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diff --git a/old/53893-0.txt b/old/53893-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 805b7f3..0000000 --- a/old/53893-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1382 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Thompson-Houston System of Electric -Lighting, by H. T. Cory - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Thompson-Houston System of Electric Lighting - -Author: H. T. Cory - -Release Date: January 5, 2017 [EBook #53893] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOMPSON-HOUSTON SYSTEM--ELECTRIC LIGHTING *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - The Thompson-Houston - System of Electric - Lighting. - - Thesis submitted for the degree of - Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering, - - to the Faculty of Purdue University - - - June 1887 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -“In its power to assume always that form of energy which happens to be -the most useful lies the great importance of electricity.” This -importance has been brought to the notice of the public by means of the -many recent exhibitions. Public interest has been roused and there is -everywhere a desire for information and a guide through this far -reaching field for discovery and invention. And, although there are many -works treating on electricity and electric light, people specially want -a short and concise though thorough description of the various schemes -by which electric light is produced. In this thesis the object is to -give a brief treatise on one of the many schemes of producing light by -electric currents viz—The Thomson-Houston System. - -In pursuing the subject of electricity, the first thing noticed is the -analogy and difference between the dynamo and its older and more -powerful rival the steam engine. The resemblances are, First as in the -development of the steam engine, but few of the improvements and -inventions in electrical machines were made by mathematical leaders. -Watt ran across the idea of the seperate condenser while repairing the -Newcomen model and applied the expansion of steam to the steam engine by -a mechanical accident rather than by his own ingenuity, and so we find -the first designers of the dynamo were mechanics rather than -philosophers. Secondly the tendency to disregard old methods and -instruments because of new discoveries and inventions has, as in the -steam engine, hindered the advancement in electrical science. As an -example it has become customary to regard frictional and statical -electric machines, for practical purposes, as obsolete, but recent -discoveries seem to hint that they may yet be utilized. Lately Prof. -Dodge has shown that dust and vapor whirling in the air may be settled -by a discharge of electricity consisting of a continuous series of -electric sparks. This has been utilized to clear the atmosphere in lead -smelting works from the fumes of volatized lead and with its application -comes the invention of Wimhurst which produces with a minimum of -mechanical labor a continuous series of electric sparks and works -admirably. - -The differences between the engine’s and dynamo’s developement are: -_First_ the marvelously rapid developement of the dynamo as compared -with that of the steam engine. Since 1867 when the term “dynamo electric -machinery” even to scientific men had but little signification, the -dynamo has been brought to a very high degree of perfection. _Secondly_, -the development of the dynamo has reached a much higher degree of -perfection than that of the steam engine. Among the best steam engines -twenty per cent effeciency is considered as very good while a good -dynamo gives out in the form of electricity, ninety per cent of the -mechanical energy put in it. But the class of people who improved and -made the steam engine what it is were as well educated in one sense as -were the men who brought out the dynamo. While it is true that in Watt’s -time the knowledge concerning steam was very meagre, yet the practical -men who _made_ the dynamo, did it by themselves as nearly all the -teachers of electricity knew nothing except what may be called -electrical tricks. As has been said[1] “The teachers and writers of -textbooks, practically did not know that there was anything in common -between the electricity from a rubbed glass machine and voltaic -electricity, or to be brief, that there was a science of electricity as -distinguished from mere natural history.” In fact as late as 1870 there -were really no textbooks on electricity. Even now electrical knowledge -is so meagre as to warrant the same writer’s expression, “We can not -imagine a mechanical engineer mistaking a few inches for a few miles or -a grocer compounding an ounce of sugar with a carload, but this gives -too truthful an idea of the vagueness that still exists.” - -In the distant future, electricity will be used for electric lighting -only as subordinate to other uses to which it may be applied such as -heating houses, taking place of stoves for cooking, being used as a -substitute for the steam engine. In fact the motor is rapidly becoming -of as much practical use as the electric light. The principle of the -motor is just this; a certain amount of mechanical energy say thirty -four horsepower per minute into the form of electric currents, which by -the way gives enough current to run 45, 2000 candle power lamps, send -the current and distance through suitable conductors and attach them to -similar dynamo or dynamos but in such a manner that the current in the -second set of dynamos flows in the reverse direction to that of the -first; when, the armature of the second dynamo or dynamos will revolve -and at the pulley or pulleys of the dynamos, aside from friction, will -be given out 95% of the thirty-four horsepower, the loss being due to -the resistance of the conductors. Now in practice a motor is placed on -the arc light circuit the same as a lamp, for energy less than twelve -horsepower. It does not affect the lights and is a clean, neat way of -obtaining energy. - -But however true the foregoing may be, the greatest present use of -electricity is to start and maintain light. There are several so-called -systems, embracing dynamos, lamps, regulators, etc, from which I select -the Thomson-Houston as the one for the purpose of describing for several -reasons, _first_, it is at least as good as the average system of which -there is a mushroom growth; _second_, valuble information was kindly -offered by the parent Company; _third_, a good plant is near to which -free acess was given, and _fourth_, we have at the Mechanical Hall of -this University, a dynamo, loaned by the parent Company, which affords -information without any inconvenience. As each part of the system comes -up to be described a little of its history will be given. As the first -part of a system necessary to be produced is the current generator we -will first describe - - - - - _The Thomson-Houston Dynamo._ - - -In considering the current generator the first thing to be decided upon -is the definition of the term dynamo. The following is thought to be a -correct definition,—A dynamo or dynamo electric machine is a machine -which is used to convert energy in the form of mechanical motion into -energy of electric currents, or _vica-versa_. Those used to generate -currents of electricity are called dynamos, those used to generate -mechanical motion are known as motors. - -In attempting to make clear the theory of the dynamo, we will recall -some simple experiments. In Fig. 1, send a current around B from right -to left. Now A being free to move vertically either up or down, connect -its binding posts to a _galvanometer_ (that is, an instrument used to -tell the direction of a current and also used to test the _relative_ -strength of two or more currents) and move A up suddenly when a current -will be generated in A whose direction will be the same as that of the -current in B. Now this current is not created energy, because in -lifting[2] the coil A, work is expending against the attraction between -the coils, as between two currents flowing in the same direction there -is an attraction. If we pursue this experiment in its various forms we -will find the following statement known as Lentz law is true, viz: “If -the relative positions of two conductors A and B be changed of which B -is traversed by a current, a current is induced in A in such a direction -that by its electro dynamic action on the current in B it would have -imparted to the conductor a motion of the contrary kind to that by which -the inducing action was produced.” - -The theory of this law is that around every wire carrying a current -there is a magnetic whirl (Fig. 3). Now if the conducting wire be passed -through a hole in a horizontal plate of glass and iron filings be sifted -upon the latter they will arrange themselves, as shown in Fig. 2., along -lines, radial in this case, known as lines of force, which arranging is -due to the magnetic attraction of the current in the wire upon the iron -filings. Now in B. Fig. 1, every portion of the wire has just such a -whirl and just such lines of force, or magnetic field, and when A is -moved each part of the wire of A cuts one or more lines of force of the -many magnetic fields making up the magnetic field of the entire coil B. -Now when the wire of coil A cuts magnetic field of B a current is -generated in A acording to the following statement known as Faraday’s -Law; “When a conductor in a field of force moves in any way so as to cut -the lines of force there is an electromotive force produced in the -conductor in such a direction that supposing a figure swimming in the -conductor to turn to look along the positive direction of the lines of -force (in Fig. 1, toward axis of B), and the conductor be moved to his -right, he will be swimming with the current so induced.” Hence in Fig. -1, the current generated in it will be from left to right. - -Practically Faraday’s principle means just this: by moving a wire across -a space where there are magnetic lines, the motion of the wire as it -cuts the magnetic lines sets up around the cutting wire a magnetic whirl -or in other words sets up a current in that wire. - -The foregoing laws are the “principles of the dynamo,” yet after their -deduction, the progress of the evolution of the dynamo was slow and -attended by many dificulties. Between 1860 and 1870 however, a working -knowledge of these laws became the property of thousands of mechanics, -and by comparing the number of inventions before and after that date -(1860) the present generous growth of systems, dynamos and lamps, prove -that inventions were almost in proportion to the number of people who -had any electrical knowledge. In 1866 Wilde produced a toy -magneto-electric machine for giving shocks, in which he used excited -electromagnets. In the same years Varley and others produced a machine -which excited its own field magnets the type of all machines used in -practice. With this principle of Varley’s and Pacinnotti’s ring, Gramme -produced in 1871 his since famous continuous current generator, one of -which the second dynamo electric machine ever brought to this country -can now be seen at the engine house at Purdue University. In 1877 Silas -Brush brought out his famous dynamo and it may be interesting to know -that he designed and had one made without experimenting in the least. In -the following year a patent was issued to Messrs. Elihu Thomson and -Edwin J. Houston, Professors of electricity in Philadelphia on the -present though much improved _Thomson Houston Dynamo._ - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 1._ - - _Fig. 2._ - - _Fig. 3._ - - _Fig. 4._ - - _Fig. 5._ - - _Fig. 6._ - - _Fig. 7._] - -To go back to Lentz and Faraday’s laws and carefully consider them we -can but assent to S. P. Thompson’s “fifteen propositions on the dynamo” -which are:—1. A part of the energy of an electric current exists in the -form of a magnetic whirl surrounding the wire. - -2. Currents may be generated in a wire by setting up these whirls. - -3. We can set up these whirls by increasing or decreasing the relative -distance between magnets and wires. - -4. To set up and maintain these whirls consumes power. - -5. To induce currents in a conductor there must be motion between them -so as to alter the number of lines of force (Fig. 4 to 7). - -6. Increase in the number of lines of force in the circuit produces a -current of the opposite sense to decrease (Fig. 7). - -7. Approach induces electromotive force in the opposite direction to -that induced by retreat. - -8. The stronger the magnetic field the stronger the current. - -9. The more rapid the motion the stronger the current. - -10. The greater the length of the conductor which cuts lines of force -the stronger the current. - -11. The shorter the conductor not so employed the stronger the current. - -12. Approach being a finite process the approaching and receeding must -give alternating directions to the current. - -13. By the use of a commutator all the currents can be turned in the -same direction. - -14. In a steady circuit it makes no difference what kind of magnets are -used to procure the requisite magnetic field whether permanent or -electromagnets. - -15. Hence the current of the generator may be used to excite the -magnetism of field magnets. - -Now the Thomson-Houston dynamo comes under that class of dynamos in -which there is a rotation of coils in a uniform field of force, such -rotation (Fig. 6.) being affected round an axis in the plane of the -coil. Of course this dynamo is made like all others of its class to have -_first_, as powerful field-magnets as possible, _second_, the armature -or rotating coil has as great a lenght of wire in it as possible the -wire being thick to offer little resistance and _third_, built to stand -high rotative speed. - -The simple theoretical dynamo is shown at Fig. 8, consisting of a single -rectangular loop of wire rotating in the magnetic field formed by large -magnets, and in order to take the current so generated from the loop so -as to give a continuous current, we use a two part commutator (Fig. 9) -consisting of a metal tube split in two and mounted on wood, each half -connected to one end of the loop. The current is taken off by brushes -which lead to the main circuit. But manifestly this dynamo would give no -appreciable current becase it has a very small length of wire on the -armature, so a great number of loops were used which at present -constitute the so-called _drum armature_. - -We may rotate the loops of wire in Fig. 8, on one of its sides as an -axis or even push it farther from the center of revolution than that. To -do this, wrap the wire around a ring and connect both ends to a two part -commutator (Fig. 10). If instead of the ring in Fig. 10, being solid it -be a number of coils of wire and if instead of there being one coil -around the ring there be thirty we will have Pacinnotti’s ring before -spoken of. If we used four to ten coils or “bobbins” of large size which -is shown diagramatically at Fig. 11, we would have the Brush dynamo. - -So with exceptions we may say that there are practically two types of -dynamos as regards armatures, the _ring_ type as Brush, Pacinnotti’s -Gramme, and the _drum_ armature (page 20). - -The Thomson-Houston dynamo is like the rest of that dynamo, unique. To -quote S. P. Thompson; “The Thomson-Houston spherical armature is unique -among armatures, its cup shaped field magnets are unique among field -magnets, its three part commutator is unique commutators.” - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 8._ - Simple Dynamo. - - _Fig. 9._ - - _Fig. 10._ - - _Fig. 11._ - - _Fig. 12._ - - _Fig. 13._] - -An armature of a dynamo is the rotating coil or coils which generates -currents of electricity by moving in a magnetic field of force. It is -the most important part of a dynamo as it is literally the current -generator. So we first consider the Thomson-Houston - - - - - _Armature_ - - -It is spheroidal in shape as is noted for the fact of its very seldom -_burning out_, i. e., the electricity heating the wires of the armature -to such an extent as to destroy the insulation or fuse the wires, either -rendering the armature useless. It is made by keying two dish-shaped -iron disks _SS_ Fig. 12, to the shaft x and putting ribs _dd_ about ten -in number in the twenty-five light machine, and over the whole putting -varnished paper. Then at stated intervals, pegs JJJ are driven into -suitable holes in the disks and ribs to help in winding wire on the -shell. Next three insulated wires of equal length are joined together at -_h_ Fig. 13, and the three wires are then wound over the shell in the -following peculiar manner: one half of No. 1 is wound so as to form a -zone of a sphere of which the shaft is in the same plane as the center -circumference of the zone. The armature is then turned on the shaft as -an axis 120° and one half of No. 2 is wound in the same manner as the -first half of No. 1. The armature is moved 120° more and all of No. 3 is -wound. The armature is then turned back, 120° on the shaft as an axis -and the remainder of No. 2 is wound. Lastly the armature is turned back -120° more and the rest of No. 1 is wound. They are bound by wires _gg_ -Fig. 13 to hold them when rotating. The object of this rather -complicated winding is to get the three coils equi distant from the -shaft in order that each coil will generate practically the same -current. Now as will be seen the overlapping wires will form a nearly -spherical armature. The armature is mounted on the shaft _x_ as an axis -which extends far enough out from its bearings to put a pulley on the -end _H_ and a commutator on the other end to the three parts of which -are fastened the three wires marked one, two, three, Fig. 13. - -It has been urged that the repairs of this armature will be larger than -on any other armature. If there should be a “burnout” it would -necessitate the taking apart of the dynamo and sending the armature to -the factory to be rewound. But it never burns out except through -positive carelessness and it will be found that the repairs on this -armature is less than on the armatures of its several powerful rivals -taken separately even though they be of simpler construction. - -When the Thomson-Houston armature is rotated between the cup-shaped -fieldmagnets alternate currents are generated in each coil in turn and -now the next point to be considered is the - - - - - _Commutator_ - - -which incites the alternate currents so formed into one continuous -current. The commutator as before stated is fastened on the shaft at the -end one, two, three Fig. 13. It consists of three copper plates in the -form of a cylinder each segment _A´A´A´_ covering 115° of the dotted -circle Fig. 14. They are screwed to rod _CCC_ and _DDD_ which are -insulated by wood and gutta-percha plates _EE_ from the iron mounting -_E´´_ which is in turnescrewed to shaft by set screws shown. The wires -one, two, three, have respectively red, white and blue insulation and -are put in binding posts _DDD_ marked one, two, three at the factory and -if not so placed may work badly. The current enters _D_ goes to _B´B´_ -which there have direct contact with _A_. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 14._ - Half Sec. A.B. - - _Fig. 15._ _Air blast Nozzles._ - - _Fig. 16._ _Air blast Mechanism._ - - _Fig. 17._ _Section of Dynamos._ - Spherical Armature in Fig. 13.] - -Now in a three-part commutator the spark occurring as the segments pass -under the brushes would very quickly destroy the surface and interfere -with the currents in the coil. This difficulty is overcome by blowing -out the spark by an air blast given at just the right place and time. -The manner in which the blast is delivered is as follows: the segments -of the commutator - -are separated by gaps of about 5° and in front of each of the leading -brushes there projects a nozzle, Fig. 15, which discharges an air blast -alternately three times in each revolution. The blast itself is supplied -by an ingenious piece of mechanism known as the - - - - - _Thomson Air Blast_. - - -It consists of an elliptical box II whose sides have perforations II -where air can enter while inside of this rotates a steel disk keyed to -the armature shaft and having radial slots in which slide three wings -RRR of ebonite which as they fly around drives air into the holes JJ -leading to the nozzles Fig. 15. The result is that, since the spark is -done away with, oil can be supplied to the commutator in limited -quantities but still amply sufficient to reduce the wear on the -commutator to such an extent that the life of a segment is greatly -increased. The air blast is fastened to the dynamo frame just behind the -commutator and can be see in Fig. 23. - - - - - _The Field-Magnets_, - - -as may be seen from Fig. 17, consists of two flanged iron tubes _AA_ -whose end consists of a convex segment of a sphere accurately turned to -recieve the armature. Coils of wire _CC_ which are in the outside -circuit and through which the entire current flows are wound upon the -tubes. After the armature is placed between them the two tubes are -bolted together by heavy wrought iron bars _BB_ and the whole carried on -the frame work _PN_ shown also at _PN_ Fig. 23. Now a little magnetism -only remains in the wrought iron bars and iron frame works when the -armature first revolves, but the current even though slight, going -through the coils makes an electromagnet out of each tube and heavily -magnetizes the wrought iron bars and in two or three seconds after the -armature first rotates it is entirely surrounded by a heavy magnetic -field. One of the good points of these field magnets is that but very -little magnetism is lost as compared with most other dynamos and since -it takes power to maintain a heavy magnetic field, this dynamo is in -this respect very economical. - - - - - _The Thomson Regulating Gear_ - - -Later on we will show that pushing the brushes together or pulling them -apart alter the strength of the current, but for the present just accept -the fact and we will show how the brushes are varied. It is accomplished -by the mechanism shown in Fig. 18. The brushes are fixed to the levers -YY and Y_{2}Y_{2} united by the lever _l_. The automatic movement is -obtained by the electromagnet _R_ while a dashpot _J_ prevents too -sudden motion. Suppose the brushes to be in the position shown when the -current would get too strong owing to lights being cut out. The -electromagnet R getting stronger would raise _A_ and reduce the current -taken off until current came to normal. If, instead, some lamps were -thrown in the current would become weak and the electromagnet _R_ would -become weak, drop A which would increase current and this will continue -till current reaches normal. - -The foregoing regulating gear is used on small dynamos and old style -large ones. On the large new style dynamo a more delicate regulating -gear is used, the current which operates it being shown at Fig. 19. -Normally the electromagnet _R_ is short circuited by the wire _r_ and -only acts when this circuit is broken. At some point in the main circuit -is a _wall controller_ or _controller magnet_ shown in Fig. 19, at ST, -consisting of two electro magnet, Their yoke supported by a spring and -the yoke operating the contact lever S. If the current becomes too -strong the controller magnet circuit is broken and all the current of -the main circuit goes through the electromagnet _R_ which by its sudden -increase of strength quickly raises _A_ and thus alters the brushes. -This only exists for a moment until the yoke of the controller magets -fall because of their decrease of magnets strength, when current again -flows through wire _r_ because when yoke drops contact is made. This -decreases the strength of electro magnet _R_ thus dropping _A_ and -increasing current. Hence _S_ will again raise and break contact and _R_ -again rais _A_. This is continually repeated. - - - - - _The Brushes_, - - -of which there are four in use on all machines, are made of a broad -strip of springy copper having six slits two thirds the distance up, and -thus touching at several points. They are held by clamps shown at Fig. -23 which also shows the brushes. The brushes are held to the commutator -by their own springiness and the variation of position due to strength -of current. The brushes are set by a gauge sent with each dynamo which -shows length from the end of brush to the holder. The holders are set at -the correct angle by a gauge of brass of the shape of a right angled -triangle the short side having a wide flange curved to fit the -commutator for which it is sent, while the second side as regards length -must fit to the holder when swung to it on the commutator as an axis. - -After describing the details of the dynamo, we will at once proceed to -find how the - - - - - _Thomson Houston Dynamo Operates._ - - -In the diagram Fig. 19 the rotation is as in practice against the hands -of the watch when seen from the commutator end of shaft. The three coils -of the armature are represented by three lines _A_, _B_, _C_, united at -their inner extremities each being joined to a segment of the -commutator. There are two positive brushes _P_ and _F_ and two negative -ones _P´_ and _F´_. The current delivered to _P_ and _F_ goes round one -of the field magnet coils, then to the outer circuit consisting of -regulating gear, lamps, motors, etc., through the other field magnet -coil to brushes P´ and F´. Now from Fig. 20, we observe that supposing -the loop to be rotating against the hands of the watch in a magnetic -field the diagram represents by arrows the direction of the -electro-motive forces induced in those loops. The action is a maximum -along the line of the resultant magnetic field m m´ and the minimum -along the line n n´ which is at right angles to m m´. The reason that -m m´ is not horizontal is that the induced poles of the armature is in -advance of the poles of the field magnet and is constantly tending to be -drawn back. Applying Fig. 20 to Fig. 19, we see that there will be an -outward current in _B_, an inward one in _C_, _A_ generating no current -for that moment. - -Now the following pair of brushes _F F´_ are shifted backward three -times as far as _P P´_ is shifted forwards. When the current is the -greatest possible the brushes P and F and P´ and F´ are 60° apart thus -leaving _P_ and _F´_ and _P´_ and _F´_ just 120° apart and since the -segments of the commutator are each 120° in length[3] there will always -be two coils in parralel with one another and in series with the third. -Taking one sixth of a revolution and continuing all the way round we -find the following tabulated statement showing brushes in contact with -coils, to be true viz:— - - - { P - C } { P´ } - From external circuit { } B { } to external circuit - { F - A } { F´ } - - { P } { P´ - B } - ” “ ” { } A { } ” “ ” - { F } { F´ - C } - - { P - A } { P´ } - ” “ ” { } C { } ” “ ” - { F - B } { F´ } - - { P } { P´ - C } - ” “ ” { } B { } ” “ ” - { F } { F´ - A } - - { P - B } { P´ } - ” “ ” { } A { } ” “ ” - { F - C } { F } - - { P } { P´ - A } - ” “ ” { } C { } ” “ ” - { F } { F´ - B } - - -Now suppose the current to become to strong owing to any cause, the -following brushes are made to recede. This can but shorten the time that -the brushes are in contact with the commutator when the coil is passing -through that position in which it is generating the maximum amount of -current and also hasten the time when it goes into parralel with a -comparatively idle coil. If the current is to weak then the brushes are -made to close up thus reducing the time that the most active coil is in -parralel with one less active and also makes the brushes be longer in -contact with the segment when the coil is generating its maximum amount -of current. The motion of advance and retreat of the brushes is -accomplished by the _Thomson Regulating Gear_ before described. On Fig. -23 can be seen all the dynamo’s details except the _Controller magnet_. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 18._ - - _Fig. 19._ - - _Fig. 20._ - - _Fig. 21._ - - _Fig. 22._] - -As regards the _Thomson-Houston Dynamo_ it will be found to produce the -steadiest and most uniform current of any dynamo now in use. It -regulating gear is the simplest and most natural one ever used. In its -ability to reduce the current simaltaneously to one tenth of its former -quantity inside of one or two minutes _without injury to itself and -lamps_ it stands alone, in practice. - - - _Fig. 23._ - - - Your engraving representing “_Dynamo - Electric Machine with Thomsons Spherical - Armature_” - - —Taken from one of your catalogues, and - pasted on a sheet of this paper— - -In a system the most important thing next to the dynamo is the lamps. -The first experimenter who produced an electric glow was Otto von -Guericke. But neither the glow nor electric spark have been used to -produce electric light for practical purposes, this was left to the -voltaic arc on the one hand and the incandescent lamp on the other. Davy -in 1800 mentions experiments in which electric light was obtained by -electric sparks between two carbon points. He showed the arc[4] light -for the first time in 1810 at the Royal Institute, which with Foucalt’s -hand regulator (1844) Deleuil lit the Place de la Concorde, Paris. -Thomas Wright in London (1845) devised the first apparatus which -automatically adjusted the carbons. W. C. Staite used the electric -current for the regulation of the carbons in 1848. In 1855 Serrin -constructed a lamp which would have been used on a large scale had it -not been for the cost of generating electricity. In 1876 Paul -Jablochkoff invented his electric candles and in 1881 there were 4000 in -use, but as their use increased their defects were found out. Regulated -lamps were again brought into use and with them experimenters again -endeavored to solve the problem of dividing the electric light. In 1877 -Tschikoliff solved the problem in a very simple manner. He reasoned -that, if the current be divided and part go through the carbons and make -the arc and the rest go through an electromagnet and regulate the arc -and the the current unite and when another light is wanted the current -be again divided and reunited, the current may be divided any number of -times and the scheme work nicely. When put in practice it worked very -nicely and is used on most lamps at present. Suppose there be a lamp -placed in the circuit. The current divides and the larger half goes -through the carbons, as here there is no resistance as the carbons -touche, while the remainder, going through a spiral of high resistance, -is small. When the carbons burn away a little the arc is formed and the -resistance increasing brings the regulating gear into operation. Now the -strength of the current is the same after it has gone through the lamp -as before because the current is going to get through either one way or -the other, hence any number of lamps may go on in series, depending only -upon the tension of the current. - -Incandescent lamps were produced as early as 1859 but not till 1879 when -Swan, Edison, Sawyer and others were they ever in a practical form. The -first glow lamp Edison constructed had platinum wire to be heated. He -however examined the properties of organic substances and finally fixed -on bamboo fibre. The bamboo is divided into fibres one millimeter in -diameter and twelve millimeters long. These fibres are pressed in -U-shaped moulds and baked in ovens where they are allowed to become -carbonized. The carbonized filament is attached to platinum wires which -are fused in a glass vessel from which the air has been exhausted. We -will speak more fully of the incandescent lamp when describing the -Thomson Houston System’s incandescent lamp. - -The Thomson Arc lamps was used by the Thomson Houston System since its -begining till about two years ago when they stopped manufacturing them, -only furnishing broken parts. The arc lamps at present used is - - - - - _The Thomson Rice Arc Lamp._ - - -They are manufactured in two styles the single lamp used for stores, -buildings etc., and the double lamp used for street service, all night -work, etc. The light is produced by the voltaic arc between two carbons, -the negative pole or lower carbon burning away about half as fast as the -positive pole or upper carbon. The outside view of the single lamp is -seen in Fig. 21 and of the double lamp in Fig. 22. - -The regulation of the double lamp is diagramatically shown in Fig. 24, -which is a plan of the lamp with cover removed, showing only a plan of -cylindrical part of the lamp. The wires marked _a b c d_ run along the -top in order to be out of the way. In Fig. 24 the current comes in at -the binding post and is at _A_ divided into three currents _A_, _B_, and -_C_. The current _a_ goes to the yoke _I_ of the electromagnets _h_ and -_i_ and when the yoke is not held down by magnets _h_ and _i_, it goes -out wire _a_ to binding post _B_. This only continues a moment until the -current _b_ which goes through the carbons and at the start has almost -no resistance offered it, attracts the yoke _I_ thus breaking contact of -curcuit _a_ until the current ceases or till both carbons burn away, -when in the latter case the resistance of _b_ becoming very high as -compared to _j_ and _k_ but little current goes through _h_ and _i_ and -_I_ is raised by a weak spring not shown, thus making contact of circuit -_a_, and since current _a_ has little resistance as compared to _b_ or -_c_ most of the current goes through it, thus practically making a -cut-out. The current _b_ goes round the electro-magnets _h_ and _i_, -then to the “bed” through screw J, the “bed” being a cast iron bottom of -the cylinder _E_ Fig. 22. From the bed it goes down carbon holder _C_ -(or _H_) through carbons and arc to frame bed _A_ Fig. 22. From there it -comes up a wire by the side of frame _C_ Fig. 22 and joins other -currents at _B_. The third current _a_ goes through electromagnets _j_ -and _k_ and joins other currents at _B_. - -This is when switch F Fig. 22 and _M_ Fig. 24, is turned _on_. Now since -the dynamo will regulate all differences in current the lamps can be -turned _on_ or _off_ at will by any one. This is accomplished at the -lamp by turning _off_ the switch. When the switch is turned _off_, the -current goes through _d_ to screw _K_ which is then touched by metal L -(in contact with binding post B and worked by _M_). - -It will be perceived that any disorder in a lamp cannot affect other -lamps in the circuit and will right itself or if not the lamp can -immediately be switched out of circuit. - -Now as to the regulating gear. The two carbon holders are held up, _H_, -by clutch operated by springs (not shown) till end _N_ of lever _ON_ is -permanently held down, and _C_, by the raising and falling of yoke _D_. -There is only _one_ arc burning at a time in a double lamp and the -so-called positive carbon _C_ burns first. When the lamps are trimmed -the switch is first turned _off_ the carbons put in and the switch -turned _on_. This will draw the upper carbons up about a quarter of an -inch. - -When the current is turned on the circuit _aa_ is almost instantly -broken and most of the current goes through _c_ as the distance between -carbons being a quarter of an inch the arc has a _very_ large -resistance. The electromagnets _j_ an _k_ attract _D_ which lets loose -_C_, which falls to lower carbon, and the resistance being almost -nothing, most of the current goes through _b_. This weakens _j_ and _k_ -which lets _D_ up while _D_ takes _C_ up with it thus establishing the -arc. The current _all_ goes down _C_ till the enlarged end of _C_ -strikes lever _ON_ thus letting _H_ drop and also putting it in -electrical contact with “bd,” which it was not in before. -After a short time the carbons burn away, the arc becomes longer and -establishes itself and the resistance becoming greater in passing from -carbon to carbon and a correspondingly less current flows through _b_ -and a greater one through _c_. This makes the electro-magnets _j_ and -_k_ strong enough to draw _D_ to them in spite of spring _Q_. When _D_ -is attracted by _j_ and _k_, _C_ (or _H_) falls and again the arc -lengthens, always being kept about 3/32 inch long. This is frequently -and continually repeated, the delicacy depending upon the strengh of the -spring _Q_ as compared to the electromagnets strength. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 24._] - -When the carbon in carbon holder _C_ burns to a length of about two -inches in attempting to fall to maintain arc’s length, an enlarged port -at the top of the carbon holder _C_ strikes and holds down lever _ON_ -pivoted at _O_ (and end _N_ held up by a spring _P_) thus letting loose -a clutch by which electrical contact is made between _H_ and “bed” and -letting _H_ fall till it touches lower carbon when an arc is established -and regulated just as for _C_. - -The Thomson-Rice single lamp has the same gear with the exception of -having only carbon holder _C_, _H_, lever _ON_, and spring clutch and -spring _P_ being absent. The single lamp will burn eight hours and the -double lamp fourteen hours continuous running. - -These lamps are intended only for a steady current and will not cut out -of circuit if the current gets too strong. But with the Thomson Houston -dynamo the current never gets too strong and because of this there are -less power absorbing mechanism and as anything’s functions decrease the -remaining functions are increasedly better. As the Thomson-Rice lamp has -less functions and power consuming machinery, it can but be the most -economical, delicately adjusted and steadiest lamp extant. They are made -to stand a current of five amperes above the normal current for a short -time, as, when forty lights are simultaneously cut out of a forty-five -light circuit, the current runs up about four amperes above the normal -current for about one half a minute. - -Prof. Thomson has gotten out a divided arc lamp which supplies a light -of moderate candle power for locations where a 2000 candle power lamp -gives more light than can be economically utilized. It is specially -suited for factory and mill use where looms or other tall machines are -liable to cast disadvantageous shadows. It is said that these lights are -supplied cheaper per candle power than the standard lamp and up to date -is sucessful. - -He has also arranged apparatus by which arc lamps are run in multiple -series, series or multiple arc. It is said that divisions, redivisions -and reunions are practicable. This is also sucessful as far as we can -find out. - - - - - _The Sawyer-Man Incandescent Lamps._ - - -As before stated Edison fixed upon carbonized filament of bamboo. The -Sawyer-Man company however applied for a patent on carbonized filament -for incandescent lamps on January 19^{th} 1880, and after five years -litigation with Thos. A. Edison they were granted a patent No. 317,676, -on May first, 1885, covering their invention. The Sawyer-Man lamp Fig. -25, consists of a carbonized connected to platinum wires fused in a -glass tube from which all the air possible had been extracted. The light -is produced by the glow of the filament and heat of gases given from -filament. The life of a lamp is from 1000 to 1500 hrs. and requires a -current of 1¼ to 1.3 amperes and give 20 to 25 C.P. When the filament -becomes brittle and breaks the tube is unscrewed from the key Fig. 26, -and a new one screwed in. They are run on the arc light circuit by the -use of an individual distributor Fig. 27 which consists of a brass case -containing a magnet in the circuit of the lamps and a resistance coil -automatically substituted in case the lamp should break or is turned off -by key Fig. 26. The scheme of arranging lamps so as to get the right -current is shown at Fig. 28. the number of lamps in a group depending on -the current. - -Prof. Thomson has gotten out a lamp Fig. 29 in two styles one for 6.8 -amperes current and one for 10 amperes current. Three lamps of different -candle power, due to different potential differences at binding post of -lamp, are use on the same current. The method of connecting them is -shown in Fig. 30. It will be perceived that the lamps carry the full -current yet have a life of 1000 hrs. or more. This is a great invention -indeed doing away with a great loss of power due to high resistance -coils. It will be noticed however that a 125 C.P. incandescent lamp uses -as much energy as a 2000 C.P. arc light, the 65 C.P. lamp one half as -much and the 32 C.P. lamp one fourth as much. - - - - - _General Remarks_ - - -The Thomson Houston system also furnish lightning arresters, ammeters, -hanging boards, switchboards, hoods, insulators, lamp arms, etc, but, -though in some respects many of these miscellaneous articles are -ingenious and novel, yet they are not distinctive of the Thomson Houston -or any other system. Be it said however that all these articles fill -their proper places. The company also furnish a motor to go on their -circuits but for the double reason that of the motor not being strictly -related to electric lighting and of being unable to obtain a description -of it, it must remain undescribed as far as this thesis is concerned. - -After describing all the parts of the system it may be interesting to -know how a plant is arranged. The last plate is a photograph of the -LaFayette Gas Company’s Plant of the Thomson Houston System taken at ten -oclock one night. It shows the engine, dynamos, the wall controller on -the left wall, and a view of the lamps which had hoods put before them -to prevent the polarization of the negative. - -On the accompanying page will be found a table showing experiments with -an old style dynamo given Purdue University by the Thomson Houston -Company, which dynamo is now in the engine house of the Mechanical Hall. - - - - - _Experiments with Three Light T-H. Dynamo No. 79_ - - -The dynamo was run by a large pulley (about four and one half feet in -diameter) on the same shaft as the fly wheel and beside the latter. Two -lamps were put in circuit with a Deprez-Carpentier ammeter and a volt -meter of the same make was put in between the brushes. First one lamp -(old Thomson style) was switched out of circuit, the dynamo started and -when speed was reached the circuit made. The following readings were -taken when the engine made 139 & the dynamo 1122 revolutions per minute. - - - +-----------+----------+----------+---------------+----------------+ - | | One Lamp | Two | When 2^{nd} | When 2^{nd} | - | | | Lamps | lamp was | Lamp was | - | Readings | | | switched in | switched out | - | At End of +----+-----+----+-----+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |Amp.|Volts|Amp.|Volts| Amp. | Volts | Amp. | Volts | - |-----------+----+-----+----+-----+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | 1 second | 10 | 55 | 10 | 110 | 6.7 | 55 | 14 | 110 | - | 30 ” | 10 | 55 | 10 | 110 | 10 | 75 | 10 | 85 | - | 2 Min | 10 | 55 | 10 | 110 | 10 | 109 | 10 | 60 | - | 3 ” | 10 | 55 | 10 | 110 | 10 | 110 | 10 | 55 | - +-----------+----+-----+----+-----+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - - - _Fig. 25_ - - - consisting of drawing of Sawyer Man lamp cut from - catalogue, and trimmed to contour of drawing - - - _Fig. 26_ - - - a drawing showing action of key in Sawyer Man lamp, - cut to contour - - - _Fig. 27_ - - - a drawing of the Thomson Rice Individual distributor - cut from cataloug and pasted in. - - - _Fig. 28_ - - - a drawing cut from pamphlet showing “Method of using - Thomson Rice Individual distributor” - - - _Fig. 29_ - - - a drawing cut from pamphlet showing “Prof. Thomsons - incandescent lamp—series incandescent lamp” - - - _Fig. 30_ - - - Drawing showing “method of using the Series - Incandescent Lamp manufactured by the - Thomson-Houston Elec. Co.” cut from your pamphlet - and pasted on a similar sheet. - - ------------------------------------ - - - A photographer of La Fayette photoed the Gas - Company’s plant of T & H in this city one evening at - 10 o’clock when several lights were burning in room. - I had a large one printed and pasted on a piece of - bristol board of the same size as this sheet, and - put in my original copy. - - - - - _Footnotes_ - - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - The foregoing statement is quoted from Dr Urbitzkany’s work - “Electricity in the Service of Man.” - -Footnote 2: - - Gravity does not enter, as a current is generated in lowering A. - -Footnote 3: - - Each segment is really only 115° in length but the brushes are set at - a distance from the holder far enough to just reach over the five - degree gap by the gauge above described. - -Footnote 4: - - An arc light is a light produced by the use of the voltaic arc, which - is made by the sparks passing between two poles of a powerful battery - which are brought together and then seperated a little. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - _Transcriber’s Note_ - - -The source for this e-book was a hand-written thesis. - -Footnotes have been moved to the end of the book. - -The captions for Figures 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30 are reproduced, -however, the original drawings were not bound with the published thesis -and are therefore not part of this e-book. - -The author’s spelling has been maintained, Some standardization of -punctuation was done to improve readability. - -The following proper names as used by the author are reproduced here -with their more commonly used spelling: - - Author Standard - - Thompson Thomson - Wimhurst Wimshurst - Dr Urbitzkany’s Alfred von Urbanitzsky - Lentz Lenz - Pacinnotti Pacinotti - Foucalt’s Foucault’s - -Phrases which the author portrayed as underlined are presented by -surrounding the text with _underscores_. Some standardization of these -was also done particularly with regard to the presentation of -illustration captions. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Thompson-Houston System of -Electric Lighting, by H. T. 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