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diff --git a/old/53854-0.txt b/old/53854-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f74aeb0..0000000 --- a/old/53854-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6682 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Forge Work, by William L. Ilgen - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Forge Work - -Author: William L. Ilgen - -Release Date: December 31, 2016 [EBook #53854] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORGE WORK *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Brian Wilcox and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes. - -The spelling, punctuation and hyphenation from the original has been -retained except for apparent typographical errors. - - Italic text is marked _thus_. - Bold text is marked =thus=. - - In Chapter ‘FORMULAS AND TABLES’, - ‘7. WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS....’ - [square] represents a square symbol in the original and - [round] represents a circular symbol. - - - - -[Illustration: A MANUAL TRAINING FORGE SHOP] - - - - -FORGE WORK - - BY - WILLIAM L. ILGEN - FORGING INSTRUCTOR, CRANE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL - CHICAGO, ILLINOIS - - WITH EDITORIAL REVISION BY - CHARLES F. MOORE - HEAD OF MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT, CENTRAL HIGH - SCHOOL, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY - - NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO - AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY - WILLIAM L. ILGEN. - -FORGE WORK. - -W. P. I - - - - -PREFACE - - -Teachers of forge work generally supply their own course of instruction -and arrange the exercises for practice. The necessary explanations and -information are given orally, and hence often with very unsatisfactory -results, as the average student is not able to retain all the essential -points of the course. It was the desire to put this instruction in some -permanent form for the use of forge students that led the author to -undertake this work. - -The author wishes to express his thanks for the advice and -encouragement of his fellow-teachers, Dr. H. C. Peterson, Mr. Frank -A. Fucik, and Mr. Richard Hartenberg. Special obligations are due to -Mr. Charles F. Moore, Head of the Mechanical Department in the Central -Commercial and Manual Training High School of Newark, New Jersey, for -his valuable editorial service. - -Figures 146, 147, 150, 153, 157, and 158 have been reproduced, -by permission of the publishers, from “Manufacture of Iron” and -“Manufacture of Steel,” copyrighted 1902, by the International Textbook -Company. Acknowledgments are due also to the Inland Steel Company for -the privilege of using Figures 145, 148, 149, 159-163, 166; and to the -Columbia Tool Steel Company for the use of Figures 151, 152, 154-156. - -WILLIAM L. ILGEN. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE - CHAPTER I. TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.--1. The Forge; 2. - Fire Tools; 3. Fuels; 4. The Anvil; 5. The Hammers; 6. - The ball peen hammer; 7. The cross peen hammer; 8. The - straight peen hammer; 9. The sledges; 10. The Tongs; - 11. The flat-jawed tongs; 12. The hollow bit tongs; - 13. The pick-up tongs; 14. The side tongs; 15. The - chisel tongs; 16. The link tongs; 17. The tool or box - tongs; 18. Anvil and Forging Tools; 19. The hardy; 20. - The cold and hot cutters; 21. The hot cutter; 22. The - flatter; 23. The square- and round-edged set hammers; - 24. The punches; 25. The top and bottom swages; 26. - The top and bottom fullers; 27. The button head set or - snap; 28. The heading tool; 29. The swage block; 30. - The surface plate; 31. The tapered mandrels; 32. Bench - and Measuring Tools; 33. The bench or box vise; 34. The - chisels; 35. The center punch; 36. The rule; 37. The - dividers; 38. The calipers; 39. The scriber or scratch - awl; 40. The square; 41. The bevel; 42. The hack saw; - 43. The files 1 - - - CHAPTER II. FORGING OPERATIONS.--44. The Hammer Blows; - 45. The upright blow; 46. The edge-to-edge blow; 47. - The overhanging blow; 48. The beveling or angle blows; - 49. The leverage blows; 50. The backing-up blows; - 51. The shearing blow; 52. Forging; 53. Drawing; 54. - Bending; 55. Upsetting; 56. Forming; 57. Straightening; - 58. Twisting; 59. Welding; 60. The Material for - Welding; 61. Heating; 62. Scarfing; 63. The lap weld; - 64. The cleft weld; 65. The butt weld; 66. The jump - weld; 67. The V weld 30 - - - CHAPTER III. PRACTICE EXERCISES.--68. Staple; 69. Draw - Spike; 70. S Hook; 71. Pipe Hook; 72. Gate Hook; 73. - Door Hasp; 74. Hexagonal Head Bolt; 75. Square-cornered - Angle; 76. Fagot Welding; 77. Round Weld; 78. Flat - Right-angled Weld; 79. T Weld; 80. Chain Making; 81. - Welded Ring; 82. Chain Swivel; 83. Chain Swivel; 84. - Chain Grabhook 58 - - - CHAPTER IV. TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL.--85. Selecting and - Working Steel; 86. Uses of Different Grades of Steel; - 87. Injuries; 88. Annealing; 89. Hardening and - Tempering; 90. Casehardening 83 - - - CHAPTER V. TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION.--91. Tongs; - 92. Heavy Flat Tongs; 93. Light Chain Tongs; 94. Lathe - Tools; 95. Brass Tool; 96. Cutting-off or Parting Tool; - 97. Heavy Boring Tool; 98. Light Boring or Threading - Tool; 99. Diamond Point Tool; 100. Right Side Tool; - 101. Forging Tools; 102. Cold Chisel; 103. Hot Cutter; - 104. Cold Cutter; 105. Square-edged Set; 106. Hardy; - 107. Flatter; 108. Small Crowbar; 109. Eye or Ring - Bolts; 110. Calipers; 111. Stock Calculation for Bending 96 - - - CHAPTER VI. STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES.--112. A - Forging; 113. The Drop Hammer; 114. Presses; 115. The - Steam Hammer; 116. Steam Hammer Tools; 117. The hack - or cutter; 118. The circular cutter; 119. The trimming - chisel; 120. The cold cutter; 121. The checking tool or - side fuller; 122. The fuller; 123. The combined spring - fullers; 124. The combination fuller and set; 125. The - combined top and bottom swages; 126. The top and bottom - swages; 127. The bevel or taper tool; 128. The V block; - 129. The yoke or saddle; 130. Bolsters or collars; 131. - Punches; 132. Steam Hammer Work; 133. Crank Shaft; 134. - Connecting Rod; 135. Rod Strap; 136. Eccentric Jaw; - 137. Hand Lever; 138. Connecting Lever; 139. Solid - Forged Ring; 140. Double and Single Offsets 123 - - - CHAPTER VII. ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK.--141. Art - Smithing; 142. Scroll Fastenings; 143. Scroll Former; - 144. Bending or Twisting Fork; 145. Bending or Twisting - Wrench; 146. Clip Former; 147. Clip Holder; 148. - Clip Tightener or Clincher; 149. Jardinière Stand or - Taboret; 150. Umbrella Stand; 151. Reading Lamp; 152. - Andirons and Bar; 153. Fire Set; 154. Fire Set - Separated 146 - - - CHAPTER VIII. IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING.--155. - Iron Ore; 156. Magnetite; 157. Red hematite; 158. - Limonite or brown hematite; 159. Ferrous carbonate; - 160. The Value of Ores; 161. Preparation of Ores; - 162. Weathering; 163. Washing; 164. Crushing; 165. - Roasting or calcination; 166. Fuels; 167. Fluxes; 168. - The Blast; 169. The Reduction or Blast Furnace; 170. - Classification of Pig Iron; 171. Bessemer iron; 172. - Basic iron; 173. Mill iron; 174. Malleable iron; 175. - Charcoal iron; 176. Foundry iron; 177. Grading Iron 161 - - - CHAPTER IX. THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL.--178. - Refining Pig Iron; 179. The Open-hearth or Finery - Process; 180. The Puddling Process; 181. Steel; 182. - The Crucible Process; 183. The Bessemer Process; 184. - The Open-hearth Process 177 - - - FORMULAS AND TABLES 197 - - INDEX 207 - - - - - DEDICATED - TO THE MEMORY OF - MR. DAVID GORRIE - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.—THE FORGE.] - - - - -FORGE WORK - - - - -CHAPTER I - -TOOLS AND APPLIANCES - - -=1. The Forge.=—The forge is an open hearth or fireplace used by -the blacksmith for heating his metals. The kind most commonly used by -the general smiths is such as can be seen in small villages or where -the ordinary class of blacksmithing is done. (See Fig. 1.) - -Forges are usually built of brick; in form they are square or -rectangular, and generally extend out from a side wall of the shop. The -chimney is built up from the middle of the left side and is provided -with a hood _B_, which projects over the fire sufficiently to catch the -smoke and convey it to the flue. - -The fire is kindled on the hearth _A_ under the hood and over the -tuyère iron. This iron, the terminal of the blast pipe that leads from -the bellows _E_, is made in various forms and of cast iron; sometimes -it has a large opening at the bottom, but often it has none. - -The bellows are operated by the lever _F_, which expands the sides and -forces air through the tuyère iron, thereby causing the fire to burn -freely and creating a temperature sufficient for heating the metals. - -The coal box _C_ is to the right, where it is convenient. The coal -should always be dampened with water to prevent the fire from -spreading. This will produce a more intense and more concentrated heat, -so that a certain part of the metal can be heated without danger of -affecting the rest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.—A MANUAL TRAINING FORGE.] - -The water tub, or slack tub _D_, as it is more properly called, stands -at the right of the forge near the coal box, where the water for -dampening the coal can be most readily obtained. It is used for cooling -the iron or tongs and for tempering tools. - -Modern forges are made of cast iron or sheet steel. There are various -kinds designed mostly for special purposes. They are generally used -with the fan blast instead of the bellows and have a suction fan for -withdrawing the smoke. - -The forge illustrated in Fig. 2 was designed for manual training use -and is excellent for such a purpose. The bottom or base has six drawers -which provide convenient places for keeping exercises and individual -tools. As each drawer is provided with a special lock, much of the -trouble resulting from having the tools or the work mislaid or lost is -prevented. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE FORGE SHOWN IN FIG. -2.] - -The hearth _A_ where the fire is built is provided with a cast-iron -fire pot or tuyère. This is constructed with an opening at the bottom -where there is a triangular tumbler which is cast upon a rod projecting -through the front of the forge; by revolving the rod and tumbler the -cinders or ashes can be dropped into the ash drawer at the bottom of -the forge without disturbing the fire. A sectional view of these parts -is shown in Fig. 3, also the valve which regulates the blast. - -Suspended on the upper edge surrounding the hearth, and located to the -right and left of the operator, two boxes _C_ and _D_ are located, -which are used for storing an adequate supply of coal and water, where -they may be conveniently obtained. - -In front are two handles; the upper one operates the clinker or ash -valve, the lower one regulates the blast. - -The front and back edges surrounding the hearth are cut out, so that -long pieces of metal can be laid down in the fire. These openings can -be closed, when desired, with the hinged slides shown at _G_. - -The hood _B_ projects over the fire sufficiently to catch the smoke and -convey it to the opening of the down-draft pipe _E_. When necessary -the hood can be raised out of the way with the lever _F_, which is -constructed with cogs and provided with a locking pin to keep the hood -in position. - - -=2. Fire Tools.=—The necessary tools required for maintaining the fire -and keeping it in good working condition are shown in Fig. 4. _A_ is -the poker with which the coke can be broken loose from the sides. _B_ -is the rake with which the coke can be moved over the fire on top of -the metal to prevent the air from retarding the heating. The shovel _C_ -is used for adding fresh coal, which should always be placed around the -fire and not on top. In this way unnecessary smoke will be prevented, -and the coal will slowly form into coke. The dipper _D_ is used for -cooling parts of the work that cannot be cooled in the water box. The -sprinkler _E_ is used for applying water to the coal, or around the -fire to prevent its spreading. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.—FIRE TOOLS. - -_A_, poker; _B_, rake; _C_, shovel; _D_, dipper; _E_, sprinkler.] - - -=3. Fuels.=—The fuels used for blacksmithing are coal, coke, and -charcoal. Most commonly a bituminous coal of superior quality is used. -It should be free from sulphur and phosphorus, because the metals will -absorb a certain amount of these impurities if they are in the fuel. -The best grade of bituminous coal has a very glossy appearance when -broken. - -Coke is used mostly in furnaces or when heavy pieces of metal are to be -heated. It is a solid fuel made by subjecting bituminous coal to heat -in an oven until the gases are all driven out. - -Charcoal is the best fuel, because it is almost free from impurities. -The most satisfactory charcoal for forging purposes is made from -maple or other hard woods. It is a very desirable fuel for heating -carbon steel, because it has a tendency to impart carbon instead of -withdrawing it as the other fuels do to a small extent. It is the most -expensive fuel, and on that account, and because the heating progresses -much more slowly, it is not used so generally as it should be for -heating carbon steel. - - -=4. The Anvil.=—The anvil (Fig. 5) is indispensable to the smith, for -upon it the various shapes and forms of metal can be forged or bent -by the skilled workman. Except for a few that have been designed for -special purposes, it has a peculiar shape which has remained unchanged -for hundreds of years. That the ancient smiths should have designed one -to meet all requirements is interesting to note, especially as most -other tools have undergone extensive improvements. - -Anvils are made of wrought iron or a special quality of cast iron. In -the latter case the face is sometimes chilled to harden it, or is made -of steel which is secured to the base when the anvil is cast. Those -that are made of wrought iron are composed of three pieces: the first -is the base _B_ which is forged to the required dimensions; the second -is the top which includes the horn _C_ and the heel; the third is the -face _A_ of tool steel which is welded to the top at the place shown by -the upper broken line. The top and base are then welded together at the -lower broken line. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.—THE ANVIL.] - -After the anvil has been finished, the face is hardened with a constant -flow of water, then it is ground true and smooth and perfectly straight -lengthwise, but slightly convex crosswise, and both edges for about -four inches toward the horn are ground to a quarter round, thus -providing a convenient place for bending right angles. This round edge -prevents galling, which is liable to occur in material bent over a -perfectly square corner. - -The round hole in the face is called the pritchel hole, over which -small holes can be punched in the material. When larger ones are to be -punched, they can be made on a nut or collar placed over the square -hole or hardy hole. This hardy hole is used mostly for holding all -bottom tools, which are made with a square shank fitted loosely to -prevent their becoming lodged. - -The flat portion _D_ at the base of the horn, and a little below the -level of the face, is not steel, consequently not hardened, and is -therefore a suitable place for cutting or splitting, because there -is not much liability of injuring the cutter if the latter comes in -contact with the anvil. - -The horn _C_ is drawn to a point and provides a suitable place for -bending and forming, also for welding rings, links, or bands. - -The anvil is usually mounted on a wooden block and is securely held by -bands of iron as shown in the illustration, or it may be fastened by -iron pins driven around the concave sides of the base. It is sometimes -mounted on a cast-iron base made with a projecting flange which holds -the anvil in place. - -A convenient height for the mounting is with the top of the face just -high enough to touch the finger joints of the clenched hand when one -stands erect. It is generally tipped forward slightly, but the angle -depends considerably upon the opinion of the workman who arranges it in -position. - -For some time most of the anvils were made in Europe, but at present -the majority that are purchased here are made by American manufacturers. - - -=5. The Hammers.=—Of the multitude of tools used by mechanics, the -hammer is undoubtedly the most important one. There was a time when man -had only his hands to work with, and from them he must have received -his ideas for tools. Three prominent ones which are used extensively -at present were most probably imitations of the human hand. From the -act of grasping, man could easily have originated the vise or tongs for -holding materials that he could not hold with the hand. Scratching with -the finger nails undoubtedly impressed him with the need of something -that would be effective on hard substances, and so he devised such -tools as picks, chisels, and numerous other cutting instruments. - -The clenched fist must have suggested the need of a hammer. The first -thing to be substituted for the fist was a stone held in the hand. Next -a thong of fiber or leather was wound around the stone, and used as a -handle. From these beginnings we have progressed until we have hammers -of all sizes and shapes, from the tiny hammer of the jeweler to the -ponderous sledge. Workmen have adapted various shapes of hammers to -their individual needs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.—HAND HAMMERS. - -_A_, ball peen hammer; _B_, cross peen hammer; _C_, straight peen -hammer.] - - -=6. The ball peen hammer= (_A_, Fig. 6), sometimes called a machinist’s -hammer, is very conveniently shaped for forging, as the ball end is -handy for drawing out points of scarfs or smoothing concave surfaces. -A suitable weight of this kind of hammer is one and a half pounds, but -lighter ones can be used to good advantage for fastening small rivets. - - -=7. The cross peen hammer= (_B_, Fig. 6) is one of the older styles and -is mostly employed in rough, heavy work or for spreading metal. - - -=8. The straight peen hammer= (_C_, Fig. 6) is shaped similarly to the -ball peen hammer, except that the peen is flattened straight with the -eye. It is convenient for drawing metal lengthwise rapidly. - -=9. The sledges= (_A_, _B_, and _C_, Fig. 7) are used for striking on -cutters, swages, fullers, or other top tools; when they are used by the -helper, the blacksmith can be assisted in rapidly drawing out metal. -The only difference between these two sledges is in the peen--one is -crosswise with the eye and the other lengthwise. The double-faced -sledge _C_ is sometimes called a swing sledge, because it is used -mostly for a full swing blow. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.—THE SLEDGES.] - - -=10. The Tongs.=—There is an old saying that “a good mechanic can do -good work with poor tools,” which may be true; but every mechanic -surely should have good tools, on which he can rely and thereby have -more confidence in himself. Among the good tools that are essential for -acceptable smith work are the tongs. - -Very few shops have a sufficient variety of tongs to meet all -requirements, and it is often necessary to fit a pair to the work to be -handled. Sometimes quite serious accidents happen because the tongs are -not properly fitted. They should always hold the iron securely and, if -necessary, a link should be slipped over the handles as shown in _B_, -Fig. 8. The workman is thus relieved from gripping the tongs tightly -and is allowed considerable freedom in handling his work. - - -=11. The flat-jawed tongs= are shown at _A_, Fig. 8. They are made in -various sizes to hold different thicknesses of material. Tongs of this -kind hold the work more securely if there is a groove lengthwise on the -inside of the jaw; the full length of the jaw always should grip the -iron. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.—THE TONGS. - -_A_, flat-jawed tongs; _B_, hollow bit tongs; _C_, pick-up tongs; -_D_, side tongs; _E_, chisel tongs; _F_, link tongs; _G_, tool or box -tongs.] - - -=12. The hollow bit tongs=, shown at _B_, Fig. 8, are very handy for -holding round iron or octagonal steel. They can be used also for -holding square material, in which case the depressions in the jaws -should be V-shaped. - - -=13. The pick-up tongs= (_C_, Fig. 8) are useful for picking up large -or small pieces, as the points of the jaws are fitted closely together, -and the two circular openings back of the point will securely grip -larger pieces when seized from the side. - - -=14. The side tongs= (_D_, Fig. 8) are used for holding flat iron from -the side. Tongs for holding round iron from the side can be made in -this form with circular jaws. - - -=15. The chisel tongs= are shown at _E_, Fig. 8. One or more pairs of -these are necessary in all forge shops. As the hot and cold cutters -frequently get dull or broken, it will be necessary to draw them out -and retemper them; and, as the heads of these cutters become battered -considerably, they are difficult to hold without chisel tongs. The -two projecting lugs at the ends of the jaws fit into the eye, and the -circular bows back of them surround the battered head of the cutter, so -that it can be held without any difficulty. - - -=16. The link tongs= (_F_, Fig. 8) are as essential as anything else -required in making chains or rings of round material. They can be made -to fit any size of stock. - - -=17. The tool or box tongs= (_G_, Fig. 8) should be made to fit the -various sizes of lathe tool stock that are used. They should be made -substantially and fit the steel perfectly so that it can be held -securely and without danger of stinging the hand, while the tool -is being forged. Another style of tool tongs is made with one jaw -perfectly flat; on the other jaw, lugs are provided to hold the steel -firmly. These are not illustrated. - -Almost an unlimited number of different tongs could be explained and -illustrated, but, from those given, any one should be able to add to or -change the tongs he has so that his material can be securely held. - - -=18. Anvil and Forging Tools.=—If a complete set of these tools were to -be illustrated and explained, a volume would be required. Even then, -the worker would very often be compelled to devise some new tool to -suit the particular work at hand. One advantage that the blacksmith has -over all other mechanics is that when a special tool is required, if he -is a thorough mechanic he can make it. - -An almost unlimited number of tools might be required in a general -smith shop; but only such tools as are essential in manual training or -elementary smith work will be considered here. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9. - -_A_, hardy; _B_, cold cutter; _C_, hot cutter.] - - -=19. The hardy= (_A_, Fig. 9) should fit the hardy hole of the anvil -loosely enough so that it will not stick or wedge fast. It is made of -cast steel and should be tempered so that it will not chip or batter -from severe use. It is an indispensable tool, especially to one who -has to work without a helper, for with it iron can be cut either hot -or cold, and steel when it is heated. The material should be held on -the cutting edge of the hardy, then struck with the hammer. A deep cut -should be made entirely around the material, round, square, or flat, -so that it can be broken off by being held over the outer edge of the -anvil and struck a few downward blows with the hammer. - -Material should not be cut through from one side, for the cut would -then be angular instead of square; furthermore, there would be the -effect of dulling the hardy if the hammer should come in contact with -it. The hardy is frequently used to mark iron where it is to be bent or -forged, but it is not advisable to use it for such purposes, unless the -subsequent operations would entirely remove the marks, for they might -be made deep enough to weaken the metal, especially at a bending point. - - -=20. The cold and hot cutters= (_B_ and _C_, Fig. 9) are made, as are -all other top tools, with an eye for inserting a handle, and should -be held by the workman while some one acting as his helper strikes -on them with the sledge. The handles can be of any convenient length -from eighteen inches to two feet. Cast steel should be used for making -both these cutters, but their shapes differ somewhat. The cold cutter -_B_ is forged considerably heavier on the cutting end than is the hot -cutter, in order to give it plenty of backing to withstand the heavy -blows that it receives. The cutting edge is ground convex to prevent -the possibility of the corners breaking off easily, and is ground more -blunt than the hot cutter. It should be used only to nick the metal, -which should then be broken off with the hammer or sledge, as described -in cutting iron with the hardy. - - -=21. The hot cutter= (_C_, Fig. 9) is drawn down, tapering from two -depressions or shoulders near the eye to an edge about 1/8 inch thick, -which is ground equally from both sides to form a cutting edge parallel -with the eye. It should be used exclusively for cutting hot metal, -because the shape and temper will not stand the cutting of cold iron. -In order to avoid dulling the cutter and the possibility of injuring -some one with the piece of hot metal that is being cut off, the cut -should be held over the outside edge of the anvil when the final blows -are being struck; the operation will then have a shearing action, and -the piece of metal will drop downward instead of flying upward. - -Great care should be taken in hardening and tempering each of these -cutters to prevent possible injury from small particles of steel that -might fly from them if they were tempered too hard. The cold cutter -should be hard enough to cut steel or iron without being broken or -battered on its cutting edge. The hot cutter should not be quite so -hard and should be dipped in water frequently when it is being used to -prevent the temper from being drawn. - - -=22. The flatter= (_A_, Fig. 10) is as useful and as essential for the -production of smooth and nicely finished work as the finishing coat of -varnish on a beautiful piece of furniture. Any work that is worth doing -is certainly worth doing well, and in order to make forge work present -a finished appearance the smith should use the flatter freely. With -it the rough markings of the various forging tools or hammer can be -entirely removed. By using it while the work is at a dull red heat, and -by occasionally dipping the flatter in water before it is applied, all -the rough scale can be removed, thus leaving the work with a smooth, -finished appearance. - -There are various sizes of this tool, but one with a 2-inch face is -convenient for use on light forgings. The edges of the face may be made -slightly round, so that markings will not be left on the work, but -frequently the edges are left perfectly square. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10. - -_A_, flatter; _B_, square-edged set hammer; _C_, round-edged set -hammer.] - -It is not necessary to temper this tool; in fact, the constant -hammering on it has a tendency to crystallize the steel, often causing -it to break off at the eye. As the constant hammering on the head of -the flatter will also cause the head to become battered, it is good -practice frequently to draw out the head and lay the flatter aside to -cool. This will anneal the steel and prevent crystallization, at least -for some time. - - -=23. The square-and round-edged set hammers= (_B_ and _C_, Fig. 10) -are employed for various purposes. The former is used for making -square shoulders or depressions such as could not be produced with -the hand hammer alone, or for drawing metal between two shoulders -or projections. The latter is used for the same purposes, with the -exception that it produces a rounded fillet instead of a square corner. -It is also convenient for use in small places where the flatter cannot -be employed. - -The sizes of these tools vary according to the requirements of the -work, but it is advisable to have about three sizes of the square-edged -one. A good outfit of set hammers consists of one 5/8-inch, one -3/4-inch, one 1-inch, all square-edged; and one round-edged set with a -1-1/4-inch face. These four should fulfill all requirements for light -forgings. These tools need not be tempered, for the reason explained in -connection with the flatter. - - -=24. The punches= (_A_, _B_, and _C_, Fig. 11) are merely samples -of the multitude of such tools that may be required. They may be of -various sizes, depending upon the requirements of the work, and either -round, square, or oval in shape at the end. The hand punch _A_ is -held with one hand while blows are delivered with the other. It is -convenient for punching holes in light pieces; but when the work is -heavy the intense heat from the metal makes it impossible to hold a -punch of this kind. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.—THE PUNCHES.] - -In such cases the handle punches _B_ and _C_ are employed. They -eliminate the danger of burning the hand, but it is necessary to -have some one act as helper and do the striking. The proper way to -use a punch on hot metal is to drive it partly through, or until an -impression can be seen on the opposite side after the punch has been -removed; then the punch is placed on the impression and driven through -the metal while it is held over the pritchel hole, the hardy hole, or -anything that will allow the punch to project through without causing -the end to be battered. If heavy pieces of metal are to be punched, it -is a great advantage to withdraw the tool, drop a small piece of coal -into the hole, and cool the punch before again inserting it. The coal -prevents the tool from sticking fast, and the operation can be repeated -as often as necessary. - -Punches need not be tempered, because the strength of the steel from -which they should be made will withstand the force of the blows, and -also because the metal is generally hot when the punches are used; -therefore the temper would be quickly drawn out of them. If sheet metal -or light material is to be punched cold, it is advisable to harden the -punch slightly; then the hole may be punched through from one side, -while the metal is held on something containing a hole slightly larger -than the punch. This method has the effect of producing a smoothly cut -hole, provided the metal is properly placed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.—THE TOP AND BOTTOM SWAGES.] - - -=25. The top and bottom swages= (Fig. 12) are made with semicircular -grooves of different sizes to fit the various diameters of round -material. The former has an eye for the insertion of a handle by which -it is held when in use. The eye should be crosswise to the groove in -the face. The bottom swage is made with a square projecting shank to -fit loosely into the hardy hole of the anvil. It should be placed -in position for use with the groove crosswise to the length of the -anvil, unless the form of the forging should require otherwise. Swages -are conveniently used for smoothing round material after it has been -welded, or for swaging parts of a forging after they have been roughly -hammered out. By dipping the top swage in water occasionally while in -use, the work can be made much smoother and the scale of oxide removed; -this is called water swaging. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.—THE TOP AND BOTTOM FULLERS.] - - -=26. The top and bottom fullers= (Fig. 13) are made in pairs with -convex semicircular projections or working faces, whose diameters -should correspond, if intended to be used together. As the former is -quite frequently used alone, it may be made of any desired size. The -top fuller, like the top swage, is made to be used with a handle; the -bottom fuller, fitted to the anvil like a bottom swage, generally is -placed for use with the length of its face parallel to the length of -the anvil. - -They are used together for forming depressions or shoulders on opposite -sides of the material; from the shoulders thus formed, the metal may -be forged without disturbing them. They are used also for rapidly -drawing out metal between shoulders or projections which may have been -previously made and are to be left undisturbed. The top fuller is used -singly in making scarfs for welding, in forming grooves, in smoothing -fillets and semicircular depressions, or in forming shoulders on only -one side of metal. - - -=27. The button head set or snap= (_A_, Fig. 14) as it is sometimes -called, has a hemispherical depression on its face. It is used for -making heads of rivets or finishing the heads of bolts. Only a few -different sizes are required, unless considerable riveting or bolt -making is to be done. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14. - -_A_, the button head set; _B_, the heading tool.] - - -=28. The heading tool= (_B_, Fig. 14) is used exclusively for forming -the heads of bolts or rivets. Formerly a very large assortment of these -tools was required in a general shop; but as bolts can now be made so -cheaply by modern machinery, there are not many made by hand. It would -be advisable to have a few general sizes, however, because they are -sometimes convenient in making other forgings, and bolt making affords -an instructive exercise. - - -=29. The swage block= (_A_, Fig. 15) rests on a cast-iron base _B_. -It is a very useful tool in any smith shop and does away with the -necessity of having a large assortment of bottom swages, as only top -swages will be required for large-sized material. The block is made of -cast iron and of different thicknesses. The depressions on the edges -include a graduated series of semicircular grooves that can be used in -place of bottom swages; a large segment of a circle, which is handy -in bending hoops or bands; graduated grooves for forming hexagonal -boltheads or nuts; and sometimes a V-shaped and a right-angled space -used for forming forgings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.—THE SWAGE BLOCK.] - -The holes through the blocks are round, square, or oblong. The round -ones can be used in place of heading tools for large sized bolts, or -in breaking off octagon or round steel after it has been nicked with -the cold cutter. The square holes may be used either for making and -shaping the face of a flatter or a round-edged set hammer, or in place -of a heading tool, when a square shoulder is required under the head. -They may be used, also, for breaking square steel. The oblong holes are -convenient for breaking lathe tool material. Some swage blocks have in -addition a hemispherical depression on the side, convenient for forming -dippers or melting ladles. - -The base upon which the swage block rests is constructed with lugs on -the inner side, as indicated by the broken lines on the sketch. Upon -these it is supported, either flat or on any of its four edges. These -lugs prevent the swage block from tipping sidewise. - - -=30. The surface plate= (_C_, Fig. 16) is generally made of cast iron -about 1-1/2 to 2 inches thick, from 20 to 24 inches wide, and from 3 -to 4 feet long. It should be planed perfectly smooth and straight on -its face, the edges slightly round. It should be supported on a strong -wooden bench _D_ and placed somewhere in the middle of the shop so -that it is accessible to all the workmen. On it work is tested to see -whether it is straight, perpendicular, or if projections are parallel. -The anvil is sometimes used for this purpose, but as it is subjected -to such severe use, the face becomes untrue and therefore cannot be -depended upon. A true surface plate is always reliable and convenient -for testing work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.—THE SURFACE PLATE.] - - -=31. The tapered mandrels= (Fig. 17) are made of cast iron, and are -used for truing rings, hoops, bands, or anything that is supposed to -have a perfectly circular form. The height ranges from 2-1/2 to 5 feet; -the largest diameter varies from 8 to 18 inches. They are cone-shaped -with a smooth surface, and should be used with caution. The blows -should be delivered on the metal where it does not come in contact with -the mandrel; when bands of flat material are to be trued, the best -method is to place them on the mandrel from each side alternately. -Unless this precaution is observed, the band will be found tapered the -same as the mandrel. Alternating is not so necessary when bands or -rings of round material are handled. - -Mandrels are sometimes made in two sections, as shown at _B_ and -_C_. As _B_ is made to fit into the top of _C_, the two parts become -continuous; the smaller one can also be held in the vise or swage -block and thus used separately. They are frequently made with a groove -running lengthwise, which allows work to be held with tongs and -provides a recess for any eyebolt or chain that may be attached to the -ring. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.—THE TAPERED MANDRELS.] - -It should not be supposed that all mandrels are of this particular -form; any shape of bar, block, or rod of iron that is used for the -purpose of forming or welding a special shape is called a mandrel. - - -=32. Bench and Measuring Tools.=—Another set of blacksmith appliances -includes the bench vise, chisels, center punch, rule, dividers, -calipers, scriber, square, bevel, hack saw, and files. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.—THE BENCH VISE.] - - -=33. The bench or box vise= (Fig. 18) is not ordinarily used in general -blacksmithing. The back jaw of a general smith’s vise extends to the -floor, forming a leg, and is held in position on the floor by a -gudgeon on its end. This vise is not illustrated, because the bench or -box vise is preferable for manual training work. - -The vise should be set so that the tops of the jaws are at the height -of the elbows,—a position convenient in filing. It is used for holding -the work for filing, chipping, twisting, and sometimes for bending. But -when it is used for bending, especially when bending a right angle, the -operation should be performed cautiously, for the sharp edges of the -jaws are very liable to cut the inner corner of the angle and cause a -gall which will weaken the metal at the bend. - - -=34. The chisels= (_A_ and _B_, Fig. 19) are very familiar, yet, though -they are so common, they are the most abused tools used by both skilled -and unskilled workmen. The mere name “cold chisel” seems to convey the -impression to most people that with it they ought to be able to cut -anything. But that impression is wrong; chisels ought to be made of -a certain grade of steel and drawn for either rough or smooth work, -as may be required. Then they should be properly tempered to cut the -material for which they are intended. - -A chisel for rough, heavy work should not be drawn too thin or too -broad at the cutting edge. If it is flattened out into a fan-shaped -cutting edge, there should be no surprise if it breaks, for, in order -to make a chisel stand rough usage, it should have sufficient metal to -back up the corners. On the other hand, a chisel for smooth finishing -work can safely be drawn thin but not fan-shaped, as the cuts that -ought to be required of such a chisel should not be heavy. _A_ chisel -for ordinary work ought to be ground so that the two faces form an -angle of 60 degrees; if the work is heavy, it should be ground even -more blunt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19. - -_A_, cold chisel; _B_, cape chisel; _C_, center punch; _D_, rule.] - -The chisel illustrated at _A_ represents a common cold chisel, which -can be used for various purposes. The chisel _B_ is called a cape -chisel and is used for cutting and trimming narrow grooves and slots. -It is indispensable for cutting key seats in shafting or work of -that kind. On account of its being used in such narrow places it is -necessary to make the cutting edge somewhat fan-shaped to prevent the -chisel from sticking fast; but for additional strength the metal is -allowed to spread, as shown. When using the cape chisel, it is a good -practice occasionally to dip the cutting edge in some oily waste, which -will tend to prevent its wearing away or sticking. - - -=35. The center punch= (_C_, Fig. 19) should be made of the same -quality of material as the cold chisel. It can be made of steel from -1/4 to 5/8 of an inch in diameter; octagon steel is preferable. After -it has been roughly drawn out, it is ground to a smooth round point, -then it is tempered as hard as it will stand without breaking. It is -used for marking centers of holes to be drilled, or for marking metal -where it is to be bent, twisted, or forged. When used for marking hot -metal, it is frequently made with an eyehole in the body, so that a -small handle can be inserted; this will prevent burning the hands. - - -=36. The rule= (_D_, Fig. 19) should be of good quality. The one best -adapted for forge work is the 2-foot rule, which is jointed in the -center. It is 3/4 inch wide and is made of either tempered spring steel -or hard rolled brass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20. - -_A_, dividers; _B_, calipers; _C_, scriber; _D_, square; _E_, bevel.] - - -=37. The dividers= (_A_, Fig. 20) are used for measuring distances and -for describing circles. The points are clamped in a rigid position with -the small thumbscrew, which comes in contact with the segmental arc. -Close adjustments can be made with the milled-edge nut on the end of -the segmental arc. When metal is to be bent to a circular form, a good -method is to rub chalk on the surface plate and describe the desired -curve on this chalk. As the markings thus made are not easily removed, -this plan is much better than drawing upon a board. - - -=38. The calipers= (_B_, Fig. 20) are used for measuring diameters, -widths, and thicknesses. Those illustrated are the kind generally -used in forge work. They are called double calipers and are the most -convenient because two dimensions can be determined by them. As the -accuracy of the work depends on them, they should be well made. In the -illustration here given, each bow is held securely by an individual -rivet. Sometimes they are secured with one; if so, the rivet should be -square in the straight central part and tightly fitted. The projecting -ends of the rivet should be filed round, and the holes in the bowed -sides should be made to fit the round ends of the rivet; then the sides -should be riveted on tight so that each bow may be moved independently -of the other. - - -=39. The scriber or scratch awl= (_C_, Fig. 20) is used in marking -holes, sawing, chipping, or in laying out distances, which can -afterward be marked with a center punch if required. It should -be made of a good quality of steel, and the point should be well -hardened so that it will cut through the surface scale of the metal. A -suitable-sized steel for making a scriber is 3/16 inch round and the -length over all about 6 inches. - - -=40. The square= (_D_, Fig. 20) is another indispensable tool when -accurate work is to be produced. Convenient sizes for manual training -work are the 8 × 12-inch, with a 16 × 24-inch for general use. - - -=41. The bevel= (_E_, Fig. 20) should be used when bending and laying -out angles of various degrees. When metal is to be bent to a given -angle, the pupil should set and use the bevel. - - -=42. The hack saw= (Fig. 21) is at present considered a necessary part -of any forge shop equipment. It is used for sawing iron or untempered -steel, and when a power shear is not included in the equipment, -considerable filing can be saved by sawing. The frame illustrated is -adjustable so that the blades can be made of different lengths and be -set at right angles to the frame, which is sometimes convenient. - -When using the hack saw, make slow, full-swing strokes; when drawing -back for another stroke, it will prolong the efficiency of the blades -if the saw is raised up to prevent the teeth from bearing on the -metal, as the backward stroke is more destructive to the teeth than -the forward or cutting stroke. The blades are made from 8 to 12 inches -in length, 1/2 inch in width, and with from 14 to 25 teeth to the -inch. They are tempered so hard that they cannot be filed, but are so -inexpensive that when they cease to be efficient they may be thrown -away. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.—THE HACK SAW AND FILES.] - - -=43. The files= (Fig. 21) are illustrated merely to show that they are -to be used for special purposes. As finishing or filing is almost a -trade in itself, the file should not be used in blacksmithing, unless -it is especially necessary. A piece of smith’s work that has been -roughly forged is much more admirable than a highly polished piece that -has been filed into elegance. - -Files are round, flat, square, half round, and of numerous other -shapes, and vary in lengths and cuts for rough or smooth filing. Any of -them may be used as required, but it should be remembered that filing -is not blacksmithing. - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - What is the main difference between the old type of smithing forge - and a modern one? How is the air supplied for each? What is a tuyère - iron? Describe the hearth. What kind of coal is used for forging? - Is coal the best fuel for heating all metals? Why is charcoal the - best fuel for heating carbon steel? How should the fire be built to - prevent making excess smoke? What other fuel is used in forging? - What kind of work is it used for? Describe the different parts of - the anvil. How is a cast-iron anvil hardened? How is a wrought-iron - anvil hardened? Name and describe the different kinds of hammers. - Why should the tongs fit properly the iron to be handled? Name and - describe the different tongs you have been made familiar with. How - would you secure the tongs to relieve the hand? - - What is a hardy? What is it used for? Explain the proper method of - using it. Is it always good practice to use a hardy for marking the - iron? Why? What is the difference between a cold and a hot cutter? - What is the general use for a flatter? Should it be tempered? - Why? What are set hammers? What is a punch used for? Explain the - difference between a hand punch and a handle punch. When punching a - heavy piece of metal, how is the tool prevented from sticking fast? - Are all punches tempered? Why? Describe and explain the use of top - and bottom swages. How should the bottom swage be placed for use? - What is meant by water swaging? State the effect it has on the iron. - What are top and bottom fullers used for? Are they always used in - pairs? How is the bottom one placed for use? What are the button - head set and heading tool used for? What is the special advantage - of having a swage block? Explain some of the different uses of that - tool. What is the special use of the surface plate? What is the - tapered mandrel used for? Are all mandrels of this particular kind? - Explain others. Is it good practice to use the vise for bending? Why? - Describe the cold chisel. Should all cold chisels be made alike? What - is the center punch used for? Describe the other bench and measuring - tools mentioned. What is the special objection to using the files? - - - - -CHAPTER II - -FORGING OPERATIONS - - -=44. The Hammer Blows.=—Metal can be forced into desired shapes or -forms by delivering the hammer blows in different ways. All hammer -blows are not alike; some will have one effect and others will produce -an entirely different result. - - -=45. The upright blow= is delivered so that the hammer strikes the -metal in an upright position and fully on the anvil. Such blows -force the metal equally in all directions, providing the surrounding -dimensions are equal. They will also reduce the thickness of the metal -in the direction in which they are delivered, the reduction depending -upon the amount of force put into the blows. They are used for drawing -where the metal is supposed to spread equally in all directions and for -making smooth surfaces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.—THE UPRIGHT BLOW.] - -Figure 22 shows an upright blow as delivered on a piece of flat -material. If the material is as wide as the face of the hammer, or -wider, the force of the blow will spread the metal equally, but if it -is narrower, the blow will lengthen the material more rapidly, because -the hammer will cover more in length than in width. - - -=46. The edge-to-edge blow= is delivered so that the edge or side of -the hammer face will be directly above the edge or side of the anvil. -When blows are delivered in this manner (_a_, Fig. 23), the hammer -forms a depression on the upper side of the metal and the anvil forms -one on the bottom. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.—THE EDGE-TO-EDGE BLOW.] - -When a piece of metal is to be drawn to a smaller dimension, with -shoulders opposite each other, on either two or four sides, these blows -will produce the required result to the best advantage. They are more -effective if the metal is held at a slight angle across the edge of the -anvil face, but then the hammer blows must be delivered a little beyond -the anvil edge, so that the upper and lower depressions in the metal -will be formed exactly opposite each other, as shown at _b_, where the -depressions are indicated by the broken lines. - -In forming shoulders such as are required on the hasp exercise (page -64) the first pair may be formed as shown at _b_ and the second pair -as shown at _c_. In the latter case the metal is held across the nearer -edge of the anvil face and the blows delivered in a manner similar to -that described in the preceding paragraph. Hammer blows of this class -may be used on any edge of the anvil as required. - - -=47. The overhanging blow= is delivered so that half the width of the -hammer face extends over the edge of the anvil. (See Fig. 24.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.—THE OVERHANGING BLOW.] - -It is used for forming shoulders on one side of the metal and for -drawling out points of scarfs. When blows are delivered in this manner, -the anvil will form a depression or shoulder on the lower side of the -metal, and the hammer will keep the metal straight on the upper side. - -This blow also will be more effective if the metal is held at a slight -angle across the edge of the anvil face, but the blows must always be -delivered squarely on the upper side of the metal to keep it straight. - - -=48. The beveling or angle blows= are delivered at any angle that the -form of the work may require. When the metal is to be drawn with a -taper on one side, it must be held level on the anvil and the blows -delivered at an angle determined by the amount of taper required. -Figure 25 shows the manner of holding the metal and the way the blows -are to be delivered. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.—THE BEVELING OR ANGLE BLOW.] - -When the metal is to be drawn tapering on two opposite sides, it should -be held to the proper angle on the anvil to establish the taper desired -on the bottom, while the hammer blows are delivered so as to form a -similar taper on the upper side. (See Fig. 25.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.—DRAWING METAL TO A POINT BY BEVELING OR ANGLE -BLOWS. - -_A_, correct position; _B_, incorrect position.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.—THE LEVERAGE BLOW.] - -Blows of this kind are used for chamfering corners or edges, and may be -delivered at any required angle. They are also used when drawing metal -to a point, either square, round, hexagonal, or octagonal, but the -metal should be held on the anvil, as shown at _A_, Fig. 26. Then the -hammer will not come in contact with the face of the anvil, as shown at -_B_. If the hammer strikes the anvil, small chips of steel are liable -to break off from the hammer at the place indicated by _c_, and cause -serious injury. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.—BENDING BY LEVERAGE BLOWS.] - - -=49. The leverage blows= are used mostly for bending, as they will not -leave marks where the bending occurs. For instance, when a ring is to -be formed, the metal is first held in the tongs and rested on the horn -of the anvil, as shown in Fig. 27. Note that the metal will bend at -_a_, providing the heat is uniform. If, therefore, bending is required -at a certain place, that place should rest on the anvil and the blows -should be delivered beyond it. - -After the first end has been bent to the required radius, the other -should be bent by holding it in the manner shown in Fig. 28, because -the joint of the tongs will prevent its being struck out of them while -the blow is being delivered. When both ends have been bent to the -proper radius, the ring should be finished as described in the ring -exercise (page 74), where upright blows are used with a leverage effect. - - -=50. The backing-up blows= are used to upset metal when it is -impossible to upset it in the usual manner, and in backing up the heel -of a scarf. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.—THE BACKING-UP BLOW, FOR UPSETTING.] - -Upsetting with backing-up blows is done in the manner shown in Fig. -29. The metal should be extended over the anvil and thrust forward as -the blow is being delivered, to get the best results. This will also -prevent jarring the hand. The metal should be as hot as possible when -being upset in this manner. - -The heel of a scarf is formed with backing-up blows after the metal has -been upset in the usual manner. The blows should be directed so that -they will have an upsetting effect, as indicated in Fig. 30, and not a -drawing one. After a few blows have been delivered with the face of the -hammer, they should then be delivered with the ball to form the heel -better and more rapidly. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.—BACKING-UP BLOWS USED FOR SCARFING.] - - -=51. The shearing blow= (see Fig. 31) is conveniently used for cutting -off small portions of metal instead of employing the hardy. It is -delivered so that the side or edge of the hammer will pass by and -nearly against the side or edge of the anvil. A blow so delivered will -have a shearing effect and cut the metal. It is perfectly proper to use -this blow for its intended purpose, but it should not be used when the -edge-to-edge blow is the one really required. - - -=52. Forging.=—Forging is the operation of hammering or compressing -metals into a desired shape. Seven specific operations are used. -Sometimes a piece of work or forging requires two, three, or even -all of them to complete it. These operations are designated by the -following names: drawing, bending, upsetting, forming, straightening, -twisting, and welding. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.—THE SHEARING BLOW.] - - -=53. Drawing=, the process of spreading or extending metal in a -desired direction, is accomplished by hammering or by pressing the -metal between such tools as the swages and fullers, or by holding it -on the anvil and using either of the set hammers, the flatter, or the -fuller. When using any of these pressing tools for drawing, a helper is -supposed to use the sledge to deliver the blows upon them. - -It is always best to draw round metal with the swages, as it will be -smoother when finished than if it were done with the hammer; it should -be rolled in the swage a little after each blow of the sledge, and -after a complete revolution in one direction it should be turned in -the opposite direction, and so alternately continued until finished. -Especially if iron is being drawn, this will prevent twisting of the -fiber, which, if prolonged, would cause the metal to crack. Figure 32 -shows the method of drawing with the swages. - -When drawing any shape or size of metal to a smaller round diameter, it -is best first to draw it square to about the required size, delivering -the blows by turns on all four sides, then to make it octagonal, and -finally round. The finishing should be done with the swages, if those -of proper size are at hand; if not, light blows should be used, and -the metal revolved constantly in alternate directions, to make an -acceptable shape. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.—DRAWING WITH THE SWAGES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.—DRAWING WITH THE FLATTER.] - -Drawing with the top and bottom fullers, in the manner shown with the -swages (Fig. 32), ought to be done cautiously, as the metal decreases -in size so rapidly that there is danger of its becoming too small at -the fullered place before the operator is aware of it. When using the -top fuller alone, in the same manner as the flatter (Fig. 33), similar -precautions should be observed. If the metal is to be decreased between -two shoulders, the top fuller may be used to rough it out; but the -fuller marks should be distributed between the shoulders, until one of -the set hammers or the flatter can be used. - -If the metal is being drawn and is held crosswise on the anvil, as -shown at _a_, Fig. 34, it will increase in length more rapidly than -it will in width, and if held lengthwise as at _b_, it will increase -more in width than in length. This is due to the fact that the anvil -is slightly convex on its face, so that it has the effect of a large -fuller. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.—DRAWING WITH THE HAND HAMMER.] - -The most difficult drawing for the beginner is to form metal into a -square or hexagonal shape. To draw it into a square form, the metal -must always be turned either one quarter or one half of a revolution to -prevent its becoming diamond-shaped, and the blows must be delivered -equally on the four sides to prevent its becoming oblong. If it does -become diamond-shaped, it can be made square by delivering blows at a -slight angle on the corners and sides of its long diagonal as shown -at _A_, _B_, and _C_, Fig. 35. If it is but slightly diamond-shaped, -the method shown at _B_ will prove satisfactory, but if badly out of -square, the method at _A_ will be the best. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.—SQUARING UP A DIAMOND-SHAPED PIECE.] - -In drawing the hexagonal form, the metal should be turned by sixths of -a revolution. If it becomes distorted, it may be forged with such blows -as are shown at _B_ and _C_; if held as at _A_, it would be marred by -the edge _e_. - - -=54. Bending= is the operation of deflecting metal from a straight line -or changing its form by increasing the deflection already present. Iron -of any cross-sectional shape can be bent, but some shapes are much more -difficult than others. - -The easiest to bend is the round, the only difficulty being to prevent -the hammer blows from showing. If the metal is to be round in section -when finished, the work will not have a good appearance if the cross -section is oval at some places and round at others, and unless the -hammer blows are cautiously delivered this will be the result. - -Bending metal of a square section at right angles with the sides is not -very difficult, but bending such a section in line with the diagonal is -quite difficult, because the edges are liable to be marred where they -rest on the anvil and where the blows are delivered. The best method of -making bends of this kind is to heat the metal only where the bend is -to be, and then to bend it by pressure or pulling, while the work is -held securely in the vise, hardy hole, or swage block. If the heating -cannot be confined to the desired space, all excessively heated parts -should be cooled. - -Oval sections are easily bent through their short diameters, but in -bending through the long diameters, the same method should be pursued -as described above for bending the square section in the plane of its -diagonal. Further explanations for bending are given on pages 118-121. - - -=55. Upsetting= is the operation of enlarging metal at some desired -point or place. It is done by hammering, ramming, or jarring. When a -piece of metal is too long it can be shortened by upsetting, or when it -is too thin at a certain place it can be thickened by the same method. -This is done by having the metal hot only at the point or place where -the upsetting is required. It is frequently necessary to cool the metal -where the heat is not needed in order to confine the upsetting to the -desired place. - -Upsetting is not a very difficult operation as long as the metal is -kept perfectly straight; otherwise the task will prove tedious and the -metal may break from the constant bending back and forth. Bending will -always take place, but breaking generally can be prevented by having -the metal hot when it is straightened. The greatest difficulty in this -respect will be experienced when operating on common wrought iron. - -Upsetting by hammering is done by holding the metal perpendicularly on -the anvil or something solid enough to withstand the blows which will -be delivered upon it. Figure 36 shows this method. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.—UPSETTING BY HAMMERING.] - -If the end of a bar is being upset, and the upsetting is supposed to -extend up through the bar for some distance, the heated end should be -placed on the anvil as shown in the figure, because the anvil will -slightly chill the end of the bar, and the upsetting will continue much -farther than if the blows were delivered on the hot end. Striking the -hot end with the hammer increases the diameter of the end excessively, -because the contact of the hammer does not have a tendency to cool the -metal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.—“BACKING UP” METAL.] - -Another method of upsetting with the hammer, which is called “backing -up” the metal, is shown in Fig. 37. This method does not upset the -metal so rapidly, because the force of the hammer blows jars the hand -and arm which hold the bar. - -Upsetting by ramming or jarring is thrusting the metal forcibly against -some heavy object like the surface plate, the swage block, or the -anvil. Figure 38 shows upsetting by this process. This method is very -effective and is used mostly when the metal is long enough to be held -with the hands, as shown. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.—UPSETTING BY RAMMING.] - - -=56. Forming= is a term generally applied to the making of a forging -with special tools, dies, or forms. This process may include bending, -punching, and other operations. - -Swages are used for forming. A block of steel with a depression of a -special design is known as a forming die; a number of other tools and -appliances may be used for forming, but it is needless to mention them -here. - - -=57. Straightening= is one of the most frequent operations. When metal -is being forged, the various blows have a tendency to make it crooked, -and if the work is supposed to be straight when finished, it should be -so. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.—_A_, STRAIGHTENING WITH THE HAMMER; _B_, -STRAIGHTENING WITH THE SWAGE.] - -There is as much skill required to straighten properly a piece of metal -as there is to bend it. The most common method (_A_, Fig. 39) is to -hold the metal lengthwise on the anvil with the bowed side or edge -upwards, then to deliver the blows at the highest point of the bow. The -blows will be most effective at the point where they are delivered, -so they should be distributed in order to get the object perfectly -straight and to avoid making unsightly hammer marks. - -If the metal to be straightened is round, or if it is flat with round -edges, it is best to use a top swage of the proper size and deliver -the blows on the swage as shown at _B_, Fig. 39. Then the surface of -the round or the edges of the flat stock will not show any marks. The -flatter or round-edged set hammer may be used in the same manner on -flat or square material. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.—STRAIGHTENING WIDE METAL.] - -When wide pieces of flat metal are to be straightened edgewise, and -such blows as are shown at _A_, Fig. 39, are not effective, then the -blows should be delivered along the concave edge as shown in Fig. -40, and distributed as indicated by the dotted circular lines. Blows -delivered in this manner will stretch or lengthen the metal on the -concave edge and straighten it. - - -=58. Twisting= is the operation of rotating metal to give it a spiral -appearance. It may be done either hot or cold, as the dimensions of the -material may require. It is done by holding the material in the vise, -the hardy hole, or the swage block, and turning one end of it with a -pair of tongs or a monkey wrench as many times as may be required. The -twisting will be confined between the places where it is held with the -vise, and where it is seized by the tongs or wrench. - -If the material to be twisted is heavy enough to require heating, -a uniform heat is necessary or the twist will be irregular, and, as -an artistic appearance is usually desired, this operation should be -carried out with that result in view. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.—_A_, METAL TWISTED WHILE HOT; _B_, METAL -TWISTED WHILE COLD.] - -_A_, Fig. 41, illustrates a piece of 1/2-inch square stock that has -been twisted while hot. _B_ shows a piece of 1/2 × 1/8-inch material -that has been twisted cold. - -Another difficulty met with in twisting a piece of metal is that of its -becoming crooked. It can be straightened by laying the twisted portion -on a wooden block and striking it with a wooden mallet. This will -prevent the corners from becoming marred. A good method of avoiding -this trouble is to twist the metal inside of a piece of pipe whose -inside diameter is equal to the diameter of the metal. - - -=59. Welding=, the most difficult operation in the art of forging, is -the process of joining two or more pieces of metal into one solid mass. - -All the previous operations allow some time for thought; in welding, -the worker must determine instantly where each blow is to be delivered, -as the welding heat of the metal vanishes rapidly; therefore, he is -compelled to think and act very quickly. - -A scientific analysis of a perfect weld shows that it consists of -several processes, and that each one must be perfectly executed. If any -of these operations are improperly done, the result will be a partial -failure; if they are essential ones, the weld may readily be considered -as totally unfit. - - -=60. The Material for Welding.=—This must be considered, because there -are different qualities in each metal to be operated upon, and some -metals can be worked more easily than others. - -A cross section of a bar of iron viewed through the microscope is seen -to be made up of a great number of layers or fibers, called laminæ, -resembling the grain or fiber in wood. These were cemented together -in the process of rolling or welding in the mill where the iron was -manufactured, and are continuous through its length. This makes the bar -of uniform quality throughout. - -In welding, these fibers are joined diagonally at the ends, -consequently the strength of the weld depends entirely on how closely -or perfectly this cohesion is made. Careful hammering at the proper -heat brings the fibers in as close contact as possible, squeezes out -the slag and scale, and therefore greatly assists in strengthening the -weld. - -Iron is an easy metal to weld. To prove this, place two pieces of -iron in a clean, non-oxidizing fire, allowing them to attain a white -or welding heat; then place them in contact and notice how readily -they stick together, proving that iron is easily welded at the proper -temperature. But in order to make the contact thorough, the pieces must -be hammered. This shows that hammering is a secondary operation, and -that iron cannot be joined by either heating or hammering alone. - -By a similar experiment with soft steel, you will notice that the -pieces do not adhere like iron. If borax is applied while they are -heating, then slight indications of adhesion will be noticeable. This -shows that borax, sand, or something of a like nature must be used in -welding steel. In this case hammering is not a secondary operation, but -an essential one. - -A higher carbon or tool steel may be experimented upon, with nearly the -same result. The noticeable difference between the lower and higher -qualities of steel proves that the greater the quantity of carbon, the -harder will be the welding, and if the experiments were extended to -still higher carbon steels, it would be discovered that they could not -be joined except by the use of a specially prepared flux. There are -indeed some high carbon steels that cannot be welded. - -If a forging is to be made of a special quality of material, it is -frequently advisable to avoid welds, because two pieces that are welded -can hardly be considered so strong as a piece of the same material that -has not been welded. - -The weldings which are alluded to here are such as are used by -practical blacksmiths in their general work without any special -appliances or apparatus whatever. The majority of the exercises on -welding in this book require the use of iron; for this reason this -preliminary consideration of metals need not have any further special -attention. - - -=61. Heating.=—When the word “fuel” is used here, either coal or coke -may be meant. Coal is the original in either case, for coke is formed -from it by the removal of gaseous substances. It is better that the -coal first be converted into coke, and that only the coke should come -in direct contact with the heating metals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF A BLACKSMITHING FIRE.] - -Figure 42 shows a sectional view of a blacksmithing fire: _d_ is the -bed of hot coke; _c_ is the dampened and unburned coal which surrounds -the fire, continually forming more coke as it is needed and also -holding the fire in a compact form; _a_ shows the proper way of placing -the metal in the fire, _b_, the improper way because the metal is -too near the entrance of the blast. As heating is such an important -operation, a thorough understanding of what causes imperfect heats, as -well as how to prevent them, is necessary. - -The best fire for perfect heating is a reducing one, that is, one in -which the combustion of the fuel is rapid enough to use entirely the -oxygen in the air which is supplied. An oxidizing fire is one that does -not use all the oxygen in the blast for the combustion of the fuel. -The surplus oxygen will produce, on the surface of the metal, oxide of -iron, or a black scale, which is extremely injurious. This scale will -prevent welding, so all possible precautions should be taken to avoid -its forming. - -A reducing fire can be maintained, and an oxidizing one avoided, by -having plenty of fuel surrounding the metal, equally, and allowing -the entrance of only sufficient air or blast to provide the necessary -heating. - -If a piece of metal is left in a fixed position while heating, the -lower side will become the hottest. For that reason, all metals to be -welded are placed with scarfs downward. If the required heat is to be a -penetrating and thorough one, the metal is turned frequently to bring -all surfaces in contact with the most intense point of heat. - -Even though every possible precaution is taken in all other steps of -the welding, the pieces cannot be joined perfectly if the heating is -carelessly done. - - -=62. Scarfing.=—This is the operation of preparing or shaping metal for -welding. There are five general kinds of welds, the distinct form of -each depending either on the quality of the material or on the shape of -the desired forging. They are called the lap weld, the cleft weld, the -butt weld, the jump weld, and the V weld. - - -=63. The lap weld= (Fig. 43) is so called because the pieces lap over -each other when placed in contact. It is most commonly used in general -practice, and all welds formed in a similar manner belong to this -class, regardless of the sectional form of the material or the shape of -the completed weld. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.—LAP WELD SCARFS.] - -The pieces should always be upset where the scarfs are to be formed, to -provide excess metal for welding. They should be formed with their end -surfaces convex, and at an angle of about 45 degrees, which would not -make the joining surfaces too long. - -When the fire and all tools are ready, place both scarfs face down in -the fire; when they are removed to the anvil, the piece held in the -right hand should be turned face up and rest on the anvil, in order -that the other may be placed in position on top of it. - -The left-hand scarf should be placed carefully, with its point -meeting the heel of the other. If placed too high and overlapping, -it will increase the surface to be welded and perhaps decrease the -dimensions of the material where the points are welded down upon the -exterior. If placed too low, in all probability the surplus metal -provided by upsetting will not be sufficient to form the weld to a -uniform dimension. A little practice with the scarfs before heating is -advisable to prevent this difficulty. - -The hand hammer should be placed conveniently on the anvil, with the -handle projecting sufficiently over the heel so that it can be grasped -quickly with the right hand as soon as the two pieces are in position. -If this precaution is not taken, the welding heat may disappear before -any blows can be struck. - -The first blows after the pieces are placed should be directed toward -the center of the scarfs; when the center has been thoroughly united, -the blows should be directed toward the points to complete the -operation, if this can possibly be done in one heating. - -It is impossible to give an invariable routine of blows; those given -are sufficient for the beginning, the rest must be left to the -observation and skill of the operator. Practice and judgment will -determine where the blows should be delivered, and when they should -cease. - -As the welding heat vanishes very rapidly, it requires careful judgment -to determine when the pieces cease to unite. All blows delivered -after this will reduce the dimensions of the metal; if reheating -is necessary, there should be no metal sacrificed by unnecessary -hammering. Welds are generally weaker than the metal from which they -are made; consequently if the stock is made smaller at the weld, its -strength is greatly decreased. - -The old adage “Haste makes waste” does not always apply. If you hasten -the operation of welding while the pieces are sufficiently hot, you -will not waste the metal. If through want of haste you are compelled to -reheat, you will waste metal, for every time a piece is heated it loses -a fractional part of its area, regardless of any hammering. - -Welds made with scarfs of this kind are considered to be nearly as -strong as the metal itself, because they allow of a more thorough -lamination by hammering than other welds, consequently they are -frequently used on various qualities of metal when strength is -considered a chief requirement. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.—_A_, CLEFT WELD SCARFS; _B_, BUTT WELD SCARFS.] - - -=64. The cleft weld= (_A_, Fig. 44) is so called because one piece of -metal is split to receive the other. It is used for welding iron to -iron or steel to iron (the inserted portion being the steel). Whatever -the metal, the inserted portion is usually roughened with a hot cutter -on the pointed surfaces and the cleft hammered down and securely fitted -before the whole is heated. The pieces should not be placed in the fire -separately, but together, as they have been fitted. - -When a welding heat appears, if possible, light blows should be -delivered on the end of the inserted portion while the two are in the -fire; these blows will partly join the pieces and make them secure -before removal. If this cannot be done, the first blows after removal -from the fire should be on the end. When a final and thorough welding -heat has been attained, they should be removed to the anvil and -securely joined. If heavy pieces are being operated upon, they may be -welded with the steam hammer. - - -=65. The butt weld= (_B_, Fig. 44) is so called because the pieces are -butted together and almost thoroughly joined by ramming or backing-up -blows before any blows are delivered on the exterior surface. The -scarfs are easily formed. The outer edges of the pieces are backed up -to form a rounded or convex end to insure their being joined at the -center first. As the blows are delivered on the end, the metal will -upset and the pieces will be joined from the center to the outer edges. -After they have been quite thoroughly joined with these blows, they -should be hammered on their exterior to weld them securely. - -When scarfed in this manner, the pieces are frequently placed in the -fire for heating with the ends in contact, then partly joined while in -the fire and removed to the anvil or the steam hammer for final welding. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.—JUMP WELD SCARFS.] - - -=66. The jump weld= is shown in Fig. 45. The scarfs require perfect -forming, because the opportunity for hammering is limited, as blows -can be delivered only at certain places: on the end of the scarf 1 -driving it into the concave groove 3; on a fuller which is held in the -fillet 4; and on both the edges indicated at 3. - -The groove at 3 should be formed with sufficient metal at points 0, to -meet the projections _X_, and form a fillet. The convex scarf 1 should -first come in contact at 3, so that welding will proceed from that -place. - -Welds made in this way are considered the weakest of those here -described, on account of the limited assistance which can be provided -by hammering. Still they are frequently used to avoid the laborious -operations required to make such forgings out of solid metal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.—V WELD SCARFS.] - - -=67. The V weld= (Fig. 46) is a very important but difficult one. It is -generally used on extremely heavy work, such as locomotive frames (Fig. -47), beam straps, rudder stems, and all cumbersome forgings. - -The process is as follows: Pieces 5 and 6 are to be welded. They are -held in a rigid position with heavy straps and bolts, as shown on the -locomotive frame in Fig. 47, sometimes while the V-shaped opening -is being formed; however, they must always be held secure while the -welding heat is being obtained. The V-shaped opening formed by the -scarfs on 5 and 6 should penetrate about two thirds of their thickness -and form an angle of about 50 degrees, with sufficient metal at _9_ to -provide for the waste which will occur while a welding heat is being -procured. - -The wedge 7 is formed with some surplus metal for filling the V-shaped -opening. It is handled by a bar which is welded to it. The angle of the -wedge should be not less than 5 degrees smaller than the angle of the -opening. This will insure that the welding proceeds from the apex or -point of the wedge outward. - -Two fires are required; 5 and 6, securely strapped and bolted together, -are placed in one with the V-shaped opening turned downward. Plenty of -coke is placed around this opening, completely covered with moistened -coal, and securely packed with a shovel; then two openings or vents are -made through the coal with a poker, one on each side of the metal and -leading to the scarfs. This is called a covered fire. The blast is now -turned on and slowly increased until the proper heat is attained. The -progress of heating can be observed through the openings thus made, and -the fire replenished with coke when necessary. - -These operations are supervised by the smith who has the work in -charge, with two or more helpers or assistants, according to the size -of the forging. The wedge 7 also is heated in a covered fire with only -one opening on the workman’s side of the forge; the wedge is inserted -in that opening, and is attended and handled by another smith, who -watches its progress in heating. - -When the supervising and attending smiths have signaled to each other -that the heats are ready, 5 and 6 are removed, turned over, and placed -on the anvil or on the steam hammer die to receive the wedge which is -placed in position by the attending smith. After the wedge has been -thoroughly welded into place with either sledges or steam hammer, the -handle and all surplus metal surrounding the openings are removed by -the aid of hot cutters and sledges. - -This procedure must now be repeated and another wedge welded into place -on the opposite side indicated by the broken lines. With these two -wedges 5 and 6 will be securely joined. - -To insure a perfect weld, a good quality of material should be selected -for the wedges. It should be thoroughly hammered to produce good -texture, and if iron is operated upon, the fiber of the wedges should -run parallel to the fiber of the piece to be welded. As this is not -generally observed, welds of this character often break through the -centers of the two wedges. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.—A BROKEN LOCOMOTIVE FRAME.] - -The broken locomotive frame shown in Fig. 47 would be repaired by the -above method. The irregular line at _A_ shows where the break has -occurred. The straps and bolts at _B_ indicate the method of holding -the parts in alignment. Two tie rods at _C_ prevent the parts from -separating. - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - What effect is produced by the upright blow? By the edge-to-edge - blow? By the overhanging blow? By the beveling or angle blow? By the - leverage blows? What are the backing-up blows used for? The shearing - blows? - - What is meant by forging? How many different operations are used - in forging? Name them. What is meant by drawing? What tools may be - employed in drawing metal? If you desire to increase the length more - than the width, how should you hold the metal on the anvil? Why? What - precaution should be observed in revolving metal when it is being - drawn into a round form? What is meant by bending? Can iron of any - sectional shape be bent? Which is the easiest to bend? What shapes - are difficult to bend? How are these difficulties overcome? What is - meant by upsetting? Explain how it is done. What difficulty is often - experienced in upsetting? What is the difference in effect between - resting the heated end on the anvil, and striking on the heated end - while upsetting? - - What is meant by forming? What other operations may be involved? What - special tools or appliances are sometimes used for forming? State - what has been said about straightening? Does it require much skill? - Would it be as easy to straighten a wide flat piece of metal, as it - would a round one? Why? Explain the operation of twisting. Why is it - generally done? How can twisting be done and keep the work perfectly - straight? Explain the essential parts of a weld. Is a weld as strong - as the original unwelded bar? Can all iron and steel be welded? What - kind of fire is best for heating? What is meant by an oxidizing - fire? What effect does it have on the metal? How can an oxidizing - fire be prevented? How should scarfs be placed in the fire? Why? If - a penetrating and thorough heat is desired on a piece of metal, how - can it be obtained? What is meant by scarfing? Are all scarfs formed - alike? Name and describe the different kinds of scarfs and welds. - Which one is considered the weakest? Why? On what kind of work is the - V weld used? - - - - -CHAPTER III - -PRACTICE EXERCISES - - -=68. Staple.=—Fig. 48. Drawing and bending. Material required: 5 inches -of 1/4-inch round iron. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.—STEPS IN MAKING A STAPLE.] - -Draw 1 inch of each end to a flat chisel-shaped point 1/4 inch wide; -these drawn ends should be 1-3/4 inches long, leaving 3 inches of round -stock between them. Heat the center and bend it, with points edgewise, -to a semicircle of 3/4 inch inside diameter. These ends should be of -equal length, parallel and straight. - -When drawing the ends, heat the metal to a white heat to prevent -the fibers from splitting or separating. Heat only to a cherry -red for bending, to prevent heavy scaling, which is one cause of -rough-appearing work. Rough work may also be caused by improper use of -the hammer in striking too hard or frequently at one place. (See Fig. -48 for dimensions and stages.) - - -=69. Draw Spike.=—Fig. 49. Bending and drawing. Material required: 7 -inches of 1/4-inch round iron. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.—STEPS IN MAKING A DRAW SPIKE.] - -Bend 3-1/4 inches of one end nearly to a right angle; have the inner -corner almost sharp and square, the outer portion circular at the -corner. Then form a perfectly circular eye of the 3-1/4-inch end, -having the center of the eye in line with the central portion of the -stem. When drawing the point, first draw it square, then octagonal, and -then finish it to a round. (See Fig. 49 for dimensions and stages.) - - -=70. S Hook.=—Fig. 50. Drawing and bending. Material required: 5 inches -of 1/4-inch round iron. - -Draw 1/2 inch of each end to a smooth, round point; this should make -the length from point to point 6-1/4 inches, and the central portion -for 4 inches should be full-sized 1/4-inch round. Using half of the -entire length, bend the first hook to an inside diameter of 7/8 inch, -then bend the remaining half in the opposite direction to the same -diameter, bringing both points directly toward each other, as shown. -When heating for bending, be careful to avoid burning the points. (See -Fig. 50 for dimensions and stages.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.—STEPS IN MAKING AN S HOOK.] - - -=71. Pipe Hook.=—Fig. 51. Upsetting, forging, and bending. Material -required: 9 inches of 1/2-inch square. Norway iron or soft steel is -best for this exercise. - -(_Caution._ To avoid injuring the fiber of the metal and to upset it -rapidly with the least amount of labor, always have the metal perfectly -straight, and heat it only where the upsetting is required.) - -Bring 4 inches of the central portion of the material to a white heat; -if the heat extends beyond that distance, cool 2-1/2 inches of each -end, then the upsetting will be confined to the desired place. Cool -the ends quickly and thoroughly, so that the upsetting blows may be -delivered before the heat has vanished. The material should be held -vertically with the lower end resting on the anvil, while heavy blows -are delivered on the top end, thus upsetting the heated metal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.—STEPS IN MAKING A PIPE HOOK.] - -These operations should be repeated until the center is 7/8 inch thick -one way, with all excess metal forged on one side, as at _a_, and -the three others perfectly straight. Now form a shoulder _b_, with -overhanging blows, about 1/8 of an inch from the center or thickest -portion, but draw it no smaller than 5/16 of an inch at the bottom. -Then draw the metal marked _c_ to an approximate dimension of 1/2 × -5/16 inch. Form this shoulder perfectly square, by holding it over a -square corner of the anvil and delivering backing-up blows on the heavy -end, while the drawn part rests flat on the anvil; the metal should -be hot at the shoulder and cold on the end where the blows are to be -delivered. Then use the flatter on the drawn end to smooth and draw -it to the finished dimensions of 1/2 × 1/4 inch, making it perfectly -smooth and straight on all sides. Cut off this drawn end 6 inches from -the shoulder, as shown at _d_. - -Draw the heavy end to a sharp, square point, making it straight on the -side opposite to the shoulder and tapering from a point about 2-1/4 -inches from the shoulder; this should also be made smooth with the -flatter. Sketch _e_ shows this so far completed. - -Beginning 1/2 inch from the shoulder, bend the 6-inch end backward -through its smallest dimension, to a semicircle of 3 inches inside -diameter. An outline of the required semicircle should be inscribed -on a plate, or models may be made to verify it. Sketch _F_ shows the -completed hook. - - -=72. Gate Hook.=—Fig. 52. Drawing, bending, and twisting. Material -required: 7-1/4 inches of 3/8-inch square mild steel. - -Mark lightly with the hardy on two edges 1-1/2 inches from one end, -as shown at _a_. Form shoulders at these marks on three sides of the -metal; do not make them too deep, as surplus metal will be required for -bending here. Draw the metal at the shoulders just made, continuing to -the end to 5/16 inch round and 2-1/2 inches long. Sketch _b_ shows the -work completed to this point. - -Mark the opposite end on the same edges and in a like manner 4-1/2 -inches from where the first shoulders have been formed; form shoulders -at these marks and also draw down to 5/16 inch round, making the -extreme end a smooth, round point, 2-1/2 inches long from the -shoulders, as at _c_. Both of these ends should be round and smoothly -drawn with the hand hammer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.—STEPS IN MAKING A GATE HOOK.] - -Bend the straight, round end from the side _e_ to a right angle, -proceeding as follows: When placing the work on the anvil, have the -side _e_ uppermost and the shoulder projecting over the edge of the -anvil the thickness of the round, or 5/16 inch; then when the metal -is bent, the inside corner will be formed at the proper place and -the shoulder will readily form into a right angle on the outer side. -Light upright and backing-up blows will aid in forming the right angle -after it has been bent, provided the piece is held with the round end -vertical and resting on the face of the anvil. If such blows are used -while it is being held over the edge of the anvil, they will reduce -the sectional dimensions and not materially aid in forming the angle. -Sketch _d_ shows this angle in solid lines. Now form the round portion -of this angle into a circular eye, making the inside diameter 1/2 inch, -with the center on a line with the center of the main stem. Sketch _d_ -shows this eye in broken lines. - -Bend the pointed end in the same manner and in the same direction as -the eye, having the distance between the eye and the angle 4 inches, -as shown in sketch _F_. Now heat this end and cool the extreme corner -of the angle to prevent its straightening, then form the hook to the -dimensions given in the sketch. - -Heat the central portion of the square metal to an even cherry red; -hold the hook and 1 inch of the square portion securely in the vise; -then grasp the other end with the tongs or wrench 2 inches from the -vise, and revolve it once, thus forming a twist of the proper length. -Before cooling this work, see that the eye and hook are parallel and -the body of the hook is perfectly straight. - - -=73. Door Hasp.=—Fig. 53. Drawing, forging, punching, cutting, and -bending. Material required: 7 inches of 1 × 3/16-inch mild steel. - -Mark lightly with the hardy on the edges 1 inch and 3-1/4 inches from -one end, as at _a_. Form shoulders at these marks with edge-to-edge -blows, as shown at _b_, so that the metal between them may be drawn -to smaller dimensions. The shoulders should be formed not deeper than -1/8 inch at first, and the metal between them should be drawn to a -corresponding dimension. Then forge the 1-inch end into a round eye, as -at _c_, and punch a 5/16-inch hole in its center, as shown at _d_. Now -draw the metal between the eye and the shoulders to exact dimensions, 3 -inches long, 5/8 inch wide, and 3/16 inch thick, as shown at _d_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.—STEPS IN MAKING A DOOR HASP.] - -Mark the other end in the same manner 2-1/2 inches from the shoulders, -and form new shoulders at these marks with edge-to-edge blows. Draw -the metal to a length of 2-1/8 inches, making it 5/8 × 3/16 inch at -the shoulders and 1/2 × 1/8 inch at the end; the extreme end should be -forged round. Sketch _E_ shows these operations completed. - -Locate the center of the 2-1/2-inch length; from that point place -a center-punch mark 7/8 inch each side of the center and punch a -5/16-inch hole at each mark with a hand punch, by placing the outer -edge of the punch at the center-punch mark. Deliver no blows on the -edges of this metal after the holes are punched. - -Using a sharp, hot cutter, remove the metal between the holes, by -cutting it equally from both sides, thus forming the slot as indicated -by the broken lines in sketch _E_. By placing it over the hardy, -straighten the metal which forms the sides of this slot, and all other -portions, so that all edges will be straight and parallel to each -other. Smooth all flat surfaces with a flatter, using water to remove -the scale of oxide. If the marking and punching of the holes have been -carefully done, the inside length of the slot will now be 2 inches. - -Bend the 2-1/8-inch end to a right angle at the shoulders, having the -length from the inside of the angle to the outside of the eye about 7 -inches. Heat this entire end and quickly cool the extreme corner of -the angle to prevent its straightening there, then form the hook to -the dimensions given in sketch _F_. The inner edges of the slot may be -filed straight and parallel to the outside edges, but the semicircular -ends which have been formed by the punch should not be disturbed. - - -=74. Hexagonal Head Bolt.=—Fig 54. Upsetting and forging to a hexagonal -cross section. Material required: 7 inches of 1/2-inch round iron. - -Heat one end to a white heat, then cool off 4-1/2 inches of the -opposite end, thus confining the upsetting to the required area; upset -the hot end until its diameter is 3/4 inch, and the length over all is -about 5-1/2 inches. - -It is important that the 4-1/2 inches be kept perfectly cold, to -prevent upsetting there, also to prevent its sticking fast in the -heading tool, or possibly using more metal than is required for forming -the head. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.—HEXAGONAL HEAD BOLT.] - -The upset metal should extend equally around the bolt. This will tend -to prevent the head from forming unequally when the metal is being -forged down on the heading tool. The head can be prevented from forming -on one side by directing the blows toward the opposite side. Form -the head by heating the upset end to a white heat, by inserting the -opposite end in the heading tool, and by delivering upright blows on -the heated end, unless others are required, thus forging down the upset -metal to 1/2 inch thick. Remove it from the heading tool and forge the -head into a hexagonal form. It will be necessary to insert the bolt in -the heading tool several times to obtain the exact dimensions of the -head, which should be 7/8 inch through its short diameter and 1/2 inch -thick. The chamfered finish on the top of the head is produced by using -a button head set while the bolt is held in the heading tool. - - -=75. Square-cornered Angle.=—Fig. 55. Upsetting, chamfering, and -forging a square corner. Material required: 10 inches of 1 × 1/2-inch -iron. - -Upset the center by cooling 3-1/2 inches of each end to confine -the operation to the required place. The center should be 7/8 inch -thick, and all upset metal should be forged to one side; the opposite -side and both edges should be straight. Draw both ends tapering from -where the upsetting ceases to 3/4 × 1/4 inch at the ends; chamfer the -edges of the drawn ends on the straight, flat side, beginning about 2 -inches from the center and continuing to the ends. If the drawing and -chamfering are properly done, each end will be 5-1/2 inches from the -center. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.—UPSETTING FOR A SQUARE CORNER.] - -Heat and bend the stock at the upset center to a right angle, with -the upset metal on the outer side to provide for the square corner. -The bending should be done over the horn of the anvil to produce the -quarter-round fillet on the inner side, and may be confined to the -center by cooling both ends to where the upsetting begins. - -As bends of this kind are somewhat difficult to make correctly, it -would be a great advantage to provide a form which may be made to fit -into the vise; then one end of the angle can be held securely with the -form while the opposite end is bent over it. By any simple form it is -impossible to make the outside corner perfectly sharp and square with -one operation; it is therefore necessary to forge the outside corner -sharp and square by delivering blows on both sides, somewhat in the -manner shown in Fig. 56, but good judgment must be used in doing this. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.—SQUARE-CORNERED ANGLE.] - -The chamfering may be marred or entirely removed in forging the corner; -if so, rechamfer, and if the ends are of unequal lengths, the longer -one should be cut off equal with the other. Then all surfaces should -be made straight and smooth with the flatter and the scale removed by -occasionally dipping the flatter in water. - - -=76. Fagot Welding.=—Welding and forging to dimensions. Material -required: convenient pieces of scrap iron and a bar of 5/8-inch round -stock from 24 to 30 inches long. - -Temporarily weld several separate pieces of scrap on to the bar until -sufficient metal is provided for a thorough welding and forging of a -solid piece of square iron 3-1/2 inches long and 11/16 inch square. The -welding should be done so as not to show where the pieces were joined. -Forge it perfectly square and smooth with the flatter. Cut one end off -square with a sharp hot cutter, then cut it to the required length. - - -=77. Round Weld.=—Fig. 57. Scarfing, welding, and swaging. Material -required: two pieces of 7/16-inch round iron, 4-1/2 inches long. - -Upset one end to 9/16 inch, as shown at _a_. To form the scarf, deliver -backing-up blows with the face of the hammer, as shown at _b_, and -finish with blows delivered similarly with the ball. These backing-up -blows will form the heel of the scarf. Draw out the point of the scarf -with overhanging blows, as shown at _c_. The joining surface should be -convex so that welding will proceed from the center. Scarf both pieces -in the same manner, as at _d_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.—STEPS IN SCARFING FOR A ROUND WELD.] - -Heat and weld according to instructions on welding and finish the work -smoothly with swages; then cut to a length of 6 inches, having the weld -in the center. - -Properly formed scarfs will produce perfect welds provided they are -heated to the welding temperature when they are joined, but those -improperly formed generally produce imperfect welds, although the heat -is right. - - -=78. Flat Right-angled Weld.=—Fig. 58. Material required: two pieces of -iron 3/4 × 3/8, 4-1/2 inches long. - -Upset one end 1/8 inch larger than its diameters, as at _a_. By using -backing-up blows as in the previous exercise, form a heel on one -side, as shown at _b_, then resting the straight side on the anvil, -draw out the point with the ball of the hammer, as at _c_. In drawing -this point, the metal will spread and form a wide fan-shaped end, but -by resting the right side _d_ on the horn of the anvil and delivering -blows on the left, the latter edge will be straightened, leaving all -projecting metal on the right. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.—STEPS IN SCARFING FOR A CORNER WELD.] - -Upset one end of the other piece to the same dimensions, allowing this -upsetting to continue along the metal about 1 inch. Form a scarf on the -left edge at _e_, with the ball of hammer, using blows similar to those -shown at _c_ and leaving the end square. Place them together to see if -the points meet the heels; if not, make necessary alterations so they -will. - -Place the pieces in the fire, so that the side scarf will be removed -with the left hand and the end scarf with the right. When placing for -welding, the right-hand piece should be laid on the anvil and the -left-hand one placed in its proper position on top of it. The inside -corner should form a quarter-round fillet, the outside should be sharp -and square, and the longer end cut off to make them both equal. Smooth -all surfaces with a flatter. Sketch _F_ shows the weld completed; the -dotted lines indicate the location of the scarfs before welding. - - -=79. T Weld.=—Fig. 59. Scarfing and welding. Material required: two -pieces of 3/4 × 3/8-inch iron, 8 and 4-1/2 inches long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.—STEPS IN SCARFING FOR A T WELD.] - -Upset one end of the shorter piece 1/8 inch larger than its diameters, -and form a scarf similar to the first one for the right-angled weld, -but here allow it to form fan-shaped and project equally over each -edge, as shown at _a_. - -Upset the center of the long piece to 1/8 inch or more larger than its -diameters, with the upset portion fully 1 inch long, as at _b_. Form a -scarf at this place with the ball of the hammer, allowing the metal to -bend edgewise, as at _c_. Do not make this scarf quite so wide as the -first one, as its edges should be entirely covered by scarf _a_ without -leaving any openings. See that they fit properly before heating for -welding. - -Especial care should be taken to have a good fire. The long piece -should be placed in the fire so as to be removed with the left hand, -and the short one with the right. Place the short piece on the anvil, -with the long piece, held in the left hand, on top of and overlapping -it sufficiently to prevent any openings. When welded, the long piece -should be perfectly straight, with the short one at a right angle to -it. Finish the weld with the flatter while it is at a dull red heat. -Sketch _D_ shows the T completed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.—CHAIN MAKING.] - - -=80. Chain Making.=—Fig. 60. Bending, scarfing, and welding links. -Material required: 8 pieces of 3/8-inch round iron, 6 inches long. - -Heat and bend the center of each piece to a semicircle 3/4 inch -inside diameter; make the ends of equal length and parallel from -the semicircle, as at _a_. Take one of these bent pieces and form a -scarf on one end by holding it on the edge of the anvil at an angle -of 45 degrees, as shown at _b_, and delivering overhanging blows, as -indicated by the dotted circle, which represents the hammer. Turn the -link over, placing the other end in the same position as the first, and -scarf. Bend both scarfs toward each other equally until they overlap -sufficiently to prevent any opening being formed, as at _c_; this is -called closing the scarf. - -Heat and weld the link by delivering the first few blows on its sides -while it is resting on the face of the anvil, then by delivering -lighter ones, while it is hung on the horn. While striking the light -blows, do not hold the link in a fixed position, but move it to receive -the blows around the circumference. The finished dimensions are 2 × -3/4 inches inside; a slight variation in length does not make any -difference, but their ends and widths should be uniform. - -Proceed with another piece in like manner, but after scarfing it insert -the finished link and continue adding new ones, until there are five -links all together. The three extra pieces are for use in the next -three exercises. - - -=81. Welded Ring.=—Fig. 61. Bending, scarfing, and welding a ring of -round iron. Material required: one piece of 7/16-inch round iron, 8 -inches long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.—STEPS IN MAKING A RING.] - -Heat, and bend over the horn of the anvil about 1-1/2 inches of each -end to an inside radius of no less than 1 inch, as at _A_. Then heat -the straight portion to a uniform temperature and bend it by holding -the piece in a vertical position on the anvil, and delivering upright -blows, as shown at _B_; this should produce a form similar to that -shown at _C_. Continue the bending by holding the work as at _D_. By -carefully observing the effect of these blows, you will be able to -determine how the work ought to be held to produce the complete ring. -These blows are used here to give the same effect as leverage blows. -If the position of the metal is changed when and where it should be, -almost a perfect ring may be produced without holding it on the horn -of the anvil. It is not the best method to hold the work on the horn, -because blows delivered in this way have a tendency to produce oval -sections where they hit. In forming this ring the ends should be left -open about 1 inch. - -The directions for scarfing and welding are somewhat similar to those -given for links, except that the angle of the scarf should be nearly a -right angle. After the welding is completed, the ring should be made -perfectly round by placing it over a mandrel or the horn of the anvil. -When the ring is welded and complete, connect it to the chain with one -of the extra links. - - -=82. Chain Swivel.=—Fig. 62. Bending, scarfing, welding, and riveting. -Material: about 2 feet of 7/16-inch round iron. Norway iron is the -best, and this length is the most convenient for the first operations. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.—CHAIN SWIVEL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.—TOOL FOR WELDING A SWIVEL.] - -For making this swivel, a special mandrel (Fig. 63) should be provided, -made of 3/4-inch round, mild or tool steel, with a short offset of 3/4 -inch; the gudgeon or pin which is shown at _a_ should be 1-1/4 inches -long, 7/16 inch in diameter at the shoulder, and tapering to 5/16 inch -at the end. Any convenient length of handle that will prevent burning -the hand when welding, will do. - -Bend about 2-1/2 inches of the 7/16-inch round stock to a right -angle, as at _a_, Fig. 64; make the corner as square as possible, by -upsetting it before bending; or after bending, by using upright and -backing-up blows. Flatten the bent portion _b_ parallel with the bar, -by first delivering the blows with the ball of the hammer to increase -the width as much as possible, then finish it to 3/16 inch thick with -the face of the hammer. The corner should be scarfed with the ball of -the hammer and the rib worked out, as shown at _c_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.—STEPS IN MAKING A SWIVEL.] - -Cut off the flat portion 2 inches from the bar, and form a thin scarf -at the end of _b_. Notice that this should be formed on the same side -with _c_. Beginning with the scarf at the end, the flat portion should -be bent or rolled up so that the scarfs will overlap considerably, -as indicated in the end view _d_. The special mandrel should now be -inserted in the opening shown here, and all placed in a 3/4-inch bottom -swage, while the scarfs are hammered into close contact. - -The long bar should now be cut off 4-1/2 inches from the inside of the -bend, and a fan-shaped scarf formed with the ball of the hammer, as at -_e_. This should be drawn thin on the end and sides. The center of the -4-1/2-inch length is next bent and the last scarf placed in position -at _f_ by again inserting the mandrel, placing it in the swage, and -closing down the edges around the portions at _f_. It is then ready for -welding. Figure 62 shows this in solid lines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.—MAKING AN EYE FOR A SWIVEL.] - -A good clean heat should be procured for welding; the mandrel should be -quickly inserted, placed in the swage, and the welding done. This being -completed, a small eye is to be made of 3/8-inch round iron: first, by -bending it in the form shown at _a_, Fig. 65; second, by inserting a -punch in the opening and hammering the ends together, forming the eye, -as shown at _b_; third, by welding these ends solidly together, as at -_c_, and forging the whole to fit loosely in the swivel. The fitted end -is now cut off square 3/8 inch longer than the depth of the hole in the -swivel, heated, and, while the eye is held in the vise, it is quickly -riveted into place with a small straight or ball peen hammer. The eye -is shown in place by the broken lines in Fig. 62. Connect this swivel -to the chain with one of the extra links. - - -=83. Chain Swivel.=—Figs. 66 and 67. Fullering, forging, bending, -welding, and riveting. Material: a piece of 1 × 1/2-inch iron, 4 or -more inches long. - -Using top and bottom fullers, form two sets of depressions not deeper -than 1/4 inch, on each edge and opposite to each other, the first pair -to be 1 inch from the end, the second pair 1 inch from the first, as at -_a_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.—STEPS IN MAKING A SWIVEL.] - -Draw the 1-inch end to 7/16 inch round, leaving it slightly heavier -where it was fullered to provide excess metal for further bending. -The opposite end should now be cut off 1 inch from the fullered place -and drawn to the same dimensions as the first end. Forge the central -portion into a circular form and punch a 3/8-inch hole in its center. -Cut off all surplus material, making the ends 3-1/2 inches long from -the center of the hole, as at _b_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.—THE COMPLETED SWIVEL.] - -Bend each end to a right angle close up to the eye and make the arms -parallel and one inch apart, as at _c_. Drift the hole by driving the -punch through between the parallel ends, thereby forming a slightly -tapered hole. Scarf and weld the ends as you would a link. Make a small -eye of 3/8-inch round stock, proceeding in the manner explained in the -previous exercise, also following the same instructions as to fitting, -cutting, and riveting. Connect the link end of this swivel to the chain -with one of the extra links. (See Fig. 67.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.—STEPS IN MAKING A CHAIN GRABHOOK.] - - -=84. Chain Grabhook.=—Fig. 68. Forging, punching, and bending. -Material: one piece of 3/4 × 3/8-inch iron, 4-1/2 inches long. - -Form a depression as at _a_, 1/4 inch deep and 3/4 inch from one end -with overhanging blows. (The opposite edge should be kept perfectly -straight during this and the following operations.) Forge the 3/4-inch -end into a circular-shaped eye 3/8 inch thick, and punch a 1/4-inch -hole, in the center, as at _b_. This hole should be drifted or expanded -with a punch driven through from both sides alternately until the -diameter becomes 1/2 inch. - -By hanging this eye over the horn of the anvil so that the inner -corners of the eye rest on the horn, by delivering blows opposite to -those corners, and by changing its location so that blows will be -delivered on all outside corners, the sectional form will be changed -from square to octagon; by similar operations the form may be changed -from octagon to round. During this change, light blows should be used -in order to make the eye smooth. This stage is shown at _c_ with a -sectional view of the eye. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.—THE COMPLETED CHAIN GRABHOOK.] - -Proceeding from the eye toward the opposite end, forge both edges round -to correspond with the eye, leaving the metal 3/4 inch wide, 3 inches -from the eye, as shown at _d_. - -Draw the remaining section tapering from this extreme width to 1/4 -inch, and forge the edges round as before. The hook should be 3/16 -inch round at the end and 3 inches long from the widest point, as -shown at _E_. Heat the middle portion; cool the point and the eye, and -bend the hook edgewise over the horn of the anvil toward the straight -side, until the point is opposite the depression first formed. The -inside semicircle formed by bending should be 1/2 inch in diameter, -the other inside lines straight and parallel. The extreme point should -be slightly curved away from the eye, and all flat surfaces hammered -smooth with light blows while the hook is at a dull red heat. Figure 69 -shows the hook completed. Using the remaining extra link, connect the -hook to the swivel. - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - What forging operations are employed in making the staple and the - draw spike? What hammer blows are used on them? What caution should - be observed in heating the S hook for bending? What operations are - employed in making the pipe hook? Which is the most difficult? Where - was the most difficult forging encountered? How was the point drawn? - What operations are employed in making the gate hook? Explain how - the angle should be bent, and how the blows should be delivered to - make it square. Why should the extreme corner of the angle be cooled - off before bending the hook? What operations are employed in making - the hasp? Which one is used first? Into what form is the metal to be - forged in making the bolt? What is meant by chamfering? What kind - of hammer blows should be used in chamfering? Why should the metal - be upset for the round weld? What special hammer blows are to be - used in forming the scarfs? Explain how the scarfs are formed for - the right-angled weld. How should scarfs be placed in the fire? How - should they be placed on the anvil? Explain how the scarfs are formed - for the T weld. Describe the scarfing of a link. Describe the welding - of a link. What is the effect of bending the ring over the horn of - the anvil? What operations are used in making the chain swivel? - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL - - -=85. Selecting and Working Steel.=—In making a tool, the differences -in quality of steel should be considered, because steel suitable for a -razor would not do for a cold chisel or any battering tool. (See sec. -181.) - -If the steel at hand is not exactly suitable, but the selection must -be made from it, then that should be chosen which will most nearly -meet the requirements, and tempering must be relied upon to make up -the deficiency. In most large factories all grades of steel are kept -on hand and are assorted in the stock room so that there need be no -difficulty in making the proper selection. - -The percentage of carbon in steel represents the amount of carbon it -contains. A steel that is called a 75-point carbon steel is one that -contains (.75) seventy-five one hundredths of one per cent, each point -representing (.01) one one hundredth of one per cent. - -Some steel makers use the word “temper” to indicate the amount of -carbon, expecting the user of the steel to be familiar with the -amounts of carbon each different temper represents. For instance, a -razor-temper steel represents one that contains 1.50 per cent carbon -and a tool-temper steel represents one containing about 1.25 per cent. -The word “temper” as used in this connection should not be confused -with the word as it is used in the art of tempering, where it -indicates the operation of reducing the hardness of the metal in order -to make it less brittle and more suitable for some particular use. - - -=86. Uses of Different Grades of Steel.=—As the percentage of carbon, -and consequently the quality of steel, will vary somewhat with -different makes, it is rather difficult to give a rule that will -apply generally, but the following list of different grades of carbon -will give a general idea of how steel should be selected, forged, and -hardened. - -Steel of 0.7 to 0.8 per cent carbon should be used for snaps, rivet -sets, cupping tools, etc. This grade of steel should be forged at a -light red heat. It can be welded easily and will harden at a light red -heat. - -Steel from 0.8 to 0.9 per cent carbon should be used for drop-forging -dies, hammers, cold sets, track chisels, blacksmith’s tools, well -drills, etc. It should be forged at a light red heat; it welds easily -and hardens at a light red heat. - -Steel from 0.9 to 1 per cent carbon should be used for large hand -chisels, large punches, shear blades, dies, etc. Forging should be done -at a light red heat. It welds readily and hardens at a bright red heat. - -Steel from 1 to 1.1 per cent carbon should be used for hand chisels, -punches, punch dies, small shear blades, etc. Forging should be done at -a light red heat. It welds readily and hardens at a bright red heat. - -Steel from 1.1 to 1.2 per cent carbon should be used for screw-cutting -dies, large cutting and trimming dies, small punches, small hand -chisels, large milling cutters, cups, cones, etc. Forging should be -done at a light red heat. It welds readily when care is taken in -heating, and hardens at a bright red heat. - -Steel from 1.2 to 1.3 per cent carbon should be used for drills, taps, -reamers, milling cutters, circular cutters, cutting and trimming dies, -mill picks, engraving tools, twist drills, etc. Forging should be done -at a bright red heat. Welding can be done when precaution is taken -against overheating and burning. It hardens at a dull red heat. - -Steel from 1.3 to 1.4 per cent carbon should be used for small drills, -taps, cutters, boring tools, etc. Forging should be done at a bright -red heat; welding can be done with care against overheating. It hardens -at a dull red heat. This steel should be handled carefully. - -Steel from 1.4 to 1.5 per cent carbon should be used for tools for -working chilled castings or locomotive wheel tires, lathe and planer -tools, razors, or any tools required to cut hard materials. Forging -should be done at a dull red heat. Welding can scarcely be accomplished -with this grade of stock. Hardening should be done at a dark red heat. - - -=87. Injuries.=—One of the most common injuries to steel comes from -carelessness in the heating for forging. It is one of the important -operations, for unless the metal is uniformly heated, violent strains -are liable to occur, and, when hardened, the steel will show these -strains by cracking. These defects are known as fire cracks. - -The smith should always have plenty of fuel surrounding the metal while -it is in the fire so that the cold-air blast will not come in direct -contact with the metal. The air should be heated by passing through a -bed of hot coals before it strikes the steel. It is always necessary to -heat steel thoroughly to make it plastic, being careful not to overheat -or burn any part of the metal. If it is overheated or burned, it -cannot be completely restored to its former state; the grain becomes -coarse and the structure weak. - -Never let steel lie in the fire to soak up heat after it is hot enough -to work. If for any cause it cannot be worked when it is ready, it -should be taken from the fire and left to cool, then reheated when it -can be worked. By this precaution injury to the steel will be prevented. - -If steel is heated so that the outer parts are hotter than the center, -the metal will forge unevenly. The outer portion will be forged by the -hammer blows, while the center remains almost in the original form. -This will also cause an uneven grain, sure to produce cracks when the -tool is hardened. Forging at too low a heat will injure the steel in -the same manner as uneven heating. - -After the steel has been properly heated, and forging has begun, the -first blows should be struck rather heavily and followed by lighter -ones as the heat vanishes. The forging should cease when the steel gets -too cold, but it may be reheated as often as necessary to complete the -work. - - -=88. Annealing.=—After the steel has been forged to the desired shape, -it usually is necessary to do some finishing upon it before it can be -hardened and tempered; in order to do this, it must be annealed or -softened so that it can be machined or filed into shape. _Annealing -is the process of softening steel._ It is done by heating the steel -slowly to an even low red heat and placing it in an iron box containing -unslaked lime or fine charcoal and leaving it there until perfectly -cold. The object of this process is to retain the heat and prolong the -cooling. The box is usually of cast iron, but sheet steel is equally -good. It should be placed in a perfectly dry place and rest on bricks, -if necessary, to avoid any dampness. - -If an annealing box is not at hand, small steel forgings can be -softened very satisfactorily by placing them between two boards, then -completely covering all with dry ashes and leaving them there until -entirely cold. Precaution should be taken here, also, to leave them in -a dry place. - -Another method, which is sometimes used, is called _water annealing_. -Some mechanics claim to have had good results with it, while others -condemn it entirely. By this method the article is heated to a dull red -and allowed to cool partly, out of any direct current of air. When all -redness has disappeared as it is held in a dark place, it is plunged -into water and left there until perfectly cold. - -The first method mentioned above is always the best; the second is -nearly as good; and only when there is not sufficient time to allow the -metal to cool slowly, should water annealing be attempted. - -Such tools as cold chisels and lathe tools may be heated and laid in -or on warm ashes until nearly cold, when they may be ground, hardened, -and tempered. Quite frequently, if not generally, these tools are not -treated in this manner, but it is no doubt the course to pursue to get -the best results. - - -=89. Hardening and Tempering.=—When steel has been properly heated, -forged, finished, or ground, the next two steps are hardening and -tempering. These two processes are often understood as one, but they -are entirely different in their results. The confusion arises because -the two operations are sometimes performed with one heating of the -steel as in hardening and tempering a cold chisel, or other similar -tools. - -As the steel has been subjected to severe strains during the heating -and forging operations, its structure may have been somewhat altered. -It can be restored to the proper crystalline structure by the -hardening, scientifically known as refining. The hardening or refining -heat is always lower than the forging heat, and should be only as high -as is necessary to harden the steel to the required density by sudden -cooling. Then this first operation of cooling will harden and refine -the steel at the same time. - -Extreme hardness is always accompanied by extreme brittleness, a -quality undesirable in any cutting tool, and especially so in a tool -required to withstand sudden shocks. As the hardness is reduced by -subsequent heating, the toughness increases. This modification, called -tempering, is accomplished by reheating the hardened portion of the -tool until a sufficient toughness has been obtained, when the process -is stopped by again plunging the tool into cold water. The heat for -tempering may be supplied from the uncooled portion of the tool as in -tempering a cold chisel, from the forge fire, from another hot piece of -metal, or from a carefully heated furnace. - -It has been found that the colored oxides formed on the surface of a -piece of polished steel or iron represent a definite temperature in -that metal. These colors have been used, therefore, to determine the -desired temperature in tempering a tool. When we say “temper a tool to -a light straw,” we mean that the hardened tool is to be heated again to -a degree which will produce that color; namely, about 430 degrees Fahr. -The colors as they appear are light straw, dark straw, bronze, bronze -with purple spots, purple, dark blue. The light color appears first. Do -not allow the colors to pass too quickly, as will happen if the heat -applied is too intense. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.—HARDENING A CHISEL.] - -There are two distinct methods of hardening and tempering. The one -generally followed in tempering cold chisels, lathe and various other -tools, requires only one heating. The tool is heated to a proper -hardening temperature at the end, where hardness is desired, and -also over an excess area to supply the heat for tempering. About 2 -inches of the cutting end is heated; about 1 inch of this is plunged -perpendicularly into water, as shown in Fig. 70; it is then kept in -motion perpendicularly between the places indicated at _a_ and _b_, -while the end is cooling. This will prevent a fixed cooling point -and prevent a fracture that might possibly occur if it were held in -one position while cooling. The portion between _b_ and _c_ should -retain sufficient heat to produce the necessary temper. When the end -is perfectly cold it should be removed and immediately polished with -sandstone or emery cloth to remove the scale of oxide so that the -different colors may be more readily seen as they move from _b_ toward -the point. The heat in the portion between _b_ and _c_ flows toward -the point, causing the colors to appear as the heat extends. When the -desired color covers the point, it should again be plunged into the -water and left there until entirely cold. In this method the first -cooling is the hardening, and the second the tempering. A comparative -color chart is appended to this chapter for guidance in obtaining the -tempers for various tools. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.—HARDENING A REAMER.] - -By the second method the steel is heated as in the first method, -then it is cooled off entirely by immersing the tool exactly -perpendicularly, as shown in hardening a reamer in Fig. 71; after this -it is polished. The temper is then drawn by holding the tool in contact -with a piece of heated metal, cast iron preferably. In Fig. 72 the -reamer is shown inside of a heated bushing, which is a more practical -way than laying it on top of a heated flat plate. The bushing will -impart sufficient heat to the tool to produce the desired color, when -it should be again cooled. This method is used mostly for tempering -plane bits, wood chisels, milling cutters, taps, reamers, and various -other tools of a like nature. - -Sometimes tools having sharp protruding edges, as milling cutters, -taps, reamers, etc., are very liable to crack by the sudden cooling -in water; this difficulty is avoided by using oil for hardening and -tempering. Any so treated are called oil-tempered tools. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.—TEMPERING A REAMER.] - -The above methods of tempering are such as are ordinarily used when -only a common shop equipment is at hand, and the operator must depend -entirely upon his judgment of the colors which represent the proper -forging, annealing, hardening, and tempering heats. The degree of -accuracy that has been attained in this practice is most surprising. - -In large manufacturing establishments where many duplicate pieces -are to be tempered, a more modern as well as scientific apparatus is -employed to relieve the operator of dependence upon his discernment of -colors. Here the steel is heated in a furnace, to which is attached -a pyrometer that registers the exact degree of temperature. In this -manner all pieces can be heated uniformly for any of the four required -heats. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.—SECTIONAL VIEWS OF TOOL STEEL, SHOWING THE -EFFECTS OF PROPER AND IMPROPER TREATMENT. - - _A._ Natural Bar. - _B._ Refined. - _C._ Too hot. - _D._ Burned.] - -The views in Fig. 73 were photographed from the same grade or bar of -steel to show the various granular structures produced by different -heat treatments. _A_ shows the condition of the natural bar, which -was broken to be photographed just as it was received from the steel -makers. The lower left side shows where it was nicked with the cutter -to be broken. _B_ shows the structure when proper conditions of -heating and hardening have been maintained. Notice how much finer the -structure here appears to be; this effect was caused by, and previously -referred to as, the refining heat of steel. A similar condition should -be produced with any tool steel under correct treatment. _C_ shows -a much coarser structure; it was heated too hot and hardened in the -same manner. If a tool were made thus, its weakness would be hardly -noticeable at the time, but the structure shows that it is considerably -weaker. _D_ shows the condition of the stock after being burned. It has -produced from a quality of steel that was valuable, a metal worthless -for any kind of tool. - - -=90. Casehardening.=—Another method of hardening, called casehardening, -is used for wrought iron and low carbon or soft steel parts which are -to be subjected to considerable friction. Neither of these metals -could be hardened by the other methods mentioned. This process adds -carbon to the exterior surfaces only, and for that reason is called -casehardening, as the outside is made extremely hard, while the inner -portion or core remains in a condition like that produced by sudden -cooling, thus providing a hard wearing surface and great strength at -the same time. It is similar to the old cementation process of steel -making, but is not prolonged sufficiently to allow the hardening to -continue through the entire structure. - -The articles to be hardened are packed in a box somewhat similar to -an annealing box. This should be partly filled with charred leather, -ground bone, or wood or bone charcoal, all of which are highly -carbonaceous materials; then the articles are placed in and entirely -surrounded with a thin coating of cyanide of potassium, especially if -iron is being hardened. The remaining space in the box is filled with -the leather, bone, or pieces of charcoal. The box should be provided -with a lid that will drop loosely between the outer projecting rims. -The outer edges of this lid should be luted with clay to keep it as -air-tight as possible. If a few small holes are provided in the center -of the lid, test wires can be inserted; by removing a wire and cooling -it, the progress of the operation may be known. These wires should -be inserted before the box is placed in the furnace. The box and its -contents are then placed in a suitable furnace and kept thoroughly -heated from 6 to 15 hours, depending upon the depth of hardness -required. Then it is withdrawn, the lid removed, and the articles -quickly plunged into a large tank of water. This will complete the -hardening. - -When a number of very small articles are to be hardened, it is -advisable to connect them with strong bailing wire before they are -placed in the box so that they can all be removed at once. Beside -holding the articles together, the wire will provide a means of testing -the depth and quality of the process. - -If only a thin coating of hardness is needed, or the labor and expense -are excessive, the following method may be used: The article is heated -thoroughly and evenly to about a bright red and thoroughly sprinkled -with, or rolled in, cyanide of potassium. Then it is reheated so that -the cyanide may penetrate as deeply as possible, after which it is -quickly chilled in cold water. This is a good method of hardening small -tack hammers made of soft steel, set screws, nuts, and very small tools. - - TEMPERATURE AND COLOR CHART TO BE USED IN TEMPERING - Tools Temperature (Fahr.) Color - _Degrees_ - Scrapers for brass 430 Very pale yellow - Light turning tools 430 Very pale yellow - Lathe and planer tools for steel 430 Very pale yellow - Steel engraving tools 430 Very pale yellow - Milling and boring cutters 460 Straw yellow - Screw-cutting dies 460 Straw yellow - Taps and reamers 460 Straw yellow - Punches and dies 480 Dark straw - Penknives 480 Dark straw - Twist drills 500 Bronze - Plane irons 500 Bronze - Surgical instruments 530 Dark purple - Cold chisels for steel 540 Dark purple - Cold chisels for cast iron 550 Dark blue - Cold chisels for wrought iron 550 Dark blue - Springs 570 Very dark blue - - SUITABLE TEMPERATURE (FAHR.) FOR: - _Degrees_ - Annealing tool steel 900 - Forging tool steel 1200 to 1500 - Hardening tool steel 1200 to 1400 - Casehardening iron or soft steel 1300 to 1500 - - COLORS AND CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURES (FAHR.) FOR IRON - Bright red in dark 750 to 760 - Red hot in twilight 880 to 890 - Dark red hardly visible in daylight 970 - Red visible by daylight 1070 - Brighter red by daylight 1300 - Cherry red by daylight 1450 - Bright cherry red by daylight 1650 - Light cherry red by daylight 1800 - Orange 2000 - Yellow 2150 - White heat 2350 - White welding heat 2600 - White welding and dazzling 2800 - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - What is meant by the carbon contents of steel? Why is steel graded - according to its carbon content? Explain the cause of fire cracks. - How can they be prevented? Why should steel be thoroughly healed? If - steel is overheated or burned, what is the effect? Why should steel - never be left in the fire to soak up heat? How does steel forge if - it is unevenly heated? How should the blows be delivered in forging - steel? What is annealing? Describe three methods of annealing. Is it - best to anneal cold chisels and lathe tools? Explain the process of - hardening steel. What effects does hardening have? Are the forging - and the hardening heats the same? Why is steel polished after it - is hardened? Explain the process of tempering. What is the effect - of tempering? How may the heat be supplied for tempering? Name the - colors in order as they appear in heating steel. Explain the methods - of hardening and tempering. Why should a cold chisel be kept in - motion when it is being hardened? What is meant by oil-tempering? - What is meant by casehardening? Explain different methods of - casehardening. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION - - -=91. Tongs.=—As tongs are among the most important tools and quite -difficult to make, they will be taken up in this chapter on tool making. - -The weakest places in a pair of tongs are where the shoulders or -offsets are formed for the jaws and handles. These places should be -reënforced by fillets as large as the usefulness and appearance of the -tongs will permit; they should never be made sharp and square, unless -their construction demands it. - -All tongs for general blacksmithing can be forged properly with the -hand hammer and the use of such tools as the top fuller, the swages, -and the round-edged set hammer. Some assistance with a light sledge -will be necessary. The use of such tools as a square-edged set or the -file for forming shoulders or fillets is very objectionable, especially -in the hands of unskilled workmen. If the two parts do not seem to -fit as they should, due to the fillets which are present, they will -generally adjust themselves when they are riveted together, heated, and -worked freely. - - -=92. Heavy Flat Tongs.=—Fig. 74. Fullering, forging, swaging, punching, -and riveting. Material: 15 inches of 7/8-inch square mild steel. - -Mark the center of the 15-inch length with a hardy or cold chisel. -Form two depressions 3/8 inch deep, with a top fuller, one 2 inches -from the end at _a_, the other 3 inches from the same end but on the -opposite side. Form a third depression to the same depth, but at an -angle of 45 degrees, starting from the bottom of the first one, and on -the side indicated by the broken line, as at _b_. Draw the 2-inch end -to 1 × 1/2 inch from _a_, tapering to 1 × 3/8 inch at the end. This -portion forms one jaw, as shown at _c_. Now flatten out about 2 inches -of the metal from the beveled depression _b_ toward the center mark, -to 9/16 inch thick, allowing the metal to spread as wide as possible. -This should then be forged and formed into shape for the joint _d_, and -the fuller again placed in the second depression to make the dimension -there 5/8 inch, as shown at _d_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.—STEPS IN MAKING HEAVY FLAT TONGS.] - -Forge the other end in the same manner, exerting due care to have all -dimensions correspond; cut the stock in two at the center. Draw out -the heavy ends for the handles with the power hammer or with some -assistance from a sledge. They should be roughly forged at first with -an allowance for finishing as follows: Beginning at the joint, use the -top and bottom swages on the outer edges through the greatest width, -and swage to 5/8 × 1/2 inch. This swaging should be continued toward -the end to form the handle. By using the flatter during the swaging, -the sides may be kept straight, smooth, and slightly tapering to a -round section. Make the end 3/8 inch in diameter for a length of 3 -inches. Sketch _F_ shows one side of a pair of tongs drawn and swaged. - -Place the parts together to see if they fit properly; if they do not, -make the necessary alterations. Use a top fuller to form a groove _e_ -about 1/8 inch deep, lengthwise on the inside of the jaws, and smooth -the sides and edges with a flatter. Then punch a 3/8-inch hole in the -center of the joint, as shown in sketch _F_. This should be done on -both parts. - -Heat thoroughly the end of a 3/8-inch rivet, 1-3/4 inches long, and -with it rivet the two portions tightly together. Heat the tongs, make -them work freely, and adjust them to hold 3/8-inch flat iron, with the -entire length of the jaws in contact and with the ends of the handles -1 inch apart. The jaws and handles should be adjusted so that a line -extended lengthwise across the center of the rivet would pass midway -between them. - - -=93. Light Chain Tongs.=—Fig. 75. Forging, swaging, punching, -fullering, and riveting. Material: 13 inches of 3/4-inch square mild -steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.—STEPS IN MAKING LIGHT CHAIN TONGS.] - -Mark the center of this length with a hardy or cold chisel. Form a -shoulder 1-1/4 inches from the end, and draw this end to 7/8 × 1/2 inch -at the bottom of the shoulder, tapering to 3/4 × 3/8 inch at the end, -as at _a_. Form a second shoulder at an angle of 45 degrees, starting -from the bottom of the first one, by holding the work on the anvil, as -shown at _b_. The blows should be directed a little toward the center -mark, to flatten and spread the metal for forming the joint of the -tongs. Form a third shoulder at _c_, 1 inch from and on the opposite -side to the first and toward the center mark, the thickness here being -1/2 inch. Note that these shoulders should be made with overhanging -blows and not by using the fuller. The metal between the shoulders -_c_ and _a_ should now be forged into shape for the joint. Forge the -other end in a similar manner, being careful to have all dimensions -correspond; then cut the stock in two at the center. - -Draw out the heavy ends for the handles with a power hammer or with -some assistance from a sledge. Roughly forge them from 1/2 × 7/16 at -_c_, down to 5/16 inch round, 3 inches from the end. Finish the edges -by using the top and bottom swages. By using the flatter on the sides -during the swaging, the handle may be kept straight, smooth, and -slightly tapered to where it terminates into round. Sketch _F_ in Fig. -74 shows the handle drawn out and swaged. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.—THE COMPLETED LIGHT TONGS.] - -Place the two parts together to see if they fit properly; if they do -not, make the necessary alterations. Taking each piece separately, -perform the following operations: Fuller a groove 1/8 inch deep, -lengthwise on the inside of the jaw, and another crosswise about 1/4 -inch from the end as shown at _A_, Fig. 76. Then punch a 5/16-inch hole -in the center of the joint. A 5/16-inch rivet 1-1/2 inches long should -be obtained, its end should be thoroughly heated, and the two parts -riveted tightly together. Heat the tongs and make them work freely; -adjust them to hold 3/16-inch flat iron with the full length of the -jaws in contact, also to hold 3/8-inch round material in the cross -groove when the handles are 1 inch apart. They should be adjusted, -so that if a line were extended lengthwise through the center of -the rivet, it would pass midway between the jaws and handles. When -complete these tongs will appear as in Fig. 76. - - -=94. Lathe Tools.=—A complete description of lathe tools would require -too much space in this book, therefore only six common ones will be -explained; by applying the knowledge received from making these, the -operator should be able to forge many others. These with the other -tool steel exercises should supply sufficient practice in forging, -hardening, and tempering tool steel. - -If these tools are to be put into practical use, a good quality of -tool steel should be provided, cut about 8 inches long for each one, -and great care should be taken in the heating, forging, and tempering. -If, however, they are to be made for practice alone, then much shorter -pieces may be conveniently used, also an inferior grade of steel; -mild or soft steel would be sufficiently good to provide the needed -practice in heating, forging, and tempering. Even though the material -is inferior, the operations should receive the most careful attention. - -The material may be 1 × 1/2-inch, 7/8 × 3/8-inch, or any suitable stock -size. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.—BRASS TOOL.] - - -=95. Brass Tool.=—Fig. 77. Forging, hardening, and tempering. Material: -6 to 8 inches of 1/2 × 1-inch tool steel. - -Starting about 3/4 inch from one end, draw to a uniform taper on both -sides and on one edge only, so that the metal is 1/4 inch thick and 1/2 -inch wide at the end. The lower or beveled edge also should be drawn -thinner than the upper to provide the necessary clearance amounting to -about 5 degrees on each side, as shown in the sectional view. The end -should be cut off at an angle of 70 degrees and ground semicircular in -form with the necessary clearance. - -Heat about 2 inches of this end and harden in the manner described for -the cold chisel, but in this case the color for tempering is a very -pale yellow. - - -=96. Cutting-off or Parting Tool.=—Fig. 78. Fullering, forging, -hardening, and tempering. Material: 7 inches of 1/2 × 1-inch tool steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.—CUTTING-OFF OR PARTING TOOL.] - -With a top fuller form a depression across one side 5/8 inch from the -end, fullering the metal to 3/16 inch thick. Draw this end down to 1 × -3/16 inch. The thickness of the metal where it was fullered should also -be decreased to 1/8 inch, gradually increasing to 3/16 inch at the end, -taking extreme care to have sufficient clearance from front to back and -from top to bottom. The cutting edge is generally allowed to project -about 1/8 inch above the stock; the end is trimmed off at an angle of -75 to 80 degrees and ground, as shown in Fig. 78, after which it is -hardened and tempered to a pale yellow. - - -=97. Heavy Boring Tool.=—Fig. 79. Drawing, bending, hardening, and -tempering. Material: 7 inches of 1/2 × 1-inch tool steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.—HEAVY BORING TOOL.] - -Draw about 2-1/2 inches tapering to 1/2 inch square at the end; the -taper on the top edge should be only 1/8 inch, while that on the bottom -should be 3/8 inch, as shown at _a_. With the metal resting flat on the -anvil and the top edge to the left, bend down 3/4 inch of the end to an -angle of about 80 degrees, then forge down the corners from the point -back to the heel, to a slight octagonal form, as shown in Fig. 79. -Grind the projecting end of the angle semicircular with a clearance of -15 degrees, then harden and temper to a pale yellow. - - -=98. Light Boring or Threading Tool.=—Fullering, drawing, hardening, -and tempering. Material: 5 inches of 1/2 × 1-inch tool steel. - -Using a top fuller, form a depression 7/16 inch deep on one edge and -2 inches from the end. Draw this metal slightly tapering to 7/16 inch -square at the end, keeping it straight on the top. With the metal -resting flat on the anvil and the straight edge to the left, bend down -3/4 inch of the end to an angle of 80 degrees, then forge the corners -between the angle and where the depression was formed to a slight -octagonal form. - -For a boring tool, grind the projecting end of the angle semicircular -in form, with sufficient clearance for boring a hole of the desired -size; for a threading tool grind it to the proper angle of the thread -with sufficient clearance, then harden and temper it to a pale yellow. - - -=99. Diamond Point Tool.=—Fig. 80. Forging, hardening, and tempering. -Material: 7 inches of 1/2 × 1-inch tool steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.—FIRST STEPS IN MAKING A DIAMOND POINT TOOL.] - -Using a top fuller, form a depression 3/8 inch deep on one edge 3/4 -inch from the end, as at _a_. Then holding the depression over a round -edge of the anvil and delivering blows on the end, as indicated at -_b_, forge the 3/4-inch end into a square form, at an angle of 70 -degrees to the lower edge of the stock, as shown at _c_. By resting the -inner corners of this end on the face of the anvil and delivering blows -on the opposite outside corners, as shown in Fig. 81, its form should -be changed to 7/16 inch square, projecting diagonally from the stock, -as shown at _a_, Fig. 82. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.—CHANGING THE FORM OF _c_, FIG. 80, TO THAT OF -_a_, FIG. 82.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.—DIAMOND POINT TOOL, FINISHED.] - -By using a sharp, hot cutter and cutting entirely from the right inside -surface (_a_, Fig. 82), and by holding the point over the edge of the -anvil, so that the operation will have a shearing effect, the excess -metal which extends more than 3/8 inch above the upper line of the -stock may be removed. For a right-hand tool the point should be set -1/8 inch to the left, as shown at _b_, the two outside surfaces being -ground smooth and forming an acute angle; the inside portion of the -end on the side indicated by _a_ should be ground somewhat shorter, -producing a diamond-shaped appearance. Harden and temper to a very pale -yellow. - -Reverse the operations of cutting, setting, and grinding for a -left-hand tool. - - -=100. Right Side Tool.=—Fig. 83. Forging, offsetting, hardening, and -tempering. Material: 7 inches of 1/2 × 1-inch tool steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.—FIRST STEPS IN MAKING THE SIDE TOOL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.—SIDE TOOL.] - -Heat and cut off about 5/8 inch of one corner, as at _a_, Fig. 83, and -form a depression with the top fuller 1-1/2 inches from the end on -the side indicated at _b_, 1/4 inch deep at the upper edge, leaving -the metal full thickness at the lower edge. Then the metal should be -roughly spread out from the upper edge of the stock by holding the -fuller lengthwise, as shown at _C_, leaving the lower edge the full -thickness, and smoothed with a flatter, drawing the upper edge to -1/8 inch in thickness. The above operations could be done with a hand -hammer, but not without considerable hard work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.—OFFSETTING THE SIDE TOOL FOR CLEARANCE.] - -Trim this end to the form shown in Fig. 84, by using a sharp, hot -cutter and cutting entirely from the side indicated by _d_. When this -has been done correctly remove all metal extending more than 1/4 inch -above the upper edge of the stock. When this has been forged to the -correct shape, heat and place the tool so that the fullered shoulder -is just beyond the edge of the anvil, then form the offset with a -round-edged set hammer, as shown in Fig. 85. Grind the upper edge -parallel with the stock but at a slight angle, to produce a cutting -edge, and grind the face side straight and smooth. In cooling this tool -for hardening it should be placed in the water, as shown in Fig. 86, -to insure hardening the whole cutting edge. Leave sufficient heat in -the heel or bottom of the tool to draw the temper uniformly to a pale -yellow. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.—HARDENING THE SIDE TOOL.] - - -=101. Forging Tools.=—The following forging tools are somewhat -smaller than those used in general smith work, but they are perfectly -serviceable and sufficiently heavy for manual training or considerable -ordinary work. The material for their construction should be tool steel -of 0.80 to 0.90 per cent carbon, 1-1/4 inches square, unless otherwise -specified. The holes or eyes should be punched straight, and the -precautions formerly given under the head of punches should be observed. - -A tapered drift pin of an oval section 7/8 × 5/8 inch at the largest -end, also a smaller oval-shaped handle punch, should first be provided. - - -=102. Cold Chisel.=—Fig. 87. Forging, hardening, and tempering tool -steel. Material: 6-1/2 inches of 3/4-inch octagonal tool steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.—COLD CHISEL.] - -First draw 1/2 inch of one end to a smooth, round taper about 3/8 inch -in diameter at the extreme end, then grind off the rough projecting -edges until it is 1/2 inch in diameter. This end should not be cooled -quickly, because it might harden somewhat, which would cause it to -break easily. Starting 2 inches from the opposite end, draw the tool -tapering to 1/8 inch thick and 1 inch wide, using the flatter on these -tapered sides and edges. They should be made straight and smooth, with -the edges perfectly parallel. Two views with dimensions are shown in -Fig. 87. - -Grind the cutting edge of the chisel to the desired angle, then harden -and temper it as follows: Heat about 2 inches of the cutting end to a -dull cherry red and plunge about 1 inch of this perpendicularly into -water; withdraw it about 1/2 inch, and keep it in motion between the -first and second cooling places until the end is perfectly cold. Remove -the tool and quickly polish one side with emery cloth or sandstone, -watching the varying colors as they make their appearance and move -toward the edge; when the dark purple or blue color entirely covers -the point, thrust it into the water again and leave it there until -thoroughly cooled. Regrind cautiously, protecting the temper, and test -its cutting qualities on a piece of cast iron or soft steel. - - -=103. Hot Cutter.=—Figs. 88 and 89. Punching, fullering, forging, -hardening, and tempering. Material: 4 inches of 1-1/4-inch square tool -steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.—STEPS IN MAKING THE HOT CUTTER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.—HOT CUTTER.] - -Punch and drift an eyehole 1-3/4 inches from the end, making all sides -straight and smooth, as shown at _a_, Fig. 88. With a pair of 3/4-inch -fullers, form two depressions on opposite sides 1/4 inch from the eye, -as at _b_, fullering the metal to 5/8 inch thick. From this place draw -the end tapering to 1-1/2 × 1/8 inch, and trim it off at a right angle -to the stock, as at _c_. Using a hot cutter and working equally from -all sides, cut the tool from the bar 1-1/4 inches from the edge of the -eye. Draw the head end tapering to about 7/8 inch from the eye, draw -the corners to form a slightly octagonal section. Remove all projecting -metal so as to produce a convex head. (See Fig. 89.) This will be -referred to later as forming the head. Grind both sides of the cutting -end equally to form an angle of 60 degrees, with the cutting edge -parallel to the eye. Harden, and temper to a dark purple or blue. - - -=104. Cold Cutter.=—Figs. 90 and 91. Punching, forging, hardening, and -tempering. Material: 4 inches of 1-1/4-inch square tool steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.—STEPS IN MAKING THE COLD CUTTER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.—COLD CUTTER.] - -Punch and drift an eye 2 inches from the end _a_, Fig. 90. Draw this -end tapering on the sides parallel with the eye, forming convex -surfaces and terminating in 1 × 3/16 inch. (See sketches _b_ and _c_.) -Cut the tool off at _c_, 1-1/4 inches from the eye, and form the head. - -Grind the cutting end equally from both sides to form an angle of -60 degrees, and a convex cutting edge similar to that shown at _d_. -Harden, and temper to a dark purple or light blue. The finished tool is -shown in Fig. 91. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.—SQUARE-EDGED SET HAMMER.] - - -=105. Square-edged Set.=—Fig. 92. Punching and forging. Material: 3-1/2 -inches of 1-inch square tool steel. Heavier or lighter stock may be -used if desired. - -Punch and drift an eye 1-1/4 inches from the end, then, using a pair -of 3/8-inch fullers, form depressions about 1/8 inch deep across the -corners, as at _a_, Fig. 92. Cut the tool off 1-1/2 inches from the -eye, and form the head to 3/4 inch at the end. Heat and anneal in warm -ashes; when it is cold, grind the face smooth, straight, and at right -angles to the stock. - - -=106. Hardy.=—Fig. 93. Fullering, forging, hardening, and tempering. -Material: 3 inches of 2 × 7/8-inch tool steel. - -Using steel 2 inches wide with a thickness equal to the dimension of -the hardy hole, fuller and draw a slightly tapered shank 1-3/4 or 2 -inches long, to fit loosely into the anvil. The broken lines at _a_, -Fig. 93, indicate the drawn shank. Cut off the stock 1-1/2 inches from -the shoulders at _b_. Heat and drive the drawn end into the hardy hole -so as to square up the shoulders and fit them to the anvil. Then draw -the heavy end tapering gradually from the sides, terminating 1/8 inch -thick and 2 inches wide. Grind this tool similar to the hot cutter; -harden, and temper to a purple or blue. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.—HARDY.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.—FLATTER OR ROUND-EDGED SET HAMMER.] - - -=107. Flatter.=—Fig. 94. Upsetting, forging, and punching. Material: -4-3/4 inches of 1-1/2-inch square tool steel. - -In forming the face of a flatter, the metal should be upset. This -may be accomplished by ramming, but when so done, excess metal is -formed just above the wide portion, causing considerable fullering -and forging. If a piece of steel 4-3/4 inches long and 1-1/2 inches -square is cut off, and one end is drawn slightly tapering, it may, -when heated, be placed in a square hole of the right size in the swage -block, with the drawn end supported on something solid, leaving 1-1/2 -inches projecting. The hot steel can then be hammered down with a -couple of sledges, until the face is formed to 3/8 inch thick or about -2 inches square, as at _a_, Fig. 94. - -Punch and drift an eyehole 1-1/4 inches from the face, then draw and -form the head. Anneal in warm ashes. When it is cold, the face should -be ground perfectly straight, smooth, and at a right angle to the body, -with the surrounding edges slightly round, as shown, or they may be -left sharp and square if desired. - -A round-edged set hammer may be made in this manner, but as the face -should not be so large, less metal is required. - - -=108. Small Crowbar.=—Fig. 95. Drawing, swaging, welding, and tempering -steel. Material: 16 inches of 3/4-inch square mild steel, also a small -piece of tool steel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.—STEEL-FACED CROWBAR.] - -Draw 11 inches to the following dimensions: the first 4 inches to -3/4-inch octagon, then beginning with 3/4-inch round gradually reduce -to 1/2-inch round at the end. This should be smoothly forged and swaged. - -Form a depression 1/4 inch deep on one side of the square portion 2 -inches from the end; from this, draw the metal to 1/2 × 3/4 inch; by -using a hot cutter where the depression was made, split and raise up a -scarf fully 3/4 inch long, as shown in the sketch. Prepare a piece of -tool steel 2-1/2 × 3/4 × 1/2 inches; on one end of this draw a long, -thin scarf and roughen it with a hot cutter, so it can be held in -place securely. (See Fig. 95.) - -Heat the bar cautiously where the scarf was raised, to avoid burning -it; slightly cool the tool steel and put it into place. By holding -the piece of steel against a hardy, swage, or fuller, the scarf can -be hammered down tightly over the tool steel, which should hold it -securely for heating. Place the pieces in the fire and heat them to -a red; remove and thoroughly cover them with borax; replace them and -raise the heat to a bright yellow or welding heat. - -While the first light blows for the welding are being delivered, the -end should be held against something to prevent the steel from being -displaced; when positive that welding is proceeding, make the blows -heavier and complete the operation. - -When the pieces are securely joined, cut off the corner opposite to -the steel face, and draw the bar tapering from this side, to a sharp, -flat edge 1 inch wide. Bend this through its smallest dimensions to an -inside radius of about 3-1/2 or 4 inches and with the edge extending -1/2 inch to one side of the bar, as in Fig. 95. File or grind the -outside surface and edge of this; then harden, and temper to a blue. - - -=109. Eye or Ring Bolts.=—An assortment of eyes is shown in Figs. 96, -97, and 98. All eyes should possess two essentials: the necessary -strength and a good appearance; therefore the method of making should -be chosen to fulfill those requirements. Generally the eyes that have -the most strength require the greatest amount of labor. - -_A_, Fig. 96, is an open eye which is very easily made, because bending -is the only operation required. The method of making this form of eye -has already been explained in section 69. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.—EYE OR RING BOLTS. - -_A_, an open eye; _B_, a welded eye.] - -_B_ is a welded eye. It is made by forming first a flat, pointed scarf -on the end of the bar and bending it through its smallest diameter -where the drawing was begun. This bend should be no less than 70 -degrees on the outer side. Determine the length of the material needed -for forming a ring of the required diameter, then subtract the diameter -of the material from the determined length. Using this result, place a -center-punch mark _f_ that distance from _e_, and bend the piece at _f_ -in the same direction as _e_. - -Form the metal between the bends into a circle, and place the scarf in -position for welding, as at _B_. During the heating for welding, if the -circle heats more rapidly than desired, it should be cooled off and -the heating then continued. The welding should be done as quickly as -possible and swaged if required. - -The eye bolt, shown in Fig. 97, is similar to a solid forged eye. It -is formed and welded with a specially forged scarf called a butterfly -scarf. - -Determine the amount of material needed to form a ring of the required -diameter, and add to that a sufficient allowance for upsetting and -welding, which would be approximately equal to the diameter of the -material used. An invariable rule for that allowance cannot be given, -because the results of the upsetting are seldom the same. - -Place a center-punch mark the estimated distance from one end of the -bar; then upset the end 1/8 inch larger than its original diameter, -next upset it at the mark to a similar dimension, and bend it there to -an angle of no less than 70 degrees. Now with the bend lying flat on -the face of the anvil, draw out a thin, narrow scarf with a small ball -peen hammer, not any wider than the thickness of the metal. The scarf -may be drawn also by holding the outer portion of the bend on a sharp -corner of the anvil and by drawing with overhanging blows. This scarf -is shown in the upper view of Fig. 97 as it should appear. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.—EYE BOLT MADE WITH A BUTTERFLY SCARF.] - -The butterfly scarf should now be formed on the opposite side from -the one just finished, by holding each side of the end at an angle of -about 45 degrees on the edge of the anvil; this scarf may be drawn -with overhanging blows. The extreme end should also be drawn thin in a -similar manner, while it is held at a right angle with the edge of the -anvil. All outer edges of this scarf should be thin and sharp. - -Bend the metal into a circle and place the scarfs in position, as shown -at _C_, having all edges overlapping slightly and hammered down into -close contact. Heat the work for welding, observing the precaution -given in the explanation of the former eye. In welding, deliver the -first few blows uprightly on each side, then weld the edges of the -scarfs with the ball of the hammer. A few careful experiments with -these scarfs will show what is required, and with practice no more -labor will be needed than is required for the previous eye. The -finished product will be more substantial and presentable. - -[Illustration: FIG 98.—_D_, A SHIP-SMITH EYE; _E_, A SOLID FORGED EYE.] - -_D_, Fig. 98, is generally called a ship-smith eye, because it is -commonly used in ship work where strength is essential. Special swages, -convex lengthwise, are usually provided for shaping the concave curves -where they are formed and welded. The eye should be circular between -the places indicated by _f_ in sketch _D_, and the lines from _f_ -to where it is welded should be as nearly straight as possible, to -increase the strength. - -In estimating the material, take two thirds of the length for a ring -of the required diameter, and add to that the proper allowance for the -stock which forms the portion from _f_ to the weld, and also an amount -sufficient for the scarf. This scarf is drawn similar to the one for -the welded eye in Fig. 96, but it should be made convex through its -smallest dimension with a top fuller, whose diameter is equal to that -of the metal. This is done while the metal is held in a bottom swage of -corresponding size. When the scarf is finished, bend the eye into shape -and bring the scarf close up to the stem of the eye. - -Heat and weld with swages; if convex swages are not obtainable, others -may be used by taking care to prevent marring the curves. This eye may -also be welded with a large fuller while it is held over the horn of -the anvil. If the curves are severely marred, the strength of the eye -is lessened. - -A solid forged eye is shown at _E_. When eyes like this are drop-forged -in special dies, as they generally are, they do not require much skill, -but when made entirely by hand they require considerable experience. - -In forging an eye of this kind, the volume of material needed must -first be determined, making some extra allowance for the usual waste. -A convenient size of material should then be selected (round is -preferable) and the amount required for the eye marked off. The round -stem should be drawn down to size and the part for the eye forged to -a spherical shape, then flattened, punched, and enlarged to correct -dimensions. - - -=110. Calipers.=—The calipers shown in Fig. 99 may be easily made from -the dimensions given; 3/4 × 1/8-inch stock should be used for the main -piece, and 1/2 × 1/8-inch stock for the legs. - - -=111. Stock Calculation for Bending.=—In the expansion and contraction -of metals during the operation of bending, there is a fixed line, -where the metal is left undisturbed; in other words, where it is -not increased or decreased in length. So all measurements taken to -determine the length of material required for producing any bent shapes -should be taken from that fixed or undisturbed location, in order to -attain accurate results. - -All materials which have a symmetrical cross section, such as round, -square, octagonal, oval, or oblong, have the above line at their true -centers, no matter which way they are bent. While the metal remains -undisturbed at the center of any of the above sections, the rest of -it undergoes a change; the inner portion, in the direction of bending, -will contract and become thicker, and the outer portion will expand and -become thinner. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.—STEPS IN MAKING CALIPERS.] - -Other conditions arise, however, to modify these rules. If the heat is -unevenly distributed, or if the stock is not of a uniform thickness, -the results will not be exactly as estimated. When a heavy ring is -formed of oblong material and bent through its larger diameter, as -shown in sketch _A_, Fig. 100, and the product is to be finished to -a uniform thickness, the expansion of the outer portion will make it -necessary to use somewhat thicker material, to provide for the decrease -of metal which will take place. The inner half, then too thick, could -be reduced to the required size, but this operation always alters -natural conditions of bending, and changes the general results. These -conditions are not very noticeable and do not require special attention -when small-sized materials are operated upon, but they must be observed -when large oblong or square stock is formed into a ring requiring exact -dimensions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.—CALCULATIONS OF LENGTHS FOR RINGS.] - -In all cases of this kind, the required length must be established from -the undisturbed center and the ends cut at an angle of 85 degrees. If -the material is to be welded, it should be scarfed on opposite sides -and lapped when bent. - -When hoops or bands of flat or oblong material are bent, scarfed, and -welded through the small diameter, then both scarfs should be formed on -the same side while straight, and bent as shown at _B_, Fig. 100; the -scarfs then will fit more readily than if they were formed on opposite -sides. Sometimes, in instances of this kind, only one end is scarfed, -and the piece is bent in a similar manner, with the unscarfed end on -the outside and just lapping enough to cover the heel of the inner -scarf. - -Another form of ring requiring a calculation of the area as well as -of the length is one of a wedge-shaped section, as shown at _C_, Fig. -100. Here the area of the required section is found and the material -supplied with the proper thickness and area. The length also must be -computed, then cut, scarfed, and welded, as previously explained; after -this the ring may be drawn to the form desired. - -The circumference of a circle may be found by multiplying its diameter -by 3.1416 (π). (See tables, pages 205-206.) For rings or bands the -length of the center line, _c_, Fig. 100, should be found. Example: If -_a_ equals 5 inches and _b_ equals 2 inches, _c_ will equal 7 inches, -and the length of stock for the ring will be 7 × 3.1416 = 21.991 -inches,—practically 22 inches. 3-1/7 may be used for the value of π -instead of 3.1416. - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - Describe the proper construction of a pair of tongs. What sort of - steel should be used in making lathe tools? What operations are - employed in making them? What is the color of the temper? If they - were tempered to a blue, would they be tempered harder or softer? - Are forging and hardening heats the same? State the difference in - grinding a boring and a threading tool. Explain the difference in - making a right- and a left-hand diamond point tool. How should a side - tool be hardened? Why shouldn’t the head of a cold chisel be cooled - off quickly when it is finished? Explain the difference between - tempering a cold chisel and tempering a lathe tool. Describe the - shapes of the hot and the cold cutter. How should they be tempered? - How are the square-edged set and the flatter treated in place of - tempering. Explain how it is done. Describe different methods of - making eye or ring bolts. How should measurements be made on stock - to be bent? State what has been said about scarfing flat or oblong - material for rings. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES - - -=112. A Forging.=—A forging is an article made of metal, generally -steel or iron, and produced by heating and hammering. It may be used -for either practical or ornamental purposes. The various forgings -already described were made by methods such as the older class of -smiths practiced, and are called hand forgings. From a practical -standpoint these smiths were familiar with the characteristic -composition of metals and with the knowledge of how they should be -worked. - -Many forgings are produced at present by machinery. The product is -satisfactory for most practical purposes, and is generally equal to -that made by hand. The machines used are the drop hammers, horizontal -and vertical presses, steam hammers, and numerous other devices. The -power used for operating them may be either steam, air, water, or -electricity. - - -=113. The Drop Hammer.=—The drop hammer is provided with a pair of dies -made of cast steel, one upper and one lower, having suitably shaped -depressions made in them for forming the forgings. The lower die is -held stationary on a solid foundation block, and the upper one is -secured to a heavy weight or hammer. This is raised perpendicularly and -allowed to drop upon the metal, which is held on the fixed die by the -smith, thus forming the forging. - -If the work is small and simple, all depressions may be made in a -single pair of dies, and the forging can be completed with one hammer -and without changing the dies. Work somewhat complicated may require -two or more pairs of dies, with various shapes of depressions. The -stock is broken down or blocked out by the first pair and then -completed by the stamping and finishing dies. Larger pieces may require -also a number of pairs of dies, then an equal number of hammers may -be used, each fitted with a set of dies. The material is passed from -one to the other, and the work completed without changing dies, and -possibly without reheating the metal. - - -=114. Presses.=—Presses may be either horizontal or vertical and are -generally used for bending or pressing the metal into some desired -shape or form; they are quite convenient for producing duplicate and -accurate shapes. Forming-dies or blocks are also required here, but -they are generally made of cast iron, and their construction need not -be so accurate. After the presses have been properly adjusted, very -little skill is required in their operation,—simply the heating of the -material and placing it against a gauge or between the dies. One thrust -of the plunger will complete the operation. - - -=115. The Steam Hammer.=—The steam hammer was first recorded by Mr. -James Nasmyth in his “scheme book” on the 24th of November, 1839. -Although this was the exact date of its origin, he first saw it put -into practical use by the Creuzot Iron Works of France in 1842. -Nasmyth’s invention legally dates from June, 1842, when his patent was -procured. - -Of the various machines that have been devised for the smith’s use, to -relieve him of the laboriousness of pounding metal into shape, there is -none that could take the place of this invention. Numerous shapes and -forms can be produced more accurately and rapidly by the employment of -the steam hammer than by the use of hand methods. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.—A STEAM HAMMER EQUIPPED WITH A FOOT LEVER.] - -Before proceeding any further, a few words of warning and advice may -not be out of place. Although this invention is a great benefactor to -the smith, it is not possessed with human intelligence, nor is it a -respecter of persons. The power of steam will always exert its utmost -force when liberated, so do not let in too much steam at first. Unless -the material is held horizontally and flat on the die, the blow will -jar the hands badly and will bend the material. All tools such as -cutters and fullers should be held firmly but lightly, so that they may -adjust themselves to the die and the descending blow. - -After the hammer has been put into motion, the blows will fall in a -perfectly routine manner. By his careful observation and a thorough -understanding of the necessary requirements, and by signals from the -smith, the hammer operator should regulate the force of the blows to -suit the smith’s convenience. - -A caution pertaining to the tongs used for handling the material should -be carefully observed. Whenever work is to be forged with the steam -hammer, the material should be held with perfect-fitting tongs secured -by slipping a link over the handles; a few light blows delivered on the -link will tighten their grip. - - -=116. Steam Hammer Tools.=—First some necessary tools will be -explained, then exercises requiring their use will be given, followed -by a few operations where simple appliances are needed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.—THE HACK OR CUTTER.] - - -=117. The hack or cutter= (Fig. 102) is used for nearly the same -purposes as the hot cutter already described. It should be made of -tool steel from 0.80 to 0.90 per cent carbon. The head or top is made -convex, as shown, and not more than 5/8 inch thick, tapering equally on -both sides to the cutting edge, which may be made either 3/16 or 1/4 -inch thick. It should be ground straight and parallel to the top and -tempered to a dark blue. - -The blade is about 2-1/4 or 2-1/2 inches wide, unless intended for -heavy forgings, when all dimensions should be increased. The width -of the blade should not be too great, however, for the broader the -cutter, the greater its liability to glance sidewise or turn over when -the blows are delivered upon it. The length of this cutter may be from -3-3/4 to 4 inches. - -The handle may be about 28 inches long, approximately 3/4 inch in -diameter at _a_ and gradually tapered towards the end, where it is -about 1/2 inch. The portion indicated at _b_ is flattened to an oblong -section, as shown, to allow springing when the blows are delivered and -to prevent bruising the hands. - - -=118. The circular cutter= (Fig. 103) is made of the same material and -with a handle of similar dimensions and form as the hack. A section of -the cutting portion on _a-a_ is shown, and suitable dimensions given. -If convex ends are to be cut, the perpendicular side of the blade -should always be on the inner side of the curve, but on the outer side -for concave ends. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.—THE CIRCULAR CUTTER.] - -An assortment of these cutters with various-sized arcs may be provided -to suit requirements, but quite frequently the curved cutting portion -is altered to suit the particular work at hand. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.—THE TRIMMING CHISEL.] - - -=119. The trimming chisel= (Fig. 104) is made quite similar to an -ordinary hot cutter and likewise provided with a wooden handle. It -should be strongly constructed, perfectly straight on one side, and not -too long from the cutting edge to the top to avoid its being turned -over when the blows are delivered upon it. The grinding should be done -on the tapered side only, with the cutting edge tempered to a dark blue. - - -=120. The cold cutter= (Fig. 105) is used for purposes similar to those -of the ordinary cold cutter. It should be strongly made in a triangular -form, as shown in the end view, also with a spring handle like that of -the hack. The top is made convex, and the sides taper to the cutting -edge, which should be ground equally from both sides. It should be -carefully tempered for cutting cold material. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.—THE COLD CUTTER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.—BREAKING COLD STOCK.] - -In cutting stock with this tool, the material should be nicked -sufficiently deep on the exterior to allow it to be broken. By holding -the piece securely with the hammer, and the nicked portion even with -the edge of the dies, it may be broken off by a few blows from a -sledge. The steam hammer may also be used to break the stock when -nicked with the cold cutter. The piece should be placed on the lower -die of the hammer, as shown in Fig. 106, and broken by one or two sharp -blows from the hammer. A piece of round stock can be used instead of -the triangular piece of steel, with the same result. When material is -being broken in this way, see that no one is standing in a direct line -with the stock, as there is some liability of one or both pieces flying -in either direction. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.—CUTTING STOCK.] - -When using the hack (Fig. 102) for cutting square stock, cut equally -from all sides, as shown at _a_, Fig. 107. This will produce smoother -ends than if it were cut unequally and will prevent the short end from -turning upward when the final blows are delivered. The fin or core -that is formed by the hack, shown at _b_, generally adheres to one of -the pieces, but it can be removed by using the trimming chisel in the -manner shown. These fins are commonly removed by the use of an ordinary -hot cutter and sledge. - -The hack, if held perpendicularly, will not cut the end of either piece -square. If one end is to be cut square, the cutter should be held as -shown at _c_. Round material may be cut similarly, but to avoid marring -its circular section it may be held in a swage fitted to the hammer die. - -Flat stock may be cut equally from both sides, or if it is cut nearly -through from one side, the operation can be completed by placing a -small piece of square untempered steel over the cut, as shown at _e_. A -sharp blow of the hammer will drive the steel through into the opening -and produce a straight, smooth cut. - -When a semicircular end is to be produced, similar to that indicated by -the broken line at _d_, the circular cutter should be used. Here, also, -the cutting should be done equally from each side. - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.—THE CHECKING TOOL OR SIDE FULLER.] - - -=121. The checking tool or side fuller= (Fig. 108) is made of tool -steel with a carbon content, the same as for the cutters. The handle -also is the same, with the exception of part _a_, which provides the -spring. Here, on account of its being used in two different positions, -a twisted form is much better, because the tool may spring in either -direction. From the end view you will notice that it has a triangular -section with one square corner and two curved ones. - -A convenient dimension for this tool is about 2-1/2 inches over all -from the square to the circular corners. It would be convenient to have -a smaller one also, of about 1-1/2 inches. The length of this tool -should correspond with that of the cutters. - -In use, one of the circular corners of the checking tool is forced into -the metal, forming a triangular-shaped depression, as shown at _b_. Two -depressions are shown in this sketch in opposite directions to each -other, made by holding the tool in different positions and using both -the circular edges. The object of this operation is to set off the -rectangular portion _b_ so that the ends _c-c_ can be drawn out without -disturbing the center. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.—THE FULLER.] - - -=122. The fuller= (Fig. 109) is made with a handle like that of the -checking tool, but the portion used for fullering is made circular -in section and about 4 inches long. An assortment of sizes should be -provided, with diameters of 1, 1-1/2, and 2 inches. When smaller sizes -are needed, a bar of round steel may be conveniently substituted. These -tools may be properly termed top fullers, because they are generally -held on top of the metal and the blows are delivered from above, thus -forming depressions on one side only. Sometimes double depressions are -required directly opposite to each other. In such cases a short piece -of round metal, the same size as the fuller, is placed on the die -directly under the top fuller, with the metal between the two. - -If the depressions are to be only semicircular, a short piece of -half-round material may be provided which is not liable to be -dislocated or jarred out of position on the die. - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.—THE SPRING FULLERS.] - - -=123. The combined spring fullers= (Fig. 110) are very convenient for -making double depressions. They are similar to the single fuller, -but are flattened out at _a_ and _b_, so that they may be opened for -various sizes of stock. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.—THE COMBINATION FULLER AND SET.] - - -=124. The combination fuller and set= (Fig. 111) may be made with a -straight, round handle, but a twisted one is more desirable, because -the tool is frequently used in different positions. It should be made -of a quality of steel that will withstand severe hammering without -becoming battered. The heavy end which forms the tool is made about -1-1/2 by 2-1/2 inches; the corners on one side are left sharp and -square, while those opposite are made quarter-round. One side of this -tool may be made almost semicircular if it is intended to be used as a -fuller. The length may be about 4 inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.—DRAWING AND FINISHING WITH THE COMBINATION -FULLER AND SET.] - -This tool is used as a fuller or set in drawing metal between -projections which have been formed by using the checking tool. In Fig. -112 the sections of metal, indicated by _a_ and _c_, are to be drawn -to smaller dimensions. This cannot be done with the hammer, because -these places are narrower than the width of the hammer dies. At _c_ the -fuller or set is being used flatwise, which is the better way, because -the two round corners will not cause galling. At _a_ it is shown in use -edgewise; but this should not be continued after the opening has been -enlarged sufficiently to use the tool as at _c_, unless perfectly sharp -corners are desired. - -Another convenient use for this tool is for finishing a roughly drawn -tapered piece of metal, as at _d_. Here are shown the roughened tapered -surfaces, as they have been produced by the hammer, also the method of -using the set. If there is much of this kind of work to be done, it -would be advisable to provide a special tool with a circular side which -could be used solely as a flatter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.—THE COMBINED TOP AND BOTTOM SWAGES.] - - -=125. The combined top and bottom swages= (Fig. 113) are also called -spring swages, because they are somewhat flexible at the connecting -loop, which keeps them in adjustment. The best material for these -swages, on account of the constant hammering to which they are -subjected, is a good quality of mild or soft steel. Much hammering has -a tendency to crystallize the metal and causes frequent breakage. - -The heavy parts forming the swages ought to be well proportioned and -made from sufficiently heavy stock. The handles are drawn out from the -same material and welded, or merely stub ends may be drawn from this -material, and then flat stock welded on to form the handles. In either -case the edges should be swaged half-round previous to welding. The top -and bottom of the handles are not parallel with the upper and lower -parts of the swages, because the heavy parts only should receive hammer -blows. - -The grooves should be perfect semicircles, with the exception of the -edges indicated at _e_, which should be slightly round, as shown. This -prevents metal from becoming lodged in the swages. If the metal sticks, -the smith will be unable to revolve it in the swages, and it will -become oblong in section. The corners on top of the upper swage should -be removed, as shown, so that the blows will be received more directly -through its center. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.—THE TOP AND BOTTOM SWAGES.] - - -=126. The top and bottom swages= (_A_ and _B_, Fig. 114) are made -separate, but of the same quality of material as those just described. -The handle of the top swage _A_, however, should be round, with a small -portion flattened, as shown. The bottom swage _B_ is constructed with -projecting lugs _d_, as shown. The distance between the lugs should be -equal to the width of the lower hammer die, over which the swage should -fit closely enough to prevent its displacement. The swages may be used -together or separately, as desired, the lower one being convenient for -cutting round material, as it prevents marring the sectional form of -the stock. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.—THE BEVEL OR TAPER TOOL.] - - -=127. The bevel or taper tool= (Fig. 115) is provided with lugs and -fits the hammer die. When constructed for general use, the pitch should -not be too great, because it may be increased by placing a short piece -of metal under one end, as shown, or decreased by inserting metal under -the opposite end. The heavy end should be made as nearly perpendicular -as possible, with the outer edge of the die. This tool is very handy -for drawing any tapering work, such as cold chisels, levers, keys, etc. - - -=128. The V block= (Fig. 116) was introduced by the inventor of the -steam hammer, and was used instead of a bottom swage. When large, round -sections are to be produced, and swages of the proper size are not -obtainable, this tool may be used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.—THE V BLOCK.] - -When round stock is drawn without a swage, only two portions directly -opposite to each other are acted on by the hammer, thus causing some -liability of producing an oblong section or a hollow centered forging. -These difficulties are avoided to a certain extent by the use of the V -block, because the force of the blow acts in three directions. - - -=129. The yoke or saddle= (Fig. 117) should be made of heavy flat -material bent into the form of a U, with the ends perfectly straight -and parallel. It should be provided with lugs fitted to the lower die -so that both sides will stand erect and at right angles to it, as at -_A_. The distance between the sides may be of any convenient width, -2-1/2 inches or more, depending upon the character of the work to be -done. Semicircular depressions should be made on the edges, as shown at -_e_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.—THE YOKE OR SADDLE.] - -Another view of the yoke is given at _B_, with one side removed. As -seen here, it is used to draw weldless or solid rings after the stock -has been blocked out and a sufficiently large hole has been punched -in it to allow it to be hung over the pin _p_, which rests in the -depressions previously mentioned. Hammer blows can be delivered on the -exterior of the stock, thus drawing it and increasing its diameter. As -this is increased, larger pins should be used, to produce a smoother -and more evenly drawn ring. - -The yoke, shown at _C_, is being used as a bridge for drawing the ends -of a solid forged jaw. By using it for purposes like this, considerable -hand labor may be saved. - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.—_A_, BOLSTER; _B_, A PLUG PUNCH IN POSITION -FOR USE.] - - -=130. Bolsters or collars= (_a_, Fig. 118) are used for punching holes, -upsetting metal for bolt heads, and similar operations. They should be -made of soft steel. - -=131. Punches.=—At _b_, Fig. 118, a plug punch is shown in position on -the metal over a washer or bolster ready for punching. When properly -located, a few blows of the hammer will force the punch through the -metal and produce a smoothly finished hole. - -Notice that the punch is made somewhat tapering, and that the heavier -portion is driven through first. Precaution should be taken not to have -the punch fit the bolster too closely or be too long, also to have it -directly over the hole in the bolster before attempting to drive it -through. - -Holes can be punched with ordinary handle punches, but care should be -taken not to have them too long; even then a bolster or something must -be used, so that the punch can be driven clear through the metal and -not come in contact with the lower hammer die. - - -=132. Steam Hammer Work.=—The following exercises are known as machine -forgings. They will require the use of the steam or power hammer and -the tools just described. It will be necessary to know beforehand -what parts of the work are to be finished, so as to provide a proper -allowance at those places. The term “finished” means that the surface -is to be removed by the machinist, and the work made smooth and to the -required dimensions. - -All machine drawings should designate the parts that require finishing, -by either the entire word or just the letter “F.” The symbol is more -convenient to use for only certain parts, but if the entire forging is -to be finished, it may be indicated by “finished all over.” - - -=133. Crank Shaft.=—Fig. 119. This is shown without dimensions or -finish marks. Select stock sufficiently heavy to produce a forging -equal to that shown at _b_. - -Make two depressions with the checking tool, as shown, the distance _c_ -between them corresponding with the dimension _a_ on the crank. Draw -the ends square and straight on the lower side, as shown at _d_, then -octagonal, and then round. In this way the fillets and shoulders will -be equal, as shown at _e_. The two ends should be swaged smooth and -round, then made perfectly straight and at right angles to the crank. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.—STEPS IN MAKING A CRANK SHAFT.] - - -=134. Connecting Rod.=—Fig. 120. The volume of the material required -for section _e_ must first be estimated. Then ascertain how many inches -of the selected material will be required to give this volume. This -will be the distance _b_ for the fullering shown at _a_. The sizes of -the fullers to be used should be the same as the required radii _r_. -Fuller in the depressions as shown, so that they will correspond with -the dimensions _g_, _h_, and _l_ of the finished rod. The metal between -_g_ and _h_ should then be drawn slightly tapered, as shown in the top -view, and to a uniform thickness _l_. The small end must now be drawn -to the proper size and trimmed with the circular cutter. Make the rod -perfectly straight, with the ends parallel to each other and to the rod. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.—STEPS IN MAKING A CONNECTING ROD.] - - -=135. Rod Strap.=—Fig. 121. This forging is begun by blocking out, as -shown at _B_, with _e_ a little greater than _h_ and plenty of stock at -_f_. The length _k_ must equal _l_, with a slight allowance of surplus -metal for the bending operation. - -Sketch _C_ shows the method of bending. A forming block _m_ should -be provided for this, the width of which corresponds nearly with the -dimension _g_, and the thickness is somewhat greater than that at _d_. -The length may be equal to the inside length of the finished strap, but -it could be used if shorter. By placing this block perpendicularly on -the bottom die, with the forging resting on it and a small piece of -metal _n_ for a blocking on top of that, the upper die may be brought -down and a full head of steam turned on while the stroke lever is held -down. Both ends can be bent down simultaneously with sledges. - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.—STEPS IN MAKING A ROD STRAP.] - -After the bending, there may be required more or less labor with the -flatter and sledge to square it up in proper shape. Then the ends can -be cut off to equal lengths with the hack or hot cutter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.—STEPS IN MAKING AN ECCENTRIC JAW.] - - -=136. Eccentric Jaw.=—_A_, Fig. 122. First form the depression _c_ with -the checking tool; then draw out the end _d_ to the form _e_ and punch -a hole at _f_ by using an oblong punch. - -Then using the hack, carefully cut from both sides at the places -indicated by the broken lines at _f_. Any fin remaining after the -cutting can be removed with a hot cutter or the trimming chisel. The -ends forming the jaw can be drawn to the proper size by the use of -the yoke. The semicircular ends can also be cut by using the circular -cutter, but these ends will require some trimming with a hot cutter, -because all the work must be done from exterior sides. - - -=137. Hand Lever.=—_A_, Fig. 123. This illustrates and explains a -simple method of stamping which may be extended or adjusted to suit a -variety of forgings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.—STEPS IN MAKING A HAND LEVER.] - -In this case two stamping rings are made to suit the work at hand, as -follows: If the dimension _h_ is 2 inches and the thickness of the -lever _i_ is 1/2 inch, the rings must be made of 3/4-inch round stock, -and welded to an inside diameter corresponding with the dimension _k_. - -First draw the material to correspond exactly with the dimension _k_ in -one direction and somewhat greater than that of _h_ in the opposite. -The latter dimension is made larger, to provide some excess metal for -the stamping operation, which is done in the following manner: Place -one of the rings centrally on the bottom die of the hammer, as shown -at _B_; lay the material on this, with the dimension _h_ perpendicular -and the proper distance from the end to provide enough metal for -forming the lever and handle. Then place the other ring on top of the -material directly above the lower one, and deliver blows on these -rings until the entire thickness almost corresponds with the desired -dimension _h_. The rings will be forced into the metal and form two -depressions, as shown at _C_. Next with a hot cutter or trimming chisel -remove the metal forming the corners _e_. Then draw out the lever -portion roughly, at first; by using the taper tool a uniform taper can -be produced correctly. Cut off the extra stock at the boss, and remove -the surplus metal which projects between the bosses as indicated at -_d_, and finish the end smoothly with a common top swage. The handle -portion can be formed at the anvil with top and bottom swages after the -end has been cut semicircular and to the desired length. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.—STEPS IN MAKING A CONNECTING LEVER.] - - -=138. Connecting Lever.=—_A_, Fig. 124. After drawing the metal to an -appropriate dimension, fuller two depressions _b_ on opposite sides, -the proper distance from the end, to form the jaw. A single boss _c_ -should be stamped with one ring, at the required distance from _b_ -to provide the necessary amount of metal for the length _d_ of the -lever. Then remove the corners, as indicated by the broken lines. Begin -drawing the lever by using the combination set, and finish the flat -side with the hammer, producing the taper edge with the taper tool. -Punch a square hole in the jaw and remove the metal indicated by the -broken lines at _e_, with a hot cutter. Finish the jaw similar to the -eccentric jaw and the boss as in the previous exercise. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.—SOLID FORGED RING.] - - -=139. Solid Forged Ring.=—Fig. 125. This should be made of soft steel, -the dimensions being supplied by the instructor to suit the stock and -equipment at hand. The volume (see calculating rules and tables, pp. -197-206) of the forging must first be determined and some surplus -allowance for forging provided. The process of making the ring will be -found in the explanation of the use of the yoke in section 129. - -[Illustration: FIG. 126.—PRODUCING DOUBLE AND SINGLE OFFSETS.] - - -=140. Double and Single Offsets.=—Fig. 126. The following exercises -are given to explain the use of simple appliances for producing work -accurately and rapidly. Examples similar to the four following ones -would require considerable care and skill if they were to be produced -without the use of the steam hammer. - -At _a_ is shown a double offset bend, the depth of which, for -illustration, may be 1/2 inch. To produce this, place two pieces of -1/2-inch flat material, with _width corresponding_ to that of the -material to be bent, on the lower die, and sufficiently far apart -to allow the offsets to form between them. On these the material is -placed, and on top of that also, located midway between the 1/2-inch -supporting pieces, a third piece of 1/2-inch stock is placed. The -width of this should correspond with the required dimension at _a_ and -should be somewhat longer than the width of the material to be bent. -This arrangement is shown at _c_. By delivering a sufficiently heavy -blow upon them, the two offsets, will be formed simultaneously and -accurately. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.—SIMPLE METHODS FOR BENDING CLAMPS WITH A STEAM -HAMMER.] - -In all operations of this kind the thickness of the lower forming -pieces should always correspond with the required depth of the offset, -and the corners should be ground round to prevent shearing or galling. - -At _d_ is shown a single offset which can be produced in a similar way, -with the exception that here only two blocks are required. But the -forming corners of these should also be ground as previously stated, -and they are placed in position as shown at _e_. - -Figure 127 shows the method of bending a semicircular pipe or rod -clamp. Here a piece of round stock _f_ is used above for stamping, but -as the lower blocks are easily displaced, it would be advisable to make -a stamping block like that shown at _g_. This could be used instead of -the two lower pieces. If the clamps were to be made square, then the -stamping block should be like the one shown at _h_, and the upper piece -as at _f_ should be made square. - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - What is a forging? Name the machines used in making forgings. Who - invented the steam hammer? How should material be held on the dies? - What tool is used in place of a hot cutter at the hammer? How can - a convex end be produced? Describe the special form of a trimming - chisel. How should metal be broken after it has been nicked with the - cold cutter? Describe the correct way of using a hack in cutting - square stock. Explain the use of a checking tool. Describe the - different fullers used at the hammer. Explain their uses. For what - is a combination fuller and set used? Describe the hammer swages. - The bevel or taper tool. What is it used for? What is the advantage - in the use of the V block? Describe the yoke. Explain its use. What - is the difference between a plug punch and a handle punch? How is a - bolster used for punching? What does the word “finished” mean on a - drawing? What hammer tools are brought into use in making a crank - shaft? In making the connecting rod? Describe how the hammer is used - in bending a rod strap. What tools are brought into use in making the - eccentric jaw? Describe the method of forming the bosses on the hand - lever. Explain some simple methods of bending work with the steam - hammer. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK - - -=141. Art Smithing.=—This subject might appropriately be considered a -separate branch, because many smiths, who really deserve the credit -of being excellent mechanics, have never become proficient in this -particular line of work. - -Art smithing is the highest development of metal work. The best art -smiths are foreigners, as European countries use much more of this kind -of work for decoration than this country does. The greater part of this -work is entirely too difficult for the average student unless it is -attempted with the assistance of machinery. - -It is possible, however, to do a certain amount of scroll work with -accuracy and make simple decorative pieces. One should commence with -the design of the article to be made. The harmonious combinations of -straight and curved lines and their adaptation for different purposes -should be studied. The study of design will not be taken up here, but -several examples which will furnish a basis for further work along this -line are given for consideration. - -Designing may be done on any convenient material such as paper, -wood, or blackboard. The last is preferable because confusing marks -can easily be erased. A sketch thus made may be used as a working -drawing. If the design is to be used many times, a very convenient and -substantial method is to reproduce it on a piece of shellacked pine -board, and then paint it on in solid form. When this is dry, a few more -coats of shellac should be applied to preserve it. If desired, the -length of each individual scroll may be indicated. - -There are various methods of obtaining the different lengths: by -placing a strong string over the scroll and then measuring the string; -by using a piece of soft wire in the same manner, lead wire being -preferred; or by the following method:— - -Take a piece of 1/8-inch material 3 or 4 feet long, mark it lightly on -both edges into equal spaces either 3 or 6 inches long, and stamp the -feet or inches upon it with steel figures. After this is done, a small -rolling curl, as shown in Fig. 129, should be formed, and the entire -length bent on the scroll former while the material is cold. This is -the manner, minus the markings mentioned, in which all scrolls are to -be formed. This product with the markings upon it should be kept for -ascertaining the number of inches required for either large or small -scrolls. Always place the curled end of this measure in position on -the working drawing and adjust it until it conforms to the outline -of the design. Then place a crayon mark on both the drawing and the -measure where they cease to correspond; the length of that portion -which corresponds can be ascertained from the markings on the measure, -and all remaining irregular curves can be measured by a string, wire, -or rule. This measure will prove also to be quite a satisfactory and -accurate means of arranging new designs. - - -=142. Scroll Fastenings.=—There are three different methods used for -joining scrolls: welding, riveting, and banding with clips. The first -is the most difficult and the most artistic, but unless one is quite -expert at welding, especially in joining light material such as is -generally used for scroll work, it would perhaps be better to disregard -this method entirely. - -Riveting presents a very neat appearance and makes the product quite -strong and substantial, but unless the marking and drilling of holes -is accurately done, the result presents a distorted and ill-shaped -combination, which cannot be remedied without drilling new holes. - -It would be advisable, then, to adopt the last method generally, -resorting to riveting wherever it is impossible to use clips or bands, -or where strength is an essential requirement. If a clip is misplaced, -it can be replaced with a new one, or it may be moved into the proper -position without showing that an error has been made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.—THE SCROLL FORMER.] - - -=143. Scroll Former.=—Fig. 128. This is a very handy tool for producing -scrolls in a rapid and uniform manner. It should be a perfectly -designed variable spiral. If several are provided, they should be -exactly alike, otherwise the scrolls produced with them will be unequal -and irregular and will present an inartistic appearance. The former -illustrated is made of 1 × 1/2-inch soft steel. Draw the end and form -the central portion, gradually tapering to about 3/16 of an inch thick, -but leave it of a uniform width. This end should be slightly beveled -from one side to form a protruding edge, over which the small curled -end of the material is securely held while the scroll is being bent. A -view of the former as it is used to start a scroll is given in Fig. 129 -showing the metal in proper position for forming. The end indicated at -_a_, Fig. 128, may be bent downward and edgewise to a right angle, as -shown, or, if desired, it may be forged square to fit the hardy hole of -the anvil, but as this tool is most conveniently used when held in the -vise, the method shown at _a_ is better. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.—STARTING A SCROLL ON THE FORMER.] - - -=144. Bending or Twisting Fork.=—Fig. 130. This fork is shown with -dimensions suitable for bending material 1/8 or 3/16 inch in thickness. -For thicker material all dimensions should be proportionately increased. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.—BENDING OR TWISTING FORK.] - -This tool is very serviceable and quite easily made of round tool -steel; if such stock is not at hand, octagonal tool steel can be -swaged to the desired dimension. If it is made of soft steel, it will -meet requirements for a considerable length of time. - - -=145. Bending or Twisting Wrench.=—Fig. 131. This should be made from -the same quality of steel of the same dimensions as the preceding tool. - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.—BENDING OR TWISTING WRENCH.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.—SCROLL BENDING.] - -The bending wrench is used in connection with the bending fork for -shaping a scroll, as shown in Fig. 132. When the wrench is placed over -the material so that its jaws will grip the sides and the handle of the -wrench is pulled in the direction indicated by the arrow, bending will -take place at _e_. If the straight end of the scroll were pulled in the -same direction, bending would occur at _f_. Sometimes when scrolls are -being connected with the band, they are sprung out of place. By the use -of this wrench they can be brought again into position by bending them -close to where the band was put on. - -These tools may be used together for twisting light material, when the -vise and monkey wrench could not readily be utilized. - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.—CLIP FORMER.] - - -=146. Clip Former.=—Fig. 133. This and the two following tools should -be made of 0.80 to 0.90 per cent carbon tool steel. A convenient size -of material for the one shown is 1 × 1/2 inch. The portion forming the -connecting loop must be flattened and forged to about 1/4 inch thick to -provide a spring for retaining its shape. The ends should be forged to -two different thicknesses. The 1/4-inch side is used in bending clips -for banding two pieces of 1/8-inch material, and the 3/8-inch side for -three pieces. When a different thickness of material is to be used, -these ends should be made to correspond with it. The inner and outer -edges of these ends should be made slightly rounding to prevent cutting -the material from which the clips are made. Most of this light scroll -work is made from stock with round edges, therefore it is not necessary -to have the clips bent sharp and square. - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.—USE OF THE CLIP FORMER.] - -The former should be so proportioned that it can be placed between the -jaws of the vise, as shown in Fig. 134. Here the loop is resting on -the box of the vise, which supports it and prevents it from falling -out of position when the pressure of the vise is released. The ends -of the clip former should extend above the jaws of the vise about 2 -inches, so that the clips can be bent without striking the vise with -the hammer. A view of these ends, with a piece of half-oval iron in -position for bending, is shown at _A_, Fig. 137. One end of the clip -material should be placed between the ends of the former, one half the -width of the scroll stock, 3/16 of an inch if the stock is 3/8 inch -wide. By tightening the jaws of the vise upon the sides of the former, -the half-oval iron will be securely held, while it is being bent over -with the hand hammer to the form indicated by the broken lines. The -clip will then be ready for fastening the scrolls together. - -[Illustration: FIG. 135.—CLIP HOLDER.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.—USE OF THE CLIP HOLDER.] - - -=147. Clip Holder.=—Fig. 135. Stock 3/4 inch square is best suited for -making this tool. The central portion forming the loop should be drawn -and forged to about 1/4 inch thick, gradually increased to 1/2 inch -where the shoulders are formed. The distance from these shoulders to -the outside end of the loop should be less than the distance from the -top of the vise jaws to the vise box. Then the tool will be supported -entirely on these shoulders, as shown in Fig. 136, and the tool may be -placed near the ends of the vise jaws, which sometimes will prove to -be quite an advantage. The length from the shoulders to the ends may -be about 2 inches. These ends should be drawn tapering from the outer -sides to about 1/2 inch square. On the inside a depression 3/16 inch -deep should be formed so that the holder will fit over the bent end of -a clip, as shown at _B_, Fig. 137. - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.—FORMING A CLIP.] - -The clip and a sectional view of the two pieces of material that are -to be connected are shown at _B_ as they are placed in this tool. By -tightening the vise upon the holder, the lower portion of the clip will -be clamped securely on the pieces and held while the upright end of the -clip is bent over and around the upper half of the material with the -hand hammer. Then the following tool will be brought into use. - - -=148. Clip Tightener or Clincher.=—Fig. 138. The most convenient stock -from which to make this tool is 3/4-inch octagon tool steel. It is -made by upsetting and forging the end to about 1-1/4 × 1/2 inches, -then filing a depression not more than 3/16 inch deep and wide enough -to fit tightly over the outer portion of the bent end of a clip. The -corners indicated at _e_ should be made slightly round to prevent them -from marring the outside of the clips. This tool should be about 6-1/2 -inches long, with the head end drawn as for a cold chisel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.—CLIP TIGHTENER OR CLINCHER.] - -By holding this tool on top of the bent-over clip, as shown at _C_, -Fig. 137, and delivering a few heavy blows upon it, the clip will be -tightened and clinched securely over and around the pieces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.—JARDINIÈRE STAND OR TABORET.] - - -=149. Jardinière Stand or Taboret.=—Fig. 139. The height from the floor -line to the top of the circular board is 26 inches; the height from -the floor line to the upper ring _E_ is 19-1/2 inches; the height from -the floor line to the lower ring _F_ is 7 inches; the extreme width is -18-1/2 inches. - -The process of making this stand will be given here. By following a -similar course, any of the other designs given in this chapter may be -made. The material usually employed for making this is 1/2 × 1/8-inch, -and there should be four sections or legs, as shown at the left, also -two bands or rings, like the one shown in the upper right, and one -top board 7/8 inch thick and 8 inches in diameter, which is shown -under the ring. The following list gives the number and lengths of the -various pieces required:— - - 4 pieces 45-1/2 inches long. - 4 pieces 22-1/2 inches long. - 4 pieces 15-1/2 inches long. - 4 pieces 15 inches long. - 2 pieces 14-1/2 inches long. - 4 pieces 13 inches long. - -All pieces should be straightened immediately after being cut to -length. The main branch, 45-1/2 inches long, should be marked with a -center punch at all places where bending or twisting is to be done. -From the end of the stock to _A_ is 6 inches; from _A_ to _B_, 9 -inches; _B_ to _C_, 4-1/2 inches; the length of the twisted portion is -2-1/2 inches. - -All ends that are to be scrolled, should be drawn, curled, and fitted -to the central portion of the former, as previously indicated. When -_both_ ends of the same piece are to be scrolled, observe carefully -whether they revolve in the _same_ or in _opposite_ directions. These -ends should not be cooled after drawing and fitting, because cooling -will have a tendency to harden them slightly and prevent uniform -bending. All ends that are to be connected to another piece by clips -should now be drawn out to a thin edge, but of a uniform width. - -Now proceed to form the main branch by making the twisted portion -between _B_ and _C_; straighten if necessary. Form the upper angular -bend of 90 degrees at _A_ while it is held in the vise; this can be -done cold, by carefully avoiding breaking or cutting the material with -the sharp edge of the vise. Now form a scroll at the top on the former. -Next bend at _B_ in the same manner and direction as before, and make -the two quarter circles between _A_ and _B_, with the bending fork -alone or by combining the use of it with the bending wrench. Exercise -care in doing this, in order to have the correct space for scroll 2 -and ring _E_, which should be 5 inches outside diameter. The lower -angular bend at _C_ should now be made, followed by forming as much of -the scroll _D_ as possible on the former. Then bend the irregular curve -between _D_ and _C_. - -The next member to be scrolled and fitted into position is the -15-1/2-inch piece, 4. This must be carefully made in order to have the -extreme height of the scroll at the proper distance from the bottom -line, also at the proper distance from the center line, to provide -an exact dimension where the lower ring _F_ is to be connected. The -outside diameter of ring _F_ should be 5 inches. Then scroll and fit -the 15-inch piece, 3, followed by the 13-inch piece, 5, and finish this -leg by arranging the 22-1/2-inch piece, 2, last, so that it will not -extend above the bottom line of the circular board and will leave at -least a 1/4-inch space between the center line and the sides of the -curves. - -All parts should be assembled on the drawing after they are fitted, and -marked with crayon wherever the clips are to be placed to secure them. -The material for the clips, which should be 3/8-inch half-oval Norway -iron, should be cut up in lengths equal to the four outside dimensions -of the combined materials plus 1/8 of an inch for bending, or 1-5/8 -inches in this case. After these pieces are bent on the clip former, -fasten the scrolls together with the clip holder and the clincher. - -After the four legs or parts have been assembled, lay each separately -on the drawing, to make sure that the places, where they are to be -connected with the rings and the circular board, are properly located. -If they are correct, mark these places with a center punch, and drill -9/64-inch holes where the rings are to be connected and 3/16-inch holes -where the top is to be secured. - -The two 14-1/2-inch pieces are for the rings. Drill a 9/64-inch hole -3/8 of an inch from each end in both pieces, countersink one side of -one end of each piece, and grind a beveled edge on this end, but on -the opposite side from the countersink. Form them into rings having -the countersink inside. Connect the ends of each ring with a 1/8 × -3/8-inch round-head rivet, inserting it from the outside of the ring -and riveting the ends together, filling the countersink. Place the -rings separately on the mandrel and make them perfectly round on the -inside by forming a slight offset on the outside end where it begins to -lap over the beveled inside end. - -Draw a 5-inch circle on a piece of board and divide it into quarters. -Place the rings on this outline with the outside end about 1/4 inch -from one of the quarter lines. Mark where each quarter line crosses the -ring, center-punch these places, drill 9/64-inch holes, and countersink -them on the inside. Then assemble the legs by riveting the upper ring -to the standard with 1/8 × 1/2-inch rivets, the lower one with 1/8 × -3/8-inch rivets, their heads toward the exterior so that riveting will -be done on the inside of the rings filling the countersink. Place the -circular top board in position and secure it with 1-inch #10 round-head -wood screws. This will complete the construction, with the exception of -a coat of black japanning, if a glossy finish is desired, or a coat of -dead black lacquer if a rich dull black is desired. - -[Illustration: FIG. 140.—UMBRELLA STAND.] - - -=150. Umbrella Stand.=—Fig. 140. Extreme height, 27-1/2 inches; extreme -width, 18-1/2 inches; upper rings, 9-1/4 inches inside diameter; -lower ring, 5-1/4 inches inside diameter. Provide a small deep pan to -rest on top of this ring. - -[Illustration: FIG. 141.—READING LAMP.] - - -=151. Reading Lamp.=—Fig. 141. Extreme height, 23 inches; height of the -stand, 14 inches; base, 8-1/4 inches wide; shade, 14 × 14 inches wide, -6-1/4 inches high, top opening, 4 × 4 inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.—ANDIRONS AND BAR.] - - -=152. Andirons and Bar.=—Fig. 142. Extreme height, 24 inches; extreme -width of base, 18 inches; height from the floor line to the top of the -upper scroll, 11-1/2 inches; length of bar, 40 inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.—FIRE SET.] - - -=153. Fire Set.=—Fig. 143. Extreme height, 30 inches; height to the -holders, 24 inches; height to the top of the upper scroll, 11-1/2 -inches; extreme width of the base, 14 inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.—FIRE SET SEPARATED.] - - -=154. Fire Set Separated.=—Fig. 144. Extreme length of implements, 22 -inches. - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - Explain three methods of obtaining the length of a scroll. Should - scrolls be bent hot or cold? Why are the ends of the clip former - made to different thicknesses? Why is the clip former made thinner - at the loop? How is that tool placed in the vise? Why is the clip - holder made with shoulders on its outer sides? Give the rule for - cutting off clip stock. After the scroll material has been cut to - length, what should be done? When ready to draw and bend the curl for - a scroll what should be observed? Why shouldn’t it be cooled after - drawing and curling? What is done with the ends of a scroll if they - are to be fastened with clips? Explain how the rings are made for the - jardinière stand. Describe the process of making the umbrella stand - in Fig. 140. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING - - -=155. Iron Ore.=—An ore is a portion of the earth’s substance -containing metal for which it is mined and worked; the class to -which it belongs depends upon the amount and variety of the metal it -contains. Any ore that is to be used for the extraction of a certain -metal must contain the metal in sufficient amounts to make the -operation profitable. - -Iron, ordinarily, does not occur in a native state or in a condition -suitable for use in the arts and manufactures. The iron in meteors, -frequently called native iron, is the nearest possible approach to -it. Meteorites, commonly known as falling stones or shooting stars, -are solid masses that have fallen from high regions of the atmosphere -and are only occasionally found in different parts of the world. They -are considered more valuable as a curiosity than as material for -manufacturing purposes. The metallurgist, chemist, or geologist can -readily distinguish them from other masses, because they invariably -contain considerable nickel, which seldom appears in any of the -ordinary iron ores. They are usually found in a mass containing -crystals and are nearly always covered with a thin coating of oxide, -which protects the metal from further oxidation. Several large meteors -have been found, one in Germany weighing 3300 pounds and a larger -one in Greenland weighing 49,000 pounds. The largest one known was -discovered by Lieutenant Peary in the Arctic regions. It weighs 75,000 -pounds. He brought it to New York City, where it can now be seen at the -American Museum of Natural History. - -Pure iron is obtainable only as a chemical, and as such it is used in -the preparation of medicines. As a commercial product, such as is used -in the arts and manufactures and by the smith, it is always combined -with other substances, such as carbon, silicon, and phosphorus. - -Iron is distributed through the earth very widely, but not always in -sufficient quantities to make its extraction from the ore profitable; -consequently the ores used for the extraction of iron are somewhat -limited. There are four general grades of iron ore, which are known by -the following names: magnetite, red hematite, limonite, and ferrous -carbonate. These are subdivided and classified according to the -particular composition of each. - - -=156. Magnetite= when pure contains about 72 per cent of iron, and so -is the richest ore used in the manufactures. It is black, brittle, and -generally magnetic, and leaves a black streak when drawn across a piece -of unglazed porcelain. It sometimes occurs in crystals or in a granular -condition like sand, but generally in a massive form. It is found -principally in a belt running along the eastern coast of the United -States, from Lake Champlain to South Carolina. There are considerable -quantities of it in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania, but the -greatest deposits are found in Missouri and northern Michigan; some is -mined also in eastern Canada. It is a valuable ore in Sweden. - -A mineral known as franklinite, which is closely allied to magnetite, -is a mixture of magnetite and oxides of manganese and zinc. In -appearance it resembles magnetite, but is less magnetic. In New Jersey, -where it is found quite abundantly, it is treated for the extraction of -the zinc, and the residue thus obtained is used for the manufacture of -spiegeleisen, which is an iron containing a large amount of manganese, -usually from 8 to 25 per cent. - - -=157. Red hematite= is found in earthy and compact forms. It varies in -color from a deep red to a steel gray, but all varieties leave a red -streak on unglazed porcelain. It is found also in a number of shapes -or varieties, such as crystalline, columnar, fibrous, and masses of -irregular form. Special names have been given to these. The brilliant -crystalline variety is known as specular ore, the scaly foliated -kind as micaceous ore, and the earthy one as red ocher. Each one of -this class contains about 70 per cent of iron, and on account of the -abundance, the comparative freedom from injurious ingredients, and the -quality of iron it produces, it is considered the most important of all -the ores in the United States. - -Until the discovery of large deposits of this ore in the Lake Superior -district it was chiefly obtained from a belt extending along the -eastern coast of the United States just west of the magnetite deposits -and ending in Alabama. Some of this ore is found in New York, but -there is not a great amount of it north of Danville, Pennsylvania. -At present the greatest quantities that are used come from the Lake -Superior district. There, ore of almost any desired composition may be -obtained, and the enormous quantities, the purity, the small cost of -mining, and the excellent shipping facilities have made it the greatest -ore-producing section of the United States. - - -=158. Limonite or brown hematite= contains about 60 per cent of iron -and is found in both compact and earthy varieties. Pipe or stalactitic -and bog ore belong to this grade. The color varies from brownish -black to yellowish brown, but they all leave a yellowish brown streak -on unglazed porcelain. It is found in a belt lying between the red -hematite and magnetite ores in the eastern United States. Formerly -there was considerable of this mined in central Pennsylvania, Alabama, -and the Lake Superior district. - - -=159. Ferrous carbonate= contains about 50 per cent of iron. It also -is found in several varieties, called spathic ore, clay ironstone, and -blackband. Spathic ore when quite pure has a pearly luster and varies -in color from yellow to brown. The crystallized variety is known as -siderite; this ore frequently contains considerable manganese and in -some places is used for the production of spiegeleisen. When siderite -is exposed to the action of the air and water, brown hematite is formed. - -Clay ironstone is a variety that is found in rounded masses or -irregular shapes and sometimes in layers or lumps, usually in the -coal measures. It varies in color from light yellow to brown, but the -light-colored ore rapidly becomes brown when exposed to the atmosphere. -Like the former it also contains considerable manganese. - -Blackband is also a clay ironstone, but it is so dark in color that -it frequently resembles coal; hence the name. The ore is not very -abundant in this country nor extensively used; it is generally found -with bituminous coal or in the coal measures, therefore it is mined to -some extent in western Pennsylvania and Ohio. It is an important ore in -England. - - -=160. The Value of Ores.=—Ores are valued according to the amount -of iron they contain, the physical properties, the cost of mining, -the cost of transportation to the furnace, and their behavior during -reduction. The ores of the Mesaba range in the Lake Superior district -are very rich, and free from many impurities; they are soft and easily -reduced, and as they are found near the surface, they can be mined -with steam shovels. These are great advantages, but the greatest -disadvantage is the fact that the ore is fine and some of it blows out -of the furnace with the escaping gases; this also fouls the heating -stoves and clogs the boiler flues. - - -=161. Preparation of Ores.=—Most of the ores are used just as they come -from the mines, but in some cases they are put through a preliminary -treatment. This is sometimes done as an advantage and at other times as -a necessity. This treatment is very simple and consists of weathering, -washing, crushing, and roasting. - - -=162. Weathering= is a common process. Sometimes ores that have been -obtained from the coal measures and others that may contain pyrites -or similar substances are left exposed to the oxidizing influence of -the weather. This separates the shale and the pyrites. The former can -easily be removed, and the latter is partly oxidized and washed away by -the water or rain falling upon it. The ore piles shown in Fig. 149 are -exposed to the atmosphere and partly weathered before being used. - - -=163. Washing= is also done for the purpose of removing substances -that would retard the smelting process. For instance, the limonite -ores, which are generally mixed with considerable clay or earthy -compositions, are put through an ore washer to remove those substances -before they are charged into the smelting furnace. - - -=164. Crushing= is done with machinery to reduce to a uniform size such -refractory ores as are mined in rather large lumps. If the ore were -charged into the furnace as mined, the coarseness would allow the gases -to pass through the ore too readily without sufficient action upon it. -Smaller pieces will pack more closely together, thus offering greater -resistance to the blast, and hastening the reduction. - - -=165. Roasting or calcination= is done to desulphurize ore which -contains an excess of sulphur. It is done also to expel water, carbon -dioxide, or other volatile matter which it may contain. Ore, made more -porous by roasting, exposes a larger surface to the reducing gases. In -the case of magnetic ores, roasting converts the ferrous oxide into -ferric oxide, which lessens the possibility of the iron becoming mixed -with the slag, thereby preventing considerable loss of metal. - -Ore is frequently calcined in open heaps, but in more modern practice -stalls or kilns are employed. Where fuel is cheap and space is -abundant, the first process may be used. A layer of coal a few inches -thick is laid on the ground, and a layer of ore is spread upon it; then -coal and ore are laid in alternate layers until the pile is from 4 to 9 -feet high. The coal at the bottom is then ignited, and the combustion -extended through the entire mass. If at any time during the operation -the combustion proceeds too rapidly, the pile is dampened with fine -ore and the burning allowed to proceed until all the coal is consumed. -Blackband ore frequently contains enough carbonaceous matter to -accomplish roasting without the addition of any fuel except the first -layer for starting the operation. - -When the ore is calcined in stalls, it is placed in a rectangular -inclosure with walls on three sides; these are from 6 to 12 feet high -and are perforated to allow a thorough circulation of air. This method -is very much like that of roasting in open heaps, but less fuel is -necessary, for the draft is under better control and a more perfect -calcination is accomplished. - -When the same operation is performed in kilns, it is more economical -in regard to fuel and labor than either of the two methods explained -above. The process is under better control, and a more uniform product -is obtained. The kilns are built in a circular form of iron plates, -somewhat like a smelting furnace and lined with about 14 inches of fire -brick. The most common size of the kilns is about 14 feet in diameter -at the bottom, 20 feet at the widest part, and 18 feet at the top; the -entire height is about 30 feet. They are capable of receiving about -6000 cubic feet of ore. - - -=166. Fuels.=—A variety of fuels may be used in the blast furnace -reduction process, but the furnace should be modified to suit the -particular quality of fuel. In this country the fuels most used are -coke, charcoal, and anthracite coal. Coke is the most satisfactory and -is more generally used than either of the others. Charcoal is used to -a certain extent on account of its freedom from impurities and because -it is generally considered that iron produced with charcoal is better -for some purposes than that made by using other fuels. Anthracite coal -is used principally in eastern Pennsylvania because the coal mines are -near at hand, and it is therefore the cheapest fuel available. In some -instances a mixture of anthracite and coke is used. - - -=167. Fluxes.=—The materials that are charged into the furnace with -the ore, to assist in removing injurious elements that it may contain, -are called fluxes. They collect the impurities and form a slag which -floats on top of the molten iron and which is tapped off before the -metal is allowed to run out. The fluxes also assist in protecting the -lining of the furnace by thus absorbing the impurities which would -otherwise attack the lining and destroy it. - -Limestone is almost universally employed as a flux, although dolomite -is used also to some extent. The value of limestone as a flux depends -upon its freedom from impurities, such as silicon and sulphur. - -Sulphur and phosphorus are two elements which must be kept out of -the product. When there is too much sulphur, the iron is exceedingly -brittle at a dull red heat, although it can be worked at a higher -or lower temperature. It is called red-short iron and makes welding -difficult. With steel, sulphur diminishes the tensile strength and -ductility. If there is too much phosphorus combined with iron, the -metal will crack when hammered cold. Iron of this kind is called -cold-short iron. This metal can be worked, however, at a higher -temperature than can the red-short iron just described. - - -=168. The Blast.=—The air blown into the furnace to increase and hasten -combustion is called the blast. Formerly when a cold blast was used, -considerable extra fuel was required to heat the air after it entered -the furnace, but a hot blast is used now almost exclusively. The air -is heated by passing through large stoves built for that purpose. The -stoves are heated by burning the waste gases which are generated in the -furnace and which are conducted from the top of the furnace through a -pipe leading into the stoves. Four of these stoves are shown in Fig. -149 at the left of the picture. - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.—RUNNING METAL FROM THE BLAST FURNACE TO LADLES -FOR TRANSPORTING TO EITHER THE OPEN HEARTH FURNACE OR THE PIG MOLDER.] - - -=169. The Reduction or Blast Furnace.=—Fig. 145. The reduction or blast -furnace is almost universally used for the reduction of iron ore. It -is a large barrel-shaped structure, the exterior of which is formed of -iron plates about 1/2 inch thick, bent and riveted together like the -outer shell of a boiler. This is lined with brickwork or masonry, the -inner portion being made of fire brick to protect the furnace from the -intense heat. Figure 146 shows a sectional view of a furnace of this -kind. - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF A BLAST FURNACE.] - -The stack _D_ is supported on a cast-iron ring, which rests on iron -pillars. The hearth _K_ and the boshes _E_ are beneath the stack and -are built independent of it, usually after the stack has been erected. -This is done so that the hearth can be repaired or relined whenever it -becomes injured. The hearth is also perforated for the introduction of -the tuyères _t_, through which the blast enters the furnace from the -blast main _B_. The opening to the downcomer or pipe leading to the -stoves is shown at _A_. - -Figure 147 shows the mechanical arrangement at the top of the furnace, -called the bell and hopper, for receiving and admitting the ore flux -and fuel. By lowering the bell _C_ the material is allowed to drop into -the furnace. - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE BELL AND HOPPER.] - -The fuel, ore, and flux are charged into the furnace at the top in -alternate layers, as previously explained; the iron settles down -through the boshes, is melted, and drops to the bottom or hearth. The -slag is drawn off at the cinder notch _c_, Fig. 146, after which the -iron is tapped off at the iron notch _g_. Hollow plates _p_ for water -circulation are inserted in the boshes to protect the lining from -burning out too rapidly. - -The melted iron runs from the tapping notch into a large groove made -in sand. This groove is called the “sow.” It is connected with smaller -grooves called the “pigs.” Into these the metal runs and forms pig -iron. Considerable sand adheres to pigs thus formed, and as the sand -is objectionable for foundry, Bessemer, and open-hearth purposes, and -as an enormous amount of hand labor is required in breaking up and -removing it, pig molding machines are used. Figure 148 shows one of -these machines with a ladle pouring the metal into it. - -The only objection to this method is that the metal is chilled rather -suddenly by the water through which the molds are led. This sudden -chilling causes a structure different from that found in the same -quality of metal molded in the sand and allowed to cool off gradually, -and most foundrymen as well as other users of iron judge the quality -by the appearance of a fracture. On this account machine-molded pigs -are objectionable. It is claimed, however, that some machines in use at -present have overcome this difficulty. - -The approximate dimensions of a modern coke-burning furnace are as -follows (see Fig. 146): The hearth _K_ is about 13 feet in diameter -and about 9 feet high. The diameter of the portion above the hearth -increases for about 15 feet to approximately 21 feet in diameter at the -boshes _E_. From the top of the boshes the diameter gradually decreases -until it is about 14 feet in diameter at the stock line. The throat, or -top, where the fuel and ore are charged in through the bell and hopper, -is about 70 feet above the hearth. On the brackets which are connected -to the pillars, the blast main rests, completely surrounding the -furnace, and at numerous places terminal pipes convey the blast to the -tuyères. After the furnace has been charged, or “blown in,” as it is -commonly called, it is kept going continually night and day, or until -it becomes necessary to shut down for repairs. - -A general view of a smelting plant is shown in Fig. 149. The four -circular structures to the left with a tall stack between them are -the stoves for heating the blast. Next to these in the center of the -picture is the blast furnace, somewhat obstructed by the conveyor -which carries the ore and fuel to the top for charging. The structural -work to the right is the unloader, which takes the ore from the vessels -and conveys it to the stock pile in the foreground, where the ore is -allowed to drop. - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.—PIG MOLDING MACHINE.] - - -=170. Classification of Pig Iron.=—The pig iron produced by the blast -furnace is graded as to quality, and is known by the following names: -Bessemer, basic, mill, malleable, charcoal, and foundry iron. This -classification indicates the purpose for which each kind is best suited. - - -=171. Bessemer iron= is that used for making Bessemer steel. In this -grade the amounts of sulphur and phosphorus should be as low as -possible. Bessemer iron is generally understood to contain less than -0.1 per cent of phosphorus and less than .05 per cent of sulphur. - - -=172. Basic iron= is that which is generally used in the basic process -of steel manufacture. It should contain as little silicon as possible, -because the silicon will attack the basic lining of the furnace; -therefore the surface of the pig iron used for this purpose should, if -possible, be free from sand. By the basic process of making steel, most -of the phosphorus in the pig iron is removed, consequently basic iron -may contain considerably more phosphorus than if it were to be used in -the Bessemer process. - - -=173. Mill iron= is that which is used mostly in the puddling mill for -the manufacture of wrought iron. It should contain a low percentage of -silicon. Therefore pig iron that has been made when the furnace was -working badly for foundry iron is sometimes used for this purpose. - - -=174. Malleable iron= is that used for making malleable castings. It -usually contains more phosphorus than Bessemer iron and less than -foundry iron. The percentage of silicon and graphitic carbon is also -very low in this class. - - -=175. Charcoal iron= is simply that which has been made in a furnace -where charcoal has been used as the fuel. It is generally used as a -foundry iron for special purposes. - - -=176. Foundry iron= is used for making castings by being melted and -then poured into molds. For this purpose an iron that will readily fill -the mold without much shrinkage in cooling is desired. Other properties -of foundry iron will depend upon the character of the castings desired. - - -=177. Grading Iron.=—Iron is graded and classified according to its -different properties and qualities by two methods; namely, chemical -analysis and examination of fracture. - -Grading by analysis, although not universally used at present, is no -doubt the more perfect method, because the foreign substances contained -in the metal can be accurately determined. Grading by fracture is more -generally used, although it cannot be considered absolutely perfect, -but when done by one who has had years of experience and has trained -his eye to discover the different granular constructions and luster of -the fractured parts, it is very nearly correct; unless the properties -are to be known to an absolute certainty, grading by fracture is -sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.—GENERAL VIEW OF A SMELTING PLANT, SHOWING -BLAST FURNACE STOVES AND THE ORE PILE.] - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - What is ore? Name four grades of iron ore. What is native iron? What - is the difference between it and other iron ores? What class of ore - contains the largest percentage of iron? Red hematite contains less, - so why is it considered more valuable than the magnetite? What amount - of iron do the limonite and ferrous carbonate ores contain? What - determines the value of an ore? How is ore prepared for reduction? - What are the results of these preparations? What are fluxes used for? - What flux is most generally used? What effect does sulphur produce - in wrought-iron? What is the effect of phosphorus in wrought-iron? - How is air heated before it enters the blast furnace? What is the - difference between sand-molded and machine-molded pig iron? What is - the objection to machine-molded pig iron? Name the different classes - of pig iron and state the use of each. How is iron graded? - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL - - -=178. Refining Pig Iron.=—Two distinct methods have been adopted for -the conversion of pig iron into wrought iron, each depending upon -the kind of furnace used. They are called the open-hearth or finery -process, and the puddling process. The chemical reactions are similar -in both processes, being based on the oxidation of the impurities in -the metal. This is accomplished both by means of the oxygen in the -air supplied and by the oxide of iron in the fluxes that are added to -assist the operation. - - -=179. The Open-hearth or Finery Process.=—This is carried on in what is -sometimes termed a “bloomery” from the product which is called a bloom. -The pig iron is placed in direct contact with the fuel on the hearth -which is formed of cast-iron plates exposed to a current of air to keep -them cool. This mixture of the iron with the fuel is objectionable, -because while the fuel acts as a reducer the excess air decarbonizes -the product only partly, besides prolonging the process considerably; -by the addition of hammer scale and rich slag, the operation is -hastened greatly. However, if some carbon is supposed to be contained -in the product, making it of a steely nature, then the open-hearth -process is considered a good method of refining. - -Fusion is allowed to take place gradually, so as to expose the metal -for a long period to the oxygen of the blast. At the moment of fusion -the foreign elements are rapidly oxidized and form a fusible slag. -After the slag becomes neutral and has been partly removed, fresh basic -slag and hammer scale are added, to hasten the operation. Then the mass -of iron, which is now of a white spongy texture, is lifted up in the -furnace to a level with the tuyère, in order that the combined carbon -may be completely oxidized. It is then formed into balls of about 60 -to 80 pounds each, after which it is removed and formed into a bloom -by means of a squeezer or hammer. This furnace is not illustrated, -because most of the wrought iron is produced by the puddling process. -An open-hearth furnace, such as is used in producing steel, is somewhat -similar to the one here described and is shown in Fig. 163. - - -=180. The Puddling Process.=—The greatest amount of wrought iron is -produced from pig iron by this process, owing to the superior quality -of the product. The term “puddling” was originally applied to the -process of working iron that had never been completely melted, but -had only reached a puddled or pasty state. But later, when refined or -pig iron was similarly treated, it was discovered that it would melt -perfectly and boil up freely. The process was then termed “pig boiling.” - -The furnace used in this process is of the reverberatory type; the fuel -does not come in contact with the iron. (See Fig. 150.) It is built in -a rectangular form; the fireplace _A_ is located at one end, next to it -is the hearth _C_ where the metal is placed, and beyond are the flue -_B_ and the chimney _D_. - -From the fireplace the heat is supplied and directed upon the metal by -the top or roof, which is curved downward from the fireplace toward the -flue and chimney. The fireplace also is separated from the hearth by a -partial partition wall _E_, called the fire bridge, which prevents the -fuel from coming in contact with the metal. Another similar partition -_F_, located between the hearth and the flue, prevents the metal from -going into the latter and is called the flue bridge. - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.—PUDDLING FURNACE OF A REVERBERATORY TYPE.] - -Both of these and all interior portions that come in contact with the -heat and metal are constructed of fire brick. The bridges are built -over hollow iron castings, through the openings of which there is a -circulation of water provided to keep them cool. The bottom of the -hearth is formed of iron plates rabbeted together; this and the sides -are sometimes provided also with hollow castings for water circulation. - -The hearth is lined with blue billy and the sides with bulldog. The -former is a fusible silicate, chiefly ferric oxide, and is produced -from tap cinder; it does not readily unite with silica when heated. -Bulldog is made from burnt pyrites, a quality of ore used for the -manufacture of sulphuric acid; the resulting oxide is sometimes called -blue billy, but more frequently bulldog, to distinguish it from the -former class of oxides. Both of these linings are known as fettlings. - -The flue slopes down toward the stack; the draft is regulated with a -damper, located in the top and connected by a chain, which hangs within -reach of the operators. Various forms of furnaces are used, such as -stationary and rolling furnaces; but whatever the style of furnace, the -process is based on the decarbonization of the metal, and the charge -of pig iron does not come in direct contact with the fuel, as in the -open-hearth process. An advantage gained in using the puddling furnace -is that various kinds of fuel can be employed without injury to the -product of iron, also various labor-saving devices, which have recently -been invented, can be better used. - -In the pig-boiling process the furnace is first lined with the -fettlings and charged with about 500 pounds of white foundry or forge -pig iron. The refining process is divided into four distinct stages -known as melting down, mixing, boiling, and balling. - -A very high temperature is desired during the first stage, which -usually lasts about thirty-five minutes. During this time the melting -down occurs, and a partial removal of the silicon from the pig iron is -effected. - -In the second or mixing stage, which lasts about seven minutes, a -comparatively low temperature is maintained by lowering the damper -in the stack, while the charge is being thoroughly mixed with the -oxidizing fluxes or cinders that are added. The puddler draws down the -metal from around the sides into the center, where it will become more -rapidly refined and mixed. - -During the third or boiling stage the damper is raised to increase -the temperature. At this time a violent reaction occurs, caused by -the release of carbonic oxide, which is formed when the oxygen unites -with the carbon in the pig iron. The gas escapes through the slag on -the surface of the metal, thus causing it to appear as though it were -boiling, from which action the process derives its name. During this -stage, which lasts from twenty to twenty-five minutes, a large portion -of the manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus contained in the pig iron is -removed. - -The oxidation is assisted by the constant stirring or rabbling of the -metal by the puddler, done for the purpose of bringing it under the -oxidizing influence of the air. The boiling gradually ceases, and the -surface of the charge “drops,” as it is called, and the whole mass lies -in a pasty state on the bed of the furnace, where it is worked by the -puddler as thoroughly as possible so as to allow the flames to pass -uniformly over it. - -The fourth or balling stage requires from fifteen to twenty minutes. -This consists of breaking up the contents into balls weighing from 60 -to 80 pounds each. After they have been formed, they are rolled near -the fire bridge to receive a final welding heat before they are removed -to the squeezer, or hammer, where the slag is expelled and the bloom -formed. - -The blooms from either the open-hearth or puddling process are treated -similarly in what is termed the forge; this includes hammering, -rolling, and shingling. - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.—ROLLING TOOL STEEL.] - -Squeezers or hammers are used for forming the bloom and expelling the -inclosed slag. The bloom is then put through the largest groove of the -roughing rolls and passed back through the next smaller, and so on -until it is rolled down to the desired size. Figure 151 shows 14-inch -rolls in use which, although somewhat similar to those employed for -rolling iron, are larger and generally made with more rolls. - -The product of this first rolling is not usually considered of superior -quality, so, in order to refine it more thoroughly, the bars are cut -up into short lengths, piled into bundles, reheated, and again welded. -This process is called shingling and is done two or three times, -depending upon the desired quality of iron. This shingling produces the -laminæ of the iron referred to in section 60. For ordinary bar iron the -piles are made about 2 feet long by 4 inches square, and for larger -sizes they may be made 5 or 6 feet long by 10 or 12 inches square. - -The rolls are of various kinds. All shapes and sizes of bar iron used -in blacksmithing may be produced in this manner. Rolling machines are -known as two, three, and four high, meaning that they are provided with -that number of rolls, one above the other. Universal rolling machines -have two pairs of rolls in one machine; one pair runs on horizontal -axes and the other on vertical axes. Each pair can be opened or closed -independently, thus giving the machine a wide range. - - -=181. Steel.=—The word “steel” means very little to those who are -uninformed as to its different qualities and the causes of the -distinctions between them. People are generally familiar with the -various purposes for which steel is used, but know very little about -its nature. There are, however, great differences in the qualities, and -definite reasons for them. - -Formerly any combination of iron and carbon that would harden by sudden -cooling or quenching was considered steel. But since modern methods of -manufacturing have been adopted, tons of metal, which would have been -classed as iron if judged by the cooling test, are at present known as -mild or soft steel. - -Steel may properly be defined as an alloy of iron with carbon, the -latter not exceeding 1.8 per cent; the materials are completely fused -and poured into molds, allowed to cool, and then rolled into shape. -In the processes of making wrought iron the materials are only partly -fused and are not cast into molds, but are taken out of the furnace in -a soft, pasty condition suitable for immediate working. - -The older process of producing “blister” or “cementation” steel is -not generally employed now. By this method the bars of iron were put -through a soaking or prolonged heating, while they were packed in -charcoal. It was similar to the casehardening process, explained in -section 90. - -We have at present three notable processes of making steel; namely, the -crucible, Bessemer, and open-hearth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.—A CRUCIBLE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FOUR-HOLE CRUCIBLE -FURNACE.] - - -=182. The Crucible Process.=—Crucible furnaces are flat structures -containing from two to twenty holes, each one capable of receiving four -or six crucibles. The crucibles are earthen vessels made of fire clay, -mixed with refractory materials for withstanding intense heat. Each one -is capable of receiving from 70 to 80 pounds of metal. (See Fig. 152.) -In this furnace the gas and air supply may be applied independently to -each hole, practically making each one a separate furnace, but all of -the holes are connected with one main stack or chimney. A sectional -view of a four-hole furnace is shown in Fig. 153, where the crucibles -are shown in position. - -This process is the most simple. It consists of melting the stock in -the crucibles and pouring it, when completely fused, into molds, as -shown in Fig. 154, forming what is known as ingots or steel castings. -For that reason it is very frequently called cast steel. The stock is -carefully selected and weighed so as to produce the required grade. -After the ingots are cooled, the piped or hollow ends caused by -shrinkage are broken off and graded by the appearance of the granular -structure and luster of the fractured parts. They are then marked and -piled away for future use. On the ingots shown in Fig. 155, the piped -ends can be seen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.—POURING STEEL INTO INGOT MOLDS.] - -The ingots are heated in an ordinary heating furnace, and rolled or -hammered into suitable bars, the sizes being fixed both by the amount -of carbon contained in the ingots and by the dimensions required for -the manufacture of special tools. Figure 151 shows the workmen in the -act of rolling tool steel; in Fig. 156 they are seen drawing octagon -tool steel with the tilting hammer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.—STEEL INGOTS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.—DRAWING OCTAGON TOOL STEEL WITH THE TILTING -HAMMER.] - -Special alloys of crucible steel such as Mushet, blue chip, high speed, -or other special brands are made by the same process, the secret of -the difference lying entirely in the selection of the stock. - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.—CROSS SECTION OF A CONVERTER THROUGH THE -TRUNNIONS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.—ANOTHER CROSS SECTION OF THE SAME.] - - -=183. The Bessemer Process.=—This consists of blowing air through -molten pig iron in a vessel called a converter, sectional views of -which are shown in Figs. 157 and 158. A converter is a pear-shaped -structure hung on trunnions _A_, _A_, so that it can be tipped forward. -The air is forced through one of the trunnions, which is hollow, and -is connected with a pipe which conveys the air to the air chamber _f_ -at the bottom of the converter. The bottom grate or tuyère plate is -located directly above the air chamber, and through the openings _j_, -_j_, in the tuyère plate, the air passes up through the metal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.—POURING METAL INTO MOLDS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.—INGOT STRIPPER.] - -The converter is tipped forward into a horizontal position while -the molten metal is poured into it. The air is then turned on, and -the converter is raised to a perpendicular position. The air passes -up through the entire charge of iron; consequently the metal is -thoroughly acted upon, while in the open-hearth process it is not. -The Bessemer process is based on oxidation; it produces a very high -temperature and keeps the charge in a liquid state during the time -of blowing. This is continued until the sulphur and phosphorus are -removed or the charge becomes decarbonized,—a condition termed burned -steel, owing to the presence of dissolved oxygen. This condition is -then changed or recarbonized by adding manganese alloys, such as -spiegeleisen or ferromanganese, which give the necessary amount of -carbon. By these additions the iron is changed into steel. - -The Bessemer process requires a very short time in comparison with -the puddling process. Three tons of pig iron can be refined in about -twenty minutes, while by the puddling process the same amount of metal -requires about twenty-four hours. - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.—LOWERING AN INGOT INTO THE SOAKING PIT.] - -Considerable excitement was caused at the time the process was -invented, not only on account of the time saved, but also because there -was such a great saving in fuel. - -After the metal has been poured from the converter into molds similar -to those shown in Fig. 159, and has cooled sufficiently to become -solid, the molds are stripped off, as shown in Fig. 160, and the -ingots of metal placed in the soaking pits, Fig. 161. These pits are -somewhat similar to a crucible furnace and are used for reheating -ingots before they are slabbed or rolled. Such a furnace is generally -made of the regenerative type and is divided into several compartments, -each one capable of receiving several ingots which are inserted on end. - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.—A BLOOMING MILL.] - -From the pit furnace the ingots are taken and rolled into slabs, rails, -blooms, or other forms suitable for use. When the plant is equipped -with both blast furnace and converter, this is all done without -additional heating, but when the plant is not so equipped, the pig iron -is melted in a cupola furnace before being put into the converter. A -blooming mill is shown in operation in Fig. 162. - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.—OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE, FROM THE CHARGING SIDE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE.] - - -=184. The Open-hearth Process.=—Fig. 163. Here again the process -depends on the type of furnace. Open-hearth steel is produced with a -reverberatory furnace, and the heat is supplied by regenerative gas -and air. The furnace is built mostly of brickwork with the exception -of the supporting beams, doors, tie rods, and hearth castings, which -are made of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel. All brickwork that comes -in contact with the intense heat is made of silica brick, manufactured -from rock crystals, flint, or other varieties of quartz rock with about -two per cent of quicklime. The roof of the furnace slopes toward the -center, so that when the air and gas enter they are directed downward -on the charge of metal. The bottom or hearth is constructed of heavy -steel plates riveted together and supported on I beams. This bottom is -first covered with a layer of brick, then sand is applied to about -the thickness of one inch and well rammed down, then other layers of -brick and sand are added until the thickness is about 14 to 16 inches. -This bottom requires repairing with more sand between successive heats. -Figure 164 shows a cross section through the center of the charging and -discharging openings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.—ANOTHER SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN OPEN-HEARTH -FURNACE.] - -When the furnace has been charged, the gas and air are allowed to enter -at intervals of fifteen minutes, first from one side, then from the -other. When the air and gas enter one side, the exhaust or waste gases -pass out through the other side. The reversing is done by means of -levers which open and close the valves. A sectional view is given in -Fig. 165, showing the air and gas chambers and the brick checker work -through which the air and gas pass and are heated. The broken lines -represent the passages leading to these chambers; the valves are also -shown. - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.—OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE DISCHARGING.] - -When the metal has been fused sufficiently, a sample is dipped out -and analyzed, so that its composition may be known and sufficient -carbonizing material added to produce the desired quality. This is not -possible with the Bessemer process. It is finally tapped into a large -ladle, from which it is poured into molds forming the ingots, which -are treated in the same way as described in the Bessemer process. The -discharging is shown in Fig. 166. - - -QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW - - What methods are used for converting pig iron into wrought iron? - Describe in full the two methods. What other name is sometimes given - to the puddling process? Why is it so named? Explain the process - of puddling. How is the first product of the puddling process - treated? What is the object of this treatment? What is steel? Name - the different qualities, giving the approximate carbon contents of - each. What is the old test for iron and steel? How was “blister” - steel produced? By what process is cast or tool steel made? What sort - of vessel is used in melting the materials? State the differences - between making tool and soft steel. What is an ingot? What is the - difference between an ingot of tool steel and an ingot of soft steel? - What is meant by the piped end of a tool steel ingot? How are these - ingots classified? How is octagon tool steel made? What processes - are used in making soft steel? Describe each. Which is the most - satisfactory? Which is the most rapid? Why is the product of the - open-hearth process the best? What is the purpose of “soaking” the - ingots? - - - - -FORMULAS AND TABLES - -(From the “Pocket Companion,” published by the Carnegie Steel Co.) - - -1. WEIGHTS - -The average weight of wrought iron is 480 pounds per cubic foot. A bar -1 inch square and 3 feet long weighs, therefore, exactly 10 pounds. The -weight of steel is 2 per cent greater than the weight of wrought iron, -or 489.6 pounds. Cast iron weighs 450 pounds to the cubic foot. - - -2. LENGTHS - - Circumference of circle = diameter × 3.1416. - Diameter of circle = circumference × 0.3183. - Side of square of equal periphery as circle = diameter × 0.7854. - Diameter of circle of equal periphery as square = side × 1.2732. - Side of an inscribed square = diameter of circle × 0.7071. - Length of arc = number of degrees × diameter × 0.008727. - - -3. AREAS - - Triangle = base × half altitude. - Parallelogram = base × altitude. - Trapezoid = half the sum of the parallel sides × altitude. - Trapezium, found by dividing into two triangles. - Circle = square of diameter × 0.7854; or, - = square of circumference × 0.07958. - Sector of circle = length of arc × half radius. - - -4. STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF NUTS AND BOLTS - - Short diameter of rough nut = 1-1/2 × diameter of bolt + 1/8 inch. - Short diameter of finished nut = 1-1/2 × diameter of bolt + 1/16 inch. - Thickness of rough nut = diameter of bolt. - Thickness of finished nut = diameter of bolt − 1/16 inch. - Short diameter of rough head = 1-1/2 × diameter of bolt + 1/8 inch. - Short diameter of finished head = 1-1/2 × diameter of bolt - + 1/16 inch. - Thickness of rough head = 1/2 short diameter of head. - Thickness of finished head = diameter of bolt − 1/16 inch. - - -5. DECIMALS OF AN INCH FOR EACH 1/64TH - - ========+==========+==========+========== - 1/32ds. | 1/64ths. | Decimal | Fraction - --------+----------+----------+---------- - | 1 | .015625 | - 1 | 2 | .03125 | - | 3 | .046875 | - 2 | 4 | .0625 | 1/16 - | | | - | 5 | .078125 | - 3 | 6 | .09375 | - | 7 | .109375 | - 4 | 8 | .125 | 1/8 - | | | - | 9 | .140625 | - 5 | 10 | .15625 | - | 11 | .171875 | - 6 | 12 | .1875 | 3/16 - | | | - | 13 | .203125 | - 7 | 14 | .21875 | - | 15 | .234375 | - 8 | 16 | .25 | 1/4 - | | | - | 17 | .265625 | - 9 | 18 | .28125 | - | 19 | .296875 | - 10 | 20 | .3125 | 5/16 - | | | - | 21 | .328125 | - 11 | 22 | .34375 | - | 23 | .359375 | - 12 | 24 | .375 | 3/8 - | | | - | 25 | .390625 | - 13 | 26 | .40625 | - | 27 | .421875 | - 14 | 28 | .4375 | 7/16 - | | | - | 29 | .453125 | - 15 | 30 | .46875 | - | 31 | .484375 | - 16 | 32 | .5 | 1/2 - | | | - | 33 | .515625 | - 17 | 34 | .53125 | - | 35 | .546875 | - 18 | 36 | .5625 | 9/16 - | | | - | 37 | .578125 | - 19 | 38 | .59375 | - | 39 | .609375 | - 20 | 40 | .625 | 5/8 - | | | - | 41 | .640625 | - 21 | 42 | .65625 | - | 43 | .671875 | - 22 | 44 | .6875 | 11/16 - | | | - | 45 | .703125 | - 23 | 46 | .71875 | - | 47 | .734375 | - 24 | 48 | .75 | 3/4 - | | | - | 49 | .765625 | - 25 | 50 | .78125 | - | 51 | .796875 | - 26 | 52 | .8125 | 13/16 - | | | - | 53 | .828125 | - 27 | 54 | .84375 | - | 55 | .859375 | - 28 | 56 | .875 | 7/8 - | | | - | 57 | .890625 | - 29 | 58 | .90625 | - | 59 | .921875 | - 30 | 60 | .9375 | 15/16 - | | | - | 61 | .953125 | - 31 | 62 | .96875 | - | 63 | .984375 | - 32 | 64 | 1. | 1 - ========+==========+==========+========== - - -6. WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL PER LINEAR FOOT - -One cubic foot weighing 489.6 pounds - - =======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======+=======+====== - Thick- | | 1- | 1- | 1- | | 2- | 2- | 2- - ness in| 1″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″ | 2″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″ - inches | | | | | | | | - --------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------ - 3/16 | .638 | .797 | .957 | 1.11 | 1.28 | 1.44 | 1.59 | 1.75 - 1/4 | .850 | 1.06 | 1.28 | 1.49 | 1.70 | 1.91 | 2.12 | 2.34 - | | | | | | | | - 5/16 | 1.06 | 1.33 | 1.59 | 1.86 | 2.12 | 2.39 | 2.65 | 2.92 - 3/8 | 1.28 | 1.59 | 1.92 | 2.23 | 2.55 | 2.87 | 3.19 | 3.51 - 7/16 | 1.49 | 1.86 | 2.23 | 2.60 | 2.98 | 3.35 | 3.72 | 4.09 - 1/2 | 1.70 | 2.12 | 2.55 | 2.98 | 3.40 | 3.83 | 4.25 | 4.67 - | | | | | | | | - 9/16 | 1.92 | 2.39 | 2.87 | 3.35 | 3.83 | 4.30 | 4.78 | 5.26 - 5/8 | 2.12 | 2.65 | 3.19 | 3.72 | 4.25 | 4.78 | 5.31 | 5.84 - 11/16 | 2.34 | 2.92 | 3.51 | 4.09 | 4.67 | 5.26 | 5.84 | 6.43 - 3/4 | 2.55 | 3.19 | 3.83 | 4.47 | 5.10 | 5.75 | 6.38 | 7.02 - | | | | | | | | - 13/16 | 2.76 | 3.45 | 4.14 | 4.84 | 5.53 | 6.21 | 6.90 | 7.60 - 7/8 | 2.98 | 3.72 | 4.47 | 5.20 | 5.95 | 6.69 | 7.44 | 8.18 - 15/16 | 3.19 | 3.99 | 4.78 | 5.58 | 6.38 | 7.18 | 7.97 | 8.77 - 1 | 3.40 | 4.25 | 5.10 | 5.95 | 6.80 | 7.65 | 8.50 | 9.35 - | | | | | | | | - 1-1/16 | 3.61 | 4.52 | 5.42 | 6.32 | 7.22 | 8.13 | 9.03 | 9.93 - 1-1/8 | 3.83 | 4.78 | 5.74 | 6.70 | 7.65 | 8.61 | 9.57 | 10.52 - 1-3/16 | 4.04 | 5.05 | 6.06 | 7.07 | 8.08 | 9.09 | 10.10 | 11.11 - 1-1/4 | 4.25 | 5.31 | 6.38 | 7.44 | 8.50 | 9.57 | 10.63 | 11.69 - | | | | | | | | - 1-5/16 | 4.46 | 5.58 | 6.69 | 7.81 | 8.93 | 10.04 | 11.16 | 12.27 - 1-3/8 | 4.67 | 5.84 | 7.02 | 8.18 | 9.35 | 10.52 | 11.69 | 12.85 - 1-7/16 | 4.89 | 6.11 | 7.34 | 8.56 | 9.78 | 11.00 | 12.22 | 13.44 - 1-1/2 | 5.10 | 6.38 | 7.65 | 8.93 | 10.20 | 11.48 | 12.75 | 14.03 - | | | | | | | | - 1-9/16 | 5.32 | 6.64 | 7.97 | 9.30 | 10.63 | 11.95 | 13.28 | 14.61 - 1-5/8 | 5.52 | 6.90 | 8.29 | 9.67 | 11.05 | 12.43 | 13.81 | 15.19 - 1-11/16 | 5.74 | 7.17 | 8.61 | 10.04 | 11.47 | 12.91 | 14.34 | 15.78 - 1-3/4 | 5.95 | 7.44 | 8.93 | 10.42 | 11.90 | 13.40 | 14.88 | 16.37 - | | | | | | | | - 1-13/16 | 6.16 | 7.70 | 9.24 | 10.79 | 12.33 | 13.86 | 15.40 | 16.95 - 1-7/8 | 6.38 | 7.97 | 9.57 | 11.15 | 12.75 | 14.34 | 15.94 | 17.53 - 1-15/16 | 6.59 | 8.24 | 9.88 | 11.53 | 13.18 | 14.83 | 16.47 | 18.12 - 2 | 6.80 | 8.50 |10.20 | 11.90 | 13.60 | 15.30 | 17.00 | 18.70 - ========+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======+=======+====== - Thick- | | 3- | 3- | 3- | | 4- | 4- | 4- - ness in| 3″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″ | 4″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″ - inches | | | | | | | | - -------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------ - 3/16 | 1.91 | 2.07 | 2.23 | 2.39 | 2.55 | 2.71 | 2.87 | 3.03 - 1/4 | 2.55 | 2.76 | 2.98 | 3.19 | 3.40 | 3.61 | 3.83 | 4.04 - | | | | | | | | - 5/16 | 3.19 | 3.45 | 3.72 | 3.99 | 4.25 | 4.52 | 4.78 | 5.05 - 3/8 | 3.83 | 4.15 | 4.47 | 4.78 | 5.10 | 5.42 | 5.74 | 6.06 - 7/16 | 4.46 | 4.83 | 5.20 | 5.58 | 5.95 | 6.32 | 6.70 | 7.07 - 1/2 | 5.10 | 5.53 | 5.95 | 6.38 | 6.80 | 7.22 | 7.65 | 8.08 - | | | | | | | | - 9/16 | 5.74 | 6.22 | 6.70 | 7.17 | 7.65 | 8.13 | 8.61 | 9.09 - 5/8 | 6.38 | 6.91 | 7.44 | 7.97 | 8.50 | 9.03 | 9.57 | 10.10 - 11/16 | 7.02 | 7.60 | 8.18 | 8.76 | 9.35 | 9.93 | 10.52 | 11.11 - 3/4 | 7.65 | 8.29 | 8.93 | 9.57 | 10.20 | 10.84 | 11.48 | 12.12 - | | | | | | | | - 13/16 | 8.29 | 8.98 | 9.67 | 10.36 | 11.05 | 11.74 | 12.43 | 13.12 - 7/8 | 8.93 | 9.67 |10.41 | 11.16 | 11.90 | 12.65 | 13.39 | 14.13 - 15/16 | 9.57 |10.36 |11.16 | 11.95 | 12.75 | 13.55 | 14.34 | 15.14 - 1 |10.20 |11.05 |11.90 | 12.75 | 13.60 | 14.45 | 15.30 | 16.15 - | | | | | | | | - 1-1/16 |10.84 |11.74 |12.65 | 13.55 | 14.45 | 15.35 | 16.26 | 17.16 - 1-1/8 |11.48 |12.43 |13.39 | 14.34 | 15.30 | 16.26 | 17.22 | 18.17 - 1-3/16 |12.12 |13.12 |14.13 | 15.14 | 16.15 | 17.16 | 18.17 | 19.18 - 1-1/4 |12.75 |13.81 |14.87 | 15.94 | 17.00 | 18.06 | 19.13 | 20.19 - | | | | | | | | - 1-5/16 |13.39 |14.50 |15.62 | 16.74 | 17.85 | 18.96 | 20.08 | 21.20 - 1-3/8 |14.03 |15.20 |16.36 | 17.53 | 18.70 | 19.87 | 21.04 | 22.21 - 1-7/16 |14.66 |15.88 |17.10 | 18.33 | 19.55 | 20.77 | 21.99 | 23.22 - 1-1/2 |15.30 |16.58 |17.85 | 19.13 | 20.40 | 21.68 | 22.95 | 24.23 - | | | | | | | | - 1-9/16 |15.94 |17.27 |18.60 | 19.92 | 21.25 | 22.58 | 23.91 | 25.24 - 1-5/8 |16.58 |17.96 |19.34 | 20.72 | 22.10 | 23.48 | 24.87 | 26.25 - 1-11/16|17.22 |18.65 |20.08 | 21.51 | 22.95 | 24.38 | 25.82 | 27.26 - 1-3/4 |17.85 |19.34 |20.83 | 22.32 | 23.80 | 25.29 | 26.78 | 28.27 - | | | | | | | | - 1-13/16|18.49 |20.03 |21.57 | 23.11 | 24.65 | 26.19 | 27.73 | 29.27 - 1-7/8 |19.13 |20.72 |22.31 | 23.91 | 25.50 | 27.10 | 28.69 | 30.28 - 1-15/16|19.77 |21.41 |23.06 | 24.70 | 26.35 | 28.00 | 29.64 | 31.29 - 2 |20.40 |22.10 |23.80 | 25.50 | 27.20 | 28.90 | 30.60 | 32.30 - =======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======+=======+====== - Thick- | | 5- | 5- | 5- | | - ness in| 5″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″ | 6″ | 12″ - inches | | | | | | - -------+------+------+------+-------+-------+------ - 3/16 | 3.19 | 3.35 | 3.51 | 3.67 | 3.83 | 7.65 - 1/4 | 4.25 | 4.46 | 4.67 | 4.89 | 5.10 | 10.20 - | | | | | | - 5/16 | 5.31 | 5.58 | 5.84 | 6.11 | 6.38 | 12.75 - 3/8 | 6.38 | 6.69 | 7.02 | 7.34 | 7.65 | 15.30 - 7/16 | 7.44 | 7.81 | 8.18 | 8.56 | 8.93 | 17.85 - 1/2 | 8.50 | 8.93 | 9.35 | 9.77 | 10.20 | 20.40 - | | | | | | - 9/16 | 9.57 |10.04 |10.52 | 11.00 | 11.48 | 22.95 - 5/8 |10.63 |11.16 |11.69 | 12.22 | 12.75 | 25.50 - 11/16 |11.69 |12.27 |12.85 | 13.44 | 14.03 | 28.05 - 3/4 |12.75 |13.39 |14.03 | 14.67 | 15.30 | 30.60 - | | | | | | - 13/16 |13.81 |14.50 |15.19 | 15.88 | 16.58 | 33.15 - 7/8 |14.87 |15.62 |16.36 | 17.10 | 17.85 | 35.70 - 15/16 |15.94 |16.74 |17.53 | 18.33 | 19.13 | 38.25 - 1 |17.00 |17.85 |18.70 | 19.55 | 20.40 | 40.80 - | | | | | | - 1-1/16 |18.06 |18.96 |19.87 | 20.77 | 21.68 | 43.35 - 1-1/8 |19.13 |20.08 |21.04 | 21.99 | 22.95 | 45.90 - 1-3/16 |20.19 |21.20 |22.21 | 23.22 | 24.23 | 48.45 - 1-1/4 |21.25 |22.32 |23.38 | 24.44 | 25.50 | 51.00 - | | | | | | - 1-5/16 |22.32 |23.43 |24.54 | 25.66 | 26.78 | 53.55 - 1-3/8 |23.38 |24.54 |25.71 | 26.88 | 28.05 | 56.10 - 1-7/16 |24.44 |25.66 |26.88 | 28.10 | 29.33 | 58.65 - 1-1/2 |25.50 |26.78 |28.05 | 29.33 | 30.60 | 61.20 - | | | | | | - 1-9/16 |26.57 |27.89 |29.22 | 30.55 | 31.88 | 63.75 - 1-5/8 |27.63 |29.01 |30.39 | 31.77 | 33.15 | 66.30 - 1-11/16|28.69 |30.12 |31.55 | 32.99 | 34.43 | 68.85 - 1-3/4 |29.75 |31.24 |32.73 | 34.22 | 35.70 | 71.40 - | | | | | | - 1-13/16|30.81 |32.35 |33.89 | 35.43 | 36.98 | 73.95 - 1-7/8 |31.87 |33.47 |35.06 | 36.65 | 38.25 | 76.50 - 1-15/16|32.94 |34.59 |36.23 | 37.88 | 39.53 | 79.05 - 2 |34.00 |35.70 |37.40 | 39.10 | 40.80 | 81.60 - =======+======+======+======+=======+=======+====== - - -7. WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF -ROUND BARS - - =========+=========+=========+==========+==========+=========== - Thickness|Weight of|Weight of| Area of | Area of |Circumfer- - or |[square] | [round] | [square] | [round] |ence of - Diameter| Bar one | Bar one | Bar in | Bar in |[round] Bar - in inches|foot long|foot long|sq. inches|sq. inches|in inches - ---------+---------+---------+----------+----------+----------- - 1/16 | .013 | .010 | .0039 | .0031 | .1963 - 1/8 | .053 | .042 | .0156 | .0123 | .3927 - 3/16 | .119 | .094 | .0352 | .0276 | .5890 - | | | | | - 1/4 | .212 | .167 | .0625 | .0491 | .7854 - 5/16 | .333 | .261 | .0977 | .0767 | .9817 - 3/8 | .478 | .375 | .1406 | .1104 | 1.1781 - 7/16 | .651 | .511 | .1914 | .1503 | 1.3744 - | | | | | - 1/2 | .850 | .667 | .2500 | .1963 | 1.5708 - 9/16 | 1.076 | .845 | .3164 | .2485 | 1.7671 - 5/8 | 1.328 | 1.043 | .3906 | .3068 | 1.9635 - 11/16 | 1.608 | 1.262 | .4727 | .3712 | 2.1598 - | | | | | - 3/4 | 1.913 | 1.502 | .5625 | .4418 | 2.3562 - 13/16 | 2.245 | 1.763 | .6602 | .5185 | 2.5525 - 7/8 | 2.603 | 2.044 | .7656 | .6013 | 2.7489 - 15/16 | 2.989 | 2.347 | .8789 | .6903 | 2.9452 - | | | | | - 1 | 3.400 | 2.670 | 1.0000 | .7854 | 3.1416 - 1/16 | 3.838 | 3.014 | 1.1289 | .8866 | 3.3379 - 1/8 | 4.303 | 3.379 | 1.2656 | .9940 | 3.5343 - 3/16 | 4.795 | 3.766 | 1.4102 | 1.1075 | 3.7306 - | | | | | - 1/4 | 5.312 | 4.173 | 1.5625 | 1.2272 | 3.9270 - 5/16 | 5.857 | 4.600 | 1.7227 | 1.3530 | 4.1233 - 3/8 | 6.428 | 5.049 | 1.8906 | 1.4849 | 4.3197 - 7/16 | 7.026 | 5.518 | 2.0664 | 1.6230 | 4.5160 - | | | | | - 1/2 | 7.650 | 6.008 | 2.2500 | 1.7671 | 4.7124 - 9/16 | 8.301 | 6.520 | 2.4414 | 1.9175 | 4.9087 - 5/8 | 8.978 | 7.051 | 2.6406 | 2.0739 | 5.1051 - 11/16 | 9.682 | 7.604 | 2.8477 | 2.2365 | 5.3014 - | | | | | - 3/4 | 10.41 | 8.178 | 3.0625 | 2.4053 | 5.4978 - 13/16 | 11.17 | 8.773 | 3.2852 | 2.5802 | 5.6941 - 7/8 | 11.95 | 9.388 | 3.5156 | 2.7612 | 5.8905 - 15/16 | 12.76 | 10.02 | 3.7539 | 2.9483 | 6.0868 - | | | | | - =2= | 13.60 | 10.68 | 4.0000 | 3.1416 | 6.2832 - 1/16 | 14.46 | 11.36 | 4.2539 | 3.3410 | 6.4795 - 1/8 | 15.35 | 12.06 | 4.5156 | 3.5466 | 6.6759 - 3/16 | 16.27 | 12.78 | 4.7852 | 3.7583 | 6.8722 - | | | | | - 1/4 | 17.22 | 13.52 | 5.0625 | 3.9761 | 7.0686 - 5/16 | 18.19 | 14.28 | 5.3477 | 4.2000 | 7.2649 - 3/8 | 19.18 | 15.07 | 5.6406 | 4.4301 | 7.4613 - 7/16 | 20.20 | 15.86 | 5.9414 | 4.6664 | 7.6576 - | | | | | - 1/2 | 21.25 | 16.69 | 6.2500 | 4.9087 | 7.8540 - 9/16 | 22.33 | 17.53 | 6.5664 | 5.1572 | 8.0503 - 5/8 | 23.43 | 18.40 | 6.8906 | 5.4119 | 8.2467 - 11/16 | 24.56 | 19.29 | 7.2227 | 5.6727 | 8.4430 - | | | | | - 3/4 | 25. | 20.20 | 7.5625 | 5.9396 | 8.6394 - 13/16 | 26.90 | 21.12 | 7.9102 | 6.2126 | 8.8357 - 7/8 | 28.10 | 22.07 | 8.2656 | 6.4918 | 9.0321 - 15/16 | 29.34 | 23.04 | 8.6289 | 6.7771 | 9.2284 - | | | | | - =3= | 30.60 | 24.03 | 9.0000 | 7.0686 | 9.4248 - 1/16 | 31.89 | 25.04 | 9.3789 | 7.3662 | 9.6211 - 1/8 | 33.20 | 26.08 | 9.7656 | 7.6699 | 9.8175 - 3/16 | 34.55 | 27.13 | 10.160 | 7.9798 | 10.014 - | | | | | - 1/4 | 35.92 | 28.20 | 10.563 | 8.2958 | 10.210 - 5/16 | 37.31 | 29.30 | 10.973 | 8.6179 | 10.407 - 3/8 | 38.73 | 30.42 | 11.391 | 8.9462 | 10.603 - 7/16 | 40.18 | 31.56 | 11.816 | 9.2806 | 10.799 - | | | | | - 1/2 | 41.65 | 32.71 | 12.250 | 9.6211 | 10.996 - 9/16 | 43.14 | 33.90 | 12.691 | 9.9678 | 11.192 - 5/8 | 44.68 | 35.09 | 13.141 | 10.321 | 11.388 - 11/16 | 46.24 | 36.31 | 13.598 | 10.680 | 11.585 - | | | | | - 3/4 | 47.82 | 37.56 | 14.063 | 11.045 | 11.781 - 13/16 | 49.42 | 38.81 | 14.535 | 11.416 | 11.977 - 7/8 | 51.05 | 40.10 | 15.016 | 11.793 | 12.174 - 15/16 | 52.71 | 41.40 | 15.504 | 12.177 | 12.370 - | | | | | - =4= | 54.40 | 42.73 | 16.000 | 12.566 | 12.566 - 1/16 | 56.11 | 44.07 | 16.504 | 12.962 | 12.763 - 1/8 | 57.85 | 45.44 | 17.016 | 13.364 | 12.959 - 3/16 | 59.62 | 46.83 | 17.535 | 13.772 | 13.155 - | | | | | - 1/4 | 61.41 | 48.24 | 18.063 | 14.186 | 13.352 - 5/16 | 63.23 | 49.66 | 18.598 | 14.607 | 13.548 - 3/8 | 65.08 | 51.11 | 19.141 | 15.033 | 13.744 - 7/16 | 66.95 | 52.58 | 19.691 | 15.466 | 13.941 - | | | | | - 1/2 | 68.85 | 54.07 | 20.250 | 15.904 | 14.137 - 9/16 | 70.78 | 55.59 | 20.816 | 16.349 | 14.334 - 5/8 | 72.73 | 57.12 | 21.391 | 16.800 | 14.530 - 11/16 | 74.70 | 58.67 | 21.973 | 17.257 | 14.726 - | | | | | - 3/4 | 76.71 | 60.25 | 22.563 | 17.721 | 14.923 - 13/16 | 78.74 | 61.84 | 23.160 | 18.190 | 15.119 - 7/8 | 80.81 | 63.46 | 23.766 | 18.665 | 15.315 - 15/16 | 82.89 | 65.10 | 24.379 | 19.147 | 15.512 - | | | | | - =5= | 85.00 | 66.76 | 25.000 | 19.635 | 15.708 - 1/16 | 87.14 | 68.44 | 25.629 | 20.129 | 15.904 - 1/8 | 89.30 | 70.14 | 26.266 | 20.629 | 16.101 - 3/16 | 91.49 | 71.86 | 26.910 | 21.135 | 16.297 - | | | | | - 1/4 | 93.72 | 73.60 | 27.563 | 21.648 | 16.493 - 5/16 | 95.96 | 75.37 | 28.223 | 22.166 | 16.690 - 3/8 | 98.23 | 77.15 | 28.891 | 22.691 | 16.886 - 7/16 | 100.5 | 78.95 | 29.566 | 23.221 | 17.082 - | | | | | - 1/2 | 102.8 | 80.77 | 30.250 | 23.758 | 17.279 - 9/16 | 105.2 | 82.62 | 30.941 | 24.301 | 17.475 - 5/8 | 107.6 | 84.49 | 31.641 | 24.850 | 17.671 - 11/16 | 110.0 | 86.38 | 32.348 | 25.406 | 17.868 - | | | | | - 3/4 | 112.4 | 88.29 | 33.063 | 25.967 | 18.064 - 13/16 | 114.9 | 90.22 | 33.785 | 26.535 | 18.261 - 7/8 | 117.4 | 92.17 | 34.516 | 27.109 | 18.457 - 15/16 | 119.9 | 94.14 | 35.254 | 27.688 | 18.653 - =========+=========+=========+==========+==========+=========== - - -8. CIRCUMFERENCES AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 100 - - ====+============================= - | Number = Diameter - No. +---------------+------------- - | Circumference | Area - ----+---------------+------------- - 1 | 3.142 | 0.7854 - 2 | 6.283 | 3.1416 - 3 | 9.425 | 7.0686 - 4 | 12.566 | 12.5664 - 5 | 15.708 | 19.6350 - | | - 6 | 18.850 | 28.2743 - 7 | 21.991 | 38.4845 - 8 | 25.133 | 50.2655 - 9 | 28.274 | 63.6173 - 10 | 31.416 | 78.5398 - | | - 11 | 34.558 | 95.0332 - 12 | 37.699 | 113.097 - 13 | 40.841 | 132.732 - 14 | 43.982 | 153.938 - 15 | 47.124 | 176.715 - | | - 16 | 50.265 | 201.062 - 17 | 53.407 | 226.980 - 18 | 56.549 | 254.469 - 19 | 59.690 | 283.529 - 20 | 62.832 | 314.159 - | | - 21 | 65.973 | 346.361 - 22 | 69.115 | 380.133 - 23 | 72.257 | 415.476 - 24 | 75.398 | 452.389 - 25 | 78.540 | 490.874 - | | - 26 | 81.681 | 530.929 - 27 | 84.823 | 572.555 - 28 | 87.965 | 615.752 - 29 | 91.106 | 660.520 - 30 | 94.248 | 706.858 - | | - 31 | 97.389 | 754.768 - 32 | 100.531 | 804.248 - 33 | 103.673 | 855.299 - 34 | 106.814 | 907.920 - 35 | 109.956 | 962.113 - | | - 36 | 113.097 | 1017.88 - 37 | 116.239 | 1075.21 - 38 | 119.381 | 1134.11 - 39 | 122.522 | 1194.59 - 40 | 125.66 | 1256.64 - | | - 41 | 128.81 | 1320.25 - 42 | 131.95 | 1385.44 - 43 | 135.09 | 1452.20 - 44 | 138.23 | 1520.53 - 45 | 141.37 | 1590.43 - | | - 46 | 144.51 | 1661.90 - 47 | 147.65 | 1734.94 - 48 | 150.80 | 1809.56 - 49 | 153.94 | 1885.74 - 50 | 157.08 | 1963.50 - | | - 51 | 160.22 | 2042.82 - 52 | 163.36 | 2123.72 - 53 | 166.50 | 2206.18 - 54 | 169.65 | 2290.22 - 55 | 172.79 | 2375.83 - | | - 56 | 175.93 | 2463.01 - 57 | 179.07 | 2551.76 - 58 | 182.21 | 2642.08 - 59 | 185.35 | 2733.97 - 60 | 188.50 | 2827.43 - 61 | 191.64 | 2922.47 - 62 | 194.78 | 3019.07 - 63 | 197.92 | 3117.25 - 64 | 201.06 | 3216.99 - 65 | 204.20 | 3318.31 - | | - 66 | 207.35 | 3421.19 - 67 | 210.49 | 3525.65 - 68 | 213.63 | 3631.68 - 69 | 216.77 | 3739.28 - 70 | 219.91 | 3848.45 - | | - 71 | 223.05 | 3959.19 - 72 | 226.19 | 4071.50 - 73 | 229.34 | 4185.39 - 74 | 232.48 | 4300.84 - 75 | 235.62 | 4417.86 - | | - 76 | 238.76 | 4536.46 - 77 | 241.90 | 4656.63 - 78 | 245.04 | 4778.36 - 79 | 248.19 | 4901.67 - 80 | 251.33 | 5026.55 - | | - 81 | 254.47 | 5153.00 - 82 | 257.61 | 5281.02 - 83 | 260.75 | 5410.61 - 84 | 263.89 | 5541.77 - 85 | 267.04 | 5674.50 - | | - 86 | 270.18 | 5808.80 - 87 | 273.32 | 5944.68 - 88 | 276.46 | 6082.12 - 89 | 279.60 | 6221.14 - 90 | 282.74 | 6361.73 - | | - 91 | 285.88 | 6503.88 - 92 | 289.03 | 6647.61 - 93 | 292.17 | 6792.91 - 94 | 295.31 | 6939.78 - 95 | 298.45 | 7088.22 - | | - 96 | 301.59 | 7238.23 - 97 | 304.73 | 7389.81 - 98 | 307.88 | 7542.96 - 99 | 311.02 | 7697.69 - 100 | 314.16 | 7853.98 - ====+===============+============== - - - - -INDEX - -[Figures in italics indicate pages upon which illustrations occur.] - - - Andirons and bar, _159_. - - Angle blow, _see_ beveling blow. - - Annealing, 86, 87. - - Anvil, 5, _6_, 7. - - Areas, formulas of, 197. - - Art smithing, 146. - - - Backing-up blow, _35_, _36_. - - “Backing-up” metal, _43_. - - Banding with clips, 147. - - Basic iron, 174. - - Bellows, 1. - - Bench and measuring tools, 22-28. - - Bench vise, _22_, 23. - - Bending, 40, 41; - stock calculation for, 118-121. - - Bending or twisting fork, _149_; - wrench, _150_, 151. - - Bessemer iron, 173; - process, 187-193. - - Bevel, _25_, 26. - - Beveling blow, 32, _33_, 34. - - Bevel or taper tool, _135_. - - Blackband, 164. - - Blast, 168-170. - - Blast furnace, _see_ reduction furnace. - - Blister steel, 184. - - Block, swage, 19, _20_. - - Bloomery, 177. - - Blooming mill, _191_. - - Blue billy, 180. - - Blue chip, 186. - - Bolsters, _136_. - - Bolt, hexagonal head, 66, _67_. - - Boring tools, _103_, 104. - - Box tongs, _see_ tool tongs. - - Brass tool, _101_, 102. - - Brown hematite, _see_ limonite. - - Bulldog, 180. - - Burned steel, 189. - - Butterfly scarf, 115, _116_, 117. - - Button head set, _19_. - - Butt weld, _52_, 53. - - - Calcination, _see_ roasting. - - Calipers, _25_, 26, 118, _119_. - - Cape chisel, _24_. - - Carbon, percentage of, in tool steel, 83-85. - - Casehardening, 92, 93. - - Cast steel, 185. - - Cementation steel, _see_ blister steel. - - Center punch, _24_, 25. - - Chain grabhook, _80_, _81_, 82. - - Chain making, _73_, 74. - - Chain swivel, _76_-80. - - Charcoal, 5, 167. - - Charcoal iron, 174. - - Checking tool or side fuller, _130_, 131. - - Chisel, trimming, _127_, 128. - - Chisels, 23, _24_, _108_, 109. - - Chisel tongs _10_, 11. - - Circular cutter, _127_. - - Circumferences and circular areas of numbers from 1 to 100: 205, 206. - - Classification of pig iron, 173. - - Clay ironstone, 164. - - Cleft weld, _52_, 53. - - Clincher, _see_ clip tightener. - - Clip, 148. - - Clip former, _151_, 152; - holder, _152_, 153; - tightener or clincher, _153_, 154. - - Coal box, 1. - - Coke, 5, 167. - - Cold chisel, 23, _24_, _89_, _108_, 109. - - Cold cutters, _12_, 13, _110_, 111, _128_-130. - - Collars, _see_ bolsters. - - Colored oxides, 88, 89. - - Combination fuller and set, _132_, 133. - - Combined spring fullers, _131_, 132; - top and bottom swages, _133_, 134. - - Connecting lever, _142_, 143; - rod, 138, _139_. - - Converter, _187_, 188. - - Crank shaft, 137, _138_. - - Crowbar, steel-faced, _113_, 114. - - Crucible, _184_. - - Crucible process, 184-187. - - Crucible steel, alloys of, 186. - - Crushing, 166. - - Cutter, _see_ hack. - circular, _127_; - cold, _12_, 13, _128_-130; - hardening, 14; - hot, _12_, 13, 14, _109_, 110. - - Cutting-off or parting tool, _102_, 103. - - Cutting stock, 128, _129_, 130. - - - Decimals of an inch for each 1/64th, 198. - - Designing, 146. - - Diamond point tool, _104_-106. - - Dies, 43, 123, 124. - - Dimensions of nuts and bolts, 197. - - Dipper, _4_. - - Dividers, _25_, 26. - - Dolomite as a flux, 168. - - Door hasp, 64-66. - - Double and single offsets, 143-145. - - Double-faced sledge, _9_. - - Drawing, 37-40. - - Draw spike, _59_. - - Drop hammer, 123, 124. - - - Eccentric jaw, _140_, 141. - - Edge-to-edge blow, _31_, 32. - - Eye or ring bolts, 114, _115_, 116-118. - - - Fagot welding, 69. - - Ferromanganese, 189. - - Ferrous carbonate, 164. - - Fettlings, 180. - - Files, _27_, 28. - - Finery process, _see_ open-hearth process. - - “Finished,” definition of, 137. - - Fire cracks, 85. - - Fire set, _159_, 160; - separated, 160. - - Fire tools, _4_. - - Flat-jawed tongs, _10_. - - Flat right-angled weld, 70, _71_, 72. - - Flatter, 14, _15_, _112_, 113. - - Fluxes, 167, 168. - - Forge, XII, 1-3. - - Forging, definition of, 36-37. - - Forging, operations used in, 36-47. - - Forgings, 123. - - Forging tools, 12-28, 107-118. - - Forming, 43, 44. - - Formulas and tables, 197-206. - - Foundry iron, 174. - - Franklinite, 162. - - Fuels, 4, 5, 48, 49, 167. - - Fullers, combined spring, _131_, 132; - top and bottom, _18_, 19. - - - Gate hook, 62, _63_, 64. - - Grabhook, _80_, _81_, 82. - - Grading iron, 174, 176. - - - Hack or cutter, _126_, 127. - - Hack saw, _27_. - - Hammer blows, 30-36. - - Hammers, 7, 8; - ball peen, _8_; - cross peen, _8_; - drop, 123, 124; - hand, 8; - round and square-edged set, _15_, 16, _111_; - steam, 124, _125_, 126; - straight peen, _8_. - - Handle punches, _16_, 17. - - Hand lever, _141_, 142. - - Hardening tool steel, 87-92; - wrought iron and soft steel, 92, 93. - - Hardy, _12_, 13, 111, _112_. - - Hasp, door, 64-66. - - Heading tool, _19_. - - Heating, 48-50. - - Heating air for blast furnace, 168-170; - tool steel, 85, 86. - - Heavy boring tool, _103_; - flat tongs, 96, _97_, 98. - - Hollow bit tongs, _10_, 11. - - Hot cutter, _12_-14, _109_, 110. - - - Ingots, 185, 186. - - Ingot stripper, _189_. - - Injuries to steel, 85. - - Iron, cold-short, 168; - colors and temperatures for, 94; - distribution of, 162; - native, 161; - red-short, 168; - welding, 47; - wrought, 178. - - Iron ore, 161-162; - ferrous carbonate a form of, 164; - limonite a form of, 163, 164; - magnetite a form of, 162, 163; - nickel in, 161; - red hematite a form of, 163. - - Iron oxide in flux, 177. - - - Jardinière stand or taboret, _154_-157. - - Jarring, _see_ upsetting by jarring. - - Jump weld, _53_, 54. - - - Kiln, 167. - - - Lap weld, _50_-52. - - Lathe tools, 101-107. - - Lengths, formulas of, 197. - - Leverage blow, _34_, 35. - - Light boring tool, 103, 104; - chain tongs, 98-101. - - Limonite, 163, 164. - - Link tongs, _10_, 11. - - - Machine forgings, 137-145. - - Magnetite, 162, 163. - - Malleable iron, 174. - - Manual training forge, _2_, _3_. - - Material for welding, 47, 48. - - Meteorites, 161. - - Mild steel, 183. - - Mill iron, 174. - - Mushet, 186. - - - Nasmyth, James, 124. - - Native iron, 161. - - - Offsets, _143_-145. - - Open eye, 114, _115_. - - Open-hearth furnace, _192_, _193_, _194_, _195_. - - Open-hearth process, 177, 178, 193-196. - - Ore, definition of, 161. - - Ores, preparation of, 165; - value of, 164, 165. - - Overhanging blow, _32_. - - Oxides, colored, 88, 89. - - Oxidizing fire, 49. - - - Parting tool, _see_ cutting-off tool. - - Phosphorus in iron, 168. - - Pick-up tongs, _10_, 11. - - Pig boiling, 178. - - Pig iron, classification of, 173. - - Pig molding machine, 171-_173_. - - Pigs, cast-iron, 171. - - Pipe hook, 60, _61_, 62. - - Plug punch, use of, _136_. - - Preparation of ores, 165. - - Presses, 124. - - Puddling process, 178, _179_-183. - - Punches, _16_, 17, _24_, 25, _136_, 137. - - Pure iron, 162. - - - Questions for review, 28, 29, 57, 82, 95, 121, 122, 145, - 160, 176, 196. - - Ramming, _see_ upsetting by ramming. - - Reading lamp, _158_, 159. - - Red hematite, 163. - - Reducing fire, 49, 50. - - Reduction furnace, _170_-173. - - Refining pig iron, 177. - - Refining process, four stages of, 180, 181. - - Refining steel, 88. - - Reverberatory furnace, description of, _179_, 193, 194. - - Right side tool, _106_, 107. - - Ring bolts, _see_ eye bolts. - - Riveting, 147, 148. - - Roasting ore, 166, 167. - - Rod strap, 139, _140_. - - Rolling machines, 183. - - Rolling tool steel, _182_. - - Round-edged set hammer, _15_, 16, _112_, 113. - - Round weld, 69, _70_. - - Rule, _24_, 25. - - - Saddle, _see_ yoke. - - Scarfing, 50. - - Scriber or scratch awl, _25_, 26. - - Scroll bending, _150_; - fastenings, 147, 148; - former, _148_, _149_. - - Shearing blow, 36, _37_. - - Shingling, 182. - - Ship-smith eye, _117_, 118. - - S hook, 59, _60_. - - Side fuller, _see_ checking tool. - - Side tongs, _10_, 11; - tool, _106_, _107_. - - Slag, 168. - - Sledges, _9_. - - Snap, _see_ button head set. - - Solid forged, eye, _117_, 118; - ring, _143_. - - Spathic ore, 164, 165. - - Spiegeleisen, 163, 164, 189, 190. - - Spring fullers, _131_. - - Spring swages, _see_ combined top and bottom swages. - - Square, _25_, 26. - - Square-cornered angle, 67-_69_. - - Square-edged set hammer, _15_, 16, _111_. - - Standard dimensions of nuts and bolts, 197. - - Staple, _58_. - - Steam hammer, 124, 125. - - Steam hammer tools, 126-137. - - Steam hammer work, exercises in, 137-145. - - Steel, 183-196. - - Steel, kind of, suitable for tools, 83. - - Steel, tool, 83-95; - annealing of, 86, 87; - colors on surface of, 88, 89; - injuries to, 85, 86: - hardening and tempering of, 87-92; - oil-tempered, 90; - percentage of carbon in, 83-85; - proper and improper heating of, 85, 86; - proper and improper treatment of, _91_, 92; - temperature and color charts for, 94; - two methods of hardening and tempering, 89, 90; - water annealing of, 87; - welding of, 48. - - Steel, uses of different grades of, 84, 85. - - Stock calculation for bonding, 118-121. - - Straightening, _44_, _45_. - - Sulphur in iron and steel, 168. - - Surface plate, 20, _21_. - - Swage block, 19, _20_. - - Swages, combined top and bottom, _133_, 134; - top and bottom, _17_, 18, 134. - - Swing sledge, _see_ double-faced sledge. - - Swivels, _76_-80. - - - Tapered mandrels, 21, _22_. - - Taper tool, _see_ bevel tool. - - Tempering, temperature and color chart for, 94. - - Tempering heat as determined by colors, 88-91; - by scientific apparatus, 91, 92. - - Tempering tool steel, 87-92. - - Threading tool, _see_ light boring tool. - - Tilting hammer, _186_. - - Tongs, 9, _10_, 11, 12, 96-101; - chisel, _10_, 11; - flat-jawed, _10_; - heavy flat, 96, _97_, 98; - hollow bit, _10_, 11; - light chain, 98, _99_, _100_, 101; - link, _10_, 11; - pick-up, _10_, 11: - side, _10_, 11; - tool, _10_,11. - - Tool, checking, _130_, 131; - for welding a swivel, _76_; - heading, _19_. - - Tools, bench and measuring, 22-28; - fire, _4_; - forging, 12-28, 107-118; - lathe, 101-107. - - Tool tongs, _10_, 11. - - Top and bottom, fullers, _18_, 19; - swages, _133_, 134. - - Trimming chisel, _127_, 128. - - Tuyère, 3, 187, 188. - - T weld, _72_, 73. - - Twisting, 45, _46_. - - Twisting wrench, _see_ bending wrench. - - - Umbrella stand, 157, _158_, 159. - - Upright blow, _30_, 31. - - Upsetting, 41-43; - by “backing-up,” _43_; - by hammering, _42_, 43; - by jarring, _43_; - by ramming, _43_. - - - Value of ores, 164-165. - - V block, _135_. - - Vise, bench, _22_, 23. - - V weld, _54_-56. - - - Washing ore, 165. - - Water swaging, 18. - - Weathering ore, 165. - - Weights and areas of square and round bars, 202-204. - - Weights, formulas of, 197. - - Weights of flat rolled steel per linear foot, 199-201. - - Welded ring, 74, _75_, 76. - - Welding, 46, 47, 147; - fagot, 69; - heat, 51, 52; - material for, 47, 48. - - Welds, 50-56, 69-73; - butt, _52_, 53; - cleft, _52_, 53; - flat right-angled, 70, _71_, 72; - jump, _53_, 54; - lap, _50_-52; - round, 69, _70_; - T, _72_, 73; - V, _54_-56. - - - Yoke or saddle, 135, _136_. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Forge Work, by William L. 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