler), was as much decoration -as pattern was for William Morris." One would be inclined however to -qualify this by saying that Whistler's main principle in decoration, -in which he showed a fine taste, was by _tones_ of colour; especially -was he successful in the choice of pale delicate tones. Whistler -appeals to one as a great craftsman in _tone_, rather than as a -colourist. - -As a painter his most distinctive and original works will always -be his "nocturnes," and, of his portraits (which, however, he often -treated as landscapes) his fame seems likely chiefly to rest upon -those of his Mother and Carlyle. - -The picture of Whistler himself, of his character as a man, which this -book reveals--in spite of some relieving touches--is not an attractive -one. - -One can only feel sorry that so genuine an artist was so consumed -by his own opinion of himself, and wasted so much time and energy in -litigation, and that he could stoop to be professor of "the gentle art -of making enemies" or glory in the distinction of being a past-master -in the craft of losing friends. Still, he fought the Philistines. - -Mr. and Mrs. Pennell's book is admirably done and well illustrated, -and it appears moreover in a form--clad in an arrangement of brown, -yellow, and gold--such as might have been approved by its fastidious -subject. - -The book is peppered with Whistler's smart repartees and sayings; -of the latter the following dictum strikes me as remarkably true and -sound: - -"Poverty may induce industry, but it does not produce the fine flower -of painting. The test is not poverty, it's money. Give a painter money -and see what he will do: if he does not paint his work is well lost to -the world." - - - [Footnote 11: "The Life of J. McNeill Whistler," by E. R. - and J. Pennell, in two volumes, illustrated. London: William - Heinemann, 1908.] - - - - -INDEX - - (Note: The Page number is the link to the reference. - 123^x indicates that the reference is only in the Footnote; - 123,^x indicates that the reference is also in the Footnote). - - - Ancient Buildings, Society for the Protection of, 42, 43, 217. - - Animals, treatment of, in art, 185-204. - - Architecture, modern domestic, 48; - arts allied to, 125-146; - of the nineteenth century, 225-227. - - Art education, 56, 57, 107-110, 114, 115, 242-245, 250. - - Art, study and practice of, 105-122; - of the nineteenth century, 223-237. - - "Art Nouveau, L'," 232. - - Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, the, 28, 67, 68, 70, 71, 95, - 96, 230, 248, 249. - - Art Workers' Guild, the, 59, 60, 70, 93. - - Assyrian art, animals in, 187, 188, 190. - - Athens, architecture of, 126. - - - Ball, John, 41. - - Bates, Harry, 61, 228. - - Bell, R. Anning, 134. - - Bellamy, Edward, his "Looking Backward," 10, 11, 214. - - Benson, Frank, 236. - - Binyon, Laurence, 65. - - Birmingham, St. Philip's, 29. - - Blake, William, 228. - - Bokhara, embroidery from, 154, 155. - - Brangwyn, Frank, 92. - - Brown, Ford Madox, 17, 28, 92, 230, 253. - - Brown, Prof. Frederick, 92. - - Bullen, Wentworth, 25. - - Burges, William, 50, 51, 227. - - Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, 15, 25, 26, 28, 36, 37, 61, 230. - - Burne-Jones, Lady, 29. - - Butterfield, William, 227. - - - Cambridge, Jesus College, 28. - - Canova, Antonio, 227. - - Carlisle, Earl of, 15. - - Carlyle, Thomas, 21, 40, 213. - - Cennini, Cennino, his "Trattato," 164-176. - - Century Guild, the, 67. - - Chinese art, 63, 65, 231. - - City and Guilds of London Institute, the, 67. - - Clausen, George, 69, 92. - - Clay, modelling in, 145. - - Cleveland, Ohio, mosaic floor for bank at, 132. - - Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., 28^2, 34. - - Coire, gesso work at, 164. - - Courbet, Gustave, 264, 265. - - Cowper, F. Cadogan, 78^4. - - Crane, Walter, his designs for "The Glittering Plain," 36; - associated with the proposal for a National Exhibition of the - Arts, 69; - President of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, 95; - design in mosaic for a bank at Cleveland, 132. - - Cretan embroideries, 152, 153. - - - Darius, frieze from palace of, 139. - - Day, Lewis F., 59. - - Dearle, H., 25. - - Drawing, study of, 242-245. - - Dress, modern, 212-214. - - Dressler, Conrad, 139. - - - "Earthly Paradise, The," 7, 8, 16; - projected illustrated edition, 37. - - Eastlake, C. L., his "Hints on Household Taste," 53. - - Edinburgh, Art Congress at (1889), 29, 74. - - Egyptian art, animals in, 185-188, 190; - mummies, use of gesso on, 182. - - Embroidery, colour and its treatment, 149-159. - - Eve, G. W., 192. - - - Flaxman, John, 227. - - Florence, Riccardi Chapel, 141. - - Forbes, Stanhope, 92. - - Ford, Onslow, 227. - - Furse, Charles, 92. - - - Gainsborough, Thomas, 228. - - Gallia Placida, Mausoleum of, 133. - - Gesso work, early Italian, 136, 137, 141, 163-182. - - Gibson, John, 227. - - Gilbert, Alfred, 61. - - Giotto, 140. - - Glasgow School, the, 232. - - Glass, stained, 28, 29, 144. - - "Glittering Plain, The," 36. - - Gozzoli, Benozzo, 141. - - Greek art, animals in, 190-192. - - Grosvenor Gallery, the, 65, 71, 268, 270. - - Gwalior, stone carvings of animals at, 198, 200-203. - - - Hammersmith Socialist Society, 27, 28,^2. - - "Hobby Horse, The," 67. - - Hogarth, William, 228. - - Hokusai, 63. - - Holiday, Mr. and Mrs. Henry, 134. - - Home Arts and Industries Association, the, 67. - - Hooper, W. H., 36. - - Horne, Herbert P., 67. - - Horniman Museum, mosaic design on the, 134. - - Houses of Parliament, frescoes in the, 78^4. - - Hughes, Arthur, 17. - - Hunt, Holman, 49, 69, 230. - - - Indian art, animals in, 189, 190, 198, 200-203. - - Israels, Joseph, 91. - - - Jackson, John, 108^5. - - Japanese art, influence of, 63-65, 231; - treatment of animals in, 198, 199. - - - Kelmscott House, 27, 28,^2. - - Kelmscott Press, the, 5, 29, 34-36. - - - Landseer, Sir Edwin, 203. - - Lascelles, Frank, 236. - - La Thangue, H. H., 92. - - Leighton, Lord, 61. - - Leverett, Arthur, 36. - - Liebermann, Max, 91. - - Lindsay, Sir Coutts, 65. - - Liverpool, Art Congress at (1888), 73, 74. - - London, aspect of, 207-214; - architecture of, 226. - - London County Council, its technical schools, 68, 69. - - - Magnus, Sir Philip, 67. - - Magnússon, Professor, 16. - - Manchester, frescoes in the Town Hall, 253. - - Marlborough College Chapel, decoration of, 168. - - Merton Abbey, 25, 27, 28,^2. - - Meunier, Constantin, 91, 228. - - Michael Angelo, 141. - - Micklethwaite, J. T., 132. - - Millais, Sir J. E., 230. - - Millar, W., his "Plastering," 164. - - Millet, François, 91. - - Moody, T. W., 63, 138. - - Moore, Albert, 61, 264. - - More, Sir Thomas, 41. - - Morgan, William de, 55, 139. - - Morland, George, 228. - - Morris, Miss May, 36. - - Morris, William, 3-43, 51, 230, 271; - his Socialism, 5, 7-14, 36-41; - visit to Iceland, 16; - and the artistic revival, 16-20, 54, 93-95, 232, 248; - his birth and education, 21, 22; - experiments in dyeing, 24; - weaving, 24-26; - painted glass, 28, 29; - his MS. of Omar Khayyám, 29-33; - the Kelmscott Press, 5, 29, 34-36; - illustrations for "Cupid and Psyche," 37; - founds the Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings, 42; - his appreciation of humour, 44,^3. - - Morris and Co., 15, 17, 27, 28, 54. - - Mosaic, marble, 129-132; - glass, 132-134; - pebble, 134, 135. - - Murray, Fairfax, 29, 36. - - Mycenae, Cyclopean gate of, 126, 190. - - - National Association for the Advancement of Art, the, 29, 73, 74. - - National Exhibition of the Arts, proposed, 69. - - New English Art Club, the, 69. - - "News from Nowhere," 5, 10, 11. - - New York, improvement of, 211, 212. - - Nineveh, wall sculptures of, 126, 188. - - Northern Art Workers' Guild, the, 60. - - - "Omar Khayyám," illuminated by Morris, 29-33. - - Oxford, Exeter College, 26; - Christ Church, 28. - - - Pageants, 236. - - Parthenon, the, 126. - - Peacock Room, the, 266. - - Pennell, Mr. and Mrs., their "Life of Whistler," 259-272,^11. - - Petrie, W. M. Flinders, 182. - - Philadelphia, art-teaching in, 107; - mosaic altar-piece in, 134. - - Photography, influence of, 252. - - Pinturrichio, 141, 166. - - Pisa, Campo Santo, 141. - - Pistoia, 140. - - Plaster work, decorated, 135, 136. - - Poster, the modern, 111, 252, 253. - - Post-impressionists, the, 233. - - Pracatic (Bohemia), sgraffito designs at, 137, 138. - - Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, the, 48, 230. - - Pugin, Augustus W. N., 50. - - - Raphael, 136. - - Ravenna, mosaics at, 133. - - Repoussé work, 127-130. - - Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 228. - - Ricardo, Halsey, 89, 139. - - Richardson, H. H., 29. - - Richmond, Sir W. B., 134. - - Robbia ware, 140. - - Rodin, Auguste, 228. - - Rome, baths of Caracalla, 129-131; - New American Church, 134; - tombs in the Via Latina, 136, 163; - Appartimenti Borgia, 141; - Sistine Chapel, 141, 166, 168. - - Rossetti, D. G., 16, 28, 49, 230. - - Royal Academy, the, 60-62, 69, 70, 95, 249. - - Royal School of Art Needlework, the, 67. - - Ruskin, John, 5, 21, 50, 93, 268. - - - St. Paul's, decoration of, 134. - - Sandys, Frederick, 230. - - Sarnath, sculptured lions found at, 189, 190. - - School of Art Woodcarving, the, 67. - - Sedding, J. D., 227. - - Sgraffito, 137, 138. - - Shaw, Henry, 50; - his "Glazier's Book," 144,^8. - - Shaw, Norman, 51, 227. - - Sicilian silks, 194-197. - - Siena, frescoes in the town hall, 141. - - "Sigurd the Volsung," 7, 16. - - Smith, Catteson, 36. - - Socialism, Morris and, 5, 7-14, 37-42; - its inspiration in art, 83-101. - - Society of Arts, the, 73, 74. - - Solomon's temple, 127. - - Stanhope, Spencer, 168. - - Stevens, Alfred, 63, 203, 204, 227, 248. - - Stokes, Mr. Adrian, 170. - - Street, George Edmund, 21. - - Sumner, Heywood, 138. - - Sykes, Godfrey, 63. - - - Tadd, Liberty, 107,^5-109. - - Technical Schools, 68, 69, 114, 115. - - Thorvaldsen, Bertel, 227. - - Tiles, use of, as decoration, 138, 139. - - Town-planning Exhibition, the, 61. - - Tuke, H. S., 92. - - Turner, J. M. W., 229. - - - Van der Meer, Jan, 139. - - - Walker, Emery, 34. - - Watts, G. F., 61, 78^4. - - Webb, Philip, 15, 16, 17, 51, 227. - - Whistler, J. M., 64, 231; - his "Life," 259,^11-272. - - Wolfe, Miss Catherine, 29. - - Wrought Iron Work, 144, 145. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BOOKS FOR COLLECTORS - -UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME - -_Post 8vo, with numerous Illustrations_ - - -HOW TO LOOK AT PICTURES. By R. C. WITT, M.A. Sixth Edition. With 40 -Illustrations. 5_s._ net. - - "A better gift for people who are dimly 'fond of pictures,' - but who regret that 'they know nothing about them,' could not - be found."--_Spectator._ - -HOW TO UNDERSTAND SCULPTURE. A Handbook for the Amateur. By -MARGARET THOMAS. With 40 Full-page Illustrations, and Photogravure -Frontispiece. 6_s._ net. - -HOW TO IDENTIFY PORTRAIT MINIATURES. By G. C. WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. -With Chapters on How to Paint Miniatures, by ALYN WILLIAMS, R.B.A., -A.R.C.A. Third Edition. With 40 plates illustrating upwards of 70 -miniatures. 6_s._ net. - - "Contains much valuable information for the collector of - examples of this form of art. The book is finely illustrated, - and is enriched with chapters explaining technicalities - and describing the special qualifications of a miniature - painter."--_Morning Post._ - -ART AND THE CAMERA. By ANTHONY GUEST. With 49 Illustrations. Post 8vo. -6_s._ net. - - "The book cannot be read without realization of the great - possibilities of photography. It should be studied by amateurs - and professionals alike."--_Evening Standard._ - -HOW TO IDENTIFY OLD CHINA. By MRS. WILLOUGHBY HODGSON. Eleventh -Thousand. With 40 plates and numerous reproductions of marks. 5_s._ -net. - - "The information given is precisely what is needed, and is - particularly well arranged, with a preliminary chapter of - practical advice."--_Westminster Gazette._ - -HOW TO COLLECT CONTINENTAL CHINA. By C. H. WYLDE. With 40 plates and -upwards of 400 reproductions of marks. 6_s._ net. - -HOW TO COLLECT OLD FURNITURE. By FREDERICK LITCHFIELD, Author of -"Illustrated History of Furniture," etc. Fourth Edition. With 40 -plates and numerous illustrations in the text. 6_s._ net. - - "The book is, without question, the most interesting and - informing guide that the modern passion for antique furniture - has produced."--_Pall Mall Gazette._ - -HOW TO COLLECT BOOKS. By J. H. SLATER, Editor of "Book Prices -Current," etc. With numerous illustrations. 6_s._ net. - -HOW TO COLLECT POSTAGE STAMPS. By BERTRAM T. K. SMITH. With 48 plates, -illustrating upwards of 750 specimens. 6_s._ net. - -THE PRINT-COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK. By ALFRED WHITMAN. Fifth and Cheaper -Edition, revised by MALCOLM C. SALAMON. Illustrated. 6_s._ net. - - -LONDON: G. BELL AND SONS, LTD. - - - - -Handbooks of the Great Masters - -in - -Painting and Sculpture - -EDITED BY G. C. WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. - -With 40 Illustrations and Photogravure Frontispiece - -_Large Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. net each_ - - -"The series is of high value and great promise, ... evidently being -carried out conscientiously, and without the sparing of pains or -labour."--_Magazine of Art._ - -"Dr. Williamson is editing the 'Great Masters' series with singular -success and good fortune."--_Academy._ - - -_Volumes on the following Masters are now ready_: - - BOTTICELLI. - BRUNELLESCHI. - CORREGGIO. - CARLO CRIVELLI. - DELLA ROBBIA. - DEL SARTO. - DONATELLO. - FRANCIA. - GAUDENZIO FERRARI. - GERARD DOU. - GIORGIONE. - GIOTTO. - FRANS HALS. - LEONARDO DA VINCI. - LUINI. - MANTEGNA. - MEMLINC. - MICHAEL ANGELO. - PERUGINO (P. VANUCCI). - PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA. - PINTORICCHIO. - RAPHAEL. - REMBRANDT. - RUBENS. - SIGNORELLI. - SODOMA. - TINTORETTO (JACOPO ROBUSTI). - VAN DYCK. - VELASQUEZ. - WATTEAU. - WILKIE. - -_A detailed and Illustrated Catalogue of the Series will be sent on -application._ - - - LONDON: G. BELL AND SONS, LTD. - YORK HOUSE, PORTUGAL STREET, W.C. - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - - _ _ indicates italic text. - - = = indicates bold text. - - ^ indicates a superscript. - - Missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired. - - Both hyphenated and un-hyphenated variants of some words appear - in this book. All have been retained. The author has used UK-English - variants of some words (e.g. 'colour', etc., not 'color', etc.), and - some older spellings. - - Illustrations that interrupt a paragraph have been moved to a more - convenient position nearby, between paragraphs, and closer to their - descriptive text. - - The text in the Omar Khayyám illustrations appears to be missing - some end-punctuation, or it is partially hidden by the design. It - seems to have been a hand-written copy, by the author (William - Morris), of the Fitzgerald translation of Omar Khayyám. As it is - hand-written, it has not been amended to the Fitzgerald translation. - - - Page 25 and Index: 'Wentworth Buller' is mentioned on Page 25; - 'Bullen, Wentworth, 25.' is the entry in the Index. - The transcriber cannot find which spelling is correct, so both have - been retained. - - Page 54: 'Hebblewhite' corrected to 'Hepplewhite'. - - "... and Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite...." - - Pages 59-60: 'In fact, since artists more or less concerned with - decoration had increased, owing to the revived activity and demand - arising for design of all kinds.' This sentence does not make sense. - 'since' may be extraneous. - - Page 72: 'For in spite the immense activity and industry, the - independent artists in design and handicraft were but few,...' - - should probably read either: - - 'For despite the immense activity and industry,...' - - or - - 'For in spite of the immense activity and industry,...' - - OED gives: spite, n. & v.t. 1. ... (in) ~ of, notwithstanding. - - So 'in' may be optional, but 'of' seems to be needed. The transcriber - has chosen to correct 'in spite' to 'in spite of'. - - In other places, the author has used brief notes rather than - grammatically correct prose. These appear to have been hasty jottings, - and have been retained. - - Page 75: 'fatigueing' corrected to 'fatiguing'. - - "We have no word-symbols for defining those delicate shades of - difference so important to the artist, and to be perpetually - qualifying is fatiguing." - - Page 78, Footnote 4: 'Cooper' corrected to 'Cowper'. - (Reference: Wikipedia) - - "... by some of our ablest men of the younger school, such as - Mr. Payne and Mr. Cadogan Cowper,...". - The Index entry is correct. - - Page 174: 'droping' corrected to 'dropping'. - - "by the use of the brush in floating or dropping on the forms of - the ornament." - - Page 241: 'intance' corrected to 'instance'. - - "... different points of view--for instance, (1) as an - accessory...." - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's William Morris to Whistler, by Walter Crane - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILLIAM MORRIS TO WHISTLER *** - -***** This file should be named 53954-8.txt or 53954-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/9/5/53954/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lesley Halamek and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: William Morris to Whistler - Papers and addresses on art and craft and the commonweal. - -Author: Walter Crane - -Illustrator: Walter Crane - -Release Date: January 13, 2017 [EBook #53954] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILLIAM MORRIS TO WHISTLER *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lesley Halamek and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/cover-300.jpg" width="300" height="466" alt="Front Cover" /></div> - -<h2>Other Works by Walter Crane</h2> - -<hr class="short" /> - -<p class="center1c"><i>Crown 8vo, 6s. net each</i></p> - -<h3 class="sb">THE BASES OF DESIGN</h3> - -<p class="centers"><span class="sc">With 200 Illustrations</span></p> - -<h3>LINE AND FORM</h3> - -<p class="centers"><span class="sc">With 157 Illustrations</span></p> - -<h3>THE DECORATIVE ILLUSTRATION<br /> -OF BOOKS OLD AND NEW</h3> - -<p class="centers"><span class="sc">With 165 Illustrations</span></p> - -<hr class="short" /> - -<p class="center1c"><i>Medium 8vo. 10s. 6d. net</i></p> - -<h3 class="sb">IDEALS IN ART</h3> - -<p class="center">PAPERS THEORETICAL, PRACTICAL,<br /> -CRITICAL</p> - -<p class="centers"><span class="sc">With Title-page, End-papers, and Cover<br /> -designed by the Author, and<br /> -numerous Illustrations</span></p> - -<p class="center">LONDON: G. BELL AND SONS, LTD.</p> - -<div class="half-title"> -WILLIAM MORRIS<br /> -TO WHISTLER -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/title-650.jpg"><img src="images/title-300.jpg" width="300" height="458" alt="Title Page" /></a></div> - -<h1>WILLIAM MORRIS<br /><br class="b30" /> -TO WHISTLER<br /><br /> - -<span class="less2">PAPERS AND ADDRESSES ON<br /> -ART AND CRAFT AND THE<br /> -COMMONWEAL</span><br /><br class="b30" /> - -<span class="less"><span class="sc">by</span> WALTER CRANE<br /></span> - -<span class="less2">WITH ILLUSTRATIONS<br /> -FROM DRAWINGS BY THE<br /> -AUTHOR & OTHER SOURCES</span></h1> - -<p class="center space-above5">LONDON: G BELL & SONS LTD<br /> -YORK HOUSE PORTUGAL S<sup>T</sup> W.C.<br /> -<span style="padding-left: 12em;">1911</span></p> - -<p class="center2">CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.<br /> -TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev" id="pagev"></a>[pg v]</span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE</h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">O</span>F the collected papers and addresses which -form this book, the opening one upon -William Morris was composed of an address to -the Art Workers' Guild, an article which appeared -in "The Progressive Review," at the instance of -Mr. J. A. Hobson, and a longer illustrated article -written for "The Century Magazine," and now -reprinted with the illustrations by permission -of Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons, to whom my -thanks are due.</p> - -<p>"The Socialist Ideal as a New Inspiration in -Art" was written for "The International Review," -when it appeared under the editorship of Dr. -Rudolph Broda, as the English edition of "Documents -du Progrès."</p> - -<p>"The English Revival in Decorative Art" appeared -in the "Fortnightly Review," and I have -to thank Mr. W. L. Courtney for allowing me to -reprint it. It has some additions.</p> - -<p>"Notes on Early Italian Gesso Work," was -written for Messrs. George Newnes's Magazine -of the Fine Arts with the illustrations, and I am -obliged to them for leave to use both again.</p> - -<p>"Notes on Colour Embroidery and its Treatment" -was written at Mrs. Christie's request for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi" id="pagevi"></a>[pg vi]</span> -"Embroidery," which she edited, and I have -Messrs. Pearsall's authority to include it here.</p> - -<p>"The Apotheosis of 'The Butterfly'" was a -review written for "The Evening News," and I -thank the editor for letting me print it again. It -appears now, however, with a different title, and -considerable additions.</p> - -<p>"A Short Survey of the Art of the Century" -appeared in a journal, the name of which has -escaped me, but it has been largely rewritten and -added to since.</p> - -<p>For the rest, "Modern Aspects of Life and the -Sense of Beauty" was originally addressed as the -opening of a debate at the Pioneer Club, in which -my late friend Lewis F. Day was my opponent, -and my chief supporter was Mr. J. Ramsay Macdonald, -M.P.</p> - -<p>"Art and the Commonweal" was an address -to the Students of Art at Armstrong College, -Newcastle-on-Tyne, and the paper "On Some of -the Arts allied to Architecture" was given before -the Architectural Association. That "On the -Study and Practice of Art" was delivered in Manchester -before the Art School Committee and -City authorities, and the "Notes on Animals in -Art" to the Art Workers' Guild in London.</p> - -<p class="author"><span class="sc">Walter Crane.</span></p> - -<p class="ind"><span class="sc">Kensington</span>,</p> -<p class="ind2a"><i>September 1911</i>.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii" id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2></div> - -<table class="toc" summary="contents" border="0"> -<tr> - <td class="left"> </td> - <td class="right">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page3">WILLIAM MORRIS AND HIS WORK</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page3">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page47">THE ENGLISH REVIVAL IN DECORATIVE ART</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page47">47</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page83">THE SOCIALIST IDEAL AS A NEW INSPIRATION IN ART</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page83">83</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page105">ON THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF ART</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page105">105</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page125">ON SOME OF THE ARTS AND CRAFTS ALLIED TO ARCHITECTURE</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page125">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page149">NOTES ON COLOUR EMBROIDERY AND ITS TREATMENT</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page149">149</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page163">NOTES ON EARLY ITALIAN GESSO WORK</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page163">163</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page185">NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS IN ART</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page185">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page207">MODERN ASPECTS OF LIFE AND THE SENSE OF BEAUTY</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page207">207</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page223">A SHORT SURVEY OF THE ART OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY,<br /> - CHIEFLY IN ENGLAND, WITH SOME NOTES ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS</a></td> - <td class="right1"><a href="#page223">223</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page241">ART AND THE COMMONWEAL</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page241">241</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left"><a class="toc" href="#page259">THE APOTHEOSIS OF "THE BUTTERFLY"</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page259">259</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii" id="pageviii"></a>[pg viii]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix" id="pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2></div> - -<table class="toc_illos" summary="contents" border="0"> -<tr> - <td class="left1"> </td> - <td class="right">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page2">Portrait of William Morris. From a photograph by Emery Walker</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page2">2</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page14a">Pen-Sketch of Morris Speaking from a Wagon in Hyde Park.</a><br /> - By Walter Crane</td> - <td class="right1"><a href="#page14">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page17a">Design for Wall-paper. "The Daisy"</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page17">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page20a">Design for Wall-paper. "Rose Trellis"</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page20">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page21a">Woollen Hanging. "The Peacock"</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page21">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page23">Design for Silk Hanging</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page23">23</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page24a">Cotton Print. "Evenlode"</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page24">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page27a">Kelmscott House. Meeting Room of the Hammersmith Socialist Society</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page27">27</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page30">Pages from Morris's MS. of Omar Khayyám</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page33">33</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page47">Pen Design by Walter Crane</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page108a">Progressive blackboard practice in Bi-Manual Training</a><br /> - from "New Methods in Education" by Liberty Tadd</td> - <td class="right1"><a href="#page108">108</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page130a">Patterns of Roman Mosaic Pavement, from the Baths of Caracalla</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page130a">130</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page143a">Patterns in Plain Leading, from "The Glazier's Booke"</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page143">143</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page151a">Russian Peasant Embroidery: Blouse in Cross Stitch</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page151">151</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page153a">Cretan Embroidery</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page153">153</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page154a">Embroidered Cover from Bokhara</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page154">154</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page156a">Original Design for Embroidered Hanging, by Walter Crane</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page156">156</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page167">Examples of Early Italian Gesso Work</a><br /> - (Victoria and Albert Museum)</td> - <td class="right1"><a href="#page167a">167</a>, <a href="#page169a">169</a>, <a href="#page171a">171</a>, - <a href="#page173a">173</a>, <a href="#page175a">175</a>, <a href="#page175b">175</a>, <a href="#page175c">175</a>, - <a href="#page177a">177</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page182a">182</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page185a">Egyptian Treatment of Birds.</a><br /> - Eighteenth dynasty, Hieroglyphics. Thebes</td> - <td class="right1"><a href="#page185">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page188">Assyrian Lion</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page188">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page188a">Persian Lion</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page188a">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page188b">Egyptian Lion</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page188b">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page189a">Graeco-Buddhist Lions from Sarnath</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagex" id="pagex"></a>[pg x]</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page189a">189</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page191">Animal Forms from Early Greek Pottery</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page191">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page193">English Heraldic Lions. Thirteenth Century</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page193">193</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page194">Birds and Animals in Sicilian Textiles. Thirteenth Century.</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page194a">194</a>, <a href="#page194b">194</a>, <a href="#page194c">194</a>,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page195a">Japanese Birds. From the "Hundred Birds" of Bari</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page195a">195</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page198a">Stone Carvings at Gwalior</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page198a">198</a>, <a href="#page199a">199</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page203a">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page204">Lion by Alfred Stevens</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page204">204</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page207">Pen Designs by Walter Crane</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page207">207</a>, <a href="#page223">223</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page259">Butterfly Device</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page259">259</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page261">Portrait of Whistler. After Charcoal Drawing by Himself</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page261">261</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page266">"The Thames in Ice"</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page266">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="left1"><a class="toc" href="#page270">Panels from the Peacock Room</a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page270">270</a></td> -</tr> - - </table> - -<div class="half-title1"> -<h4>ERRATA</h4> -<p class="center1">(TN: These corrections have been applied.)</p> - -<div class="center"><div class="content"> - -Page 50, line 4 from foot, <i>for</i> "Burgess" <i>read</i> "Burges."<br /> - -Page 92, line 2, <i>for</i> "Le Thangue" <i>read</i> "La Thangue."<br /> - -Page 134, line 14, <i>for</i> "give" <i>read</i> "gives."<br /> - -Page 190, line 7 from foot, <i>for</i> "Fringe" <i>read</i> "Frieze."<br /> - -Page 198, line 2 from foot, <i>for</i> "Central Provinces" <i>read</i> -"Central India." -</div></div></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span></p> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>WILLIAM MORRIS AND HIS WORK</h3> -</div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/002-700.jpg"><img src="images/002-350.jpg" width="350" height="472" alt="PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM MORRIS. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH" /></a> -<p class="center">PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM MORRIS. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH<br /> -BY EMERY WALKER.</p></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span></p> -<h2>WILLIAM MORRIS AND HIS WORK</h2> -</div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">I</span>F it is agreed that art, after all, may be summed -up as the expression of character, it follows -that the more we realize an artist's personality the -clearer understanding we shall get of his work. -So remarkable a personality as that of William -Morris must have left many distinct, and at the -same time different, impressions upon the minds of -those who knew him, or enjoyed his friendship in -life.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to realize that fifteen years have -passed away since he left us; but from the dark and -blurred background of changing years his character -and work define themselves, and his position and -influence take their true place, while his memory, -like some masterly portrait, remains clear and vivid -in our minds—re-presented as it were in the severe -but refined draughtsmanship of time.</p> - -<p>With so distinct and massive an individuality it -was strange to hear him say, as I once did, that -of the six different personalities he recognized -within himself at different times he often wondered -which was the real William Morris! Those who -knew him, however, were aware of many different -sides, and we know that the "idle dreamer of an -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span> -empty day" was also the enthusiastic artist and -craftsman, and could become the man of passionate -action on occasion, or the shrewd man of business, -or the keen politician also, as well as the quiet -observer of nature and life. Even the somewhat -Johnsonian absoluteness and emphasis of expression -which characterized him generally, would -occasionally give way to an open-to-conviction -manner, when tackled by a sincere and straightforward -questioner.</p> - -<p>But Morris was above and before all else a -poet—a <i>practical</i> poet, if one may use such a term—and -this explains the whole of his work. Not -that personally he at all answered to the popular -conventional idea of a poet, rather the reverse, -and he was anything but a sentimentalist. He -hated both the introspective and the rhetorical -school, and he never posed. He loved romance -and was steeped in mediaeval lore, but it was a -real living world to him, and the glimpses he -gives us are those of an actual spectator. It is -not archaeology, it is <i>life</i>, quite as vivid to him, -perhaps more so than that of the present day. -He loved nature, he loved beautiful detail, he -loved pattern, he loved colour—"<i>red</i> and <i>blue</i>" -he used to say in his full-blooded way. <i>His -patterns are decorative poems</i> in terms of form -and colour. <i>His poems and romances are decorative -patterns</i> in forms of speech and rhyme. His -dream world and his ideal world were like one -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> -of his own tapestries—a green field starred with -vivid flowers upon which moved the noble and -beautiful figures of his romantic imagination, -as distinct in type and colour as heraldic charges. -Textile design interested him profoundly and -occupied him greatly, and one may trace its influence, -I think, throughout his work—even in -his Kelmscott Press borders. One might almost -say that he had a textile imagination, his poems -and romances seem to be woven in the loom of -his mind, and to enfold the reader like a magic -web.</p> - -<p>But though he cast his conceptions in the forms -and dress of a past age, he took his inspiration -straight from nature and life. His poems are full -of English landscapes, and through the woods of -his romances one might come upon a reach of the -silvery Thames at any moment. The river he -loved winds through the whole of his delightful -Socialistic Utopia in "News from Nowhere."</p> - -<p>As a craftsman and an artist working with -assistants and in the course of his business he was -brought face to face with the modern conditions -of labour and manufacture, and was forced to think -about the political economy of art. Accepting the -economic teaching of John Ruskin, he went much -further and gave his allegiance to the banner of -Socialism, under which, however, he founded his -own school and had his own following, and conducted -his own newspaper. From the dream -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span> -world of romance, and from the sequestered garden -of design, he plunged into the thick of the -fight for human freedom, in which, he held, was -involved the very existence of art.</p> - -<p>Ever and anon he returned to his sanctuary—his -workshop—to fashion some new thing of -beauty, in verse or craftsmanship, in which we see -the results of his labour in so many directions.</p> - -<p>He certainly seemed to have possessed a larger -and fuller measure of vitality and energy than -most men—perhaps such extra vitality is the distinction -of genius—but the very strenuousness of -his nature probably shortened the duration of his -life. There were never any half-measures with -him, but everything he took up, he went into -seriously, nay, passionately, with the whole force -of his being. His power of concentration (the -secret of great workers) was enormous, and was -spent from time to time in a multitude of ways, -but whether in the eager search for decorative -beauty, his care for the preservation of ancient -buildings, in the delight of ancient saga, story, or -romance, or in the battle for the welfare of mankind, -like one of his own chieftains and heroes, he -always made his presence felt, and as the practical -pioneer and the master-craftsman in the revival of -English design and handicraft his memory will -always be held in honour.</p> - -<p>His death marked an epoch both in art and in -social and economic thought. The press notices -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span> -and appreciations that have appeared from time -to time for the most part have dwelt upon his -work as a poet and an artist and craftsman, and -have but lightly passed over his connection with -Socialism and advanced thought.</p> - -<p>But, even apart from prejudice, a hundred will -note the beauty and splendour of the flower to -one who will notice the leaf and the stem, or the -roots and the soil from which the tree springs.</p> - -<p>Yet the greatness of a man must be measured -by the number of spheres in which he is distinguished—the -width of his range and appeal to his -fellows.</p> - -<p>In the different branches of his work William -Morris commanded the admiration, or, what is -equally a tribute to his force, excited the opposition—of -as many different sections of specialists.</p> - -<p>As a poet he appealed to poets by reason of -many distinct qualities. He united pre-Raphaelite -vividness (as in "The Haystack in the Floods"), -with a dream-like, wistful sweetness and charm of -flowing narrative, woven in a kind of rich mediaeval -tapestry of verse, and steeped with the very -essence of legendary romance as in "The Earthly -Paradise"; or with the heroic spirit of earlier -time, as in "Sigurd the Volsung," while all these -qualities are combined in his later prose romances.</p> - -<p>His architectural and archaeological knowledge -again was complete enough for the architect and -the antiquary.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span></p> - -<p>His classical and historical lore won him the -respect of scholars.</p> - -<p>His equipment as a designer and craftsman, -based upon his architectural knowledge and training -enabled him to exercise an extraordinary influence -over all the arts of design, and gave him -his place as leader of our latter-day English -revival of handicraft—a position perhaps in which -he is widest known.</p> - -<p>In all these capacities the strength and beauty -of William Morris's work has been freely acknowledged -by his brother craftsmen, as well as by a -very large public.</p> - -<p>There was, however, still another direction in -which his vigour and personal weight were thrown -with all the ardour of an exceptionally ardent -nature, wherein the importance and significance -of his work is as yet but partially apprehended—I -mean his work in the cause of Socialism, in -which he might severally be regarded as an economist, -a public lecturer, a propagandist, a controversialist.</p> - -<p>No doubt many even of the most emphatic -admirers of William Morris's work as an artist, a -poet, and a decorator have been unable to follow -him in this direction, while others have deplored, -or even denounced, his self-sacrificing enthusiasm. -There seems to have been insuperable difficulty -to some minds in realizing that the man who -wrote "The Earthly Paradise" should have lent -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> -a hand to try to bring it about, when once the -new hope had dawned upon him.</p> - -<p>There is no greater mistake than to think of -William Morris as a sentimentalist, who, having -built himself a dream-house of art and poetry, -sighs over the turmoil of the world, and calls himself -a Socialist because factory chimneys obtrude -themselves upon his view.</p> - -<p>It seems to have escaped those who have inclined -to such an opinion that a man, in Emerson's -phrase, "can only obey his own polarity." His -life must gravitate necessarily towards its centre. -The accident that he should have reached economics -and politics through poetry and art, so far -from disqualifying a man to be heard, only establishes -his claim to bring a cultivated mind and -imaginative force to bear upon the hard facts of -nature and science.</p> - -<p>The practice of his art, his position as an employer -of labour, his intensely practical knowledge -of certain handicrafts, all these things brought him -face to face with the great Labour question; and -the fact that he was an artist and a poet, a man of -imagination and feeling as well as intellect, gave -him exceptional advantages in solving it—at least -theoretically. His practical nature and sincerity -moved him to join hands with men who offered a -practical programme, or at least who opened up -possibilities of action towards bringing about a -new social system.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span></p> - -<p>His own personal view of a society based upon -an entire change of economic system is most -attractively and picturesquely described in "News -from Nowhere, some Chapters of a Utopian -Romance." He called it <i>Utopian</i>, but, in his -view, and granting the conditions, it was a perfectly -practical Utopia. He even gave an account -(through the mouth of a survivor of the old order) -of the probable course of events which might lead -up to such a change. The book was written as a -sort of counterblast to Edward Bellamy's "Looking -Backward," which on its appearance was very -widely read on both sides of the water, and there -seemed at the time some danger of the picture -there given of a socialized state being accepted as -the only possible one. It may be partly answerable -for an impression in some quarters that a -Socialist system must necessarily be mechanical. -But the society described in "Looking Backward" -is, after all, only a little more developed -along the present lines of American social life—a -sublimation of the universal supply of average -citizen wants by mechanical means, with the mainspring -of the machine altered from individual -profit to collective interest. This book, most -ingeniously thought out as it was, did its work, -no doubt, and appealed with remarkable force to -minds of a certain construction and bias, and it -is only just to Bellamy to say that he claimed -no finality for it.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span></p> - -<p>But "News from Nowhere" may be considered—apart -from the underlying principle, common to -both, of the collective welfare as the determining -constructive factor of the social system—as its -complete antithesis.</p> - -<p>According to Bellamy, it is apparently the <i>city</i> -life that is the only one likely to be worth anything, -and it is to the organization of production -and distribution of things contributing to the supposed -necessities and comforts of inhabitants of -cities that the reader's thoughts are directed.</p> - -<p>With Morris the country life is obviously the -most important, the ideal life. Groups of houses, -not too large to be neighbourly, each with a common -guest-hall, with large proportions of gardens -and woodland, take the place of crowded towns. -Thus London, as we know it, disappears.</p> - -<p>What is this but building upon the ascertained -scientific facts of our day, that the inhabitants of -large cities tend to deteriorate in physique, and -would die out were it not for the constant infusion -of new blood from the country districts?</p> - -<p>Work is still a hard necessity in "Looking -Backward," a thing to be got rid of as soon as -possible, so citizens, after serving the community -as clerks, waiters, or what not, until the age of -forty-five, are exempt.</p> - -<p>With Morris, work gives the zest to life, and -all labour has its own touch of art—even the -dustman can indulge in it in the form of rich embroidery -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> -upon his coat. The bogey of labour is -thus routed by its own pleasurable exercise, with -ample leisure, and delight in external beauty in -both art and nature.</p> - -<p>As regards the woman's question, it never, in -his Utopia, appears to be asked. He evidently -himself thought that with the disappearance of the -commercial competitive struggle for existence and -what he termed "artificial famine" caused by -monopoly of the means of existence, the claim -of women to compete with men in the scramble -for a living would not exist. There would be no -necessity for either men or women to sell themselves, -since in a truly co-operative commonwealth -each one would find some congenial sphere -of work.</p> - -<p>In fact, as Morris once said, "settle the economic -question and you settle all other questions. -It is the Aaron's rod which swallows up the -rest."</p> - -<p>I gather that while he thought both men and -women should be economically free, and therefore -socially and politically free, and free to choose -their occupation, he by no means wished to ignore -or obliterate sex distinctions, and all those subtle -and fine feelings which arise from it, which really -form the warp and weft of the courtesies and -relationships of life.</p> - -<p>Now, whatever criticisms might be offered, or -whatever objections might be raised, such a conception -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> -of a possible social order, such a view of -life upon a new economic basis as is painted in -this delightful book, is surely, before all things, -remarkably wholesome, human, and sane, and -pleasurable. If wholesome, human, sane, and -pleasurable lives are not possible to the greater -part of humanity under existing institutions, so -much the worse for those institutions. Humanity -has generally proved itself better than its institutions, -and man is chiefly distinguished above other -animals by his power to modify his conditions. -Life, at least, means growth and change, and -human evolution shows us a gradual progression—a -gradual triumph of higher organization and -intelligence over lower, checked by the inexorable -action of natural laws, which demand reparation -for breaches of moral and social law, and continually -probe the foundations of society. Man has -become what he is through his capacity for co-operative -social action. The particular forms of -social organization are the crystallization of this -capacity. They are but shells to be cast away -when they retard growth or progress, and it is -then that the living organism, collective or individual, -seeks out or slowly forms a new home.</p> - -<p>As to the construction and colour of such a new -house for reorganized society and regenerated life, -William Morris has left us in no doubt as to his -own ideas and ideals. It may seem strange that -a man who might be said to have been steeped in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span> -mediaeval lore,<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a> and whose delight seemed to be -in a beautifully imagined world of romance peopled -with heroic figures, should yet be able to turn from -that dream world with a clear and penetrating -gaze upon the movements of his own time, and to -have thrown himself with all the strength of his -nature into the seething social and industrial -battle of modern England. That the "idle singer -of an empty day" should voice the claims and -hopes of Labour, stand up for the rights of free -speech in Trafalgar Square, and speak from a -wagon in Hyde Park, may have surprised those -who only knew him upon one side, but to those -who fully apprehended the reality, ardour, and -sincerity of his nature, such action was but its -logical outcome and complement, and assuredly it -redounds to the honour of the artist, the scholar, -and the poet whose loss we still feel, that he was -also a man.</p> - -<p>Few men seemed to drink so full a measure of -life as William Morris, and, indeed, he frankly -admitted in his last days that he <i>had</i> enjoyed his -life. I have heard him say that he only knew -what it was to be alive. He could not conceive of -death, and the thought of it did not trouble him.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"><a name="page14a" id="page14a"></a> -<a href="images/015-900.jpg"><img src="images/015-430.jpg" width="430" height="471" alt="William Morris speaking from a wagon in Hyde Park," /></a> -<p class="center">William Morris speaking from a wagon in Hyde Park, May 1 1894</p></div> - -<p>I first met William Morris in 1870, at a dinner -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span> -at the house of the late Earl of Carlisle, a man -of keen artistic sympathies and considerable artistic -ability, notably in water-colour landscapes. -He was an enthusiast for the work of Morris and -Burne-Jones, and had just built his house at -Palace Green from the designs of Mr. Philip -Webb, and Morris and Company had decorated -it. Morris, I remember, had just returned from a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>[pg 16]</span> -visit to Iceland, and could hardly talk of anything -else. It seemed to have laid so strong a hold upon -his imagination; and no doubt its literary fruits -were the translations of the Icelandic sagas he -produced with Professor Magnússon, and also the -heroic poem of "Sigurd the Volsung." He never, -indeed, seemed to lose the impressions of that -Icelandic visit, and was ever ready to talk of his -experiences there—the primitive life of the people, -the long pony rides, the strange, stony deserts, the -remote mountains, the geysers and the suggestions -of volcanic force everywhere, and the romance-haunted -coasts.</p> - -<p>I well remember, too, the impression produced -by the first volume of "The Earthly Paradise," -which had appeared, I think, shortly before the -time of which I speak: the rich and fluent verse, -with its simple, direct, Old World diction; the -distinct vision, the romantic charm, the sense of -external beauty everywhere, with a touch of wistfulness. -The voice was the voice of a poet, but -the eye was the eye of an artist and a craftsman.</p> - -<p>It was not so long before that the fame began -to spread of the little brotherhood of artists who -gathered together at the Red House, Bexley -Heath, built by Mr. Philip Webb, it was said, in -an orchard without cutting down a single tree. -Dante Gabriel Rossetti was the centre of the -group, the leading spirit, and he had absorbed the -spirit of the pre-Raphaelite movement and centralized -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> -it both in painting and verse. But others -co-operated at first, such as his master, Ford -Madox Brown, and Mr. Arthur Hughes, until the -committee of artists narrowed down, and became -a firm, establishing workshops in one of the old-fashioned -houses on the east side of Queen Square, -Bloomsbury, a retired place, closed by a garden -to through traffic at the northern end. Here -Messrs. Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Co. (which -included a very notable man, Mr. Philip Webb, -the architect) began their practical protest against -prevailing modes and methods of domestic decoration -and furniture, which had fallen since the great -exhibition of 1851 chiefly under the influence of -the Second Empire taste in upholstery, which was -the antithesis of the new English movement. This -latter represented in the main a revival of the -mediaeval spirit (not the letter) in design; a return -to simplicity, to sincerity; to good materials -and sound workmanship; to rich and suggestive -surface decoration, and simple constructive forms.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="page17a" id="page17a"></a> -<a href="images/018-680.jpg"><img src="images/018-300.jpg" width="300" height="435" alt="DESIGN FOR WALL-PAPER. 'THE DAISY.'" /></a> -<p class="center">DESIGN FOR WALL-PAPER. "THE DAISY."</p></div> - -<p>The simple, black-framed, old English Buckinghamshire -elbow-chair, with its rush-bottomed seat, -was substituted for the wavy-backed and curly-legged -stuffed chair of the period, with its French -polish and concealed, and often very unreliable, -construction. Bordered Eastern rugs, and fringed -Axminster carpets, on plain or stained boards, or -India matting, took the place of the stuffy planned -carpet; rich, or simple, flat patterns acknowledged -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>[pg 18]</span> -the wall, and expressed the proportions of the -room, instead of trying to hide both under bunches -of sketchy roses and vertical stripes; while, instead -of the big plate-glass mirror, with ormolu -frame, which had long reigned over the cold white -marble mantel-piece, small bevelled glasses were -inserted in the panelling of the high wood mantel-shelf, -or hung over it in convex circular form. -Slender black wood or light brass curtain rods, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> -and curtains to match the coverings, or carry out -the colour of the room, displaced the heavy -mahogany and ormolu battering-rams, with their -fringed and festooned upholstery, which had hitherto -overshadowed the window of the so-called -comfortable classes. Plain white or green paint for -interior wood-work drove graining and marbling -to the public-house; blue and white Nankin, -Delft, or Grès de Flandres routed Dresden and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> -Sèvres from the cabinet; plain oaken boards and -trestles were preferred before the heavy mahogany -telescopic British dining-table of the mid-nineteenth -century; and the deep, high-backed, canopied -settle with loose cushions ousted the castored -and padded couch from the fireside.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="page20a" id="page20a"></a> -<a href="images/019-650.jpg"><img src="images/019-300.jpg" width="300" height="432" alt="DESIGN FOR WALL-PAPER. 'ROSE TRELLIS.'" /></a> -<p class="center">DESIGN FOR WALL-PAPER. "ROSE TRELLIS."</p></div> - -<p>Such were the principal ways, as to outward -form, in which the new artistic movement made -itself felt in domestic decoration. Beginning with -the houses of a comparatively limited circle, mostly -artists, the taste rapidly spread, and in a few -years Morrisian patterns and furniture became the -vogue. Cheap imitation on all sides set in, and -commercial and fantastic persons, perceiving the -set of the current, floated themselves upon it, -tricked themselves out like jackdaws with peacocks' -feathers, and called it "the aesthetic movement." -The usual excesses were indulged in by -excitable persons, and the inner meaning of the -movement was temporarily lost sight of under a -cloud of travesty and ridicule, until, like a shuttlecock, -the idea had been sufficiently played with and -tossed about by society and the big public, it was -thrown aside, like a child's toy, for some new -catch-word. These things were, however, but the -ripples or falling leaves upon the surface of the -stream, and had but little to do with its sources or -its depth, though they might serve as indications -of the strength of the current.</p> - -<p>The art of Morris and those associated with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> -him was really but the outward and visible sign -of a great movement of protest and reaction -against the commercial and conventional conceptions -and standards of life and art which had obtained -so strong a hold in the industrial nineteenth -century.</p> - -<p>Essentially Gothic and romantic and free in -spirit as opposed to the authoritative and classical, -its leader was emphatically and even passionately -Gothic in his conception of art and ideals of life.</p> - -<p>The inspiration of his poetry was no less mediaeval -than the spirit of his designs, and it was -united with a strong love of nature and an ardent -love of beauty.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a name="page21a" id="page21a"></a> -<a href="images/022-700.jpg"><img src="images/022-330.jpg" width="330" height="457" alt="WOOLLEN HANGING. 'THE PEACOCK.'" /></a> -<p class="center">WOOLLEN HANGING. "THE PEACOCK."</p></div> - -<p>One knows but little of William Morris's progenitors. -His name suggests Welsh origin, though -his birthplace was Walthamstow. Born 24th -March 1834, one of a well-to-do family, it was a -fortunate circumstance that he was never cramped -by poverty in the development of his aims. Escaping -the ecclesiastical influence of Oxford and -a Church career, his prophets being rather John -Ruskin and Thomas Carlyle, he approached the -study and practice of art from the architectural -side under one of our principal English Gothic -revivalists, George Edmund Street, although he at -one time entertained the idea of becoming a painter, -and the very interesting picture of "Guinevere" -which was shown at one of the Arts and Crafts -Exhibitions makes one regret he did not do more -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span> -in this way. Few men had a better understanding -of the nature of Gothic architecture, and a wider -knowledge of the historic buildings of his own -country, than William Morris, and there can be -no doubt that this grasp of the true root and stem -of the art was of enormous advantage when he -came to turn his attention to the various subsidiary -arts and handicrafts comprehended under decorative -design. The thoroughness of his methods of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span> -work and workmanlike practicality were no less -remarkable than his amazing energy and capacity -for work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/023-700.jpg"><img src="images/023-300.jpg" width="300" height="428" alt="DESIGN FOR SILK HANGING." /></a> -<p class="center">DESIGN FOR SILK HANGING.</p></div> - -<p>In one of his earlier papers he said that it -appeared to be the object with most people to get -rid of, or out of, the necessity of work, but for his -part he only wanted to find time for more work, -or (as it might be put) to live in order to work, -rather than to work in order to live.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span></p> - -<p>While as a decorative designer he was, of course, -interested in <i>all</i> methods, materials, and artistic -expression, he concentrated himself generally -upon one particular kind at a time, as in the -course of his study and practice he mastered the -difficulties and technical conditions of each.</p> - -<p>At one time it was dyeing, upon which he held -strong views as to the superiority, permanency, -and beauty of vegetable dyes over the mineral -and aniline dyes, so much used in ordinary commerce, -and his practice in this craft, and the charm -of his tints, did much to check the taste for the -vivid but fugitive colours of coal-tar.</p> - -<p>His way was to tackle the thing with his own -hands, and so he worked at the vat, like the practical -man that he was in these matters. An old -friend tells the story of his calling at the works -one day and, on inquiring for the master, hearing -a strong, cheery voice call out from some inner -den, "I'm dyeing, I'm dyeing, I'm dyeing!" and -the well-known robust figure of the craftsman -presently appeared in his blue shirt-sleeves, his -hands stained blue from the vat where he had -been at work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="page24a" id="page24a"></a> -<a href="images/025-1000.jpg"><img src="images/025-500.jpg" width="500" height="344" alt="COTTON PRINT. 'EVENLODE.'" /></a> -<p class="center">COTTON PRINT. "EVENLODE."</p></div> - -<p>At another time it was weaving that absorbed -him, and the study of dyeing naturally led him to -textiles, and, indeed, was probably undertaken -with the view of reviving their manufacture in -new forms, and from rugs and carpets he conceived -the idea of reviving Arras tapestry. I remember -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> -the man who claimed to have taught -Morris to work on the high-warp loom. His name -was Wentworth Buller. He was an enthusiast for -Persian art, and he had travelled in that country -and found out the secret of the weaving of the fine -Persian carpets, discovering, I believe, that they -were made of goats' hair. He made some attempt -to revive this method in England, but from one -cause or another was not successful. William -Morris, when he had learned the craft of tapestry -weaving himself, set about teaching others, and -trained two youths, one of whom (Mr. Dearle) is -now chief at the Merton Abbey Works, who became -exceedingly skilful at the work, executing -the large and elaborate design of Sir Edward -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span> -Burne-Jones (<i>The Adoration of the Magi</i>), which -was first worked for the chapel of his own and -Morris's college (Exeter College) at Oxford.</p> - -<p>In this tapestry, as was his wont, Morris enriched -the design with a foreground of flowers, -through which the Magi approach with their gifts -the group of the Virgin and Child, with St. Joseph.</p> - -<p>In fact, the designs of William Morris are so -associated with and so often form part of the work -of others or only appear in some conditioned -material form, that little or no idea of his individual -work, or of his wide influence, could be -gathered from any existing autograph work of his. -That he was a facile designer of floral ornament -his numerous beautiful wall-papers and textile -hangings prove, but he always considered that the -finished and final form of a particular design, -complete in the material for which it was intended, -was the only one to be looked at, and always objected -to showing preliminary sketches and working -drawings. He was a keen judge and examiner -of work, and fastidious, and as he did not mind -taking trouble himself he expected it from those -who worked for him. His artistic influence was -really due to the way he supervised work under -his control, carried out by many different craftsmen -under his eye, and not so much by his own -actual handiwork.</p> - -<p>In any estimate of William Morris's power and -influence as an artist, this should always be borne -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span> -in mind. He always described himself as an -artist working with assistants, which is distinct -from the manufacturer who simply directs a business -from the business point of view. Nothing -went out of the works at Queen Square, or, later, -at Merton Abbey, without his sanction from the -artistic point of view.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 540px;"><a name="page27a" id="page27a"></a> -<a href="images/027-1000.jpg"><img src="images/027-540.jpg" width="540" height="418" alt="KELMSCOTT HOUSE. MEETING ROOM OF THE HAMMERSMITH SOCIALIST SOCIETY." /></a> -<p class="center">KELMSCOTT HOUSE. MEETING ROOM OF THE HAMMERSMITH SOCIALIST SOCIETY.</p></div> - -<p>The wave of taste which he had done so much -to create certainly brought prosperity to the firm, -and larger premises had to be taken; so Morris -and Company emerged from the seclusion of -Queen Square and opened a large shop in Oxford -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span> -Street, and set up extensive works at Merton -Abbey—a most charming and picturesque group -of workshops, surrounded by trees and kitchen -gardens, on the banks of the river Wandle in -Surrey, not far from Wimbledon. The tapestry -and carpet looms which were first set up at -Kelmscott House, on the Upper Mall at Hammersmith,<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2"><sup>2</sup></a> -were moved to Merton, where also the -dyeing and painted glass-work were carried on.</p> - -<p>This latter art had long been an important part -of the work of the firm. In early days designs -were supplied by Ford Madox Brown and D. G. -Rossetti, but later they were entirely from the -hands of Morris's closest friend, Edward Burne-Jones; -that is to say, the figure-work. Floral and -subsidiary design were frequently added by William -Morris, as was also the leading of the cartoons. -The results of their co-operation in this way have -been the many fine windows scattered over the -land, chiefly at Oxford and Cambridge, where the -Christ Church window and those at Jesus College -may be named, while the churches of Birmingham -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> -have been enriched by many splendid examples, -more particularly at St. Philip's. Their glass has -also found place in the United States, in Richardson's -famous church at Boston, and at the late -Miss Catherine Wolfe's house, Vinland, Newport.</p> - -<p>An exquisite autograph work of William Morris's -is the copy of "The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyám," -which he wrote out and illuminated with his own -hand, though even to this work Burne-Jones contributed -a miniature, and Mr. Fairfax Murray -worked out other designs in some of the borders. -This beautiful work was exhibited at the first -Arts and Crafts Exhibition in 1888. It is in the -possession of Lady Burne-Jones, and by her -special permission I am enabled to give some -reproductions of four of the pages here.</p> - -<p>It is so beautiful that one wonders the artist -was not induced to do more work of the kind; but -there is only known to be one or two other manuscripts -partially completed by him. Certainly his -love for mediaeval illuminated MSS. was intense -and his knowledge great, and his collection of -choice and rare works of this kind probably unique. -The same might be said of his collection of early -printed books, which was wonderfully rich with -wood-cuts of the best time and from the most -notable presses of Germany, Flanders, Italy, and -France.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span></p> - -<h4>OMAR KHAYYÁM</h4> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/030-740.jpg"><img src="images/030-320.jpg" width="320" height="432" alt="8 OMAR KHAYYAM" /></a></div> - -<div class="poem width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>Alike for those who for today prepare</p> -<p>And those that after a tomorrow stare</p> -<p>A muezzin from the Tower of Darkness cries</p> -<p>Fools, your reward is neither here nor there</p> -</div> <div class="stanza"> -<p class="i16">25</p> -</div> <div class="stanza"> -<p>Why, all the saints and sages who discussed</p> -<p>Of the Two Worlds so learnedly, are thrust</p> -<p>Like foolish prophets forth, their words to scorn</p> -<p>Are scattered, and their mouths are stopt with dust</p> -</div> <div class="stanza"> -<p class="i16">26</p> -</div> <div class="stanza"> -<p>O come with old Khayyam, and leave the wise</p> -<p>To talk; one thing is certain, that Life flies;</p> -<p>One thing is certain, and the rest is lies</p> -<p>The flower that once has blown for ever dies</p> -</div> <div class="stanza"> -<p class="i16">27</p> -</div> <div class="stanza"> -<p>Myself when young did eagerly frequent</p> -<p>Doctor and saint, and heard great argument</p> - </div></div> - -<p class="centers1">FROM MORRIS'S MS. OF OMAR KHAYYÁM.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/031-740.jpg"><img src="images/031-320.jpg" width="320" height="432" alt="9 OMAR KHAYYAM" /></a></div> - -<div class="poem width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>About it and about, and evermore</p> -<p>Came out by the same door as in I went.</p> - -<p class="i16">28</p> - -<p>With them the seed of Wisdom did I sow,</p> -<p>And with my own hand laboured it to grow:</p> -<p>And this was all the harvest that I reaped—</p> -<p>I came like water, and like wind I go.</p> - -<p class="i16">29</p> - -<p>Into this Universe, and why not knowing</p> -<p>Nor whence, like water willy-nilly flowing</p> -<p>And out of it as wind along the waste</p> -<p>I know not whither, willy-nilly blowing</p> - -<p class="i16">30</p> - -<p>What without asking hither hurried whence</p> -<p>And without asking whither hurried hence</p> -<p>Another, and another cup to drown</p> -<p>The memory of this impertinence!</p> - </div></div> - -<p class="centers1">FROM MORRIS'S MS. OF OMAR KHAYYÁM.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>[pg 32]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/032-700.jpg"><img src="images/032-320.jpg" width="320" height="445" alt="10 OMAR KHAYYAM" /></a></div> - -<div class="poem width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>My thread-bare penitence apieces tore.</p> - -<p class="i16">71</p> - -<p>And much as wine has played the infidel,</p> -<p>And robbed me of my robe of honour—well,</p> -<p>I often wonder what the vintners buy</p> -<p>One half so precious as the goods they sell.</p> - -<p class="i16">72</p> - -<p>Alas, that Spring should vanish with the rose,</p> -<p>That Youth's sweet-scented manuscript should close</p> -<p>The Nightingale that in the branches sang,</p> -<p>Ah whence, and whither flown again, who knows!</p> - -<p class="i16">73</p> - -<p>Ah, Love! could thou and I with Fate conspire</p> -<p>To grasp this sorry scheme of things entire,</p> -<p>Would we not shatter it to bits, and then</p> -<p>Remould it nearer to the heart's desire?</p> - </div></div> - -<p class="centers1">FROM MORRIS'S MS. OF OMAR KHAYYÁM.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/033-720.jpg"><img src="images/033-320.jpg" width="320" height="441" alt="11 OMAR KHAYYAM" /></a></div> - -<div class="poem width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>Ah Moon of my delight who knowest no wane,</p> -<p>The Moon of Heaven is rising once again;</p> -<p>How oft hereafter rising shall she look</p> -<p>Through this same garden after me—in vain.</p> - -<p class="i16">75</p> - -<p>And when Thyself with shining foot shall pass</p> -<p>Among the guests star-scattered on the grass,</p> -<p>And in thy joyous errand reach the spot</p> -<p>Where I made one—turn down an empty glass!</p> - </div></div> - -<p class="centers1">TAMAM SHUD</p> - -<p class="centers1">FROM MORRIS'S MS. OF OMAR KHAYYÁM.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span></p> - -<p>This brings us to William Morris's next and, -as it proved, last development in art—the revival -of the craft of the printer, and its pursuit as an -art.</p> - -<p>I recall the time when the project was first discussed. -It was in the autumn of 1889. It was the -year of an Art Congress at Edinburgh, following -the initial one at Liverpool the preceding year, held -under the auspices of the National Association for -the Advancement of Art. Some of us afterwards -went over to Glasgow to lecture; and a small -group, of which Morris was one, found themselves -at the Central Station Hotel together. It was -here that William Morris spoke of his new scheme, -his mind being evidently centred upon it. Mr. -Emery Walker (who has supplied me with the -photographs which illustrate this article) was there, -and he became his constant and faithful helper -in all the technicalities of the printer's craft; -Mr. Cobden-Sanderson also was of the party; -he may be said to have introduced a new epoch -in book-binding, and his name was often associated -with Morris as binder of some of his -books.</p> - -<p>Morris took up the craft of printing with characteristic -thoroughness. He began at the beginning -and went into the paper question, informing -himself as to the best materials and methods, and -learning to make a sheet of paper himself. The -Kelmscott Press paper is made by hand, of fine -white linen rags only, and is not touched with -chemicals. It has the toughness and something -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span> -of the quality of fine Whatman or O.W. drawing-paper.</p> - -<p>When he set to work to design his types he -obtained enlarged photographs of some of the -finest specimens of both Gothic and Roman type -from the books of the early printers, chiefly of -Bale and Venice. He studied and compared these, -and as the result of his analysis designed two or -three different kinds of type for his press, beginning -with the "Golden" type, which might be described -as Roman type under Gothic influence, and developing -the more frankly Gothic forms known -as the "Troy" and the "Chaucer" types. He -also used Roman capitals founded upon the best -forms of the early Italian printers.</p> - -<p>Morris was wont to say that he considered the -glory of the Roman alphabet was in its capitals, -but the glory of the Gothic alphabet was in its -lower-case letters.</p> - -<p>He was asked why he did not use types after -the style of the lettering in some of his title-pages, -but he said this would not be reasonable, as the -lettering of the titles was specially designed to fit -into the given spaces, and could not be used as -movable type.</p> - -<p>The initial letters are Gothic in feeling, and -form agreeably bold quantities in black and white -in relation to the close and rich matter of the type, -which is still further relieved occasionally by floral -sprays in bold open line upon the inner margins, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>[pg 36]</span> -while when woodcut pictures are used they were -led up to by rich borderings.</p> - -<p>The margins of the title and opening chapter -which faced it are occupied by richly designed -broad borders of floral arabesques upon black -grounds, the lettering of the title forming an essential -part of the ornamental effect, and often -placed upon a mat or net of lighter, more open -arabesque, in contrast to the heavy quantities of -the solid border.</p> - -<p>The Kelmscott Chaucer is the monumental -work of Morris's Press, and the border designs, -made specially for this volume, surpass in richness -and sumptuousness all his others, and fitly frame -the woodcuts after the designs of Sir Edward -Burne-Jones.</p> - -<p>The arabesque borders and initial letters of the -Kelmscott books were all drawn by Morris himself, -the engraving on wood was mostly done by -Mr. W. H. Hooper—almost the only first-rate facsimile -engraver on wood left—and a good artist -and craftsman besides. Mr. Arthur Leverett engraved -the designs to the "The Glittering Plain," -which were my contribution to the Kelmscott -Press, but I believe Mr. Hooper did all the other -work, while Mr. Fairfax Murray and Mr. Catteson -Smith drafted the Burne-Jones designs upon the -wood.</p> - -<p>It was not, perhaps, generally known, at least -before the appearance of Miss May Morris's fine -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span> -edition of her father's works, published by -Messrs. Longman, that many years before the -Kelmscott Press was thought of an illustrated -edition of "The Earthly Paradise" was in contemplation, -and not only were many designs -made by Burne-Jones, but a set of them was -actually engraved by Morris himself upon wood -for the "Cupid and Psyche," though they were -never issued to the public.</p> - -<p>I have spoken of the movement in art represented -by William Morris and his colleagues -as really part of a great movement of protest—a -crusade against the purely commercial, industrial, -and material tendencies of the day.</p> - -<p>This protest culminated with William Morris -when he espoused the cause of Socialism.</p> - -<p>Now some have tried to minimize the Socialism -of William Morris, but it was, in the circumstances -of his time, the logical and natural outcome -of his ideas and opinions, and is in direct relation -with his artistic theories and practice.</p> - -<p>For a thorough understanding of the conditions -of modern manufacture and industrial production, -of the ordinary influences which govern the producers -of marketable commodities, of wares offered -in the name of art, of the condition of worker, -and the pressure of competition, he was in a -particularly advantageous position.</p> - -<p>So far from being a sentimentalist who was content -melodiously and pensively to regret that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> -things were not otherwise, he was driven by contact -with the life around him to his economic conclusions. -As he said himself, it was art led him to -Socialism, not economics, though he confirmed his -convictions by economic study.</p> - -<p>As an artist, no doubt at first he saw the uglification -of the world going on, and the vast industrial -and commercial machine grinding the joy and -the leisure out of human life as regarded the great -mass of humanity. But as an employer he was -brought into direct relation with the worker as -well as the market and the public, and he became -fully convinced that the modern system of production -for profit and the world-market, however inevitable -as a stage in economic and social evolution, -was not only most detrimental to a healthy -and spontaneous development of art and to conditions -of labour, but that it would be bound, ultimately, -by the natural working of economic laws, -to devour itself.</p> - -<p>Never cramped by poverty in his experiments -and in his endeavours to realize his ideals, singularly -favoured by fortune in all his undertakings, -he could have had no personal reasons on these -scores for protesting against the economic and social -tendencies and characteristics of his own time. He -hated what is called modern civilization and all its -works from the first, with a whole heart, and made -no secret of it. For all that, he was a shrewd and -keen man in his dealings with the world. If he set -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span> -its fashions and habits at defiance, and persisted in -producing his work to please himself, it was not his -fault that his countrymen eagerly sought them and -paid lavishly for their possession. A common reproach -hurled at Morris has been that he produced -costly works for the rich while he professed Socialism. -This kind of thing, however, it may be remarked, -is not said by those friendly to Socialism, -or anxious for the consistency of its advocates—quite -the contrary. Such objectors appear to -ignore, or to be ignorant of, the fact that according -to the quality of the production must be its cost; -and that the cheapness of the cheapest things of -modern manufacture is generally at the cost of the -cheapening of human labour and life, which is a -costly kind of cheapness after all.</p> - -<p>If anyone cares for good work, a good price -must be paid. Under existing conditions possession -of such work is only possible to those who -can pay the price, but this seems to work out -rather as part of an indictment against the present -system of production, which Socialists wish to -alter.</p> - -<p>If a wealthy man were to divest himself of his property -and distribute it, he would not bring Socialism -any nearer, and his self-sacrifice would hardly -benefit the poor at large (except, perhaps, a few -individuals), but under the working of the present -system his wealth would ultimately enrich the rich—would -gravitate to those who <i>had</i>, and not to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span> -those who <i>had not</i>. The object of Socialism is to -win justice, not charity.</p> - -<p>A true commonwealth can only be established -by a change of feeling, and by the will of the -people, deliberately, in the common interest, declaring -for common and collective possession of -the means of life and of wealth, as against individual -property and monopoly. Since the wealth -of a country is only produced by common and collective -effort, and even the most individual of individualists -is dependent for every necessary, comfort, -or luxury of life upon the labour of untold -crowds of workers, there is no inherent unreasonableness -in such a view, or in the advocacy of such -a system, which might be proved to be as beneficial, -in the higher sense, for the rich as for the -poor, as of course it would abolish both. It is -quite possible to cling to the contrary opinion, -but it should be fully understood that Socialism -does not mean "dividing up," and that a man -is not necessarily not a Socialist who does not -sell all that he has to give to the poor. "A poor -widow is gathering nettles to stew for her dinner. -A perfumed seigneur lounging in the <i>œil de bœuf</i> -hath an alchemy whereby he can extract from her -every third nettle and call it rent." Thus wrote Carlyle. -Men like William Morris would make such -alchemy impracticable; but no man can change a -social (or unsocial) system by himself, however -willing; nor can anyone, however gifted or farseeing, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> -get beyond the conditions of his time, or -afford to ignore them in the daily conduct of life, -although at the same time his life and expressed -opinions may all the while count as factors in the -evolution by which a new form of society comes -about.</p> - -<p>Thus much seems due to the memory of a man -like William Morris, who was frequently taunted -with not doing, as a Socialist, things that, as a -Socialist, he did not at all believe in; things, for -which, too, one knows perfectly well, his censors, -if he had done them, would have been the first to -denounce him for a fool.</p> - -<p>At all events, it is certain that William Morris -spent some of the best years of his life, he gave -his time, his voice, his thought, his pen, and much -money to put Socialism before his countrymen. -This can never be gainsaid. Those who have been -accustomed to regard him from this point of view -as a dangerous revolutionary might be referred -to the writings of John Ball, and Sir Thomas -More, his predecessors in England's history, -who upheld the claims of labour and simple life, -against waste, want, and luxury. Indeed, it might -be contended that it was a conservative clinging to -the really solid foundations of a happy human life -which made Morris a Socialist as much as artistic -conviction and study of modern economics. The -enormous light which has been recently thrown by -historic research upon mediaeval life and conditions -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span> -of labour, upon the craft guilds, and the position -of the craftsman in the Middle Ages—light to -which Morris himself in no small degree contributed—must -also be counted as a factor in the -formation of his opinions.</p> - -<p>But whether accounted conservative or revolutionary -in social economics and political opinion, -there can be no doubt of William Morris's conservatism -in another field, important enough in its -bearings upon modern life, national and historic -sentiment, and education—I mean the protection -of Ancient Buildings. He was one of the founders -of the society having that object, and remained to -the last one of the most energetic members of -the committee, and in such important work his -architectural knowledge was of course of the -greatest value. At a time when, owing to the -action of a multitude of causes, the historic buildings -of the past are in constant danger, not only -from the ravages of time, weather, and neglect, -but also, and even to a greater extent, from the -zeal of the "restorer," the importance of the work -which Morris did with his society—the work -which that society carries on—can hardly be overestimated.</p> - -<p>The pressure of commercial competition and the -struggle for life in our cities—the mere necessity for -more room for traffic—the dead weight of vested -interest, the market value of a site, the claims of -convenience, fashion, ecclesiastical or otherwise, or -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span> -sometimes sheer utilitarianism, entirely oblivious -of the social value of historic associations of architectural -beauty—all are apt to be arrayed at one -time or another, or even, perhaps, all combined, -against the preservation of an ancient building if -it happens to stand in their way.</p> - -<p>The variety, too, of the cases in which the difference -of the artistic conditions which govern the -art and craft of building in the past and in the present -is another element which often prevents the defenders -and destroyers from meeting on the same -plane. It is the old tragic conflict between old and -new, but enormously complicated, and with the -forces of destruction and innovation tremendously -increased.</p> - -<p>William Morris was a singularly sane and what -is called a "level-headed" man. He had the -vehemence, on occasion, of a strong nature and -powerful physique. He cared greatly for his -convictions. Art and life were real to him, and -his love of beauty was a passion. His artistic and -poetic vision was clear and intense—all the more -so, perhaps, for being exclusive on some points. -The directness of his nature, as of his speech, -might have seemed singularly unmodern to some -who prefer to wrap their meaning with many envelopes. -He might occasionally have seemed -brusque, and even rough; but so does the north -wind when it encounters obstacles. Men are -judged by the touchstones of personal sympathy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span> -or antipathy; but whether attracted or repelled in -such a presence, no one could come away without -an impression that he had met a man of strong -character and personal force, whether he realized -any individual preconception of the poet, the -artist, and the craftsman, or not.</p> - -<p>He was certainly all these, yet those who only -knew him through his works would have but a -partial and incomplete idea of his many-sided -nature, his practicality, personal force, sense of -humour,<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3"><sup>3</sup></a> and all those side-lights which personal -acquaintance throws upon the character of a man -like William Morris.</p> - -<blockquote> -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag1">1:</a> -At the same time, it must be remembered, his knowledge -of mediaeval life, the craft guilds, and the condition of the -labourer in England in the fifteenth century, helped him in his -economic studies and his Socialist propaganda.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag2">2:</a> -Here Morris lived when in London and his press was set -up close by at Sussex House, opposite to which is the Doves -Bindery of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson. Much of Morris's time was -spent at Kelmscott, near Lechlade, Gloucestershire, a delightful -old manor house close to the Thames stream. This house -was formerly held by D. G. Rossetti conjointly with Morris. -At Hammersmith the room outside the house, after the carpet -looms went to Merton, was used as the meeting room of the -Hammersmith Socialist Society.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag3">3:</a> -It is noteworthy that one who excluded humour from his -own work, whether literary, or artistic, had a keen appreciation -of it in the work of others. Few who only knew Morris -through his poems, romances, and designs would imagine that -among his most favourite books were "Huckleberry Finn," by -Mark Twain, and "Uncle Remus." I have often heard him -recall passages of the first-named book with immense enjoyment -of the fun. He was, besides, always an admirer of Dickens.</p> -</blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>THE ENGLISH REVIVAL IN DECORATIVE ART</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 540px;"><a href="images/047-1000.jpg"><img src="images/047-540.jpg" width="540" height="273" alt="Pen design by Walter Crane" /></a></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>THE ENGLISH REVIVAL IN DECORATIVE ART</h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">T</span>HE sense of beauty, like the enchanted -princess in the wood, seems liable, both in -communities and individuals, to periods of hypnotism. -These periods of slumber or suspended -animation, are not, however, free from distorted -dreams, having a certain tyrannical compulsion -which causes those under their influence blindly to -accept arbitrary ideas and cast-iron customs as if -they were parts of the irreversible order of nature—until -the hour of the awakening comes and the -household gods of wood and stone, so ignorantly -worshipped, are cast from their pedestals.</p> - -<p>Such a period of apathetic slumber and of awakening -in the arts we have been passing through in -England during the last quarter of the nineteenth -century, and since, side by side with analogous -movements in the political and social world.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span></p> - -<p>As regards domestic architecture, the streets of -London will illustrate the successive waves of taste -or fashion which the past and present century have -seen, from the quasi-classical, represented in the -Peloponnesus of Regent's Park, to the eclectic -Queen Anne-ism of the aesthetic village at Turnham -Green; or the more recent developments -which have followed newer ideas of town-planning, -the modern hotel such as the Savoy or the -Piccadilly, or the New Aero Club in Pall Mall, the -modern store, such as Selfridge's. Contrast such -examples of what one might call our new Imperial -Renascence style with the types of simple cottage -dwellings in the Garden City at Letchworth, or in -the Hampstead garden suburb, and elsewhere; or -these again with the larger country mansions some -of our best architects are raising in the land. These -extremes, with all the various modifications of the -outward aspect of the English home—degrees indicating -the arc of architectural fashion, as it were—imply -a series of corresponding transformations -of interiors with all their modern complexities of -furniture and decorations.</p> - -<p>But the wheat of artistic thought and invention -is a good deal encumbered with chaff—the chaff -of commerce and of fashion—and it needs some -pains to find the real vital germs. To trace the -genesis of our English revival we must go back to -the days of the pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, and -although none of that famous group were decorative -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span> -designers in the strict sense—unless we except -D. G. Rossetti—yet by their resolute and enthusiastic -return to the direct symbolism, frank -naturalism, and poetic or romantic sentiment of -mediaeval art, with the power of modern analysis -superadded, and the more profound intellectual -study of both nature and art, which the severity -of their practice demanded, and last, but not least, -their intense love of detail, turned the attention -to other branches of design than painting. The -very marked character of their pictures, standing -out with almost startling effect from among the -works of the older Academic School, demanded at -least a special architecture in the frames of their -pictures, and this led to the practice of painters designing -their own frames, at least those who were -concerned for unity and decorative effect. Mr. -Holman Hunt, for instance, I believe always designed -his own frames, as well as some of the -ornamental accessories of his pictures—such as the -pot for the basil in his "Isabella." D. G. Rossetti -the poet-painter, and perhaps the central and inspiring -luminary of the remarkable group, evidently -cared greatly for decorative effect, and bestowed the -utmost pains upon tributary detail, designing the -frames to his pictures, the cover and lining for -his own poems, and various title-pages. Many of -his pictures, too, are remarkable for their beauty -and richness of accessory details which give a -distinct decorative charm to his work, closely associated -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span> -as they are with its motive and poetic purpose.</p> - -<p>The researches of Henry Shaw, and his fine -works upon art of the middle ages, first published -in the "Forties" by Pickering, and printed by -the Chiswick Press, no doubt had their share in -directing the attention of artists to the beauty and -intention bestowed upon every accessory of daily -life in mediaeval times.</p> - -<p>Above all influences from the literary side, -however, must be placed the work of John Ruskin, -an enormously vitalizing and still living force, -powerful to awaken thought, and by its kindling -enthusiasm to stir the dormant sense of beauty -in the minds that come under the spell of his -eloquence, which always turns the eyes to some -new or unregarded or forgotten beauty in nature -or in art. The secret of his powers as a writer on -art lies no doubt in the fact that he approached -the whole question from the fundamental architectural -side, and saw clearly the close connection of -artistic development with social life. The whole -drift of his teaching is towards sincerity and -Gothic freedom in the arts, and is a strong protest -against Academic convention and classical coldness.</p> - -<p>Among architects, men like Pugin and William -Burges, enthusiasts in the Gothic revival, gave a -great deal of care and thought to decorative detail -and the design of furniture and accessories. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> -latter, in the quaint house which he built for himself -in Melbury Road, showed a true Gothic spirit of -inventiveness and whimsicality applied to things -of everyday use as well as the mural decorator's -instinct for symbolism. Since their day Mr. Norman -Shaw may almost be said to have carried all before -him, and has quite created a type of later Victorian -architecture, and his advice is still sought in the -design of various buildings and street improvements -of modern London. His work, beautiful, -well proportioned, and decorative as it often is, -however, has not the peculiar character and reserve -of the work of Mr. Philip Webb, and the latter is -a decorative designer, especially of animals, of -remarkable originality and power. His work in -architecture and other designs is generally seen in -association with that of William Morris in decoration.</p> - -<p>The impulse towards Greek and Roman forms -in furniture and decoration, which had held sway -with designers since the French Revolution, appeared -to be dead. The elegant lines and limbs of -quasi-classical couches and chairs on which our -grandfathers and grandmothers reclined—the former -in high coat-collars and the latter in short -waists—had grown gouty and clumsy, in the hands -of Victorian upholsterers. The carved scrolls and -garlands had lost even the attenuated grace they -once possessed and a certain feeling for naturalism -creeping in made matters worse, and utterly deranged -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span> -the ornamental design of the period. An -illustrated catalogue of the exhibition of 1851 will -sufficiently indicate the monstrosities in furniture -and decoration which were supposed to be artistic. -The last stage of decomposition had been reached, -and a period of, perhaps, unexampled hideousness in -furniture, dress, and decoration set in which lasted -the life of the second empire, and fitly perished -with it. Relics of this period I believe are still to -be discovered in the cold shade of remote drawing-rooms, -and "apartments to let," which take the -form of big looking-glasses, and machine-lace curtains, -and where the furniture is afflicted with -curvature of the spine, and dreary lumps of bronze -and ormolu repose on marble slabs at every opportunity, -where monstrosities of every kind are encouraged -under glass shades, while every species -of design-debauchery is indulged in upon carpets, -curtains, chintzes and wall-papers, and where the -antimacassar is made to cover a multitude of sins. -When such ideas of decoration prevailed, having -their origin or prototypes, in the vapid splendours -of imperial saloons, and had to be reduced to the -scale of the ordinary citizen's house and pocket, -the thing became absurd as well as hideous. -Besides, the cheap curly legs of the <i>un</i>easy chairs -and couches came off, and the stuffed seats, with -a specious show of padded comfort, were delusions -and snares. Long ago the old English house-place -with its big chimney-corner had given way to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span> -bourgeois arrangement of dining and drawing-room—even -down to the smallest slated hut with -a Doric portico. The parlour had become a kind -of sanctuary veiled in machine-lace, where the -lightness of the curtains was compensated for by -the massiveness of their poles, and where Berlin -wool-work and bead mats flourished exceedingly.</p> - -<p>Enter to such an interior a plain unvarnished -rush-bottomed chair from Buckinghamshire, sound -in wind and limb—"C'est impossible!" And yet -the rush-bottomed chair and the printed cotton of -frank design and colour from an unpretending and -somewhat inaccessible house in Queen Square -may be said to have routed the false ideals, vulgar -smartness and stuffiness in domestic furniture and -decoration—at least wherever refinement and feeling -have been exercised at all.</p> - -<p>"Lost in the contemplation of palaces we have -forgotten to look about us for a chair," wrote -Mr. Charles L. Eastlake in an article which -appeared in "The Cornhill Magazine" some time -in the "sixties," or early "seventies." The same -writer (afterwards Keeper of the National Gallery) -brought out "Hints on Household Taste" shortly -afterwards, and he, too, was "on the side of the -angels" of sense and fitness in these things. The -"chair" at any rate was now discovered, if only a -rush-bottomed one.</p> - -<p>Nowadays it might perhaps be said that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span> -chair gets more contemplation and attention than -the palace, as since then the influence of our old -English eighteenth-century furniture designers -has been restored, and Chippendale, Sheraton, -and Hepplewhite are again held in honour in our -interiors, and to judge from the innumerable specimens -offered in their name by our furniture dealers -the industry of these famous designers must have -been prodigious!</p> - -<p>The first practical steps towards actually producing -things combining use and beauty and thus -enabling people so minded to deck their homes -after the older and simpler English manner was -taken by William Morris and his associates, who -founded the house in Queen Square afore-mentioned. -Appealing at first only to a limited circle -of friends mostly engaged in the arts, the new -ideas began to get abroad, the new designs were -eagerly seized upon. Morris and Company had to -extend their operations, and soon no home with -any claim to decorative charm was felt to be complete -without its vine and fig-tree so to speak—from -Queen Square; and before long a typical -Morris room was given to the British Public to -dine in at the South Kensington (now the Victoria -and Albert) Museum.</p> - -<p>The great advantage and charm of the Morrisian -method is that it lends itself to either simplicity -or to splendour. You might be almost plain enough -to please Thoreau, with a rush-bottomed chair, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span> -piece of matting, and oaken trestle-table; or you -might have gold and lustre (the choice ware of -William de Morgan) gleaming from the sideboard, -and jewelled light in your windows, and walls hung -with rich arras tapestry.</p> - -<p>Of course, a host of imitators appeared, and -manufacturers and upholsterers were quick to -adapt the more superficial characteristics, watering -down the character a good deal for the average -taste—that is, the timid taste of the person who -has not made up his mind, which may be described -as the "wonder-what-so-and-so-will-think-of-it" -state—but its effects upon the older ideas of house -decoration were definite. Plain painting displaced -graining and marbling, frankly but freely conventionalized -patterns routed the imitative and nosegay -kinds. Leaded and stained glass filled the -places which were wont to be filled with the blank -despair of ground glass. The white marble mantelpiece -turned pale before rich hangings and deep-toned -wall-papers, and was dismantled and sent -to the churchyard.</p> - -<p>These were some of the most marked effects of -the adoption of the new, or a return to older and -sounder ideas in domestic decoration.</p> - -<p>The quiet influence of the superb collections at the -Victoria and Albert Museum, and the opportunities -of study, open to all, of the most beautiful specimens -of mediaeval, renascence, and oriental design and -craftsmanship of all kinds must not be forgotten—an -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span> -influence which cannot be rated as of too much -importance and value, and which has been probably -of more far-reaching influence in its effect on designers -and craftsman than the more direct efforts -of the Art Department to reach them through its -school system. By means of this, as is well known, -it was sought to improve the taste and culture of -artisans by putting within their reach courses of -study and exercises in drawing and design, the -results of which, it was hoped, carried back into -the practice of their various trades and handicrafts, -would make them better craftsmen because better -draughtsmen. Now, if we were to ask why on the -whole the system has not been so fruitful of result -in this direction we should find ourselves plunged -at once into the deep waters of economic conditions, -of the relations of employer and employed, of hours, -of wages, of commercial competition, trade unions, -and, in fact, should bring the whole Labour question -about our ears.</p> - -<p>Of course the whole scheme of the schools of -design was based upon the idea of improvement -<i>downwards</i>, and like many modern improvements, -or reforms, its contrivers sought to make the tree -of art flourish and put forth new leaves without -attending to the nourishment of the roots or touching -the soil. But the drawing-board and the workshop-bench -are after all two very different things, -and it is by no means certain that proficiency at -one would necessarily produce a corresponding -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span> -improvement at the other, except indeed, it be on -the principle that if a man acquires one language -it will be easier for him to learn others. But at -this point another consideration comes in. You -get your student seated at his drawing-board, you -set him to represent at the point of his pencil or -chalk certain objects, casts, for instance, and encourage -him to portray their appearance with all -relief of light and shade, dwelling solely on the -necessity of his attaining a certain degree of purely -pictorial skill, which in itself is really of no practical -use to a designer of ornament intended to be -worked out in some other material such as a textile, -wood, or metal. In fact, the development of pictorial -skill has a strong tendency to lead the student to devote -himself entirely to pictorial work, and hitherto -there have been plenty of other inducements, such -as the chance of larger monetary reward and social -position. If he is not ultimately drawn into the -already overcrowded ranks of the picture producers, -he is too likely to carry back into his own particular -craft a certain love of pictorial treatment -and effect which may really be injurious to his -sense of fitness in adapting design and material. -This indeed is what evidently has happened as -the result of much so-called art-education, and we -are only now slowly awakening to the conception -that art is not necessarily the painting of pictures, -but that the most refined artistic feeling may be -put into every work of man's hand, and that each -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> -after its kind gives more delight and becomes more -and more beautiful in proportion as it follows the -laws of its own existence—when a design is in perfect -harmony with its material, and one does not -feel one would want it reproduced in any other way.</p> - -<p>It is next to impossible to get this unity of design -and material unless the craftsman fashions -the thing he designs, or unless the designer -thoroughly understands the conditions and allows -them to determine the character of his design, -which he can hardly do unless he is in close and -constant touch with the craftsman. Now the industrial -conditions under which the great mass of -things are produced, which have gradually been -developed in the interests of trade rather than of -art have tended to separate the designer and -craftsman more and more and to subdivide their -functions. Our enterprising manufacturers are -quick enough to adopt or adapt an idea, and some -will pay liberally for it, but they do not always -realize that it does not follow because <i>one</i> good -thing is produced in a limited quantity that therefore -it must be much better if a cheap imitation of -it can be produced by the thousand—but then we -no longer produce for <i>use</i> but for <i>profit</i>. Demand -and supply—"thou shalt have no other gods but -these," says the trader in effect; although the -demand in these days may be as artificial as the -supply.</p> - -<p>The Nemesis of trade pursues the invention -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span> -of the artist, as the steamers on the river on boat-race -day pursue, almost as if they would run down, -the slender craft of the oarsmen straining every -nerve for victory. It is a suggestive spectacle. -Someone's brain and hand must set to work—must -give the initiative before the steam-engine -can be set going. But how many brains and hands, -nay lives, has it devoured since our industrial -epoch began?</p> - -<p>Up to about 1880 artists working independently -in decoration were few and far between, mostly -isolated units, and their work was often absorbed by -various manufacturing firms. About that time, in -response to a feeling for more fellowship and opportunity -for interchange of ideas on the various -branches of their own craft, a few workers in decorative -design were gathered together under the -roof of the late Mr. Lewis F. Day on a certain -January evening known as hurricane Tuesday and -a small society was formed for the discussion of -various problems in decorative design and kindred -topics; meeting in rotation at the houses or studios -of the members. The society had a happy if obscure -life for several years, and was ultimately -absorbed into a larger society of designers, architects, -and craftsmen called "The Art Workers' -Guild," which met once a month with much the -same objects—fellowship and interchange of ideas -and papers and demonstrations in various arts and -crafts. In fact, since artists more or less concerned -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> -with decoration had increased, owing to the revived -activity and demand arising for design of -all kinds the feeling grew stronger among men -of very different proclivities for some common -ground of meeting. A desire among artists of -different crafts to know something of the technicalities -of other crafts made itself felt, and the -result has been the rapid and continual growth of -the Guild which now includes, beside the principal -designers in decoration, painters, architects, sculptors, -wood-carvers, metal-workers, engravers, and -representatives of various other crafts.</p> - -<p>A junior Art Workers' Guild has also been established -in connection with the older body, and -there are besides two Societies of Designers in -London, while in the provinces there is the -Northern Art Workers' Guild at Manchester and -various local Arts and Crafts societies all over the -country.</p> - -<p>We have, of course, our Royal Academy, or as -it ought to be called, Royal Guild of Painters -in Oil, always with us; but its use of the term -"Arts" applies only (and almost exclusively so) -to painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving, -and while absorbing gifted artists from time to -time, often after they have done their best work, -it has never, as a body, shown any wide or comprehensive -conception of art, although it has done -a certain amount of educational work, chiefly -through its valuable exhibitions of old masters -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> -and its lectures and teaching in the schools, which -are free, and where famous artists act as visitors. -Its influence in the main it is to be feared has -been to encourage an enormous overproduction of -pictures every year, and to foster in the popular -mind the impression that there was no art in -England before Sir Joshua Reynolds, and none of -any consequence since, outside the easel picture.</p> - -<p>The magnificently arranged and deeply interesting -"Town-planning Exhibition," held last year in -connection with the International Congress on that -subject, however, was a new departure and most -welcome as an example of what might be done by -the Royal Academy under the influence of wider -conceptions of art.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the work of such fine decorative -artists as Albert Moore, Alfred Gilbert, Harry -Bates has been introduced to the public through -the Royal Academy, these two last-named being -members; and once upon a time even a picture -by Sir E. Burne-Jones appeared there.</p> - -<p>Many gifted artists have strengthened the institution -since these passed away. The names of -Watts and Leighton will always shed lustre and -distinction upon it, but of course the Academy -necessarily depends for its continued vitality -upon new blood. The advantages of membership -are generally too strong a temptation to -our rising artists to encourage the formation of -anything like an English "secession," though -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span> -according to our British ideas of the wholesomeness -of competition or, let us say <i>emulation</i>, a -strong body of independent artists might have -a good effect all round.</p> - -<p>I have often wondered that no attempt has -been made by the Royal Academy to give a lead -in the arrangement and hanging of an exhibition. -With the fine rooms at their disposal it would be -possible to make their great annual show of pictures -far more striking and attractive by some kind of -classification or sympathetic grouping. The best -system, of course, would be to group the works of -each artist together. This, however, would take -up more wall space and lead to more exclusions -than at present; but, still the plan might be tried -of placing all the portraits together, and, say, the -subject pictures according to scale, and the landscapes, -arranging them in separate rooms. Sculpture -and architecture, and water colours and -engravings are already given separate rooms, -so that it would only be extending a principle -already adopted. The effect of the whole exhibition -would be much finer, I venture to think, -and also less fatiguing, and there would probably -be less chance of pictures being falsified or injured -by juxtaposition with unsympathetic neighbours. -Surely some advance is possible on eighteenth-century -ideas of hanging, or the old days of -Somerset House? I respectfully commend the -above suggestion to their consideration.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span></p> - -<p>While mentioning names we must not forget -(although I have hitherto dwelt rather on the -Gothic side of the English revival) such distinguished -designers as the late Alfred Stevens and -his able followers Godfrey Sykes and Moody. -These artists drew their inspiration largely -from the work of the Italian Renascence, and -it is a testimony to their remarkable powers—especially -of the first-named—that they should -have achieved such distinction on the lines of -so marked a style, and one which, as it appears -to me, had already reached its maturity in the -country of its birth, unlike Gothic design, which -might almost be said to have been arrested in -its development by the advent of the Renascence.</p> - -<p>Another influence upon modern decorative art -cannot be left out of account, and that is the -Japanese influence. The extraordinary decorative -daring, and intimate naturalism; the frank or -delicate colouration, the freshness, as of newly -gathered flowers of many of their inventions and -combinations: the wonderful vivacity and truth -of the designs of such a master as Hokusai, for -instance—these and the whole disclosure of the -history of their art (which, however, was entirely -derived from and inspired by the still finer art of -the Chinese), from the early, highly wrought, religious -and symbolic designs, up to the vigorous -freedom and naturalism of the later time, together -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span> -with their extraordinary precision of technique, -inevitably took the artistic world by storm. Its immediate -effects, much as we may be indebted to -such a source, cannot be set down altogether to -the good so far as we can trace them in contemporary -European art; but perhaps on the whole -there is no more definitely marked streak of influence -than this of the Japanese. In French art it -was at one time more palpable still. In fact it -might almost be said to have taken entire possession -of French decorative art, or a large part of -it; or rather, it is Japanese translated into French -with that ease and chic for which our lively neighbours -are remarkable.</p> - -<p>Whistler, by the way, who must be numbered -with the decorators, showed unmistakably in his -work the results of a close study of Japanese art. -His methods of composition, his arrangements of -tones of colour declare how he had absorbed it, and -applied it to different methods and subjects, in -fact, his work shows most of the qualities of much -Japanese art, except precision of drawing, although -his earlier etchings have this quality.</p> - -<p>In modern decoration, the most obvious and -superficial qualities of Japanese art have generally -been seized upon, and its general effect has been -to loosen the restraining and architectonic sense of -balance and fitness, and a definite ordered plan of -construction, which are essential in the finest types -of design. On the whole, the effects of the discovery -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span> -of Japanese art on the modern artistic -mind, may be likened to a sudden and unexpected -access of fortune to an impoverished man. It is -certain to disorganize if not demoralize him. The -sudden contact with a fresh and vigorous art, -alive with potent tradition, yet intimate with the -subtler forms and changes of nature, and in the -full possession and mastery of its own technique—the -sudden contact of such an art with the highly -artificial and eclectic art of a complex and effete -civilization must be more or less of the nature of a -shock. Shocks are said to be good for sound constitutions, -but their effect on the unsound are as -likely as not to be fatal.</p> - -<p>While fully acknowledging the brilliancy of -Japanese art, however, one feels how enormously -they were indebted to the art of China, and the -greater dignity and impressiveness of the latter -becomes more and more apparent on comparison. -Both in graphic characterization of birds and -animals and flowers and splendour of ornament, the -Chinese both preceded and excelled the Japanese. -There were recently some striking demonstrations -of this at the British Museum, when Mr. -Laurence Binyon arranged a series of most remarkable -ancient Chinese paintings on silk side by -side with Japanese work.</p> - -<p>The opening of the Grosvenor Gallery in 1877, -owing to the enterprise of Sir Coutts Lindsay, was -the means of bringing the decorative school in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span> -English painting to the front, and did much towards -directing public attention in that direction.</p> - -<p>What was known as "aestheticism" has, of -course, been freely satirized both by press and stage, -which latter, however, was not slow to avail itself -of some of its results in the increased variety and -picturesqueness of its interior scenes, and the -charm of delicate harmonies of colour in draperies -and costume. The movement was seized upon by -the commercial instinct, which always hastens to -make hay while the sun shines, and the aesthetic -sun shone very gaily for a time, in the society -sense. It was somewhat amusing to see the travesties -of ideas which had been current in artistic -circles for long before, now proclaimed as the new -gospel of aesthetic salvation. But in spite of all -the clamour, fashionable extravagance, and ridicule, -which obscured the real meaning of the movement, -so far as it was a sincere search after more beauty -in daily life, its influence is just as strong as ever, -and is likely to increase with the growth and spread -of greater refinement, and the desire for more -harmonious social conditions.</p> - -<p>Organizations continued to increase and multiply, -having for their object, in one way or another, the -"encouragement" of the arts and crafts of design, -and whether for good or for evil, it cannot be denied -that their number and activity were, and are, remarkable -signs of the times—of an awakening -interest in decorative art and a general impulse -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span> -towards ornamental expression. It is true in some -instances this impulse runs rather wild, and to -some of its ruder results we might even apply the -words of the poet Cowper describing the gambols -of the kine at high noon:</p> - -<div class="poem width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>Though wild their strange vagaries, and uncouth</p> -<p>Their efforts, yet resolved with one consent,</p> -<p>To give act and utt'rance as they may</p> -<p>To ecstasy, too big to be suppress'd.</p> - </div> </div> - -<p>It would be difficult to enumerate all the different -associations having for their object the teaching, -or the spread of a knowledge or love of decorative -art and handicraft, outside the big trade organizations -and decorating firms, but among those who -contributed from various sides to the main stream -mention may be made of "The Century Guild," -identified chiefly with the publication of its "Hobby -Horse," with its careful attention to the printer's -art under the fine taste in type and book ornaments -of Mr. Herbert P. Horne. "The Home Arts and -Industries Association," which has started village -classes in various handicrafts all over the kingdom, -has held annual exhibitions at the Albert Hall, -The Royal School of Art Needlework, now in -noble premises in Imperial Institute Road, The -School of Art Woodcarving in Pelham Place; while -design on the strictly industrial and technical side -is cared for by the City and Guilds of London -Institute under Sir Philip Magnus.</p> - -<p>Since these and the Arts and Crafts Exhibition -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>[pg 68]</span> -Society were established, the London County -Council came into being and founded its schools of -Art and Craft all over London with the assistance -of members of that Society; it has now become -the central authority in technical education, and extends -a helping hand (with a grant in aid) to some -of the schools above named.</p> - -<p>All these institutions, and many more, invoke the -name of art, and desire to unite good design and -workmanship, and also to find a market for it. -(Some of our large decorating firms would claim -to have the same objects perhaps.) Their great -difficulty is how to produce good designing ability -out of nothing, as it were. All the crafts which -they specially address themselves to teach and -cultivate are, after all, entirely dependent for their -interest and value upon vigour of design and vital -expression, and this cannot suddenly be forced into -existence by artificial heat. It is a power of slow -development and is nourished from all sorts of -sources, and is as many sided as life itself, being -in fact only another form of life. You can lead a -horse to the water but you cannot make him drink. -You can provide any number of words but you -cannot make people think, and the possession of -rhyming dictionaries will never make a poet, -neither will the possession of tools and a method -make artists. This is, of course, obvious enough. -At the same time it may fairly be urged on the -other side that no one can learn to swim without -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>[pg 69]</span> -entering the water, and it is only by repeated -experiments and years of patient labour that we -arrive at good results.</p> - -<p>Genius is always rare, but efficiency is what -keeps the world going, and it must be said that -admirable work in various crafts has been produced -in the London County Council Technical Schools. -Their system of scholarships gives opportunities -to young people of promise to carry on their studies, -and pupils and apprentices in various trades are -enabled to gain a more complete knowledge of -their craft and its various branches than is possible -in any ordinary workshop, as well as tasteful ideas -in design generally.</p> - -<p>In the summer of 1886 the smouldering discontent -which always exists among artists in -regard to the Royal Academy, although very often -only the result of personal disappointment, threatened -to burst into something like a flame. A letter -appeared in the leading dailies proposing the -establishment of a really National Exhibition of -the Arts, which should include not only painting, -sculpture, and architecture, but also the arts of -design generally. This letter was signed by George -Clausen, W. Holman Hunt, and the present writer. -The stronghold of the movement at first was among -the group of painters, distinguished as the Anglo-French -school, whose headquarters were at Chelsea, -and who were the founders of the New English Art -Club. The idea of such a comprehensive exhibition -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>[pg 70]</span> -was an exciting one, and large and enthusiastic -meetings of artists were held. It was however discovered -before long that the mass of the painters -attracted by the movement intended no more than -to press a measure of reform on the Royal Academy—to -induce them to take, in fact, a leaf out of the -book of the French Salon as regards the mode of -election of the hanging committees of each year.</p> - -<p>The decorative designers, however, perceiving -their vision of a really representative exhibition -of contemporary works in all the arts fading away, -and the whole force of the movement being -wasted in the forlorn hope of forcing reforms -upon the Academy, left the agitators in a body, -and proceeded to take counsel together as to -the best means of furthering their aims, and the -immediate result was the founding of the Arts -and Crafts Exhibition Society which, after many -difficulties opened its first exhibition at the New -Gallery in the autumn of 1888.</p> - -<p>The members of the Society, who were also -most of them members of the Art Workers' Guild -aforementioned, were well aware of the difficulties -they would have to face in the endeavour to realize -their aims, and carry out their principles. Their -main object, however, was to demonstrate by means -of a representative public exhibition the actual -state of decorative art in all its kinds as far as -possible. They desired to assert the claims of the -decorative designer and craftsman to the position -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>[pg 71]</span> -of artist, and give every one responsible in any -way for the artistic character of a work full individual -credit, by giving his name in the catalogue, -whether the work was exhibited by a firm or not.</p> - -<p>In spite of all drawbacks the richness and artistic -interest of the Exhibition was generally acknowledged, -and the novelty of the idea attracted the -public.</p> - -<p>An exhibition of designs and cartoons for decoration -had been held by the directors of the Grosvenor -Gallery in 1881, but it was limited to that class of -work, so that this Arts and Crafts Exhibition may -be said to have been really the first which attempted -anything like a representative and comprehensive -display of not only designs for work but the actual -work itself, for its artistic and decorative quality -alone. It comprised designs and cartoons, modelled -work, woodcarving, furniture, tapestry and embroidery -and printed cottons, pottery, tiles, and -glass-metal work, jewellery, printed books, binding, -calligraphy and illuminations, and undoubtedly included -some of the best contemporary work which -had been produced in England up to that time. -The Exhibition was repeated at the same place -the following year, at the same time, and also the -year after. Since then, however, the exhibitions -of the Society have been held triennially, the latest -in January 1910 being the ninth.</p> - -<p>It is obvious that exhibitions of this kind involve -many more difficulties of organization and management -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>[pg 72]</span> -than ordinary picture shows. The very fact -of having to deal with such a variety of work as was -submitted, and the conditions under which work -in decoration is generally done (making it difficult -for the artist to retain possession of his work for -exhibition purposes) make the formation of such -an exhibition at all no easy matter. Then there -were two open and palpable dangers to be encountered. -The danger of being swamped by a -great influx of amateur work, as it is generally -understood, on the one hand, and the danger of -merely commercial work getting the upper hand -on the other. To keep</p> - -<div class="poem width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>Along the narrow strip of herbage strown</p> -<p>That just divides the desert from the sown</p> - </div> </div> - -<p>was a delicate matter, and it was easy to wander -off into the regions on either hand. For in spite of -the immense activity and industry, the independent -artists in design and handicraft were but few, -and although many inventive brains and skilled -hands might be disguised as "—— and Company," -they had to be discovered; the bushel had to be -taken away and the light put upon the candlestick -of publicity, and this appeared to be a trial to some. -It might be thought to be of small importance, -this matter of assigning artistic authorship or credit -for any part of the work, where it was due; and -it may be quite true that when men have reached -the point when artistic tradition and social condition -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>[pg 73]</span> -both favour a fraternal co-operation in production, -they can afford to sink the individual claim -to distinction in the collective pride of saying, -"This is <i>our</i> work." But we have not reached -that stage yet, and it seems only common fairness, -if individual and artistic responsibility is attached -to a work, the credit should go with these, and be -assigned in the proper quarter. In these days of -commercial competition, and sculptor's "ghosts," -it is perhaps hardly surprising that the assertion -of such a principle might produce a little consternation, -and also in cases of a great multiplicity of -cooks it might easily be understood to be embarrassing -to distribute properly the individual -responsibility for spoiling the broth, and therefore -not wonderful that it should in some instances -have been shirked altogether.</p> - -<p>As another indication of the way the wind was -blowing, an Association was formed this same -year (1888) for the Advancement of Art in Association -with Industry—a somewhat large order. -Almost everything and everybody had had their -congresses and why not Art? So an Art Congress -was arranged to take place at Liverpool in December -of that year. It was properly divided into sections -for the separate discussion of painting, architecture, -sculpture, and decorative or applied art, as the -phrase goes. It may be mentioned here that the -Society of Arts had before this formed a special -committee to arrange for lectures and discussions -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>[pg 74]</span> -on "The Applied Arts," and had also offered -prizes to art-workmen for excellence in various -departments of handicraft, and had held a small -exhibition of such works in their rooms in the -Adelphi. Well, the Congress at Liverpool duly -met, and every one having a particular axe to -grind brought it to the common grindstone of -public discussion. It was a fairly representative -parliament. The royal academician sat down with -the socialist; the scientific colour theorist fed with -the practical decorator; the industrial villager faced -the manufacturer; the art critic and the painter -mingled their tears, and all were led to the pasture -by a gentle Fine Art professor. Some home truths -were spoken and there were many interesting -papers and discussions, but whether we were -really nearer solving the problem how to bring -about the marriage of Art and Industry is doubtful, -though the Association had another campaign at -Edinburgh the following year and one since at -Birmingham. Association and discussion among -people of common interests is of course good, but -Art is a subject by its very nature difficult to deal -with in words, although perhaps more is said -about it in these days than almost any other subject—and -here am I still adding to the sum!</p> - -<div class="poem width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>A hair perhaps divides the false and true.</p> - </div> </div> - -<p>We have no word-symbols for defining those -delicate shades of difference so important to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>[pg 75]</span> -artist, and to be perpetually qualifying is fatiguing. -It is useful to consider art in its relation to -life; to consider how it is affected by economic -conditions, to study its history and influence, and -the lives of its workers. One can even proceed a -certain distance with general principles, but finally -we must get down to the solid ground of practice -to solve its real problems.</p> - -<p>All these movements may be but fluttering -leaves in the wind, but at least they serve to show -its direction. The colours of spring sometimes -resemble those of autumn; but the former are -distinguished by a certain daintiness and delicacy: -a soft bloom of silver and russet comes over the -woods before the cloud-like green drapes them -for the coming summer. When we see delicate -and harmonious dyes and patterns in the fabrics -of the windows of commerce, when we see dainty -gowns in the street, expressing the fair forms of -their wearers with the grace of flowers; when we -see a certain sense of relation and harmony of -tint in the most ordinary arrangements of paint -and paper in the interiors of our houses: when -our chairs and couches not unfrequently show -lines of good breeding; when we find books on -the table which have been considered by their -printers and designers as works of art as well as -of literature, and thus give a double pleasure, since -they satisfy more than one of the senses—well, -we begin to think that something has happened -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>[pg 76]</span> -to us; some new spirit has breathed upon the -land, that such refinements should be possible to -the moderate citizen, remembering that such things -but a few years ago could not be had for love or -money. We might still be happy were it not for -the whirlwind of trade, and the whirligig of fashion -which occasionally seem to coquette with art, as a -child plays with a toy, but soon turn away to -continue their mad chase after a supposititious -"novelty." Happily they leave some quiet corners -unswept, as they have always done, or we could -never have known what the homes of our ancestors -were like. But how many still does England hold -of those delightful places full of the pathos of old -time, where each dumb thing of wood or iron, or -copper, each fragment of faded tapestry seems -to have the speech of romance.</p> - -<div class="poem width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>Full of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet breathing.</p> - </div> </div> - -<p>When the utilitarian would destroy such relics for -the sake of "modern improvements" we do not -realize what priceless things we lose. We can -only realize it when we live for a time in country -or city without antiquity of any sort. Here in -England there are still many places where one -might have the suggestion that we moderns were -like children playing with new toys in front of a -rich tapestried background full of great deeds and -romances. In America the idea could not occur, -and the absence of such suggestion is no doubt -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>[pg 77]</span> -much felt by the more cultured and thoughtful, -especially after visiting Europe. It may partly -account, too, for the more fantastic character in -the architecture of some of their recent country -dwellings, which are full of nooks and corners -and odd gables and stairways, as if their designer -wished to make up by his invention for the absence -of old time sentiment.</p> - -<p>Some of us appear to be trying to turn England -into another America—for ever scheming railways -where they are not wanted, cutting down trees, -and clearing away old dwelling places, and insulting -even the green fields with advertisements. -Anything that interferes with extra percentages is -as dust in the balance to such.</p> - -<p>In the destruction of beauty of any kind, however, -is involved the destruction of the faculty of -its perception and appreciation. The artistic capacity -and sense of beauty must be fed by the contemplation -of beauty or both will in time perish. -We cannot really satisfy one of the senses unless -we satisfy them all. It is often said, "you must -sacrifice this or that to comfort and convenience;" -but it is quite possible to have every so-called -comfort and convenience, and yet to be anything -but happy or comfortable—especially if the comfort -of the eye is forgotten. Unless the utilitarian -succeeds in eliminating the sense of beauty and -art altogether, the natural man will still revolt -against the tyranny of mechanical and artificial -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>[pg 78]</span> -conditions. Such revolts make epochs, and when -the human mind is deeply stirred it is sure sooner -or later to find expression in some revival, or new -form of art.</p> - -<p>A great intellectual revolution has taken place -in the last half century: a great social and industrial -revolution is preparing, or even now progressing. -Whether art will again be able to sum -up and express adequately in monumental form -the new life and its aspirations, as it expressed -the heart of ancient life in Greece and mediaeval -Europe, must depend upon its power of appeal, -and this again must depend upon the sensitiveness -to form and colour on the part of the people. In -England the domestic sentiment is so strong that -enthusiasm for large public works is rare, and opportunities -for sculptor or painter to express anything -like the generic thought of their time, or to -touch the pride or hopes of the nation rarer still.<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4"><sup>4</sup></a> -The art that is capable of illustrating this spirit is -what is called decorative art: but the art which -can cover large mural spaces with a peoples' history -and legend in noble and typical forms, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>[pg 79]</span> -art which can lift our souls with large thoughts, -or enchant them with a sense of mystery and -romance, can also be a familiar friend at our firesides, -and touch each common thing of every day -use with beauty, weaving its golden threads into -the joys and sorrows of common life, and making -happy both young and old.</p> - -<blockquote> -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag4">4:</a> -It is true we have our frescoes of English history at the -Houses of Parliament, but they cannot be said, with the exception -of the work of Mr. G. F. Watts, to have been conceived -in an epic spirit, but are rather anecdotic or incidental. Though -the new pictures for the House of Lords by some of our ablest -men of the younger school, such as Mr. Payne and Mr. Cadogan -Cowper, show much finer mural and decorative feeling. -</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>[pg 80]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>[pg 81]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>THE SOCIALIST IDEAL AS A NEW INSPIRATION IN ART</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>[pg 82]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>[pg 83]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/083-1000.jpg"><img src="images/083-560.jpg" width="560" height="280" alt="Pen design by Walter Crane" /></a></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>THE SOCIALIST IDEAL AS A NEW INSPIRATION IN ART</h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">A</span>RT as the commentator or the recorder of -human life, reflecting not only its physical -aspects but its mental attitude, must necessarily -be influenced by every change which modifies the -course and character of that life. It is the sensitive -plate in the camera of the mind of the age which -receives every image, every shadow which passes -before the lens of its vision, and, over and above -the fleeting shows of the hour, registers the prevailing -sentiment of its period.</p> - -<p>In proof of this we have only to look around us -and see how intimately the life and spirit of our -own times are represented in the art of the day, -more especially pictorial art.</p> - -<p>In any of our large annual popular mixed picture -shows we may see the effects of the modern -commercial principle of individual competition. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>[pg 84]</span> -Pictures of the utmost diversity of subject and -treatment are crowded together, clamorous for -attention, often injured by the juxtaposition of -unsympathetic neighbours, the principal quality -telling in such a conflict being force. Certain -dominant, or privileged, individuals hold front -places, but even the marked individual style of -some leading painters is apt to be discounted by -numerous more or less successful imitations.</p> - -<p>Painters are said to be extreme individualists -as a rule, and while, no doubt, the economic conditions -of the day tend to encourage this, and to -make painting more and more a matter of personal -expression or impression, yet, I think, the -individuality of modern artists is more apparent -than real, and that it would not be difficult to -classify them in types, or to trace the main influences -in their work to some well-known artistic -source either in the present or the past, or both. -This, however, would be in no way to their discredit, -but it shows how art, even in its most individualistic -forms, is essentially a social product, -and that each artist benefits enormously by the -work of his contemporaries and his predecessors.</p> - -<p>Our mixed picture exhibition also discloses -another prominent characteristic of our time—the -domination of money, and the influence of the -possessing classes and material wealth. This -appears in the preponderance of portraits and the -comparative absence of imaginative works.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>[pg 85]</span></p> - -<p>We may see the monarch and the political, -financial, or commercial magnate in all their -glory; generals and admirals, slayers and destroyers, -in scarlet and blue and gold; the fashionable -dame in purple and fine linen; the motorist -in his career; national pride or imperialism is -appealed to by pictures of battle and triumph over -inferior races; and sports and pastimes, especially -those involving the pursuit and death of birds and -animals.</p> - -<p>Nor is the reverse of the medal unrepresented, -for we may see side by side with brilliant ballroom -scenes and banquets in marble halls, as -a picturesque contrast or foil perhaps, various -aspects of poverty and rags, sometimes sincere, -sometimes sentimental, and occasionally flashes -of insight reveal the pathos of the toiler's lot -in the field, the factory, or on the treacherous -ocean.</p> - -<p>The genuine modern love of wild nature and -landscape, and the roaming spirit of travel is -generally catered for by our painters; in these -directions, perhaps, may be detected the suppressed -sigh of super-civilized man for primitive -freedom and natural conditions of life, or,</p> - -<div class="poem width15"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>The devotion to something afar</p> -<p>From the sphere of our sorrow.</p> - </div> </div> - -<p>With such mixed elements we may find some -false sentiment, and also sensationalism, not infrequently -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>[pg 86]</span> -connected with Christian sentimentality, -and amid a fair allowance of military exploits, and -flag-waving imperialism, there may be a few well-staged -masquerades of past history, some grim -and stark realism, perhaps, or gloomy pictorial -pessimism, and for the rest, decorative or amatory -posings, painted anecdotes and domesticities, -flowers, babies, and bric-à-brac.</p> - -<p>Thus, in pictorial form, with more or less completeness, -the mixed drama of our age is presented, -its very discords even, and the absence of any -prevailing idea or unity of sentiment (except -bourgeois) and artistic aim is characteristic, as the -pictures jostle one another in a competitive crowd, -each struggling for a share of attention.</p> - -<p>Painters of the Latin and the Teutonic races -are more dramatic, and also more daring in their -conceptions, and often appear to strip the mask -(or the fig-leaf) from objects and subjects which -the more timid or prudish Anglo-Saxon would -discreetly veil. Grim pictures of the industrial -war not unfrequently appear in Italian and French -salons, and in that of the Société Nationale des -Beaux-Arts I have seen large and lurid canvases -depicting strikers on the march with a background -of factory chimneys looming through the smoke. -Apart from their economic and historical significance, -however, such subjects may fall in with a -certain mood of gloom and pessimism which, in -violent reaction from superficial grace and beauty, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>[pg 87]</span> -and classical tradition, manifests itself in some -quarters. Now and again a new sensation is -made by some eccentric genius, as it were, dragging -a weird aesthetic red herring across the -fashionable artistic scent, and diverting attention -to side tracks in artistic development, often -mixed with morbidity, or, as a change from the -pursuit of superficial and ephemeral types of -beauty, debased and revolting types and loathly -subjects are drawn under the pictorial limelight -and analysed.</p> - -<p>So, in the pictorial world, the economic system -under which we live makes itself felt by encouraging -each artist to fight for his own hand, -and to become a specialist of one sort or another, -unless he can live by exploiting some other artist's -discovery and method.</p> - -<p>Few, probably, among artists are fully conscious -of this compulsion, or, at least, of its cause, and -but few trouble themselves about the economic -system, but mostly, though not without social -sympathies, take the risks, as individuals, of swimming -or sinking, with the off chance of fortune and -fame, as in the necessary order (or disorder) of -things.</p> - -<p>Yet the economic position of the modern artist -can hardly be considered as at all satisfactory, -dependent as he is mainly upon the caprice of the -rich, or the control of the dealer, and upon the -surplus value and unearned increment it may -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>[pg 88]</span> -be in the power of individuals to spend upon -art.</p> - -<p>Painting, however, though the most individual, -popular, vivid, and intimate of the arts, is not the -<i>only</i> art, and the arts, like humanity, do not -flourish under Imperial rule. They are a brotherhood -or a sisterhood (they are traditionally represented -as the latter) though, in neither case are -they necessarily celibate; on the contrary, for it -is by the union of art with a human character and -personality that living offspring are produced.</p> - -<p>From the point of view of the necessities of the -community (and amongst these necessities I would -certainly count beauty of environment) the constructive -arts come first in order.</p> - -<p>Man needs shelter and security, and therefore -architecture and the craft of building take the first -place, since without roof and walls it would be -difficult to enjoy the other arts which minister to -our comfort, refinement, and pleasure (nor would -it be hardly possible for many of them to exist) -unless we could satisfy our aesthetic predilections -by textiles and a tent, or by painting or chiselling -the walls of a cave.</p> - -<p>Now architecture or the art of building is -essentially a co-operative art. The planning and -general scheme of the design of a building may -indeed emanate from one mind, but its realization -needs an army of skilled artificers and artists—stonemasons, -carvers, carpenters, smiths, tilers and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>[pg 89]</span> -plasterers, and a host of labourers working harmoniously -together. And yet, in order to make -the building really expressive—a work of art, in -short—something more than training and manual -skill, something above learned tradition, and beyond -even organized co-operative labour is wanted.</p> - -<p>What, then, is this something—this unknown -quantity or quality?</p> - -<p>What makes the great difference between ancient -and modern architecture, we might ask, for -it is in the answer to this question that we find -the answer to our first?</p> - -<p>Unity of sentiment—the inspiration of a great -ideal, this it was which enabled the artists and -craftsmen of past great periods in art to work in -harmony on great public monuments, but without -losing their character or individuality, as the -different parts of the work might be full of invention -and variety, and yet conduce to a harmonious -whole, as in a Gothic cathedral.</p> - -<p>Mr. Halsey Ricardo, in an interesting address -recently given to the Architectural Association of -London, aptly described the architecture of Ancient -Egypt as "priest's architecture"; that of -Ancient Assyria as "the architecture of kings"; -the architecture of Greece he considered as -"sculptor's architecture," and that of the revived -classicism of the Renascence as "the architecture -of scholars." Well, these have all had their day. -The turn of the people must come, and in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>[pg 90]</span> -architecture of the future, under the inspiration of -the great Socialist Ideal we may realize what may -be described as the architecture of humanity.</p> - -<p>And, looking to the probable requirements of a -co-operative commonwealth, this hope seems to -be well founded in view of the likelihood of the -construction of collective dwellings (already projected -in the garden city) of noble public halls and -schools.</p> - -<p>The unifying effect of a great Ideal, a Hope, a -Faith, is obviously wanting generally in modern -architecture, wherein the influence most paramount -is too often the limits of the builders' contract.</p> - -<p>The golden image (which yet is never, like -Nebuchadnezzar's, actually "set up") is the real -god bowed down to, whosesoever the image and -superscription over the porchway, and so modern -art is everywhere tied to the purse strings.</p> - -<p>But the money-bag makes a poor device for an -escutcheon, and is still less effective as an inspirer -in art. The standard of the man in possession is -"market value," and art under capitalism has -become mostly a kind of personal and often portable -property, and as much a matter for speculative -investment as stocks and shares.</p> - -<p>As money cannot write history or ancestry, -every portable bit of antiquity is now in danger of -being bought up by dealers for the use of millionaires, -and we shall soon have no visible history -but in our museums.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>[pg 91]</span></p> - -<p>But, above the din of the market and the confusion -of political tongues, a clarion call is heard, -and through the darkness breaks a new dawn.</p> - -<p>The Socialist Ideal comes, scattering the clouds -of pessimism and decadence which have lain -heavily on the spirit of modern art.</p> - -<p>Artists have already been touched by the stress -and stir of the struggle of Labour and the pathos -of the life of the toiler, who, as a patient Atlas, -sustains the earthy heaven of wealth and luxury. -In contact with the earth again, and in sympathy -with the life of the people, many painters have -found inspiration.</p> - -<p>One of the greatest of modern sculptors—Meunier, -the Belgian (alas! now no more) was -himself a Socialist, and devoted himself to the -study and realization of types of heroic labour—the -labour that takes its life in its hand in every -ordinary day's work—at the furnace mouth or in -the coal mine. A group of his figures and reliefs -forms a noble epic in bronze of the modern toiler.</p> - -<p>François Millet may be said to have painted -the epic of the French agricultural labourer, -though not, apparently, from any conscious or -revolutionary point of view, but rather as a sympathetic -observer recording its pathos.</p> - -<p>Much in the same spirit Joseph Israels in -Holland, and Liebermann in Germany, have -painted aspects of the worker's life.</p> - -<p>Many of our island painters from a similar -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>[pg 92]</span> -standpoint have painted the English workers—such -as George Clausen, H. H. La Thangue, Frank -Brangwyn, Stanhope Forbes, H. S. Tuke, Prof. -Frederick Brown, the late Charles Furse, and the -late F. Madox Brown—and shown us the toilers -of the sea and land, and the nameless heroes of -the life-boat, and the tragedies of the fishing -village.</p> - -<p>The aspects of labour under modern conditions, -indeed, have a deep significance, more, perhaps, -than the artist or the labourer, unconscious of -Socialism, is probably aware of.</p> - -<p>To the artist it is always invigorating to get -down to the roots of life, and draw fresh inspiration -from the simple life of simple people meeting -nature face to face every day of their lives.</p> - -<p>The representation of types and aspects of -modern labour, however, may or may not always -be an indication of the effect of Socialist sympathies -or the inspiration of the Socialist Ideal, -and in any case it only exhibits one phase of such -sympathy. But the Socialist ideal has undoubtedly -had a great influence in another direction, namely, -in what are generally known as the "Arts and -Crafts"; and it is not a little remarkable that the -modern revival in Design and Handicraft may -claim manufacturing and individualistic England -as its birthplace.</p> - -<p>This fact has been freely and generously acknowledged -by our Continental brethren.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>[pg 93]</span></p> - -<p>The perception of the essentially social character -of the arts that minister to daily life, and -the dependence of Design and Handicraft upon -effective and sympathetic co-operation among -groups of workers have drawn craftsmen together, -and has led in some sort to a revival of guilds. -Some of these guilds, like the Art Workers' -Guild (founded as long ago as 1884) are for discussion -of a demonstration in the various artistic -handicrafts, and for mutual information and -help.</p> - -<p>The influence of such guilds in the revival of -many beautiful crafts on sound lines, and, above -all, in imbuing artists of different crafts with a -sense of the unity of art can hardly be overestimated.</p> - -<p>Other guilds, groups of workers, and industrial -associations have been formed in many parts of -the country for the practice of the handicrafts, influenced -by the teaching of John Ruskin and -William Morris. Others, again, are hardly more -than commercial enterprises, but all endeavour to -meet in one way or another the increasing public -interest in hand-work.</p> - -<p>This English movement of the last twenty-five -or thirty years or so is usually traced to the -workshop of William Morris, who, with a group -of distinguished artists, represented the advanced -school in English art at that time, founded the -firm which still bears his name some time in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>[pg 94]</span> -sixties, mainly, at first, to supply artists and people -of refined taste with simple furniture and domestic -decoration that they could live with.</p> - -<p>Morris, who became so conspicuous an instance -later, of the influence of the Socialist Ideal, was -not then a conscious Socialist, though he was -from the first in constant protest against the false -taste and pretentiousness of modern decorative -art, which had sunk to a very commercial and -common-place level under mid-nineteenth century -industrial conditions, controlled by division of -labour and the machine.</p> - -<p>The fact that he was a poet and a man of -letters as well as an artist gave additional force -to his revolution in English taste, and increased -his influence very much, while his own position -as an employer, and man of business brought him -face to face with the conditions of labour and -modern industry. Although in his own work and -the work he controlled he was highly successful, -and by the vigour and beauty of his designs, -under mediaeval influence, especially in woven -stuffs and wall coverings, he quite turned the tide -of taste, he abandoned hope that there could be -any real or lasting improvement in the arts under -the existing economic and social conditions, and -he did not seem to share in the belief which has -animated some of his friends and followers, that -the Arts and Crafts movement itself would prove -a means of revolutionizing methods of production -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>[pg 95]</span> -and carrying on an effective propaganda for -Socialism.</p> - -<p>The next step forward was made by the Arts -and Crafts Exhibition Society which was founded -in 1888 by a group of artists which included -architects, painters, sculptors, as well as designers -and craftsmen of different kinds.</p> - -<p>The society arose from the ruins of a sort of -secessionist movement of painters against the -Royal Academy and its narrow views of art and -exclusiveness. Among its members were men of -very different ideas, but with these were several -fully convinced and conscious Socialists, strongly -imbued with Morris's ideals, though Morris himself -did not at first join us, the present writer -being elected as first president and serving in -that office for the first three years of the society's -existence, when Morris was elected to the chair -and served till his death in 1896.</p> - -<p>Our main and ostensible purpose was to advance -the state of the decorative arts by uniting design -and handicraft, and by acknowledging the share -and artistic responsibility of the individual workmen -who co-operated in the production of a work -of art, also to give opportunities to designers and -craftsmen to exhibit their work and appeal directly -to the public, and by holding selected exhibitions -of design and handicraft from time to time to -maintain a standard of taste and workmanship -which hitherto there had been no means of doing.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>[pg 96]</span></p> - -<p>Courses of lectures on the arts by members of -the society accompanied our earlier exhibitions, -and these have since been published, and by such -means our propaganda was greatly extended.</p> - -<p>If we cannot claim to have solved the Labour -question, which, of course, nothing short of a -Socialist system can do, we have asserted the -claims of decorative and industrial art and of the -craftsman, and we have enabled a body of artistic -craftsmen to appeal direct to the public, while -many of our members through teaching bodies, -such as the Board of Education and the County -Councils have been the means of inculcating sound -traditions of workmanship among large numbers -of young students and apprentices from various -trades who go to study in the evening schools, -and so carry back into their ordinary work fresh -ideas and enhanced skill and taste.</p> - -<p>The influence of the Arts and Crafts movement -has certainly been socialistic in increasing -the respect for workmanship, and in awakening -the sense of the public to the need of humane -and healthful conditions for the workers, over and -above the inculcation of the desire for beauty in -common things, and harmonious surroundings of a -refined if simple life.</p> - -<p>Its quiet methods still serve indirectly the propaganda -of the Socialist Ideal.</p> - -<p>Only recently, for instance, an exhibition was -organized in London of the work of various -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>[pg 97]</span> -Guilds of Handicraft, by a lady on the staff of -a well-known Socialist weekly journal, which demonstrated -on the one hand the joy in art and -handicraft under happy and fair conditions for the -worker, and on the other showed the conditions of -"sweated" labour by living examples working at -their miserably paid trades.</p> - -<p>A river gathers volume by the contributions of -the small streams which flow into it, and so with -the great movement of Socialism, which, comprehending -as it does, the whole range of human -effort and aspiration, is continually widening and -increasing in depth and force, not only by the -direct action of its leaders, and the support of its -conscious followers, but in many indirect ways. -The sum of which it would be difficult to estimate -though every influence counts, and even the very -opposition of enemies often has the contrary effect -to that intended by them, and not only so, but as -we may observe in the political arena these are -sometimes driven to defend their position by -borrowing palliative weapons from the armoury -of those they profess bitterly to oppose.</p> - -<p>The forms which art will take when Socialism -is actually established will probably be very different -from those which herald its advent. The -consideration of such a large subject involves -much speculation, but from the analogy of the -inspiring influence of the ancient religions which -have held sway over mankind, and which, controlling -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>[pg 98]</span> -the whole of human life, focussed the -most beautiful art upon its mysteries and beatitudes, -and drew both the senses and the intellect -of man into their service, we cannot but believe -that the feeling of the solidarity of humanity, and -all that it implies, which would dominate all social -thought and conduct in a collective socialized -community, would become a religion, when its -full significance and its bearing on every department -of life was fully realized; but a religion free -from the shadow of degrading superstitions, and -from the taint of asceticism, and under which -there would be no shirking of either the work or -the enjoyment of the earth—a religion whose -highest sanction would be human happiness, and -in which its votaries would discover not only a -sound rule of conduct for every-day life, but an -inspiring ideal to lead the spirit ever onwards.</p> - -<p>Human history would acquire a new significance -in the mind of the poet and the artist, as -they beheld, in the long course of evolution, the -race in a vast procession emerging from the mists -of primaeval time; from its early struggles with -wild nature; from the gens and the tribal state, -finding safety in primitive communism, and in -that state beholding the invention of the essential -fundamental necessities and appliances, such as -the spade, the plough, and the wheel, the spinning -and weaving of cloth, pottery, and the birth of -song and art.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>[pg 99]</span></p> - -<p>From the tragic vicissitudes of history, of race-conflict, -of conquest and domination of warlike -tribes and the institution of slavery, the foundation -and influence of the great ancient states and -empires, and their inevitable decay and fall, and -the new order springing from their ruins; the -tragic tale of wars and pestilence and famine, of -flood and of fire and of earthquake, and yet onward -still through all these perils and disasters we may -see humanity marching beneath the banner of -social justice to fulfil its destiny; the hero spirits -still passing the torch of enlightenment and freedom -from hand to hand, and as one sinks into the -silence another advances towards the full flush of -the new morning.</p> - -<p>Transfigured in that new light may we not see -a recreated earth, and her children set free from -the bondage of gold whether of spirit or of body—the -race of man entering into its inheritance at -last, having triumphed over the worst and most -insidious of all the despotisms that have ever -dominated the earth—Capitalism.</p> - -<p>Then under the collective control of the means -of existence, when none shall be crippled or -stunted by want, or degraded by forced or unhealthy -labour, what a different thing life will mean -to the people. The cloud of care and anxiety to -secure a bare subsistence which now darkens the -spirit of millions shall be lifted, as well as its -inverted reflection in the parsimonious spirit of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>[pg 100]</span> -some who have never known want, and all the -sordid ingenuity, toil, scheming, craft, and trouble -to win a lucky throw in the commercial speculative -gamble will pass away, and we may begin to live.</p> - -<p>The whole noxious and squalid brood of vices -and crimes connected with the individual possession -of riches, or the desire for them, or the want of -them, being swept away, we may begin to understand -the possibilities of life upon this earth, in so -far as they may be in the collective power of man. -With all the resources of science, and the potential -glories of art in our hands, with unprecedented -control over the forces of nature, and in full knowledge -of the essentials of health, these being all -dedicated to the service of the whole community, -who would thus be in possession of the elements -and materials for a full and happy human life, -surely we shall find new and abundant inspiration -for art, and constant social use and demand for its -powers.</p> - -<p>In depicting the story of man, and the drama -of life; in great public monuments; in commemoration -of the past, in the education of the present; -in the adorning of domestic and public buildings -and places; in the accompaniments of great festivals, -processions, and celebrations—in such directions, -surely, we shall find the widest possible -field for the exercise of all the capacities of art—architecture, -painting, sculpture and the arts of -design and handicraft, with music and poesy, as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>[pg 101]</span> -in the fullness of communal life we shall possess -the materials for building and maintaining fair -cities, and dwelling places surpassing in beauty -anything that the history of the world has yet -recorded, since their foundations will rest upon -the welfare of the whole people.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>[pg 102]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>[pg 103]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>ON THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF ART</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>[pg 104]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>[pg 105]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>ON THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF ART</h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">V</span>ARIOUS views of an artist's life, and motives -for following art are apt to present themselves -to those on the threshold of the vast field of its -study, but these after all may mostly be summed -up in one of the two governing reasons, which may -be expressed as follows:</p> - -<p class="ind">1. The pure love of art.</p> - -<p class="ind">2. The sake of a livelihood.</p> - -<p>(A third, <i>for pastime</i>, sometimes comes in, but -may be dismissed as art cannot be studied to any -purpose except in a serious spirit.)</p> - -<p>In practice it generally comes about that these -first two have to be reconciled in some way, and -it becomes a pressing question sooner or later as to -<i>how</i> to do so, though it is always well to remember -that there is no <i>natural</i> connection between love -and money in the arts and, indeed, it would be -better if all work could be inspired by and done for -love. At the same time, under present economic -arrangements, the labourer is at least worthy of -his hire; and it might also be said that when -poverty comes in at the door art—if not love—is -apt (though not always) to fly out of the window. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>[pg 106]</span> -The same sequence sometimes happens also with -the sudden advent of riches, which also has a way -of throwing domestic arrangements out of harmony, -so that here, as in other cases, extremes meet, and -<i>too much</i> may be as bad as <i>not enough</i> in its effects -upon art.</p> - -<p>To paint great masterpieces and make fame and -fortune is an ambition given to few to realize. -The masterpiece at all events must be a labour of -love, whether fame or fortune follow or not, and -in the history of art it has happened over and over -again that masterpieces have not been instantly -recognized, and the master usually has had to wait -for recognition and reward—if that can be said in -any real sense to lie outside the accomplishment -of his work. Good art, like virtue, is its own reward. -Yet, as a financial character remarks, in a -play of Mr. George Moore's, "Man cannot live by -virtue alone." Virtue itself indeed requires appropriate -conditions for its development and sustenance, -just as the artist requires support and sympathy.</p> - -<p>The warm breath of appreciation will draw up -the sap of creative impulse and it will put forth -bud and leaf, blossom and fruit.</p> - -<p>This potentiality for art, exists in a rudimentary -way though in very varying degrees in perhaps all -individuals, but as a general rule skill and facility -are only acquired at the price of constant devotion, -a devotion spontaneous and sincere. Even great -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>[pg 107]</span> -gifts and natural or inherited adaptability require -to be strengthened and made supple by study and -constant practice and observation. I have alluded -to the importance of a sympathetic atmosphere, -and it sometimes happens that the germ of artistic -impulse has to struggle with adverse circumstances, -and it becomes a question of its strength and endurance -whether it will survive till more favourable -opportunities for its development arrive.</p> - -<p>Where from the earliest the student has been -surrounded by the tools and implements of art, -when he has seen it progressing before his eyes, -the gain is enormous over those who take up their -studies late, and to whom the world of art is -comparatively mysterious and strange. The mere -imitative impulse, which appears to be possessed -in common by all mankind in a certain degree, will -in the first instance gain a certain ease and facility -of hand in dealing with tools—say pencil, brush -and colour, which itself is a very great advantage -to begin with. In fact, the first consideration in -studying art is <i>facility of hand</i>. Without it, really -nothing can be done since the power of expression -is so much dependent upon it.</p> - -<p>In this connection I was much struck, while in -America, with a method adopted by a teacher -(Mr. Liberty Tadd)<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5"><sup>5</sup></a> in Philadelphia, a city in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>[pg 108]</span> -which very great attention was being paid to all -forms of technical instruction. Well, this teacher -did not profess to train artists at all. His object was -to give <i>facility of hand</i>. He took children of various -ages—quite young to begin with—from the ordinary -primary schools, and set them to draw on the black -board with a piece of chalk in each hand certain -figures. Circles to begin with, and certain symmetric -forms of ornament as shown in the diagram. -The facility they acquired was extraordinary. He -then set them to what he called "memorize" these -forms and combine them in design as they best -could, and to model such designs in clay, and to -carve them in wood.</p> - -<p>Well, it struck me this might be capable of -development. At any rate, clearly, facility of hand -could be developed by exercise, just as muscular -strength can be.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page108a" id="page108a"></a> -<a href="images/109-1000.jpg"><img src="images/109-600.jpg" width="600" height="475" alt="PROGRESSIVE BLACKBOARD PRACTICE IN BI-MANUAL TRAINING." /></a> -<p class="center">PROGRESSIVE BLACKBOARD PRACTICE IN BI-MANUAL TRAINING.<br /><br class="b50" /> - -(From "New Methods in Education," by Liberty Tadd).</p></div> - -<p>From such simple exercises a student might -advance, and those who developed more faculty -or taste in certain directions rather than others—say -in modelling rather than drawing, or in carving—might -pursue further those particular branches, -making them main studies to which other side -studies would contribute. The use of colour, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>[pg 109-110]</span> -the habit of working directly on the paper with -the brush, like the Japanese, would again give -enormous facility and precision of touch, of great -value both to the designer of patterns and also to -the pictorial artist. The direct brush method has -been, since this was first written, practised in our -schools, often with surprising results indicating -considerable design faculty in young children. -Method is so much a question of habit, and in so -many departments of design precision of touch and -directness of execution are of such importance—in -the preparation of working designs for cotton -printing for instance. The india-rubber, I am -inclined to think, sometimes is the root (or the sap) -of all evil.</p> - -<p>It is for this quality of precision and technical -adaptability to the conditions of manufacture which -has, I believe, induced many manufacturers to -seek their designs and working drawings on the -continent. From the specimens I have seen however, -I cannot say I am impressed with the originality -or fertility of the designs, and when, too—though -I am by no means of the Jingo persuasion—it -came to getting your British lion designed -abroad, unicorn and all the rest of the national -heraldry, it seemed rather a <i>reductio ad absurdum</i>. -Yet after all, of course, we must concede morally -our French or German brother has as much right -to life as we. Competitive commerce certainly is -no respecter of nationality. We must all take our -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>[pg 111]</span> -chance in the world market nowadays. We are -all chained to the conqueror's car. We want a -new Petrarch to write the triumph of commercialism, -and a new designer to picture it, as the old -triumphs are depicted with every splendour of inventive -accessory, and magnificence of decorative -effect in those Burgundian tapestries at Hampton -Court and South Kensington. Well, I am afraid -the modern triumph, such as it is, is pictured for -us in the rampant poster, which pursues us in and -out of stations, up and down streets, and even -along the railway lines, which last vantage ground -hitherto has been the prerogative of our American -cousins. I do not say the poster has no place in -art, and many very able artists have designed -posters, and, on the whole, our free popular exhibitions -on the hoardings have gained both in interest -and printing skill, and decorative effect of late -years. Under considerable restraint and chastening -it might be possible to make the announcement -of useful wares and theatrical events at least inoffensive, -perhaps, and it may be that the mere -working of competition will produce a demand for -more refined productions, since when all shout together -no one voice is likely to be heard, and the -accepted theory of a poster is that it <i>must</i> shout—but -let us keep it out of our scenery. Any way -the subject is important since our hoardings are -evidently the most obviously public education in -pictorial and typographical design. It is, after all, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>[pg 112]</span> -what meets our eyes every day that influences us. -It is the surrounding—the set scene of every-day -life that affects our artistic sense more than anything. -While a visit to a museum or art gallery is -only an occasional matter, except for students, the -mass of mankind must take their impressions of -colour and form from what they see around them.</p> - -<p>It is, we know, the persistence and aggregation -of small causes that have played the chief part in -the modelling of the earth as we see it, and which -are continually changing its aspect. In like manner -the general sense or sensitiveness to beauty is acted -upon unconsciously, I have no doubt, by the aspects -of every-day life, by the colours and forms of the -street and the market as well as by the pictures -and furniture of our domestic interiors. If this -theory is correct, it follows that anything which -impairs that sensitiveness must injure the faculty -of its appreciation and production.</p> - -<p>We have been too careless in this matter, and -constant toleration and familiarity with hideous -surroundings brutalizes and blunts the perceptions, -and seeing how largely ugliness of form and colour -prevails in at least the externals of modern life, -especially of our manufacturing centres, it is perhaps -not surprising that a certain cult, a certain -worship of the ugly should have obtained a footing -even in art.</p> - -<p>I do not deny there are certain tragic aspects of -industrialism, a certain weird fascination in drifting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>[pg 113]</span> -clouds of smoke, and beauty in the forms of -escaping steam, and that graphic representations -of the various restless aspects of modern life, have, -in proportion to their sincerity, historic value. It -is at all events <i>our</i> life and must be recorded, -though it leads to the art of the newspaper—but a -great deal of clever art can be put into a newspaper. -Our newspapers are perhaps getting the -better of us; like Chronos the press devours its own -children, and no one knows how many geniuses -are yearly swallowed up, or how many lives and -talents consumed in order that the comfortable -world shall have its dish of news and views at the -breakfast table, as well as in successive relays, -served up like muffins, from the rising of the sun to -the going down of the electric light. Well, Art, like -literature, may be said to be divided into prose, -poetry, and penny-a-lining, or, to find equivalents -we might say, the creative, the pictorial, and -the pot-boiling kinds. The first two are governed -by their own laws and the individual preferences -of the artist, the third depends upon fashion, the -state of the markets, averages and the laws of -supply and demand.</p> - -<p>Now it seems quite possible in an artistic -life, while preserving an ideal of beauty of -design and workmanship in whatever direction -without sacrifice of principle, to remain in touch -with the ordinary wants of humanity—to realize -that that art is not necessarily the highest which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>[pg 114]</span> -is always in the clouds, but, indeed, that all kinds -of art gain in character and beauty in proportion -as the ideas they express are incarnate as it were—inseparable -from the particular materials in which -they are embodied. Their peculiar conditions -and limitations openly and frankly acknowledged, -and so far from being felt in the nature of a bondage, -really are aids to distinct and beautiful decoration, -as is the case in all the arts and crafts -of design, showing that sincerity is the fundamental -condition of good design and workmanship, -which never pride themselves on imitating qualities -which properly belong to other forms of art -and other materials.</p> - -<p>There are two systems, or methods, or principles -of education in art.</p> - -<p class="ind">i. The Academic or absolute.</p> - -<p class="ind">ii. The Experimental, or relative, and adaptive.</p> - -<p>The one teaching art or design in the abstract on -certain cut-and-dried principles and methods, and -fixed canons and standards, passing every mind -through the same mill, without special reference to -any particular conditions of craftsmanship or individual -preference.</p> - -<p>The other teaching design in concrete forms and -in direct relation to tools, methods and materials, -with the object of calling out the individual feeling -and setting it free to express itself under the -natural limitations of art in its own way.</p> - -<p>The latter is the method of our new technical and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>[pg 115]</span> -Arts and Crafts schools, so that a student may -really acquire a practical working knowledge of -the peculiar requirements of design to be reproduced -in any process of manufacture, instead of -being launched on the world with vague general -ideas of drawing and painting, but ignorant of how -to apply them.</p> - -<p>It of course remains to be proved how far technical -schools can really efficiently take the place -of the old workshop training under the apprenticeship -system, which led to good results in the past, -but while one must of course recognize that -changed times require new methods, we ought also -clearly to realize that efficiency in the use of tools -and materials, and adaptability to materials, with -the view of bearing on the prosperity of trade and -supplying manufacturers with more highly skilled -designers and workmen, with increased competition, -go to form <i>one</i> aim and ultimate object. Quite -another is the like efficiency, governed by the -fresh creative impulse of artists and craftsman taking -keen pleasure in their work, with leisure for reflection -and enjoyment, and the gathering of fresh -ideas from no poor, mean or stinted life, and not -deprived of the stimulating influences of natural or -architectural beauty, or the touch of refinement, -and with the stimulating emulation and co-operation -of fellowship instead of cut-throat competition.</p> - -<p>These are two ideals somewhat distinct. It remains -to be seen which goal we shall ultimately -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>[pg 116]</span> -reach, but much depends upon which we each individually -work for, since individual impulse and -action are precipitated in the collective force which -finally moves the world.</p> - -<p>At present the requirements of artistic ideals -are not always identical with the demands of -commerce, and sometimes not so in any sense at -all. There must be always I should think some -particular individual reserve in the artist which -must bide its time and the fitting medium and -opportunity for its expression. The world is slow -to apprehend new manifestations of original talent -and will not accept immature masterpieces. It -becomes a question therefore for the individual -artist how far he can, without casting away or -losing sight of his higher ideals and aspirations, -associate himself with work of a less ambitious, -more immediately serviceable, but not necessarily -less artistic kind. It is here that technical knowledge -will come in to help him, and there is room -for the very best talents and invention in design -in the work of the loom, and the printing press, -iron, wood, stone, metal, glass, in a thousand -materials and forms which contribute to build up -the life of ordinary civilized man. When the -design and construction of our furniture, and the -various patterns and accessories which minister -to the daily wants of humanity fall into purely -mechanical hands, and artistic craftsmen no longer -concern themselves with the unity of use and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>[pg 117]</span> -beauty, the sense of beauty and pleasure in life -which comes of the exercise of the artistic faculty -and of its appreciation, both are in a fair way to -perish of inanition.</p> - -<p>It cannot too often be insisted on that the vital -springs which nourish the growth of the tree of -art to its topmost branches must be looked for in -the harmonious character of all things connected -with life itself, and since human happiness is -bound up with harmonious social arrangements in -all ways, the importance of such considerations -cannot well be exaggerated.</p> - -<p>As in the pursuit of art we advance in the -possession and interpretation of beauty and in -the power of conferring higher pleasure to the -cultivated senses and intellect, so are the forms of -art apt to be placed higher in the scale: but High -Art can only mean the art which embodies the -highest beauty and conveys the most lasting and -ennobling pleasure. It is its <i>quality</i> more than its -particular <i>form</i> which settles this. Sharp lines of -demarcation are often drawn between fine art -and decorative, or industrial, art, for instance, -which have proved very misleading. A good design -is far and away better than a bad picture any -day, but the arts are really an equal brotherhood. -Excellence in any one branch probably requires as -fine capacities as excellence in another. Beauty -is of different kinds, but perfect beauty of design -and workmanship must be acknowledged to be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>[pg 118]</span> -so, after its kind, whenever we meet with it, and -who shall hold the scales between one kind of -beauty and another.</p> - -<p>If an exquisite work of the loom—say such a -Persian carpet as may be seen in the Victoria -and Albert Museum, satisfies the eye with lovely -and subtle harmonies of colour, with delicate and -beautiful and inventive design, and even suggestions -of romance and poetry: can the finest work -of the painter give us more? Are threads and -dyes necessarily inferior to pigments and palettes, -or the loom less a work of ingenious joinery than -the easel?</p> - -<p>Whatever may be the official and scientific -classification of the arts agreed on, there is but -one spirit in which to study and practice in any -or all of them—sincerity and the love of beauty. -"Strive to attain excellence in the things which -are themselves excellent" sounds a good dictum -but it is thoroughly Academic. Certain things are -assumed to be excellent, and then excellence is to -be striven for in them and in them alone. But -how often in life—in the history of art and humanity -has it been that some great artist and inventor has -taken some poor despised thing and made it -excellent. Think of the wealth of beauty and -invention which makes alive the smallest fragment -of Gothic carving, and invests every cup -and bowl, every bench end and knife-handle of -the middle ages with beauty and romance. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>[pg 119]</span> -commonest weed may contain a fine motive in -design, just as, in another way, the whole spirit -of Japanese art in its weird, half-supernatural -naturalism and magic delicacy of touch, may haunt -a tiny ivory button, or be wrought into a sword hilt.</p> - -<p>It does not follow that everything should be -ornamented. Artistic feeling is shown often as -much in the judgement which restrains or forbids -ornament as in the fertility of invention from -which it springs.</p> - -<p>Organic consistency, adaptation to purpose, -harmony and relation to surroundings. These are -qualities at least as important as ornament.</p> - -<p>Yet it seems often to be thought that decorative -art means ornamenting something: but the very -word decoration must mean something appropriate—fitting, -perfectly adapted.</p> - -<p>The engineer who borrows cast-iron Roman -capitals and mouldings to adorn the iron railing -and supports of his gasometer is not necessarily -making it more artistic. A wrought-iron screen -veiling the cylinder altogether, full of fancy and -grace of treatment, might be more artistic—though -it might raise the price of gas.</p> - -<p>The skeleton has a beauty of its own, "Thou -art nor modelled, glazed, or framed," says Tennyson, -to his "rough sketch of man." Yet we should -not like to live in a world of skeletons, however -valuable a knowledge of the bones and mechanism -of the joints is to students of the human form.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>[pg 120]</span></p> - -<p>Engineers are good skeleton makers, but their -skeleton structures do not often appeal to the -sense of the beautiful—from the Eiffel Tower to -the Forth Bridge. They can never be mistaken -for architecture, they are triumphs of engineering, -but they remain skeletons, and they are too big -to be put in the cupboard. Perhaps our engineers -are busy devising skeletons for the future -to clothe and invest with life and beauty—or to -<i>bury</i>! Yet for all that constructive lines—at least, -simple ones which the eye can follow are, as a rule, -beautiful lines. But I think if the sense of beauty -was really a living and effective force, we should -consider it a crime to destroy natural or architectural -beauty, or to take away the public possession -or enjoyment of it by any means, and should insist -that the problem of utility was but half solved unless -the result was harmonious.</p> - -<p>At present the world seems too busy about other -matters—dissecting and analysing, experimenting, -buying and selling, manufacturing and speculating, -to care collectively for beauty, perhaps, and truth -is at present too many-sided and composite to be -easily reconciled with beauty. All is tumult and -conflict, and through the smoke and dust of the -commercial competitive battle in which we spend -our lives we are not quite sure when the sun is -shining, and when we <i>are</i> sure, are perhaps too -busy making the proverbial hay to notice the -beauty of it. That is only for artists and idlers, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>[pg 121]</span> -and the world has such a horror of idleness that -people, not condemned to hard labour, have acquired -a habit of being extremely busy about -nothing in particular, and it is supposed to be -a conclusive argument against Socialism to ask -"What will you do with the idle?" which seems a -little like raising an objection to eating your dinner -because you don't know what you will do when -you are not hungry!</p> - -<p>Artistic ability and power of design are often -talked of as if they were in the nature of conjuring -tricks, and their exponents like those automatic -machines at the stations which only require "a -penny in the slot" to satisfy every ordinary modern -human requirement from butter-scotch to green -spectacles.</p> - -<p>It is not sufficiently realized that the sense of -art and the power of its creation is a growth of the -mind (as well as facility of hand) which must have -its processes of germination and fruition.</p> - -<p>Art is not nature. It is a commentary or creative -variation upon it, but in the progress of its own -development art follows natural laws. Truth and -Beauty are true lovers, but the course of true love -never did run smooth. While Truth in various -disguises is roaming desert places, sometimes like -a knight errant fighting with sphinxes and dragons, -sometimes, like Thor with his hammer, striking -blows, the effects of which are only seen long -afterwards; Beauty, like an enchanted princess, is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>[pg 122]</span> -often shut up in gloomy castles closed round with -thorny woods or thronging factory chimneys. It -is our business to re-discover her, to awaken her, -to interpret her afresh to the world—to show that -if beauty sleeps, our senses are only half awake, -and our lives a meaningless monotony.</p> - -<blockquote> -<p class="footnote1a"><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag5">5:</a> -Mr. Liberty Tadd has since developed his system and has -embodied his teaching in a large and fully illustrated work—"New -Methods in Education." He has visited this country -and given lectures in exposition of his method, a part of which -is known as bi-manual training, or ambidexterity, upon which -there is an interesting book by Mr. John Jackson, F.E.I.S., -with an introduction by Major-General R. S. S. Baden-Powell, -C.B., published by Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench and Co. -</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>[pg 123]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>ON SOME OF THE ARTS AND CRAFTS ALLIED TO ARCHITECTURE</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>[pg 124]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>[pg 125]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>ON SOME OF THE ARTS AND CRAFTS ALLIED TO ARCHITECTURE.<br /><br class="b50" /> - -<span class="less2">AN ADDRESS TO THE STUDENTS OF THE ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION</span></h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">I</span> HAVE been asked to address you on the -Arts allied to Architecture. Now, as students -of Architecture you will feel, considering how -closely associated all the arts of design have been -in the past, with Architecture as the mother-art, -that it would be very difficult to draw a line between -them, or to define the precise point at -which any one of them naturally part company to -be considered as a separate art. In the course of -evolution many causes and forces have combined -to change their relationship, however, and to give -some of them a more or less independent position -relatively to what they once had, as in the case of -modern painting and sculpture; although these -arts in their origin appear to be more closely related -and essential to the forms of architecture -with which they are combined than almost any of -the other crafts. Indeed, it would almost seem as -if sculpture might dispute the claim of primogeniture -with architecture itself, since cave-dwelling -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>[pg 126]</span> -and rock-cut temples seem more of the -nature of the former; and also when we come to -the wall sculptures of Nineveh and find winged -bulls forming gateways; or see, as at the gate of -Mycenae, beyond the builders' cyclopean craft of -stone on stone, the only architectural forms and -ornament in the sculpture of the slab over the -gateway itself, in the column each side of which -the lions stand, and in the carved discs and spirals -below them.</p> - -<p>Again, when we come to the buildings of ancient -Athens, temples of the Parthenon type might -almost be described as frames or pedestals for -sculpture, although in the case of the Parthenon -the architecture and sculpture are so perfectly -united that we hardly think of them apart. The -sculptor seizes upon the deep pediments and the -triglyphs to tell his mythical and symbolic story, and -emphasizes them in bold relief and counterbalancing -mass; to which the lines of roof and cornice, of -entablature and column play a harmonious accompaniment, -while the more delicate frieze completes -and unites the whole scheme. Though we know -that sculpture was not left to the cold embrace of -white marble, but must have been beautiful in -colour as it now is in form, the genius of sculpture -seems to dominate here. Greek architecture, -too, only repeats in stone and marble and on a -large scale the primitive construction of wood; and -this takes us back to the days of the sacred ark, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>[pg 127]</span> -or the tabernacle of the Israelites, more of a shrine -or tent than a building, which depended so much -for its beauty upon the adornment it received from—"The -cunning workman, the engraver, the embroiderer -in blue, and in purple, in scarlet, and in -fine linen, and of the weaver, even of them that -do any work, and of those that devise cunning -work" (Ex. xxxv, 35). Certainly here, as in the -descriptions of the building of Solomon's temple -all the arts appeared to co-operate and were -equally important to the beauty of the result, and -we get a splendid picture of oriental colour and -ornament. The account of the olive-tree doors of -the temple carved with cherubim and palm trees -and open flowers and overlaid with gold, shows the -early use of a craft very dear to the modern -decorator—gilding: though it probably means a -more substantial kind than that of the modern -frame-maker, since the text has it that "he -covered them with gold fitted upon the carved -work" (1 Kings, vi, 35).</p> - -<p>The craft of working thin plates of gold and other -metals in repoussé is clearly a very ancient one, -and contributed to what must have been a very -splendid effect in interior decoration. Our use of -silvered or gilded metal in modern wall sconces -and door plates may be a relic of times when it -was more extensively used and on larger surfaces, -but one can hardly imagine a more splendid effect -than a wall covering of beaten gold.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>[pg 128]</span></p> - -<p>The ordinary brass or copper repoussé work of -our own day is either worked from the surface only -by following the lines of the design drawn on the -metal by a tool called a tracer, straight or curved, -as may be required for straight or curved lines, -although a straight tracer will follow all but very -small curves. The tracer is tapped with a broad-ended -hammer according to the amount of relief -intended. I should have said the sheet of metal is -fastened down over a sheet of lead by screws or -nails to a deal board before working on. When -the outlines of the design are hammered out, the -background, which bumps up between the traced -lines, has to be matted. This may be done by -various patterned tools called matting tools. Your -design, when the matting is done, will stand in low -relief from its ground, and may be polished as -much as desired. Although a pleasing effect of -soft relief is obtained, this is not carrying the work -very far, and would only satisfy amateurs. True -repoussé work consists in actually modelling by -the hammer and punch, and for this both for delicate -and bold relief it is necessary to reverse the -metal on the pitch block. This is formed of a -mixture of pitch and Russian tallow sprinkled with -plaster of paris, which forms a somewhat firm but -easily indentable substance when warmed, and can -be held together in tin trays. While the pitch is soft -you must press in your metal plate the reverse side -up and then beat up the hollows of the design as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>[pg 129]</span> -they have been defined by the tracer on the face of -the work and which show clearly on the back. The -tools used for doing this are rounded punches of -various forms. The hammering is done rather -persuasively, as sudden blows make sudden dents, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>[pg 130]</span> -which are not easily smoothed. Parts of the work, -again, may be hammered on the surface over a -lead or pitch block, or it may be hammered over -a pattern carved in wood. This method is used -when several forms recur, or it is desired to repeat -the same pattern.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> -<a href="images/129-780.jpg"><img src="images/129-350.jpg" width="350" height="441" alt="Black & white marble" /></a> -<p class="center">Black & white marble Roman mosaic pavement.<br /> -Baths of Caracalla.<br /> From sketch made in 1871.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"><a name="page130a" id="page130a"></a> -<a href="images/130-940.jpg"><img src="images/130-440.jpg" width="440" height="466" alt="Patterns of Roman mosaic" /></a> -<p class="center">Patterns of Roman mosaic pavements.<br /> -Baths of Caracalla.<br /> -From sketches made in 1871.</p></div> - -<p>Another art of very early association with Architecture -is mosaic, which may be said to be perhaps -the most permanent and most splendid kind of -architectural decoration ever used. In the matter -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>[pg 131]</span> -of marble mosaic the Romans, though not the inventors -of the art, in their pavements carried it -to great elaboration, and worked it in many forms, -the most successful being, to my mind, the simpler -forms of flat pattern-work such as are seen in the -baths of Caracalla at Rome, where white marble, -or black, or black or white, is very effectively used, -and there are some admirable scale-pattern borders. -These make more reserved and satisfactory decorations -for a floor than the shaded pictorial battle-pieces -and figures of gladiators such as are seen -at the Borghese Villa. In the Bardo Palace -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>[pg 132]</span> -Museum at Tunis there is a very fine collection -of Roman mosaic pavements. There has been a -very extensive revived use of marble mosaic for -the covering of entrance floors and halls in our -own time; but it has been rather too much of the -second-hand Roman type, although at its best it -is a good type, and, as we know, many original -Roman examples have been discovered, so that -we are not without historic models in our own -country. Marble mosaic is usually somewhat -limited in colour but looking to the variety and -beauty of tint to be found in marbles there is -perhaps more restriction than need be, as well as -in type of design. I made a design for the floor -of a bank at Cleveland, Ohio, when I was in the -States, which I am afraid might have tried the -colour-resources of the mosaicist, since I introduced -a symbolical figure of Columbia coining, -wrapped in a robe of stars and stripes, which, -however, would look sober enough when translated -into marble tones.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/131-1000.jpg"><img src="images/131-600.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="PATTERN OF ROMAN MOSAIC PAVEMENT" /></a> -<p class="center">PATTERN OF ROMAN MOSAIC PAVEMENT,<br /> -FROM THE BATHS OF CARACALLA.</p></div> - -<p>For real splendour of colour we must turn to -glass mosaic, and for magnificent examples of its -architectural use we cannot do better than look at -the churches of Ravenna. My friend, the late -J. T. Micklethwaite, speaking of mosaic, once -humorously remarked that mosaic in decoration -was "like beer—of no use unless you had a lot of it." -(That is all very well for those who can imbibe, -and the dictum should appeal to Britons.) However, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>[pg 133]</span> -the use of mosaic at Ravenna and St. Mark's -shows what my friend meant. In the mausoleum -of Gallia Placida, a small rounded arched and -vaulted Byzantine building of the fifth century, -there are no mouldings or carving, or any kind of -architectural enrichment, to interfere with the -effect of the complete lining of mosaic, chiefly in -pale tones of gold and colour on a deep, subdued -but rich blue ground. The effect is very solemn -and splendid. The actual workmanship of the -Ravenna mosaics would no doubt be considered -rough by the more mechanical modern mosaicist -who does not accept the cube principle in using -tesserae. The head of the Empress Theodora at -San Vitale, for instance, is very simply done. The -tesserae are few—but since the effect from the -proper distance is fine, they must be fit though -few. Then these mosaics like all the ancient ones, -must have been worked from the surface. This -gives a certain play of surface and depth and richness -of colour, each tesserae not having been set -at precisely the same angle to the plane of the -wall, or to its neighbour cube.</p> - -<p>The modern Venetian way is to make the panels -perfectly flat on the surface, the cement being -spread over the tesserae when arranged face downwards. -The modern Venetian workmen will copy -a cartoon properly tesserated with the utmost -precision, as I have discovered, but his panels -have not the surface sparkle and variety of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>[pg 134]</span> -old work. The method of putting in the tesserae -from the front has however been revived since I -made my designs. The design by Sir Edward -Burne-Jones for the dome of the New American -Church at Rome was worked in this way, and recently -a mosaic altar-piece of "The Last Supper," -for a church in Philadelphia, was executed in this -way by Mr. and Mrs. Henry Holiday, the tesserae -being inserted in a layer of putty.</p> - -<p>In London we have the great work of Sir W. -B. Richmond in the choir of St. Paul's, which was -all worked from the surface—the tesserae being set -in red lead putty which, occasionally allowed to -show at the joints, gives a certain warmth of tone to -the whole. Whatever difference of opinion there -may be about the decoration of St. Paul's, the -designs of Sir William Richmond are exceedingly -fine and conceived in a noble spirit.</p> - -<p>Mr. Anning Bell has carried out a charming -design in mosaic worked from the surface for the -exterior of the Horniman Museum. One projected -for the exterior of the Whitechapel Picture -Gallery, from a design of my own, has not so far -been executed for want of funds.</p> - -<p>I have often thought, when looking at the -beautiful arrangements of tint in the fine shingle -of some of our sea beaches, that the materials for -a very effective kind of mosaic, at small cost, might -be found there, and adapted for the ornamentation -of the external walls of seaside houses, in friezes, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>[pg 135]</span> -strings, panels, or even entire walls. In thus reviving -the ancient art of pebble-mosaic, a charming -local character might thus be given to the -buildings of certain of our coast places which would -add very greatly to their attractions. The thing, -of course, would need some intelligence and taste, -without which indeed the most costly and beautiful -materials in the world may be wasted.</p> - -<p>One of the most charming and simple ways of -decorating external walls is to be found in the -patterns indented in the plaster of the surface filling -of half-timbered houses such as are so plentiful -in Suffolk and Essex. It is a characteristic and -ancient method which it is gratifying to note is -made use of by modern architects and builders -in that district. Figures and ornament in relief are -also used. A mixture of Portland cement and -lime is a good material for this purpose, as it does -not set too quickly, but finally sets hard and is -durable.</p> - -<p>Delicate plaster relief-work for ceilings and -friezes is also a very charming method of interior -decoration, and there are very fine examples -scattered over the country, though its original -home was, I presume, in Italy, whose craftsmen -still maintain their pre-eminence in the skill with -which they deal with the manipulation of all kinds -of plaster-work. Plaster and stucco must have -been largely used in ancient Rome, and there are -very beautiful, both bold and delicate, examples in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>[pg 136]</span> -the decorations of the famous tombs of the Via -Latina. In one instance, on a wagon vault, the -figures appear to have been worked directly in -the soft plaster and the relief-work is used with -vigorous indented lines. The effect of the work -is wonderfully direct, simple, and fresh, and suggests -having been done with speed and certainty. -Raphael, influenced no doubt by old Roman work, -introduced modelled portions in his painted designs -for the Loggia of the Vatican. The usual -modern method is to model the design in clay, -mould it in gelatine, and then cast it in fibrous -plaster panels (supposing it is for relief work) and -screw them in position, stopping the joints afterwards. -This, though it has many conveniences, -is not so artistic in its results as when the design -is worked directly in stucco or gesso in its proper -position; but if we could be sure of finding the -plasterers and craftsman to do it, we should but -rarely find the opportunity, or the client who would -allow time for such work <i>in situ</i>.</p> - -<p>A middle course is to model your design—say, -for a frieze or ceiling—in gesso or stucco of some -kind on fibrous plaster panels; and the design -may be planned so as to cut up into convenient-sized -panels to work on an easel in the studio, and -be fixed in position afterwards.</p> - -<p>I have worked panels in this way using plaster -of paris, thin glue, and cotton wool. The ground -should be wetted, or the suction stopped by a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>[pg 137]</span> -coat of shellac, or the work is apt to dry too -quickly and peel off.</p> - -<p>For delicate relief ornamentation, say, in wall -panelling and furniture, a kind of gesso duro is -good. This is a mixture of whitening, glue, boiled -linseed oil and resin. It is mixed to a creamy consistency, -the whitening being first soaked in water. -The gesso is laid on with a brush—long pointed -sable is best. The gesso sets slowly, but very hard, -so that any part of the work could be scraped down -if necessary.</p> - -<p>Another effective method for external and interior -work in decoration is sgraffito, also of Italian -origin. It consists in cutting or scratching a design -through one or more layers of mixed lime -and cement on to coloured grounds. A ground is -laid on the plaster of the wall, say, of black, made -by mixing black oxide of manganese and breeze -from a smith's forge with the cement. When this -is set, a layer of mixed lime and cement is laid -over the black, about a quarter of an inch or more -thick. When this layer has partly set, and is -about the consistency of cheese, you cut your -design out, its lines and masses defined by the -black ground beneath as you cut away the top -layer. Two or three colours may be used in the -same way, one being laid over the other, and the -effect produced by cutting down to the different -layers as you wish.</p> - -<p>I once came to a town in Bohemia, Pracatic, a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>[pg 138]</span> -wonderful old place, with a fine deep Gothic gateway, -with a fresco of a knight-at-arms over it. -The walls of the principal houses appear to have -been entirely decorated with designs in sgraffito. -The Rathaus or town hall was the most elaborate -and best preserved, and was covered with designs -from Bible story, divided by pilasters, and panelled -in scroll ornament.</p> - -<p>Sgraffito is still extensively used in Italy and -Germany, where one sees much more elaborate -work in it, and on a more extensive scale than -anything here, unless we except the considerable -and excellent work of Mr. Heywood Sumner in -this material. He, however, has used it chiefly for -interior wall decoration and churches. He generally -uses three colours, red, green, and black, by -which his large, simple, and bold designs are well -expressed. Our climate—more especially town -climate—is generally unfavourable to the effectiveness -and permanence of the work as exterior decoration. -There is, however, an excellent object -lesson in sgraffito of various kinds to be seen on -the back wall of the Science Schools at South -Kensington, the work of the late Mr. Moody.</p> - -<p>It seems curious that more has not been attempted -in the way of external decoration by -means of coloured and glazed tiles. The colour in -these is permanent enough, and good quality of -colour can be obtained. I fancy pleasant effects -could be produced by facing the front of houses -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>[pg 139]</span> -with coloured tiles, and introducing friezes and -plaques beneath and between the windows. The -ground story of many brick houses in London -streets are cemented and painted. Why not try -the effect of coloured tiles instead? Mr. Halsey -Ricardo, it may be mentioned, has used De Morgan -tile panels most effectively in a house he -designed in Addison Road, Kensington, which is -distinguished also by a beautiful roof of green -glazed tiles from Spain. Mr. Conrad Dressler has -also designed extensive mural decorations in a -kind of Luca della Robbia manner, which is very -effective. For splendour of effect, too, few things -could equal designs produced in lustre.</p> - -<p>Tiles, of course, have long held an undisputed -position as decorative linings for fire-places. A -new domestic application of them is suggested in -that little gem of a picture by Van der Meer of -Delft, recently added to our National Gallery, -where white Dutch tiles with blue figures are fixed -along the wall on the floor line, where one usually -sees the wooden skirting.</p> - -<p>Of the beauty of the effect of raised figures -treated in faïence colours and glazes as an architectural -decoration there is a splendid example in -the frieze of archers from the palace wall of -Darius, now at Paris, apparently made of moulded -bricks glazed with colour, a good reproduction of -which was to be seen in what was formerly the -architectural court at the Victoria and Albert -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>[pg 140]</span> -Museum; where also we could study the bold and -beautiful frieze of Luca della Robbia from the -Ospedale at Pistoia. One wants to see it in the -full Italian sunshine and in its proper architectural -setting fully to appreciate its fine decorative effect, -and it is to be regretted that these reproductions -of architectural decorative works are not exhibited -in the Museum with an indication of their framework -to show their relation to the buildings of -which they form part.<a id="footnotetag6" name="footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6"><sup>6</sup></a> It would be better to have -fewer examples properly displayed, I believe, than -a multitude crowded together, with no means of -judging of them in their proper relation to their -surroundings. If the examples were accompanied -by good and clear drawings or photographs of -the entire buildings it would be useful.</p> - -<p>At Pistoia, also, there is a charming porch to -the cathedral covered with Robbia ware in white, -yellow, and blue, in association with black and -white banded marble.<a id="footnotetag7" name="footnotetag7"></a><a href="#footnote7"><sup>7</sup></a> Such examples show with -what beautiful decorative effect majolica can be -associated with architecture.</p> - -<p>To Italy, again, we must look for the most -beautiful illustrations of the unity of painting -with architecture, from the work of Giotto at -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>[pg 141]</span> -Padua and Assisi to the crowning work of the -Renascence, the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel -by Michael Angelo. The most perfect example -of mural decoration in Italy I have seen, is, -however, to be found in the Appartimenti -Borgia in the Vatican, painted by Pinturrichio, a -very beautiful model of which can be studied in -the Victoria and Albert Museum (it was formerly -in the Italian Court). Here we have a scheme of -decoration at once restrained and rich, in strict -relation to the construction, and yet full of variety -and beauty of detail; and it is interesting, too, as -an example of the use of gilded gesso used both -for details in the wall pictures, as well as for -arabesque ornament, and bordering on the vaulted -ceiling. The lower wall was evidently originally -intended to be covered with tapestry hangings, as -there is a moulding with the little hooks to hold -them; and this would have completed the effect -of the whole in a rich and reposeful way. Another -very rich and beautiful instance of the earlier -Renascence mural painting may be seen in the -Riccardi Chapel at Florence by Benozzo Gozzoli. -Some full-sized copies are at South Kensington, -notably one of Lorenzo de Medici in a gilded -dress going a-hunting.</p> - -<p>The famous Campo Santo at Pisa, and the -frescoes in the town hall of Siena are fine instances -of the days when mural painting was a -living and popular art, frankly appealing to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>[pg 142]</span> -love of story and romance, vivid, dramatic, and -yet superbly decorative. Superior modern critics -might scorn such types of art as "literary," and -their <i>naïveté</i> as "childish"; but their story-telling -power is an inseparable part of their artistic form, -and never oversteps it, just as their decorative -instinct is in perfect accord and harmony with -their architectural conditions.</p> - -<p>This was long before the days of academies and -art schools, when there was no technical art -education outside the workshop, no competitive -examinations, and a man learnt his craft by apprenticeship -to it, beginning at the beginning, -under a master craftsman.</p> - -<p>I fail to see how any art can be wholly taught -or learned on general principles, since it is of the -nature of art to address itself to particular problems, -the conditions of which constantly vary. -Certain general principles have been evolved out -of collective practice of more or less value, no -doubt, in a general way, but they must always be -liable to qualification in their adaptation to particular -cases. Nothing of the nature of art can be -formulated as an exact science, happily, or the -limits of its invention and variety would soon be -reached. Art, however, has its scientific side, -though the science of art is not exactly scientific -or theoretic, but practical, and rather consists in -recognizing particular necessities of conditions -and materials, and the realizing that the frank -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>[pg 143]</span> -acknowledgment of the nature of these conditions -and materials leads, in all the varieties of design, -in association with craftsmanship and architecture, -to the highest beauty.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="page143a" id="page143a"></a> -<a href="images/143-740.jpg"><img src="images/143-350.jpg" width="350" height="472" alt="Patterns in plain leading," /></a> -<p class="center">Patterns in plain leading,<br /> -from "THE GLAZIER'S BOOKE."</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>[pg 144]</span></p> - -<p>The peculiar beauty of a stained glass window, -for instance, is entirely dependent upon this frank -acknowledgment of conditions. A screen of transparent -colour and pattern, defined and united by -leads, and held in position by iron bars. Directly -any attempt is made to overstep its natural limits—to -make it look like a painted picture, to get -chiaroscuro and vanishing points, or to try to -ignore the leading as an essential condition of its -existence—the charm and the joy of it is lost. -There is a distinct character and beauty both in -plain leaded glass and roundels throwing a pleasant -network of simple geometric lines over the -blankness of window-panes. Henry Shaw, in his -Glazier's Book,<a id="footnotetag8" name="footnotetag8"></a><a href="#footnote8"><sup>8</sup></a> gives a great variety of delightful -leading patterns.</p> - -<p>Now, any design for a coloured glass window -should, in the first place, be a good arrangement -of lead-lines, I think—a good pattern, in short, -whether figure subject or not—and, secondly, a -good pattern considered as an arrangement of -colour or jewelled light.</p> - -<p>The artistic designer and maker of a wrought-iron -gate, grille, or railing, whatever phantasy he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>[pg 145]</span> -might introduce, would never forget the essential -requirements of a gate, grille, or railing. He -would never forget the architectural relation of -his work, or rather he would make the chief -beauty and inventiveness of his treatment of -wrought iron spring out of that relation.</p> - -<p>The practice of modelling in clay (though it may -be useful in a student's training) designs intended -to be carved in wood, has, it seems to me, been -most destructive of the beauty and character of -true woodcarving. The same may be said of -stone and marble. The essential spirit and go of -the thing, the characteristic touch and treatment -which each material in which the designer works -claims as its own, and which is its own particular -reason for existing, these are, of course, lost or -tamed out of recognition when a copy is made of -something already existing in a material and produced -by a method totally different.</p> - -<p>Much better keep to simple mouldings and plain -painting than bring in ornament which has no -character or meaning of its own. We must not -confuse the mere spreading of ornament with -decoration in its true sense, for Design in all its -forms may be said to be governed by an architectural -instinct of its own, which makes it a harmonious -part of the building with which it is -united, and which unites it, and puts it in harmony -with itself.</p> - -<p>In the limits of a short paper it is impossible to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>[pg 146]</span> -do more than deal very lightly with so vast a subject -as the Arts allied to Architecture, and there are -many that I have not been able to touch at all, -since, properly considered, <i>all</i> the arts are, or -should be, allied to architecture, and the history -of architecture covers the history of human life -itself; and what, let us ask, would architecture be -without the associated arts which help to express -and adorn it and fit each part for the use and -service of man.</p> - -<blockquote> -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote6" name="footnote6"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag6">6:</a> -This was written before the arrangement of the collections -in the new building of the Victoria and Albert Museum was -complete.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote7" name="footnote7"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag7">7:</a> -An illustration of this porch is given in my "Bases of -Design."</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote8" name="footnote8"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag8">8:</a> -The full title is "A Booke of Sundry Draughtes. Principally -serving for Glasiers: And not impertinent for plasterers, -and gardeners: besides sundry other professions. London. -William Pickering 1848." It is almost wholly copied from an -older work "printed in Shoolane at the sign of the Falcon by -Walter Dwight 1615." -</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>[pg 147]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>NOTES ON COLOUR EMBROIDERY AND ITS TREATMENT</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>[pg 148]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>[pg 149]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>NOTES ON COLOUR EMBROIDERY AND ITS TREATMENT</h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">E</span>MBROIDERY as an art of design may be -considered from many different points of -view—but none of these are more important than -those of colour and its treatment. It is indeed to -colour that decorative needlework owes its chief -charm, and in no direction is the influence of controlling -taste more essential, and in its absence the -most elaborate workmanship and technical accomplishment -are apt to be wasted.</p> - -<p>The choice and treatment of colour must naturally -depend, in the first place, upon the object and -purpose of the work, which would, of course, decide -the scale and motive of its pattern.</p> - -<p>As applied to costume, in which direction we -find some of its most delicate and beautiful examples, -nearness to the eye, the construction of -the garment and the proportions of figure would -have to be considered.</p> - -<p>The Russian peasants have a form of frock or -long blouse worn by young girls, which affords an -instance of effective use of frank and bright colour -upon a white ground. The garment itself is of -homespun linen. It has a square opening for the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>[pg 150]</span> -neck, and is put on over the head, like a smock -frock. The sleeves are quite simple, full on the -upper arm and narrowing to a band on the wrist. -The skirt, which falls straight from the shoulders, -is decorated with a series of horizontal bands of -pattern worked in cross-stitch, the principal colours -being red and green, colours which always tell -well upon white. The square-cut opening at the -neck and the cuffs are emphasized by embroidered -pattern of similar kind but on a smaller scale. The -garment is ingeniously adapted to the growth of -its wearer by adding extra rings of pattern to the -skirt, and by enlarging a square piece let in at the -arm-pits.</p> - -<p>The Hungarian peasant women are most admirable -embroiderers, and in their festal costumes -display an extraordinary wealth of brilliant colour, -employing, like the Russian, principally the cross-stitch -on white linen. They are fond of decorating -the ends of their pillow-cases which are piled up -one upon the other on the bed, usually set against -the wall in their cottages, so that only the outside -ends show, and these alone are embroidered. Both -the patterns, which are traditional and have an -oriental character, and their colour show a strong -decorative sense and natural taste. Many of them -being worked in a single tone of red or blue, always -effective on white. In some parts short sleeveless -leather jackets lined with sheep's wool are worn. -These are made incredibly gorgeous in colour by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>[pg 151]</span> -a kind of combined <i>appliqué</i> and stitch embroidery, -the vivid greens, reds, blues, and purples being -kept in their place by the broad white of the shirt -sleeves which flank them on each side when worn.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"><a name="page151a" id="page151a"></a> -<a href="images/151-900.jpg"><img src="images/151-420.jpg" width="420" height="465" alt="RUSSIAN PEASANT EMBROIDERY" /></a> -<p class="center">RUSSIAN PEASANT EMBROIDERY</p></div> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>CHILD'S BLOUSE in home spun linen worked in cross-stitch</li> - -<li>Red pattern in cross stitch</li> - -<li>Red band</li> - -<li>Neck opening</li> - -<li>Red band</li> - -<li>Red pattern in cross stitch</li> - -<li>Square enlarging piece</li> - -<li>Red band herring bone stitched</li> - -<li>Blue (stitched)</li> - -<li>Pattern in Red (Cross stitch)</li> - -<li>Blue (stitched)</li> - -<li>Red band</li> - -<li>Red band</li> - </ul> - -<p>More austere arrangements are however found. -There is a large heavy overcoat, with hanging -sleeves and deep collar, worn by the Hungarian -farmers, made of white wool. This is ornamented -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>[pg 152]</span> -most judiciously by <i>appliqué</i> embroidery in black -and green. The chief points of decoration being -the collar, the cuffs, and the hem.</p> - -<p>In the Montenegrin section of the Balkan States -Exhibition at Earl's Court there were some -charming shirts and blouses embroidered with -gold thread and colour, in bands. The constructive -points, such as the neck opening, the junction -of the yoke and sleeves, sometimes the -sleeves themselves were richly ornamented with -designs in gold and colour with excellent effect.</p> - -<p>Good examples of treatment of rich colour in -combination with light pattern are to be found -among Cretan embroideries. The decoration in -bands of the ends of the muslin scarves, relieved -with silver and gold thread, often recalls the effect -of the illuminated borders of fourteenth and -fifteenth-century manuscripts, having a delightfully -gay and sparkling effect. These Cretan embroideries -are examples of the harmonious effect in the -arrangement of a number of different colours in the -same pattern, grouped around a central feature -which forms the dominating note; this is generally -in the form of a large red flower with a gold centre, -and this is surrounded with smaller detached star-like -flowers, and formal cypress trees in leaf-shaped -enclosures of gold or silver thread. The design -being repeated, with slight variations, to form a -band or border of pattern decorating the ends of the -scarf. In a sample before me eight colours are used, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>[pg 153]</span> -besides gold and silver thread. The colours are: -(1) red, in centre flower (a light vermilion); (2) -crimson (sometimes, alas, magenta); (3) pink (pale -salmon); (4) orange; (5) light (lemon) yellow (of -greenish tone); (6) olive (dark); (7) pale blue, and -(8) dark blue.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page153a" id="page153a"></a> -<a href="images/153-1000.jpg"><img src="images/153-600.jpg" width="600" height="376" alt="CRETAN EMBROIDERY." /></a> -<p class="center">CRETAN EMBROIDERY. Silk on Muslin, heightened with gold and silver thread.</p></div> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Colours:</li> -<li>1. Orange</li> -<li>2. Crimson</li> -<li>3. Red</li> -<li>4. Pink</li> -<li>5. Olive</li> -<li>6. Yellow (green)</li> -<li>7. Light blue</li> -<li>8. Dark blue</li> -<li>9. Gold</li> -<li>10. Silver</li> -</ul> - -<p>As every embroideress knows, colour in embroidery -is very much influenced by texture. The -colour of a skein of silk looking different from the -same colour when worked. Juxtaposition with -other colours, again, alters the effect of a colour. -As a general principle, especially where many -colours are employed, we are more likely to secure -harmony if we choose reds, for instance, inclining -to orange, blues inclining to green, yellows inclining -to green or brown, blacks of a greenish or olive -tone. Perfectly frank and pure colours, however, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>[pg 154]</span> -may be harmonized, especially with the use of -gold, though they are more difficult to deal with—unless -one can command the natural, primitive -instinct of the Hungarian, the Greek, or the Persian -peasant.</p> - -<p>For bold decorative work few kinds of embroidery -design are more delightful than the bordered -cloths and covers from Bokhara. Here, -again, the colours are chiefly red and green in -different shades, the reds concentrated in the form -of big flowers in the intervals of an open arabesque -of thin stems and curved and pointed leaves in -green, the whole design upon a white linen -ground.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="page154a" id="page154a"></a> -<a href="images/155-840.jpg"><img src="images/155-350.jpg" width="350" height="417" alt="BOKHARA EMBROIDERY." /></a> -<p>BOKHARA EMBROIDERY. Silk on linen, chiefly in chain stitch.<br /> -The large flowers are worked in two shades of rich red inclining to crimson with -yellow centres relieved by dark blue. The blue & yellow & red are repeated in the smaller flowers.</p> - -<p>The leaves are blueish green with a red line down centre. They are outlined with bronze brown -which I also used for the stems & spirals.</p> - -<p>Inner border, between red lines. The star flowers are alternately blue & red with yellow centres -with bronze leaves. The outer border, also between red lines. The flowers are red with blue & yellow -centres alternately, & green & bronze leaves.</p></div> - -<p>Such joyful, frank, and bold colour, however, -would be usually considered too bright for the -ordinary English interior, and under our gray -skies; and colour, after all, is so much a question -of climate, and though for its full splendour we -turn to the south and east, we need not want -for models of beautiful, if quieter, harmonies in -the natural tints of our native country at different -seasons of the year. There are abundant suggestions -to be had from field and hedgerow at all -times—arrangements in russet, or gold, or green. -What can be more beautiful as a colour motive -than the frail pink or white of the blossoms of the -briar rose, starring the green arabesque of thorny -stem and leaf; or its scarlet hip and bronze green -leaf in the autumn; or the crisp, white pattern of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>[pg 155]</span> -the field daisy on the pale green of the hay field, -relieved by the yellow centres and by the red of -sorrel; or the brave scarlet of the poppy between -the thin gold threads of the ripe corn. Then, too, -there are beautiful schemes of colour to be found -in the plumage of our birds. Take the colours of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>[pg 156]</span> -a jay, for instance—a mass of fawn-coloured gray -with a pinkish tinge, relieved with touches of intense -black and white and small bars of turquoise -blue and white. A charming scheme for -an embroidered pattern might be made of such -an arrangement, if the colours were used in -similar proportions to those of nature—say in a -costume.</p> - -<p>The mainspring of colour suggestion, as of -design, in embroidery, however, must be found in -Nature's own embroidery—flowers, and the garden -must always be an unfailing source of fresh suggestion -for floral design both in colour and form. -But, of course, everything in the process of -adaptation to artistic purposes is under the necessity -of translation or transformation, and any -form or tint in nature must be re-stated in the -terms proper to the art or craft under its own -conditions and limitations as being essential to the -character and beauty of the result, <i>suggestion</i>, -rather than imitation of nature, being the principle -to follow.</p> - -<p>But while we must go to nature for fresh inspiration -in colour invention or combination, we -have a guide in the traditions and examples of the -craft and the choice of stitches to influence our -treatment.</p> - -<p>The colour principles, too, we may find in allied -arts may help us.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="page156a" id="page156a"></a> -<a href="images/157-1000.jpg"><img src="images/157-450.jpg" width="450" height="431" alt="DESIGN FOR AN EMBROIDERED HANGING" /></a> -<p class="center">DESIGN FOR AN EMBROIDERED HANGING<br /><br class="b30" /> -Showing the use of shields of arms as contrasting -elements in colour & pattern</p> - -<p class="lh1">COLOURS:<br /> - -<span style="padding-left: 1em;">oak leaves - sage green.</span><br /> - -<span style="padding-left: 1em;">stone & acorns - golden brown on pale green or unbleached linen ground.</span><br /> - -<span style="padding-left: 1em;">Heraldic colours as noted on sketch</span></p> - -<p class="i2">ORIGINAL DESIGN BY WALTER CRANE.</p></div> - -<p>Heraldry, for instance, while shields of arms, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>[pg 157]</span> -crests, and mottoes, are in themselves excellent -material for embroidery, as units of embroidered -pattern. The principles of the disposition and -countercharge of colour in heraldry, and the methods -of its display and treatment in form as -exemplified in the heraldic design of the best -periods—say, from the twelfth to the fifteenth -century—will be found full of useful lessons. A -repeating pattern of leaves or flowers in a hanging -is pleasantly enriched and varied by the introduction -of heraldic badges or shields at intervals, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>[pg 158]</span> -emphatic concentrated colour and accent of the -heraldry contrasting with the less formal, open, -but evenly dispersed design with its recurring -units and counterbalancing curves which form the -main field of the hanging. Interesting heraldic -devices for such purposes may be found in every -locality, either of family, civic, or general historic -interest, our village churches being generally -valuable treasuries from this point of view.</p> - -<p>Where it is desired to restrict colour in embroidery -to two or three tints, and restricted -colour is generally suitable to simple decorative -purposes with corresponding simplicity of design, -it is safe to follow the principle of complementary -colours in nature. Red and green, blue and -orange, brown and yellow, and so on, but, of -course, this would leave an immense range of -choice of actual tint of any one colour open. -Your red, for instance, might be salmon pink or -deep crimson, your green that of the first lime -shoots in spring to the metallic bronze of the -holly leaf; your blue might be that of larkspur -or the turquoise of the palest forget-me-not, while -your orange might be that of the ripe fruit or the -tint of faded beech-leaf. Tasteful work, however, -may be done in two or three shades of the same -colour.</p> - -<p>The choice of tint for the embroidery must -depend largely upon the tint and material of the -ground, and also upon the material in which the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>[pg 159]</span> -work itself is to be carried out—silk, cotton thread, -or crewels. Whether, however, for designs which -entirely cover the ground, or for the lightest open -floral pattern, linen seems the material on which -the best results are produced.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>[pg 160]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>[pg 161]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>NOTES ON EARLY ITALIAN GESSO WORK</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>[pg 162]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>[pg 163]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>NOTES ON EARLY ITALIAN GESSO WORK</h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">T</span>HE charming varieties of decoration in relief -by means of modelled gesso and stucco which -attained to such richness and beauty in the hands -of Italian artists in the fourteenth and fifteenth -centuries, are traceable to very early origins, and -come down from Graeco-Roman and Roman times, -and probably had a still earlier existence in the -East, since decoration in raised gesso was long -practised by the Persians and the Arabs, and -plaster-work goes back to the ancient Egyptians, -who also used gesso grounds for the painting and -gilding of their mummy cases. Existing examples -of Roman and Pompeian relief work belong mostly -to the first century <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, and are of the nature of -architectural enrichments, being chiefly mural and -ceiling decorations, worked in plaster and stucco, -<i>in situ</i>. Many of these are very delicate and show -the influence of Greek feeling in design and treatment, -such, for instance, as those from the ceilings -of the tombs on the Via Latina at Rome, which -in their simple panelled treatment, enclosing -groups of finely modelled figures seem to be the -forerunners of the rich and delicate gesso relief -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>[pg 164]</span> -work, stamped, or modelled with the brush, which -the Italians used with such tact in the decoration -of caskets, marriage coffers, and other furniture -in the early renascence period. Mr. Millar in his -comprehensive work on "Plastering" speaks of a -very fine example of gesso work as existing in -the old cathedral church at Coire, a box which -is said to be as old as the ninth century. It is -entirely covered with gesso, on which a design in -relief has been roughly scrolled. The gesso has -been polished so as to give the appearance of -ivory, and he further says, "at the corners, where -it has got chipped off, the ends of the linen can -be seen which has evidently been put next the -wood, as Cennino Cennini advises."</p> - -<p>Cennino, indeed, in his very interesting "Trattato" -(which was translated by Mrs. Merrifield in -1844, for the first time into English, and recently, -more accurately and completely, by Mrs. Herringham) -gives very full and ample accounts of the -methods in use in his time in painting and the -allied arts, and gives recipes, also, both for making -and working gesso. He lays great stress on the -care necessary in preparing grounds on wood both -for painting and raised work, and in advocating -the use of "linen cloth, old, fine, and white, and -free from all grease," writes "take your best size, -cut or tear large or small strips of this linen, soak -these in the size, and spread them with your hands -over the surface of the panel; remove the seams, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>[pg 165]</span> -and spread the strips out with the palms of the -hands, and leave them to dry for two days." He -further enjoined one to "remember it is best to -use size when the weather is dry and windy. Size -is stronger in the winter than in summer, and in -winter gilding must be done in damp and rainy -weather." Then—Chapter 115—he proceeds to describe -the process of laying on the ground of gesso -over the linen. His "gesso grosso" used for the -ground, is burnt gypsum or what we know as -plaster of paris. The same, well-slaked, he uses for -finer grounds, and also for working in relief upon -such grounds.</p> - -<p>In Chapter 116 Cennino describes how to prepare -gesso sottile (slaked plaster of paris). The plaster, -he says, "must be well purified, and kept moist in a -large tub for at least a month; renew the water every -day until it (the plaster) almost rots, and is completely -slaked, and all fiery heat goes out of it, and -it becomes as soft as silk." This gesso is afterwards -dried in cakes and Cennino speaks of it in this -form as "sold by the druggists to our painters," -and that "it is used for grounding, for gilding, for -<i>working in relief</i>, and other fine works." These -cakes were scraped or soaked and ground to powder -and mixed with size for using as grounds and for -relief work, as occasion required (Chapters 117, 119). -In speaking further on (Chapter 124) of "how works -in relief are executed on panels with gesso sottile," -he says, "take a little of the gesso on the point of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>[pg 166]</span> -the brush (the brush must be of minever, and the -hairs fine and rather long), and with that quickly -raise whatever figures you wish to make in relief; -and if you raise any foliage, draw the design -previously, like the figures, and be careful not to -relieve too many things, or confusedly, for the -clearer you make your foliage ornaments, the better -you will be able to display the ingraining with -stamps and they can be better burnished with the -stone." He describes (Chapter 125) also methods -of casting relief work, "to adorn some parts of the -picture" which shows he is thinking of gesso enrichments -in painting, so much used by the early -painters.</p> - -<p>Cennino is said to have been living in Padua in -the year 1398. His treatise shows the care and -patience necessary to good workmanship in the -various arts and crafts he describes, and throws -much light upon the methods of the artist craftsman -of his time, and is of particular value and -interest as touching the subjects of tempera painting, -gilding, and, incidentally, of gesso-relief decoration, -to the ornamental effect of which both the -former are important contributors. Now there are -several distinct varieties of gesso work. Firstly -we have gesso relief used to adorn and enrich -painted panels, or as an adjunct to decorative -painting. Of this there are many instances: a -notable one may be cited in the frescoes of Pinturrichio -in the Appartamenti Borgia in the Vatican -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>[pg 167-168]</span><br /> -at Rome where the paintings are heightened by -gilded parts in relief, such as weapons and ornaments, -embroidery or robes, and even architectural -mouldings. The late Mr. Spencer Stanhope revived -this union of gilded gesso with decorative -painting, as in his work in the chapel at Marlborough -College. Other examples may be found -in our National Gallery. The superb collection of -Italian gesso work in the Victoria and Albert -Museum, unrivalled anywhere, from which, by the -courtesy of the late Mr. Skinner, who was Sir -C. Purdon Clarke's successor in the directorship,<a id="footnotetag9" name="footnotetag9"></a><a href="#footnote9"><sup>9</sup></a> -I am enabled to give my illustrations, may be referred -to as furnishing examples of every variety of -treatment in the craft, as well as of the taste and -invention and richness of early Italian decorative -design.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page167a" id="page167a"></a> -<a href="images/167-1000.jpg"><img src="images/167-600.jpg" width="600" height="203" alt="MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 5804—1859" /></a> -<p class="center">MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 5804—1859 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<p>As an adjunct to painting gilded gesso was -frequently used burnished and enriched with -stamped or punctured patterns (<i>granare</i>), often in -the form of nimbi around the heads of saints and -angels in devotional works, and in backgrounds. -Cennino (Chapter 142) speaks of this method -and gives directions in it. The Marriage Coffer -from the Museum, No. 5804—1859, illustrates this -treatment and is a good example of its highly -decorative effect. The front panel shows a very -rich and interesting design of figures in fifteenth -century Florentine costume, heightened with gilded -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>[pg 169-170]</span><br /> -parts in gesso having small punctured patterns -upon it, which give sparkle and variety to the gold. -This method seems to have been continued for -several centuries in Florence. I have an alms-dish -of early seventeenth century date, the centre of -which is treated in this way with punctured or -hollow pin-head patterns impressed upon a gilded -gesso ground.</p> - -<p>This method, it may be noted, has lately been -revived by Mrs. Adrian Stokes in association with -tempera painting.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page169a" id="page169a"></a> -<a href="images/169-1000.jpg"><img src="images/169-600.jpg" width="600" height="286" alt="ITALIAN CASSONE, NO. 317--1894" /></a> -<p class="center">ITALIAN CASSONE, NO. 317—1894 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<p>Stamped work, again, mentioned by Cennino, -is another distinct method in gesso decoration. Of -this a very beautiful example is the early fourteenth-century -Italian cassone (No. 317—1894). This -cassone is decorated with figures of knights and -ladies on horseback, in hawking and hunting array, -each figure being silhouetted in clear profile in a -separate square panel, in white, upon a black or a -red ground, alternately. These spaces or panels -are divided horizontally by bands of running -ornament in relief, and, vertically by bands of thin -wrought iron foliated at the edges which form -protecting and strengthening bands for the chest. -The stamps from which these figures were produced -must have been most delicately cut. They -are full of fine detail and charming in design. It -is not quite clear how they could have been so -cleanly stamped upon the ground, unless perhaps, -the edges and outlines were carefully gone round -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>[pg 171-172]</span><br /> -and cleared afterwards, or the paste in which they -were stamped, perhaps being slow in setting and -more or less elastic, might have allowed of their -being stamped cleanly out of the material separately -and applied to the gesso ground or the -chest afterwards.<a id="footnotetag10" name="footnotetag10"></a><a href="#footnote10"><sup>10</sup></a></p> - -<p>In design these figures (on the cassone illustrated) -are characterized by a certain graceful -severity, almost Greek-like in its ornamental -restraint, yet in the delicate invention and richness -of the decorative details of the costumes and housings -of the horses they are oriental in treatment.</p> - -<p>It has often been said that human figures cannot -be repeated with satisfactory decorative effect, -but this cassone is surely a striking instance to -the contrary, as the recurring effect of these -delicately silhouetted and slightly formalized figures -and horses is extremely refined and beautiful.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 230px;"><a name="page171a" id="page171a"></a> -<a href="images/171-480.jpg"><img src="images/171-230.jpg" width="230" height="464" alt="SHIELD IN GILDED GESSO" /></a> -<p class="center">SHIELD IN GILDED GESSO, -NO. 3—1865 (VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<p>We might be able to discover examples of gesso -decoration in which stamped work or moulded -work was used for repeating parts, and freehand -work for other parts. In the Museum examples -the majority seem to have been worked directly -with a free hand. There is a fine example of how -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>[pg 173-174]</span><br /> -gesso lends itself to a bold heraldic treatment in the -Museum collection (No. 3—1865), a tournament -shield on which a griffin, sable, is emblazoned on -a field, or. The sable griffin in bold relief is not only -a fine heraldic beast, but is decoratively spaced -and relieved upon the gold field, the richness of -which is greatly enhanced by the fine raised diaper -pattern worked all over it in effective ornamental -contrast to the bolder relief and treatment of the -charge. It is possible stamps may have been used -for the diaper of the field. The work belongs to -the second half of the fifteenth century and is from -the Palazzo Guadagni, Florence.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page173a" id="page173a"></a> -<a href="images/173-1000.jpg"><img src="images/173-600.jpg" width="600" height="225" alt="FRONT OF CASSONE IN GILDED GESSO, NO. 727--1884" /></a> -<p class="center">FRONT OF CASSONE IN GILDED GESSO, NO. 727—1884 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM)</p></div> - -<p>One of the charms of gesso work in ornamental -effect is the softened, floated, or half melted look -given to the forms which take the lustre of -gilding so agreeably. This character no doubt is -given by the use of the brush in floating or dropping -on the forms of the ornament. In No. 727—1884 -of the Museum collection a particularly -rich and dignified ornamental effect is produced -by the contrasting allied elements of the figure reliefs -in the large lozenge-shaped enclosures, with -the rich gilded formal diaper of the heraldic -sphinx, or human-headed lion, which, in close repetition, -forms the diaper on the main field of the -decoration. The raised work in this example has -the softened molten or beaten character above -spoken of. The marriage coffer (No. 718—1884) is -an instance of purely ornamental treatment in raised -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>[pg 175-176]</span><br /> -and gilded gesso on wood, consisting mainly of -foliated scroll forms characteristic of the early -Italian Renascence work, and here again the -raised patterns have the soft rich look, as if the ornament -had been squeezed or floated upon the -surface of the wood, somewhat in the way in which -confectioners squeeze sugar ornaments upon cakes. -Sugar, by the way was an occasional ingredient in -the preparation of gesso, as Cennino mentions.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a name="page175a" id="page175a"></a> -<a href="images/175-1000.jpg"><img src="images/175-560.jpg" width="560" height="278" alt="MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 718--1884" /></a> -<p class="center">MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 718—1884 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page175b" id="page175b"></a> -<a href="images/177-1000.jpg"><img src="images/177-600.jpg" width="600" height="229" alt="MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 247--1894" /></a> -<p class="center">MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 247—1894 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<p>No. 247—1894, is a marriage coffer of walnut -which has a symmetrically and formally planned -scheme of raised decoration in gesso upon its front -which suggests an earlier ornamental origin than -the actual date of its production, perhaps, given as -the end of the fourteenth century, as it resembles -in character the textile patterns of the thirteenth -century or earlier. The treatment of the gesso relief -work is peculiar, and it appears as if an extremely -softened, even and almost flattened effect -had been aimed at, without any special emphasis -on particular parts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page175c" id="page175c"></a> -<a href="images/178-1000.jpg"><img src="images/178-600.jpg" width="600" height="255" alt="MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 58--1867" /></a> -<p class="center">MARRIAGE COFFER, NO. 58—1867 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<p>The rich encrusted effect of another treatment -of gesso decoration characteristic of later fifteenth -century work is shown in the beautiful coffer, No. -58—1867, the painted shields of arms being in ornamental -contrast. Here we have an instance of -the use of painting to relieve gesso decoration, as -distinct from the use of gesso work to enrich the -effect in painting.</p> - -<p>Gesso decoration was also finely and freely -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>[pg 177-180]</span><br /> -used for small caskets and other objects and with -delightful results, as the rich Museum collection -again demonstrates.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page177a" id="page177a"></a> -<a href="images/179-1000.jpg"><img src="images/179-600.jpg" width="600" height="223" alt="COFFER, NO. 9--1890" /></a> -<p class="center">COFFER, NO. 9—1890 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<p>The coffret, No. 9—1890, is an interesting instance -of this adaptability of gesso and the extraordinary -variety and richness of effect obtainable; -almost emulating carved work in the bolder parts -of its relief, and yet with a softness and richness -of its own. The designs are singularly interesting -and spirited, and the whole work fully deserves the -encomium suggested by its motto (in Lombardic -letters on the lid) "Onesta e bella."</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>[pg 181]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>[pg 182]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/180-800.jpg"><img src="images/180-400.jpg" width="400" height="396" alt="GESSO BOX, NO. 5757--1859" /></a> -<p class="center">GESSO BOX, NO. 5757—1859 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<p>In No. 5757—1859 we have another good example -of gesso decoration on a small scale, and its -rich ornate effect in a well-balanced distribution of -ornament adapted to a circular form, showing the -fine sense of scale and quantity in ornament -which distinguishes Italian work of this period—the -first half of the fifteenth century.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 580px;"><a name="page182a" id="page182a"></a> -<a href="images/181-1000.jpg"><img src="images/181-580.jpg" width="580" height="276" alt="FRONT OF A COFFER, NO. 7830--1861" /></a> -<p class="center">FRONT OF A COFFER, NO. 7830—1861 -(VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM).</p></div> - -<p>Finally, in my last example (No. 7830—1861), -the panel of a coffer belonging to the early sixteenth -century, we see another use and treatment of gesso—to -soften and enrich the effect of woodcarving -and to make a good surface for gilding. The -figures here are carved in bold relief and overlaid -with a coating of gesso.</p> - -<p>All carved work to be gilded was treated in this -way with gesso, which greatly softens the effect, -giving a smooth surface for the gilding and increases -its richness, especially when done over -Armenian bole, which we may see was used under -the gilding of these raised gesso ornaments generally—another -method which is being revived with -the general revival of the forgotten arts of design -and handicraft in our own time.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -<span class="sc">Note.</span>—With reference to the early use of gesso, the extremely -interesting and remarkable recent discoveries of Prof. -Flinders Petrie in Egypt in the shape of mummies of the Roman -period of the first century <span class="sc">A.D.</span>, in addition to the light they -throw on antique portrait painting, show that gilded gesso enrichment -over linen was freely used at that period, some of the -masks being moulded, and the ornament apparently stamped, -the toes of each mummy being modelled and gilded and burnished, -and the wrappings relieved with gilded buttons of gesso. -</p></blockquote> - -<blockquote> -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote9" name="footnote9"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag9">9:</a> -Before the appointment of Sir Cecil Smith.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote10" name="footnote10"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag10">10:</a> -Cennino describes a method of cutting stamps in <i>stone</i> -(Chapter 170) to be used as moulds for figures to be applied -to the decoration of chests or coffers, but he speaks of beating -tin into these moulds and forming the figures in this way, afterwards -backing them or filling them in with gesso grosso, cutting -them out and sticking them on the chest with glue, gilding -them and adding colour and varnish. -</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>[pg 183]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS IN ART</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>[pg 184]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>[pg 185]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS IN ART</h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">L</span>OOKING back over the vast field of historic -art it is obvious that the representation of -animals has occupied a very important position—even -the prehistoric cave-men display their -artistic instinct in animal draughtsmanship, and -in that alone, and their naturalistic scratched and -incised outlines have set down for us in unerring -characterization, the forms of the mastodon, reindeer, -and other animals of the primitive hunter.</p> - -<p>Judging from these relics it would seem as if -naturalistic sketching preceded systematic ornamental -or decorative treatment of animals in -design such as distinguishes the art of the ancient -civilizations of the East.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;"><a name="page185a" id="page185a"></a> -<a href="images/186-590.jpg"><img src="images/186-280.jpg" width="280" height="470" alt="Egyptian treatment of birds." /></a> -<p class="center">Egyptian treatment of birds. -from hieroglyphics of the 18<sup>th</sup> Dynasty.<br/><br class="b30" /> - -Tombs of the kings. Thebes.</p></div> - -<p>Long before such systematization as we find in -ancient Egyptian art, no doubt the power of -depicting animals became important in the tribal -state, when it was necessary for each tribe to have -their distinguishing totem, and to be able to -establish their identity or respectability by unmistakable -portraits, if not of their ancestors, at -least of their protecting animal deities and symbolic -progenitors. Nature worship, which became -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>[pg 186-187]</span><br /> -elaborated in a symbolic religious system under -the ancient Egyptians, under the conditions of -mural and glyptic art led to that severe and -dignified formalism combined with essential characterization -in the treatment of birds and animals -which has never been surpassed and which have -given splendid types for the mural painter and -sculptor for all time. Heavier and more formal -and architectural in their sculptural treatment of -symbolic animals, such as the winged bulls which -form essential architectural features, the Assyrians, -when they came to the treatment of actual -scenes of life (such as the lion-hunts of their kings, -carved in low relief on the walls of their palaces,) -showed a freer and more naturalistic feeling which -breaks through a prevailing formalism and convention -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>[pg 188]</span> -sometimes with almost startling power, as -in the celebrated wounded lioness of the Nineveh -slabs in the British Museum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a href="images/187-1000.jpg"><img src="images/187-600.jpg" width="600" height="453" alt="Lion from Assyrian Bas-relief." /></a> -<p class="center">Lion from Assyrian Bas-relief.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page188a" id="page188a"></a> -<a href="images/188a-1000.jpg"><img src="images/188a-600.jpg" width="600" height="376" alt="Persian Lion from the frieze at Susa" /></a> -<p class="center">Persian Lion from the frieze at Susa -(Perrot & chipiez)</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="page188b" id="page188b"></a> -<a href="images/188b-1000.jpg"><img src="images/188b-600.jpg" width="600" height="442" alt="Lion from a Theban bas-relief." /></a> -<p class="center">Lion from a Theban bas-relief. -(Perrot & chipiez)</p></div> - -<p>There is a considerable resemblance in treatment -between the Assyrian lion in sculpture and -the lion of ancient Persia as he appears at the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>[pg 189-190]</span><br /> -palace of Susa, though, heightened with enamel, -the latter acquires a certain decorative and distinctive -ferocity. A lion from a Theban bas-relief -shows the simpler and more abstract treatment of -Egyptian art.</p> - -<p>This Perso-Assyrian type of lion might almost -be called a central Asian type, and is curiously -perpetuated in the well-known supporters of the -pillar over the gate of Mycenæ.</p> - -<p>In fact the later Greek lion shows marked traces -of his descent from his Asian prototypes. The -influence of the same decorative formalism, more -especially of the mane and hirsute appendages, is -indeed traceable through Byzantine times, from -the bronze lion of St. Mark to the heraldic lions -of the middle ages. The same influence is seen -again in the remarkable group of lions forming -the capital of a column discovered at Sarnath near -Benares in India, associated with many other -sculptures of Graeco-Buddhist origin.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="page189a" id="page189a"></a> -<a href="images/189-660.jpg"><img src="images/189-300.jpg" width="300" height="450" alt="Græco-Buddhist Group of Lions carved in marble" /></a> -<p class="center">Græco-Buddhist Group of Lions carved in marble -forming summit of a column excavated at Sarnath n^r. Benares</p></div> - -<p>For perfect monumental treatment of horses, -when truthful action and vitality are perfectly -united with linear rhythm and decorative effect, we -must still turn to the pan-athenaic frieze—despite -the opinion of the Yorkshire horse-dealer who -pronounced them "only damned galloways, not -worth ten pounds apiece!" They remain full of -life and movement and as examples of most delicate -relief sculpture governed by ornamental -feeling.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>[pg 191]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;"><a href="images/191-600.jpg"><img src="images/191-280.jpg" width="280" height="462" alt="Animal forms from early Greek pottery" /></a> -<p class="center">Animal forms from early Greek pottery</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>[pg 192]</span></p> - -<p>I should just like to mention, while speaking of -Greek art, the practice of the early vase painter, -who, frequently using animals as his main decorative -motive, had a system by which he was able -to harmonize many different kinds in, say, a running -border, or succession of borders. This was -done partly through the influence of the brush -and partly by the recognition of typical resemblances -even in apparently diverse forms. The -basis of unity was the oval or ovoid shape of the -bodies of all animals and birds. The vase painter -with his ornamental purpose in view exaggerated -this resemblance, governing his individual shapes -by a sort of invisible volute-like curves, he gained -a rhythmic decorative effect without loss of identity -in his forms.</p> - -<p>With the development of heraldry in mediaeval -times we come upon a world of spirited and -vividly decorative design in which the forms of -animals play a very important part. A very -instructive study might be made of the mediaeval -heraldic lion alone. The heraldic designer had to -be emphatic in his forms, and distinct though -simple in characterization. As with the Greek vase -painter, profile best served his purpose, and effective -silhouette became all important. When the -lion is "passant regardant" in mediaeval heraldry -the full face has a curiously human character, as -in the arms of Prince John at Eltham which Mr. -G. W. Eve gives in his "Heraldry as Art."</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>[pg 193]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/193-630.jpg"><img src="images/193-300.jpg" width="300" height="471" alt="The Lion in English heraldry." /></a> -<p class="center">The Lion in English heraldry.</p> - -<p class="center">Arms of Prince John of Eltham,<br /> Westminster Abbey.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>[pg 194]</span></p> - -<p>Among the finest examples of the treatment -of animals in decorative art of an heraldic and -symbolic character are the designs of the twelfth -and thirteenth-century textiles, in the celebrated -Sicilian silks, or those of Lucca of the fourteenth -century. In these fabrics the animal forms are -used with the greatest ornamental effect, the conditions -of the repeat of the pattern and the exigences -of the loom being essential, and, frankly -acknowledged, contribute to the character and -beauty of the result.</p> - -<p>It has always been the frank and workmanlike -acceptance of the necessary conditions of the -materials and methods of production, which, while -defining the character of the treatment, gives both -character and beauty to decorative art, and we -find this especially true in regard to the treatment -of animal forms in all kinds of design.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 210px;"><a name="page194a" id="page194a"></a> -<a href="images/195-450.jpg"><img src="images/195-210.jpg" width="210" height="459" alt="SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH)." /></a> -<p class="center">SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH).</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 170px;"><a name="page194b" id="page194b"></a> -<a href="images/196-360.jpg"><img src="images/196-170.jpg" width="170" height="461" alt="SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH)." /></a> -<p class="center">SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH).</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"><a name="page194c" id="page194c"></a> -<a href="images/197-550.jpg"><img src="images/197-260.jpg" width="260" height="467" alt="SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH)." /></a> -<p class="center">SICILIAN SILK, THIRTEENTH CENTURY (FISHBACH).</p></div> - -<p>The pursuit of superficial imitation in modern -times, the pictorial aim which includes atmospheric -effect and the representation of values, textures, -and surfaces, extending its influence over all the -arts of design has done much to destroy the dignity, -the character, and the decorative reserve of ancient -and mediaeval design in the treatment of animals; -the so-called naturalistic aim producing palpably -absurd effects in sculpture and in heraldry, for -instance. With the modern revival of design and -knowledge of the handicrafts this mistake has -been largely corrected. Artists have discovered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>[pg 195-198]</span> -the peculiar qualities proper to different materials -and processes and their value as means of expression -in design is much more generally understood -and acknowledged, while fresh study of -nature has helped, with these, to make a fresh and -appropriate convention in the treatment of animals -possible. The Japanese have taught us that marvellous -fidelity to nature may be united with -decorative effect in the treatment of animals—especially -birds and fishes, and that certain facts -of structure and surface or colour may become, -under skilful treatment, brilliant parts of a design—as -the scales of a fish in inlays of pearl, or in -lacquer: the plumage of a bird in silk embroidery, -or the system of structure of the feathers expressed -in the delicate lines of cloisonné enamel. Examples -of Chinese art might be referred to also for excellence -in the same qualities united with more -decorative reserve and dignity.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;"><a name="page195a" id="page195a"></a> -<a href="images/199-720.jpg"><img src="images/199-340.jpg" width="340" height="467" alt="FROM THE 'HUNDRED BIRDS' OF BARI." /></a> -<p class="center">FROM THE "HUNDRED BIRDS" OF BARI.</p></div> - -<p><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>I have not mentioned Indian art, except the -example at Sarnath, which, at least, as regards -the Hindu side abounds with examples of the -decorative treatment of animals, the temples being -frequently a mass of animal life in carving, -continuous courses being formed of elephants, -horses, and bulls in succession. The peacock, -too, being a sacred bird, constantly appears. At -the old palace of Man Mandir at Gwalior, Central -India, I saw a carved stone bracket in which -a peacock had been very effectively treated for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>[pg 199-201]</span> -its constructive purpose: and in the south, at -Tanjore, I saw the splendid bird, in the quick, -with tail like a sweeping robe, perched upon the -sacred colossal bull which, carved in black -stone (or marble, darkened with successive -libations of votive oil) reposes in the court of -the great temple, and whose living prototype -might easily be found drawing an ox-cart in the town.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a name="page198a" id="page198a"></a> -<a href="images/200-700.jpg"><img src="images/200-330.jpg" width="330" height="464" alt="Peacock bracket." /></a> -<p class="center">Peacock bracket.<br /> - -Man Mandir Palace.<br /> -Gwalior.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"><a name="page199a" id="page199a"></a> -<a href="images/201-380.jpg"><img src="images/201-180.jpg" width="180" height="468" alt="Elephant bracket" /></a> -<p class="center">Elephant bracket<br /> -Man Mandir Palace<br /> -Gwalior</p></div> - -<p><a name="page201a" id="page201a"></a>At Gwalior, too, I noted a treatment of -the elephant in a carved stone bracket in -the old palace of Man Mandir, which in structure -recalled the wondrous columns of the -temple at Steerungum at Trichinopoly in the -south, though in the latter case the subject -is mainly the horseman, but the resemblance -is in the arrangement which seems -characteristic of Indian (Hindu) carving. At the Guest House, Gwalior, -also, elephants' heads were treated ingeniously as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>[pg 202]</span> -the corbels supporting balconies. It was modern -work, but evidently influenced by the carvings in -the old palace above mentioned. There was an -abundance of floral carving and geometric pierced -work in this Guest House, besides, extremely skilful -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>[pg 203]</span> -and beautiful in detail, showing that the modern -Hindu architectural carver had by no means lost -his cunning. This, of course, was a native state.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;"><a href="images/202-580.jpg"><img src="images/202-270.jpg" width="270" height="459" alt="Elephant corbels GuestHouse Gwalior" /></a> -<p class="center">Elephant corbels<br /> -Guest House<br /> -Gwalior</p></div> - -<p>One almost wonders that golden images of -favourite race-horses are not set up in—well, some -of our public places, for it cannot be said -that there is no animal worship in our own country, though the -votive offerings in art usually take the form of sporting prints, or -paintings of fat stock with straight backs and short horns.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="page203a" id="page203a"></a> -<a href="images/203-860.jpg"><img src="images/203-400.jpg" width="400" height="460" alt="ELEPHANT CORBELS, GUEST HOUSE, GWALIOR." /></a> -<p class="center">ELEPHANT CORBELS,<br /><br class="b30" /> -GUEST HOUSE, GWALIOR.</p></div> - -<p>Animal painting was once an honoured and prosperous career in -England, and prints after Landseer covered -a considerable acreage in the early Victorian epoch. -Do not his lions still support Nelson in Trafalgar -Square, and perhaps afford some protection to unpopular -speakers on that historic plinth? I think, -however, most of us would prefer the little lion -which was modelled by Alfred Stevens, both as a -dignified representation of our National Totem and -as an example of native artistic style and treatment.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>[pg 204]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;"><a href="images/204-570.jpg"><img src="images/204-270.jpg" width="270" height="466" alt="Lion by Alfred Stevens," /></a> -<p class="center">Lion by Alfred Stevens,<br /> -formerly part of the outer iron railing<br /> -of the British Museum.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>[pg 205]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>MODERN ASPECTS OF LIFE AND THE SENSE OF BEAUTY</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>[pg 206]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>[pg 207]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/207-1000.jpg"><img src="images/207-560.jpg" width="560" height="280" alt="Pen Design by Walter Crane" /></a></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>MODERN ASPECTS OF LIFE AND THE SENSE OF BEAUTY</h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">T</span>HAT modern social and economic conditions -tend to destroy beauty in the outward aspects -of human life and nature: the thesis, thus stated, -would seem almost a self-evident proposition; yet -I am by no means sure that sensitiveness to beauty—or -to its absence—in our daily surroundings is so -very common (or even that there is a common -understanding as to the idea of beauty) that it -would obtain general assent without further explanation; -and as I have undertaken to open the -case for the prosecution, if I may so term it, I will -try to put before you my reasons and conclusions -on the matter.</p> - -<p>My first witness shall be London, as London is -typical and focusses most of the effects of modern -social and economic conditions. Now, we hear a -great deal of the beauty of London, but probably -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>[pg 208]</span> -those who talk of her beauty are really thinking -of certain beauty spots or the picturesqueness of -certain favoured localities where the Thames and -the parks come in. Vast as London is, most of us -really live for the most part in a comparatively -small London. Outside our usual haunts lies a -vast unknown region, of which indeed occasional -glimpses are obtained on being obliged to travel -across or through the desert of the multi-county-city.</p> - -<p>Those whose London is bounded on the west -by Kensington Gardens and on the east by Mayfair, -do not figure to themselves Clerkenwell or -Ratcliffe Highway, Bethnal Green or Bow, and -would not care to embrace the vast new suburbs -spreading over the green fields in every direction, -or even to notice the comparatively select slums in -the shadow of Belgravian mansions. Supposing -we approached our metropolis by any of the great -railway lines, there is nothing to indicate that we -are entering the greatest and wealthiest city in the -world. We pass rows and rows of mean dwellings—yellow -brick boxes with blue slate lids—crowded -close to the railway in many places, with -squalid little backyards. We fly over narrow streets, -and complex webs and networks of railway lines, -and thread our way through telegraph and telephone -wires, myriad smoking chimney-pots, steaming, -throbbing works of all kinds, sky signs, and the -wonders of the parti-coloured poster hoardings—which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>[pg 209]</span> -pursue one into the station itself, flaring on -the reluctant and jaded sight with ever-increasing -importunity and iteration, until one recalls the -philosopher who remarked "Strange that the -world should need so much pressing to accept -such apparently obvious advantages!"</p> - -<p>Inside the station, however large, all sense of -architectural proportion is lost by the strident -labels of all sorts and sizes, and banal devices on -every scale and in every variety of crude colour, -stuck, like huge postage stamps, wherever likely to -catch the eye.</p> - -<p>The same thing meets us in the streets: in the -busier commercial quarters, too, it is a common -device to hang the name of the firm in gigantic -gilt letters all over the windows and upper stories -of the shops; while the shops themselves become -huge warehouses of goods, protected by sheets of -plate glass, upon the edges of which apparently -rest vast superstructures of flats and offices, playfully -pinned together by telegraph poles, and hung -with a black spider's web of wires, as if to catch -any soaring ideas of better things that might escape -the <i>melée</i> of the street. In the streets a vast crowd -of all sorts, sizes and conditions is perpetually -hurrying to and fro, presenting the sharpest contrasts -in appearance and bearing. Here the spruce -and prosperous business man, there the ragged -cadger, the club idler, and the out-o'-work; there -the lady in her luxurious carriage or motor, in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>[pg 210]</span> -purple and fine linen, and there the wretched seller -of matches.</p> - -<p>Modern street traffic, too, is of the most mixed -and bewildering kind, and the already too perilous -London streets have been made much more so by -the motor in its various forms of van and 'bus, -business or private car. The aspect of a London -street during one of the frequent traffic blocks is -certainly extraordinary, so variously sorted and -sized are the vehicles, wedged in an apparently -inextricable jumble, while the railways and tubes -burrowed underground only add fresh streams of -humanity to the traffic, instead of relieving it.</p> - -<p>Yet it has been principally to relieve the congested -traffic of London that the great changes -have been made which have practically transformed -the town, sweeping away historic buildings -and relics of the past, and giving a general impression -of rapid scene-shifting to our streets.</p> - -<p>The most costly and tempting wares are displayed -in the shops in clothing, food, and all the -necessities of life, as well as fantastic luxuries and -superfluities in the greatest profusion—"things that -nobody wants made to give to people who have no -use for them"—yet, necessities or not, removed -only by the thickness of the plate-glass from the -famished eyes of penury and want.</p> - -<p>The shops, too, are not workshops. The goods -appear in the windows as if by magic. Their -producers are hidden away in distant factories, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>[pg 211]</span> -working like parts of a machine upon portions of -wholes which perhaps they never see complete.</p> - -<p>Turning to the residential quarters, we see -ostentation and luxury on the one hand, and -cheap imitation, pretentiousness, or meanness and -squalor on the other. We see the aforesaid brick -boxes packed together, which have ruined the -aspect of most of our towns: we have the pretentious -suburban villa, with its visitors' and servants' -bells; we have the stucco-porticoed town "mansion," -with its squeezy hall and umbrella stand; -or we have the "desirable" flat, nearer to heaven, -like the cell of a cliff-dweller, where the modern -citizen seeks seclusion in populous caravansaries -which throw every street out of scale where they -rear their Babel-like heads.</p> - -<p>I have not spoken of the gloom of older-fashioned -residential quarters, frigid in their respectability, -which, whatever centres of light and -leading they may conceal, seem outwardly to turn -the cold shoulder to ordinary humanity, or peep -distrustfully at a wicked world through their fanlights.</p> - -<p>Many of the features I have described are -found also in most modern cities in different degrees, -and are still more evident in the United -States, where there is nothing ancient to stem -the tide of modern—shall we say progress? It -is only fair to note, however, that there is a movement -in New York, in which leading architects -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>[pg 212]</span> -and artists are joining with municipal reformers, -for the preservation of beauty in the better ordering -of street improvements, the laying out of -public places, and the general recognition of the -social importance of harmony and pleasant effect -in cities, which has lately found expression in -schemes of town-planning and garden cities and -suburbs in this country.</p> - -<p>Turning from the aspects of their houses to -the humans who inhabit them—take modern dress -in our search for the beautiful! Well, national if -not distinctive costume—except of the working -and sporting sort, court dress, collegiate and -municipal robes, and uniforms—has practically -disappeared, and, apart from working dress in -working hours, one type of ceremonial, or full -dress is common to the people at large, and that -of the plainest kind—with whatever differences -and niceties of cut and taste in detail—I mean -the type for men, of course.</p> - -<p>Among the undisputed rights of women the -liberty to dress as she pleases, even under recognized -types for set occasions, and with constant -variety and change of style, is not a little important, -and it is a liberty that has very striking effects -upon the aspects of modern life we are considering. -It is true, this liberty may be checked by the -decrees of eminent <i>modistes</i>, and limited by the -opinion of Mrs. Grundy, or the frank criticism of -the boy in the street; and it is even more than -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>[pg 213]</span> -probable that the exigencies of trade have something -to do with it also.</p> - -<p>It is, however, too important an element in the -<i>ensemble</i> of life to be ignored or undervalued in -any way, as women's dress affords one of the few -opportunities of indulging in the joy of colour that -is left to civilization.</p> - -<p>Men suffer the tyranny of the tall silk hat as -the outward and visible sign of respectability—surely -a far more obvious one nowadays than -Carlyle's "gig." "Gigmanity" has become top-hat-manity. -The "stove-pipe" is the crown of -the modern king—financier—the business man—<i>He</i> -"who must be obeyed." I understand it is -still as much as a city clerk's place is worth for him -to appear in any other head-gear. Ladies, too, encourage -it, with the black-frock coat and the rest -of the funereally festive attire of modern correct -mankind. I suppose the garb is considered to act -as an effective foil to the feast of colour indulged -in by the ladies, and that it may act as a sort of -black framing to fair pictures—black commas, -semi-colons, or full-stops, agreeably punctuating -passages of delicate colour!</p> - -<p>The worst of it is that the beauty of woman's -dress, when it happens to follow or revive a fashion -with great possibilities of beauty, as at present, -seems to be a matter almost of accident, and -entirely at the mercy of the mode (or the trade?)—here -to-day and gone to-morrow; and, alas, lovely -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>[pg 214]</span> -woman, our only hope for variety in colour and -form in modern life, in her determination to descend -into the industrial and professional arena -and compete commercially with men, not unfrequently -shows a tendency to take a leaf out of -her rival's tailor's pattern-book, and to adopt or -adapt more or less of the features of modern man's -prosaic, though possibly convenient and durable, -but certainly summary and unromantic attire.</p> - -<p>Well, I think, on the whole, the pictures which -modern life in London or any great capital discloses -may be striking in their contrasts, vivid in -their suggestions, dramatic or tragic in their -aspects—anything or everything, in fact, <i>except</i> -beautiful; except, of course, in so far as accidental -effects of light and atmosphere are beautiful, -mainly, perhaps, because they disguise or transfigure -actually unlovely form and substance.</p> - -<p>The essential qualities of beauty being harmony, -proportion, balance, simplicity, charm of -form and colour, can we expect to find much of it -in conditions which make life a mere scramble -for existence for the greater part of mankind? -Bellamy, in his "Looking Backward," gives a -striking and succinct image of modern social and -economic conditions in his illustration or allegory -of the coach and horses. The coach is Capitalism. -It carries a minority, but even these struggle for -a seat, and to maintain their position, frequently -falling off, when they either go under altogether, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>[pg 215]</span> -or must help to pull the coach with the majority -toiling in the traces of commercial competition.</p> - -<p>However these conditions may, among individuals, -be softened by human kindness, or some -of their aspects modified by artistic effort, they -do not change the cruelty or injustice of the -system, or its brutal and ugly aspects in the -main.</p> - -<p>But if modern civilization is only tolerable in -proportion to the number and facility of the means -of escape from it, perhaps we may find at least -the beauty of the country and of wild nature unimpaired?</p> - -<p>Do we? We may escape the town by train or -motor—running the risk in either case of a smash—but -we cannot escape commercial enterprise. -The very trees and houses sprout with business -cards, and the landscape along some of our principal -railway lines seems owned by the vendors of -drugs. Turning away our eyes from such annoyances, -commercial enterprise, again, has us in all -sorts of alluring announcements of all sorts and -sizes in innumerable newspapers and magazines, -which, like paper kites, can only maintain their -position by extensive tails. The tail—that is, the -advertisement sheets—keeps the kite flying—and -the serial tale keeps the advertisers going, perhaps, -also. Anyhow, the gentle reader is obliged -to take his news and views, social or political, -sandwiched or flavoured with very various and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>[pg 216]</span> -unsought and unwanted condiments, pictorial or -otherwise. Thus, public attention is diverted and—nobody -minds! But it is in these insidious ways -that that repose or detachment of mind favourable -to the sense of beauty is destroyed, and thus, to -put it in another way, we are in danger of losing -our lives, or the best that life can give, in getting -our living—or, well, perhaps it might be true to -say in some cases, a substantial percentage on our -investments.</p> - -<p>In obedience, too, to the requirements of the -great god Trade, whole districts of our fair country -are blighted and blackened, and whole populations -are made dependent upon mechanical, monotonous, -and often dangerous toil to support the -international commercial race for the precarious -world-market.</p> - -<p>Under the same desperate compulsion of commercial -competition, agriculture declines, and the -country side is deserted. The old country life, -with its festivals and picturesque customs, has -disappeared. Old houses, churches, and cottages -have tumbled into ruin, or have suffered worse -destruction by a process of smartening up called -"restoration." The people have crowded into the -overcrowded towns, increasing the competition for -employment, the chances of which are lessened by -the very industry of the workers themselves, and -so our great cities blindly become huger, more -dangerous, and generally unlovely, losing, too, by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>[pg 217]</span> -degrees their relics of historic interest and romance -they once possessed.</p> - -<p>Even in the art-world, and among the very -cultivators of beauty we detect the canker of commercialism. -The compulsion of the market rules -supply and demand, and the dealer becomes more -and more dominant. The idea of the shop dominates -picture shows, and painters become almost -as specialized as men of science, while genius, or -even ordinary talent, requires as much puffing as -a patent medicine. Everyone must have his trade -label, and woe to the artist who experiments, or -discovers capacities in himself for other things -than his label covers.</p> - -<p>Every new and sincere movement in art has -been in direct protest and conflict with the prevailing -conditions, and has measured its progress -by its degree of success in counteracting them, -and, in some sense, producing new conditions. -The remarkable revival of the handicrafts, or -arts and crafts movement, of late years may be -quoted as an instance; but it is a world within -a world; a minority producing for a minority; -although the movement has done valuable work -even as a protest, and has raised the banner of -handwork and its beauty in an age of machine -industry.</p> - -<p>Other notable movements of a protesting, protective, -or mitigating nature are at work in the -form of societies for the protection of ancient -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>[pg 218]</span> -buildings, for the preservation of historic spots and -the beauty of natural scenery, for the abolition or -abatement of the smoke nuisance, for checking -the abuses of public advertisement, for the increase -of parks and open spaces, and for spreading the -love of art among the people.</p> - -<p>Indeed, it would seem as if the welfare of -humanity and the prospects of a tolerable life -under modern conditions were handed over to -such societies, since it does not seem to be anybody's -business to attend to what should be everybody's -business, and we have not even a minister -to look after such interests. The very existence -of such societies, however, is a proof of the danger -and destruction to which beauty is exposed under -modern conditions.</p> - -<p>Social conditions are the outcome of economic -conditions. In all ages it has been the system -under which property is held—the ownership of -the means of production and exchange—which -has decided the forms of social life. The expansion -of capital and the power of the financier are essentially -modern developments, as also is unrestricted -commercial competition, though this seems to lead -to monopoly—a heretofore unexpected climax. -Modern existence in such circumstances becomes -an unequal race or scramble for money, place, -power, or mere employment. The social (or rather -<i>un</i>social) pressure which results really causes those -sordid aspects, pretences, aggressions, and brutal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>[pg 219]</span> -contrasts we deplore. Private ownership is constantly -opposed to public interest. The habit of -regarding everything from the narrow point of view -of money value and immediate profit as the determining -factors in all transactions obscures larger -issues and stultifies collective action for the public -good.</p> - -<p>Ladies and gentlemen of the jury of public opinion, -perhaps I have said enough to support the case of -beauty against modern social and economic conditions. -I do not ask for damages—they are incalculable. -She stands before you, a pathetic figure, -obscured in shreds and patches, driven from pillar -to post, disinherited, a casual, and obliged to beg -her bread, who should be a welcome and an -honoured guest in every city and country, and in -every house, bearing the lamp of art and bringing -comfort and joy to all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>[pg 220]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>[pg 221]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3 class="lh">A SHORT SURVEY OF THE ART OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY<br /> - -WITH SOME NOTES ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>[pg 222]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>[pg 223]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/223-1000.jpg"><img src="images/223-560.jpg" width="560" height="286" alt="Pen Design by Walter Crane" /></a></div> - -<h2 class="lh">A SHORT SURVEY OF THE ART OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY,<br /> -CHIEFLY IN ENGLAND,<br /> -WITH SOME NOTES ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS</h2> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">A</span>HUNDRED years is but an arbitrary -division of time, and yet one cannot help -investing the centuries with a sort of personality -as they pass, each distinguished by certain characteristics, -particular movements, and habits of -thought as well as of life and its aspects, and -above all by the spirit and forms of the art to -which they have given birth.</p> - -<p>If we could summon a typical figure with proper -accessories to illustrate each epoch we should get -a vivid if somewhat symbolical idea of the varying -phases of thought and art, and the passing fashions -in taste which the past has witnessed.</p> - -<p>Few centuries, perhaps, would be more difficult -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>[pg 224]</span> -to comprehend in a single figure than the nineteenth, -displaying as it does in the course of its -history so many diversities—revolutions we might -say—in artistic development.</p> - -<p>In its early years, inheriting its taste and fashions -from the eighteenth century, when handicraft was -still the principal means for the production of -things of both use and adornment, the nineteenth -century has witnessed a complete revolution in -commercial and industrial conditions, with the -development of the factory system, competition, -and the demands of the world-market. It has seen -the great machine industries take the place of the -former minute subdivision of labour, and in the -process of both subdivision of labour and the -development of machine industry all forms of -production have been affected.</p> - -<p>The former local centres of supply have disappeared -with self-dependent homesteads and village -industries, and with the decline of handicraft -traditions of design and construction have been in -this country well-nigh completely broken, except -in some trades, such as the cartwright's and the -wheelwright's and the harness maker's. We still -see in our beautiful country wagons the chamfers -and ogee forms in the woodwork and the gay -painting of mediaeval times, and our noble shire -horses are often brave with bright brass ornaments -which perpetuate traditional patterns, moulded or -pierced; while the descendants of Wayland Smith -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>[pg 225]</span> -still ply their trade at the village forge, though -mainly limited to horseshoes.</p> - -<p>But machine industry and the factory and production -for profit rather than for use, having nearly -extinguished all sense of art and individual taste -in the useful arts which contribute to the comfort -and decoration of the home, in the later years of -the century, seem to have evoked, by the mere -force of reaction and revulsion of feeling, that -remarkable revival of decorative design and handicraft -which has distinguished its closing years, -under the influence of which many beautiful crafts -have been successfully recovered and practised -with success, while trade itself has not been slow -to derive new ideas from the Arts and Crafts movement.</p> - -<p>The main principles inspiring the promoters -of this movement have been the unity of the arts -allied with and controlled by architecture, and the -due acknowledgement of the artistic responsibility -of the designer and craftsman.</p> - -<p>With regard to the architecture of the nineteenth -century we may see nearly every past fashion of -its history revived in turn, until some of our eclectic -architects seem to have evolved something like a -characteristic domestic style, at least, characteristically -mixed in its constructive and decorative -features, but certainly adapted to modern requirements.</p> - -<p>The classical forms in building, which attained -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>[pg 226]</span> -a certain heaviness and Dutch plainness under -the Georges, underwent a transformation with the -revival of Greek and Roman taste in the Empire -period. From that time onward classical columns -and pilasters and classical details of varying proportions -became embedded, as it were, in our -domestic architecture, and as a consequence the -more-or-less-Doric portico still dominates large -residential districts of London. Their columned -ranks, however, have latterly been greatly broken -in some quarters by the cheerful red brick fronts -and white sashes of the Queen Anne revival, which -have, in some instances, in response to the demand -for "residential flats," even got upon stilts and -nod at us from the many-gabled top stories of the -modern caravansary.</p> - -<p>Street architecture in later Victorian days became -a masquerade in building materials, since -the design of the façade bears little or no relation -to the hidden structure of steel framing by which -our many-storied piles are held together, while, -apparently, when there are shops on the ground -floor the whole mass has the effect of playfully -reposing upon the edges of great sheets of plate -glass.</p> - -<p>The use of terra-cotta, or cut-brick enrichments -have been a welcome relief from the doleful -gentility of the white brick, or the depressing -gray stucco which has cast a peculiar gloom over -some respectable neighbourhoods.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>[pg 227]</span></p> - -<p>In church architecture the Gothic revivalists -have carried all before them. At one period of -the nineteenth century, indeed, when the restoring -zeal was at its height and nothing was acceptable -but something "early English," there was considerable -reason to fear that the architects would leave -nothing behind them!</p> - -<p>But we have had really distinguished work -from men like Butterfield (the architect of All -Saints, Margaret Street), William Burges, and -J. D. Sedding, while domestic architecture both in -town and country has been developed on new lines -by Mr. Norman Shaw, Mr. Philip Webb, and -their able followers of the younger generation.</p> - -<p>In sculpture we may trace an analogous line of -development, from the severe, graceful, but somewhat -cold classical style of Flaxman and the more -dramatic Canova, or the sentiment of Thorvaldsen, -freezing into the later classicism of Gibson on the -one hand, or breaking out into the realisms -and trivialities of the modern Italian School. In -England, inspired by the study of nature and -cultivation of style chiefly under the influence of -the works of Phidias and the Florentine masters -of the fifteenth century, a school of considerable -distinction and force has arisen. We had one, at -least, really great master in Alfred Stevens standing -almost alone as a modern expositor of renascence -traditions. He has been succeeded by men -of taste and refinement like the late Onslow Ford, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>[pg 228]</span> -or the accomplishment, beauty of design, and -vigour of expression of the late Harry Bates, not -to mention living exponents of sculpture quite as -distinguished. Among the younger school the continental -influence of Meunier and of Rodin may be -noted.</p> - -<p>To continue our rapid and necessarily imperfect -survey, in the field of painting, again, the course -of development through changes of feeling and -aim is even more emphatically marked, as might -be expected from that most sensitive and impressionable -of the arts.</p> - -<p>The domination of the older Academic traditions -in artistic education and practice was only broken -fitfully in the first quarter of the century by such -meteoric influences as that of William Blake, who -with his vivid and inspired vision of a world of -spiritual, imaginative, and symbolic beauty was -in open revolt against the classical coldness and -the conscious prettinesses and pretences of his -time in art, as well as against the prosaic calculating -spirit of a commercial epoch.</p> - -<p>Sir Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough -as well as Hogarth left their mark on the methods -in English painting and raised a standard of workmanship -in the eighteenth century which has not -since been approached in the same direction, -though many charming artists in the figure and -landscape, such as George Morland, succeeded -them; while later we have the anecdotic and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>[pg 229]</span> -incident pictures of David Wilkie which established -a characteristic British type.</p> - -<p>The remarkable work of J. M. W. Turner is -perhaps more characteristic of the first half of the -nineteenth century than that of any other English -painter. Trained in the restricted and reserved -methods of the early landscape school learned -from Italy and France, with extraordinary industry -and facility as a draughtsman, and a keen sense -of composition, his development under different -influences, from the classical landscape school of -Claude Lorraine and Nicolas Poussin to the romantic -feeling of Titian and Salvator Rosa, or the -quiet pathos and precision of touch of the Dutch -masters, and above all of the close and constant -observation of nature in all her varying moods, -and in nearly all European countries, may be -seen in the unrivalled record of work he has left, -and in the splendid collection in the National -Gallery.</p> - -<p>Turner seems to express the general movement -of the half-century's life and moods of thought -more completely than any other artist. Classical, -romantic, mythological, naturalistic, impressionistic, -in turn; from the serene atmosphere, lucent -skies, and deep umbrage of classical landscapes, -with their nymphs and shepherds, we may follow -the course of his mind to the "Rain, Steam, and -Speed" of the Great Western Railway.</p> - -<p>It is a wide reach, but Turner's art illuminates -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>[pg 230]</span> -the smoke and the stir and stress of the industrial -and revolutionary nineteenth century, like a rainbow -spanning a stormy sky.</p> - -<p>And what of its last fifty years? They have -seen the rise, formation and decline of the pre-Raphaelite -School. That strong and earnest movement -emanating from a small group of enthusiastic -young painters, seeking sincerity of expression -with thoroughness of workmanship and profound -study of nature. The names of Holman Hunt, -J. E. Millais, D. G. Rossetti and Ford Madox -Brown and Frederick Sandys will always be -associated with this important epoch in English -painting. Their works have exercised a potent -influence far beyond their own immediate circle, -and have affected many different developments, -forming the root and stem as it were of many -different branches.</p> - -<p>To this source (whether as reactive or related -influences) we may trace back the two chief and -vital distinctive directions into which modern -painting may be broadly divided—impressionism -on the one hand and the pursuit of decorative -beauty tinged with poetic feeling and romance on -the other, this latter being allied with a further -important movement concerned with the revival -of design and the artistic handicrafts, known as -the Arts and Crafts movement.</p> - -<p>With this the names of William Morris and -Burne-Jones will always be associated, and they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>[pg 231]</span> -both link hands with the original group of the -pre-Raphaelites.</p> - -<p>Among later influences upon art generally that -of the Japanese cannot be left out of account as its -effects have been considerable in many directions -and may be said to have had an enormous influence -upon the art of Whistler. Despite, however, the -marvellous skill of Japanese craftsmanship, owing -to the fantastic spirit of their design, and the -absence of the steadying and controlling influence -of stone construction in their architecture, their -art has had more effect upon our impressionistic -school than upon our arts and craftsmen, and it -is rather by the work of the latter type and -the movement it represents that the art of the -close of the last century is more distinctively -characterized.</p> - -<p>The study of Japanese art, however, leads us -back to its source in the graver and more serious -art of China, where its prototypes may be found in -nobler forms.</p> - -<p>The opening of the twentieth century has -brought great changes—changes in the aspects of -life, changes in the temper of the nation. Action -and reaction which govern the world, also influence -the world of thought and of art. The pendulum -of taste swings between the classic and the -romantic moods and modes. It has of late swung -again towards the classical side and manifests itself, -as regards decoration, in the vogue of plain white -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>[pg 232]</span> -walls, classical columns and pilasters and cornices, -and an almost puritan fear of any other kind of -ornament. When colour and pattern <i>are</i> indulged -in they mostly show a reversion to the fashions of -the early Victorian age of French origin or pre-Morrisian -types. What was once denounced as -hideous has now become old fashioned enough to -be found historically interesting.</p> - -<p>In painting, what might be termed a cult of the -ugly, indeed, seems to have fascinated many of -our vigorous artists. This may be the result of -a reaction against early Victorian prettiness, and -quasi-classical elegance. There has also been a -decadent influence at work in our latter-day art. -This also manifested itself in that strange decorative -disease known as "L'Art Nouveau," which some -writers have actually asserted was the offspring of -what properly considered was really its antithesis—the -Morris school of decoration. Some of the -forms of "L'Art Nouveau" may have been the -result of the translation into continental modes of -some kinds of British, or rather Scottish, design, -initiated by certain designers of the Glasgow -school, and it is in this direction, I think, that we -should be more likely to discover its true genesis. -To father it on the Morris school is much as if -one were to say that impressionism was a development -of the pre-Raphaelite movement, whereas it -was a reaction. The followers of both schools, no -doubt, sought to restate natural fact or phase, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>[pg 233]</span> -but on totally different principles and in absolutely -opposed terms of art.</p> - -<p>With the passing of the impressionist masters, -again, we see a counter movement in what are -called the "post impressionists." Here, again, -principles, methods of conception, observation, -selection, and execution are totally different. -There are many different individualities, and -their works are so diverse that it can hardly be -considered a concerted movement in painting, -though, regarded collectively, it appears to be a -reaction against previously accepted canons or -standards in art. Yet curiously enough there are -suggestions of the influence of early Byzantine -work and of Roman mosaic in the work of some -of these painters, the mosaic method of producing -form and colour by the juxtaposition of small -tesserae or cubes, being actually followed as closely -as possible in some instances, by laying on paint -in small squares or parallelograms. By such -means a certain effect of vibrating light is obtained, -but it seems rather a misapplication of the method, -and would be more satisfactory to work in actual -mosaic and for the artist to avail himself of the -decorative beauty which the conditions of working -in that material would give.</p> - -<p>The movement, so far as it is sincere, appears -to be a reflex in art of the feeling which is apt to -possess members of a civilized community occasionally—the -feeling which urges a man to break -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>[pg 234]</span> -away from the restraints and formalities, as well -as the comforts and luxuries of modern life, and -seek a return to nature or the bed-rock of existence -in the backwoods, or some primitive country, -where a simple life is possible.</p> - -<p>It also reflects a view which has a certain influence -among educationalists—a desire to realize -and to possess the unprejudiced unprepossessed -attitude of a child's mind and its outlook and vision -of nature and life. There is a charm in the <i>naïveté</i> -of primitive art of all kinds which is akin to the -charm we often find in children's drawings. In -seeking to cultivate artificially such a mental attitude -and its expression in art, however, there is -the danger of affectation, and even the sincerest -efforts in that direction may give the impression -of being affected; also, when, as is nearly always -the case in our time, the question of art becomes -hopelessly mixed up with the question of commercialism, -and personal interests, and crossed by -waves of fashionable caprice, like the wind blowing -where it listeth, it becomes exceedingly difficult to -discover the proverbial "hair" which "perhaps -divides the false and the true."</p> - -<p>Another point to be noted is this, that whereas -the trend of impressionism in art has been towards -the opposite pole to conscious and formal design, -among some of the painters of the newer school -there appears to be a feeling towards its recovery -to some extent, at least, there is evidence of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>[pg 235]</span> -desire to regard a picture as a pattern of colour -which necessarily involves some sort of arrangement. -This may be some indication of a return to -sanity and a desire to restore the art of painting -as an art of design.</p> - -<p>But over and above all these movements and -varieties the desire for something antique seems -to be dominant. The old masters eclipse the -moderns in painting; and in decoration and furniture, -if genuine old work is not to be had, the -closest imitation is in demand, and the tone of -time must, if possible, be anticipated in counterfeit. -Mr. Hardcastle, in "She Stoops to Conquer," -would be quite in fashion with his old house and -everything old in it.</p> - -<p>Apart from the trade interests no doubt concerned, -this love of antiquity growing side by side -with the most rapid development of mechanical -invention and the consequent transformation of -the aspects and habits of life, is a curious fact and -seems to show, so far as it is genuine, the growth -of an unsatisfied historic sense or feeling for -romance, which at one time seemed threatened -with extinction in a utilitarian world.</p> - -<p>This taste for antiquity in all things, however, -is often very artificial in its manifestations, and -does not lead to any keener appreciation of good -contemporary art, but rather encourages the simulation -of past styles than original invention, which -does not seem quite healthy.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>[pg 236]</span></p> - -<p>Another recent development is the taste for -pageantry. This is in itself another indication of -the revival of the love of romance and antiquity, -perhaps, and may to some extent have also encouraged -that revival.</p> - -<p>Certainly in pageantry we have a popular and -picturesque means of vivifying past history, and -encouraging a knowledge of and pride in the story -of their own country among our people which -could hardly be gained from the study of books -or pictures alone. Historic episodes arranged in -dramatic form enacted by living men and women, -with all the vivid effect of life and movement, and -heightened by all the resources of costume and -heraldry and accessories proper to each period, -the scenes, too, taking place in the open air, with -green swards, noble trees, and the wide sky for -proscenium leave an ineffaceable impression upon -the eyes and minds of the spectators.</p> - -<p>But what is wanted is a wider appeal. We -might make the pageant a means of centralizing -and unifying national life. We should not be content -to limit such shows to a means of raising -money for charitable objects, or as an expensive -amusement for the few; we should aim at making -our pageants free public spectacles in which the -people themselves should co-operate. Mr. Frank -Henson and Mr. Frank Lascelles have done and -are doing excellent work in this direction. Every -town might have its commemorative processions -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>[pg 237]</span> -in celebration of certain important local historic -events, especially such as illustrate the growth of -the great structure of English Freedom.</p> - -<p>If we consider the amount of artistic and archaeological -knowledge, the training and discipline -involved, the opportunities for personal distinction, -and the cultivation of the sense of beauty in the -externals of life, we have in the pageant a very -important educational factor of far-reaching influence, -and a powerful means of unifying public -sentiment and public spirit, and fostering the -national character.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>[pg 238]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>[pg 239]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3 class="lh">ART AND THE COMMONWEAL<br /><br class="b30" /> - -<span class="less2">AN ADDRESS DELIVERED AT ARMSTRONG<br /> -COLLEGE TO THE STUDENTS OF<br /> -THE SCHOOL OF ART</span></h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>[pg 240]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>[pg 241]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/241-1000.jpg"><img src="images/241-560.jpg" width="560" height="281" alt="Pen Design by Walter Crane" /></a></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="lh">ART AND THE COMMONWEAL<br /><br class="b50" /> - -<span class="less2">AN ADDRESS DELIVERED AT ARMSTRONG COLLEGE, NEWCASTLE,<br /> -TO THE STUDENTS OF THE SCHOOL OF ART</span></h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">A</span>RT in our time is regarded from many different -points of view—for instance, (1) as an accessory -in general education—generally some way -after the fact; or (2) as the servant or slave of commerce -and industry; or (3) as a polite amusement -for persons of leisure; or (4) as a profession or -means of livelihood; (5) as a luxury only for persons -of wealth and leisure; or (6) as an investment or -speculation; or (7) as a necessity of life and its indispensable -accompaniment and means of record and expression.</p> - -<p>Art may be, and indeed actually is, each and -all of these at the present moment, but, apart from -economic and other considerations, the latter is the -larger and truer view of the function of art, and it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>[pg 242]</span> -necessarily, too, includes the first, or educational -value, which cannot be over estimated.</p> - -<p>The education of the eye is second to none in -importance if we consider it fully in all its bearings, -but this is far from being generally sufficiently -realized (or ugliness might come to be considered -a crime), and as the first avenue of human intelligence—though -the mouth perhaps might make -out a case for priority, its interests are singularly -neglected. It is true we have the words "unsightly" -and "eyesore," which seem to recognize that the -eye is capable of being affronted or distressed or -even wounded by hideous objects; this perhaps is -something, but for all that the eye has to be a very -tolerant organ in these days.</p> - -<p>The best test of power or accuracy of observation -is drawing, and power of drawing is the basis -of all art, which might in all its varieties be described -as different kinds or degrees of drawing; -what is painting but drawing in colour and tone? -What is modelling but drawing in relief or in three -dimensions? What is weaving pattern but drawing -in textile? And so with each artistic craft by -means of which beautiful form and colour is created, -each after its manner is a method of drawing, and, -as a matter of fact, each is actually based on a -drawing as a preliminary stage of its existence.</p> - -<p>Great, then, is drawing. It has now taken a place -in our ordinary educational course as a "compulsory -subject" although it must be said that amid the innumerable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>[pg 243]</span> -subjects with which the modern student -is expected to be crammed a very small proportion -of time is generally allowed for its pursuit—a pursuit -indeed which generally ends in catching it like -a mouse, by the tail, for it appears that about two -hours a week is the time spent in the drawing -classes of some colleges. This does not seem -to give much chance to either teacher or student -of drawing! Nevertheless, as one who has -examined the results of such drawing, a certain -power of simple definition of form in an abstract -way appears to be acquired,—the capacity, varying -a good deal, to give in simple bold chalk outline -the salient characteristics of some common object, -or living form, such as a piece of pottery, a flower, -a bird, a fish. Even regarded merely as an aid to -the comprehension of an object or subject, drawing -is obviously of the greatest practical use. In -the newer methods of teaching to read the word -is accompanied by the pictured object, for mere -brain-puzzling has no place in any national educational -system.</p> - -<p>It has been said that the <i>worst</i> drawing of an -object gives a clearer idea of it than the best verbal -description. That seems rather rough on literature! -But there is a good deal of truth in it. It is -just this definiteness of statement in a drawing -which makes it so valuable an exponent of form -and detail, whereby its services become indispensable -in demonstration and description, and therefore -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>[pg 244]</span> -invaluable to all teachers. If anyone can draw -an object in ground-plan, in elevation, in longitudinal -and transverse section, and give its appearance -in silhouette and in light and shade, he will -not only learn all about the form, character and -construction of the thing, but will be able to -impart his knowledge to others.</p> - -<p>To begin with, then, from the purely practical -point of view and regarded as an aid in education, -the chief aim in the study of drawing is to acquire -knowledge of form and fact and the power of describing -or demonstrating them. We cannot therefore -be too definite and need not be afraid of being -hard, even from the art-student's point of view. -Studies should be studies, thorough and searching. -But drawing, pursued as an introduction to the world -of art, may lead the student on through a course of -practically endless evolution and development, as he -perceives that it is indeed a language of a most sensitive -and varied kind, of many styles and methods, -which, though beginning with simple statements -of fact and form, may become in gifted hands an -instrument of the most powerful or delicate feeling -and an exponent of character and a vehicle of the -imagination, having a rhythm and beauty peculiar -to itself. Consider the amount of beauty that has -been expressed by means of outline alone, from -early Egyptian work to the exquisite figures of the -Greek vase painter, or to the flowers and birds -of Japanese artists. In these instances, as in all -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>[pg 245]</span> -the best, drawing is united with design,—only -another kind of drawing. We happen to have the -words Drawing and Design in our language, and -they signify distinct things, because of course -there is drawing which may be simply copying or -transcript, and there is drawing allied to invention -and imagination, drawing with the mind, with ideas -as well as with the eye and hand, which becomes -design. I heard of an artist endeavouring to define -design the other day, and he said. "Well, you -make <i>a think</i>, and then you draw a line round -it." It is certainly thought that makes the difference.</p> - -<p>When we come to composition we perceive that -line has a further function and significance, and it -becomes an important factor in that harmonizing, -unifying process which is involved in making a design -of any kind. This is not merely an indulgence -in idle or aimless fancy, but is the outcome, over and -above its imaginative quality, of meeting certain -conditions, such as the object and purpose of the -work, its material, and the necessities of its production. -There is a certain logic, too, in the language -of line which the designer is bound to observe, -and he soon sees that in committing himself -to a particular form or system of line in his design -of composition that form cannot stand alone but -has to be counterbalanced, led up to, and allied -with corresponding lines and forms, or perhaps -emphasized by contrasts.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>[pg 246]</span></p> - -<p>Now in pictorial composition or anything of that -nature, a design is complete in itself, the plain surface-panel -canvas, or paper it covers, determines -its proportions and definite limits and the only -necessary technical considerations resolve themselves -into the necessity of unity with itself and -suitability to the process employed. But whereas -the pictorial artist or picture painter carries his own -work through to completion, is designer and craftsman -in one; in short, the designer for some industrial -purpose, unless he is his own craftsman, must -make his design also a working drawing to conform -to certain strict technical conditions, such -as the nature of the material and the method of -reproduction, certain limits of size and number -of colours to be used and so forth. His work is -not complete in itself, but is a draft for a process -of manufacture, and depends for its ultimate -success, beyond what beauty it may possess, -upon the completeness with which the technical -requirements have been met and upon the co-operative -labour of perhaps a multitude of craftsmen.</p> - -<p>With the establishment of modern competitive -capitalistic commerce and industry, the factory -system, division of labour, and machinery, designer -and craftsman have been widely separated, -to the detriment of both. Shops are no longer -workshops, but only <i>dépôts</i> for the display of the -finished products of industry, so that the public -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>[pg 247]</span> -remain largely in ignorance of how and where and -under what conditions things are made. Even -building, which was said to be the only craft -carried on under the public eye, is now largely a -mysterious process developed behind hoardings -and posters. As to machinery, I do not deny that -it has its uses or that wonderful (and sometimes -fearful) things have been produced; the commercial -output is prodigious, in fact, modern -existence has come to depend upon machinery in -nearly every direction, but the machines themselves -remain as a rule far more wonderful things -than the things they produce, and the less machinery -has to do with art the better. Machinery -has been called "labour-saving," but the immediate -result of its introduction has been to throw people -out of work—labour-saving in the sense of taking -their work from them, or the bread out of their -mouths. Profit-making being the real object of -modern manufacture, the cheapening of the cost -of production becomes more important than human -lives. Everything appears to be sacrificed to the -Moloch of Trade, which, according to our public -men, is the <i>one</i> object of a nation's life. Yet trade -on the competitive system is devouring itself—or -being devoured by monopoly, which again devours -the people. There seems some danger of humanity -being considered to exist for trade and not trade -for the service of humanity.</p> - -<p>The old idea of a self-supporting country producing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>[pg 248]</span> -the necessities of life for its own use seems -only appreciated by Socialists.</p> - -<p>These thoughts bring one to that aspect of art -I spoke of at the outset, as the servant or slave of -commerce and industry.</p> - -<p>Until the revival of design and handicraft in this -country during the last twenty-five or thirty years, -decorative design, despite a few distinguished -artists, such as Alfred Stevens, might certainly be -described as the slave of commerce, and even now -the revivers of design and handicraft are not -altogether free from the danger of being devoured -by commercial methods.</p> - -<p>However, a protest has been made, the hand and -the brain have asserted themselves; a new standard -in the decorative arts has been set up, and -since the time of William Morris and his group of -pioneers, many English artists and craftsmen have -shown that they have successfully revived and can -do beautiful work in many forgotten crafts.</p> - -<p>In founding the Arts and Crafts Exhibition -Society we desired to give opportunities of personal -distinction for artistic work in design and -craftsmanship, to put designers and craftsmen in -the same position as other artists, such as painters -and sculptors, before the public in this respect by -giving the names of all responsible executants of -a work. Here, again, trade interests and competitive -commerce have been against us, although -commerce has not been slow to imitate or adapt -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>[pg 249]</span> -some of the ideas in taste and design discovered -in our exhibitions.</p> - -<p>However, the movement has spread all over the -country, Arts and Crafts Societies and Exhibitions -flourish everywhere, and the art schools of the -country have been largely reorganized and craft -classes established in connection with design. -After many years' work some of us think that so -remarkable a movement might attain something -like national recognition, and its progress or permanence -not be left to depend upon the efforts of -a few hard-working artists, with ever-diminishing -opportunities for exhibition, in the absence of a -suitable building. Painting and sculpture, and in -a lesser degree architecture, are officially recognized -and housed rent free at Burlington House. -Why should the decorative arts have nowhere to -lay their heads?</p> - -<p>After all, it is these arts, intimately connected -as they are with a people's daily life and well-being, -that may be said to be really of more immediate -consequence than what are called the -Fine Arts. Though, personally, I do not admit -the justice of the distinction usually accepted between -<i>Fine</i> and Decorative or Industrial Art.</p> - -<p>Art is a language—of many dialects it may be, -but its greatness must not be measured by inches, -or the power or beauty of its thoughts and conceptions -determined by the material or method of -their expression. The spirit of art, imagination, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>[pg 250]</span> -romance, and the sense of beauty may inspire the -smaller accessories of life as they may the larger. -It is not a question of size or quantity, it is a -question of quality.</p> - -<p>As regards the art schools of the country, both -state-aided and municipal, whatever their shortcomings, -it is only fair to say that they have been -from their establishment the only means, outside -the efforts of individual artists, of maintaining a -standard of artistic taste and accomplishment in -decorative art, as distinct from the influences of -trade and fashion.</p> - -<p>It has often been made a reproach that they -have not been in closer touch and association with -the industries of the country, but schools of art -and technology cannot be turned into factories -with the sole object of supplying the immediate -demands of ephemeral fashion—often trivial and -vulgar. This would only end in the raising of a -crop of narrow specialists, incapable of producing -more than one sort of thing, to be exploited by -commerce, and unemployed when the boom was -over. The business of a school of art is to train -capable designers and craftsmen, competent both -to practise and to teach. The progress, both in -taste and accomplishment, shown by the works -exhibited every year in the national competition -under the auspices, first of the old Science and -Art Department and now of the Board of Education -at South Kensington, is most remarkable and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>[pg 251]</span> -striking, especially to one who can look back -twenty or thirty years. Yet we are still without a -proper building in which to show these works, -which are generally housed in temporary sheds in -an out-of-the-way corner, and consequently attract -little public attention.</p> - -<p>Turning now to the more theoretical side of -art, and regarding its general purport and social -influence, it would appear as though every age—one -might almost say each generation—demanded -a different interpretation of life and nature, being -inspired by different ideals; for the forms of art -depend upon the aims and ideals in the mind of -artists, who are but children of their age and reflect -its thought and sentiment. Pictorial art being -the most popular because more intimate, direct, -and immediately concerned with the aspects of -life, is perhaps more sensitive to such changes of -thought and sentiment than other forms of art. -This accounts in a great measure for the constantly-shifting -point of view of the painter in -dealing with the aspects of nature, for instance, if -we compare the work of one age, or one school -with another, or examine the differences of treatment -by different individual artists.</p> - -<p>Whereas religion, and the beauty and splendour -of life have of old largely inspired painters, nowadays -it seems as if the interest was centred upon -the wonder and dramatic variety of the world, the -aspects of life in different countries, vivid and instantaneous -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>[pg 252]</span> -presentment, individual impressions, -snap-shots of nature. No doubt the photograph -has had a great influence both upon painters and -the public. The public eye must be largely influenced -by the photograph, but the photograph -in the hands of some of its professors has lately -taken to imitate the effects and methods of artists. -So that it is turn and turn about.</p> - -<p>The object of painting however is not <i>illusion</i>, -otherwise, in the presence of the cinematograph -and its marvellous living and moving transcripts -from nature, as presented in the fascinating picture -theatres, painting would have no chance, for even -colour is sometimes given.</p> - -<p>But, however wonderful, it is scientific mechanism -and not art. The true province of painting is -untouched, our national galleries have not lost -their attraction, and are not old masters more valuable -than ever? The very illusory powers of photography -serve to define the true sphere of art, which -is a product of the human mind as well as of the -eye and hand.</p> - -<p>There is another form of pictorial appeal which -has, owing to the association of art with commercial -enterprise, attained such vast proportions as to -count as a popular education of the eye—for good -or for evil. I mean the pictorial poster, which -might be said to be the most original flourishing -and vigorous type of popular art existing, and -the only popular form of mural painting. Its too -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>[pg 253]</span> -frequent banality and vulgarity are to be deplored, -but to a great extent they are inseparable from the -conditions of the existence of the poster; but undoubtedly -there is a great amount of artistic -ability employed in these designs, which often -show, too, the great resources of modern colour-printing. -It is part of the wastefulness of our -system that so much skill, talent, and labour should -be spent on such ephemeral purposes and placed -in such incongruous positions and injurious juxtapositions, -often appearing in the mass as a sort of -sticking-plaster of varied colour upon the doleful -face of a dingy street. The same ability under -different influences and inspired by different ideals -might serve to make eloquent the bare walls of -our schools and public buildings with painted -histories and legends of our country and race, which -might foster the public spirit of our future citizens. -Every town should have its history painted in its -Town Hall—as Manchester has done in that -wonderful series of mural pictures by Madox -Brown. There might be competitions in schemes -of decoration and mural design of this sort among -the students of the local art schools. Is this an -ideal?</p> - -<p>Well, after all, the great thing is to <i>have</i> an ideal, -an ideal, too, may be of enormous practical value, -for it is capable of inspiring men to accomplish great -works which they would never have touched without -such a stimulus. Every great work, every -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>[pg 254]</span> -great achievement in art, in social service—in all -human effort, has been the result of an ideal in the -mind, a vision, a lamp, a torch that has lighted -the path that has enabled its bearer to clear away -often apparently insuperable difficulties and attain -the goal.</p> - -<p>Nor is the possession of an ideal less necessary -to a people—the nation collectively—than it is to -the individual if real progress is to be made. From -ideals in art we are led to ideals in life and to the -greatest art of all—<i>The art of Life</i>. An ideal of -national life which would give purpose and impetus -and unity to all social efforts at amelioration, -something beyond the strife of parties, personal -jealousies, and parliamentary manœuvres. Such -an ideal may be found in that growing conception -of the new age we are entering of <i>a true co-operative -commonwealth</i>, when the public good, being the -main motive, all things that add to the beauty, -health, dignity, and comfort of our cities, would be -considered as of the first importance, and when, -while our ancient history and monuments should -be preserved, natural growth and expansion should -not be impeded; a state wherein every citizen, -every man and woman would find a useful and -congenial sphere of work, and each and all would -be prepared to do their part in the service of the -community, secure of a place at life's table, when -friendly emulation should take the place of cut-throat -competition; when every mother and every -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>[pg 255]</span> -child would be cared for, and there would be ample -provision for old age. Labour being so organized -that there would be neither overwork nor unemployment, -while there remained abundant leisure -for the cultivation of the arts and sciences and the -pleasures of life—poverty being unknown, and -disease conquered by knowledge and enforcement -of the laws of health; death itself faced with calmness -or fearlessly met at need in the service or -defence of the community.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>[pg 256]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>[pg 257]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="half-title2"> -<h3>THE APOTHEOSIS OF "THE BUTTERFLY"</h3></div></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>[pg 258]</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>[pg 259]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/259-1000.jpg"><img src="images/259-560.jpg" width="560" height="415" alt="Butterfly Device" /></a></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>THE APOTHEOSIS OF "THE BUTTERFLY"<a id="footnotetag11" name="footnotetag11"></a><a href="#footnote11"><sup>11</sup></a></h2></div> - -<p style="line-height: 1%; margin-top: -0.5em;"> </p> -<p class="dropcap"><span class="dcap">T</span>HE world, it has been said, takes a man at -his own valuation, and, certainly it seems to -have accepted even Whistler, at last, at his own -by no means modest estimate, and in the commercial -sense, indeed, to have considerably exceeded -it.</p> - -<p>It is true that Whistler had, as an original artist, -to pass through the usual stages of neglect and -contumely. It is only the common experience of -what is called genius, albeit varied and complicated -in his case by his combative and whimsical personality.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>[pg 260]</span></p> - -<p>What a pity it is that there are no means of -obtaining a just and sober estimate of an artist's -powers (as well as a sympathetic one) except by -the long wait necessary for the verdict of that -Court of Final Appeal—Time.</p> - -<p>At present the system seems to be, in the case -of any one who shows individuality or independence -in art, at first to ridicule, underrate, or abuse. -If the innovator survives this process—well, the -impression gains ground that there must be something -in him, and, if he can only struggle on long -enough, and keep his head above water, the tide -may turn in his favour—even to such an extent, -sometimes, as to carry the genius on the top of it -to quite the other extreme of laudatory appreciation, -which may land him eventually in almost as -dangerous a position, as regards his artistic safety, -as that in which he was first discovered.</p> - -<p>Between the bitterness of his enemies and the -extravagant eulogies of his friends, it becomes -almost as difficult for an artist to find his real -latitude and longitude as for a ship in a fog. Still -more so for other navigators on critical seas anxious -to take his true bearings.</p> - -<p>Well, "The Butterfly" is caught at last! We -have him in Mr. and Mrs. Pennell's two sumptuous -volumes, pinned down, as it were, in a glass case, -his natural history fully accounted for, both as an -artist and as a man. We can study the Whistlerian -genius in its various stages, from caterpillar to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>[pg 261-262]</span> -chrysalis, up to when it flutters gaily over everybody -and everything in the garden of life—a -butterfly with the sting of a wasp!</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a href="images/261-700.jpg"><img src="images/261-330.jpg" width="330" height="468" alt="PORTRAIT STUDY OF WHISTLER BY HIMSELF." /></a> -<p class="center">PORTRAIT STUDY OF WHISTLER BY HIMSELF.<br /><br class="b30" /> - -(From a black and white drawing.)</p></div> - -<p>The authors have indeed, in a literary sense, -adopted the pre-Raphaelite methods, to which -in art they appear to be opposed, in painting -their literary portrait of the great Impressionist. -No one will doubt the patience, care, and zeal -with which they have carried out the work, or -the devoted loyalty of spirit in which what was -evidently regarded as a sacred trust has been fulfilled; -but in their natural anxiety to give full -relief to the portrait of their hero and idol, the -authors have not always been able to be fair to -some of his contemporaries or predecessors, or to -other forms of art than those which he practised, -and they are apt to become a little extravagant in -their terms. To assert, for instance, that Whistler -was "the greatest artist and most remarkable -personality of the nineteenth century" is a little -"tall"; but no doubt the authors did not wish, -any more than Mr. Wedmore, to "understate." -The insertion of the little words <i>one of</i> in the -above-quoted sentence would have been advisable, -considering the number of remarkable personalities -and artists the nineteenth century produced. -This presentation of Whistler dominating -and overtopping everybody reminds one of the -method of the mural artists of ancient Egypt, -who, in order to glorify their kings and impress -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>[pg 263]</span> -beholders with his powers, represented the monarch -as a gigantic figure clutching a handful of diminutive -enemies trembling in his grasp, while he -flourishes his sword over their heads.</p> - -<p>It is, perhaps, one of "life's little ironies" that -Whistler, who maintained in his "Ten o'clock" -philosophy that the artist, like the unexpected, -always "happens," and who took a purely individualistic -view of artistic history should be at -last fully accounted for on evolutionary principles. -It seems strange that he, who apparently held that -artists occurred accidentally here and there in the -history of the world—like very sparing currants -in a suet pudding, the pudding, or public, being -always of the same materials, equally "stodgy," -indifferent, or ignorant as to art—that Whistler, -who might almost be described as the artist of -accident, should be portrayed in minute detail -under the glare of the limelight, and shown in -relation to, and accounted for by, his heredity and -environment.</p> - -<p>A member of a most respectable family (like -"The Newcomes") hailing originally from the -Islanders he professed to hate, we may trace the -origins of his personal characteristics, the germs -of his development and the foundations of his -art. His mastery in etching, for instance (perhaps -destined to be considered the strongest and most -enduring side of his art), had its roots in the -technical experience and training of the United -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>[pg 264]</span> -States Coast Survey. It is to be regretted that -it was not found possible to include later illustrations -of his etched plates in the book, as, with the -exception of the pastels and water colours and the -earlier pictures, the reproductions generally lose -much of the charm, with the colour, of the originals, -and most of their atmosphere.</p> - -<p>Whistler in himself furnishes another illustration -of the different side of his nature an artist often -presents in his serious work from that usually perceived -in him, by the world in general, as a man. -If nothing of his self-assertive, combative, caustic -and whimsical personality had been known, such -traits could hardly have been suspected in the -possessor of the refined taste, the delicate justness -of tone, the somewhat austere and restrained -decorative sense combined with a certain poetic -vagueness, which generally characterize his works.</p> - -<p>The work of Whistler at different periods of his -life also illustrates the curious fact that artists of -the most pronounced individuality of style and -method often show how strongly they may become -influenced by the work of others.</p> - -<p>What Whistler's art would have been had he -never seen the work of Courbet, of Velasquez, of -Fantin, of Albert Moore, and of the Japanese, who -can say? The power of assimilation itself may be -an attribute of genius, and it is not so much what -he may have absorbed, or from what source he -may have derived suggestions, as what use -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>[pg 265]</span> -an artist makes of his derivations that really -matters.</p> - -<p>The first time I saw Whistler's work was in the -old rooms of the Royal Academy when that Institution -shared the Gallery in Trafalgar Square -with the National Collection, and the old masters -and the moderns were next-door neighbours.</p> - -<p>There was a certain obscure den opening out of -a passage between two of the principal picture -galleries, named the Octagon Room, almost as -dark as a cellar, but it was here that Whistler's -early and wonderful etchings of the Thames side -first saw the light—such as it was! in the sixties.</p> - -<p>I well remember, too, his early pictures, which -also first appeared in the Royal Academy exhibitions -in the Trafalgar Square rooms. The -quiet power, rich tone, and distinction of "At the -Piano," in 1860; the picture of a rocky seashore -with a figure of a fisher-girl lying on the sand -("The Coast of Brittany," 1862), "skyed," if I -remember rightly, which, Mr. Pennell says, "might -have been signed by Courbet"; the lady in a -Japanese robe painting a blue pot ("The Lange -Leizen—of the Six Marks," 1864); I recall the -striking effect of these works among the commonplaces -of the usual mixed exhibition. They struck -new notes. I also remember the "Wapping," -"The Thames in Ice," "The Music Room," and -"The Little White Girl," all of which were exhibited -at the Royal Academy in the early sixties. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>[pg 266]</span> -These impressed me more than any other, or later, -of Whistler's works. All the above-mentioned -early pictures are reproduced in Mr. and Mrs. -Pennell's book, and, to my mind, they still hold -their place as the strongest and most interesting -of the works of the artist in painting.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/267-740.jpg"><img src="images/267-350.jpg" width="350" height="468" alt="THE THAMES IN ICE." /></a> - -<p class="right">[<i>T. R. Annan and Sons, photo</i></p> - -<p class="center">"THE THAMES IN ICE."</p></div> - -<p>Later, too, visitors to the winter exhibitions of -oil pictures at the Dudley Gallery were surprised -by certain "Nocturnes," visions of the Thames in -misty twilight with shadowy bridges and ghostly -figures and gliding barges, illuminated by twinkling -golden lights; these were set in moulded frames -of unusual refinement, in green and other tones of -gold to suit the key of colour in the picture, and -painted on the flat with decorative patterns of a -Japanese character in dull blue, including a mysterious -unit of pattern or mark, afterwards known -as "The Butterfly," and used as a signature upon -all Whistler's works.</p> - -<p>Then there was a "one man show" in a gallery -in Pall Mall (No. 48), opposite Marlborough -House, in which "Old Battersea Bridge, Nocturne -in blue and gold" loomed large, I remember, and -the town was surprised by something fresh in the -decorative arrangement of the exhibition, yellow -and gray predominating, if I remember rightly, -relieved with blue pots and palms. This is mentioned -in the Life at p. 179. Then came the famous -"Peacock Room" in Prince's Gate, which chiefly -sustains Whistler's repute as what one may call a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>[pg 267-268]</span> -practical decorator. It is to be deplored that the -room itself was not more beautiful in structure and -arrangement, cut up as it was with fidgetty details, -with pendants from the ceiling and shelves for -china. Still, of course, the business of a decorator -is to adapt his scheme to the place decorated, -and certainly this was done quite thoroughly by -Whistler, and the blue and gold scheme was -worked out very consistently and ingeniously upon -the theme of the peacock.</p> - -<p>It seems rather pitiful to read of the miserable -squabbles over the money, and the personalities -and petty spite, however seasoned with the wit of -the artist, which seemed to raise a cloud of dust -around every transaction in which Whistler was -concerned.</p> - -<p>A little later, at the Grosvenor Gallery in 1877, -he is in the limelight again, and this time is fallen -foul of by John Ruskin.</p> - -<p>Much as one may owe to that great writer, and -while, however biassed or occasionally mistaken, -the wholesome and ennobling influence of his work -on the whole must be acknowledged, there could -be no justification for his very injudicious and -uncritical pronouncement upon that nocturne of -Whistler's, but it only meant that Ruskin, as -might be supposed, was utterly out of sympathy -with that form of art, and did not understand it.</p> - -<p>Yet great as was the provocation, it would -surely have been more dignified for the artist -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>[pg 269]</span> -attacked to have let the words recoil upon the -writer, and to have confidently awaited the verdict -of time, rather than to have dragged the matter -into a law-court to be made game of by counsel, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>[pg 270]</span> -judge, and jury, an utterly incompetent tribunal -to form any serious opinion upon a question of art.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/269-900.jpg"><img src="images/269-350.jpg" width="350" height="382" alt="PANELS FROM THE PEACOCK ROOM." /></a> -<p class="center">PANELS FROM THE PEACOCK ROOM.</p></div> - -<p>One feels, however, to a nature like Whistler's, -the sort of notoriety which such situations give -to the principals had a distinct attraction, added -to the fighting instinct which possessed him.</p> - -<p>From this time onward this attraction seems to -have grown more and more powerful and to have -influenced the life and work of the artist in anything -but a fortunate way, and it becomes fatiguing -to follow the course of the continual brawls in -which he was involved.</p> - -<p>He was a conspicuous figure at the Grosvenor -Gallery private views in the early days, with his -white lock and his long wand, but I never got -further than a slight acquaintance with him, personally, -which may have been as much my fault -(or misfortune) as his.</p> - -<p>When we come to his "Ten o'clock," in which -Whistler gives us his philosophy of art, we find his -views, characteristically, intensely individualistic. -Period, traditions, gradual evolution in art and -artists, are nothing to him. It is always the "one -man show," a purely personal view of art, from -the first etcher on a cave-bone to Rembrandt. The -artist is always an accident. His predecessors or -his contemporaries are nothing. Heredity and -environment, economic and social conditions, are -of no account. Race or country don't matter. The -inspiration of symbol and story is ignored or despised -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>[pg 271]</span> -as "literary." The unifying and ennobling -influence of architecture, the co-operation of the -crafts, the associated chain of human endeavour -and experiment in the arts, which link the ages -together, and find their highest expression in great -public monuments, do not interest him apparently. -"Art happened." This is as much as to say one -is only concerned with the flower, and the roots, -the soil from which it springs or the evolution of -the plant itself are matters of no account! Thus -the individualistic artist kicks away the ladder by -which he arrived and expects the stage to be -cleared for him. Ah, well, "Ten o'clock" suited -the hour, the audience, and the man. It would be -too much to expect brilliant artists and witty inventors -of <i>bons mots</i>, or butterflies to be profound -philosophers as well.</p> - -<p>In many ways Whistler, though distinctly a -decorative artist, was the complete antithesis of -William Morris. Mr. Pennell makes a true remark -in his book in speaking of Whistler's ideas in -decoration when he says (p. 221, vol. i): "Colour -for him (Whistler), was as much decoration as -pattern was for William Morris." One would be -inclined however to qualify this by saying that -Whistler's main principle in decoration, in which -he showed a fine taste, was by <i>tones</i> of colour; -especially was he successful in the choice of pale -delicate tones. Whistler appeals to one as a great -craftsman in <i>tone</i>, rather than as a colourist.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>[pg 272]</span></p> - -<p>As a painter his most distinctive and original -works will always be his "nocturnes," and, of his -portraits (which, however, he often treated as landscapes) -his fame seems likely chiefly to rest upon -those of his Mother and Carlyle.</p> - -<p>The picture of Whistler himself, of his character -as a man, which this book reveals—in spite of some -relieving touches—is not an attractive one.</p> - -<p>One can only feel sorry that so genuine an artist -was so consumed by his own opinion of himself, -and wasted so much time and energy in litigation, -and that he could stoop to be professor of "the -gentle art of making enemies" or glory in the distinction -of being a past-master in the craft of losing -friends. Still, he fought the Philistines.</p> - -<p>Mr. and Mrs. Pennell's book is admirably done -and well illustrated, and it appears moreover in a -form—clad in an arrangement of brown, yellow, -and gold—such as might have been approved by -its fastidious subject.</p> - -<p>The book is peppered with Whistler's smart -repartees and sayings; of the latter the following -dictum strikes me as remarkably true and sound:</p> - -<p>"Poverty may induce industry, but it does not -produce the fine flower of painting. The test is -not poverty, it's money. Give a painter money -and see what he will do: if he does not paint his -work is well lost to the world."</p> - -<blockquote> -<p class="footnote1a"><a id="footnote11" name="footnote11"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag11">11:</a> -"The Life of J. McNeill Whistler," by E. R. and J. Pennell, -in two volumes, illustrated. London: William Heinemann, 1908. -</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>[pg 273]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center less space-below3"> -<a href="#a">A</a> | <a href="#b">B</a> | <a href="#c">C</a> | <a href="#d">D</a> | -<a href="#e">E</a> | <a href="#f">F</a> | <a href="#g">G</a> | <a href="#h">H</a> | -<a href="#i">I</a> | <a href="#j">J</a> | <a href="#k">K</a> | <a href="#l">L</a> | -<a href="#m">M</a> | <a href="#n">N</a> | <a href="#o">O</a> | <a href="#p">P</a> | -<a href="#r">R</a> | <a href="#s">S</a> | <a href="#t">T</a> | <a href="#v">V</a> | -<a href="#w">W</a> <br /><br /> -(Note: The Page number is the link to the reference.<br /> -123<sup>x</sup> indicates that the reference is only in the Footnote; 123,<sup>x</sup> indicates that the reference is also in the Footnote). -</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="top"><a name="a" id="a"></a>Ancient Buildings, Society for the Protection of, <a href="#page42">42</a>, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page217">217</a>.</li> - -<li>Animals, treatment of, in art, <a href="#page185">185</a>-204.</li> - -<li>Architecture, modern domestic, <a href="#page48">48</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>arts allied to, <a href="#page125">125</a>-146;</li> -<li>of the nineteenth century, <a href="#page225">225</a>-227.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Art education, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a>-110, <a href="#page114">114</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page242">242</a>-245, <a href="#page250">250</a>.</li> - -<li>Art, study and practice of, <a href="#page105">105</a>-122; -<ul class="index1"><li>of the nineteenth century, <a href="#page223">223</a>-237.</li></ul></li> - -<li>"Art Nouveau, L'," <a href="#page232">232</a>.</li> - -<li>Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, the, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page67">67</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page95">95</a>, -<a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a>, <a href="#page249">249</a>.</li> - -<li>Art Workers' Guild, the, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</li> - -<li>Assyrian art, animals in, <a href="#page186">187</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href="#page189">190</a>.</li> - -<li>Athens, architecture of, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="b" id="b"></a>Ball, John, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li> - -<li>Bates, Harry, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li>Bell, R. Anning, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</li> - -<li>Bellamy, Edward, his "Looking Backward," <a href="#page10">10</a>, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a>.</li> - -<li>Benson, Frank, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</li> - -<li>Binyon, Laurence, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li> - -<li>Birmingham, St. Philip's, <a href="#page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li>Blake, William, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li>Bokhara, embroidery from, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</li> - -<li>Brangwyn, Frank, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> - -<li>Brown, Ford Madox, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page253">253</a>.</li> - -<li>Brown, Prof. Frederick, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> - -<li>Bullen, Wentworth, <a href="#page25">25</a>.</li> - -<li>Burges, William, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page25">25</a>, <a href="#page26">26</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li>Burne-Jones, Lady, <a href="#page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li>Butterfield, William, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="c" id="c"></a>Cambridge, Jesus College, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</li> - -<li>Canova, Antonio, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Carlisle, Earl of, <a href="#page15">15</a>.</li> - -<li>Carlyle, Thomas, <a href="#page21">21</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a>.</li> - -<li>Cennini, Cennino, his "Trattato," <a href="#page164">164</a>-176.</li> - -<li>Century Guild, the, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Chinese art, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a>.</li> - -<li>City and Guilds of London Institute, the, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Clausen, George, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> - -<li>Clay, modelling in, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</li> - -<li>Cleveland, Ohio, mosaic floor for bank at, <a href="#page132">132</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>[pg 274]</span></li> - -<li>Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., <a href="#page28">28</a><sup>2</sup>, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</li> - -<li>Coire, gesso work at, <a href="#page164">164</a>.</li> - -<li>Courbet, Gustave, <a href="#page264">264</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>.</li> - -<li>Cowper, F. Cadogan, <a href="#page78">78</a><sup>4</sup>.</li> - -<li>Crane, Walter, his designs for "The Glittering Plain," <a href="#page36">36</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>associated with the proposal for a National Exhibition of the Arts, <a href="#page69">69</a>;</li> -<li>President of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, <a href="#page95">95</a>;</li> -<li>design in mosaic for a bank at Cleveland, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Cretan embroideries, <a href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="d" id="d"></a>Darius, frieze from palace of, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> - -<li>Day, Lewis F., <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li> - -<li>Dearle, H., <a href="#page25">25</a>.</li> - -<li>Drawing, study of, <a href="#page242">242</a>-245.</li> - -<li>Dress, modern, <a href="#page212">212</a>-214.</li> - -<li>Dressler, Conrad, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="e" id="e"></a>"Earthly Paradise, The," <a href="#page7">7</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page16">16</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>projected illustrated edition, <a href="#page37">37</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Eastlake, C. L., his "Hints on Household Taste," <a href="#page53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>Edinburgh, Art Congress at (1889), <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>.</li> - -<li>Egyptian art, animals in, <a href="#page185">185</a>-188, <a href="#page189">190</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>mummies, use of gesso on, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Embroidery, colour and its treatment, <a href="#page149">149</a>-159.</li> - -<li>Eve, G. W., <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="f" id="f"></a>Flaxman, John, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Florence, Riccardi Chapel, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</li> - -<li>Forbes, Stanhope, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> - -<li>Ford, Onslow, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Furse, Charles, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="g" id="g"></a>Gainsborough, Thomas, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li>Gallia Placida, Mausoleum of, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> - -<li>Gesso work, early Italian, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>-182.</li> - -<li>Gibson, John, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Gilbert, Alfred, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Giotto, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</li> - -<li>Glasgow School, the, <a href="#page232">232</a>.</li> - -<li>Glass, stained, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> - -<li>"Glittering Plain, The," <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Gozzoli, Benozzo, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</li> - -<li>Greek art, animals in, <a href="#page189">190</a>-192.</li> - -<li>Grosvenor Gallery, the, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page267">268</a>, <a href="#page270">270</a>.</li> - -<li>Gwalior, stone carvings of animals at, <a href="#page195">198</a>, <a href="#page199">200</a>-203.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="h" id="h"></a>Hammersmith Socialist Society, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>,<sup>2</sup>.</li> - -<li>"Hobby Horse, The," <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Hogarth, William, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li>Hokusai, <a href="#page63">63</a>.</li> - -<li>Holiday, Mr. and Mrs. Henry, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</li> - -<li>Home Arts and Industries Association, the, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Hooper, W. H., <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Horne, Herbert P., <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Horniman Museum, mosaic design on the, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</li> - -<li>Houses of Parliament, frescoes in the, <a href="#page78">78</a><sup>4</sup>.</li> - -<li>Hughes, Arthur, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</li> - -<li>Hunt, Holman, <a href="#page49">49</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="i" id="i"></a>Indian art, animals in, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page189a">190</a>, <a href="#page198a">198</a>, -<a href="#page201a">200</a>-203.</li> - -<li>Israels, Joseph, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="j" id="j"></a>Jackson, John, <a href="#page108">108</a><sup>5</sup>.</li> - -<li>Japanese art, influence of, <a href="#page63">63</a>-65, <a href="#page231">231</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>treatment of animals in, <a href="#page195">198</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="k" id="k"></a>Kelmscott House, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>,<sup>2</sup>.</li> - -<li>Kelmscott Press, the, <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page29">29</a>-33, <a href="#page34">34</a>-36.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="l" id="l"></a>Landseer, Sir Edwin, <a href="#page203">203</a>.</li> - -<li>Lascelles, Frank, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</li> - -<li>La Thangue, H. H., <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> - -<li>Leighton, Lord, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Leverett, Arthur, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Liebermann, Max, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</li> - -<li>Lindsay, Sir Coutts, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li> - -<li>Liverpool, Art Congress at (1888), <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>.</li> - -<li>London, aspect of, <a href="#page207">207</a>-214; -<ul class="index1"><li>architecture of, <a href="#page226">226</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>London County Council, its technical schools, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="m" id="m"></a>Magnus, Sir Philip, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Magnússon, Professor, <a href="#page16">16</a>.</li> - -<li>Manchester, frescoes in the Town Hall, <a href="#page253">253</a>.</li> - -<li>Marlborough College Chapel, decoration of, <a href="#page167">168</a>.</li> - -<li>Merton Abbey, <a href="#page25">25</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>,<sup>2</sup>.</li> - -<li>Meunier, Constantin, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li>Michael Angelo, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</li> - -<li>Micklethwaite, J. T., <a href="#page132">132</a>.</li> - -<li>Millais, Sir J. E., <a href="#page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li>Millar, W., his "Plastering," <a href="#page164">164</a>.</li> - -<li>Millet, François, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</li> - -<li>Moody, T. W., <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>.</li> - -<li>Moore, Albert, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page264">264</a>.</li> - -<li>More, Sir Thomas, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li> - -<li>Morgan, William de, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> - -<li>Morland, George, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li>Morris, Miss May, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Morris, William, <a href="#page3">3</a>-43, <a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>his Socialism, <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page7">7</a>-14, <a href="#page36">36</a>-41;</li> -<li>visit to Iceland, <a href="#page16">16</a>;</li> -<li>and the artistic revival, <a href="#page16">16</a>-20, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page93">93</a>-95, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a>;</li> -<li>his birth and education, <a href="#page21">21</a>, <a href="#page22">22</a>;</li> -<li>experiments in dyeing, <a href="#page24">24</a>;</li> -<li>weaving, <a href="#page24">24</a>-26;</li> -<li>painted glass, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page29">29</a>;</li> -<li>his MS. of Omar Khayyám, <a href="#page29">29</a>-33;</li> -<li>the Kelmscott Press, <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>-36;</li> -<li>illustrations for "Cupid and Psyche," <a href="#page37">37</a>;</li> -<li>founds the Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings, <a href="#page42">42</a>;</li> -<li>his appreciation of humour, <a href="#page44">44</a>,<sup>3</sup>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Morris and Co., <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</li> - -<li>Mosaic, marble, <a href="#page129">129</a>-132; -<ul class="index1"><li>glass, <a href="#page132">132</a>-134;</li> -<li>pebble, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Murray, Fairfax, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Mycenae, Cyclopean gate of, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page189">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="n" id="n"></a>National Association for the Advancement of Art, the, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>.</li> - -<li>National Exhibition of the Arts, proposed, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> - -<li>New English Art Club, the, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> - -<li>"News from Nowhere," <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page10">10</a>, <a href="#page11">11</a>.</li> - -<li>New York, improvement of, <a href="#page211">211</a>, <a href="#page212">212</a>.</li> - -<li>Nineveh, wall sculptures of, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</li> - -<li>Northern Art Workers' Guild, the, <a href="#page60">60</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>[pg 276]</span></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="o" id="o"></a>"Omar Khayyám," illuminated by Morris, <a href="#page29">29</a>-33.</li> - -<li>Oxford, Exeter College, <a href="#page26">26</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Christ Church, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="p" id="p"></a>Pageants, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</li> - -<li>Parthenon, the, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> - -<li>Peacock Room, the, <a href="#page266">266</a>.</li> - -<li>Pennell, Mr. and Mrs., their "Life of Whistler," <a href="#page259">259</a>-272,<sup>11</sup>.</li> - -<li>Petrie, W. M. Flinders, <a href="#page182">182</a> (Note).</li> - -<li>Philadelphia, art-teaching in, <a href="#page107">107</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>mosaic altar-piece in, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Photography, influence of, <a href="#page252">252</a>.</li> - -<li>Pinturrichio, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</li> - -<li>Pisa, Campo Santo, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</li> - -<li>Pistoia, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</li> - -<li>Plaster work, decorated, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li> - -<li>Poster, the modern, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page253">253</a>.</li> - -<li>Post-impressionists, the, <a href="#page233">233</a>.</li> - -<li>Pracatic (Bohemia), sgraffito designs at, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>.</li> - -<li>Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, the, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li>Pugin, Augustus W. N., <a href="#page50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="r" id="r"></a>Raphael, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li> - -<li>Ravenna, mosaics at, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> - -<li>Repoussé work, <a href="#page127">127</a>-130.</li> - -<li>Reynolds, Sir Joshua, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li>Ricardo, Halsey, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> - -<li>Richardson, H. H., <a href="#page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li>Richmond, Sir W. B., <a href="#page134">134</a>.</li> - -<li>Robbia ware, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</li> - -<li>Rodin, Auguste, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li>Rome, baths of Caracalla, <a href="#page130">130</a>-132; -<ul class="index1"><li>New American Church, <a href="#page134">134</a>;</li> -<li>tombs in the Via Latina, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li> -<li>Appartimenti Borgia, <a href="#page141">141</a>;</li> -<li>Sistine Chapel, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page167">168</a>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Rossetti, D. G., <a href="#page16">16</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li>Royal Academy, the, <a href="#page60">60</a>-62, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page249">249</a>.</li> - -<li>Royal School of Art Needlework, the, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Ruskin, John, <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page21">21</a>, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page267">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="s" id="s"></a>St. Paul's, decoration of, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</li> - -<li>Sandys, Frederick, <a href="#page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li>Sarnath, sculptured lions found at, <a href="#page189">189</a>-190.</li> - -<li>School of Art Woodcarving, the, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Sedding, J. D., <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Sgraffito, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>.</li> - -<li>Shaw, Henry, <a href="#page50">50</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>his "Glazier's Book," <a href="#page144">144</a>,<sup>8</sup>.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Shaw, Norman, <a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Sicilian silks, <a href="#page194">194</a>-197.</li> - -<li>Siena, frescoes in the town hall, <a href="#page141">141</a>.</li> - -<li>"Sigurd the Volsung," <a href="#page7">7</a>, <a href="#page16">16</a>.</li> - -<li>Smith, Catteson, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Socialism, Morris and, <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page7">7</a>-14, <a href="#page37">37</a>-42; -<ul class="index1"><li>its inspiration in art, <a href="#page83">83</a>-101.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Society of Arts, the, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>.</li> - -<li>Solomon's temple, <a href="#page127">127</a>.</li> - -<li>Stanhope, Spencer, <a href="#page167">168</a>.</li> - -<li>Stevens, Alfred, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</li> - -<li>Stokes, Mr. Adrian, <a href="#page169">170</a>.</li> - -<li>Street, George Edmund, <a href="#page21">21</a>.</li> - -<li>Sumner, Heywood, <a href="#page138">138</a>.</li> - -<li>Sykes, Godfrey, <a href="#page63">63</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>[pg 277]</span></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="t" id="t"></a>Tadd, Liberty, <a href="#page107">107</a>,<sup>5</sup>-109.</li> - -<li>Technical Schools, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page114">114</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>.</li> - -<li>Thorvaldsen, Bertel, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Tiles, use of, as decoration, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> - -<li>Town-planning Exhibition, the, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Tuke, H. S., <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> - -<li>Turner, J. M. W., <a href="#page229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="v" id="v"></a>Van der Meer, Jan, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="w" id="w"></a>Walker, Emery, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</li> - -<li>Watts, G. F., <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page78">78</a><sup>4</sup>.</li> - -<li>Webb, Philip, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page16">16</a>, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Whistler, J. M., <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>his "Life," <a href="#page259">259</a>,<sup>11</sup>-272.</li></ul></li> - -<li>Wolfe, Miss Catherine, <a href="#page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li>Wrought Iron Work, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>[pg 278]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/278-840.jpg"><img src="images/278-400.jpg" width="400" height="476" alt="Chiswick Press insignia" /></a></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>[pg 279]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="spaced3 wsp"><big>BOOKS FOR COLLECTORS</big></h3></div> -<p class="center spaced1"><span class="sc">Uniform with this Volume</span></p> -<p class="center wsp"><i>Post 8vo, with numerous Illustrations</i></p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="collections"> -<p><span class="outdent">HOW TO LOOK AT PICTURES.</span> By <span class="sc">R. 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WILLIAMSON, Litt.D.</span></p> - -<p class="center">With 40 Illustrations and Photogravure Frontispiece</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Large Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. net each</i></p> - -<p class="less1">"The series is of high value and great promise, ... evidently being carried out -conscientiously, and without the sparing of pains or labour."—<i>Magazine of -Art.</i></p> - -<p class="less1a">"Dr. Williamson is editing the 'Great Masters' series with singular success and -good fortune."—<i>Academy.</i></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3><i>Volumes on the following Masters are now ready</i>:</h3></div> - -<table summary="artists" border="0"> -<tr> - <td class="lr"> - -BOTTICELLI.<br /> -BRUNELLESCHI.<br /> -CORREGGIO.<br /> -CARLO CRIVELLI.<br /> -DELLA ROBBIA.<br /> -DEL SARTO.<br /> -DONATELLO.<br /> -FRANCIA.<br /> -GAUDENZIO FERRARI.<br /> -GERARD DOU.<br /> -GIORGIONE.<br /> -GIOTTO.<br /> -FRANS HALS.<br /> -LEONARDO DA VINCI.<br /> -LUINI.<br /> -MANTEGNA. - </td> - <td class="lr1"> -MEMLINC.<br /> -MICHAEL ANGELO.<br /> -PERUGINO (<span class="sc">P. Vanucci</span>).<br /> -PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA.<br /> -PINTORICCHIO.<br /> -RAPHAEL.<br /> -REMBRANDT.<br /> -RUBENS.<br /> -SIGNORELLI.<br /> -SODOMA.<br /> -TINTORETTO (<span class="sc">Jacopo Robusti</span>).<br /> -VAN DYCK.<br /> -VELASQUEZ.<br /> -WATTEAU.<br /> -WILKIE. -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="center less1"><i>A detailed and Illustrated Catalogue of the Series will be -sent on application.</i></p> - -<hr class="medium" /> - -<p class="center">LONDON: G. BELL AND SONS, LTD.<br /> -<span class="less1"><span class="sc">York House, Portugal Street, W.C.</span></span></p> -</div></div> - -<div class="tn"> -<h4>Transcriber's Note:</h4> - -<p>The book cover was created by the transcriber (using elements from the Title Page) and placed in the Public Domain.</p> - -<p>Missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired.</p> - -<p>Both hyphenated and un-hyphenated variants of some words appear -in this book. All have been retained. The author has used UK-English -variants of some words (e.g. 'colour', etc., not 'color', etc.), and -some older spellings.</p> - -<p>All Illustrations that interrupted paragraphs have been moved to more convenient -positions nearby, between paragraphs, and closer to their descriptive text. -The page numbers in the TOC have been adjusted accordingly.</p> - -<p>The text in the Omar Khayyám illustrations appears to be missing some end-punctuation, or -it is partially hidden by the design. It seems to have been a hand-written copy, by -the author (William Morris), of the Fitzgerald translation of Omar Khayyám. -As it is hand-written, it has not been amended to the Fitzgerald translation.</p> - -<p>Page 25 and Index: 'Wentworth Buller' is mentioned on Page 25; -'Bullen, Wentworth, 25.' is the entry in the Index. -The transcriber cannot find which spelling is correct, so both have been retained.</p> - -<p>Page 54: 'Hebblewhite' corrected to 'Hepplewhite'.</p> - -<p class="ind"> "... and Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite...."</p> - -<p>Page 72: 'For in spite the immense activity and industry, the independent -artists in design and handicraft were but few,...'</p> - -<p>should probably read either:</p> - -<p> 'For despite the immense activity and industry,...'</p> - -<p class="ind">or</p> - -<p> 'For in spite of the immense activity and industry,...'</p> - -<p>OED gives:</p> - -<p>spite, n. & v.t. 1. ... (in) ~ of, notwithstanding.</p> - -<p>So 'in' may be optional, but 'of' seems to be needed. The transcriber has chosen -to correct 'in spite' to 'in spite of'.</p> - -<p>In other places, the author has used brief notes rather than grammatically -correct prose. -These appear to have been hasty jottings, and have been retained.</p> - -<p>Page 75: 'fatigueing' corrected to 'fatiguing'.</p> - -<p class="ind"> "We have no word-symbols for defining those -delicate shades of difference so important to the -artist, and to be perpetually qualifying is fatiguing."</p> - -<p>Page 78, Footnote 4: 'Cooper' corrected to 'Cowper'. (Reference: Wikipedia)</p> - -<p class="ind">"... by some of our ablest men of the younger school, such as Mr. Payne - and Mr. Cadogan Cowper,...". Index entry is correct.</p> - -<p>Page 174: 'droping' corrected to 'dropping'.</p> - -<p class="ind"> "by the use of the brush in floating or dropping on the forms of the ornament."</p> - -<p>Page 241: 'intance' corrected to 'instance'.</p> - -<p class="ind"> "... different points of view—for instance, (1) as an accessory...."</p> - -</div> -<hr /> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's William Morris to Whistler, by Walter Crane - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILLIAM MORRIS TO WHISTLER *** - -***** This file should be named 53954-h.htm or 53954-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/9/5/53954/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lesley Halamek and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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