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diff --git a/old/53850-0.txt b/old/53850-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e8e5f6e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/53850-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11365 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Design and Tradition, by Amor Fenn + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Design and Tradition + +Author: Amor Fenn + +Release Date: December 31, 2016 [EBook #53850] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DESIGN AND TRADITION *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + + + DESIGN AND TRADITION + +“They are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only Beauty.”--_Oscar + Wilde._ + +[Illustration: Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. Rickards, + F.R.I.B.A. + + This drawing is remarkable as an anticipation of eventual appearance. + Thoroughly impressionistic in treatment, all irrelevant detail is + omitted.] + + + + + UNIVERSAL ART SERIES + EDITED BY FREDERICK MARRIOTT + + DESIGN AND + TRADITION + + A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE + PRINCIPLES AND HISTORIC + DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE + AND THE APPLIED + ARTS + + BY + AMOR FENN + + [Illustration: colophon] + + LONDON + CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD. + 1920 + + + + + [Illustration] + + THE WESTMINSTER PRESS + HARROW ROAD + LONDON + + + + +AUTHOR’S PREFACE + + +It may be urged with some reasonable basis of truth that much of the +modern art work fails to attain the level of that of the past. It must +be conceded, however, that demand and appreciation is more general and +widely diffused. As social conditions have developed, interest in +environment has been stimulated. Improved processes resulting in more +economic production have rendered possible an indulgence by those of +moderate means, attainable only at earlier periods by the wealthier +class. + +As a result of this more general appreciation the professional services +of the artist are necessarily in greater request, thus affording a +sphere of work not only lucrative but temperamentally attractive. + +At the present time the facilities available to the prospective artist +are considerably greater than at any previous period. In every district +and important centre, there are schools specialising in the Arts and +Crafts, giving opportunities for training at fees that are purely +nominal. Most of these deal with the various phases of artistic +expression on logical and sound lines, but the knowledge and experience +essential to a successful artistic career is invariably acquired in +professional work to which the art school training is preparatory. + +To those specialising in design, the study of Historic Style is of +paramount importance. Intelligent investigation will show that in all +the varying phases, the underlying factors are much the same, and +appreciation of these will be found invaluable in personal work. + +Necessarily brief, this book has been prompted by the memory of early +bewilderment and difficulties, when a guiding hand would have saved much +valuable time and mis-directed energy. + +A considerable amount of the available space is devoted to Architectural +features, with the conviction that a knowledge of these will be found +helpful in the formation of methods, logical and constructive. + +Attention is directed to the frontispiece, a typical example of the +extraordinary genius of E. A. Rickards, F.R.I.B.A., the original of +which is in the possession of Philip Connard, A.R.A., to whom +indebtedness for its use is acknowledged. + +The author’s thanks are also due to Miss Dora Bard and Mr. C. E. Bernard +for the reproduction of drawings made by them during their tenure in +successive years of the “Travelling Studentship” of the Society of +British Decorators. + +For the use of the following photographs the author desires to make +acknowledgment to the Authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum, +South Kensington, as holders of the Crown copyright: + +Nos. 257. + 258. + 259. + 265. + 271. + 272. + 273. + 274. + 275. + 281A. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER.....PAGE + +I Introductory.....1 + +Human Limitations, p. 1--Inspiration--Process and Material, p. 2--Early +Training, p. 4--Art and Existence, p. 5--Natural Taste--Commercial +Production, p. 6--“Ornaments,” p. 7--Modern Development--Public Apathy, +p. 8--Elementary Pattern, p. 9--Early Impressionism--Personal +Production, p. 10--Early Social Conditions, p. 11--Influence--Commercial +Intercourse, p. 12--Effect on Design, p. 13--Ethical side of Art, p. +14--Desire for Novelty, p. 15. + +II Historic Review.....16 + +Style, p. 16--Intercommunication--Climate and Material, p. 17--Phases in +Style, p. 18--The Lintel, p. 19--The Arch, p. 20--Egyptian Art, p. +22--Chaldean Art, p. 25--Greek Art, p. 28--Roman Art, p. 35--Vaulting, +p. 36--Greek Influence, p. 37--Roman Development of Ornament, p. +38--Græco-Roman Painted Decoration, p. 39--Byzantine Dome, p. 43--Early +Christian Art, p. 46--Byzantine Metal Work, and Enamel, p. 47--Roman +Influence Abroad--Romanesque Style, p. 49--Church Development, p. +50--Dark Ages, p. 53--Crusades, p. 56--Origin of the Pointed Arch, p. +58--Gothic Style, p. 59--Phases of Gothic--Early Pointed, p. +60--Decorated Gothic, p. 64--Perpendicular Gothic--Glass Windows, p. +67--Civic Influences, p. 70--Effect of Commerce--Classic Tradition in +Italy, p. 71--Foreign Influence in England--The Dwelling House, p. +72--The Reformation, p. 74--The Renaissance, p. 75--Early Florentine +Exponents, p. 76--Rome, p. 78--Venice, p. 80--Venetian Influence, p. +81--Painted Decoration, p. 82--Græco-Roman Influence, p. 83--Early +French Renaissance, p. 85--Native Exploitation, p. 87--English +Renaissance, p. 88--Italians in England, p. 89--Study of Classic +Style--Thomas Thorpe, p. 91--Flemish Influence, p. 92--Jacobean Work, p. +93--Development in Dwellings, p. 98--Evolution of Professional Designer, +p. 101--Inigo Jones, p. 102--Louis XIII, p. 103--Louis XIV, p. +106--“Boule” Work--Mirrors, p. 109--Louis XV, p. 110--Régence--Rococo, +p. 111--Lacquer “Vernis Martin”--Later English Renaissance, p. 113--Sir +Christopher Wren, p. 114--Classic Treatment of the Spire, p. 116--Dutch +and French Influences, p. 118--Queen Anne Period--Early Georgian, p. +120--Furniture Design, Chippendale, p. 121--Mayhew--Robert Adam, p. +123--Hepplewhite, p. 126--Sheraton--Louis XVI, p. 127--Riesener and +Gouthière, p. 133--Empire--Empire in England--Later English +Architecture, p. 135--French Influence on Europe, p. 136. + +III Mouldings.....138 + +Purpose--The Fillet--Sheltering Mouldings--The Cavetto, p. 139--Cyma +Recta--Bracketing Mouldings--The Ovolo, p. 140--Cyma Reversa--Binding +Mouldings, p. 141--The Torus--The Scotia--The Facia, p. 142--Decoration +of Mouldings, p. 143--Orthodox Details--Angle Leaf, p. 145--Dentils, p. +146--Employment of Mouldings, p. 147--Attitude, p. 148--Panel +Mouldings--Woodwork, p. 149--Applied Mouldings, p. 151--Bolection +Moulding, p. 152--Mouldings in Plaster Work--Wood Turning, p. 153--Metal +Turning--Pottery, p. 154--Mechanically produced Metal Mouldings--Wrought +Iron, p. 155--Silver Work, p. 156--Sheet Metal, Spinning, and Repoussé, +p. 157. + +IV Architectural Proportions.....158 + +Introduction, p. 158--System of Proportion, p. 159--The Order, p. +160--Doric Order, p. 161--Ionic Order--Corinthian Order, p. 163--Doric +Entablatures--Mutules, p. 164--Ionic Entablature, p. 169--Corinthian +Entablature, p. 171--The Column, p. 172--The Capital--Doric Capital, p. +173--Ionic Capital--Ionic Volute, p. 175--Corinthian Capital, p. +178--The Base, p. 180--Doric Base, p. 181--Ionic Base, p. +182--Corinthian Base--The Arch, p. 184--Doric Impost, p. 185--Doric +Archivolt--Ionic Impost, p. 186--Ionic Archivolt--Corinthian +Impost--Corinthian Archivolt--The Keystone, p. 187--The Pedestal, p. +188--Doric Pedestal, p. 189--Ionic Pedestal--Corinthian Pedestal, p. +190--The Baluster, p. 191--Spacing of Balusters--Balustrading, p. +193--Use of Columns, p. 194--Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades, p. +195--Orders above Orders, p. 197--The Pilaster, p. 199--Arcades, p. +200--The Subsidiary Order, p. 202--Treatment of Superimposed Orders, p. +204--Rustication, p. 205--The Basement, p. 207--The Attic, p. 208--The +Pediment, p. 209--Doors, p. 211--Windows, p. 213. + +V Division of Surface.....216 + +Wall Treatment, p. 216--Ceilings, p. 218--Jacobean--Carolean and +Georgian, p. 221--Adam Ceilings, p. 222--Vaults and Domes, p. 224--The +Cove, p. 225--The Frieze, p. 226--Borders, p. 227--Geometric +Elements--The Undulate Line, p. 230--Repetition and Alternation, p. +233--Treatment of Angles, p. 234--Pilaster Treatment--Panelled +Pilasters, p. 235--Capitals and Bases--Treatment of Panels, p. +236--Juxtaposition, p. 238--The Growth Line in Composition, p. +241--Grouping and Massing of Detail--Division of Area, p. 242--Human and +Animal Life in Composition, p. 244--Forms in the Round, p. 245 Supports +and Balusters--Standards, p. 246--Proportion, p. 247--Vase Forms and +Treatment, p. 248--Working Drawings, p. 249--The Segment or Stretch out, +p. 250. + +VI Development of Conventional Ornament.....254 + +Outline Drawing, p. 254--Undesirable Realism, p. 255--Craft +Restrictions, p. 256--Materialistic Influence, p. 258--Early Renderings, +p. 261--The Anthemion, p. 262--Greek Sculptured Ornament, p. 263--The +Acanthus Leaf, p. 264--Roman Development--The Scroll, p. +266--Græco-Roman--Byzantine, p. 267--Romanesque--Gothic--Italian +Renaissance, p. 268--The Husk Leaf, p. 269--The Rosette, p. +270--Tendrils, p. 271--Nature Influence--Inconsistent employment of +Symbolic Elements, p. 272--Consistency in Growth--Branching, p. +273--Treatment and Employment of Leaves, p. 275--The start in Ornament, +p. 276--Italian Renaissance Influence--Jacobean, p. 280--French +Renaissance--Henry II, p. 281--Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Régence--Louis +XV, p. 283--Rococo--Louis XVI, p. 284--Grinling Gibbons School of +Carving--Adam Style, p. 285--Empire--System of the Acanthus Leaf, p. +286. + +VII Treatment in Design.....288 + +Natural Attraction, p. 288--Decorative Materials, p. 289--Justification +of Treatment, p. 290--Undesirable Imitation, p. 291--Technical +Considerations--Methods of Expression, p. 292--Treatment of Leaves, p. +293--Surface Interest--Painted Decoration, p. 294--Stencilled Work, p. +295--Mechanical Production--Printed and Woven +Fabrics--Needlework--Appliqué, p. 296--Lace-Wood Inlay--Intarsia, p. +297--Veneer--Marquetry--“Boule” Work, p. 298--Mosaic, p. 299--Byzantine +use of Marble--Book Decoration, p. 300--Bindings--Relief Work--Economic +Result of Method--Desirable Treatment in Carving, p. 301--Backgrounds, +p. 303--Reproduction Processes--Metal Repoussé, p. 304--Cast Metal, p. +306--Character of Cast Work, p. 307. + +VII Mythology and Symbolism.....310 + +Early Symbolic Ornament, p. 310--Customs, p. 311--Origin of +Mythology--Nature Myths, p. 312--Light and Darkness--Melanesian Legend, +p. 313--Darkness as a Devouring Monster--Season Myths, p. 314--Sun +Myths--Belief in Natural Phenomena, p. 315--Greek and Roman Deities, p. +316--Scandinavian Mythology, p. 317--Rising and Setting Symbolised, p. +318--Winds Personified--Predestination, p. 319--The Fates--Propitiation +and Sacrifice, p. 320--Early Burial Customs--Taboo--Roman Lares, p. +322--Mediæval Legend--Early Spiritual Belief, p. 323--Prehistoric +Treatment of Epileptics--Prohibition, p. 324--Belief in Magical +Qualities, p. 325--The Shirt of Nessus--Swords, p. 326--Invulnerability, +p. 327--Belief in Numbers--The Muses, p. 328--Sacred Trees and Flowers, +p. 329--Sacred Animals--Evangelist Symbols, p. 331--The Serpent--The +Dragon, p. 332--Poetic License in Tradition, p. 333--Animals in +Christian Art, p. 334--Association of Human and Animal +Qualities--Totemism--Cannibalism, p. 336--The Sphinx--Assyrian Winged +Monsters, p. 337--Pegasus--The Harpy--Sirens, p. 338--Pan--The +Nymphs--The Centaur, p. 339--Symbolism of the Circle, p. 340--Symbols of +the Trinity--The Wand, a Symbol of Authority--The Hand, p. 341--The +Caduceus--The Thyrsus, p. 342--The Trident--The Cross, p. 343--The +Pastoral Staff, p. 344--Symbols of Martyrdom--Symbolism of Gems and +Colours, p. 345--Masks--Symbols of Time, p. 346--Secular +Symbols--Trophies, p. 347--Heraldry--Interest and Meaning in Modern Art, +p. 348. + +IX Ways and Means.....350 + +Perception, p. 350--Accepted Conventions, p. 351--Influence of +Fashion--Harmonious Consistency, p. 352--Natural Suggestion--Colour +Scheme, p. 353--Early Training--Nature Study, p. 355--Aspect and +Attitude, p. 356--Treatment of Studies, p. 358--Drawings for +Reproduction, p. 359--Opaque Colour--Method of Enlarging or Reducing +Drawings, p. 360--Textile Designs, p. 361--Wall Papers, p. +362--Architectural Drawings--Structural Design, p. 363--Lucid +Arrangement of Details, p. 364--Mathematical Equipment, p. 365--Use of +the Ruling Pen--Proportional Compasses, p. 367--Tracings--Conclusion, p. +368. + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + +Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. RICKARDS, +F.R.I.B.A. _Frontispiece_ + +ARCHITECTURE, HISTORIC No. Page + +Egyptian Temple, Section and Plan of 10 23 + +Temple, Entrance Façade 11 24 + +Capital from Philæ 12 24 + +Persian Capitals from Persepolis 16 27 + +Greek Doric Temple, The Parthenon 21 30 + +Ionic, The Erectheum 22 31 + +Corinthian, The Choragic Monument 23 32 + +Vase paintings of Doric and Ionic Orders 19 29 + +House about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British Museum 20 29 + +Roman, The Pantheon, Rome 26 36 + +The Coliseum, Rome 27 37 + +The Arch of Titus, Rome 28 38 + +Byzantine St. Vitali Ravenna, Section and Plan 35 44 + +Capitals 36 (Plate) + +Interior, Ravenna 39 (Plate) + +Romanesque Capitals 42 50 + +Tower 43 50 + +Plan, Cathedral at Worms 44 51 + +Bay of Cathedral at Worms 45 52 + +Window, St. Alban’s Abbey 46 52 + +Church Interior with Triforium 47 52 + +Doorway, Kilpeck Church 49 54 + +Gothic Buttresses 53 58 + +Early Pointed Pier 54 60 + +Early Pointed Bay of Church 55 61 + +Early Lancet Windows 56 62 + +Early Pointed Windows, Plate Tracery 57 62 + +Early Pointed Arch Mouldings 58 62 + +Early Pointed Capital 59 63 + +Early Pointed Tracery Windows 60 63 + +Early Pointed Spire 61 64 + +Decorated, Tracery Windows 62 64 + +Decorated, Carving 63 65 + +Decorated, Arch Mouldings 64 65 + +Decorated, Capital 65 66 + +Decorated, Capital 66 66 + +Decorated, Spire 67 66 + +Perpendicular, Bay of Church showing Development + of Clerestory 68 67 + +Perpendicular, Windows 69 68 + +Perpendicular, Fan Vaulting 70 69 + +Perpendicular, Tower 71 69 + +Domestic Tudor, Window 75 74 + +Renaissance, Italian, Strozzi Palace 76 76 + +Italian, Pandolfini Palace 77 77 + +Italian, St. Peter’s, Rome 78 79 + +Italian, Farnese Palace 79 80 + +Italian, Vendramini Palace 80 81 + +Italian, Library of St. Mark 81 82 + +English, Banqueting House, Whitehall 05 1031 + +French, Louis XIII. Luxembourg 06 1041 + +French, Louis XIII. Barocco Detail, Ste. Marie, Nevers 07 1051 + +French, Louis XIV. Louvre 09 1061 + +French, Louis XV. Pantheon 12 1101 + +English, St. Paul’s Cathedral 18 1151 + +English, Spire, St. Mary le Strand 19 1161 + +Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia 5 19 + +Tomb of Beni Hassan 17 28 + +Tomb at Kyanea-Jaghu 18 28 + +ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES + +Arch, The Principle of the 6 20 + +Balusters, Details of 170 192 + +Cornice, Treatment where Order is not employed 180 209 + +Doors, General Proportion of 182 211 + +Treatment of 183 212 + +Frieze, Roman 198 226 + +Frieze, Roman 199 227 + +Gothic Vault, Section of 7 20 + +Vaulting 9 21 + +Cross Vaulting 48 53 + +Lintel, The 4 19 + +Lintel, The, Joggled Joints 8 21 + +Orders, General Proportions of the 154 162 + +Order, The Doric 153 160 + +The Doric Entablature, Vignola 155 165 + +The Doric Entablature, Mutular 156 166 + +Order, The Doric Capital 159 173 + +The Doric Base 165 181 + +The Doric Pedestal 169 189 + +The Doric Archivolt 168 186 + +The Doric Impost 168 186 + +The Doric Arcading 174 201 + +The Doric Arcading with Pedestal 175 202 + +The Doric Column and Pilaster 173 200 + +The Ionic Entablature 157 168 + +The Ionic Capital 160 174 + +The Ionic Capital (Angular Volutes) 161 176 + +The Ionic, Detail of Angular Volute 162 177 + +The Ionic Base 166 182 + +The Ionic Pedestal 169 189 + +The Ionic Archivolt 168 186 + +The Ionic Impost 168 186 + +The Corinthian Entablature 158 170 + +The Corinthian Capital 163 179 + +The Corinthian Capital 164 180 + +The Corinthian Base 167 183 + +The Corinthian Pedestal 169 189 + +The Corinthian Archivolt 168 186 + +The Corinthian Impost 168 186 + +The Superimposed 172 198 + +The Subsidiary 176 203 + +The Subsidiary, Detail of Entablature 180 209 + +Pediment, The 181 210 + +Pilaster The, Capital 209 236 + +The, French Renaissance 208 236 + +Rustication, Types of 178 206 + +In Arcades 179 207 + +Spacing of Columns 171 196 + +Windows 184 214 + +Three-Light 185 215 + +DECORATIVE FEATURES + +Acanthus Leaf, Brush Work 235 264 + +Development 251 281 + +Development 252 282 + +Construction of 253 287 + +Anthemion, Greek, Relief Treatment 232 262 + +Greek, Vase Painting 231 261 + +Border, The Geometric, Key or Labyrinth 200 228 + +Border, The Geometric, Interlacing 201 229 + +The Scroll 204 232 + +The Evolute Scroll 207 234 + +The Vertebrate 244 274 + +Branching, Types of 243 274 + +Inlay, Wood, Geometric 260 297 + +Wood Borders 261 297 + +Wood Panel 262 297 + +Wood Panel 263 298 + +Wood, Italian Intarsia 264 298 + +Metal “Boule” Work 266 299 + +Metal “Boule” Work 267 299 + +Inlaid Floor, Italian Renaissance 188 219 + +Lace 259 (Plate) + +Marquetry 265 (Plate) + +Mosaic Work, Spandril, Byzantine 40 (Plate) + +Borders 268 (Plate) + +Border, Roman 269 (Plate) + +Border, Roman 270 (Plate) + +Panel, Roman 271 (Plate) + +Needlework 257 (Plate) + +Appliqué 258 (Plate) + +Relief Ornament, Prehistoric 2 (Plate) + +Greek Stone Carving 218 (Plate) + +Roman Stone Carving 237 (Plate) + +Roman Stone Carving 29 39 + +Byzantine Stone Carving 37 46 + +Byzantine Stone Carving 38 47 + +Byzantine Stone Carving 216 244 + +Romanesque Stone Carving 217 244 + +Gothic Stone Carving 238 268 + +Gothic Stone Carving 239 269 + +Gothic Stone Carving 219 (Plate) + +Renaissance, Italian 248 278 + +Renaissance, Italian 249 279 + +Renaissance, French 88 86 + +Renaissance, French 250 280 + +Renaissance, French 90 88 + +Jacobean Gouge Work 276 302 + +Jacobean Wood Carving 277 303 + +Jacobean Wood Carving 95 94 + +Louis XIV. Wood Carving 275 (Plate) + +English Wood Carving 274 (Plate) + +Relief Ornament, French Wood Carving 113 111 + +French Wood Carving 279 306 + +French Wood Carving 212 239 + +French Wood Carving 211 238 + +French, Part of Ceiling 210 237 + +French Wood Carving 133 134 + +Icelandic Wood Carving 280 306 + +English 18th Century 273 (Plate) + +English, Modern 213 240 + +Analysis of Composing Lines 214 241 + +Rosettes, Types of 241 270 + +Scroll, The, Greek Stone Carving 233 262 + +The Evolute, Archaic 229 259 + +The Evolute, Savage Art 230 260 + +Scroll, The, Wrought Iron 234 263 + +Brush Work 236 265 + +As a Growth Line 202 230 + +Italian Renaissance 240 270 + +Start, The, Nest or Cup Leaf 246 277 + +Half Figure 247 277 + +Tendril, Roman 242 272 + +Terminals, Branch and Scroll 245 275 + +Textiles, 14th Century Woven Fabric 3 13 + +14th Century Woven Fabric 51 56 + +Sicilian Tapestry 52 57 + +14th Century Tapestry 205 232 + +Turkish Brocade 203 231 + +French Brocade 206 233 + +Details of Inhabited Pattern 256 295 + +Tooled Book Binding 272 (Plate) + +FURNITURE + +Egyptian 13 25 + +Egyptian 14 26 + +Assyrian Seat 15 27 + +Greek 24 33 + +Roman Couch 30 39 + +Roman Sella or Seat 31 39 + +Romanesque Chair 50 55 + +Gothic Chair 72 70 + +Gothic Bedstead 73 71 + +Italian Renaissance 86 84 + +Italian Renaissance 87 85 + +Italian Renaissance 92 89 + +French Renaissance 91 88 + +English 17th Century 99 98 + +English 17th Century 100 99 + +English 17th Century 101 100 + +English 17th Century 102 100 + +English 17th Century. Baluster 221 246 + +French Louis XIII 108 105 + +French Louis XIV 111 108 + +French Louis XV 265 (Plate) + +English late 17th Century 116 113 + +English late 17th Century 117 114 + +Dutch and Queen Anne Chairs 121 119 + +English 18th Century 122 122 + +French Louis XVI 132 133 + +INTERIOR FEATURES + +Ceilings, Italian Renaissance 187 218 + +Italian, General Plan 189 220 + +Italian Renaissance, Painted, 83 (Plate) + +Italian Renaissance, Painted, 85 (Plate) + +Tudor 190 221 + +Jacobean 191 222 + +Jacobean 192 223 + +Carolean 193 224 + +Robert Adam 194 225 + +Chimney Pieces, Gothic 13th Century 74 71 + +Italian Renaissance 93 90 + +French Renaissance 89 87 + +Jacobean 96 95 + +Domes and Vaults, Italian Renaissance: + +St. Peter’s, Rome 197 (Plate) + +Villa Madama 196 (Plate) + +Ducal Palace, Venice 195 (Plate) + +Doors, Jacobean 97 96 + +Jacobean 98 97 + +French Renaissance 278 305 + +French Renaissance, Louis XV 114 112 + +English Renaissance 120 117 + +French Renaissance, Louis XVI 130 132 + +Frieze, The Jacobean, Carved Wood 94 93 + +French, Louis XVI 131 133 + +Interior Decoration, Græco-Roman 32 40 + +Interior Decoration, Wall Division 186 217 + +Italian Renaissance 84 (Plate) + +French Renaissance, Louis XIV 110 107 + +English “Adam” 123 124 + +English “Adam” 124 125 + +French Louis XVI 126 128 + +French Louis XVI 127 129 + +French Louis XVI 128 130 + +French Louis XVI 129 131 + +METAL WORK + +Græco-Roman 33 41 + +Græco-Roman 34 42 + +Byzantine Tradition 41 48 + +Wrought Iron 282 307 + +Wrought Iron, Venetian 283 307 + +Repoussé 103 101 + +Repoussé 281 (Plate) + +Cast 104 102 + +Cast, Louis XV 115 113 + +Sheffield Plate 125 126 + +Filagree Jewellery 228 257 + +Cast Iron (Modern) 222 247 + +Surface Decoration of 284 308 + +METHOD + +Of Enlarging and Reducing Drawings 286 361 + +MOULDINGS + +Profiles of 134 138 + +Enrichment of 135 144 + +Detail of the Dentil 136 147 + +Aspect of 137 148 + +Stone, Panel Effect 138 149 + +Wood Panels 139 150 + +Wood Panels, Applied 140 151 + +Wood Panels, Applied 141 152 + +The Bolection 142 152 + +Table Top 143 153 + +Turned Wood 144 153 + +Pottery 145 154 + +Pottery 146 154 + +Rolled Metal 147 155 + +Drawn Metal 148 155 + +Wrought Iron, Swaged 149 156 + +Wrought Iron, Built up 150 156 + +Wrought Iron, Built up 151 156 + +Spun Metal 152 157 + +VASE FORMS + +Primitive Pottery 1 (Plate) + +Greek Pottery 25 34 + +Greek Pottery, Painted Details 19 29 + +Effect of Perspective 220 245 + +Segments of Contoured Surfaces 226 251 + +Segments of Contoured Surfaces 227 252 + +Stretch-out of the Cylinder 224 249 + +Stretch-out of the Cone 225 250 + +Types of Vase Decoration 223 248 + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +It is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the +creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that +the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of +elements common to all than with invention pure and simple. + + +_Human Limitations_ + +To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or +acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not +traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for +instance, the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of +human and bird form, and is in no sense an original creation. + +The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the +reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real +interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of +personality, in other words, the individual point of view of the artist; +which is more or less interesting, as it is more or less personal in +idea and expression. + +In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be +carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible +source. + +Design is distinct from any phase of realistic expression inasmuch as +the subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally +visualised. + + +“_Inspiration_” + +Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration, +but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident +than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to +the individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought +may be accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible +for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem. + +It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of +inspiration with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in +the belief that it “does not feel like it.” + +The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a +logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and +conditions, and of evolving some desirable solution. + +Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires +a facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a +fallacy, as though many designs are for convenience expressed through +this medium, any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the +technical details of the final method of production, to be a practical +design. + + +_Process and Material_ + +Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and +process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this +technical knowledge it is impossible to take full advantage of the +method of production either in the direction of economy or effect. + +Other considerations are utilitarian and æsthetic, the former having +regard to purpose, the latter to appearance. + +That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common +enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian, +but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the æsthetic point +of view. + +An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed +by popular or individual demand. + +Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to +work to prescribed conditions. + +This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer +who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more +restricted. + +It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or +historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony +with existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite +possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive. + +Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public +demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far +as possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of +their best. Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall +not be done would undoubtedly result in failure. + +To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman +well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that +he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties; and, in +addition, the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight. + + +_Early Training_ + +The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is +understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary +student, the answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly +students can be directed through a course of training that will enable +them to produce at least work that is good, though it may not be +personally distinctive. + +An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of +traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe +traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it +may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much +farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural +faculty. + +Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look +after itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the +training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim. + +Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great +responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study. + +The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are +apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative. + +Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent +beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in +failing to develop the personality, which is the sole interest, and is +the teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible. + +Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications +reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which +end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and +possessed of method. + +Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been +suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has +little knowledge of Art, and still less of design. + + +_Art and Existence_ + +That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be +possible--if not very interesting--if regulated only by considerations +of utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the +gratification of merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state +Art becomes one of the mind’s necessities. + +The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,” +and that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.” + +Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art +is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.” + +Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in +that which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory +and music. + +The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and +Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these +possible to the public at large except in the most general sense? + +What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the +furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the +actual field for artistic expression. + +It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is +sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic +exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large. + + +“_Natural Taste_” + +There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas +the individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary +affairs of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic +selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment. + +It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be +good or bad. + +Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it +is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge +which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate. + + +_Commercial Production_ + +It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result +of commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the +public is restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be +urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes +it his business to study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s +standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as +this is improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised. + +The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of +the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and +purpose, or perception based on artistic education. + + +“_Ornaments_” + +This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in +any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to +the class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no +possible utility and intended solely for display. + +It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the +display of old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance, +may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils, strictly +utilitarian, were incidentally made beautiful. + +Modern furniture frequently offends--being too often constructed with +less regard to utility than to external effect. + +The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the +actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the +perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the +modern house--the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed, +as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent +the reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease +may have much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to +move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent +on frequent change of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture +and other personal belongings. + + +_Modern Development_ + +The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting +in the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the +large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a +change in domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at +hotels and restaurants. + +This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less +interest in personal possession and environment; still further fostered +by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in +frequent change of style and locality. + + +_Public Apathy_ + +Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly +appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art +appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal +indulgence; still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer +if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and +requirements. + +The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect +implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account. + +It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery +found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which, +notwithstanding all endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state, +sensitive to scratches and other damage. This difficulty may have +suggested intentionally covering the surface with such scratches, etc., +more or less arranged, thus making a virtue of necessity. + + +_Elementary Pattern_ + +Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or +incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or +herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result +of pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in +plastering as trowel point. + +Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some +form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative +of any known form; and it is not till a much later period that any +indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type. + +Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings +singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily +be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds. + +The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament +was presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would +readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute. + +Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is +indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers +of clay. + +There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for +expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the +marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may +well be considered the first impressionists. + + +_Early Impressionism_ + +They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful +distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of +characteristics. + +The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form, +and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and +working condition is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast +with the earlier ornament, which is not in any way imitative of, or +traceable to, any natural suggestion. + +On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally +three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such +as directly arise from the process and material involved. + +The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the +third--conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural +suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of +cultured appreciation of process and æsthetic considerations. + + +_Personal Production_ + +It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally +produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or +weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves +more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being +compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in +course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported +by his craft. + +Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated + +[Illustration: + +ANCIENT POTTERY + +No. 1. + + A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall. + + B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, Oxon. + + C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India. + + D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds, Bronze Age. + + E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India. + + F. Early English puzzle jug. + + G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset. + + H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze Age, Ireland. +] + +[Illustration: + +No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings. + C. Etching on Bone. +] + +the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill, +would be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the +professional worker and artist. + +To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early +social conditions. + +The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying +in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and +herds; such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory. + +The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for +storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and +doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment. + +Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop +agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would +entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes. + +The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the +fortress or castle for the protection of the town, and the more +substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture. + +With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and the +simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions. + + +_Early Social Conditions_ + +The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent +upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on +the various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of +officials for effective collection and distribution. Social +distinctions would be drawn between the various classes, governing, +administrative, military, and non-combatant; the latter would furnish +the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen, +agriculturists and traders. + +In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility, +priestly and legal classes. + + +_Influence_ + +Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later +was subjected to various influences--Political, Religious, and +Commercial. + +Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or +interchange would result, or by conquest. + +Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste +on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that +of the Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman +influence after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths. + +The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and +Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier +example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III in A.D. 726 +in response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the +Byzantine art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine +district. + + +_Commercial Intercourse._ + +The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the +arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary +to study market conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were +therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste, thereby resulting +in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source. + +[Illustration: No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.] + +Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian weavers, who, contrary to their +local traditions, introduced heraldry into the patterns of their +fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders. + +The Phœnicians were the early merchant adventurers, and traded in +work of Tyrian and Sidonian production with remote parts of Europe, +taking back local produce in exchange. Later on, through the medium of +the Hanseatic league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron fire-backs +from Sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations; +of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement +were considered and embodied. + + +_Effect on Design_ + +Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Art production was +further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker. + +When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was +invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing +emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged +as a professional. + +In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of +architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the +architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance. + +Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was +taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many +instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical +side of the craft. + +Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer +of the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of +constructive detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen +that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so +much of this work is still in existence. + + +_Ethical Side of Art_ + +Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare, +for instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of +meaning and insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the +license of the Rococo. + +Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was +originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of, +with resultant loss of character and interest. + +The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely +for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the +experience and point of view of past exploiters. + + +_Desire for Novelty_ + +The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old +worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition +a little further if possible. + +Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old +friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it +may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others, +and whether it is worth doing. + +“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic +considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time; +but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new +phases, have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the +forgotten. In the meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes +progressing, now and then retrogressing, but at all times unbroken. + +History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities +and conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic +development. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HISTORIC REVIEW + + +Some of the factors in the evolution of Art have already been briefly +suggested, but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing +acquaintance, at least, with the various phases of historic developments +is essential. The scope of the present work obviously renders it +impossible to deal with the subject in detail, but libraries are +accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge. + +It has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of +any influence other than that of material and process, and this has +continued in some of the crafts to the present time; but those more +closely allied to building, particularly those associated with furniture +and decoration, eventually became subject to the architectural phase or +style of the period, which dominated form and detail. + + +_Style._ + +Style may be described as manner of expression, either individual or +local, and for convenience is defined by nationality and period. It is +usual to speak of Greek, Roman, Gothic, etc., of such a century; in the +case of the Renaissance, it is customary to particularise the variants, +as Italian, French, English, etc., also with the period or century. + +The development of style, intimately involved as it is in the social, +religious and political history of nations, must ever be powerful in its +interest and far-reaching in its appeal. + +The first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility, but in +succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something +more than this. And so with the progress of a race we can trace the +progress of its decorative art. + + +_Inter-Communication_ + +Then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community +inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact--either through +conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations. Naturally +the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest +qualities, æsthetic and practical, and these qualities advance with the +development of society and with progress in mechanical skill. As a +result of conquest the civilisation of either conqueror or conquered +must become the dominant influence, and the possible fusion and +interchange of ideas may modify style to a considerable extent. + + +_Climate and Material_ + +Locality has always been a determining factor, particularly in +architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised, and +in most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions; for +instance, where wood abounds we find it successfully employed. + +Climate is also largely responsible for architectural form. In the +North, owing to heavy snows, the roofs are high-pitched. The early +Egyptian buildings were of mud and wattle, the readiest material to +hand, and form ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless +district. It is interesting to note that the character of these +structures was imparted to their later work in stone. This was used in +the most important buildings, and was readily obtainable from the Nubian +quarries and transported down the Nile on rafts. + + +_Phases in Style_ + +It must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made in +styles, yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional, and +which are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence. The +phases of a transitional period can usually be defined; at first the new +style is slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker +exploiting it. This is followed by its being used in conjunction with +the native construction, and lastly, the native interpretation of the +foreign style is possibly grafted on to older forms. + +It should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate +change in style, but that there are phases which can be described as +typical, connected by periods of gradual change or transition; due, +doubtless, to individual expression of taste, either on the part of +exponent or patron, or as previously suggested, by influences political, +religious or commercial. + +Careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was +due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment, which in its +turn became redundant in character and detail. Apart from the artistic +point of view, these changes are interesting as reflective of the +character of the times. + +From the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to +be appreciated, the Lintel and the Arch. The Lintel, which is the +earlier, may be described as a large stone style, and consists of the +bridging of apertures by means of horizontal slabs, supported by +vertical columns or piers. This is a method of construction with +distinct limitations, as it was impossible to bridge large areas or +spaces without frequent support. + + +_The Lintel_ + +[Illustration: No. 4. The Lintel.] + +The joints of the Lintel necessarily occur over the centres of the +supporting columns, and the space between was controlled by the size of +the obtainable material and the imposed weight it could bear; the result +being, as in the great hall at Karnak, a forest of closely spaced +columns. It was not until the principle of the Arch was developed into +vaulting that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor +spaces were possible. + +Lintel construction was employed in the Egyptian, Chaldean and Greek +styles. + +The Arch, as a constructive form, did not appear until a later period, +and possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and +stones of small size. + +[Illustration: No. 5. Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia. Vault form, but not +vault construction.] + +Form or shape is not involved, as it is quite possible to so shape the +Lintel as to give the appearance of the Arch by cutting the underside +to the required curve. In the early Greek architecture examples have +been found of both Arch and vault appearance, but these are the result +of horizontal courses, successively projecting; that is, built in the +form of inverted steps, the underside being cut to the arch curve, and +is a form of construction restricted to bridging relatively small areas. + + +_The Arch_ + +[Illustration: No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B. Arch appearance, result of +cutting away.] + +The principle of the Arch depends upon the separate pieces of material +being formed to a wedge shape, the joints corresponding to radial lines +drawn through the centre from which the Arch curve is struck. + +The weak part of the Lintel is the centre of the span which may have a +tendency to give way under pressure, but the wedged construction of the +Arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the imposed weight. + +In contrast with the Lintel, material of small size could be employed, +not only stone, but brick being used in Arch construction. + +[Illustration: No. 7. Section of Gothic Vault showing courses of stone +and centering.] + +The Lintel, in relatively small spans, is sometimes composed of separate +small stones, shaped to fit each other in the form of Joggled joints. + +[Illustration: No. 8. + +A. Lintel in one piece. + +B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.] + +[Illustration: No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming +framework of structure.] + +The outward and manifest appearance suggests to the lay observer a +striking divergence in the style known as Gothic from the Roman manner +of building; but the main difference is in proportion and treatment of +detail, the underlying principle being much the same. The use of the +Arch and vaulting was common to both, but in the Gothic development +greater strength was obtained, with even greater economy of material. +The archivolts and intersecting ribs of vaults, with their supports, +literally formed the bones of the building, constituting a framework to +which the bays of walls and roofing were only a matter of filling in. + +In the words of Mr. C. H. Moore, in his work on “Development and +Character of Gothic Architecture”--“the Gothic style developed into a +system where stability depends not upon any inert massiveness except in +the outermost abutments, but upon a logical adjustment of active parts +whose opposing forces produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system +of balanced thrusts, as opposed to the former system of inert +stability.” + + +_Egyptian_ + +The Egyptian buildings, in common with those of Palestine, were +frequently of mud, strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven, evidence +of which is apparent in later incised decoration. Buildings were also of +sun-baked bricks, those of an important character being faced with +stone; the exteriors of these latter were simple and severe, the walls +being slightly tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice, with +gateways and entrances of massive form. + +The internal effect was of mystery, doubtless due to the comparative +absence of light, and to the many columns necessary to carry the +roofings. The columns which were mostly employed in the interiors, were +squat and stunted in proportion, being from four to seven diameters in +height, with capitals of the Lotus, Papyrus or Hathor variety. Mouldings +were of the simplest character and sparsely used, and the decoration +included renderings of the Lotus and Papyrus plants, either painted or +incised in stone with the addition of colour. + +[Illustration: No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan of Egyptian +Temple.] + +Egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental, while +the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for +symbolic expression, rather than by more æsthetic considerations. + +In Egyptian Art ornament is subordinated to the architecture, and the +employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic +character, added considerably to the decorative effect. In the wall +pictures the figures were depicted in silhouette, in conventional +attitudes, the head and limbs being displayed in severe profile, while +the torso is represented in full front view. The methods of expression +were painting, or incised in outline on stone, invariably filled in with +colour, the effect in both being of flatness, with little suggestion of +modelling or rotundity, the various features being defined by local +colour. + +[Illustration: No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian Temple.] + +Though much of the Egyptian work was in the round, and evident of great +sculptural ability and appreciation of form, yet generally their +decorative work may be described as a colour style, rather than one in +which light and shade were important factors. + +[Illustration: No. 12. Egyptian Capital from Philae.] + +With regard to the domestic life, the examples of furniture in the +British Museum convey some idea, and these bear a remarkable similarity +to forms with which we are familiar at the present day, both in detail +and construction, which is simple and direct, with mortise and tenon +joints. Turning was frequently employed, and, in the decoration of +furniture, inlays of ivory, ebony and glass, the Egyptians being expert +workers in both glass and enamels. + +[Illustration: + + No. 13. Egyptian Furniture. + +A. Stand Inlaid. +B. Ebony seat inlaid with ivory. +C. Folding stool. +D. Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory. +] + +Illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea +of the furniture, which is often depicted as gilded. + +The Egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman. Sometimes the couch +took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end, and the +legs and feet carved to complete the effect. + + +_Chaldean_ + +Chaldean art in character had much in common with that of Egypt, the +difference being more that of expression than in idea, probably due to +intercourse and mutual influence. The buildings, which were mostly in +brick, often faced with a form of terra-cotta, stamped with relief or +ornament, were pyramidal in general form, raised on terraces forming a +succession of platforms, approached by steps or inclined planes. Columns +were employed, but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes +culminating in the Persian renderings at Persepolis. + +[Illustration: + + No. 14. Egyptian Chairs. + +A. Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400. +B. at Thebes. +] + +Compound animal and human forms, analagous to the Egyptian sphinx, were +employed, such as the winged lion and bull with human heads, generally +to flank the gateways. Wall pictures in low relief formed part of the +interior decoration, these being arranged in successive rows and +representing historic episodes were, like the Egyptian decoration, +probably coloured. A prominent detail in the decoration is that of the +date palm which, symbolical in meaning, was the prototype of the Greek +anthemion; the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form +of the evolute scroll. + +Our conclusions regarding Assyrian woodwork are drawn from the +sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the Assyrians +faced their brick structures internally and externally. The examples in +the British Museum are about 888 B.C. + +Furniture, such as tables, thrones and couches, was evidently made of +wood, and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials. + +[Illustration: No. 15. Assyrian Seat.] + +On the monuments of Khorsabad representations have been discovered of +chairs, supported by animals and human figures. The intention in the use +of figures was probably to depict prisoners taken in war. + +Chairs, thrones, stools and tables were square in shape. The ends of the +rails and legs were carved, and the ornamentation employed for these and +similar positions included the heads of lions, bulls and rams, the +sacred palm and pine cone. + +[Illustration: No. 16. Capitals from Persepolis.] + +The seats of chairs and thrones were much higher than is now customary, +and necessitated the use of foot-stools. In some cases both chairs and +tables were made to fold on a central pivot. + +In some cases metal was used either for part or for the complete +structure. + +Exact chronology is a matter of surmise, but at an early period, about +4000 B.C., in the valley of the Nile and in Mesopotamia, civilization +had attained a very high level, extremely favourable to the development +of architecture and the artistic crafts. + +The early Greeks, as a result of the peculiar formation of their coast +line, like the later Scandinavians, were adventurers on the sea, +piratical and trading, and were thus brought into communication with, +and influenced by, the arts of Egypt and Chaldea. + + +_Greek_ + +[Illustration: No. 17. Early Treatment of Doric Order. Tomb of Beni +Hassan.] + +Though, in their architecture, the Greeks progressed no further than the +Lintel, yet they must be credited with the development of the system of +the orders, which formed the basis of subsequent styles. + +The two prominent orders were the Doric and the Ionic; the former has +its prototype in the tomb of Beni Hasan, the date of which is 1740 B.C., +while the latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of the +capital, from Assyrian and Persian originals. + +[Illustration: No. 18. Early anticipation of Ionic Order. Tomb at +Kyanea-Jaghu.] + +The capital of the Corinthian order may be considered to be a +development of the Egyptian Papyrus form, the earliest features of both +consisting of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like detail. + +[Illustration: No. 19. Greek Vase Paintings. A. Doric columns. B. Wall +fountain. C. Ionic columns with pediment.] + +Characteristic Greek details, such as the Anthemion and wave scroll, are +traceable to the same sources. + +Their architectural work, which was monumental in character, was mostly +manifested in the temples, the domestic buildings being relatively +unimportant. + +[Illustration: No. 20. Greek house about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British +Museum, Bacchus visiting Icarius.] + +Some idea as to these may be gathered from the vase paintings in the +British Museum, on which they appear simple in form, mostly Doric in +character, and probably of wood construction, the metopes in the frieze +being open spaces for purpose of interior lighting. + +Though the Greeks invested many of their creations with Epic and +Symbolic meaning, much of their ornament was purely æsthetic. + +The sculptured metopes of the Parthenon, representing the conflict +between the Lapithae and the Centaurs, are an example of the Epic +treatment. + +The Sphinx, borrowed from Egyptian art, was, however, invested with a +different meaning, and is an example of the Symbolic class, which formed +so large a part in Greek art. + +Greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of +mouldings, and the exterior columnar effect. The mouldings in the Ionic +and Corinthian phases were enriched with carved details, probably +developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration. + +[Illustration: No. 21. Front elevation and plan of Parthenon, Athens] + +[Illustration: No. 22. Greek Ionic Erectheum, Athens.] + +The Doric style was presumably so decorated, with painted details on the +ovolo and abacus of the capital, and the corona and other members of the +cornice. + +Colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes, mostly blue and +red, resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas; the +colour decoration forming horizontal bands. + +One important development, due to climatic conditions, was the pitched +roof, which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form +(literally gables), which were framed by the upper members of the +entablature. + +This feature, technically known as the Pediment, was in buildings of +importance invariably filled by sculpture, Mythological or Epic in +subject, designed to occupy the shape. + +The styles mostly employed were the Doric and Ionic, and these were +exploited contemporaneously, the Parthenon, 430 B.C., representing the +culmination of the former. + +Of the Corinthian style--comparatively little used by the Greeks, though +much employed and developed later--the Choragic monument at Athens, 330 +B.C., is the most complete example, though the leaf capital was +anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier Tower of the Winds. + +The earliest representations of Greek furniture are to be found in the +Syrian Room at the British Museum. These are the chairs dated about 6 +B.C., in which the antique figures are seated. The backs are +perpendicular, and the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the +legs. + +[Illustration: No. 23. Greek Corinthian, Choragic Monument, Athens.] + +The Greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa. It was used for sleeping +and resting. Chairs and stools were sometimes made of metal, and were +often of a folding type. + +Tables were constructed in various shapes--sometimes the supports were +fashioned as heads and legs of lions and leopards, and sometimes as +sphinxes with lifted wings. In common with other pieces of furniture, +they were made in wood, metal and marble. + +[Illustration: No. 24. Greek Furniture. + +A. Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan. +B. “ “ Vase painting. +C. Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C. +D. Chair from Hydria. +E. } +F. } Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C. +] + +The vase rooms of the British Museum provide considerable matter for +study with regard to the details of Greek furniture, couches especially +are frequently depicted. + +The Greeks were expert workers in cast bronze, as is evidenced, not only +by their statuary, but in many utensils of domestic life, notably the +oil lamps, which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta. + +[Illustration: No. 25. Greek Pottery. + +A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C. +B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C. +C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white. +D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C. +E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C. +] + +Soon after the sack of Corinth in 140 B.C., Greece became a Roman +province, and the Greek art workers eventually found more encouragement +from Roman patronage than in local requirement. + +They therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded, +thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their +conquerors. + + +_Roman_ + +Originally there were no special native characteristics by which Roman +work could be distinguished, as the Romans absorbed various influences +from the races that they conquered. Their conquests extended East and +West, and from these widely differing outside influences the Roman style +developed. + +The Romans, who by temperament, were great soldiers, organisers and +engineers, rather than artistic, in their early essays in architecture +were influenced by Etruscan work. + +Etruria (now Tuscany) is presumed to have been a Greek colony, and the +local style, a form of debased Doric, was adopted by the first Tarquin +(who was of Etruscan origin) and introduced to Rome about 610 B.C. + +With the growth of the Roman Empire, and its consequent wealth and +development of luxury, great impetus was given to building and the arts +generally. + +The orders based on the Greek originals were developed in detail and +proportion, particularly in the latter respect. Whereas in the Greek +Doric the height of the column varied from about four, to six and a half +diameters, the Roman version became more slender, being about eight +diameters in height. + +The Corinthian order, perhaps, underwent the greatest change, a change +that has practically remained unaltered to the present day. + + +_Vaulting_ + +The most significant development in building was the Arch and subsequent +vaulting, by means of which extensive covered areas were rendered +possible. The Pantheon at Rome is covered with a hemispherical vault or +dome 139 feet in diameter. + +[Illustration: No. 26. Section and interior elevation of Pantheon, +Rome.] + +The dome, which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal +ribs, resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons, or coffers, is +really a casting in cement; and in principle is identical with the +present method of building, in which concrete or cement forms a +considerable part in construction. + +Apart from other reasons, the Arch was necessitated by small material, +which, in the case of the Lintel, could not be employed without the +device of joggelled joints. In the absence of suitable material to +cover spans, it became necessary to devise some means to the desired +result. This was achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of +material cut to the necessary wedge form. + +The Arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the +Cloaca Maxima, to aqueducts, bridges, and viaducts, from which its firm +construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to +buildings of many storeys. + +[Illustration: No. 27. Coliseum, Rome. Section and part elevation +showing arch and vault construction.] + + +_Greek Influence_ + +Apart from the early employment and development of the Arch, the Romans +were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources, and also +were indebted to the Greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry, art, +even to religion, whose gods they invested with different names. + +Notwithstanding, the Roman development in architecture was undoubtedly +dignified and grand in manner, particularly in their treatment of the +Corinthian order. + +With regard to detail, much of the delicacy and refinement of the Greek +character was lost, yet this was compensated by greater variety and +freedom of treatment, especially in the development of the Acanthus type +of foliage. + +[Illustration: No. 28. Arch of Titus, Rome.] + + +_Development of Ornament_ + +Decoration was more generally used, pilaster and other panels being +occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines, mostly composed of +undulate stems, with scrolling branches, clothed with conventional +leaves and flowers. + +There was also a tendency to employ occasionally natural types in +foliage, and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human +and animal form, which, though originally significant, were used for +their æsthetic value. + +The Roman domestic life was materially different from the Greek, and +while they had their Temples, they also had their palaces, public halls +and baths, besides the amphitheatre and the circus. + +[Illustration: No. 29. Typical Roman Ornament.] + +Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii have thrown considerable light on +the domestic life of the Romans--their dwellings, decorations and +furniture. + +[Illustration: No. 30. Roman couch. Sepulchral urn, British Museum.] + +[Illustration: No. 31. Roman Sella.] + + +_Græco-Roman Painted Decoration_ + +In the luxurious life of the Romans colour + +[Illustration: No. 32. Graeco-Roman Hall in house of Sallust, Pompeii.] + +decoration played a conspicuous part, as is evidenced in the painted +work of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this, which is generally known as +the Græco-Roman period, the interiors were decorated with paintings, the +general scheme being based on an architectural setting, the wall areas +being divided into bays by slender columns, sometimes by pilaster +panels, with plinth, or dado, frieze, and cornice, the prevailing +colours being red, buff and black. + +[Illustration: + + Græco-Roman Hanging Lamp Bronze + +No. 33.] + +The decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings, +through which distant vistas could be seen. The bays or spaces between +the apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel +pictures with frames; generally the supports were united by festoons or +scrolling detail, the whole expressed by painting in colour without +actual relief. + +The use of glass for glazing windows was employed in the later period; +that the Romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the +examples in the National collections. + +[Illustration: + +Græco-Roman +Hand Lamp +and Stand. +Bronze + +No. 34.] + +For artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary, which +were boat shape in form, sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended +from branching stems or supported on tripod standards. These were +invariably in cast bronze, though terra-cotta was also used, but in +either material were extremely beautiful in form and detail. + +In any attempt to review the past, it is difficult to visualise the +actual life at the back of the pageantry, with which we are naturally +prone to be obsessed, in history as written; but the exhibits of the +various domestic appliances of the Roman period at the British Museum +are of considerable interest, and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to +bring the individual to a closer understanding of the times and people. + +At Byzantium or Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, +a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the +characteristics of East and West; and it was marked particularly by a +grafting of earlier Greek detail on to simplified Roman forms. + +The establishment in 330 A.D. of Byzantium or Constantinople as the +Eastern capital of the Roman Empire and the recognition by the state of +Christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the +associated crafts. Prior to this the early Christians had been compelled +to hold their meetings secretly, and when this was no longer necessary +they at first utilised for their public worship the existing Basilicas +or public halls. Later on churches were built, the plan being arranged +in the form of a Greek cross (_e.g._, with equal arms), surmounted by a +central dome. + + +_Domes_ + +The dome was supported on four piers, united by arches, and the change +in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the +inner angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the +imposed circle. These vaultings spreading from the angles are +technically known as Pendentives. The + +[Illustration: No. 35. Byzantine. Section and plan of St. Vitali, +Ravenna.] + +[Illustration: No. 36. Byzantine Capitals from Ravenna.] + +four arms of the cross constituting transepts, nave and chancel were +also surmounted by either complete or semi-domes. + +The Byzantine dome differs from the Roman type in matters of detail, +thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with +resulting coffers as in that of the Pantheon. In this latter the +lighting of the interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye, +but in some Byzantine examples, notably St. Sophia (built for Justinian +by Anthemius) the lighting is the result of windows ranged round the +base, constituting what is known as the ariel type of dome. + +The dome of St. Sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the +Pantheon, being only one-sixth of the diameter in height, the diameter +being 106 ft. 7½ ins. + +The architectural features generally were considerably modified, +particularly with regard to mouldings, which were almost eliminated. The +entablature was also at times dispensed with, and arches springing +direct from the capitals of supporting columns were general; a feature +which is characteristic of the later Romanesque. The capitals became +simple in form, being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes, in +which the abacus is considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded. + +The carved details reveal simplicity of execution, being merely cut back +from the surface, the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to +the plastic feeling of the Roman work. Though the leaves employed were +of the acanthus type, they were quite devoid of modelling, being merely +channelled with V-shaped grooves; the eyes between the lobes being +round and suggestive of the use of the drill, the execution being a +reversion to the archaic Greek. + +[Illustration: No. 37. Byzantine Panels. St. Appollinare, Nuovo, +Ravenna.] + + +_Early Christian Art_ + +A notable feature in the Byzantine detail is the prevalence of the +circle, frequently grouped in three, four and five, with the respective +significance of the Trinity, the Evangelists and the Cross, or Five +Wounds. The grotesques of the Pagan detail are conspicuously absent, +giving place to forms more in keeping with the new religion, such, for +instance, as the cross and the vine. + +It is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured Roman was +taken very seriously, but incidental to the religious observances were +certain rites and symbolic forms, with which the Christians were +familiar, and the early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy +to invest some of these with a new meaning. During the period of +intolerance and persecution, signs and symbols grew in importance as a + +[Illustration: No. 39. Byzantine Interior, Ravenna.] + +[Illustration: No. 40. 5th Century Mosaic Work in the Baptistery at +Ravenna. + +From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.] + +means of secret communication; and in the later period when secrecy was +no longer necessary, these became a corporate part of the ornament and +decoration. + +[Illustration: No. 38. Byzantine Panel from the sarcophagus of St. +Theodore. St. Appollinare in Classe, Ravenna.] + +In contrast to the Roman ornament, in which the effect depended mostly +on light and shade, the Byzantine was a colour style, and it became +customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs +quartered and placed reciprocally, so that the figurings formed +symmetrical patterns. Mosaic work, either of marble or glass, +constituted the decoration in such suitable positions as the floors, +spandrils, lunettes and domes, gold being largely employed in the +backgrounds. Windows, at times large in area, were glazed as in Roman +times with cast slabs of glass, set in metal frames, usually bronze; and +thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were also used for glazing +purposes. + + +_Metal Work and Enamel_ + +The Byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal, +decorated in repoussé and with wire filigree; the metal work was +invariably set with jewels and precious stones, in conjunction with +champleve enamel, the whole being gilt. + +As a result of the Iconoclastic movement, and the decree of Pope Leo III +in 726 A.D., the art workers, deprived of local patronage and compelled +to pursue their crafts elsewhere, migrated to the Rhine district, where +for some centuries the Byzantine traditions were preserved and largely +influenced Western art, particularly with regard to the working in metal +and enamels. The attraction of the centre of the Eastern Empire for +northern adventurers had its effect in the introduction of the Byzantine +style into the detail of the different phases of the Romanesque. + +[Illustration: No. 41. Champleve enamel Byzantine tradition.] + +The tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local +craftsmen and modified according to local conditions, with the result +that both in expression and in execution, the style tended to become +more and more crude, until the original forms and details were almost +entirely lost. But in spite of changes the classic feeling never +completely died out. + + +_Roman Influence Abroad_ + +Under the Roman system, in colonizing, their architecture, customs and +laws were imposed on the conquered population. When later, under stress +of events, the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn, +these left behind them universal traces of their occupation and +influence. The inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on +their own resources, were immediately menaced by invasions, which had +been hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation, and for some +protracted period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict, under which +the arts naturally suffered. Eventually, from the chaos emerged a native +manner of building, which, though rude and coarse in execution, was +based on the Roman tradition. + + +_Romanesque Style_ + +The transition thus brought about is known for convenience as +Romanesque. Its most typical exponents were possibly the Scandinavians, +whose Christianised descendants, the Normans, preserved the same +tradition. The work of the Saxons in England, although stimulated by the +same influences, was much cruder in execution. + +This period was not remarkable for great artistic development, and +luxury in any form was practically non-existent. + +Notwithstanding local character, the prevailing features are similar, in +that the round arch is employed, supported by columns or piers, from +which the arches spring direct, the entablature being eliminated. + +The columns are squat in proportion, and surmounted by capitals of +truncated cone or cushion shape, the abacus being deep and square in +plan. + +Mouldings were little used, and the archivolts were formed in a series +of recessed bands, either plain or decorated. Distinct from the +Byzantine style, the Romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of +light and shade. + +[Illustration: No. 42. Romanesque Capitals from Cloister, St. Guillem du +Desert, Herault. Reminiscent of Roman Corinthian.] + +Details were carved, and rude in execution, preserving to some extent +the Byzantine feeling, the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem, +with scroll branches, clothed with leafage, simply channelled or +grooved, but less spikey in form. + + +_Church Development_ + +Of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most +interesting examples of development. The usual plan consisted of an +oblong nave with side aisles half its width and height. + +[Illustration: No. 43. Romanesque Tower, Thaon, Normandy.] + +At the end of the nave, projecting transepts separated it from the +chancel (which is generally raised in level), continuing the line of +nave, the whole taking the shape of the Latin cross in contrast to the +Byzantine plan; the chancel end facing East, the nave West, and the +transepts respectively North and South. + +A feature of this period is the Apse, a semi-circular extension of the +choir or chancel; when the side aisles were extended to the latter they +formed what is known as an ambulatory, or passage way, round the choir, +within which was the altar, and the stalls for monks and clergy. + +The Narthex or atrium, of the basilicas, utilised by the early +Christians for their public worship (to which were admitted those +outside the community) was abandoned, its place being taken by the West +entrance or porch, enclosed between two towers. + +[Illustration: No. 44. Romanesque plan of Cathedral, Worms.] + +The upper walls of the nave were carried on arches supported by columns, +which constituted the division of the side aisles; these latter being +formed by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer walls, the +vaulting being roofed over. + +The upper part of the nave was pierced by windows, small and +comparatively narrow, with semi-circular heads forming the Clerestory. +Similar windows in some instances occur in the aisles, the jambs of +these windows being bevelled both inside and out for the freer admission +of light. + +The nave was roofed in with timber, but as the result of frequent +destruction by fire, the roof was eventually vaulted; in early examples +by the barrel or tunnel vault, but later this developed into +cross-vaulting, which was also introduced into the side aisles. + +[Illustration: No. 45. Romanesque, bay of interior, Worms Cathedral.] + +[Illustration: No. 47. Romanesque Church interior with Triforium.] + +[Illustration: No. 46. Romanesque Window, St. Alban’s Abbey.] + +In the early churches of this period the walls of the nave were unbroken +except for the upper windows. With the development of vaulting, the +space above the aisle vaults and the covering roof was used as a +gallery known as the Triforium. This was not lighted from without, and +was a distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque and early Gothic +styles. + +The introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave entailed supports +for the arch bands or vaulting ribs, which were carried on pilasters or +half columns, dividing the interior façade into bays. + +[Illustration: No. 48. Construction of intersecting vaults.] + + +_Dark Ages_ + +The unsettled condition of Europe, both before and after the final +subjugation of the Roman Empire by Charlemagne in 774 A.D., was +necessarily detrimental to artistic progress, and the period to the +fifteenth century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the +arts and culture in general. + +Such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests, +and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the +people were kept in ignorance and subjection. + +Building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches, the +domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier +periods, though Eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by +the alien adventurers to the Byzantine courts. + +This was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people +indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment, to whom, however, +personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous +attire. + +[Illustration: No. 49. Romanesque, south door Kilpeck Church, +Herefordshire.] + +Domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme. The dwellings of the +well-to-do in England, similarly to those of the Scandinavians, +consisted principally of a barn-like hall. The centre of the hall was +occupied by a long table, and at one end raised on a platform or dais +another table was placed in the opposite direction. At the latter sat +the most important members of the household, while the lower part was +reserved for retainers and servants. Heavy chairs and settles were used +at the upper table, and benches or forms at the lower. + +Walls, when covered at all, were adorned with hangings, but then only at +the dais end of the hall. Fireplaces in the modern sense were not known. +The fire was built on the floor, and the smoke allowed to escape as best +it might. + +Arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining. +Beds were provided only for persons of distinction, and were placed in +recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters. They were, +in fact, little more than wooden boxes, with sacks of straw to serve as +mattresses. + +Later, bedsteads were used of massive construction, which on occasions +of journeying were placed on wheels, forming a sort of coach or carriage +ironically termed whirlicots, in which the aged and infirm were +transported. + +[Illustration: No. 50. Chair of Dagobert, French 7th century, bronze.] + +For some time after the Norman Conquest the unsettled state of the +country rendered it necessary that household effects and valuables +should be few in number and of such a nature as to be easily +transportable. Thus chests in which belongings could be stored came into +general use. They were simple in construction, and without carving, but +were strengthened and decorated by hinges and scroll strappings in iron. +Such chests served a double purpose, as they could be used as tables and +seats. + +[Illustration: No. 51. 14th Century Textile Sicilian tradition.] + +For convenience of transport, chairs and stools were made with +projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so as to be easily taken +apart. + + +_Crusades_ + +That the Crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of +Eastern art, is evidenced by the celebrated cup of Eden Hall, on the +safe preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners, +according to the couplet: + +“If that cup either break or fall, +Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.” + +This cup is of Saracenic origin, and is of glass, painted in enamels, +similar in character to the mosque lamps in the British Museum. + +Tapestries of Sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the +medium of the Crusades, and led to the employment of painted wall +decoration, evidently in imitation, even in some instances to indicating +the folds of the material. + +[Illustration: No. 52. Sicilian Textile.] + +A precept exists in the twentieth year of the reign of Henry III +directing “that the King’s great chamber at Westminster be painted a +good green colour like a curtain,” and “that the King’s little wardrobe +should also be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain.” + +This was undoubtedly suggested by the custom abroad of draping the walls +with tapestries, though carpets were unknown. Probably the first time +these were seen in England was in the apartments in the Temple occupied +by the suite of the infant Don Sancho, archbishop elect of Toledo, who +with Don Garcias Madinez, officiated as _avant-courriers_ to Eleanor of +Castile in the autumn of 1255. + + +_Pointed Arch_ + +[Illustration: No. 53. Types of Buttress.] + +The origin of the pointed Arch, which is the chief characteristic of the +Gothic style, is much disputed, but there is ample evidence that the new +departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe +soon after the First Crusade. It is reasonable to assume that this +particular form was suggested by examples in Syria, where arches +elliptic and even ogival in shape were employed. + +Though not common in Roman work, the pointed Arch was employed in the +Aqueduct built to supply Constantinople with water, completed under +Valens, 364-378 A.D., by which it is probable that the Saracenic work +was inspired. + +Whatever the origin, the innovation was found to be economic, and more +sound in construction than the older prevailing method. It was also more +flexible in design, as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned +with arches equal in height, which is not possible with the +semi-circular form, except by the expedient of stepping. + +Further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the +outer walls, as well as at the angles of the building. + + +_Gothic Style_ + +In France, England and Germany the Gothic style superseded the +Romanesque with varying phases of transition, and with local development +of character. In Spain the Moors had established a system of +architecture thoroughly Eastern that was but little affected by the +Gothic style, the influence of which is apparent in the later Spanish +rendering of the Renaissance. + +In Italy the Gothic attained but slight development in comparison with +more northern and western treatments, at least from a structural point +of view. The Italian phase known as Lombardic is conspicuous for the +evidence of Eastern and Byzantine traditions. + + +_Phases of Gothic_ + +The phases and dates of the Gothic style in England are as follow, and +lasted well into the sixteenth century, with periods of transition: + + Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307. + + Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407. + + Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547. + +[Illustration: No. 54. Early pointed Gothic Pier, elevation and plan.] + +In church architecture the general plan and essential features of the +Romanesque style were preserved; but there was a complete change in the +details, as well as a general lightening of the whole structure. + +The heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts, +which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs, these shafts being +bound together at bases and capitals. + +The Triforium was retained, the openings being arched and similar in +detail to the windows. + + +_Early Pointed_ + +In the early variety of the Pointed Gothic the arches were acutely +pointed, technically known as “lancet,” but later became more +equilateral. The windows were narrow in proportion, and were single, or +in groups. + +[Illustration: No. 55. Early pointed bay with Triforium. Window of Aisle +is of later date.] + +Later they were divided into compartments, and the triangular head +filled in with stonework, pierced with simple geometrical openings, +known as plate tracery, thus forming a transition between the simple +open lancet and the intersecting ribs, which constituted the true +tracery of the later periods. + +Commonly shafts of circular section, with caps and bases, were employed +in the windows, both internally and externally. + +Roofs were high pitched, and the ceilings vaulted, the vaulting ribs +being moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses. + +Mouldings were rich in effect, being composed of a succession of hollows +or flutings, contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief. + +[Illustration: No. 56. Early Lancet Windows. A. Canterbury Cathedral. B. +Lincoln Cathedral. C. Salisbury Cathedral.] + +[Illustration: No. 57. Early pointed Gothic Windows. Plate tracery.] + +Carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts, sometimes in leaf-like +forms in the bases and in the mouldings, also in the crockets, and +finials of the gables, and pinnacles of the buttresses. + +[Illustration: No. 58. Early pointed Arch Mouldings.] + +The ornament was extremely conventional, that on capitals, crockets and +other free positions consisting of crisply curling trefoil or +cinquefoil groups of lobes having little resemblance to natural type. + +The later windows became more elaborate in the tracery, which was +essentially geometric, and further elaborated by cusping. Triforium +arches and canopy heads being similar in design. + +[Illustration: No. 59. Early pointed Gothic Capital.] + +[Illustration: No. 60. Pointed Gothic tracery Windows. A. Ely Cathedral. +B. Meophan Church, Kent.] + +The central tower, which was common in the Romanesque, developed into +the spire, which was carried to a great height; the lower part +occasionally pierced with openings for purpose of interior lighting, +forming the lantern. + + +_Decorated Gothic_ + +The principal characteristics of the Decorated period are the form of +the Arch, the elimination of detached shafts and the enlarged clerestory +with increased lighting area. + +The Arch, when used structurally, was still of the simple pointed form, +but in small windows, niches and canopies, the shape at the head became +ogival and the tracery displays considerable license as compared with +that of the preceding phase. + +[Illustration: No. 61. Early pointed Gothic Spire, Warmington.] + +[Illustration: No. 62. Decorated Gothic Windows. A. Merton College, +Oxford. B. Cathedral, Oxford.] + +Mouldings were shallower as contrasted with the undercut hollows of the +earlier period; in many instances the arch mouldings were merely a +continuation of those of the supporting piers, which took the place of +the earlier detached shafts. + +The greatest innovation occurs in the foliage, in which natural +suggestion is evident, adapted with considerable freedom, and skilful in +execution. + +[Illustration: No. 63. Decorated Gothic Carving, Chancel screen, +Southwell Minster.] + +In the preceding style the foliage of the capitals invariably sprung +from the necking, in simple firm curves, revealing the underlying +bell-shape. In the Decorated period the foliage generally wreaths round +the structural form, the detail being frequently deeply pierced and cut +away at the back till it was almost detached, giving an extremely rich +effect. + +Diaper detail of pateræ, or foliage arranged in squares, occurs in the +spandrils between arches. + +[Illustration: No. 64. Decorated Gothic Mouldings.] + +[Illustration: Nos. 65 & 66. Decorated Gothic Capitals, leaves deeply +undercut and wreathed round bell.] + +A distinct feature of this period and of the succeeding Perpendicular +style, is the battlement, which was used in all suitable positions +either as a parapet or as a cresting. The Decorated variety differs from +the later, in that the moulded edges only appear horizontally, whereas +in the Perpendicular period the moulded edge is continuous, being +carried round the angles of the battlement. + +Externally the spire gave place to the tower with culminating lantern. + +During the period of the style known as Decorated Gothic, furniture was +framed and panelled, and the details closely resembled those used in +architectural decoration in stone. + +[Illustration: No. 67. Decorated Gothic Spire, Whittlesea.] + +The general effect of Decorated is a tendency to horizontal banding, in +contrast to the vertical effect of the earlier period, to which +eventually the later Perpendicular reverted. + + +_Perpendicular Gothic_ + +In the succeeding phase the Triforium which had gradually become less +important, entirely disappeared and the clerestory windows enlarged, to +the extent that this part of the structure became merely a frame for the +increased glass areas. + +It will be apparent from the foregoing that whereas in the early +churches of the Romanesque period the interior effect was mysterious +owing to inadequate openings for light, the later and growing tendency +was to increase the lighting capacity by enlarging the windows of the +clerestory. + + +_Glass Windows_ + +Doubtless the development in the size of windows was due to some extent +to the growing use of glass, which, though rare, was employed during the +later Romanesque through Byzantine tradition. + +[Illustration: No. 68. Perpendicular Gothic Bay shewing development of +Clerestory.] + +These early windows were geometric in design, consisting of medallions, +oval, circular or quatrefoil in shape, containing figure subjects set in +a diapered background, the whole being executed in small pieces of +coloured glass united by lead framings. + +While the windows were single openings, this form of glazing necessarily +restricted the size, though more adequate lighting was achieved by +grouping two or more windows together. + +With the development of tracery the technical difficulties were to some +extent overcome; a window divided into comparatively small compartments +could be more easily glazed than single openings of large size; thus +glazed windows of greater dimensions were rendered possible. + +[Illustration: No. 69. Perpendicular Gothic Windows. + +A. Aylsham Church, Norfolk. + +B. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge.] + +In the Decorated windows the lower lights were devoted to the subject, +which in many instances was carried through the area, regardless of the +dividing bars or mullions. In the Perpendicular each light or opening +had usually its own subject or figure, surmounted by canopies, the upper +spaces formed by intersection of the tracery bars were occupied by +various details suitable to the different shapes. + +The Arch of the Perpendicular style is materially different, being +composed of elliptic curves struck from four centres. + +Mouldings became even more shallow in section, and the tracery less +florid than formerly, though extremely rich in appearance when used in +the profusion that developed in the fan vaulting of this period. + +[Illustration: No. 70. Perpendicular Gothic Fan Vaulting. St. Mary, +Aldermary.] + +The foliation reverted to a more conventional character, and became +lifeless and monotonous in comparison with the Decorated work. + +It must not be assumed that examples in every instance will be found +complete in any of these phases; on the contrary, the various styles +are to be found side by side in the same building, the result of later +additions or rebuilding. + +[Illustration: No. 71. Perpendicular Gothic Tower, All Saints, Derby.] + +Painted decoration and sculpture were also employed during the various +periods; wood-work where necessary was used, and in detail was in +harmony with the architectural character of the period. + + +_Civic Influences_ + +[Illustration: No. 72. Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey, 13th +century.] + +The feudal period was not favourable to the development of domestic +conditions, though considerable advance had been made by the fourteenth +century, chiefly by the Italian states and in the principal cities. The +importance of the latter is evidenced particularly in the City of +London, with its merchant class and civic authorities, who, by reason +of their wealth, attained potential political influence, the prevailing +contentious conditions necessitating the continual raising of large sums +of money. + +Such conditions were favourable to the merchants, who, acting as +bankers, supplied the means, and thus a class was established and +apparently lived in profusion and some pretention to sumptuous +environment. + +[Illustration: No. 73. Bedstead and Cradle from M.S. in Bodleian +Library, 14th century.] + + +_Effect of Commerce_ + +Similar conditions to those in England prevailed on the Continent with +certain local variations. A big stride was made with the development of +commerce, mainly through the agency of Venetian and Flemish merchants. +The effect of increasing opulence as signalised by the appearance in the +home of such comfort and refinement as had formerly been possible only +for princes and great nobles. + +Among the luxuries imported were Oriental silks, carpets and pottery. + +[Illustration: No. 74. Fireplace, 13th century.] + + +_Italy_ + +Whereas, throughout Europe generally, the Gothic character in furniture +and woodwork developed on similar lines, in Italy alone its appeal to +the national sympathies was not strong enough for it to become +thoroughly assimilated, and there the Byzantine style persisted. + +The woods most in use were oak and chestnut. In Italy walnut and cypress +were used--the latter being considered especially valuable for chests. + +Early examples of Italian chests are decorated with closely spaced +incised ornament, filled in with colour. + +The Venetians derived from Persia and India a form of marquetry or inlay +of ivory, metal and various woods, generally geometric in design. The +wood used was stained in order to vary the colour. + + +_Foreign Influence in England_ + +Through the policy of seeking foreign princesses as brides for the +English kings, foreign influences crept in, and had a marked effect on +the development of style. Moreover, increasing commercial intercourse +with the Continent paved the way for the introduction of the new ideas +of the Renaissance then beginning to dawn in Italy. + +The Wars of the Roses checked progress in many ways, but this was but +the more rapid when peace was restored with the advent of Henry VII. + + +_The House_ + +There was a great change in the character of the dwelling-house, which +though still built on defensive lines, was also arranged with a view to +domestic comfort and convenience. The commonest form of plan was that +in which the buildings were grouped round a central court and surrounded +by a moat. These buildings consisted of hall, parlour, kitchen and +domestic offices. The hall itself was lofty, had an open-timbered roof, +and was usually lighted from both sides. One end of the hall was +invariably screened off, and as the screen did not reach to the roof the +musicians’ gallery was placed above it. The fireplace was set in one of +the side walls. The windows, as a rule, had few lights, and these had +pointed and cusped heads. The upper rooms were accessible by staircases. + +A not uncommon feature on the upper floor was the long gallery, which +generally traversed the whole length of the building immediately under +the roof. + +The rooms were panelled most often to about two-thirds the height of the +wall, while the remaining third was of plaster. + +The ceiling also was of plaster, which was moulded into intersecting +ribs arranged geometrically, sometimes with stalactite pendants at the +intersections. + +Fireplaces were made of stone, and chimney-pieces sometimes of wood. + +Furniture was beginning to assume some of its modern forms, as shown by +the chairs, which were railed, and copied from Italian models. + +Buffets or sideboards with closed cupboards were in use. Table legs were +carved or turned, and connected by stretchers. + +Windows were now glazed with leaded panes, and when made to open were of +the casement type, with iron frames which were hinged and furnished with +turnbuckle fastenings. + +Doors seldom had locks, but usually shut with latches of wrought iron. +The hinges also were of wrought iron, and though simple in form were +often quite ornamental. + +Henry VII and his successor were responsible for various country +residences, an example which was followed by the nobility. + +During the latter monarch’s reign it became the fashion to arrange the +plan of the mansion in the form of the letter H; that is, in two +parallel wings connected at a right angle. In the reign of Elizabeth +this was modified into a plan resembling the letter E, otherwise a +façade, with wings bent at right angles, with a central projection +forming the main entrance. + +In the domestic Tudor style the Arch was in vogue for window openings, +etc., but much flattened in form. + +The windows were divided into a number of lights, by vertical mullions, +with arch headings, occasionally cusped. If of tall proportions, they +were further divided by horizontal bars or transoms, and were glazed +with small panes of glass set in lead frames, arranged in some cases to +open in iron casements. + +[Illustration: No. 75. Tudor Window with leaded lights.] + + +_The Reformation_ + +An important factor in the development of this period was the +Reformation, with the resultant liberty of thought. Before this, +architecture and the associated arts were entirely dominated by the +Church, at the sacrifice of the individuality of the artist and +craftsman, who after this emancipation were enabled to exploit their +work untrammelled by clerical restriction. + +In some respects this was not productive of the best results, as it +removed the various co-ordinated branches of work from the restraint of +architectural dominance, with some loss to the unities. It also opened +the way to the professional designer as distinct from the craftsman (who +hitherto had been responsible for his share of the work) resulting in +occasional loss of character. + + +_Renaissance_ + +The Renaissance, which had its origin it Italy, was the next factor in +the evolution of architecture and the arts. As early as 1422 there were +indications of the coming change, though the medieval system of +construction was still adhered to. + +Impetus was given to this revival by the taking of Constantinople by the +Turks in 1453 A.D., resulting in the dispersion of the Greek scholars, +who found refuge in Italy. + +Gothic, essentially a Northern style, scarcely affected Italy, where +Byzantine tradition persisted until the Revival of Learning in the +latter half of the fifteenth century brought a fresh impulse into all +branches of Art and Literature. + +An awakened interest in classical remains was an integral part of the +vitality with which the great change known in its culmination as the +Renaissance was imbued; and the commercial prosperity of the times was +favourable to its encouragement and development. + + +_Early Exponents_ + +An active agent in this revival was Brunelleschi, a native of Florence, +who in company with Donatello, visited Rome to study the remains of +classical antiquity. His principal successor, Leo Battista Alberti, +contributed largely to the new style. Ultimately the Roman Orders and +their details were appropriated and adapted to local requirements. + +The most prominent artists of the day turned their attention to the +designing and making of wood-work, and the decoration of rooms. + +[Illustration: No. 76. Strozzi Palace, Florence.] + +The earlier work is severely architectural in character, being closely +based on the antique, with all the usual features of columns, pilasters, +cornices and pediments. + +The greatest achievement of the architects of the Renaissance was +perhaps their adaptation of the antique Roman style to the modified +needs of secular buildings, of which the Palazzo Pitti at Florence by +Brunelleschi is an early and notable example. This creating a form of +architecture which perhaps reached its noblest expression in the Palazzo +Strozzi, begun in 1489 A.D. by Benedetto da Majano. + +As previously suggested, climate and local material are essential agents +in the formation of style, and from Tuscany stone of large size was +easily obtainable. + +[Illustration: No. 77. Pandolfini Palace, Florence.] + +The contentious conditions existing in many of the Italian cities, +entailing necessity for defence, must also be taken into account, and in +connection with the foregoing were responsible for the massive and +fortress-like construction of the principal dwellings of this period. + +In the best examples of these, though columns and pilasters were not +employed in the façade, the stories are proportioned as if the orders +were used. The crowning cornice, however, is proportioned to the whole, +varying in height between one fourteenth to one fifteenth. + +From Florence the movement spread to Rome and other cities, but Venetian +Renaissance indicates undoubted evidence of Lombardic influence. + +Until the end of the fifteenth century the period was one of experiment, +but from 1500 to about 1560 the style may be said to have attained a +phase distinct and local. + +At first the various features, structural and decorative, were frank +reproductions from the antique, which were studied and measured, and +from which systems of proportion were deduced by various exponents, +among whom the names of Vignola, Palladio and Serlio are conspicuous. + + +_Rome_ + +The Roman version of the Renaissance, as distinct from that of Florence, +was less massive, Rome being comparatively free from insurrectionary +troubles. Columns and pilasters were used to divide the façade into +bays, or in the inner courts, which were frequently arcaded, and the +principal entrance became a prominent feature. + +The founder of the Roman school was Bramante, born in 1444 A.D., +originally a painter, who was responsible for the original design of St. +Peter’s, at the instigation of Pope Julius II. + +The partly executed work was found to be too weak to bear the +superstructure, and Bramante in the meanwhile dying, Raffaelle, Giocondo +and Giuliano di San Gallo, and afterwards Baldazzare Peruzzi and Antonio +San Gallo were engaged on the edifice. + +[Illustration: No. 78. St. Peter’s, Rome.] + +Finally Michael Angelo was entrusted with the sole conduct, and St. +Peter’s in its present form must be credited to him, with the exception +of the nave, which was added by Carlo Maderno. + +Of the secular buildings, the Farnese Palace, the work of San Gallo, is +typical of the Roman adaptation of the antique architecture to the +altered conditions. + +To the above list of architects of the Roman Renaissance may be added +the names of Sansovino, Vignola and Bernini, the last-named being the +author of designs for the Louvre at Paris. + +[Illustration: No. 79. Farnese Palace, Rome.] + + +_Venice_ + +The Venetian States, since the twelfth century, had been growing in +power, and the Republic’s rise in importance was favourable to the arts, +particularly to architecture. + +Local influence is evident in the comparatively restricted ground areas, +entailing the maximum accommodation possible. + +The Venetian school is distinguished by the profuse use of columns and +arcading; also for the employment of circular-headed windows, frequently +subdivided by tracery of smaller arched and circular forms, and by +general lightness of effect. + +The founder of the Venetian school was San Micheli, born in 1484 A.D., +who spent many years studying the ancient Roman monuments, and who was +responsible for the Grimani Palace. + +Jacopo Tatti, a Florentine, more usually known as Sansovino, though +mentioned in the Roman group of architects, was however more associated +with Venice, his adopted city. + +[Illustration: No. 80. Vendramini Palace, Venice.] + +Prominent among his works is the Library of St. Mark, which consists of +two orders, an upper of the Ionic, supported by an arcade in which the +Doric is employed, the whole surmounted by a balustrade with statues on +the piers. + + +_Venetian Influence_ + +In the Venetian school must be included the name of Andrea Palladio, who +possibly had a greater influence on the architecture of the time than +any of his contemporaries; an influence that may be traced in the work +of Inigo Jones, and in that of Sir Christopher Wren and his immediate +school. + +Vincenzo Scamozzi, who died in 1616 A.D., like Palladio and others, was +influenced by the antique, and was perhaps the last architect of the +Venetian school to attain celebrity. + +[Illustration: No. 81. Library of St. Mark by Sansovino, Venice.] + + +_Painted Decoration_ + +A conspicuous feature of the Italian Renaissance was the development of +painted decoration, which had in Italy succeeded the Byzantine mosaic. + +As in this method of decoration, mouldings in relief were ineffective, +and were replaced by decorative bands or borders, so in the succeeding +painted work similar framings were adopted. + +[Illustration: No. 82. Painted Decoration. Palazzo Publico, Sienna, from +a drawing by C. E. Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.] + +[Illustration: No. 83. Painted Ceiling in the Castello San Angelo, Rome, +by Giulio Romano, from a drawing by Miss Dora Bard, Goldsmiths’ College +School of Art.] + +[Illustration: No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the Villa +Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence, from a drawing by C. E. +Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.] + +[Illustration: No. 85. Ceiling-Painting from the Castello San Angelo, +Rome, reminiscent of Graeco-Roman work, from a drawing by C. E. Bernard, +Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.] + +Mosaics were in vogue in Italy to the twelfth century, when painted +decoration came into favour, and notable in the exploitation of this +latter phase was the school of Giotto in the early part of the +fourteenth century. + +Vaultings and spandrils were covered with painted subjects, strongly +framed by ornamental borders, which served to strengthen the sense of +construction in reinforcing the dividing ribs. + +With the advent of the Renaissance, these divisional bands became more +architectural in treatment, and large areas, such as ceilings, were +subdivided, the sub-divisions being based on a logical sense of +construction. + +The name of Pinturrichio is associated with the Renaissance, among his +works being the decorations of the Appartamenti Borgia in the Vatican, +the Choir in Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, and in Santa Maria Maggiore +at Spello; contemporaneous was Perugino; another celebrated name is that +of Gian Antonio Bazzi of Sienna, generally known as Sodoma. + + +_Græco-Roman Influence_ + +Later exploiters of painted decoration, Raffaelle at the Vatican, Giulio +Romano, Pierino del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine, were evidently +influenced by the then recent discovery of late Græco-Roman decorations +in the remains of the Baths of Titus. + +The same influence is found also in minor details--in the decoration of +rooms and in the various pieces of furniture. + +Walls were panelled, sometimes enriched with carving, with inlaid +patterns in intarsia, or with inlay of different woods in imitation of +marble mosaic. Hangings of Genoese velvet or stamped and gilded leather +were often used. + +Chairs were at first simple in form, having straight backs and legs, +with broad, elaborately carved rails at the head of the back and between +the front legs. + +Chests or cassone, called also marriage coffers, because it was +customary to give them as wedding presents, generally took the form of +the sarcophagus, supported on claw feet. In many instances they were +decorated with gilt gesso, or were covered with exuberant carving. + +With the development of inlay, which degenerated into picture making, +some later examples show attempts at perspectives, in which arches, +doors, balustrades and paved floors were depicted. Cabinets were +invariably raised on open supports and furnished with doors enclosing +compartments and sets of drawers, the fronts of which were frequently +decorated. + +[Illustration: No. 86. Venetian Table.] + +Tables were inlaid, carved and gilded. The prevailing form was a +rectangular top, sometimes of marble, with wide, richly carved supports +consisting of human and animal forms at either end; these were connected +by a central stretcher at the base, from which sprang a series of arched +forms reaching to the underside of the top. + +Walnut was commonly employed for constructive purposes, and ebony and +many other woods were used both for veneers and inlay, as also were +such materials as ivory, tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl. + +It is not easy to form an idea of the furniture in ordinary use, as the +examples which survive and which can generally be seen in museums are +misleading, being typical rather of that belonging to the nobility and +wealthy classes. + +Probably owing to the rougher usage to which it was subjected, and +possibly also to its being but little esteemed by its owners, and +consequently no effort being made to preserve it, the domestic furniture +of the middle classes seems to have disappeared. + +[Illustration: No. 87. Carved Walnut Chair. Italian, 16th century.] + + +_Early French Renaissance_ + +France had been brought into contact with the new architecture through +the Italian wars under Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I. + +The chief characteristic of the early French Renaissance is that the +details of the new school were imposed on structures which were Gothic +in general form. + +Italian architects were employed by Francis I, and although in the many +important buildings erected for him he preferred native workmen, +Italians were retained to furnish designs and lead the new style. +Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea del Sarto were both employed in the +decoration of Fontainebleau. + +[Illustration: No. 88. Wood Panelling. Early French Renaissance.] + +Fontainebleau, Chateau de Chambord, Chenonceaux sur Loire, Chateau de +Madrid and the commencement of the Louvre were all due to Francis I, and +the Italian influence was strengthened by the marriage of Henry II with +Catharine di Medici. + +[Illustration: No. 89. Stone Chimney-piece, Fontainbleau, Henry II +Salon.] + + +_Native Exploitation_ + +Under the influence of Vignola and Serlio, the Italian style became more +popular, and finally extinguished the lingering Gothic tradition; and +eventually the assimilated style became local, the first prominent +native exploiter being Philibert Delorme, the architect of the +Tuileries, for Queen Catharine of Medicis. + +Strapwork was a pronounced feature of this period, carved panels being +subdivided by framings of straight and curved forms interlaced with +cornucopæ and scroll work. Scrolling straps with I shaped incisions were +also used. + +[Illustration: No. 90. Wood Panel. Early French Renaissance.] + +Masks are of frequent occurrence, and sometimes form scroll centres. + +Medallions were often employed, and were occupied by profile heads, and +surrounded by foliated wreaths. + +Pilasters were narrow, and had sunk and moulded panels, lozenge shaped +in the centre. + +In England great impetus was given to building, consequent on the +suppression of the religious houses during the reign of Henry VIII, and +mansions were erected in various parts of the country with some +pretension to both external effect and domestic comfort, not merely by +the nobility, but also by the wealthy merchant class. + + +_English Renaissance_ + +From the rise of the Italian Renaissance a century elapsed before the +new style began to affect English work. + +[Illustration: No. 91. French Chair. Period Henry II.] + +In Italy classic tradition had never died, and consequently Gothic +gained no real hold there, the best examples of Italian Gothic being +inferior to those of France and England. In the early days of the +Revival of Learning, when interest in architecture was at its height, +Italians set out to emulate the style of building and decoration which +prevailed in ancient Rome. Gradually the same spirit spread to other +parts of Europe. Students were attracted to the birth-place of the +Revival, and workers and designers from Italy were eagerly welcomed by +her neighbours. + +Naturally enough each country interpreted the new style in a different +way, and as it reached England chiefly through France and the +Netherlands, the French and Flemish interpretations in turn influenced +the development of the English style. + +[Illustration: No. 92. Walnut Chair upholstered in Appliqué. Italian, +about 1600.] + + +_Italians in England_ + +Before either French or Flemish influence had been felt, however, there +were Italian workers settled in England carrying out designs purely +Italian in character. The earliest example is the tomb of Henry VII in +Westminster Abbey, by Torrigiano. Many tombs and monuments were made +entirely by Italians. Holbein, who was employed by Henry VIII, was +distinctly a Renaissance painter and designer and encouraged the new +movement. + +As the style became more widely disseminated it lost much of its +original purity, and classical details were used in conjunction with +Gothic forms and methods of construction, due, doubtless, to the +apparent difficulty with which the native workers grasped the essentials +of the new style; indeed, there is more intermixing of styles in England +than in any other part of Europe with the exception of Flanders. + +[Illustration: No. 93. Stone Chimney-piece. Sala Borgia, Rome. 16th +Century.] + +The purely Italian phase was followed by a rendering which was largely +borrowed from French work, and this in turn was supplanted by the +influence of the Flemish interpretation. The delicately modelled +foliage, dolphins, candelabra, vases and cherubs, so characteristic of +Italian and French work, were replaced by such typically Flemish details +as interlacing strapwork with curved and scrolled ends, frequently +cartouche-like in form, festoons of fruit and foliage, and terminal +figures used as pilasters. + + +_Study of Classic Style_ + +In the late Jacobean and succeeding phases the classic manner was more +thoroughly understood, and a more scholarly handling was the result, +until the culmination was reached in the work of Inigo Jones and Wren. + +The Elizabethan phase indicates an imperfectly understood, and in many +instances meaningless, employment and adaptation of Italian forms to the +requirements of the times. + +A notable example if this is the central feature of the Public Schools +at Oxford, the work of Thomas Holt, a native of York, in which the +orders appear ranged one above the other. + + +_Thomas Thorpe_ + +The most prominent name associated with the architecture of the period +is Thomas Thorpe, who was concerned in many of the principal edifices +erected during the reign of Elizabeth and of her successor, James I. + +The general arrangement of woodwork consisted of architectural façades, +and the orders and pediments were utilised wherever possible. + +Doorways and chimney-pieces offered the principal opportunities for +display in interior work. + +Panelling was retained for the large halls and most of the rooms. The +walls were frequently divided into bays by means of pilasters and +surmounted by friezes and cornices more or less determined by +traditional forms. + + +_Flemish Influence_ + +The style degenerated in the same reign into a coarser rendering, and +was followed by a period of strong Flemish influence. There is, in fact, +such a marked similarity between the later Elizabethan and Flemish +furniture and wood-work that it is not easy to distinguish the +nationality of examples of this period. In cases where figure sculpture +is employed, however, it is not difficult to decide, as a considerably +higher standard was attained by the Flemish school of figure carvers +than is found in English work. + +Tapered pilaster-like supports, surmounted by half figures or Ionic +caps, were often employed in the framing of doors and chimney-pieces, +and sometimes on furniture. Table supports and newels of stairs +increased in size. The heavy acorn-shaped baluster is a feature. Inlay +came into use for panelling as well as for furniture. + +Synchronously with the changes in detail, there was a more classical +tendency displayed in moulded features such as strings and cornices. + +In the early seventeenth century the scale of the details of Flemish +work increased. Diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on square ones; +turned work was split and the two halves applied; drop ornaments were +used below tables and from the centres of panels under arches--all these +being additions to the general structure. + + +_Jacobean_ + +English work developed in much the same way as Flemish, probably owing +to the commerce in wood-work between England and Flanders at this time. + +In the earlier work, where the orders were employed, there was some +regard to proportion and detail, probably direct translation of Italian +designs, but in the later Jacobean work there was considerable +falling-off, presumably due to native exploitation and experiment. + +[Illustration: No. 94. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.] + +Architectural feeling was prominent in the treatment of interiors, which +were invariably panelled as in the earlier period. The characteristic +“linen fold” variety of the late Tudor giving place to plain panelling, +framed by stiles and rails closely spaced. + +Walls were occasionally divided into bays by means of pilasters, often +supported on pedestals. + +The panels in the later development were invariably plain, but a +decorated frieze, carved in relief, was carried round immediately under +the cornice. Coats of arms at intervals sometimes supplied the +decoration. The carved frieze gave place to a simple form of patterning, +which was produced by sinking the ground to practically one level and +leaving the ornament which had little or no modelling, flush with the +face of the panel. This led to fretting out the pattern and applying it +to the surface. The idea of planting ornament evidently spread, and may +be seen in such obviously applied details as studs and half-balusters. + +A typical room of the period would be treated with plain panelling, +perhaps divided into bays by pilasters, and all elaboration was confined +to the doorways and chimney-piece. + +[Illustration: No. 95. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.] + +The chimney-piece might be in wood, stone or marble, and while there +were many varieties of treatment, the designs readily fall under one +general type. Columns or pilasters flanked the opening, + +[Illustration: No. 96. Jacobean Chimney-piece. Palace of +Bromley-by-Bow.] + +carrying an entablature consisting of architrave frieze and cornice, the +latter forming a shelf. Above this there was a similar arrangement, but +on a smaller scale and with finer proportions. The space between the +columns above the shelf was usually filled with carving, which sometimes +took the form of armorial bearings. In many examples the upper part is +divided into two panels, which were generally filled with carved +ornament such as strapwork or shields charged with heraldic devices. + +Where the chimney-piece was of wood, the fireplace opening was +surrounded by a stone lining, which had moulded splays on the upright +jambs. In earlier examples the jambs were connected by a flattened arch +with carved spandrils. In later work a horizontal panel was employed or +a frieze of carved detail. + +The opening itself was wide, and was lined with brick or stone. The +interior was occupied by a fire-back of cast-iron and a movable grate or +basket supported on dogs. + +[Illustration: No. 97. Jacobean Door, shewing absense of architrave.] + +Doors were at first merely a part of the panelling without hanging +frames, but later they were treated as important features of the rooms. +They were often framed with columns and pilasters, surmounted by +entablatures, with or without pediments. Obelisks were sometimes placed +over the pilasters. The frieze was fluted or carved. In many cases the +tympanum of the pediment or even one of the door panels bore the owner’s +coat of arms. + +In the earlier phases the mouldings framing the panels were simple in +form, and worked on the stiles and rails. But later they were applied, +being wider in display and more elaborate in section. These applied +mouldings, evidently the result of mechanical appliances, later led to +extreme license in broken angles and panellings of complicated form. + +[Illustration: No. 98. Jacobean Doors.] + +Ceilings, and occasionally the frieze, were in plaster, decorated with +intersecting ribs, or bands dividing the surface into compartments +geometric in shape, and further enriched with stamped or modelled +ornament. + +Windows were relatively small as to individual openings, large lighting +areas being obtained by grouping a number of these side by side, and +also in tiers, the dividing bars or mullions being either in wood or +stone. + +Glazing took the form of small pieces of glass united by lead frames, +commonly arranged in trellis form, resulting in diamond-shaped pieces. +Occasionally painted or coloured glass was used, generally in heraldic +devices in the upper portions of the windows. + +The windows themselves were frequently deeply embayed. + + +_Development in Dwellings_ + +The growing appreciation of domestic comfort, evident in the general +arrangement of the buildings of this period, is also apparent in the +furniture, which from this time approximates somewhat to the modern +forms, though still crude, and leaving much to be desired in the way of +personal comfort. + +[Illustration: No. 99. Oak Table, English. 17th century.] + +Tables, which had hitherto been mere portable boards laid on trestles, +or, if fixed, were on heavy legs with rails below, developed into more +useful forms. These were the draw-inge table which could be extended by +drawing out two flaps worked on runners from beneath the normal top, +and the gate-leg table, which in principle resembled the modern folding +type. Large tables were formed by putting a number of gate-leg tables +together, and when not so in use they could be placed in different parts +of the room. + +[Illustration: No. 100. English Chairs, early 17th century.] + +Legs and the under rails of chairs and tables were turned in the lathe, +and the carved details were invariably simple and direct in execution, +similar in character to much of the work in the early French +Renaissance, in contrast to the Italian carving, which was in high +relief and plastic in character. + +The majority of examples in our national collection of this period are +of Court furniture, and cannot be taken as typical of what was in common +use. The over-ornamented Italian work compares unfavourably with the +English Jacobean furniture, in which utility is obvious and the +decoration subordinate and to the purpose. + +Oak was chiefly employed in England, but in Italy, and later in France, +walnut was much used. + +[Illustration: No. 101. English Chair, middle of 17th century, +influenced by Italian design.] + +Panelling was prevalent for interiors in the Italian and French +Renaissance. In Italy, where the art of weaving had been preserved at +Lucca, and other places, tapestry was also frequently employed as wall +hangings, also as coverings for upholstered work. + +[Illustration: No. 102. Oak Chair, English, 17th century.] + +Compared with the earlier period, this was a time of luxury and display, +favourable to the arts generally. + +Painting, freed from the restrictions of the church, broke away from the +Byzantine traditions, and revelling in realism, lost to some extent its +decorative character. + +[Illustration: Dutch Wall sconce 17th Centy Brass + +No. 103.] + + +_Evolution of Professional Designer_ + +Under patronage, the individual artist and craftsman was allowed to +develop on his own lines, and no longer worked under the dominance of +the architect. Demand, owing to growing appreciation of artistic +production, eventuated in the evolution of the professional designer. + + +_Inigo Jones_ + +[Illustration: Dutch Wall Bracket 17th Centy Brass. + +No. 104.] + +Although the Renaissance had come to stay, the manner of its +interpretation in England by the native workers was very far removed +from the Italian school which had supplied the first impulse, until the +advent of Inigo Jones in the reign of James I. This artist, who had +visited Italy and studied principally the architecture of Palladio and +his school, was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works. Under his influence +proportions and details were used, which conformed more nearly to +classic types. + +Born about 1572 A.D., he studied in Italy, where he became acquainted +with the work of Palladio, and was a follower of the Venetian school. + +Dying in 1652, he left a tradition which would have had a more immediate +effect but for the internecine troubles of the later period of his life. + +[Illustration: No. 105. Banqueting House, Whitehall. Inigo Jones.] + +A typical example of his work in London is the Banqueting House in +Whitehall, the only part built of the projected palace for James I, now +used as a museum by the United Service Institution. Also the Church of +St. Paul, Covent Garden. + + +_Louis XIII_ + +By the time of Louis XIII the principles of the Renaissance had become +thoroughly assimilated in France, and a native school of architecture +had arisen of marked distinction. France from then onward took the +initiative, though strongly influenced by the Venetian school. + +The orders were used consistently as to proportion and detail, but in +the decoration considerable development in character is manifest. + +The general construction and details developed on + +[Illustration: No. 106. Louis XIII. Luxembourg Pavilion Entrance, by +Salamon de Brose, 1615-24.] + +more architectural lines, and shew a better appreciation of the Italian +originals. Pilasters were used to divide the wall surfaces, these and +the entablatures closely following in detail the classic types. Panels +were much wider than in the preceding style, generally occupying the +whole space between the pilasters. The usual arrangement for these +panels was to have them in two tiers--the shallow ones confined to the +lower portions of walls and those of deeper proportions above. +Fireplaces and doors were surrounded by boldly moulded architraves, and +surmounted by panels occupied by carved details of scroll-work and +foliage. + +[Illustration: No. 107. Ste. Marie, Nevers. Louis XIII. Example of +Barocco (Flemish influence).] + +[Illustration: No. 108. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIII.] + +Ceilings were modelled in stucco and sub-divided into compartments, +which were richly moulded, and in some cases decorated with paintings. + +During the reign of Louis XIII, chairs were made more comfortable by +being upholstered in velvet, tapestry or needlework, instead of being +smothered with carving. The frames were covered by velvet or other +material, leaving only the legs and arms visible, and these were but +slightly carved. + + +_Louis XIV_ + +In France the Renaissance reached its highest degree of splendour in the +reign of Louis XIV. + +[Illustration: No. 109. Louis XIV. Louvre, Paris, by Perrault.] + +The palace of Versailles, designed by Jules Hardouin Mansart, was +completed, and French designers were many and famous. Amongst the most +prominent were Lebrun, who was responsible for much of the interior work +at Versailles, Jean and Claude Berain, Lepautre, Daniel Marot and André +Charles Boule, the inventor of the particular class of inlay which bears +his name. + +The style of Louis XIV is characteristic of its time. Love of display +was manifested in every direction, but nowhere did it give rise to +greater magnificence than in furniture and decoration. + +The employment of architectural features, with a close approximation to +accepted proportions, had been the keynote of the preceding style, but +the work of this period broke away from all tradition. As a departure +it was quite original, and constituted a phase in the development of the +Renaissance that was purely and typically French, and this particularly +in its massiveness and grandeur. + +[Illustration: No. 110. The King’s Bedchamber, Versailles. Louis XIV.] + +Panelling became more varied in proportion, and heavily framed with +mouldings of the Bolection type. Glass was also used in panels as at +Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, where the windows on one side of the +gallery are repeated in form by mirrors in reciprocal positions. + +Important rooms were panelled and divided by pilasters, surmounted by +entablatures. The Corinthian order was the one most frequently used. + +Panel mouldings were heavily and richly carved. Curved sections and +facias were fluted, or carved with guilloche or leaf detail. Figures and +_amorini_, heavy festoons, wreaths, cartouches and shields were among +the decorative motifs. Strapwork, a survival of the preceding styles, +was moulded and clothed with foliage of the acanthus variety. + +Ceilings were modelled in stucco and were divided into bold geometrical +compartments by strongly moulded ribs. The compartments were sometimes +occupied by paintings. In some cases the cornice was not taken up to the +height of the ceiling, but the ceiling line was continued in form of a +curve to meet the top of the cornice, forming what is known as a cove. + +[Illustration: No. 111. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIV.] + +Chairs were massive, the frames were carved and gilt, and the seats and +backs upholstered in tapestry. In the latter part of the reign of Louis +XIV metal was used in the construction of furniture in the form of +mounts--as framing and protecting pieces to angles, and was gilt by the +mercury process. The introduction of veneer probably led to this use of +metal. + + +_"Boule” Work_ + +A method of decorating furniture with inlays of brass or tin and +tortoiseshell originated by André Charles Boule, came into vogue. The +sheets of metal and shell were placed together and cut simultaneously, +with the result that the patterns produced were interchangeable--thus +the metal pattern could be fitted with a tortoiseshell background and +vice versa. There was a tendency for this style of work to become more +ornate and showy, and later, instead of the transparent shell being used +in its natural colour, either vermilion or gold leaf was placed +underneath. + + +_Mirrors_ + +Mirrors, in the sixteenth century, had been imported from Italy, and +those of considerable size were first made in Venice. + +Later glass manufactories were established in England--near +Battersea--and in France, where larger mirrors and plates of glass were +produced than hitherto. + +Rooms lined with mirrors became popular, in some cases even the ceiling +being made of glass. + +Console tables, which were frequently gilt, were often placed under the +large wall mirrors. + +Hanging bands of material were employed to drape the heads of windows +and the tops of bedsteads. Beds were important pieces of furniture, and +had elaborately carved head and foot boards. The overhanging Tester was +also ornamented, and besides the valances already mentioned, was +surmounted by groups of plumes. + +[Illustration: No. 112. Pantheon, Paris. Soufflet. Louis XV.] + + +_Louis XV_ + +Little advance was made in architecture during the reign of Louis XV, to +which period belongs the Pantheon at Paris, originally the Church of St. +Geneviéve, the work of Soufflet, born in 1713. + + +_Régence_ + +The style passed through two stages. The earlier, known as the +Régence--the principal exponents of which were Charles Cressent, Gilles +Marie Oppenord, and Nicholas Pineau--is distinguished by a certain +reserve and moderation which were entirely abandoned in the later Rococo +period. + + +_Rococo_ + +The term “Rococo” is derived from a French word meaning rockwork, and is +applied to the style in which rock and shell forms are used as details. + +[Illustration: No. 113. Detail of Wood-carving, Regency Period.] + +Ornament became extravagant and meaningless, and was wrongly used to +serve the purpose of construction, the actual constructive elements +being at times completely ignored. It cannot be denied, however, that +powerful draughtsmanship and inventiveness were displayed, but without +the consideration of practical execution, which is essential to all good +design. + +Evidently the artist or designer dominated the craftsman, who, however, +grappled with difficulties in an admirable manner, often achieving +results which would appear from the constructional point of view almost +impossible of attainment. + +The work of the latter part of the period expresses the enervated and +frivolous spirit of the time. + +Walls were panelled and often divided by pilasters, which, however, lost +all structural significance. + +Cornices and friezes were dispensed with, the frieze being replaced by a +cove curving into the ceiling. + +Mouldings were broken at angles and intersections into curves, scrolls +and foliage. + +Carved details of the curiously twisted leafage peculiar to the style +were employed wherever possible. + +Painted panels were fashionable, and were used particularly over +doorheads. They were surrounded or framed by curved and enriched +mouldings. + +[Illustration: No. 114. Carved Wood Door. Louis XV.] + +Interiors of this later period were invariably painted white, and partly +gilt, the wall panels decorated with tapestry or paintings with which +are associated the names of Bouchier, Watteau, and Fragonard. + +Ceilings were also painted, wall mirrors were employed and furniture (at +this period at times extremely costly) was veneered and decorated with +metal mounts in gilt ormolu. + +Chair and table legs were of the cabriole type. + +Bureaux fronts were swelled into curves both horizontally and +vertically. + +Veneer and marqueterie were much used. + +Chased and gilt brass was employed to protect angles, as feet, handles, +escutcheons and other ornamental details. + +[Illustration: French Louis XV + +No. 115.] + +[Illustration: No. 116. Chair with cane back English, later half 17th +century.] + + +_Lacquer “Vernis Martin"_ + +Furniture was also decorated in imitation of Chinese lacquer. The +principal worker in it was Robert Martin, who introduced a varnish of +fine transparent quality. + + +_Later English Renaissances_ + +Artistic progress was hindered in England by the disturbed conditions +at the time of the Civil War, and in consequence little change in style +took place in this and the Commonwealth period. + +With the Restoration came the influence of the French Court, and foreign +furniture was imported, thus giving fresh models for the English +workers. + +One result of the Great Fire in 1666 was that a great impetus was given +to architecture and to the crafts associated with it, and the influence +of Wren and Grinling Gibbons produced a school of most efficient carvers +and craftsmen. + + +_Sir Christopher Wren_ + +Wren was a worthy successor to Inigo Jones, and the general destruction +wrought by the fire in the city gave him a fine field for his activity. +He was employed not only to rebuild the churches, eighty-nine of which +had been burnt, but also many of the city halls; and was commissioned by +William and Mary to build the state-rooms at Hampton Court Palace. + +[Illustration: No. 117. English Chair, period of Charles II.] + +The style of Wren, which, like that of Inigo Jones, was based rather +upon the Venetian school, was perpetuated and found individual exponents +in the works of his pupils and immediate successors. Among whom may be +mentioned James Gibbs (1720 to 1754), architect of St. Martin’s in the +Fields (1726) and St. Mary le Strand, and Nicholas Hawksmoor, who was +responsible for the churches of St. George’s, Bloomsbury, and St. Mary, +Woolnoth, the latter commenced in 1716 was finished in 1718. + +[Illustration: No. 118. St. Paul’s Cathedral. Wren.] + +Notable among Wren’s churches is that of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, in the +City of London; of his secular work an example may be cited in the +library of Trinity College, Cambridge. + + +_Classic Spires_ + +A characteristic of the period in the churches of Wren and his school is +the spire, which, though tapering like the Gothic variety, is invested +with features quite Renaissance in form, arranged in successive tiers. + +The architecture of the period is in excellent proportion, and all the +details of mouldings, capitals, etc., were executed in a masterly +manner. + +Panelling was still employed, mostly in oak, and was now carried up to +the ceiling. The panels were very wide, frequently bevelled at the +edges--the stiles and rails forming the framings being much wider than +hitherto. The framing mouldings were sometimes carved. + +[Illustration: No. 119. Spire of St. Mary le Strand.] + +Doorways and chimneypieces were surrounded by well-designed architraves, +with carved mouldings, and were surmounted by pediments, above which it +was not unusual to have carved festoons and pendants of fruit and +foliage. + +[Illustration: No. 120. English Interior Wood-work. Late 17th and early +18th century.] + +Pilasters were decorated with cherubs’ heads used as caps, and pendant +drops of the usual type. + +Carving was profusely used, the details consisted mainly of interlacing +scrollwork of acanthus-like foliage, heavy fruit and flower festoons and +drops, trophies and cherubs’ heads. The relief was high, the work +occasionally being detached, and the manner of execution was sharp and +crisp, implying no hesitation on the part of the carver. + +The high relief necessitated building up thicknesses of wood, and formed +a great contrast to the earlier work in which the ground was slightly +set back, leaving the original panel face as the highest part of the +pattern. + +The woods commonly used were oak for wainscotting and cedar for doors. +Where it was intended that the woodwork should be painted or gilt it was +made in deal. Some of the carving was in oak, but the favorite material +was limewood, and pear; cedar or lime was used when small fine detail +was required. Elm was employed for various articles such as dressers: +ash, beech, birch, poplar, sycamore, English and Italian walnut were +also used. + + +_Dutch and French Influences_ + +With William III and his Dutch court the influence of the Netherlands +became once more apparent. It was coloured by the French style of the +Louis XIV period, probably through an immigration of French workmen +after the Edict of Nantes in 1685. This influence can be traced in some +of the furniture at Hampton Court, particularly in the carved and gilt +tables of French design and English workmanship. + +[Illustration: No. 121. A. Walnut Chair, period of Queen Anne. B. Dutch +Chair, 17th century. C. Inlaid Chair, period of Queen Anne. D. Carved +Chair, period of Queen Anne.] + +The chairs and settees of the period have shaped backs, generally with +delicately carved central vertical panels of vase-like form; and +cabriole legs with a carved shell ornament on the knee. + +Bureaux and corner cupboards were introduced. They were decorated with +marqueterie or with inlay of boxwood or holly on a walnut ground. + + +_Queen Anne Period_ + +Flemish or Dutch influence prevailed during the period known as Queen +Anne. + +The typical Queen Anne chair in common with all the furniture of the +period was made of walnut. The seat was wide, the front legs cabriole +shaped, ending, as a rule, in club or claw-and-ball feet. The back was +high and curved at the top, and this was connected centrally with the +seat by a long vase or fiddle-shaped splat. Carving was not much used, +but the splat was sometimes ornamented with floral and other designs in +marqueterie after the Dutch fashion. + +During this period an appreciation for Oriental china and lacquer work +had an important effect on furniture and decoration. + +The later fashion of inlay and marquetry work of Sheraton was perhaps as +much the outcome of the Dutch practice of this form of decoration, as it +was due to the discovery of the possibilities of mahogany as a suitable +wood for furniture. + + +_Early Georgian_ + +The eighteenth century in England was the age of the connoisseur and +dilettante, and the struggling professional, literary or artistic, had +little opportunity except by the favour of a patron. As for instance, +Lord Burlington, who is reported to have practised architecture in +conjunction with his _protégé_ Kent. + +William Kent, born in 1685, died 1748, a painter as well as an +architect, was responsible for many designs, among which may be +mentioned the Horse Guards in Whitehall, and Holkham in Norfolk for the +Earl of Leicester. + +Georgian work shows more evidence of French influence, but is invariably +stiff and heavy in feeling. + +In panelling rooms a surbase or dado was employed. The bolection +moulding was universally used round panels. + +Doorways and chimneypieces were made up of architraves, surmounted by +pediments, and were formal in design and detail. The Greek key was often +most unsatisfactorily used in their decoration. + + +_Chippendale_ + +Among others, Chippendale’s name is associated with the furniture of +this period, and his book of designs, published about the middle of the +eighteenth century, contained, besides furniture, suggestions for the +complete decoration of rooms. Chippendale was undoubtedly influenced by +the Louis XV style, and at one period he attempted to exploit Chinese +forms and details. + +The chairs designed by him were based on the earlier Queen Anne type, +but the vase-shaped back was replaced by pierced and carved interlacing +bands and ribbons. For a time the cabriole leg was retained, but + +[Illustration: + +No. 122. A. Transitional Chair, 18th century. + B. Mahogany Sheraton. + C. “ Chippendale. + D. Walnut Hepplewhite. +] + +later examples have straight square legs. The chairs were fitted with +loose upholstered seats covered with morocco leather. + +Furniture was generally in mahogany, which had been introduced a little +earlier from the West Indies, and had become popular on account of the +colour and figure developed by polishing. Mahogany lends itself to fine +mouldings and detail, and this was evidently appreciated, as relief +decoration on furniture in this wood received a more restrained +treatment, while plain surfaces were made more extensive. + + +_Mayhew_ + +Contemporary workers were Mainwaring and Mayhew. Mayhew was responsible +for a form of fretwork decoration which is often ascribed to +Chippendale. + + +_Adam Style_ + +Prominent among his contemporaries, more perhaps for his influence on +interior decoration, was Robert Adam, who died at the age of ninety-four +in 1792. + +A student of the later antique Roman work, and inspired by the remains +of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro, he evolved a style which bears his +name, that was personal and distinctive. A style that had many +followers, and which largely influenced the work of Sheraton. + +Simple as to structural form, and delicate in detail, it carried on the +tradition of the later Graeco-Roman work on which it was founded, +avoiding absolute reproduction. + +[Illustration: No. 123. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”] + +[Illustration: No. 124. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”] + +The Adam influence is evident also in the pottery of this period, and in +the details of Sheffield plate. + +Examples of Robert Adam’s architectural design may be seen in London at +the Adelphi, which was built as a speculation, in the Admiralty screen +in Whitehall, and houses in Portland Place, W. + +[Illustration: + + Sheffield Plate + +18th Centy + +No. 125. Adam influence.] + + +_Hepplewhite_ + +Hepplewhite also was designing and manufacturing about this time, and is +noted principally for his japanned or painted furniture. In this process +the wood was first coated with a preparation after the manner of Chinese +or Japanese lacquer, and then decorated with fruit and flowers in gold +on a background. Subsequently, furniture of this character, instead of +being japanned, was merely painted white. Hepplewhite’s chair-backs +differ in form from Chippendale’s, being shield or oval shaped. + +Satinwood came into use, and much of the work ascribed to Sheraton was +made of it. + +Painted decoration of a delicate character, the details including +ribbons, borders and medallions, was applied to table-tops, harpsichord +cases, chair-backs and other objects. The names of Angelica Kauffmann +and Cipriani are associated with this form of decoration. + +Hepplewhite and Sheraton were apparently influenced by the work of the +brothers Adam, which was a distinct departure from the earlier style. +The cabriole leg was rarely used, its place being taken by gracefully +tapered forms. + + +_Sheraton_ + +Although some of Sheraton’s furniture had painted detail, he more often +used marqueterie and inlay of fine design. + +Panels were treated in marqueterie, with ovals or other simple shapes +surrounded by narrow bands or lines of contrasting colour. + +Sheraton sideboards were usually without backs, and were sometimes +furnished with brass rails on top. + +Bookcases had glass doors with well designed and finely worked sash +bars. + +The general tendency was towards elegance and refinement, and led to +simplicity of treatment rather than over enrichment. + +Indeed this may be taken as the culminating period for the finest +production of furniture, not only with regard to design and exquisite +workmanship, but in carefully studied utility. This consideration may be +seen in the dressing-tables and secretaires, which were full of +ingenious devices, and secret drawers and contrivances for hiding papers +and valuables were quite a feature of the work. + + +_Louis XVI_ + +Towards the end of the reign of Louis XV there was a distinct change in +taste, and consequently in style. This was manifested by a return to +simplicity of line, + +[Illustration: No. 126. Painted Interior Decoration. Marie Antoinette +Boudoir. Louis XVI.] + +[Illustration: No. 127. Interior Treatment. Louis XVI.] + +[Illustration: No. 128. Chimney-piece with Mirror. Louis XVI.] + +[Illustration: No. 129. Library with fitted Book-cases. Louis XVI.] + +a more sparing use of enrichments and greater refinement of detail. + +[Illustration: No. 130. Door Treatment. Louis XVI.] + +Probably the same influence that inspired Adam was at work in France, +when the license that marked the Rococo gave place to a more severe and +restrained expression in the succeeding Louis XVI style, in which the +curvilinear and plastic forms became once more structural in feeling and +refined in detail. + +Associated with this change was Jacques Gondouin, who died at Paris in +1818 at the age of eighty-one, whose most celebrated work is the Ecole +de Médécine. He was also entrusted with the erection of the column in +the Place Vendôme. + + +_Riesener and Gouthière_ + +[Illustration: No. 131. Detail of Cornice. Louis XVI.] + +The most familiar names associated with the wood-work at the Louis XVI +period are Riesener and Gouthière. Riesener is famous for his furniture, +and Gouthière for the highly finished chased mounts with which this +furniture was decorated. + +[Illustration: No. 132. Arm-chair covered with Beauvais Tapestry. Louis +XVI.] + +Interior woodwork was generally of oak, painted white. Pilasters were +used, and were either carved or painted in colours. Mouldings were +frequently gilt. + +Chairs and sofas were, in many instances, painted white and partly +gilt. They were upholstered in silk or Beauvais tapestry, the designs of +which were in panel form specially made for the purpose. + +Cabinets, tables and other pieces of furniture were often exquisitely +inlaid with various woods, tulip, rosewood, pear, holly and ebony were +the most common, and Sèvres porcelain placques and gilt metal mounts +were also used to embellish them. + +[Illustration: No. 133. Carved Oak Panel. Louis XVI.] + +Furniture supports, such as table and chair legs, were straight, tapered +and fluted, with husks in the hollows of the flutes. + +Among the decorative details were torches, quivers and other emblems, +trophies, musical instruments, bouquets and festoons of flowers, and +ribbons with peculiarly square and crisp folds. The laurel leaf was much +used in borders, festoons and wreaths. + +The style of the Louis XVI period was more severe than the preceding +one, and was, in fact, a reaction from the flippancy which +characterised the reign of Louis XV. There was a tendency to return to +more classic forms, which prepared the way for the still more austere +Empire phase which was deliberately based on the Roman and Greek styles. + + +_Empire_ + +Furniture was made in mahogany, rosewood and ebony, and was decorated +with brass mounts or with carved ornaments, which were gilded. + +Furniture legs and supports were fashioned after Greek and Roman forms, +human figures and sphinxes being often employed. + +Inlay was used of ivory and metal, and this class of work attained a +very high degree of excellence. + +Metal-work was unquestionably good, except that the details were +somewhat hard in character. + +The most striking decorative features were sphinxes, winged figures of +Liberty, masks, the thyrsus of Bacchus, laurel wreaths and festoons, +which were all severe in treatment and delicate in execution. + + +_Empire in England_ + +The Empire style spread to other parts of Europe, and was closely +imitated in England, where it was chiefly remarkable for the extreme +nicety and finish of the metal-work, metal being extensively used for +the enrichment of furniture, for clocks, vases, candlesticks, inkstands +and other objects. + + +_Later English Architecture_ + +Probably the most important name associated with English architecture +towards the end of the eighteenth century is that of Sir William +Chambers, who died in 1796. + +Chambers, who at one time held the position of Surveyor General in the +Board of Works, was one of those concerned in the establishment of the +Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. During his professional career he +executed commissions in various parts of the country, his principal work +being Somerset House, which was commenced in 1776. + +Another name associated with this period is that of George Dance, who +designed the Mansion House of the City of London, which was built during +the years 1739-53. Dance died in 1768, and was succeeded by his son, who +was the architect of Newgate Prison, the site of which is now occupied +by a modern building. + +A pupil of Sir William Chambers, James Gandon, had the distinction of +carrying off the first gold medal given for architecture by the +newly-founded Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. + +He designed, among other works, the Customs House, the Four Courts, and +the building which is now the Bank of Ireland, all at Dublin. + + +_French Influence on Europe_ + +Throughout this necessarily brief summary it will be noted that +attention is mainly given to the architectural development in France and +England. The rest of Europe was similarly affected more or less, both in +the Gothic period and in the revival known as the Renaissance, in which +the initiative was taken by France early in the seventeenth century. +From which period may be dated the decline in Italian taste. + +French feeling, both as to form and detail, is apparent in not only +Dutch and Flemish work, but in the more southern parts of Europe, +particularly the phase known as Rococo. + +Even in England, though the architectural traditions of Inigo Jones and +Sir Christopher Wren became national in character, French feeling is +evident in much of the decorative work, as in the designs of Chippendale +and his contemporaries; with the exception of the brilliant period of +Grinling Gibbons, whose distinctive manner and robust treatment +survived, and constituted a school of carving typically English and +unique in its artistry and craftsmanship. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +MOULDINGS + + +In Architecture the edges of projecting courses are softened into curved +profiles, sometimes enriched with details, which are technically known +as mouldings. These are invariably a stumbling-block to the beginner, +presumably due to want of appreciation of their purpose, which properly +understood, is indicative of their desirable employment. + +[Illustration: No. 134. Forms of Mouldings.] + +Mouldings are an important factor in effect, not only in Architecture, +but in structural form generally. In flat decoration they have to some +extent their corollary in borders, the proportionate widths of which are +governed by similar rules. + +Of mouldings with curved profiles there are only six distinct forms, +though the individual character of these curves is subject to great +variation in treatment. + + +_Purpose_ + +As suggested, mouldings have a distinct purpose, are, in fact, +functional features, and may be defined as Sheltering or Crowning, +Bracketing or Supporting, and Binding. + +In any composition where they may be necessary these functions should be +taken into consideration. + +The profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve +be refined or robust. + +In classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the +other features are defined, and these proportions will be found useful +in other than purely architectural design. + + +_The Fillet_ + +Mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or +Fillets, the employment of which is universal. + +The Fillet in projection is equal to its height, and though strictly +divisional in its employment, is shown in conjunction with the curved +profiles to indicate relative proportion. + + +_Sheltering Mouldings_ + +There are two mouldings of curved profile in each category, the +Sheltering being the Cavetto and the Cyma Recta. + + +_The Cavetto_ + +The Cavetto is the culminating moulding of the Italian Doric cornice, +and is a concave curve, which may be the result of a quarter circle. + +The Cavetto profile is used in other positions, which would appear to +challenge the previous statement, but reflection will confirm the +contention. + +For instance, the vertical face of the Frieze in some instances +terminates with a cavetto curve which, though surmounted by the cornice, +is yet at the top of the frieze. The upper extremity of the column shaft +is similarly treated, and, it may be urged, so is the lower, but this, +though an exception to the rule, is at least an æsthetic necessity. + +The projection of the Cavetto is equal to the height of the curve, and +the crowning Fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total +height, preferably the latter. + + +_Cyma Recta_ + +The other sheltering moulding, the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double +flexure with upper fillet. Its proper employment is as the crowning +member of the cornice, though, like the Cavetto, it is employed in other +positions, notably as a plinth moulding, when it appears in a reversed +position. + +The projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile, the +height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the +whole. + + +_Bracketing Mouldings_ + +The supporting mouldings are the Ovolo and the Cyma Reversa. + + +_The Ovolo_ + +The Ovolo is composed of a full convex curve, either a quarter circle or +slightly elliptic, which in height is equal to projection; and a fillet +at base one-fifth the total height. Frequently this lower member is in +the form of a half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet. + +As a Bracketing moulding the Ovolo occurs in the capital of the Doric +column, and in the Ionic and Corinthian cornices under the corona or +facia, and is employed in other positions, where the sense of support is +justified. + + +_Cyma Reversa_ + +The Cyma Reversa, like the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure, and +is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height. The +projection is equal to the height of curved profile. + +The Cyma Reversa is employed in the cornice of the Doric order as a +supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating +Cavetto. It also occurs in the Capital of the column, where it forms the +upper member of the abacus. An apparent contradiction of the theory of +employment, which however is justified by the circumstance that the +column forms the support for the entablature. + +It also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the +pedestal, and is used in similar positions in the other orders. + + +_Binding Mouldings_ + +The Binding mouldings, the Torus and the Scotia, appear chiefly on +columns and pilasters, particularly the Scotia, which is essentially a +base moulding. + + +_The Torus_ + +The Torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle, with upper +fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height. The projection is +decided by the curvature, which is based on a semi-circle with centre +slightly in advance of the vertical line of fillet. + +The Torus varies in size according to position. For instance, in the +base of the Ionic column two are employed, the lower being the larger. +It is also invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding +beneath the Capitals; in the small form it is commonly known as a bead +or astragal. + +This employment of the Torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in +the sense of imparting strength by binding. When used in other positions +its purpose should be equally evident. + + +_The Scotia_ + +The Scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper +fillet, and is generally used between the upper and lower Torii of the +base. + +The upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of +curved profile. The extreme projection being merely equal to the height +of curve and that of the upper fillet about one-half, the fillet being +about one-fifth the total height. + + +_The Facia_ + +The foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles, +but there is another member, the Facia, that is an important feature in +composition. + +The Facia, which is rectilinear in form with external face vertical or +slightly inclined, may be classed with the binding mouldings. + +With regard to proportion, the height of the Facia should either exceed +or be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably +surmounted. The projection being either considerably less or more than +its height. + +When used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face +is generally recessed, this recess being equal to the height of the top +fillet of supporting moulding. + +Only occasionally the Facia is furnished with an upper fillet (for +instance, when it occurs immediately below the Cyma Recta) to which it +is reconciled by a Cavetto curve. + +The Facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved +profile to which it is in valuable contrast. + + +_Decoration of Mouldings_ + +Mouldings may be plain or decorated, usually by carving, the details +probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period. + +When thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile, and the +details carved back from the face, leaving the highest parts in the +original surface. The carving being deeper and more sharply defined in +the case of mouldings that are in shadow. Such, for example, as the +Ovolo, and in lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light. + +The decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a +unit, composed on a central axis, in which curves are contrasted with +vertical features. + +[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE CYMA RECTA + +ENRICHMENT OF THE FACIA + +ENRICHMENT OF THE OVOLO + +ENRICHMENT OF THE CYMA REVERSA + +ENRICHMENT OF THE TORUS + +No. 135.] + +The principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature +or profile line. + + +_Orthodox Details_ + +Thus the orthodox detail of the Ovolo, technically known as the “Egg and +Tongue,” consists of a framing curve, which is obtained by repeating the +profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape. The angles between +the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart. + +As previously stated, this moulding is deeply carved, the ovoid being +bold and well-rounded; the edges of the framing curves (in some +instances grooved or channelled) being left sharp and precise. + +Frequently the “Bead and Reel” enrichment occurs at the base of the +Ovolo instead of the Fillet, this being the characteristic detail of the +Bead or Astragal. + +The treatment of the Cyma Reversa is identical and results in the detail +known as the “Leaf and Dart”; but the carving is not so deep and the +relief, in consequence, comparatively slight. + + +_Angle Leaf_ + +When mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a +covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle. + +The same principle is applicable to the Cyma Recta and the Cavetto, +though these mouldings are more often left plain; when decorated the +relief is comparatively slight. + +The Scotia needs no decoration, the cast shadow resulting from its form +being sufficiently effective. + +The Torus, though frequently left plain, can be decorated in various +ways. + +The Guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic, but as suggestive of +its function, the Torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or +cable. Leaves suggestive of a wreath are used, also a reed band crossed +at intervals with ribbons, quite in keeping with the suggestion of +binding. + +The Facia is generally plain, but the decoration, if used should, +following the principle, be rectilinear in character; such as vertical +flutings, or the key detail, both of which are used. + + +_Dentils_ + +Dentils, which form a distinctive feature in cornices, are a series of +rectilinear blocks, attached to a Facia, and may be placed in the +category of supporting members. + +In their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite +projection. + +In proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three +quarters their width in height, the intervals between being about half +the width. + +The first Dentil at the angle, lines flush with the return face of +supporting Facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end +Dentils. This space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob, acorn-like +in shape. The heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and +downwards, or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face. Below the +Dentils the supporting Facia is displayed to about the height of a +fillet. + +Considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the +Renaissance in the decoration of mouldings, license which is +permissible providing the general principle be borne in mind. The +concensus of opinion is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and +absence of variety. The vertical tendency resulting from the +bi-symmetrical character of the unit is desirable, and in happy contrast +to the horizontal direction of the moulding, while it also emphasises +the sense of structural support. + +[Illustration: DETAIL OF THE DENTIL + +No. 136.] + +The profiles also are amenable to considerable variation, the curves +being the direct result of Geometry, or Freehand, either treatment being +a matter of attitude and discretion. + + +_Employment_ + +When employed in Architecture the forms and proportions given will be +found most suitable. In interior decoration and structural work, as in +furniture, considerable latitude is permissible. + +It must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be +designed merely for the play of line, but for the effect resulting from +light and shade. In those close to the eye and in fair light, elliptic +curves will be more effective than more rounded sections, which are most +suitable to remote positions. + +In composition, mouldings of curved profile should always be separated +by fillets or occasionally a facia, and the various members associated +with regard to their functional purpose. Obvious repetition of the same +dimension is to be avoided, and contrast should exist not only in the +shapes of profiles, but also in their respective heights. + +[Illustration: MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO PERSPECTIVE + +No. 137.] + + +_Attitude_ + +Attitude must be taken into account, as, for instance, in a cornice +which is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not +appear in elevation but in perspective; and not only the respective +heights will be visible, but also the projections. + +When mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other should +be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment. This is particularly +necessary when the Ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils, or where it is +surmounted by Modillions as in the Corinthian cornice. + +Panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the +foregoing sense, though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the +construction. Regarded as frames, their general purpose may be +considered as to bind or enclose. + +In stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects, +which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts, possible only +on a large scale. A comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to +sink channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area, which is +left in the original plane. A treatment that is effective and +comparatively economical. + +[Illustration: CHANNELLED MOULDING IN STONE + +No. 138.] + + +_Wood Panelling_ + +Panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate, but structurally +necessary, as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some +method of building up. + +Therefore, not only panelling, but doors and structural wood-work +generally are constructed of stiles + +[Illustration: No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood. + + A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed mouldings on stiles and + rails. + + B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with framing with simple + moulded edges. + + D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped mouldings on stiles and + rails. + + E. Later Jacobean Panelling. + + F. Later Jacobean Section of applied mouldings of the Bolection + type. +] + +and rails, forming framings; the spaces enclosed being occupied by the +panels. + +The edges of the stiles and rails are moulded. In the late Gothic and +Tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed; but later the +profiles became more distinct in contour. + +These early mouldings were narrow and simple in form, arrived at mainly +by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame. + + +_Applied Mouldings_ + +Applied mouldings were apparently employed in the Jacobean period, and +the sections became more elaborate. Worked independently, they were +frequently higher in relief than the framings. The facility with which +they could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion +for complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point +of view, though effective if not overdone. + +[Illustration: No. 140. Applied Mouldings.] + +In the composition of such mouldings it is desirable that the sizes and +contours employed should be contrasting, and that all curved sections be +divided by fillets. + +As the width of the moulding throughout is uniform, it is obvious that +mitral angles must be perfect bi-sections of the meeting lines. + +With regard to proportion, the width of mouldings may generally be +one-fourth to one-eighth that of the panel according to desired effect, +robust or refined. + +[Illustration: No. 141. Part of Dresser. + +Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.] + + +_Bolection Moulding_ + +When boldness in appearance is required the type known as the Bolection +Moulding may be used. This, in its orthodox form, is a species of inner +frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails, and the panels, +but was more commonly an applied moulding. + +[Illustration: No. 142. Bolection Moulding.] + +In any case, it is worked independently, and its outer edges lap the +framing, on which it is in relief, resulting in strong effect of light +and shade. + +Panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the orthodox +enrichments or variants based on them, but should always be in contrast +to the panels they enclose. + +In furniture, mouldings play an important part, and in many positions +can be regulated by functional considerations. In horizontal positions, +such as in tables and sideboards, where personal contact is possible, +any moulded edges should be of softly rounded character for obvious +reasons. + +[Illustration: TABLE TOP MOULDINGS + +No. 143.] + + +_Plaster_ + +In plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil. +When decorated, the former only is possible, and as such work is +originally modelled, it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic +nature, such as interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or +other forms. + +Mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut, though this is +practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed. + +[Illustration: TURNED WOOD + +No. 144.] + +Mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various +materials, and to some extent their character is affected by the +formative process involved. + + +_Wood-turning_ + +Thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft, taking +usually, as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs, the baluster +form. As a rule there is little variation between the maximum and +minimum diameters. + +The baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles, with +intervening fillets, which latter may be fairly sharp, as they are by +their position protected from damage. + + +_Metal Turning_ + +Turning is also employed in metal work, the stems and bodies of Dutch +candelabra, both standard and hanging, being originally cast as to +general form and finished in the lathe. + +[Illustration: THROWN + +MOULDED + +THROWN & TURNED + +POTTERY + +No. 145.] + +The general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning, except that +the material being much harder, the mouldings can be more sharply +defined and delicate in detail. + + +_Pottery_ + +The throwing of pottery is analagous to turning, but by this method +little more can be accomplished than thickened edges. The Greek vases +show some precision of profile, the result of turning on a lathe after +the vessel had been formed on the wheel. + +[Illustration: No. 146. Moulded Vase in Terra-cotta.] + +In moulded pottery more definition is possible than in thrown variety, +but the profiles are comparatively blunt and never attain the precision +due to turning. + + +_Metal Mouldings_ + +In metal, mouldings may be rolled or drawn. In the first they are formed +in the solid, but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and +are therefore hollow and of uniform thickness. + +[Illustration: ROLLED METAL MOULDINGS + +No. 147.] + +By either method mouldings of any required section are obtainable +provided they are not undercut. + +Both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in various sections and sizes +in iron, brass, bronze, and silver. + +Where special sections are required, the cost of the tools necessary for +their production would have to be taken into account. + +[Illustration: DRAWN METAL MOULDINGS + +No. 148.] + + +_Wrought Iron_ + +Though the employment of rolled or drawn mouldings is usual in wrought +iron-work, the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in character. +Preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or building +up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material and +method of working. + +[Illustration: No. 149. Wrought Iron Swaged Moulding.] + +[Illustration: No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.] + + +_Silver-work_ + +In silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand, the necessary +draw plates being made by the workman. + +[Illustration: No. 151. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.] + + +_Spinning_ + +Mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning, in which +undercutting is not permissible. + +[Illustration: SPUN METAL + +No. 152.] + + +_Repoussé_ + +They are also possible in Repoussé work, but are soft in character, and +lack the precision that marks the mechanical production. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ARCHITECTURAL PROPORTIONS + + +_Introduction_ + +In architectural drawing concise draughtsmanship is essential, the +profiles of mouldings in particular should be well defined. + +Architectural designs, which should always be drawn to scale, are +expressed geometrically, that is in plan, elevation and section. The +actual effect is therefore a matter of conjecture only to be grasped by +those familiar with the arbitrary form of expression. Perspectives are +generally made with a view to depicting the appearance to the +uninitiated, but are practically useless as working drawings. + +The student is advised to take advantage of every opportunity of +studying existing examples in museums and elsewhere. This study should +not be confined to geometric drawings, but these should be supplemented +by sketches and careful observation. Attention should also be paid to +the profiles of mouldings. + +A practice should be made also of making freehand sketches of the +various features, indicating broadly the effects of light and shade. + +The study of architectural proportions should be methodical, and the +general divisions given here might advantageously be committed to +memory. When this is accomplished attention may be devoted to individual +features. + + +_System of Proportion_ + +It is customary, when any of the orders of Architecture are employed, to +adopt a system of proportions which has been evolved from the best +traditions of the past, and is generally accepted as the most +satisfactory. + +Naturally these proportions are subject to modification to suit special +conditions or personal treatment. According to the academic method, the +diameter of the column is divided into two parts, which are called +Modules, and each of these is again subdivided into thirty divisions +called parts. This gives a scale by means of which all dimensions of +height and projection are obtained. Since the diameter of the column +forms the standard of measurement, the proportions of the relative parts +are constant and in no way influenced by the size of the structure. + +This method, although very complete, is--owing to its multiplicity of +dimensions--somewhat laborious in practice, and the method here proposed +in its stead, though not claimed to be exact, will yet be found to be +sufficiently accurate for ordinary requirements. + +It is proposed to deal here with the orders commonly employed in +Renaissance architecture. These were based by the early exponents of the +style on Roman examples. The Doric selected is that of Vignola, and is a +refined version of the order used in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome. +The Ionic closely resembles the Roman Ionic order in the same building. +The Corinthian is the Roman example from the Pantheon. + + +_The Order_ + +An Order consists of a vertical column and a horizontal entablature, +while in some instances the column rests on a pedestal. + +It is desirable before dealing with proportions to enumerate the various +parts of which an order is composed. + +The column consists of a shaft, base and capital. + +The shaft is circular on plan and invariably tapered. + +The base is composed of mouldings, which are circular on plan, and a +rectangular block or plinth. + +The capital is circular on plan, and in the Doric and Corinthian orders +is divided from the shaft by a necking moulding. The capital is +surmounted by a feature known as the abacus, which is rectangular on +plan, but varies in detail in the different orders. + +Columns may be isolated or engaged, that is, built into walls so that +they form projections from the surface. + +[Illustration: No. 153. Doric Order with Pedestal.] + +The pilaster is always engaged, and is rectangular on plan, but +otherwise it has the same general features and proportions as the +column. + +The entablature is the superstructure supported by the columns. It +consists of an architrave, which is the lowest part, a frieze, the +intermediate part, and a series of projecting mouldings known as the +cornice. + +The pedestal, which occasionally forms a support for the columns, +consists of a plinth, die and capping. The lower part or plinth is +separated from the die by mouldings, and the capping is a projecting +course of mouldings forming a simple cornice. + +To sum up a simple classification, which may be termed the triology of +the orders, will be found to assist the memory. + +The Orders commonly employed are three--the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. +(There are two others which are less used, and are really derived from +the other three: they are the Tuscan, which is a form of debased Doric, +and the Composite, which is made up of the Ionic and Corinthian). + +The Order may be divided into three parts: + + Pedestal, Column and Entablature. + +These may again be sub-divided. + +The Pedestal into Plinth, Die and Capping. + +The Column into Base, Shaft and Capital. + +The Entablature into Architrave, Frieze and Cornice. + +The method of arriving at the proportions of the order is as follows. In +this division the pedestal is not taken into account, but is reserved +for later consideration. + + +_Doric Order_ + +Divide the total height into five equal parts. Then the upper fifth will +give the height of the entablature and an eighth of the remaining +four-fifths the diameter of the column. From this it will be seen that +the column is eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters. In +using the term diameter it must be understood that it is always the +lower diameter of the column that is referred to. + +[Illustration: No. 154. General Proportions of the Orders.] + +The capital is half a diameter high exclusive of the necking moulding, +and the base also is half a diameter. In all the orders the column is +tapered; the upper diameter is in each case five-sixths of the lower or +major diameter. The taper is not in a straight line, but a slight +curve, which is known as entasis. It is obtained by drawing the lower +third of the shaft vertical and from these lines springing a curve to +the upper diameter, which may readily be done by slightly altering the +angle of the pencil in ruling them. + +The entablature is divided as follows: the architrave is half a +diameter, the frieze and cornice each three-quarters of a diameter. + + +_Ionic Order_ + +The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth +will be the entablature, and one ninth of the remainder the diameter of +the column, hence the column will be nine diameters high. + +The capital is half a diameter high; the base also is half a diameter. + +The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts, three of +these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the +frieze and the remaining four that of the cornice. + + +_Corinthian Order_ + +The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth +is the height of the entablature. A tenth of the remainder will be the +diameter of the column. + +The capital is one diameter and one-sixth in height exclusive of the +necking moulding, and the base is half a diameter high, exclusive of the +top fillet. + +The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic, and +the mouldings, although more elaborate, are similar in character. The +architrave and frieze are each three-tenths of the height and the +cornice four-tenths. + +It will be seen from the foregoing that the diameters of the three +orders are respectively one-eighth, one-ninth and one-tenth the heights +of the columns, and that the entablature is, in the Doric, two diameters +high or one fourth the height of the column; in the Corinthian also two +diameters or one-fifth the height of the column. The Ionic is +intermediate between the two. + + +_Doric Entablatures_ + +The Doric cornice is three-quarters of a diameter in height and one +diameter in projection from the face of the frieze, which should always +be in vertical alignment with the architrave. + +It is convenient to divide the cornice height into three. The upper +third consists of a crowning cavetto moulding, supported by a cyma +reversa, under which is a facia or corona, in turn supported by a dentil +course. The lower third should be taken as the centre of the dentil +course, and if the height from the top of the cavetto to the underside +of the corona be bisected, the point of bisection should fall in the +centre of the intervening reversa. + + +_Mutules_ + +In orthodox examples of the order the underside or soffit of the corona +is decorated with a series of sunk panels. Those immediately over the +triglyphs of the frieze are occupied by rows of conical drops. A +variation of this and a treatment frequently employed is a series of +brackets known as mutules. They consist of a facia and a reversa, which +is carried round the upper edge to support the corona. When mutules are +used the dentil course is omitted. + +[Illustration: No. 155. Doric Entablature, Vignola.] + +The dentils are rectilinear blocks on a flat projecting band, and they +are supported by a cyma reversa moulding. A fillet beneath this moulding +completes the cornice. The reversa is about the same height as the +fillet, and the dentil course is about twice this height, but owing to +the soffit of the corona sloping slightly upward and inwards the full +height of the dentil facia is not apparent when drawn in elevation. + +[Illustration: No. 156. Doric Entablature, with Mutules.] + +Above the dentil facia is a small cavetto moulding and a fillet. These +are directly beneath the corona, and are carried round to form the +panels on its soffit. + +The Doric frieze is three-quarters of a diameter high. It is divided +into panels technically known as metopes, by projecting features half a +diameter in width which are called triglyphs. + +The metopes should be square, and one of the triglyphs is always placed +immediately over each column, having the same central axis, hence the +spacing of the columns apart is regulated by the triglyphs and metopes. +Examples of various spacings of columns will be given later. + +The frieze is bounded above and below by rectilinear projecting bands or +fillets; that at the top breaks round or follows the projection of the +triglyphs. + +The triglyphs are so named because they are channelled vertically with +grooves or glyphs, V shaped in section, with intervening spaces or +inter-glyphs. The width of the triglyph should be divided into twelve +parts--then the half glyphs which are placed at the angles will each be +one of these parts, and the remaining two glyphs and three inter-glyphs +are each two of them. The glyphs terminate at the base on the fillet +band, but at the top are cut off a little below the upper fillet, +invariably in a straight line, thus forming a triangular heading with +the apex of the triangle sloping backwards and downwards in conformity +with the V shaped section of the glyphs. + +Under the lower fillet band, and immediately below the triglyph, is a +small fillet and six pendant drops of conical form known as guttae. + +[Illustration: No. 157. Ionic Entablature.] + +The architrave is half a diameter high, inclusive of the fillet band, +which is roughly a sixth of this height. The small fillet and guttae are +together equal in height to the fillet band. + +It may be taken as an invariable rule that whatever order is used, the +face of the architrave must be in vertical alignment with the upper part +of the shaft of the column. + + +_Ionic Entablature_ + +The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts; three of +these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the +frieze, and the remaining four that of the cornice. + +To find the projection of the cornice a line should be drawn at an angle +of 45 degrees from the top of the frieze, and the profiles of the +mouldings composing the cornice will fall within this line. + +The lowest member is a small reversa moulding, with a fillet supporting +a dentil course, above which is an ovolo; these occupy half the height +of the cornice. The remaining half is composed of the facia, surmounted +by a reversa and the crowning cyma moulding, rather more than half of +the height being allotted to these two. + +The frieze of the Ionic order has no characteristic detail as the Doric, +and may be plain or decorated according to conditions, and should be in +vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave. In some of +the later Renaissance examples the profile of the Ionic frieze is a +segmental curve of about a third of a circle. + +The architrave is usually formed of three facias, which may be either +vertical or slightly inclined. + +[Illustration: No. 158. Corinthian Entablature.] + +A fifth of the total height is taken for the upper moulding, which is a +reversa with its accompanying fillet. + +A point bisecting the underside of the fillet and bottom of architrave +will give the line of the lower edge of the top facia. The other two +facias should be taken in a decreasing ratio, the lower being the +shorter. + + +_Corinthian Entablature_ + +The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic. The +total height is divided into ten. Three of these parts form the +architrave, three the frieze and four the cornice. + +An angle of 45 degrees set off from the top of the frieze will determine +the general contour and projection of the cornice. + +The cornice is more complex than in the other styles, but a division of +eleven will help to determine, three being the height to underside of +bead moulding and seven that of the main facia. The lowest moulding of +the cornice is a cyma reversa supporting a dentil course with a bead +moulding above it. Above the bead there is an ovolo, which forms the bed +of a series of brackets known as modillions. The height of the +modillions is about one-fifth including the reversa moulding, which, +besides completing the modillions, is carried round between them as a +support for the upper facia. + +The modillions have a profile of ogee form. They are about a sixth of a +diameter in width and project about twice their width, and are so spaced +as to leave squares between them on the soffit or underside of the +corona. The frieze, which may or may not be decorated, is in vertical +alignment with the lowest member of the architrave. + +The architrave is made up of three facias with intervening mouldings. If +the height be divided into two, the upper half is devoted to the first +facia and reversa moulding, which latter occupies rather more than +one-third; the remaining half is taken up by the other two facias in a +diminishing ratio. + + +_The Column--The Shaft_ + +The general proportions of the column have already been given. The shaft +is invariably tapered for two-thirds of its height, the lower third +being cylindrical, and the taper terminates at the necking moulding. In +all three orders the difference between the upper and lower diameters is +the same, that is, the upper is five-sixths of the lower, but although +the amount of taper is numerically the same, the different ratios of the +diameters to the heights produce naturally very different results. + +The shaft of the Doric column may be plain or channelled with vertical +grooves called flutes. There are twenty of these flutes round the +circumference. On plan they are shallow, and may be formed of arcs of a +third of a circle. The curves meet without intervening fillets. The +flutes are finished off in segmental curves at the top and bottom, +leaving a small plain space below the necking and above the base. + +The Ionic and Corinthian columns may have plain or decorated shafts. If +decorated they have twenty-four flutes round the circumference. These +are semi-circular on plan, and are spaced with fillets between them. + + +_The Capital_ + +The Capital is the culminating feature of the column in which horizontal +lines predominate in æsthetic contrast to the vertical lines of the +shaft. In all the orders there is some form of crowning block or +moulding known as the abacus.[A] + + [A] Though the proportions given are approximately accurate for + general division, it will be found necessary in detailing to adopt a + more intimate system of measurement. In the following diagrams the + diameter is divided into 36 parts, which are expressed in figures, + giving heights, etc., of the various features. + + +_Doric Capital_ + +The Doric abacus consists of a rectangular slab, square on plan, which +in detail consists of a fillet and reversa moulding surmounting a facia. +Its extreme width is one and a half times the upper diameter. The square +abacus is supported by an ovolo, which is circular on plan, and is +connected with the necking by three small fillets. + +[Illustration: No. 159. Doric Capital.] + +The capital is half a diameter in height, exclusive of the mouldings +between the necking and the shaft, and the upper part to the underside +of the ovolo occupies rather more than half. + +[Illustration: No. 160. Ionic Capital.] + +The necking is a vertical extension of the upper diameter of the column, +and is separated from the shaft by a boldly projecting moulding, which +in height should be about equal to the three small fillets below the +ovolo. The moulding consists of a torus and a fillet, and a cavetto +curve is carried from the underside of the fillet and dies into the line +of the shaft of the column. + +Sometimes the ovolo is decorated with its characteristic egg and tongue +detail, and occasionally the reversa of the abacus is also enriched. +The necking is sometimes ornamented with four rosettes, which are placed +centrally under the square faces of the abacus. + + +_Ionic Capital_ + +The Ionic capital is half a diameter high, and is readily distinguished +by its bolster-like form with voluted ends. This bolster is rectangular +on plan, and measures laterally rather more than one and a half +diameters, while from back to front it is slightly less than a diameter. + +The shaft terminates in a cavetto curve, and is surmounted by a fillet, +a small torus and an ovolo moulding, which is invariably decorated with +egg and tongue detail. These mouldings all conform to the circular plan +of the shaft. On the ovolo rests the voluted bolster. + +The abacus, which is square on plan, consists of a reversa moulding and +fillet. + +From the top of the abacus to the base of the ovolo the height is about +a third of a diameter, and one-fourth of this height will give the +height of the abacus. + +The centre or eye of the volute can readily be found by dropping a +perpendicular from the lower edge of the reversa to intersect the +horizontal line defining the base of the ovolo. This point of +intersection is the required centre. + + +_To Draw the Volute_ + +From this as centre and one part as radius describe a circle. Within +this circle draw a square, having for a diagonal the diameter of the +circle. Bisect the sides of the square and draw the diameters by joining +the points of bi-section. Divide these diameters of the square into six +and these points will be the centres for the segments of circles which +form the volute. Vertical and horizontal lines drawn from the centres +will define the extent of each segment. + +[Illustration: No. 161. Ionic Capital, with angular volutes.] + +For small scale drawings the volutes are drawn free-hand, but for larger +working drawings it is necessary to use some method such as that given +here. + +The angle formed by the meeting of the ovolo and the volute is masked by +a detail of anthemion form. + +The ends of the bolster between the volutes consist of concave or ogee +curves, which are symmetrically arranged from a centre line; moulded +ridges or conventional leaf detail decorate the centre. + +The form of the Ionic capital, while suitable for a façade, requires +some modification if it is to be carried round the side of a building, +owing to the great dissimilarity in the front and side views. In this +case the end volute of the capital at the angle of the building is +projected forward at an angle of 45 degrees, and the side is then +treated in the same way as the front. + +In late Renaissance buildings this difficulty was overcome by making all +the volutes project at angles of 45 degrees, so that the four faces of +the capital were uniform. This entails the bolster being dispensed with, +and the volutes, no longer connected laterally, spring directly from the +top of the ovolo moulding, and the space between the springing lines is +occupied by a husk. + +[Illustration: No. 162. Ionic Capital. Detail of Angular Volute.] + +As the volutes make equal angles they conform more or less to a square +plan. The plan of the abacus is composed of four concave curves with +small straight intervals at the meeting angles. The general proportions +for this form of capital are the same as for the bolster type. + + +_Corinthian Capital_ + +The Corinthian capital differs widely from those of the preceding orders +in proportion and detail. + +Its general form may be described as a bell, which is circular on plan. +It springs from the upper extremity of the shaft, from which it is +separated by a necking moulding. + +Under the abacus it terminates in a fillet. + +The bell is one diameter high. The height of the abacus is one-sixth of +a diameter in addition; on plan the abacus falls within a square, having +four concave faces with short straight lines at the angles. The distance +across the diagonal is two diameters. The bell is clothed with leaves of +acanthus type, which are arranged in two tiers of eight leaves each. +Between the upper leaves are eight stems with husks and branching +scrolls, which terminate in volutes at the angles and centres. + +The necking moulding consists of a small torus and fillet. + +Although the arrangement of the principal features of the Corinthian +capital is horizontal, yet owing to the channelling of the leaves and +the firmly springing scrolls the vertical direction appears to +predominate. + +This verticality emphasises the function of the capital as a supporting +feature, and is æsthetically satisfactory, being in harmony with the +flutings of the shaft. + +[Illustration: No. 163. Corinthian Capital.] + +The effect produced by the capitals of the other two orders is +horizontal, and suggests the idea of binding. They are equally +satisfactory as giving contrast of direction. + +[Illustration: No. 164. Corinthian Capital. + +Detail giving divisions of height, and profiles.] + + +_The Base_ + +In all the orders a square plinth is the lowest member of the base of +the column. On this plinth rests a series of mouldings which follow the +circular plan of the shaft. The shaft invariably terminates in a +fillet, the diameter of which exceeds that of the column, and on to +which the line of the shaft is carried by means of a curve. + +[Illustration: No. 165. Doric Base.] + + +_Doric Base_ + +The Doric base is extremely simple. It consists of the square plinth on +which rests a torus moulding surmounted by a smaller moulding of the +same section and a fillet above. + +The width of the plinth is one and a third the diameter of the column, +and its height a quarter diameter or half the total height of the base. +The other half is made up of the large torus, the small torus and +fillet. The torus moulding should be bold in projection, practically +semi-circular and at the fullest part of its curvature in vertical +alignment with the centres of the horizontal faces of the plinth block. +The small torus and fillet are about equal in height. + + +_Ionic Base_ + +[Illustration: No. 166. Ionic Base.] + +The Ionic base differs from the Doric in the introduction of a hollow or +scotia moulding between the two torus mouldings. Æsthetically it may be +considered more satisfactory in that the strong shadow obtained by the +use of the scotia produces an effect of binding which adds to the +impression of strength. The type is technically known as the Attic base. + +The total width is one and a third diameter. + +The height of half a diameter may be divided into three. One of these +divisions will give the height of the plinth, one the large torus and +the fillet above it, and the other the scotia and small torus with the +fillets above and below. The fillets either side of the upper torus may +be in the same vertical alignment. + +[Illustration: No. 167. Corinthian Base.] + +The smallest diameter of the base, which will be in the hollow of the +scotia, should exceed the diameter of the shaft, or an effect of +weakness will be imparted. + +As in the Doric base a curve of a quarter circle connects the shaft with +the upper fillet. + + +_Corinthian Base_ + +The orthodox base of the Corinthian order is similar to that of the +Ionic, with an additional scotia and small torus with its accompanying +fillets. + +The width of the plinth is one and a third diameter. + +The height of half a diameter does not include the top fillet. The +proportions may be approximated by dividing the height into four. One of +these parts will be the height of the plinth, another that of the large +torus and its fillet, the third--the upper edge of fillet of top scotia, +and the fourth that of the upper scotia and torus with the intervening +fillet. Vertically the uppermost fillet is in alignment with that of the +upper scotia, and the extremity of the upper torus with the small bead +mouldings dividing this from the lower scotia. + +Although this is the orthodox Corinthian base, it is not used as +frequently as the Ionic type, but when the order is on a large scale the +more elaborate version is justified. + + +_The Arch_ + +When the arch is used in conjunction with the column it is supported on +pilasters which are attached to the columns. The columns and pilasters +thus form piers. + +In the Doric order the columns are placed five diameters apart from +centre to centre, in the Ionic five and a quarter, and in the Corinthian +five and a half. + +The necking moulding of the capital is generally carried through above +the arch, the outer line of which is struck so as to nearly touch the +underside. + +The projection of the pilasters which carry the arch is half a diameter +from the outer lines of the column, and is measured on the same level as +the springing point of the arch. + +The centre from which the arch is struck is sometimes in the same +horizontal line as the springing points, but more frequently a little +above the line and thereby a rather better effect is produced. + +The arch-band or archivolt is the same width as the pilaster supporting +it, and a series of mouldings known as the impost is placed at the top +of the pilaster. The base of the pilaster consists of a plain plinth of +slight projection equal in height to the base of the column. + +From the spacing of the columns and the proportions here given it will +be seen that the height and width of the aperture made by the arch and +pilasters are arrived at automatically, but if measured, the height will +be found to be about twice the width and the top of the impost about +two-thirds the height of the column. These proportions may be accepted +as giving satisfactory results under ordinary conditions. + +As a general rule, in all the orders the impost is half a diameter high, +and so is the same as the projection of the pilaster and the width of +the archivolt. + +This rule is not always adhered to, however, but in any case the width +of the archivolt should never be more than one-eighth or less than +one-tenth of the diameter of the arch, and should always be the same as +the width of the pilaster. + + +_Doric Impost_ + +The mouldings of the Doric Impost are as follows: + +At the top there is a fillet and a bold ovolo, below which there is a +bead-moulding or small torus with fillet and two facias. The lower +facia, which is of slight projection is one-fourth of the total height. +The upper facia and fillet are half the remainder. + +[Illustration: No. 168. Detail of Archivolts and Imposts.] + + +_Archivolt_ + +The archivolt mouldings are in the Doric order, the same as those of the +impost. + + +_Ionic Impost_ + +The total height of half a diameter may be divided into two, and the +upper half sub-divided into three. Then the upper division will be the +height of the top fillet and a reversa moulding; the second the height +of a facia and the third an ovolo and small torus. + +The lower half of the impost consists of two facias, the upper of which +is broader than the lower. + + +_Ionic Archivolt_ + +The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and +bold reversa moulding which occupies rather less than a fourth of the +total width, and two facias of unequal widths. The width of the inner +facia is nearly one-third more than that of the reversa moulding. + + +_Corinthian Impost_ + +The Corinthian impost differs from those of the other two orders in +having a necking and necking moulding in place of the two unequal +facias. + +The total height should be divided into two, and the upper half divided +into four. Then the top fillet and reversa moulding will be one of these +divisions, the facia two, and the supporting ovolo will occupy the +remaining one. + +The lower half of the impost consists of a small torus and fillet +beneath the ovolo, the necking, and the torus and fillet which form the +necking moulding. + + +_Corinthian Archivolt_ + +The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and +reversa and three unequal facias. + +If the total width is divided into two, the point of bisection will be +the centre of a small reversa moulding between the two outer facias. The +outer reversa and the inner facia are each about one-sixth of the total +width and the small reversa is about two-thirds of the inner facia. + + +_The Keystone_ + +A projecting block, or keystone, is sometimes used at the centre of the +arch. The face width of its lowest edge should not be less than the +width of the archivolt. Its height is not often less than one and a half +times or more than twice this width. + +It may be decorated in various ways, and is frequently in the shape of a +console. This form is especially suitable when the keystone comes in +contact with the architrave of the entablature, in which case it is +capped with a moulded abacus. + + +_The Pedestal_ + +The height of the pedestal is a fourth that of the column and +entablature together, though this proportion may be varied to suit +different conditions. For instance, when the pedestal forms part of the +structure of a balcony or balustrading the height must be modified to +suit the special requirements of the position. + +The pedestal is composed of plinth, die and capping. + +The width of the die is the same as the plinth of the base of the column +above it, that is, one and one-third diameter. The projection of the +capping, which is the same for all three orders is obtained by drawing a +line at an angle of 30 degrees with the vertical from the top of the +die. + +The width of the plinth corresponds to the projection of the capping, +and is determined by dropping perpendiculars from the top fillet. + +The height of the mouldings between the die and plinth is determined by +a line drawn from the bottom of the die at an angle of 45 degrees to +intersect the vertical face of the plinth. The angle is the same for all +the orders. + + +_Doric Pedestal_ + +In the Doric order the height of the capping is one-third diameter. The +face of the die is square, and this determines the height of the plinth. + +[Illustration: No. 169. Detail of Pedestals.] + +The capping mouldings consist of a fillet, facia, ovolo, fillet and +cavetto. The facia is carried to the underside of the fillet in a curve, +and its height is half the total height of the capping. The facia is +supported by the ovolo, and a fillet and cavetto complete the capping. + +The height of the course of mouldings at the top of the plinth should be +divided into three, then the upper third will contain a cavetto moulding +and fillet, and the remaining two-thirds an ogee and final fillet. + + +_Ionic Pedestal_ + +In the Ionic pedestal the plinth with its mouldings should occupy +one-third the height and the capping one-fifth the remainder. + +The mouldings are similar to those of the Doric pedestal, but a little +more elaborate. In the capping a reversa is used under the top fillet +and a small torus or bead is placed between the ovolo and the cavetto. +In the mouldings of the plinth a similar bead is introduced above the +ogee moulding. + + +_Corinthian Pedestal_ + +The same general divisions as the Ionic will give the proportions of the +Corinthian pedestal, the difference being that of the scale and the +detail of the mouldings. + +The capping may be divided into two. The top half consists of a fillet, +reversa and facia, and the lower half a supporting cyma recta, a bead +and a cavetto curve. The plinth mouldings are the same as those of the +Ionic pedestal with the addition of a torus beneath the ogee. The height +of this torus is one-fourth the total height and is about equal to that +of the cavetto and bead together. + +When the pedestal is employed the arch becomes proportionately larger. +In the Doric order the columns are then spaced seven and a half +diameters apart; in the Ionic seven and three quarters, and in the +Corinthian eight diameters centre to centre. + +The archivolt, the radius of which is determined by the above spacing, +is supported as before by an impost and pilaster. The base of the +pilaster consists of a slightly projecting block equal in height to the +plinth block of the pedestal. + +The height of the arch varies slightly, inasmuch as the inner curve may +be about a diameter from the architrave, but in the Corinthian order +should not fall below the level of the necking moulding of the capital. + + +_The Baluster_ + +As already stated, the pedestal may be used as a part of a balustrading +associated with balusters, and must conform to the proportions +necessitated by the conditions. The usual height for balustradings, +whether to steps, balconies, or before windows, is three feet two +inches, though in special cases it may be slightly more. + +The baluster is a species of small column. Its usual form is bulbous or +vase-shaped, and it is furnished with a capital and base. A series of +balusters is technically known as a balustrade. + +The balusters are raised on a plinth, which corresponds to the plinth of +the pedestal, and surmounted by a rail of horizontal mouldings, which +correspond to the capping of the pedestal; hence the baluster is of the +same height as the die. + +The height of the baluster should be divided into five, then one-fifth +will be the height of the base, and the capital exclusive of the necking +will be another fifth. The extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft is +one-third the total height of the baluster, and the diameter of the +necking and the top of the shaft is about one-sixth. The capital has a +square abacus slightly less in width than the plinth of the base. Below +the abacus is + +[Illustration: No. 170. Detail of Balusters.] + +an ovolo and fillet, which are circular on plan. The necking is +separated from the shaft by a small torus and fillet. The base has for +its lowest member a square plinth, which occupies rather less than half +the height and is equal in width to the extreme diameter of the bulbous +shaft. Above the plinth is a scotia and a necking moulding, which are +circular on plan. + + +_Spacing of Balusters_ + +The balusters should be spaced with not more than half their diameters +or less than a third between their bases, except when employed on the +rake of steps, when they may be slightly closer. + + +_Balustrading_ + +In a balustrading an unequal number of balusters should always be used, +and not less than five in one group exclusive of the half balusters +which are attached to the flanking or dividing dies. Seven and nine form +very satisfactory groups, but if more than nine are necessary for the +space to be filled, intermediate dies must be interposed, and these may +vary from two-thirds to three-quarters the width of the principal dies. + +In some cases, when a large number of balusters are to be grouped, the +dies are flanked by half dies, which are less in projection than the +dies themselves. + +Balustrades are sometimes used above the cornice of a building, and +their height should not be more than four-fifths or less than two-thirds +the height of the entablature. This height would be exclusive of the +plinth on which the balusters are raised. The height of the plinth is +determined by the height of the building, and the projection of the +cornice, as its purpose is to raise the balusters so that they may be +seen from the ordinary point of view. The principal dies may be placed +over columns or pilasters and should be equal in width to the upper +diameters of these, though flanking half dies may be used in addition to +avoid an appearance of thinness. The plinth and capping mouldings always +follow the plan of the principal dies, and are carried in unbroken lines +across each interval. + +When the height of the balustrade does not conform to the orthodox +proportions the method of determining the relative proportions is as +follows:--The height is divided into seven parts; of these one part +gives the height of the capping, four the baluster and two the plinth. + +The mouldings in character and detail are the same as those of the +pedestal, and should be in harmony with the order used. + +When balustrading forms part of a stair, the height on landings should +be three feet two inches. On the rake two feet ten inches from the step +at a line vertical with the face of the riser. The plinth is invariably +used as a string enclosing the ends of the steps and following the rake +or angle in a straight line, and carried to the levels by means of +curving ramps. + +In interior work the bulbous shafts of balusters are often decorated +with carved detail, and the mouldings also may be enriched. + + +_Use of Columns_ + +Columns were originally used in the porticos and courts of temples and +other buildings, and sometimes to form supports for vaulted roofs. +Wherever employed their function was directly structural, but this was +not the case at the time of the Renaissance. The requirements demanded +by widely different social conditions led to their being used more as +decorative than structural features. + +The use of engaged columns and pilasters in a façade can be justified to +some extent. Although such columns and pilasters may not be absolutely +essential for support, yet they act as buttresses and add to the +strength of the structure with a certain economy of material. Also they +are æsthetically satisfactory in their effect of light and shade. + + +_Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades_ + +The disposition of columns either in a façade or a colonnade is +controlled by proportions which have been found to be desirable or are +necessitated by special features of the order itself. The latter is the +case with the Doric order, the spacing being determined by the trigylphs +and metopes. If the triglyphs are placed centrally over the columns or +pilasters the spacing of these apart will be two and a half diameters +centre to centre, three and three-quarters, or five diameters, with two, +three or four metopes respectively between them in the frieze. With the +wider spacing of five diameters it is usual to employ coupled columns to +add to the appearance of strength. As the triglyphs are one and a +quarter diameters apart centre to centre, the coupled columns are +brought very close together, entailing a slight modification of the +bases. Since the ordinary projection of the plinth of a sixth of a +diameter beyond the line of the shaft is not possible between the two +columns, the plinth-blocks are united, and the torus moulding made +slightly less in projection. + +[Illustration: No. 171. Spacing of Columns.] + +The capitals being less in width are not affected, a small interval is +left between the crowning reversa mouldings. + +In the Ionic order the columns are spaced three and a quarter, three and +three-quarters and four and a quarter diameters centre to centre. The +coupled columns used with the wide spacing are one and a half diameters +centre to centre or half a diameter apart at the lower extremity of the +shafts. + +The Corinthian spacing is slightly wider, three and a half diameters, +four diameters, or with coupled columns four and a half diameters centre +to centre. The coupled columns are placed as in the Ionic order one and +a half diameters centre to centre. + +It is desirable that attention should be given to the vertical alignment +of the principal features. Dentils and modillions and indeed all +strongly marked features should centre with the columns, and be equally +spaced in the intervals. + + +_Orders Above Orders_ + +Occasionally in façades orders are used above one another. The Colosseum +is an antique Roman example of this, and it was a treatment often +adopted by the architects of the early Renaissance. It is desirable that +the simpler order should be the lower one. Ionic may be used over Doric, +or Corinthian over Ionic. + +It is obvious that the central axes of the columns or pilasters of each +order used should be in vertical alignment, not only when seen from the +front, but in the case of detached columns, from the side view also. + +When engaged columns or pilasters are employed, the upper tier may be +set back slightly from the face of the lower order which supports it; an +example of this is to be found in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome. + +The proportions of the upper order are obtained by making the lower +diameter of the upper tier of columns or pilasters equal to the upper +diameter of those + +[Illustration: No. 172. Order above Order.] + +of the supporting order, and an effect of continuous tapering is +produced. + +It is usual to place above the entablature of the lower order a plinth +on which the bases of the upper columns rest. The height of the plinth +is regulated by the point of view, as its purpose is to display the +bases of the imposed order above the projecting cornice. Generally this +height will be about half a diameter. + +In many historical examples the upper columns are placed on pedestals, +but this treatment, although useful when a balcony is desired, is not to +be recommended as the extra width and projection which the use of the +pedestal entails, gives an appearance of undue weight to be borne by the +supporting columns. If balconies are necessary they may terminate with +their own pedestals, which can be kept clear of the columns and should +not exceed them in projection. + + +_The Pilaster_ + +It may be as well to deal here with the treatment of pilasters, which +may be defined as columns in bas-relief. Their projection may vary from +one-half to about one-sixth their face width, though in antique examples +it is sometimes much less than this. In the pilasters of the Pantheon at +Rome it is one-tenth. + +The projection is, however, partly determined by the order with which +the pilaster is used, as an appearance of mutilation might easily be +produced in the capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric +capital, being composed of moulded profiles, is not in any way affected +by the amount of projection. Nor does the Ionic capital suffer when the +volutes are in one plane except when used on an angle. But if the later +Renaissance type with the volutes arranged at angles of 45 degrees is +employed, the projection of the pilaster must not be less than half its +upper diameter, so that the volute on the return face may be complete. + +The Corinthian capital would be affected in the same way, and should +also be not less than half a diameter in projection in order to obtain a +satisfactory result. + +The pilaster is usually tapered, and when associated with columns and +supporting the same entablature it is essential to preserve universal +alignment in the upper extremities and the architrave, but when used by +itself the pilaster is often not tapered. At the angle of buildings, +where both faces are displayed, it is an invariable rule that pilasters +should be straight. + +The details of capitals and bases are the same as those of the columns. +When fluting is employed an odd number of channels should be used, +usually seven on the front face. + +[Illustration: No. 173. Doric Order. Treatment of coupled Column and +Pilaster.] + + +_Arcades_ + +Arcades, as already suggested, may be composed of a series of arches, +supported on pilasters which flank the columns. The backs of the piers +thus formed may be treated with pilasters, which can be repeated on the +opposite wall, with the architrave frieze and cornice above. + +There are several alternative treatments for the ceilings of arcades. +They may be flat and panelled by beams carried across in a line with the +pilasters and with a cornice moulding carried round the sides of the +beams. + +[Illustration: No. 174. Doric Arcading.] + +The interior can also be vaulted by means of archivolts springing from +the line of the imposts. The archivolts should be supported by pilasters +at the back of the piers and on the opposite wall, and a cornice may be +carried round between the vaults. Cross vaulting also may be employed, +and in this case the entablature is no longer necessary. + +The proportions already given determine the width of piers when an order +is used, but when an order is not used some further general rules for +proportions are necessary. + +The height of the opening formed by arches, which may spring from +piers--with or without an impost--should be about twice the width. The +supporting piers should not be less than a third or more than +two-thirds the width of the aperture. In any form of arcading, piers +must be employed at the angles, and these should be wider than the +intermediate ones by a half, a third, or a fourth. + +[Illustration: No. 175. Doric Arch, with pedestal.] + + +_Subsidiary Order_ + +A secondary or subsidiary order is sometimes used in an arcading. The +height of the arch should then be twice its width, and the height of the +small order two-thirds the height of the column of the principal order. + +This height of two-thirds the column should be sub-divided into nine +parts, of which eight will give the height of the column and the +remaining one that of the entablature. The entablature consists of +architrave and cornice, the frieze being omitted, and a division into +five will give the relative proportions. Two-fifths may be taken as the +height of the architrave and three that of the cornice. + +[Illustration: No. 176. Employment of the Subsidiary Order.] + +Pilasters are used with the columns of the subsidiary order with a space +of half a diameter between them and the columns. + +[Illustration: No. 177. Subsidiary Order. Division of Entablature.] + +The archivolt should be equal in width to the upper diameter of the +column, and the width of the lower edge of the keystone should also be +of the same dimension. + +The subsidiary order may be the same as the principal order, but more +often the Ionic is used in conjunction with the Doric, or the Corinthian +with the Ionic. + +As regards the treatment of the bases, the horizontal alignment must be +maintained. It is obvious that if the height of the base of the large +column is adopted for the subsidiary one it will be very much out of +proportion. This can be obviated by carrying through the plinth of the +larger column to form a step on which the base of the smaller rests, and +always the top line of the smaller bases should agree with that of the +larger. + + +_Superimposed Orders_ + +When arcades are used one above the other, the lower order is usually +mounted on a plinth, and the upper furnished with a pedestal. The height +of the pedestal is determined by the balustrading or balcony, the height +of which is governed by its use. + +If the Doric is taken as the lower order the centres of the columns are +six and a quarter diameters apart, which gives a frieze of five metopes +with intervening triglyphs. The plinth on which the order stands is +three-quarters of a diameter high. The pilaster supporting the archivolt +projects half a diameter, and the height of the arch is determined by +the impost, which is two-thirds the height of the column inclusive of +the plinth. The base of the pilaster may be moulded, but the top line +should coincide with the top of the plinth. + +Above the Doric an Ionic order might be placed, and the die and plinth +of the superimposed order should be kept as narrow as possible so as to +reduce the impression of weight. The pilasters carrying the arch rest on +the plinth of the pedestal, and the plinth mouldings are carried round +the bases. The plinth and rail of the balustrading should not project +but be kept between the pilasters. + +The centres of the arches of both tiers are in a line with the tops of +the imposts, and the outer edges of the archivolts may nearly reach the +lower lines of the architraves. + +When the Ionic is used as the lower order it may be surmounted by the +Corinthian. The distance between the centres of the lower columns should +then be six and a half diameters. The other proportions can be obtained +in the same way as the preceding. + +If a subsidiary order is employed the columns of the principal order are +placed further apart. In the case of the Doric the distance is seven and +a half diameters, and the other orders are increased in proportion. + + +_Rustication_ + +The joints of the material used must necessarily be considered, and when +plain piers or plain wall surfaces occur the joints may readily be +accentuated and so turned to decorative account. The edges of the stones +forming the separate courses may be chamfered or moulded. The joints may +also be worked so as to form a square recess. + +[Illustration: No. 178. Rustication.] + +The surface of the stone is sometimes roughly tooled or frosted, or +worked in an arbitrary pattern, which is termed “vermiculated.” This +treatment probably gave rise to the word rustication. + +When rusticated work is used with an order the height of each course of +stone should not be less than half a diameter, and when square recessed +joints are used they can be one-eighth or one-tenth the height of the +course. + +Occasionally only the horizontal courses are thus marked, and this has +been objected to as producing a boarded appearance, though undoubtedly +the horizontal effect is at times agreeably in contrast to the vertical +features. A much more usual treatment in Renaissance examples was to +emphasise the vertical joints also. + +The length of each stone should be from one and a half to three times +the height. + +Rustication may be used in the formation of the arch, which frequently +has at its springing line a slightly projecting course, in which the +vertical joints are not emphasised. + +[Illustration: No. 179. Rusticated Arcade.] + +Rustication is also used in columns, either square on plan or conforming +to the plan of the column. + +Its most legitimate employment is in basements and to emphasise the +angles of buildings. + + +_Basement_ + +A basement is really a continuous pedestal on which an order rests. It +necessarily varies in height according to conditions, thus if its +purpose is merely to raise the ground floor it may be no more than three +to six feet high, but if it is required to form a storey, it should not +exceed the height of the order employed or be less than one half. + +The joints of the work in basements are generally accentuated by some +form of rustication, and the heights of the horizontal courses should +not be less than half a diameter of the column of the order above. + +When a high basement is used it is sometimes crowned with a cornice, or +more frequently with a slightly projecting facia technically known as a +plat-band. In either case, the height should be equal to that of the +courses exclusive of moulded edges or chamfers. Also a plinth is placed +at the base of the same height as the plat-band or a little more. When a +cornice is used the plinth should be moulded and may then exceed the +height of the courses. + + +_Attic_ + +An attic storey is sometimes used instead of a second order, and this +may vary from one-third to one-tenth the height of the order beneath it. + +The attic may be quite plain, but it often has breakings or projections +on its face corresponding to the vertical features of the supporting +order. + +It usually forms a storey in a building, and then is of necessity +pierced with windows. + +In architectural design the character and requirements of the building +must, of course, be the first consideration, but the basement may +constitute the ground floor, the height occupied by the order may +contain two stories and the attic may be an upper floor. + +When an order is not employed the divisions and proportions already +stated may still be applied, the heights and widths should govern each +other as would be the case if the façade were divided into bays by +columns or pilasters. + +In the absence of the order a cornice is substituted for the +entablature, and this, according to different authorities, may be from +one-twelfth to one-sixteenth the total height from the ground, but +one-fourteenth or one-fifteenth will be found a safe mean. + + +_The Pediment_ + +The pediment in its original and orthodox employment was a gable +conforming to the pitch of the roof. It is framed with mouldings, and +the enclosed space is technically known as the tympanum. + +[Illustration: No. 180. Cornice where order is not employed.] + +The use made of the pediment by the architects of the Renaissance was +not always justified in the strictest sense. It was often used to vary +the sky line, and to form door and window heads. Although the latter use +can be to some extent justified in exterior work, a similar employment +in interiors may be open to question. + +The sloping lines of the pediment are not always straight, sometimes +they are in the form of a curve composed of a segment of a circle. The +triangular and curved forms are often used alternately in a row of +windows with good effect. + +The lines of the pediment mouldings are not always continuous; sometimes +the sloping or the horizontal lines or both are broken. This is a +treatment that cannot readily be justified as the pediment is a feature +that implies shelter. + +Sometimes ogee curves take the place of the straight sloping lines, and +these terminate towards the centre, with scroll ends, leaving an +interval between them. + +[Illustration: DETAIL OF PEDIMENT + +No. 181.] + +The mouldings of the pediment are the same as those of the cornice, the +crowning moulding of which is carried round and omitted in the +horizontal course forming the base of the pediment. + +Beneath the cyma the mouldings of the cornice are repeated in their +proper order, detailing at the lower angles on the top of the horizontal +cornice, which terminates with the fillet above the facia. + +When dentils and modillions are introduced in the cornice they are +invariably repeated in the mouldings of the pediment. + +The tympanum or face of the pediment should be in vertical alignment +with the face of the frieze. When this space is small it is best left +plain, but on a large scale the tympanum affords a very suitable +position in which to place sculpture. + +The height of the pediment varies according to the width. Thus where the +base is short, as in door and window heads, it will be comparatively +higher than when used in a façade. The height may vary from a fourth to +a fifth of the width of the base. + + +_Doors_ + +Obviously door openings should be of sufficient size to admit the free +passage of a tall person. The minimum height for ordinary doors in +domestic buildings should be six feet nine inches, and the width two +feet nine inches. For entrance doors under similar conditions the width +may be three feet six, but when it is more than this the door should be +in two halves. + +[Illustration: No. 182. General proportions of doors and windows.] + +The size of doors should be proportioned to the building, and should be +designed to meet probable requirements, thus in public buildings door +openings should not be less than six feet wide. + +Generally a satisfactory proportion may be obtained by making the height +twice the width, and the framing architrave one-sixth the width of the +opening. + +If a frieze and cornice are carried over the door the height inclusive +of architrave should be half the width of the opening. + +[Illustration: No. 183. Door Treatment. + + A. Architrave with simple pilasters and consoles. + + B. Ionic order rusticated, with pediment. + + C. Doric order with pediment. + + D. Doric order rusticated. +] + +In addition to the framing architrave narrow pilasters bearing consoles +supporting the cornice are sometimes used. The total width of architrave +and pilaster may be about one-third the width, and the entire +entablature one-third the height of the opening. + +The mouldings and decorations used should be in harmony with the general +structure and in character with the order if one is used. + +Occasionally columns or pilasters are introduced, with or without the +arch, but the same general proportions apply, the aperture being two +squares. + +When doors are placed under arches the top line of the entablature +should agree with that of the impost. + +When a pediment is used, the height should be one-fourth the width of +the base. + + +_Windows_ + +The general proportions and treatments of doors apply also to windows, +and if doors and windows are placed in the same line the heads of the +openings should be in horizontal alignment. If this is not possible the +top of the cornice may agree with the inner line of the window openings. + +Windows terminate below in a sill, or sometimes in a balcony, and as a +general rule those on the same level should be similar in treatment, but +an alternation such as already suggested with curved and straight lined +pediments is quite satisfactory. + +The frieze and consoles of doors and windows are often decorated with +relief ornament. + +When a façade is divided by columns or pilasters the bays are pierced +with windows ranged above each + +[Illustration: No. 184. Windows. + + A. Rusticated Architrave. + + B. Rusticated Ionic Columns. + + C. & D. Rustication with Horizontal and Vertical Joints Defined. +] + +other, the heights varying with the different floors. Those on the first +storey are usually of full height, and those above less in height and +simpler in treatment. The width of apertures should be the same for the +different levels, except in the case of basements, where they may be +narrower. + +When an order is not employed in a façade variety may be obtained by +grouping the windows; or three-light windows may be introduced. The +centre light, which may be treated with an arched head, should be twice +the width of the side lights. + +[Illustration: No. 185. Three-Light Window.] + +The number of windows in a façade should be odd, so that there may be a +centre one, and the end windows of a range should be kept well clear of +the angles of the building. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +DIVISION OF SURFACE + + +In interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be +divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form +of the framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval; +and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails +or ribs, while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings. + + +_Wall Treatment_ + +In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with +architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily +employed. + +In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of +pilasters--the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to +the conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of +pilasters in exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces +between them are occupied by panels or other features. + +Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted +on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the +form of a Dado or surbase. + +In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice +forms a bed moulding for the ceiling. + +Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in + +[Illustration: No. 186. Wall Division. + + A. & B. Pilaster Treatment. + + C. & D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels. +] + +some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the +case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel. + +[Illustration: No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo, +Florence. M. Angelo.] + +In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the +division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both +vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may +be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide. + + +_Ceilings_ + +When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some +relation to the general construction, though in the past this rule has +not always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very +desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden +or plaster mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated. +When mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be +maintained between the framing ribs and the panels. + +[Illustration: No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo, +Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.] + +The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs +geometrically arranged with pateræ in between and fleur-de-lys details +on the outer angles where the ribs met. + +[Illustration: No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Plan +of general arrangement.] + +[Illustration: No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.] + + +_Jacobean_ + +In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands +projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These +bands were disposed in various ways--sometimes intersecting at right +angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming +geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines. + +If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is +obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account. + + +_Carolean and Georgian_ + +In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the +ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or +oval in form--the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes +the angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably +left plain. + + +_Adam Ceilings_ + +[Illustration: No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall, Westmorland.] + +The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or +circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons--an +arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended + +[Illustration: No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.] + +as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated +with the characteristic fan detail. + +[Illustration: No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.] + + +_Vaults and Domes_ + +In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal +or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size +towards the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more +properly speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further +the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as +circles, unless the diameter be relatively small. + +[Illustration: No. 194. Adam Ceiling.] + + +_The Cove_ + +In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is +technically known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of +the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be +decorated. + +When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be +obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are +themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make +a break in the frieze or cove. + +It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in +interior decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use +it may be urged that, though considerations of actual weight and +structure are not involved, yet the appearance of support has to be +maintained, and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should +realise the effect of stability. + + +_The Frieze_ + +[Illustration: No. 198. Festoon Frieze. Continuous treatment with +vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, Tivoli] + +In considering the decoration of the various parts, the two principal +questions to be asked are--what is the purpose? and, what is the +attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be said to be to bind, and the +attitude of the Frieze is certainly a horizontal one--therefore the +usual continuous treatment is justified. This is not the only way in +which the Frieze can be treated, however, for the continuous horizontal +treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the Doric +order. The employment of Festoons with intermediate + +[Illustration: + + Photo] + +No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice, Sansovino. + +[Alinari +] + +[Illustration: + + Photo] + +No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal division, resulting in +panels. Villa Madama, Rome. + +[Alinari +] + +[Illustration: + + Photo] + +No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial division. + +[Alinari +] + +pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the +vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle +is involved in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be +in alignment with adjacent and dominant details. + +[Illustration: No. 199. Frieze. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome. +Horizontal direction suggested by Gryffons, with vertical contrast by +Candelabra.] + +All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as much +interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary +repetition. + + +_Borders_ + +Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the +spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably +uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations, +where some license is permissible). + +As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be +simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions. + +The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When +on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines +spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which +case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the +length, while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles. +This treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines +between those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and +these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple +forms. + +[Illustration: No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.] + +[Illustration: No. 201. Interlacing Borders.] + +The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which +traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and +then returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is +an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is +alternately dispensed with. + + +_Geometric Elements_ + +The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character. +The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various +angles, or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a +combination of straight lines and curves. + + +_The Undulate Line_ + +[Illustration: No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric Curves.] + +Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered +patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and +dark masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting +straight lines. When segmental curves are employed either the chequered +or interlacing effect may be obtained. Such patterns are essentially +geometric and mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested +by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from +either side of the border. This effect may be used with purely +artificial detail, such as arises naturally from the spaces left, or +with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident that the curve of +the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres +from which the arcs are struck. + +[Illustration: No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate Borders.] + +A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will +be obtained by basing the stem upon + +[Illustration: No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.] + +[Illustration: No. 205. 14th Century Textile composed of Undulate +Borders arranged obliquely.] + +a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The +latter device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only +the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded. + +[Illustration: No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century, composed of +Borders.] + +Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details +symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional +flowers or rosettes to break the monotony. + + +_Repetition and Alternation_ + +Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal +character, and should consist of the repetition of units with no +interest beyond that imparted by alternation. + +The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to +be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor +of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit +can be designed. + + +_Treatment of Angles_ + +[Illustration: No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border. + +A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal] + +The meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special +treatment, and in those positions the detail should be compact and +stronger in appearance than the general pattern. The simplest expedient +is some form of patera or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should +always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border. The only +forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles, +are the undulating stem, the wave, and its square form the key or +labyrinth; but even with these the proportion of width to height at +times needs modification. If a common divisor is not possible, the +difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal +and letting the two sides meet in the centre of the border, so that any +slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable. + + +_Pilaster Treatment_ + +As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its +treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural +requirements, and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis +and vertical in direction. + +When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be +unequal in number--seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be +further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only +one-third of the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of +husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the +pilaster. In either case the general rule must be observed that the +cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height. + + +_Panelled Pilasters_ + +Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about +half the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably +in pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the +centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped +panel. Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and +this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this +purpose the undulate stem should never be employed. Such detail requires +a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster, +but for the rest, it may consist of the same unit repeated, or of two +alternating units. + +In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was +customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and +labels. + + +_Capitals and Bases_ + +The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other +decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a +modified Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster +has plain or decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the +pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a +composite form in which the Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure +together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be +used. The Ionic type would also be suitable; when the base of the +pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus +may be bound with cross ribbons. + +[Illustration: No. 208. Pilaster Treatment. French Renaissance.] + +[Illustration: No. 209. Treatment of Pilaster Capital, with Vertical +Emphasis.] + + +_Treatment of Panels_ + +Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and +therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be +considered--that is to say, the only question is, as to whether the +surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane. In the +decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane, since it is not desirable +to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate diagonally or +diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a ceiling, +details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should +grow towards the centre of the ceiling. + +[Illustration: No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth from Angle.] + +When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any +height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule; +but if the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it +should remain vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform +to the width. + +The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude, +should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate +terminals. If the enclosing border were removed the detail should, by +its general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole +surface may not be occupied. + +Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the +panel--certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration +than on adornment in more subordinate positions. + +The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do +so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be +carefully considered. + +[Illustration: No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central Feature based on +Circle.] + +Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced +one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the +position of the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of +panels; greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed +designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs. + + +_Juxtaposition_ + +When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the +other, they may exert influence on one another. For example, vertical +features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent +panel even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels +are one above the other, central features should be avoided and the +interest should be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the +effect will be spotty and lacking in repose. + +[Illustration: No. 212. Panels in Juxtaposition.] + +As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their +treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to +which the more structural features must submit, there is open to them + +[Illustration: No. 213. Design for Panel based on Treatment of Celery. +By C. A. Sheehan, Bristol.] + +a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first +place, the panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the +requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on +in mural decoration. If not treated pictorially, ornament of a +traditional character, or designs derived more directly from natural +forms can be made use of. In either case the ornament must complete +itself within the given area. + + +_The Growth Line_ + +[Illustration: No. 214. Analysis of Composing Lines of Panel.] + +In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used, +but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for +the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected +growth. The disposition of leaves and other elements must also be +characteristic, and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near +enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such +forms as branches or leaves approach or cross, they should always do so +at decided angles; their points or extremities should never be directly +opposed to other details or to margins. The main growth should be +clearly discernible, and the direction of the stem lines evident even +when clothed with foliage. + + +_Grouping and Massing_ + +It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that +the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a +design. In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped +and massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious +whole. Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in +keeping with the general environment. + +Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail, +because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail +equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is +obvious that the result will again be uniform--the only difference being +that a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not +undesirable in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel. + + +_Division of Area_ + +The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent +should be guided by the scale. One expedient in panel designing is to +draw within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other +shape, a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to +that which is to be less conspicuous. + +[Illustration: No. 215. Phases of Elaboration of Simple Shape.] + +Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses, but the grouping of +these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders +a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of +adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling +growth lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament. + +[Illustration: No. 216. Byzantine Panel. Composition based on Circles.] + +[Illustration: No. 217. Romanesque Lunette Panel. Composition based on +Circular Shapes.] + + +_Human and Animal Life_ + +Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is +employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to +composition, inasmuch that they + +[Illustration: No. 218. Figure Composition. Recognition of Framing +Lines.] + +[Illustration: No. 219. Figure Composition. Spandril Treatment.] + +must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the +boundaries or framing lines. + +The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely +conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted +into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not +possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the +consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if +consistency has to be observed. + +The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in +particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings +or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the +memorial of Mr. Dick. + + +_Forms in the Round_ + +Forms in the round--such that can be seen from any point of view--need +special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the +surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of +varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical +lines, any one of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite, +would appear straight, whereas those approaching the profiles would +appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature. + +[Illustration: No. 220. Effect of Perspective of Vertical Division.] + +Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according +to the profile curvature, and in decoration, for bodies that are +bulbous in form, the foreshortening and its effect on details must be +taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion. + + +_Supports and Balusters_ + +Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for +furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and +balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts, +and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously +suggested. Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in +wood, these forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case +may be further decorated by carved work. In supports, the general +tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to +enhance the structural suggestion. + +[Illustration: No. 221. Jacobean Baluster, Carved Wood, showing Vertical +and Horizontal Contrast.] + + +_Standards_ + +In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the +element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a +greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in +interior fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate +but will convey the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards +the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable, but when the +standard is small the base can be circular, square or polygonal. The +commonest form is a shaft, which is frequently tapered. This is +supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base. At +the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind. These different +parts are held together by appropriate mouldings. + +The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size, +should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with +occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must +also vary according to material. + +[Illustration: No. 222. Cast Iron Lamp Standard.] + + +_Proportion_ + +Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind +of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and +diameter. Obvious repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided. +The profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting +harmony or contrast--the curves either approaching one another in a +flexible line or being deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used +at intervals to mark the various stages. + +[Illustration: No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration. + +A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast. + +B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.] + +Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight +lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may +take other forms--they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the +diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When +unity of line is desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily +into each other, even if broken at intervals by mouldings. In +contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order +to avoid indecision of form. + + +_Positions for Decoration_ + +The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by +mouldings. The nature and direction of the decoration will be +determined by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of +the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid +distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform +curvature. + +If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of +flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the +vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an +oblique direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or +twining round the shape. + +[Illustration: No. 224. Stretch Out and Segments of the Cylinder.] + +In the vertical panel treatment, as in mouldings, the sectional or +profile curve may be used to determine the general framing lines, with +contrasting details between the panels. In order to give variety it may +be desirable to combine two treatments--for instance, the horizontal +band may be contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves. + + +_Working Drawings_ + +For a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in +perspective. All the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel +lines. It is obvious that except for profiles and general height, +further details must be given for a working drawing. + + +_The Segment or Stretch Out_ + +[Illustration: No. 225. Stretch Out of the Cone.] + +In designing for forms in the round it is necessary to detail the +ornament on a segment or a stretching-out of the area. This is easily +done in the case of a cylinder of which the height is evident, and the +extreme width and circumference easily obtainable. If the object is not +in existence for direct measurement the width can be determined from the +diameter as expressed in the drawing. As this diameter is about +one-third of the circumference a parallelogram three times the width of +the diameter will provide, in the flat, the complete area on which +detail has to be drawn. + +Should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone--that is, +with straight inclined sides and a circular plan, the procedure must +necessarily be different. In this case the lines of the sides should be +extended till they intersect. This intersection forms a centre from +which arcs may be struck coinciding with the lines of top and base. The +greatest diameter should be set off on each side of the elevation on the +larger radius and the points joined up with the centres from which the +arcs were struck. The result is a fan-shaped figure bounded by these +outer lines and the two arcs. This figure gives the entire area of the +surface of the truncated cone. + +In either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on, the +surfaces can be sub-divided. For instance, if the decoration consists of +a unit repeated three or six times round the form, it will not be +necessary to reproduce the whole area, provided always that the profiles +are straight or tapered. + +[Illustration: No. 226. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-sixth of +Vase.] + +As the diameter is about one-third of the circumference the elevational +drawing of the cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a diameter +gives one-sixth. + +In the truncated cone shape the widths are similarly determined, but it +will be found that the height, when measured on the centre line, is less +than the lengths of the profile lines which constitute the actual +height. + +When the profiles are curved, the procedure is more complicated. As in +the case of the cone shape, there is naturally some discrepancy between +the height of the elevation and the profile, the actual dimension of +which is affected by perspective (as also in plan curvature). + +To obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured +vertically with some flexible material, such as thin lead wire, which +will readily embrace the curvature. + +If a division of a third or a sixth is required the diameter or half +diameter can be taken, but the segment of the area should be set off on +a fresh centre line quite independent of the elevational drawing. + +In order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be +divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in +curvature, and these can be lettered or numbered for identification. The +distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on +the new centre line, and then these can be used for drawing the +parallels through. + +The various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines on +the elevation. Lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give +the required segment or area on the flat. + +[Illustration: No. 227. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-fifth of +Vase.] + +If other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required, +it will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the +division can be obtained. Assuming that the elevation has been +vertically divided as before, and the plan to be circular, a circle +should be struck which is to represent the largest diameter and its +circumference divided into the required number of parts. Lines are then +drawn through to the centre. On the same centre other circles are +struck with radii equal to the remaining horizontals, and each +identified with the corresponding number or letter. The heights are +obtained as before, and the diameters of the variations in the curvature +can be ascertained by measuring round each of the plan curves in +succession. + +In the case of the plan being other than circular, the same rules apply, +but the different plans would have to be drawn in each individual +example. + +Owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes, it is undesirable +to employ the human figure, unless in bold relief, and then only on +straight or slightly curved profiles. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +DEVELOPMENT OF CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT + + +The term Convention is applied to decoration in which there is distinct +evidence of artistic restraint, which may be purely æsthetic or due to +technical conditions. + + +_Outline Drawing_ + +The rendering of any form in outline is probably the simplest form of +convention, which is generally accepted through tradition as +representation. Though the objects so depicted really depend on light, +shade, and local colour for their appearance. + +Such outline drawings may be in other respects realistic, but a further +degree of convention is the desirable elimination of perspective where +it is unsuitable to the effect desired. For instance, in silhouette, +profile renderings only are intelligible, and in delicate bas-relief +modelling any foreshortening should be avoided if confusing to the +effect. + +In direct personal work, such as drawing or painting, when craft +conditions other than that of the medium employed are not involved, +convention is purely a matter of discretion and consideration of the +nature and object of the work; but it is essential in design when the +material and method of production have to be considered. In painting the +artist may employ the full resources of his palette and be as realistic +in his effect as is in his power, but if the purpose be mural +decoration restraint is at once imposed. + + +_Undesirable Realism_ + +Under certain conditions realism would be out of place, and any attempt +at illusion would fail to convince. The one time fashion of painting +ceilings with sprawling deities of either sex, which cannot be seen +without a painful crick in the neck, or worse still to suggest sky with +floating amorini, occasionally framed by marble balustrading in +wonderful perspective is deplorable. + +Such decoration, if it can be so termed, is not only stagey but is +foredoomed to failure in effect, as the ordinary interior lighting is +not adequate. Furthermore, it displays a lack of appreciation of +fitness, and that the purpose of a ceiling is to convey a sense of +shelter. + +Realism, though desirable in portraiture, either of individuals, places +or events, is not necessarily of the greatest interest except to those +concerned. In mural decoration realism should give place to convention, +and the whole considered as a design with regard to balance of form and +colour, and recognition of the surface to which the decoration is +applied. + +The first attempts at decoration were the direct results of material and +the manner of working, in which there was no attempt at representation. +This was succeeded when the early artists attained more skill by a phase +of realism, later still with acquired culture there was a deliberate +return to convention. + +The dignified conception of the Egyptian rendering of the Lion, though +thoroughly conventional, reveals technical skill and anatomical +knowledge of a high order; also appreciation for desirable treatment, +and may be contrasted favourably with those by Sir Edwin Landseer round +the pedestal of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square, in which realism +is not subordinated to the decorative and symbolic conditions. + + +_Craft Restrictions_ + +When any craft process is involved the design is only a means to the +end, and convention is then imposed by the technical conditions of the +craft in question. The designer has to keep these conditions in view, +the desirable object being to make the greatest economic use of the +process compatible with a good result. It would be a waste of both time +and energy to depict effects that could not be realised. + +In woven or printed fabrics it is impossible to produce natural effects; +even if that were possible the inevitable repetition of the unit would +be not merely unnatural but a gross absurdity. The great bulk of the +public do not understand convention, hence the popularity of textiles +and wall-papers in which the designs consist of flowers treated (however +inconsistently) in natural aspect as far as possible; in particular the +Rose which, like the poor, is ever with us. + +Traditional ornament at its best has generally been conventional, the +various details of foliage being æsthetic creations, with at times, +perhaps, some suggestion derived from natural types. The scroll in the +form of volutes as employed in the Ionic capital may have been suggested +by the fossil known as the Ammonite + +[Illustration: No. 228. Filagree Jewellery. + + A. Hook for Jacket in Silver. Swedish, Mid. 18th Century. + + B. Pendant Cross. Gold set with Garnets. Modern Italian. + + C. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern French. + + D. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian. + + E. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian. + + F. Pendant. Northern Portuguese. 17th or early 18th Century. + + G. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian. + + H. Pendant. Gold. As worn by peasants in Etruria. +] + +shell, so called because it resembles the ram’s horn of Jupiter Ammon. +Its traditional employment in conjunction with the undulate stem, is +certainly far from any natural suggestion in the way of growth, while +the variety known as the evolute scroll is distinctly artificial. + + +_Materialistic Influence_ + +It is probable that it had its origin in the facility with which wire +could be bent, and in early jewellery such scroll forms are conspicuous. + +A reasonable conjecture is that the similar forms in early repoussé +work, such as that of the gold ornaments found at Enkomi, Cyprus and the +painted decoration of the Greek vases, were inspired by the treatment +which was the outcome of the use of metal in the form of thin wire. +Similar details occur in Peruvian and New Guinea work, which is +certainly coincidental as it is difficult to imagine these people having +any communication with the Old World. + +Scandinavian and Keltic art was to a certain extent influenced by +Eastern tradition through the medium of the Phœnician merchant +adventurers; but no such conjecture is feasible in the Maori incised +work and tattooing in which similar details occur. + +The scrolling line alone may be used, generally in decoration of small +scale, as in the Greek vases. In this form it frequently occurs in +pottery, either incised or painted, and in filagree jewellery. Wrought +iron partakes largely of the scrolling character, but this, as in +filagree, is the direct result of the material employed. + +Scandinavian and Keltic ornament consisted mainly + +[Illustration: No. 229. The Evolute Scroll. + + A. Pottery (painted) Archaic Greek. + + B. Pottery (painted) Cyprus, 800 B.C. + + C. D. F. Gold Ornaments from Tombs at Enkomi, Cyprus. + + E. Pottery (painted) Ancient Mexico. + + G. Early Greek Stone Carving. Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos, + Boeotia. + + H. Assyrian Stone Carving. Sacred Hom or Palm. +] + +[Illustration: No. 230. The Evolute Scroll in Savage Art. + + A. B. C. Spatula Handles, Carved Wood, New Guinea. + + D. Detail on Paddle, Carved Wood, New Guinea. + + E. Maori Chief’s Staff Handle, Carved Wood. + + F. Detail from Tattooed Maori Head. + + G. Engraved Bamboo, Borneo. + + H. Carved Wood Detail, New Guinea. +] + +of a series of scrolling forms, as also did much of the ornament of the +illuminated Gothic work and mural decoration. The desire for variety and +mass lead eventually to the employment of diverse elements, arising in +many instances from different treatment of existing details; thus, +during the Renaissance, the side view of a poppy-like flower suggested +and became a profile mask, and the husk leaf was frequently elaborated +into the form of a dolphin. + +[Illustration: No. 231. Scroll & Anthemion Ornament from Greek Vase +Paintings.] + + +_Early Renderings_ + +The evolute scroll which plays so conspicuous a part in Greek art, was +employed at earlier periods by the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and the +widespread appreciation and use of this form of detail is plainly +indicative that it was not disseminated from any one centre. + +In the early employment of these curved forms there is no evidence of +natural suggestion, but later, leaves and floral details were added +conveying the idea of growth. In Egyptian and Assyrian art certain +natural types occur, such as the Lotus, Papyrus and the Palm, but these +were utterly denaturalised, all realism being eliminated. + +These conventions, though incidentally decorative, were invested with +symbolic meaning with which their employment was concerned rather than +with the imitation of natural form. + + +_The Anthemion_ + +[Illustration: No. 232. Greek Anthemion. Relief Treatment.] + +The Anthemion alone or in conjunction with the scroll or evolute line, +appears in a painted form in the Greek vase decoration. Examination of +these will reveal evidence of brush-work, the separate details being the +result of direct flexion. In sculptured form it appears in the Antefixe, +also as a cresting or finial to the stele heads, the separate radial +features being channelled with sunken grooves or with ridges in relief. + +[Illustration: No. 233. Greek Scroll from Choragic Monument of +Lysikrates, Athens. Carved Stone.] + +It is conceivable that the attenuated effect of the mere scrolling line +suggested the desirability of the occasional mass and variety that would +be obtained by employing leaves. + + +_Greek Sculptured Ornament_ + +[Illustration: No. 234. Wrought Iron Scroll. Detail of Hinge, Notre +Dame, Paris. Early French Gothic.] + +Greek sculptural ornament is comparatively devoid of natural suggestion, +the branching scrolls with sheath leaves being æsthetic rather than +imitative. The leaves employed bear little resemblance to those of the +later Roman period, and consist generally of a succession of radial +grooves with undulating or prickly edges, and are obviously adapted from +the anthemion detail. + +In the scrolls employed on the Choragic monument at Athens the desire +was evidently play of line and silhouette. + +The flexible and open form, though possible in bent metal or in painted +work, is unsuitable to carving in stone. Adequate support being +essential, the scrolls had to be united by the leaves, which were +necessarily massed in form and decorated by channellings or grooves to +give further detail and interest. + +A development of the leaf treatment was the division into lobes, each +lobe being channelled with a group of radial grooves ending in +serrations. The lobes were divided by holes, or, as they are generally +termed, eyes, more or less circular in shape, and these were connected +with the base of the leaf by pipes or Tines in relief, conforming with +the general radial distribution. + + +_Acanthus Leaf_ + +[Illustration: No. 235. Acanthus Leaf. Composed of groups of Anthemions. +Brush-work.] + +Leaves of this type are known as Acanthus, and it is a tradition that +the leaf in its original employment was derived from a natural source. +The anthemion, too, is often mis-called the honeysuckle owing to the +supposed resemblance; but it is much more probable that both were purely +artistic creations developing as previously suggested from the painted +anthemion details. Elaboration and relief expression were the natural +outcome of material, and desire for surface interest. The honeysuckle +origin is completely confuted by comparison of the Greek anthemion with +the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, by which it was evidently inspired. + +In Greek ornament such flowers as occur are mostly of the rosette type, +quite conventional in character, though in the painted decoration such +natural forms as the ivy and vine are evident; but these were always +conventional in treatment and symbolic in interest. + +[Illustration: No. 236. Acanthus Scroll. Brush-work.] + +The Greeks were not creative in art either in their architecture or +ornament, and were evidently indebted to the earlier culture of +Mesopotamia for many of their details. As they based the anthemion on +the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, so they borrowed the Ionic capital +from Persia and the Corinthian variety had its prototype in the Egyptian +Papyrus capital. Even their architecture was no advance in principle on +that which previously existed. + +Their treatment, however, was extremely artistic, and they invested all +their work with great refinement and delicacy of detail. At a later +period under subjugation the Roman art development was practically in +the hands of Greek designers and craftsmen, and acquired great freedom +of expression marked by exquisite workmanship in the Græco-Roman period. + + +_Roman Development_ + +The details and treatment of ornament developed rapidly in the Roman +period, in the variety and forms of the elements employed. The principal +exponents were Greek, but the original austere character of expression +underwent considerable modification. + + +_The Scroll_ + +In Roman art the scroll, which constituted the chief decoration of the +friezes and panels, was greatly developed and rendered with more freedom +and variety of treatment; assuming the form of a growing or climbing +stem, bearing flowers and clothed with leaves. A treatment which is +fairly consistent with such types as the Vine and other climbing growths +in nature. + +The undulating stem with branching scrolls is prominent, both in friezes +and panels; the character of the foliage became more varied, the stiff +and formal acanthus leaf being only used in the capitals of columns and +in structural features. + +The version employed in more decorative positions + +[Illustration: + + Photo] + +No. 237. Detail of Roman Frieze, in Carved Stone. + +[E. Richter. +] + +exhibited greater freedom in form, attitude and section. Natural types +for the sake of variety were used, generally in subordinated positions, +and there is occasional evidence of the influence of these in the +treatment of the acanthus detail. + + +_Græco-Roman_ + +The development of art during this period cannot be attributed to native +talent, the Romans being content to borrow their art as they did their +religion. It was rather due to the opulence of the times, though the +practical character of the race resulted in a great advance in +architecture. + +The later Roman, generally termed Græco-Roman, varied from the more +robust treatment and reverted somewhat to the earlier Greek manner; +tending to delicacy and refinement, but retaining the variety of +character and detail. + + +_Byzantine_ + +The State recognition of Christianity had a great influence on art in +that there was a return to symbolism. Various pagan elements associated +with the earlier decoration that were unsuitable to the feeling of the +time were eliminated. Eastern influence is evident, in not only the +architecture but in the treatment which is known as Byzantine, of the +foliage, which resembles that of the archaic Greek, the leaves being +more stiffly lobed, and severely channelled with V-shaped grooves, in +place of the subtle modelling of those of the Roman period. + +The stem or growth line is comparatively absent, and the prevalence of +the circle as a shape or in the arrangement of details is evident. +Decoration displays more regard to profile than to variety of relief, +which was practically uniform. + +[Illustration: No. 238. Gothic Spandril. Carved Stone. Geometric basis +obvious in central circle uniting angular shape with minor circular +forms occupying angles.] + +The Byzantine influence is evident in the succeeding Romanesque. + + +_Romanesque_ + +Early Gothic detail, the closely curled foliage of which is suggestive +of lobes though without serrations, is reminiscent of debased Roman +tradition, evident also in the general shape and disposition of leaves +in the capitals of columns. The floral ornament of the Middle or +Decorated period, though freely adapted from natural types, shows traces +at times of the earlier tradition in the treatment of lobed and serrated +leaves. + + +_Italian Renaissance_ + +The Italian Renaissance was not merely a revival of Classic architecture +adapted to more modern conditions, but was in its earlier stages a frank +reproduction of the Roman ornament in design and rendering. In later +development in Italy and other parts of Europe it acquired local +character differing materially from the original. Fresh elements were +adopted and details originally significant were introduced for purely +decorative reasons. + +[Illustration: No. 239. Early Pointed Gothic Stone Carving. Ely +Cathedral.] + + +_The Husk Leaf_ + +A feature of the foliated scroll is the Husk Leaf, either Acanthus, that +is--lobed and serrated, or compounded of water leaves with smooth and +undulating edges somewhat similar to the hart’s tongue fern. + +The Husk either grows tangentially from the stem which it sometimes +envelopes in the sheath form, or has at its base a floral-like feature +known as the Bract; this, however, was seldom employed in Greek +ornament, a boss-like annulet being more general. The Husk is largely +employed to mask or cover branching, and either, as previously stated, +grows tangentially from the stem, or takes a bulbous form with a broad +and rounded base when it appears to be threaded on, rather than +articulated to, the stem. + + +_The Rosette_ + +[Illustration: No. 240. Italian Renaissance Scroll, shewing Acanthus +husks with bracts, sheath leaves and floral terminals.] + +[Illustration: No. 241. Types of Rosettes.] + +Such flowers as were employed in the earlier ornament displayed little +regard to nature, being mostly of the rosette form with petals radiating +from the centre; as a rule these were composed of simple leaf-shaped +petals in one, two or more tiers arranged concentrically; in this form +of rosette the petals are symmetrical in shape. The number of petals is +a matter of scale and taste, but an unequal number will invariably be +found more interesting. Arrangements of five or seven in preference to +four, six and eight. Frequently the spaces between the outer tier are +occupied by narrow leaves suggestive of the sepals in natural flowers, +and these serve the double purpose of giving variety and preserving the +circular shape. + +Further variety can be imparted by the arrangements of the petals on a +revolving instead of a straight axis, either consistently in one +direction or symmetrically disposed from a centre in a palmate form. + +The Rosette in ornament is useful as a pause point, giving repose, but +where it is desirable to continue the flow of line, other floral forms +can be employed, such as the tulip or the lily, which are displayed to +the best advantage in profile or perspective. + +In conventional ornament the flower petals should be in contrast to the +leaves employed on the scrolling stem. + +The Pistil in nature is reflected in the various sprouting forms which +emerge from the conventional flowers of the Renaissance, and at times +develop into further stem growth. On æsthetic grounds this may be +excused in cases where flow of line is of greater importance than +consistency. The Pistil takes many forms, being frequently composed of a +series of diminutive husks. Flower buds of similar husk form occur, the +petals being similar to those of the flowers employed. + + +_Tendrils_ + +Tendrils serve a useful purpose in giving unity to the design, for which +there is ample suggestion in such natural growths as the Vine, Pea, etc. +Too often in traditional ornament they are employed to merely occupy +obviously awkward spaces. In Roman ornament flowers articulated on +tendril-like stems were often used apparently to occupy the +spandril-like spaces resulting from the branching scrolls. + +[Illustration: No. 242. Ornamental Treatment of Tendril from Roman +Frieze.] + + +_Nature Influence_ + +During the Roman development greater variety was introduced in the +treatment of leaves and flowers which in many instances display evidence +of natural suggestion. The main stems are sometimes twisted, a +characteristic of some strongly growing natural types, but this was only +a variant of the earlier treatment of decorating the scrolling stem with +channels or hollow flutes. + +Birds and animals were also used in antique ornament--grotesque +combinations of foliage with human and animal forms, and such symbolic +monsters as the Gryphon and the Sphinx, were employed with little regard +to the original significance. Other symbolic elements, such as wreaths, +garlands, festoons, altars, tripods, and urns were also introduced +merely for their decorative value and to afford variety. + + +_Symbolic Employment_ + +The modern mind is naturally out of sympathy with forms that have no +direct appeal, but it should be considered that these elements were +originally not merely the expression of the art of the period, but were +also invested in many instances with symbolic meaning. The Roman citizen +saw nothing incongruous in decorating a triumphal arch with the chaplet +of the victor and trophies of arms. + +The later misuse of symbolic elements can only be defended on æsthetic +grounds, and is probably undesirable. Without these there is still left +sufficient material for beautiful effects. Dull slavish reproduction is +not only without interest, but displays lack of inventiveness. It is +possible in good hands to utilise the past tradition so as to appeal to +modern appreciation. + + +_Consistency in Growth_ + +However arbitrary traditional ornament may appear, there is consistency +in the best examples, which display in many details some general +observance of the principle of natural growth. There may be no attempt +to exploit any known type, the creation being purely artificial; still +the association of stem, leaves and flowers is suggestive of natural +growth. + +The arrangement is generally progressive, as in nature a plant develops +outwards and onwards from the root, and the orthodox scroll ornament may +be considered as a stem of undulate form (constituting the growth line) +with branches, elaborated with leaves and flowers which are arranged +successively. + + +_Branching_ + +In traditional ornament the most general form of branching is +tangential, the scrolls and leaves emerging radially from the main +stem, with slight divergence; but in nature many varieties of branching +may be observed and applied with advantage in design. + +[Illustration: No. 243. Types of Branching. A. Tangential. B. +Acute-angular. C. Right-angular.] + +Generally natural branching may be classified into Tangential, typical +of grass growth and water-plants; Acute and Right-angular. The latter is +sometimes usefully employed in ornament, as it conveys a sense of +strength and vigour, though as a concession to the rhythmic flow of line +it should follow for a short distance the curve of the main stem. + +[Illustration: No. 244. Formal Opposite Branching suitable for Vertical +Borders & Pilasters.] + +Independent of the angle, branches may occur opposite, that is, grow +simultaneously each side of the stem, Alternate, or spirally round the +stem. The distances between the branches may be equal, or, as in some +instances, in alternate long and short distances. The opposite +arrangement of branches is most suitable where rigidity of effect is +required, but the alternate branching is susceptible of greater freedom +and license. + +The stem, as it throws out each branch, may gradually diminish in +diameter, each branch being less than the parent stem; the length of +each successive branch may also diminish and the leaves on these be +subordinate in size to those of the main stem. + +[Illustration: No. 245. Branch and Scroll Terminations.] + + +_Leaves_ + +The detail of these smaller leaves may be less complex as they approach +the terminals, a characteristic in natural growth where the necessary +energy to produce the flowers results in restricted development of the +leaves on the flower stalk. + +Equally consistent from the nature point of view is the employment of +the large husk leaves which generally cover the points of branch +emergence. As already stated, these are not articulated, but either +spring tangentially from or are threaded on the main stem in contrast to +the smaller leaves, which are often provided with individual stems. +Occasionally the scroll terminals are not furnished with flowers but +develop into sprays of small leaves radially disposed. + + +_The Start_ + +An essential condition in panel ornament is the Start or commencement, +which should at least be consistent. The natural root is not in every +case sufficient, though at times it may be employed with effect. + +The start point of the growth line or lines varies in position according +to attitude. In panels in a horizontal plane, the start is frequently +central and the traditional treatment is usually some form of rosette +from which the other details radiate. + +In some positions, particularly pilaster panels, the ornament is +suspended, which is consistently rendered by the employment of knobs and +ribbons. Ribbons are not only logical, but interesting on account of the +variety afforded and are also of service in giving unity to a +composition. Extremely amenable to harmonious arrangement and +susceptible of great variation, the ribbon can be twisted, folded or +arranged in groups of pleatings, the ends being occasionally scrolled or +split. + +The start mostly in evidence in ornament is that known as the Cup or +Nest, which is composed of leaves arranged somewhat in the form of a +tulip, with generally an inverted cup leaf below. It is composed of +leaves either of the Acanthus or water type, but for the sake of variety +one of these may appear in the upper part of the cup and the contrasting +form in the lower. The proportion between the two parts as to height and +width should also be varied, and when the cup leaf is used in pilaster +panels it generally occupies the whole width of the base. + +[Illustration: No. 246. The Nest or Cup-leaf Start.] + +[Illustration: No. 247. Italian Renaissance Foliated Figure Start.] + +Such artificial objects as vases and baskets form fairly consistent base +starts for floral detail, others as Altars and Tripods are not quite so +logical, though useful in conveying a sense of support. Shields and +Labels, generally employed centrally in wide panels where the ornament +is displayed laterally, are effective in the contrast they afford to the +floral details. + +[Illustration: No. 248. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St. +Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.] + +The employment of half figures as starts cannot be defended; the +illogical association of life, either human or animal, with foliage as +employed by the designers of the later Italian Renaissance, is too +incongruous to be excused on æsthetic grounds. Such were due to change +in taste and desire for variety, and probably were suggested by the much +earlier employment of compound animal forms as furniture supports. + +[Illustration: No. 249. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St. +Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.] + +The Acanthus leaf prominent in Renaissance detail, was at first +deliberately reproduced from Roman examples, and its architectural +employment as in the capitals of the Corinthian order, has survived to +modern times as the most suitable rendering for such structural +features. In more decorative positions marked changes are evident in the +later phases, the Cinque Cento renderings being perhaps the high water +mark of the Italian designer. In these the lobes were angular in general +outline, with beautifully balanced minor lobations and the surface +contours delicate and subtle in modelling. + + +_Renaissance Influence_ + +The early examples of Italian Renaissance in France and England are +generally pure in style, being in most instances of Italian design and +execution. Later work by native exploiters in emulation of the style is +invariably quite different, until the new style was better understood +and assimilated; eventuating in versions that were distinctive and +local. + +[Illustration: No. 250. Early French Renaissance Carving. Francis I.] + +In the early French Renaissance the acanthus leaf was generally +displayed in profile, the lobe being elliptic and pointed in shape, with +clearly defined minor divisions; the sectional form was comparatively +simple. Similar treatment, without the precision and grace of line +characterised the Jacobean work in England; the relief work of which, +being rather in the category of flat carving, consisting mainly of +incised lines and grooves by which leaf form was expressed in profile or +silhouette. These were invariably archaic and crude, though in view of +the direct and simple execution not without individuality and interest. + + +_Jacobean._ + +A characteristic feature of the Jacobean style is the ornamental +interlacing strapwork, with foliated or + +[Illustration: No. 251. Development of the Acanthus Leaf. + +A. Greek. B. Roman. C. Byzantine. D. Romanesque. E. Decorated Gothic. F. +G. Italian Renaissance. H. French Renaissance, Period of Francis I.] + +scrolling ends. This doubtless was in emulation of the French work of +the period of Henry II, when strapping composed of straight and curved +lines entered largely into ornamental detail. In the period of Louis +XIII + +[Illustration: No. 252. Development of the Acanthus Leaf. + +I. French, Louis XIV. J. English, Grinling Gibbons. K. French, Louis XV. +L. English, Adam. M. French, Louis XVI. N. Louis XVI (Salombier). O. +English, Late 18th Century.] + +shield and cartouche shapes were much in vogue, on account probably of +their mass value and the contrast afforded with the subordinate detail, +which developed into the foliated strap frame of the Louis XIV style. + +The details of this latter period were expressed in bold relief, the +decorated areas being well filled, in contrast to the earlier Italian +style in which the background frequently predominated over the ornament. +The sectioning or modelling of the leaves, which by this time were +typically French, was elaborate but well considered as to harmonious +play of line. Shell forms were employed and were effective, both as mass +shapes and for the radial elaboration of their surfaces. + +In conjunction with artificial details, natural foliage was employed in +the form of wreaths and festoons, composed of leaves and appropriate +flowers; the conventional stem was little used, the foliated strap being +more often evident. + + +_Régence_ + +The immediate successor of the style of the Grand Monarch was the phase +known as Régence, in which the strap frame was moulded in section, and +the whole detail became much lighter, resulting in more open or plain +spaces. + +In the period of Louis XV restraint was thrown overboard, panels and +enclosed areas were framed with mouldings irresponsible in curvature, +and without regard to structural conditions. The growth line +disappeared, the leafage and other details being arbitrarily disposed on +the framing mouldings, which were generally in flattened and elongated +curves opposed to each other in flexured lines. In comparison with the +preceding Louis XIV style the ornament is thin and liney in character, +the leaf, still of the acanthus type, is greatly modified both in form +and detail, the ends of the lobes being curled and twisted spirally. + + +_Rococo_ + +In minor floral details natural types were employed, also such +artificial features as canopies or hammercloths; rock and shell forms, +and stalactite details suggestive of icicles are comprised in the later +phase to which the term Rococo is applied. + + +_Louis XVI_ + +As a natural revulsion from the license of this period in the succeeding +Louis XVI style there was a distinct reversion. The curved framings were +abandoned and panels and other areas were enclosed by mouldings with +regard both to structural and materialistic conditions. Great refinement +is evident, not only in the mouldings but in the details throughout. + +In contrast to those of the Louis XIV period, panels were occupied +rather than filled, the dominant details being placed at the upper and +lower extremities and connected by vertical features either centrally or +at the sides, steadily arranged as to alignment both horizontal and +vertical. Familiar details thus employed are such amorous emblems as +quivers, torches, trophies of musical instruments and bouquets and +festoons of natural flowers. + +The artificial leaf reverted somewhat to the earlier Italian type, and +was mostly displayed in profile with the lobes and serrations carefully +composed. The detail though comparatively low in relief, was boldly +modelled, and the direction and emphasis of the lobes and veinings of +the leaves considered with regard to the composing lines. + + +_Grinling Gibbons School of Carving_ + +In England the work of the school of Grinling Gibbons was productive of +a phase of ornamental expression distinctive for its artistry and +technical skill. Conventional details were combined with natural forms +of all kinds, the conspicuous arrangement being interlacing scrolls, and +festoons and pendant swags. + +In the artificial leaf, with its boldly grooved surface and accentuated +lobes, the evidence of the tool is manifest throughout. + +The tradition established by the Grinling Gibbons school had a lasting +effect upon the native carving, which endured throughout the Georgian +period, though largely influenced in detail by French taste--Rococo in +particular. + + +_Adam Style_ + +The designs of the brothers Adam, which were in vogue in the reign of +George III, though peculiarly individual and distinctive, were based +upon the study of Græco-Roman details. In the Adam style the ornament is +delicate in relief, and mostly displayed in profile. Panels and enclosed +spaces are occupied, the decorative elements being carefully disposed +with regard to balance and stability, with large areas of plain +surface. + +The characteristic and prevailing details are the fan and delicate +festoons of leaves or husks, at times of beads. + +The anthemion is much used on friezes and borders, and compound animal +forms, such as the Sphinx, were borrowed from the antique, the same +source doubtless inspiring the employment of vases, altars, and tripods. + +Medallions occur occupied by figures after the manner of the Greek +vases. In some instances these were in pottery, the work of Wedgwood. + +The general structural form was architectural, the mouldings slight in +projection and refined in their profiles being decorated by orthodox +enrichments. + +The foliage is mostly artificial in character, the leaf lobes in those +of the acanthus type being orderly in arrangement with regard to profile +and radial display, with comparatively little modelling. + + +_Empire_ + +A similar revival of the Antique succeeded the Revolution in France, in +the Empire style, which, more literal in reproduction than the Adam +work, is characterised with, at times, undesirable severity and +precision of detail, particularly in the treatment of the human figure. + + +_System of the Acanthus Leaf_ + +The system of the acanthus leaf is based entirely on radiation, the +tines and veinings being arranged in consistently diverging directions +from a common base or start-point. Whether the whole leaf be displayed +or merely the half leaf used, the shape should be bounded by general +lines controlling the lobes and their serrations--the mass shape forming +a satisfactory silhouette. + +The length of the lobes should be relative to the breadth of the leaf, +the maximum length agreeing with the maximum width, and the others in +proportion. + +The edges or outlines of serrations and lobes should also be controlled +by radial lines from the base. + +[Illustration: No. 253. Construction of the Acanthus Leaf.] + +In turn-overs and curling or twisting lobes the silhouette shape and +composing line must be considered. + +The apex of leaf terminates with a central lobe balanced by side lobes +repeated throughout. In treatment these may be displayed clear of each +other, or they may overlap, but care must be taken to avoid confusion in +effect. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +TREATMENT IN DESIGN + + +Appreciation of design by the individual is largely a matter of +temperament, though it may be due to some extent to acquired knowledge. +Generally, few are conscious of any guiding principle, and selection in +their case is mostly the result of fashion or custom. To others certain +colours and forms have an appeal, though they may be quite unconscious +of, or unable to explain the attraction other than it suits their taste. + +In the last few years it has been recognised that colour may be employed +beneficially in curative treatment, but the normal healthy individual is +often indifferent to environment other than that of material +gratification. + +When any artistic work creates pleasurable emotion, it is purely a +matter of cause and effect. To design successfully involves some +understanding of the causes or factors which constitute the appeal. + + +_Natural Attraction_ + +The attraction of colour and form is undoubtedly universal, and may be +generally understood, though there are delicate degrees of proportion +and association in both that may only be appreciated by the cultivated +eye. Early essays in drawing generally exhibit an undesirable redundancy +in curves, and in many instances the student is slow to realise that +those that approximate to the elliptic form are proportionately of more +interest than those obviously composed of segments of circles. +Undoubtedly this subtlety of line is one of the predominant factors in +appreciation of form. + +A factor in pattern that is largely responsible for the charm is the +presence of small detail in juxtaposition with larger forms. This is +entailed in instances by technical conditions, such, for instance, as in +some tapestries where inhabited pattern is essential to the process of +production. + + +_Decorative Materials_ + +Some materials are employed partly for their decorative effect, such as +naturally figured woods and certain varieties of stone; and design +mainly consists of judicious selection, use and treatment. Oak and +walnut being woods extremely suitable for structural work and furniture +have always been in request when obtainable. + +Polishing is to some extent a preservative, but work in oak or walnut, +especially when carved, should be kept comparatively dull, otherwise +confusion between the relief and the natural figuring would result. In +mahogany or satinwood, where the chief interest exists in the figuring +and colour, carving is undesirable and the best effects are obtained by +high polish. It may be urged that in the Chippendale period the work was +invariably carved, but the detail was always in very low relief, and the +finishing dark in colour, in which the figuring was subdued. Mahogany in +its more general employment owes its chief beauty to the development of +figuring and colour. + +Certain marbles are used for their decorative effect, and the natural +colour and figuring developed by polish. Statuary marble that is +sometimes employed, is more suitable for carved details, and appears at +its best when unpolished, though in this state it is extremely subject +to discolouration owing to its absorbent nature. + +Granite, so popular in our cemeteries, is often polished, when the +natural figuring is unpleasantly aggressive. An extremely hard stone and +laborious to work, it is not suitable for carving, and is best left +roughly tooled or frosted, when the natural chrystaline formation +appears to the best advantage. + + +_Justification of Treatment_ + +The softer woods used in interior structural work are generally painted, +partly as a preservative and largely because they do not possess any +figuring of particular interest. + +Graining in imitation of more precious woods is often condemned as +inartistic, but it may be urged in extenuation that it is the most +economic treatment, as it helps to minimise the effect of wear and +incidental damage. + +The use of pattern wall-papers and floor coverings can be justified on +the same grounds, as in those with plain surfaces any disfigurement is +readily seen. Wallpaper, however, is quite a legitimate form of +decoration and not necessarily imitative, though to some extent it is +reminiscent of the early custom of employing tapestries as wall +coverings. A more durable and artistic treatment of interiors is that of +the wainscotting of the Georgian period, but the initial cost is +proportionately great, though probably when maintenance is taken into +consideration it would be cheaper in the long run. Apart from the +question of cost, the modern tendency is favourable to change of effect +and environment, due partly to the facility afforded by the comparative +cheapness of wall-paper, but even more to the prevalent short tenancies. + + +_Undesirable Imitation_ + +Many excellent designs are produced in wall-papers, though there is a +tendency at times to reproduce textural effects which can only be +justified on æsthetic grounds. Those of the frankly imitative kind +cannot be condoned. It is still possible to have the hall and stairs +papered and varnished to resemble slabs of precious marble, or patterns +in mosaic, which were undreamt of in Byzantine times; and the orthodox +design for the bathroom is still that of tiles with the joints neatly +printed. Similar imitation is also apparent in linoleum, when the +pattern simulates the appearance of either wood parquet or mosaic, or +even worse--that of a Turkey or Axminster carpet. + +There is an element of priggishness in such cheap art in which, as +though ashamed of poverty of material, there is an assumption of +something better; and it is lamentable that there is not merely a market +for these shams and imitations but curiously enough they also find +appreciation. + +There are phases of work where simulation may to some extent be +justified, for instance, silver is sometimes gilt. For this there is the +excuse that silver, although a beautiful metal, is subject to oxidation +and requires constant attention to keep bright. Gilding acts as a +preservative, and is therefore justified in certain forms of silver +work, which it is not convenient to clean in the ordinary way. + + +_Technical Considerations_ + +It has already been suggested that Design is not merely a question of +idea and draughtsmanship, but is also dependent upon materialistic +conditions, which, in practical work, must be understood and properly +considered. + +Whether the intended design be for some form of flat pattern, such as +weaving, etc., or for any particular craft expression, it is essential +that the limitations of the process and material involved be clearly +kept in view, and that suitable elements for expression be chosen. + +Convention, to a large extent, exists in the adaptation of forms, +natural or otherwise, to the exigencies of production, a proper +understanding of which will not only tend to economy in cost, but also +to more effective results, if full advantage be taken of the craft or +mechanical conditions, which should always be foreseen in design. + + +_Methods of Expression_ + +Methods of expression vary, according to position and material, and may +be Flat--either silhouette, or with appearance of relief, or in actual +relief. + +[Illustration: No. 254. A. B. C. Flat Treatment, Silhouette important. +D. Relief Treatment of C.] + +[Illustration: No. 255. A. Flat Treatment. B. Relief of Husk Leaf.] + +Contrast exists always, thus in the Flat with or without outline the +contrast is in Light and Dark, whether colour is involved or not. + +In Relief the contrast is in Light and Shade. Contrast exists also in +both treatments in lines straight and curved--in the variety of the +latter, in lines with mass forms, and in dominant forms with smaller +detail. + +In the treatment of Flat Ornament the most important considerations are +play of line and silhouette, and forms should be displayed in +interesting profile; perspective and foreshortening being eliminated +whenever they would result in distorted or inharmonious shapes. + +In Relief treatment the designer is concerned with the effect of Light +and Shade in harmonious arrangement of mass and line. + +Perspective and foreshortening are permissible to some extent, but are +largely dependent upon the work, greater license being allowable in high +than in low relief. + + +_Treatment of Leaves_ + +In Flat ornament, leaves are invariably in profile, but in Relief +expression they may be folded, that is, wrapped round the stem. Greater +freedom is possible in the turn-overs. + +Relief ornament should recognise ground by details being occasionally +displayed in lower relief. + +Whether expressed in Flat or Relief, the composing lines should always +be emphatic, and their direction traceable through the details, floral +or otherwise. + + +_Surface Interest_ + +In addition to the foregoing, a further consideration is that of +interest of surface, which may consist of contrast in textures of rough +surface with smooth, of patterning on form, veining and striation of +leaves and flowers, and of the employment of trellis or imbricated +pattern. The latter in conjunction with other details, occur in the +decorative work of the later French Renaissance. + + +_Painted Decoration_ + +The technical means of obtaining the interest of surfaces is, of course, +incidental to the process involved. If the decoration be the result of +painting, the design is free and untrammelled by any other than purely +æsthetic conditions. Such, for instance, as the desirable recognition of +surface, and the pattern sense suggested by recurrence, if a decorative +rather than a pictorial effect is desired. + +When the decorations consist of ornament, wholly or partly, they are +occasionally rendered in a conventional manner, based upon the +appearance of Relief, as in the Pompeian wall decorations and the +painted work of the Italian Renaissance. There is ample precedent for +this treatment in traditional painted decoration, but deliberate +attempts at realistic effects are not only undesirable but to be +deplored. + +The interest in Painted Decoration, apart from colour, design or +subject, would be that of the individual manifestation of the designer +and painter. + + +_Stencilled Work_ + +Stencilled decoration is a compromise between painting and mechanical +printing, and is restricted by the unit. The repetition of this is +practically mechanical, though considerable license is possible in the +treatment of colour, which has to be personally applied and is therefore +amenable to controlled variation. + +[Illustration: No. 256. Inhabited Details from Woven Fabrics. Interest +imparted by patterning on forms.] + +The design in stencilled work is not limited to one unit, and is not +subject to hard and fast rules, the plates being of a size convenient to +handle. Alternate units, or a series can be employed, the interest, +apart from colour and subject consisting mainly of contrast in detail, +and in the individualism expressed. + + +_Mechanical Production, Printed and Woven_ + +In textiles, where such mechanical processes as printing and weaving are +involved, the design is restricted to the unit, the repetition of which +is infallible both as to form and colour. + +Apart from colour, the surface interest consists of suggested or actual +contrasts of texture, the result of veining and striating leaves and +flowers or of patterning forms or backgrounds with smaller details. + + +_Needlework_ + +Needlework, being a personal performance, has no such mechanical +restriction; the design can, and should be, complete within the area, +and the expression perfectly free. Beside Design and Colour, the surface +interest is that of contrast in the different textures resulting from +the various stitches, and the employment of darning, knots, laid-work, +etc. + + +_Appliqué_ + +In Appliqué work, interest is imparted by the mass effects enriched by +embroidery, the large shapes entailing detail of the inhabited variety +to keep them from puckering. In all needlework the effect is due to some +extent to light and shade, particularly in Appliqué, where a corded edge +is employed. + +[Illustration: No. 257. Needlework, contrasting effect of various +stitches. + +(Photo: V & A Museum).] + +[Illustration: No. 258. Needlework Appliqué. Interest due to contrast of +material, effect of relief imparted by corded edges, and to embroidery +on applied details. (Photo: V & A Museum).] + +[Illustration: No. 259. Lace. Surface interest due to contrast of +various fillings. (Photo: V & A Museum).] + + +_Lace_ + +In Lace, the interest consists solely of textural contrast, not only in +the treatment of the various details, but in the patterning of intervals +due to the necessary fillings. Design may be complete, or a repeated +unit, according to the purpose and variety of lace. + + +_Wood Inlay_ + +[Illustration: No. 260. Wood Inlay. Geometric arrangement.] + +Design for Inlays in Wood-work may be free in expression, or a unit, at +discretion. The latter variety frequently takes the form of lines spaced +with regard to good proportion, forming borders, chequers and geometric +shapes of various kinds. Floral or other forms simple in character and +profile may be used, the design being expressed in silhouette. + +[Illustration: No. 261. Wood Inlay.] + +[Illustration: No. 262. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette depending on +natural colour.] + + +_Intarsia_ + +In the Intarsia detail of the Italian Renaissance, the inlaid forms were +elaborated by surface markings and graduated effects were obtained by +means of hot sand; but the natural contrast in the varied colour and +fibres of the material employed probably form the more legitimate +interest in all inlaid work. + +[Illustration: No. 263. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette.] + + +_Veneer, Marquetry_ + +In Veneer work and in Marquetry, where the work is quartered and +juxtaposed, the interest consists in the patterning of the figured +woods, particularly when these are arranged to form reciprocal shapes. + + +_Boule Work_ + +The interest of Buhl or Boule work, an inlay of metal employed in the +French Renaissance in the decoration of furniture, often in conjunction +with tortoiseshell, is that of contrast of texture. + +[Illustration: No. 264. Italian Intarsia. Forms elaborated by incised +lines.] + +In the design, profile or silhouette is the primary consideration, being +used: + +1. As a form of framing, +2. In angles or centres on table-tops, +3. In panels in furniture: + +[Illustration: No. 265. Louis XV Cabinet with Ormolu Mounts. + +Marquetry, veneer quartered and inlaid with floral detail. (Photo: V & A +Museum).] + +[Illustration: No. 266. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.] + +The design can invariably be complete within the area. Coloured grounds +are employed as well as tortoiseshell. + + +_Mosaic_ + +Mosaic designs may be complete in themselves or be the result of +repetition, according to attitude and purpose, and with regard to +variety and colour, only restricted by æsthetic considerations. + +[Illustration: No. 267. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.] + +Owing to technical limitations, modelling can only be broadly suggested; +therefore forms should be generally in silhouette except when on a large +scale. + +When employed on walls and vaults, gold is frequently used in the +backgrounds. This not only serves to define detail, but affords contrast +to the general surface, the inevitable joints in the tessaræ adding also +to the interest. + + +_Byzantine Use of Marble_ + +Associated with Mosaic decoration in the Byzantine Period was the +employment of marble in shafts of columns and for lining walls by +banding or slabbing, frequently quartered, so as to display the markings +in reciprocal forms. Such marbles were chosen for figuring and colour, +the former in its variety being an important factor in the surface +interest. + +Similar employment of slabs occurs in the treatment of floors, where +contrast in colour is the chief consideration. It is sometimes +associated with Mosaic of small tesseræ, also in marble, whereas that +used on walls and in vaults was frequently of glass. + +The foregoing is a broad summary of ornamental expression in the Flat, +with the exception of Book Decoration. + + +_Book Decoration_ + +In Black and White, which is chiefly employed, the designs may be in +tone or line with suggestion of rotundity or relief; or line +decoratively employed, according to subject, or purely decorative. + +The same applies to renderings in colour. Designs for covers are +controlled by the processes involved, whether printed, stamped or +tooled. + +[Illustration: No. 268. Mosaic Borders. + +A. From Carthage. + +B. & C. Withington, Gloucester.] + +[Illustration: No. 269. Mosaic Border, Roman.] + +[Illustration: No. 270. Roman Mosaic. Woodchester, Gloucester.] + +[Illustration: No. 271. Roman Mosaic. Treatment in Light and Shade +suggestive of relief. (Photo: V & A Museum).] + +[Illustration: No. 272. Tooled Bookbinding in Leather. Repetition due to +tools or stamps. (Photo: V & A Museum).] + +[Illustration: No. 273. Modelled Plaster, shewing relatively large +ground area. (Photo: V & A Museum).] + +[Illustration: No. 274. Wood Carving. Grinling Gibbons. Attention +devoted to detail with elimination of ground. (Photo: V & A Museum).] + +[Illustration: No. 275. Wood Carving. French, Louis XIV. (Photo: V & A +Museum).] + + +_Bindings_ + +In the two latter the ornament should be in profile or silhouette. In +tooled bindings, repetition of unit or motif is essential, the design +being the direct result of available tools. + +In such bindings further interest may be imparted by gilding either the +detail or by introducing gold as powdering on shapes or backgrounds, or +by the so-called inlaying of other colours. + + +_Relief--Economic Result of Method_ + +In Relief ornament, design and character should be the result of +technical expression. If considered from an economic point of view, the +tendency would naturally be to obtain the maximum effect with the +minimum of labour; and this would invariably result, when the decoration +is built up or applied to an existing ground as in modelled work, in +slight occupation, with comparatively large intervals. + +In carving, where the original surface forms the highest relief, and has +to be cut back to form the ground, the result would be reversed, the +individual worker being more attracted to the treatment of detail than +to clearing away uninteresting spaces. Carving, whether in wood or +stone, is employed in various decorative positions, and except in the +enrichment of friezes or mouldings--when the repeating unit is +desirable--the design should be complete in itself. + + +_Desirable Treatment in Carving_ + +The treatment should evidence the direct employment of the tool, any +attempt to efface or soften will result in loss of character and +suggest the plastic effect incidental to modelling. + +For convenience, and possibly in the absence of more desirable examples, +students are often allowed in their early attempts at carving to +reproduce casts of plastic origin. This is undoubtedly pernicious, as +the model is probably unsuitable, and the student is thereby biassed. +Examples should be selected in which the characteristic treatment is +sufficiently evident if a true and thorough appreciation of the craft is +to be instilled. + +[Illustration: No. 276. Simple Jacobean Wood Carving. Direct gouge +work.] + +In the design--which may occupy or fill the shape and can be +symmetrically arranged on a central axis, or balanced--the effect is due +mainly to Light and Shade. Further interest may be imparted by the +sectional form or modelling of the details, groovings, striations or +other textural suggestions. + + +_Backgrounds_ + +The employment of punched grounds in carved work is to be deprecated as +mechanical in effect. Sufficient interest is obtainable by the process +of cutting back, in the perfect levelling of which the carver need not +be too concerned. Suspiciously uniform grounds are suggestive of work +fret-sawed and applied. + +[Illustration: No. 277. Wood Carving. English. Late Elizabethan or Early +Jacobean.] + +When carving in wood is in very high relief, it is occasionally, as in +the Grinling Gibbons work, built up. This may not be a matter of great +objection if properly attached, and the grain of fibre matched, but is, +however, better avoided. + + +_Reproduction Processes_ + +Modelled ornament is generally employed in reproduction processes, such +as moulding of Terra-cotta, plaster, etc. The design can be free in +expression, or a unit of repetition according to requirement. + +The detail which is applied to an existing surface is invariably more +open, with a resulting display in the background. + +The surface interest consists of contrasts in texture, the result of +veining, striating and patterning forms. The relief is not, as in carved +work, controlled by an original surface, but, being built up, is +susceptible to greater variation. Mouldings may be broken by lapping and +overlapping details, and though in some traditional work similar +treatment occurs in wood-carving, it must be remembered that such +details are too suggestive of, and more proper to, plastic renderings. + +In economic moulded work undercutting of details should be avoided as +this is only possible in piece or elastic moulds. In wood-carving, +however, there is no restriction. + + +_Metal Repoussé_ + +Freedom and variety in detail are possible in Metal Repoussé, but as the +light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface, +the design which is plastic in character incidental to method of +working, should have regard for silhouette or profile display, and not +be dependent upon surface modelling. The principal factor in effect is +Light, both direct and reflected. Surface interest is the result of +imparting by chasing various textures in striations or matt. + +[Illustration: No. 278. Wood Carving from Fontainbleau. Early French +Renaissance.] + +Excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool, +leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height, and imparting +texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast. + +[Illustration: No. 279. Economic Wood Carving.] + +The method of working is simple, entailing manipulation from the face of +the metal only, and the detail is left in slight relief by the ground +being set back in the texturing. This treatment is only suitable where +the ornamented area is enclosed. When the design is freely displayed on +a ground without enclosing lines, it should appear in relief, the result +of raising from the back; and texturing should be employed only on the +details in contrast to the smooth ground. As in all applied work, the +economic result is slight occupation. + +[Illustration: No. 280. Oak Box decorated with flat carving. Icelandic. +18th Century.] + + +_Metal, Cast_ + +Cast metal is produced in sand moulds, a model or pattern being employed +of which the casting is a reproduction. The + +[Illustration: No. 281. Repoussé Work. + +A. Pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different +textures of ground. + +B. Pattern raised from back, and defined and enriched by tracing and +matt tools on face, affording textural contrast with plain ground. + +(Photo of A. V & A Museum).] + +pattern may be originally modelled or carved, and this determines the +character of the metal result, though it is a matter of indifference +when the necessary finishing is by turning or filing. + +Castings in iron are left as they leave the mould, but in bronze, except +in Cire Perdu casting, the surface has to be entirely worked down. In +common work, however, this is accomplished by means of small files or +riffles and by chasing the more elaborate details. + +[Illustration: No. 282. Wrought Iron, simple form enriched by use of +punches.] + + +_Character of Cast Work_ + +[Illustration: No. 283. Gondola Prow. Wrought Iron, comparative flat +surface enriched by chiselled work.] + +As a matter of opinion it is consistent that the + +[Illustration: No. 284. Surface Interest in Metal. + +A. Blade of State Battle-axe, damascened with silver, Indian. + +B. Blade of Khyber Knife, engraved, Indian. + +C. Hilt of Tulwar, damascened with gold, Indian. + +D. Vase, Bidri Ware, pewter inlaid with silver, Indian. + +E. Scabbard End, gold inlay, Indian. + +F. Ornament on Gauntled Sword, damascened with gold, Indian.] + +character of cast work should be plastic, and if the original pattern is +the result of carving, care should be taken to impart the desired +feeling, the pattern being merely a means to the end. + +Much depends upon the final finish; if this is to be bright, surface +modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest +resulting from contrast of textures. It, however, becomes of +proportionate importance as the work is dull or toned, and therefore is +subject to the ordinary conditions of Light and Shade. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM + + +Traditional ornament is replete with forms and details that were +originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment this +was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their æsthetic +value. + +Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in +the Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory, +sacrifice and religious observance. + + +_Early Symbolic Ornament_ + +It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural +types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus, +which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were +therefore esteemed. + +These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line, +are symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the +periodical inundation of the Nile. + +The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the +Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which +undoubtedly influenced the later ornament. + +The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it +was the symbol of Resolution overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief +was that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed. + +Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times, +implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the +general community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is +to be deplored. + +A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however is +fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which +represents the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the +operation of venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the +respective bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to +blood-letting, the other for final bindings. + + +_Customs_ + +The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a +survival--the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of +a truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery--the +latter of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that +one can stand unprotected. + +The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards +the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient +times, if a stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it +denoted a declaration of war; but if carried with the point behind, he +came in friendship and peace. + +There are opportunities where the decorative element could be such as +to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the +decadence of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest, +because it has no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated. + + +_Origin of Mythology_ + +Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom +the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light +and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to +how they affected his personal comfort. + +The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more +modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and +Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression. + + +_Nature Myths_ + +Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of +natural phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural. +Inducing a belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in +future existence. With this belief these aspects were eventually +invested with personality. + +An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting +for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to Gæa +(Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light +and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos +revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance. + +A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest god Tani, who +effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the +Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree +upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches. + + +_Light and Darkness_ + +Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting. The +Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all his +children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the +Grave), which three Time cannot consume. + +An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except +Zeus, for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and +promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted. + +On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the +stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being +that of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being +the sunrise. + + +_Melanesian Myth_ + +An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and +his brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and +setting forth in search, was successful in his quest. On his return he +told his brothers to sit quite still, and when they felt something in +their eyes to take no notice but keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep. +When Night had lasted long enough, Qat took a slab of red obsidian and +cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A tradition reminiscent of the +“dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery, though the slab of red +obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its suggestion. + + +_Darkness as a Devouring Monster_ + +In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant +influence or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun, +_e.g._, the Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by +Apollo, and in Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by +darkness. + +Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according to +tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts +and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn. + + +_Season Myths_ + +In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears +some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god +was killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of +Odin, everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was +forbidden to injure Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was +made into an arrow and shot at random. It effected his death, but by +general request of the gods, he was restored to life. + +Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the +end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the +tradition of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her +mother, Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of +Orpheus and Eurydice. + + +_Sun Myths_ + +Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and +Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and +transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the +Sun, or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation. + +Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the +North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over +hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing +the morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the +Heavens, where she became the Morning Star. + +Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who +for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which +traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his +daily course. + + +_Belief in Natural Phenomena_ + +It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and +conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena, +indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day. +Thus we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and +intelligence. We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the +Sea treacherous, the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also +customary to speak of the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of +the sea and the “mouth” of a river or a cave. + +Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,” +“howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile” +or the sky “threatens.” + +These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and +consciousness--a belief originally simple, but later becoming more +complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in +assigning different deities to the various elements. + + +_Greek and Roman Deities_ + +In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and six +goddesses. + +_Greek._ _Gods._ _Roman._ + +Zeus. The air or the Jupiter. + living one (king) + +Apōllon. Sun God. Apollo. + +Ares. War Mars. + +Hermes. Messenger. Mercury. + +Poseidon. Sea God. Neptune. + +Hephaistos. Smith. Vulcan. + + + _Goddesses._ + +Hera. Queen. Juno. + +Demeter. Tillage. Ceres. + +Artemis. Moon-Hunting. Diana. + +Athenē. Wisdom. Minerva. + +Aphrodite. Love and Beauty. Venus. + +Hestĭa. Home life. Vesta. + +These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as +follows: + +Dionȳsus. The God of Wine. Bacchus. + +Eros. The love lad. Cupid. + +Plutōn. God of the Inferno. Pluto. + +Kronos. Time. Saturn. + + +_Scandinavian Mythology_ + +In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or first +created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold, +nourished by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he +slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet, +from whom was formed the race of Frost Giants. + +Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the +Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the +Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks; +the brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a +wall of defence against the Giants. + +As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the +Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god +dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly +hills between the Earth and the Rainbow. + +The other gods or Asa were: + +Thor. God of Thunder and War. + +Tyr. Wisdom. + +Baldur. Sun. + +Bragi. Eloquence. + +Vidar. Silence. + +Hodar. The Blind. + +Harnod. The Messenger + (divine intelligence) + +Odur. + +Loki. God of Mischief. + +All these were sons of Odin--the youngest being Vale. The mansion of +Odin was Gladsheim--that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was +Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.” + +The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits +of warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted +nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death. + +Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like +Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow. + +The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and +Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash +tree Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one +to the Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a +fountain of wonderful virtue. + +In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four +stags; lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent Nithhöggr, while the +squirrel Ratatösker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife +between the serpent and the eagle at the top. + + +_Rising and Setting Symbolised_ + +The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised +the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the +setting. + +Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye +at the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the +setting sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was +dedicated, symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with +two horns on a stem rising from her head. + +The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of +the Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the +death of Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis. + +Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon +is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the +Latmian Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth. + + +_Winds Personified_ + +That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to +imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo +or Boreas, son of Astræus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind, +and lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were +Notus, (South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), Argestës (North-East), +Volturnus (South-East), and Aferventus (South-West). + +The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition +of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away +till only her voice remained. + + +_Predestination_ + +To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes +would be attributed to the wrath of some deity, even though there was +no personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief +in predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of +Orestes and Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return +of Ulysses from Troy. + + +_The Fates_ + +The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were +arbitrarily controlled by the Parcæ or Fates, of which there were +three--Clotho, who held the distaff--Lachesis, who spun the thread of +life and Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was +ended. + +Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the +distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread +between life and death. + +The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The +former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an +atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came +near. Their names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm) +indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind. +Equally arbitrary were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there +were likewise three, their names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood), +Alectro (implacable), and Megæra (disputatious). + + +_Propitiation and Sacrifice_ + +Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the +natural outcome, and the various traditions are probably records of +actual occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous +conditions. + +In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story +of Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having +offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the +most beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next +twelve months. This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was +deferred till she reached womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet +arrived at Aulis on its way to Troy. Calchas declared this would be +wind-bound as long as the vow remained unfulfilled, but Artemis +interposed at the last moment by spiriting Iphigenia away from the altar +and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead. + +A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea +monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was +Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and +on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the +country and to appease the offended deity. + +Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by +Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition +of Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he +encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of +Troy. The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed, +and in consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer. + + +_Early Burial Customs_ + +The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future +existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have +souls. + +It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not +only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or +slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their +ministrations in the future life. + + +_Taboo_ + +The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the +belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the +present day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which +means “consecrated” or “set apart.” + +It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty, +whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the +supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed. + + +_Roman Lares_ + +The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares were +the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors. +They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in +the Lararium or shrine. + +There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of +streets and roads. + +This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of +sacrifice in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom +modified in later times to the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the +present day in burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the +foundation-stone in public buildings. + + +_Typical Legend_ + +Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are +reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated +traditions of demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some +difficult problem in design or construction for the solution of which +the architect or builder enters into the usual compact with the evil +one, the terms being that the latter party to the contract shall take +possession of the first living being that enters into or crosses the +structure. + +Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other animal +being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every +instance greater than his vanity. + +Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also +anticipated and symbolised the Atonement. + +With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun +and Moon, as it announced the hours. + +The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius. +Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should +be sacrificed. + + +_Early Spiritual Belief_ + +Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when +the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to +impress the primitive imagination and suggest the duality of +being--physical and spiritual. + +In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the +soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to +wake the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be +unable to return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and +come is evidenced in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and +other forms of tombs. + + +_Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics_ + +Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of +trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by +devils which would be released by making a hole in the head. This +treatment was apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive +instruments and ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could +hardly have been a pleasant experience. + +The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life through +the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a superstition that +it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death +occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape. + +Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death +chamber. + + +_Prohibition_ + +A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act +or question. + +The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife +of Orpheus, who, killed on her wedding night, was redeemed on condition +that Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world. +Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and +Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades. + +The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by +Aëdonius, King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty. +Orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled; +therefore he lost her a second time. + +The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine +beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar +in idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and +devotion. + +As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche +and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and +origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in +abandonment. + +A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was +condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards. +She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to visit +her on that day. + +Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and +saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and +wander about as a spirit till the day of doom. + + +_Belief in Magical Qualities._ + +The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual +world, but also extended to inanimate objects which were sometimes +invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus +and Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was +possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer +with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility +conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of +Iceland. + + +_The Shirt of Nessus_ + +More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of +misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition, +Nessus the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by +Hercules for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to +Dejanira, assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love +her exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on +wearing it was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove +the garment, he immolated himself on a funeral pyre. + +Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by +Queen Morgan la Fay. + + +_Swords_ + +Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the +belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the +sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its +origin in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later +improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural +origin; _e.g._, the sword of Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung +or Gram (literally “grief”). + +The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the +Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother +smith, cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the +cut was so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he +attempted to move, when he fell in two pieces. + +Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later +development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered +the wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing +the sheath, though he retained the sword. + + +_Invulnerability_ + +Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired. +In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his +mother Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he +received his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris. + +Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that +sprang from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa +with the Promethean unguent. + +Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by +bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden +leaf had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his +death, being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool. + +This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment of defensive +armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be +unprotected. + + +_Belief in Numbers_ + +Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic +significance, _e.g._, “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of +Beginning, Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of +Trinity is Triad, and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity. + +That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the +Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to +be under the rule of three gods--Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and +Pluto (Hades). The first has three thunderbolts--Neptune, the Trident, +and Pluto, Cerberus, the triple-headed dog. + +Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and +Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were +Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos. + + +_Muses_ + +The Muses were three times three as follows: + +Calliope. Epic Poetry. + +Clio. History. + +Melpomene. Tragedy. + +Euterpe. Lyric Poetry. + +Urania. Astronomy. + +Terpsichore. Dancing. + +Polyhegmnia. Religious service. + +Erato. Erotic Poetry--Geometry. + +Thalia. Comedy. + +The world is compounded of three elements--Earth, Water and Air. + +Man also is three--Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of +Nature--Mineral, Animal and Vegetable. + +There are three Christian Graces--Faith, Hope and Charity, and three +enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil. + +The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World--the Winds--the +Gospels--the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers. + +“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds. + +“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of +Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages +in the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the +sleepers of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the +world. + + +_Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc._ + +Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the +Deities. + +The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress +and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the +Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter; +the Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was +given to the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic +games had a wreath of wild olive--of green parsley in the Nemean games, +and of dried parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games. + +The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated the spirit of +prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and +poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace. + +The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace, +an olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating +a peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art +is generally borne by the martyr--indicating victory over Death. The +Lily--which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of +Eve as she went forth from Paradise--is the emblem of Chastity, +Innocence and Purity and is associated with representations of the +Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten Lily, which it was customary to plant on +graves, was once white, the tradition being that Persephone, daughter of +Demeter, delighted to wander about the flowering meads of Sicily. One +springtime she tripped over the meadows, wreathed her head with wild +lilies and, throwing herself on the leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of +the infernal regions, fell in love with her and carried her to the +nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow. + +In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and +represents original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the +Pomegranate (generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the +symbol of the future life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are +symbols of Christ, and the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion. + +The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion--the leaf +symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords +or whips; the column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails; +the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx, +the nimbus. The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and +the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry. + + +_Sacred Animals_ + +Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and +crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag +to Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to +Isis; the eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the +Lares; the horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to +Minerva; the bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and +the lion to Vulcan. + +The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of +the Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead, +and so remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it +receives life. + + +_Evangelist Symbols_ + +Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his +gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness. + +Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a +descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a +man. + +Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle--the former +because his gospel opens with the priests sacrificing in the Temple, +and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the +divinity of the Logos. + +In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on +fountains. The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual +inundations of the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo. + + +_The Serpent_ + +The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety, and, +considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the +symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that +Æsculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome. + +In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the +Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery +dragon, raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion. + + +_The Dragon_ + +The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and +Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the +source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief +thereby slew a dragon. + +The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the +Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also +a poetic allusion to flood or inundation. + +The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion +to the power of the sun drying up the overflow, as also the deliverance +of the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille +(waterspout) which lived in the Seine. + + +_Poetic License in Tradition_ + +In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable +occurrences have been handed down--in many cases completely +transformed--by reason of this poetic license; _e.g._, the legend of +Marsyas the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest +of skill and being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption. + +The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was +one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that +goddess, still discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the +respective superiority of the instruments--the Dorian mode in the +worship of Apollo employing the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in +the worship of Cebele the flute, the reeds of which grew on the banks of +the river Marsyas. + +Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos, +King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos. +All but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were +punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly +in sieves from a deep well. + +The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the +Argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The +soil of Argos, being dry and porous, resembling a sieve. + +The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in the tradition of +Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen +fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog--both slain by +Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who +reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two +tribes. + +Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred +lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains--a Greek myth based on the +peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the +Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to +two ships which acted as supporters. + +A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to +have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited +the wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to +defray the cost or to provide a bribe for Antony. + + +_Animals in Christian Art_ + +The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on monuments at +the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and at the +feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog appears on +the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the +standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master. + +Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively: + +The Ant. Prudence. + “ Ape. Malice, lust and cunning. + “ Ass. Sobriety. + “ Asp. Christ, or Christian Faith. + “ Bee. Industry. + “ Camel. Submission. + “ Cock. Vigilance. + “ Fox. Fraud and cunning. + “ Hog. Impurity. + “ Lamb. Innocence. + “ Leopard. Sin. + “ Ox. Pride. + + “ Dragon, Serpent, } Satan and his crew. + “ Swine. } + + “ Lamb. } + “ Pelican. } Symbols of Christ. + “ Unicorn. } + +The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus, +appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted +carrying a banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from +its breast caught in a chalice. + +The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement. It +is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of +its breast. + +The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred +years, is the symbol of the Resurrection. + +The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit. + +The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and +Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life +with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is +occasionally suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in +general shape. + + +_Association of Human and Animal Qualities_ + +Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull +and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the +association of qualities--animal and human; and probably had their +origin in an early belief in Totemism. + + +_Totemism_ + +Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain +animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and +appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the +belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous, +resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer. + + +_Cannibalism_ + +The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part +of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired. + +The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage +or mentality. + +The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for +protection or menace. + +The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies +alertness and watchfulness as well as speed. + +Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as hovering, +the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element denotes +Intelligence, and bird claws--Ferocity. + + +_The Sphinx_ + +The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position, +is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally +female) and symbolises Intelligence and Power. + +The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented +in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different +meaning, that of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the +tradition of the Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her +destruction was accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that +had resulted fatally for his predecessors. + + +_Assyrian Winged Monsters_ + +The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is +symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the +wings suggesting mobility or ever-present. + +The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle +head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but +alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the +pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the +ears. + +The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a +lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth +flames. From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head. + +The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the +head being the crater, the goat representing the mountain slopes, and +the snake tail the morass at the foot. + +The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and serpent +tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the +mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of +a lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted +issuing from the mouth. + + +_Pegasus_ + +Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the Chimeræ, +also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of poetic +inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with the +chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins +and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element. + + +_The Harpy_ + +In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts +employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head, +with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and +ferocity, and was the personification of sudden events. + + +_Sirens_ + +Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers) +of whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They +symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure +their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing. Failing to +entrance Ulysses, they were doomed to destroy themselves. + +The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower +limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion +to their musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing +harps or lutes. + +The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which +capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower +extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean. +The Dolphin has the same significance. + + +_Pan_ + +A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a +man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity +displayed in creation and pervading all things. + +Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were +under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god. + + +_The Nymphs_ + +To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the forest +trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin +with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of +such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth. + + +_Centaur_ + +The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was an +embodiment of the Thessalonian horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the +Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the +Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when +entertained as guests. + + +_The Circle_ + +The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic +meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that +of Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its +employment as the crown, orb and nimbus. + +In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two +asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the +power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the +Assyrian version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string +substituted for the asps. + +The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and Authority, +not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated in +pagan times. + +It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an +indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of +the three persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre, +and sometimes is triangular in form. + +The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but +not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or +less ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is +sometimes used to envelop the whole figure. + + +_Symbols of the Trinity_ + +Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as +emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle. + +The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning +nor end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent. + +The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone +or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift +this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is +preserved in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the +tests of strength. + + +_The Wand a Symbol of Authority_ + +Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre, +mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a +form which is still retained in the official mace. + +The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open +hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to +reward or punish. + + +_The Hand_ + +The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome--two +joined hands signifying concord. + +Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented +by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending +from the fingers in token of divine Grace. + +The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of +violence, and is so expressed on the shield of Ulster. An allusion to +the tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land +in Ireland, and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung +it ashore. + +The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is +represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in +harmonious accord. + + +_The Caduceus_ + +The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the +Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek +mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or +Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents +quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which +the serpents twined in peaceful amity. + +The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with +wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is +employed as an emblem of commerce. + + +_Thyrsus_ + +A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes +different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with +ivy leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears +in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion +to the Greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine) +with the new wine to make it keep. + +It has also been attributed to a strategy of war, when Bacchus made a +successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with +branches, as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone +being suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities +took place at night. + + +_The Trident_ + +The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also +variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use, +are sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean. + + +_The Cross_ + +Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it +was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for +ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred +symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it +symbolised the four cardinal points. + +Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was +sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life +generally. + +There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross +with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice +extends equally over the four quarters of the world. + +The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm, +sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith, +Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all +Christian virtues. + +The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two transverse arms, when +it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops +at Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms. + +The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter +X, and is used as a symbol of martyrdom. + +The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T--frequently used in Byzantine +representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent +was uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the +sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus. + +The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the +triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes +the form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed +in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds. + +In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple +form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more +suggestive of voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical +suffering belongs to a later period. + +It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St. +Peter’s being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his +execution. + + +_The Pastoral Staff_ + +The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the +Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a +curving head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both +being indicative of authority. + + +_Symbols of Martyrdom_ + +Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as +indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of +Triumph over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of +violent death, or by other implements of execution. These are +represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint, as +attributes and as a means of identification. + +As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and +Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as +the crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear, +lantern, thirty pieces of silver, etc. + + +_Symbolism of Gems, etc._ + +In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic +meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond--Invulnerable +Faith, the Sardonyx--Power, the Sapphire--Hope, Gold represents Power or +Glory, and Silver--Purity. + +Black represents Grief or Death, Blue--Hope and Divine Contemplation, +pale blue--Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene conscience, +Green--Faith, Gladness, pale green--Baptism, Grey--Tribulation, +Purple--Justice or Royalty, Red--Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet--Fervour, +and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet--Penitence, and +White--Purity, Temperance and Innocence. + +Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a +mere shell of the immortal soul. They are also used to indicate a +pilgrim, by whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or +form of spoon. + +Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and +Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as +ascending, the significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An +earlier signification in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen. + + +_Masks_ + +Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable to +the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy. + +The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē, +was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the +three Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of +Athenē. As a punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the +aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed +to stone. A fate to which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her +reflection in the burnished shield of Perseus. + +The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival, +was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise +that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired. +The horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably +accompanies the representations of Ceres. + + +_Symbols of Time_ + +Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter +implement, though generally accepted is more strictly the emblem of +Death, which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe +the sickle would be more appropriate. + + +_Secular Symbols_ + +Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and +crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations. + +The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the +various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and +other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the +Bird of Wisdom. + +Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a +winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by +bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements, +sheaves of corn and fruit. + + +_Trophies_ + +Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a +decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the +weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of +victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions. + +Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration +to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which was emulated +in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs. + + +_Heraldry_ + +Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised +chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period +of complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way +difficult. + +Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed +later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the +display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in +chimney-pieces, is quite justified as indicative of ownership. Such +details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass +effect and variety. + + +_Heraldry in Design_ + +A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion +gate at Mycenæ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and +Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The +shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the +strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French +Renaissance. + +It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers, +especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to +which there could be little objection if the employment of such details +were justified by conditions. + + +_Symbolism in Modern Art_ + +Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of +incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and +to invest modern art--wherever possible--with meaning. + + +_Present Apathy_ + +In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the +past, as is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally +appreciated, but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to +æsthetic environment; regarding art vaguely as the production and +display of pictures and sculpture. + +The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the +mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of +domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is +the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated. + +The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do +more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any +progress must necessarily be very slow. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +WAYS AND MEANS + + +Through the medium of sight, interest and emotion are excited by phases +of colour and form, varying in individuals according to temperament. The +artistic perception and appreciation of these are invariably due to +natural faculty, though much may be acquired by intelligent study. + + +_Perception_ + +In most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the +eye. Though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are +essential, these can be acquired by practice. Perception, is of +paramount importance, and it may be assumed that the artist’s vision is +more sensitive to appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the +layman. + +The interest of the average individual in art is generally that of +subject and sentiment. This is probably a more natural and logical +attitude than that of the artist, to whom--as a craftsman--the interest +is often merely that of technique. These possibly represent the two +extremes; the cultured individual is capable of appreciation of the +ideal without consideration of schools and isms. + +Many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined +knowledge than from the actual visual aspect--are apt to take forms for +granted, to assume, for example, that an object is round when it is +really subtilely polygonal. Theoretically a curve has no existence, +being really a combination of straight lines varying in length and +direction. Many beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a +form as a right angle, and until their vision and judgment is trained, +it is improbable that they can successfully render more subtile +combinations. It is the business of the teacher to train the vision so +that the perceptive faculties are developed, and instil in the mind of +the student that art is only concerned with appearance. Any fact not +visually apparent should be ignored. + + +_Accepted Conventions_ + +The whole subject is complicated by convention; thus for convenience, +forms are drawn in outline, but these drawings are not representations, +and are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and +tradition. Drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the +surface by a line or lines, and can only define at most two dimensions. +When shade and shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid +in the suggestion of the third dimension. Though these tend to a more +lucid explanation, the work remains a convention if colour and +atmosphere are rendered in monochrome. + +It is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent. That +this to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright +colour to the child and the savage. Subtle quantities and combinations +are only appreciated by comparatively few, the faculty for colour being +extremely rare. + + +_Influence of Fashion_ + +The average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue +or fashion, though it is the polite custom to concede that the average +woman is naturally endowed with taste. This is delicate ground, but the +awful and impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume +certainly do not justify the courtesy. There are superstitions in colour +selection evidently the result of tradition, such, for instance, as red +and yellow being suitable for a sallow complexion. The actual effect of +these colours being to excite the complementaries, is hardly favourable +to the misguided wearer. + +The average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially +concerned. Not that he necessarily possesses more taste, but because he +is observant of custom, and moreover, has generally an instinctive +dislike to anything pronounced. At times, however, the women-folk take +the initiative, and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are +the selection of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex. + +In domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided +by fashion, and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a +lining for walls, it is probably adopted. But the choice, however it may +be influenced, is made possibly without thought of the furniture and +upholstery that is associated. + + +_Harmonious Consistency_ + +The colour scheme should be determined by aspect and by the use of the +particular apartment. A sunny room should be treated differently to one +with a north-east aspect, in which an appearance of warmth is +desirable. Furniture, too, must be considered, reds being an unsuitable +setting for oak as a rule, while mahogany is best associated with +delicate greens and greys. + +It is a reasonable assumption that the training of the student should +result in greater discrimination, and when the exercise consists of +representing, it is a matter of careful approximation of colours and +values. In original design the harmonious effect depends on the +individual, who, in early attempts in colour, jumps at it, being +unconscious of any guiding principle. + + +_Natural Suggestion_ + +It would seem that the wealth of colour combination in the various +natural aspects apparent to all, would surely influence selection; that +it generally fails to do so is testimony to lack of observation. Nature +left alone never makes mistakes, and the colouring in flowers, land, +sky, and water, the plumage of birds and other natural phenomena, is +always harmonious if seen in original environment. When the balance and +correct association is disturbed it is due to human interference, as is +evident too often in the work of the landscape gardener and +horticulturist. + + +_Colour Scheme_ + +In decoration the scheme may consist of tints or tones of any one +colour, and the contrast is merely that of tone; in other words, of +lighter and darker phases. This method of colouring, which is quite +suitable in some instances, is fairly safe, as the latitude for error is +greatly reduced, but certainly is not courageous. + +The problem arises, when the scheme involves the use of more than one +colour, and the successful effect depends on judicious association and +balance. The simple rule is never to display two only of the primary +colours in juxtaposition, the presence of the third being essential to +harmonious and satisfactory effect. + +This, as a principle, forms the basis of much of the Moresque +decoration, in which the details were picked out in blue and red of +positive hues, and separated or outlined with gold. + +More consideration is required when positive or pure colour is not in +request, and the proportions of juxtaposed tints have to be relative. As +any tint departs from the full strength of its particular category, so +those associated should be proportionately remote. + +Respective quantities may vary and one colour occupy relatively a small +part of the surface, when to preserve the balance it may be stronger in +hue than others occupying adjacent and larger areas. For such +contingencies it is impossible to give exact formulæ, as the pigments +employed are not always constant. In the case of manufacturers of mixed +paints, it is customary to issue samples of colours for the year or +season, and they cannot guarantee repeating exactly any colour or tint +in subsequent mixing. The same applies where coloured papers and +textiles are concerned; therefore judgment based on principle and +experience can be the only guide. + +The Primary colours are Red, Yellow and Blue; admixture of any two of +these result in the Secondary colours which form the complementaries of +the Primaries not involved. Thus blue and yellow combined result in +green, which is the complementary of red, the complementary of yellow +being purple, and that of blue, orange. + +Intensity of hue of any colour employed may vary considerably, and this +variation should be proportional in other tints associated. Part of the +charm of colour often depends on its complexity, in natural aspects due +to atmosphere and varied phases of light. Pure colours should at times +be avoided, that is, in the sense in which they are obtainable as +pigments. + + +_Early Training_ + +Students should have attained some considerable facility in drawing +before taking the study of design seriously, though probably part of the +early training has dealt with extremely elementary forms leading in that +direction. Undoubtedly, too, many enter on this phase of study without +adequate preparation, having little appreciation of the underlying +geometric construction, not only in design but in all form. + +This, on investigation, can always be found, and either the general mass +or sub-divisions identified with some simple geometric shape enclosing +the more intimate details. Correct approximation and placing are +essential to the accuracy and success of the drawing. Too often through +lack of training the tendency is to draw detail right away, without the +necessary preliminary of determining the mass shapes. + + +_Nature Study_ + +The study of natural form is of paramount importance to prospective +designers. Subjects should be selected as season or opportunity permit, +not merely from plant and floral growth, but any form available, animate +or inanimate that is suggestive of pattern or susceptible of ornamental +treatment. + +Students in their early attempts in design invariably find convention a +stumbling-block, and in making their studies from nature cannot at first +grasp the idea that selection should be exercised, and that only those +phases which are favourable to decorative results should be recorded. +Design is not concerned with facts or exact portraiture so much as +pattern, and only those features and attitudes that are suitable should +be dealt with. To perpetuate the ugly and unsuitable is waste of both +time and energy. + + +_Aspect and Attitude_ + +In too many instances the first aspect of the subject of study is +recorded, even without any regard to natural attitude. It may be a spray +of blossom taken by the student from the parent tree or shrub, which is +fixed up in any position that comes handy. For this there is no excuse; +the spray should not only be placed consistently, but to the best +advantage, the object being to record aspects that are suggestive of +decorative development. + +In design it is conditional that each individual detail should be +primarily effective as a silhouette, surface interest being of secondary +consideration. + +Any leaf or flower that does not conform should be so arranged as to +satisfactorily comply with this condition, and this can easily be +achieved by slightly shifting the point of view, as it is generally due +to extreme foreshortening, or perspective that is confusing in +appearance. + +[Illustration: No. 285. Natural Aspect of Various Leaves. + +Those in outline unsuitable without adaptation for ornament. The +silhouette versions shew natural aspects that readily lend to decorative +purposes.] + +Points of study to be noted are the stem growth, junctions and angles of +branching and articulation of leaves, the difference in development of +leaves on main stem and those on flower stalk, and phases of the +flowers. The drawing should be explanatory as far as possible, and any +detail not quite clear should be expressed in separate lucid diagrams. +When readily accessible, a series of studies should be made of the same +plant or growth at differing stages, so as to form a record of the life +history and development. + +Care should be exercised to arrange the study with its explanatory +details on the paper so as to satisfactorily occupy the area, not +necessarily symmetrically, but with a view to desirable balance. Those +with a natural faculty for design will probably do this instinctively, +but the observance is important in developing the sense of arrangement. + + +_Treatment_ + +The drawings, which should be carefully detailed as to form, and +intimate detail--in fact diagrammatic--can be in pencil or ink outline, +light and shade is generally unimportant, though it may be lightly +suggested. + +With regard to colour, except in examples of special suggestion, little +time need be wasted in still life renderings, though suggestive colour +schemes may well be noted, but the drawing should at least be lightly +tinted, this serving the double purpose of fixing the pencil lines, and +defining the silhouette shapes. + +These studies should form material for designs, not at first ambitious, +but dealing with single leaves or flowers, and deriving from them +details suitable to some form of decorative expression. These can be +expressed in flat colour, with or without outline, or further ornamented +by treatments suggestive of veining or striation. The blotching of some +leaves during autumnal changes or any natural markings can often be +turned to decorative account. + + +_Drawings for Reproduction_ + +Designs in some instances are in the form of perspective sketches, when +it is desirable to convey an idea of their final appearance, but as a +rule they are expressed as working drawings. This is imperative when the +final production is the result of some mechanical production, as in book +decoration and advertisement either black and white or in colour. +Drawings for these are generally made larger and reduced to the required +size by photography, and the blocks for printing made from the +photograph. + +There is no fixed rule as to size of drawing or reduction, but if the +designs are drawn for one-third reduction there will be no material +alteration in values when produced. But as the reduction is increased +there is a proportionate risk in alteration of values. It is desirable +to bear the proposed reduction in mind and to work more boldly or with +thicker lines, otherwise the final effect may be thin and weak. In pen +drawing, the lines should be clear and distinct whatever their +thickness. + +For designs in black and white, hot-pressed paper, Bristol board or +smooth card are most suitable. The ink should be waterproof, as, if +necessary, corrections with Chinese white can be more neatly made. Fine +pens, except for very minute work, are not desirable, a Gillott’s +ladies’ fine writing nib yielding as fine a line as is ordinarily +required. For some classes of work a brush will be found more suitable, +but care should be taken that all lines--whether thick or thin--are +equally black. + +Designs in colour for illustration or advertisement, which are to be +reproduced by lithography or the three-colour process, can be on card or +Whatman paper. The colours employed being transparent or opaque, +whichever is more suitable to working and effect. Larger designs for +advertisement, such as posters, are usually painted in tempera or opaque +colour, and these should be applied as far as possible edge to edge, +overpainting being avoided. + + +_Opaque Colour_ + +Care should be taken in mixing the colour to the required tint or shade. +This requires some experience, as when white forms part of the mixture, +the effect when dry is always lighter and colder than when the paint is +in the fluid state; therefore allowance for this should be made. Opaque +and tempera colours are not used so fluid as ordinary transparent water +colours, and if applied too thin will fail to cover the surface solidly, +or dry blotchy. Cartridge paper is not only good enough but more +suitable for opaque colour than papers of better quality. Not merely is +there no advantage in these, but the texture is an unnecessary +embarrassment; moreover cartridge paper can be obtained in continuous +form of good width. + + +_Enlarging and Reducing_ + +When drawings are enlarged or reduced, the linear dimensions and not +those of the area are implied; thus one half means one half of both +width and height--really one-fourth of the area. It is obvious that half +the area would be a different proportion, and it is the proportion that +is concerned. + +[Illustration: No. 286. Diagonal Method of Enlarging or Reducing. Solid +line shews given size.] + +Divisional measurement is rendered unnecessary by the diagonal method of +proportion. Given a rectangular shape, which has to be reduced or +enlarged, a diagonal line should be drawn, and prolonged if the latter, +through opposite angles. A line parallel to either the vertical or +horizontal can be drawn and returned at a right angle where it +intersects the diagonal, and regardless of any dimensions, this will +ensure the exact proportion of the original rectangle. + +It is obvious that such designs as the foregoing should be complete, and +both in drawing and colour a perfect anticipation of the painted result, +owing nothing of their effect to mechanical reproduction. + + +_Textiles_ + +In designs for printed and woven fabrics, though the process of +production varies, it is still necessary that the drawing be complete in +the technical indications. Otherwise the reproduced version may suffer, +or at least not fulfil the intention of the designer, and it follows +that the drawings should be concise in every detail, even to the colour +effect desired. + +The drawings are usually to the full size in most printed fabrics. The +design is not reproduced by any mechanical process, the blocks or +rollers used in printing being cut by hand from a transferred tracing +made from the original. Hence the importance of exactitude in joining +and dimensions. + +In some instances the whole of the pattern is cut in relief in the wood, +but in others, lines are the result of narrow strips of ribbon-like +brass embedded in the surface of the block or roller. These have their +influence on the design, as in the former method of production the lines +can vary in thickness and can be invested with greater interest than the +employment of the wire can give. The metal results in a hard line of +unvarying thinness. + +Drawings for printed and woven fabrics are usually in opaque colour, and +each tint employed should display a defined edge, graduated effects +being only technically possible by means of tapering lines or stipple. +Each distinct colour or tint involves separate printing; therefore as it +is economically desirable to attain the best effect with the minimum +cost, the utmost should be made of the colours employed. + + +_Wallpapers_ + +Wallpapers as a rule are printed in opaque colour, but in textiles, when +the colour is transparent, more elaborate effects are possible by +overprinting or super-imposing one colour on another. In woven fabrics +similar effects can be obtained by judicious manipulation of the +shuttles, but in all cases it should be borne in mind that a working +drawing is necessary in which the details are clearly indicative of the +final result. + +Designs that have to be realised by some form of handicraft require the +same care and concise regard to detail, though the drawings need not be +so complete as to appearance, and may be to scale or drawn full size +according to condition. + + +_Architectural Drawings_ + +Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, that of eight feet to one +inch being general, with working drawings to a scale of half an inch to +the foot accompanied by full-size details and profiles of mouldings. The +drawings are geometric, that is in plan, elevation, and section, +expressed in line and generally tinted. On plans and sections arbitrary +colours are employed to indicate material, for instance, red denotes +brick, purple-grey, stone, warm grey, cement, Prussian blue, iron or +steel, and burnt sienna or Vandyke brown, wood. + +These drawings convey little idea of the intended effect to the lay +mind, and it is customary to suggest the eventual appearance by +perspective views, but for practical reasons they constitute the most +convenient form from which dimensions can be taken for working purposes. + + +_Structural Design_ + +In all structural design similar drawings are necessary, although sketch +designs in perspective may be made to suggest effect, working drawings +are imperative to the execution of the work. These, when reduced to the +essential conditions of rendering, with explanatory details and +sections, assume a very different aspect to the original sketch. + +The success of the completed work depends upon skilful detailing, which +must be thoroughly explicit to be of real value. + +For convenience such working drawings are generally made on detail +paper, which is usually obtainable in rolls sixty inches wide by +twenty-five or fifty yards. This is sufficiently transparent to be +employed for tracings, a great convenience when copies are in request, +and is a good surface for pen, pencil or chalk, though somewhat thin for +colour. + +Designs can be sketched in charcoal, and the desired lines drawn in ink. +When dry the charcoal lines can be obliterated by rubbing with a leather +or soft cloth, by which the charcoal is distributed, forming a tone over +the whole surface. This is easily removable by india-rubber, and +excellent relief effects can be obtained by judiciously taking out +lights and strengthening shadows, though to avoid any possible +misunderstanding it is usual to also indicate the relief by sections +drawn through the details. + + +_Lucid Arrangement_ + +In geometric and working drawings when plans and sections are incidental +to lucid explanation, these latter should appear relatively; that is, +the plan should be in alignment with the elevation, etc. Statements and +directions as to procedure are often necessary, and these, placed with +judgment and in good lettering, are valuable in balancing the drawing. +Not that this has any effect on the work, but because it has a good +influence on the designer. + +Possibly the story of Giotto and the circle that figured in the early +school primers is responsible for the very general impression that the +use of mechanical instruments is inartistic. Another characteristic of +the young beginner is a total disregard for anything in the nature of +exact dimension. + +No useful purpose is served, and much valuable time is wasted, in +attempts to accomplish freehand, forms that may be perfectly achieved by +proper implements. Familiarity with the use of these will be found of +great assistance in all design in which geometric construction, apparent +or not, plays so large a part. + +Of this the average beginner has little conception, and though Geometry +has been a subject of their early training, they seldom have any clear +idea as to its employment in design. Except in few instances, they are +unpractised in the use of geometrical instruments, and at times +oblivious that these serve any practical purpose. + + +_Mathematical Equipment_ + +In design, where accuracy is of paramount importance, a reasonable +equipment is imperative. Drawing boards vary in size, but for most +ordinary work the antiquarian will suffice; the best type being that +commonly used in engineering and architectural offices, with battens for +adjustment and invariably a steel guide for the T square. + +Large T squares are more reliable on account of the wider head, the +better sort being in mahogany with bevelled ebony edge. When accuracy is +essential, the T square should only be employed for horizontal lines, +those in a vertical direction being attained by the use of the set +square, when the right angle can be assured by contact of the base of +the latter on the edge of the T square. + +Set squares indispensable for ordinary work are those of the angles of +45 degrees and 60 degrees. They should be large, about twelve inch, and +in celluloid, which, being translucent, tends to greater accuracy. + +Bevelled set squares, usually in mahogany with ebony edge, are desirable +when the ruling pen is used, and should be placed with the bevelled side +to the surface of drawing as a precaution against blotting through the +ink running off the edge from the pen. For the same reason the edge of +the T square should be slightly tilted, so as not to be in contact with +the drawing when ruling lines with the pen. + +The mathematical instruments in common request are dividers, +indispensable in scale drawing. For delicate work spring dividers with +needle points ensure greater accuracy. The bow or pencil compass, large +with extending bar, and small; with spring bows, for minute work. For +very large circles the beam compass is employed, consisting of a wood +bar with two sliding clamps fitted respectively with point, and either +pencil or pen which can be adjusted to the required radius. + +For ink drawings the bow or pen compass is employed for circular curves; +spring bows for extremely small details, medium for general purposes. +The large compass in the ordinary set is provided with both pen and +pencil joints, which can be adjusted as required. + + +_Use of the Ruling Pen_ + +For straight lines the ruling pen should be employed. In this implement, +the nibs, as in the pen compasses are provided with a screw, by means of +which the pen can be adjusted to form thick or thin lines as required. +Care should be taken in the adjustment; for the thinnest line the points +should only be in contact. If screwed too tightly the nibs may be bent +and would have to be re-set. + +There is a limit to the thickness of line in individual ruling pens, +which are made in varying sizes for fine or bold work. Bow and ruling +pens should never be filled to the full capacity, as they are then +liable to flood and blot the work. It is better also to charge the pen +with the filler, which is usually provided with the ordinary liquid ink, +or a brush; otherwise blotting may result. If the pen is filled by +dipping, the nibs should be wiped dry on each occasion on the external +faces. + +In use the ruling pen should be held as vertical as possible, with the +nibs perfectly parallel to the edge of T or set square, any divergence +from the vertical might result in a curve instead of the straight line +required. If the nibs are at an angle with the ruling edge, the ink will +not flow freely, and there is also a tendency to cut the surface. + + +_Proportional Compass_ + +Another instrument of great use, though not so commonly in request, is +the proportional compass, by means of which drawings are enlarged or +reduced. It consists of two shanks furnished with points at each end, +the shanks being slotted out centrally to form a slide. The adjustment +is accomplished by a set screw which also forms a pivot, which, set at +any of the marked divisions, assures the given proportion. + + +_Tracings_ + +Tracing paper is largely in request, not only as a means of repeating +details and units by transferring, but when copies of a drawing are +required. It can be obtained in rolls varying in width, forty inch being +generally useful, and in different surfaces, rough and smooth, the +former being good for pencil work--the smooth being more suitable for +ink tracings. + +When tracings of a more durable character are required they are made on +linen, which for this purpose has a highly glazed surface on which the +ink will not always run equally. This can be rectified by lightly +rubbing the surface with French chalk and by adding a little ox gall to +the ink. The latter is a useful agent in counteracting any greasiness of +surface and is often necessary in colour work. + + +_Conclusion_ + +The stimulus of competition is always healthy, and the necessity to +attract has resulted generally in raising the standard, notably in forms +of advertisement. The designer has not only to keep pace with modern +conditions, but in some phases of work has also to anticipate future +demand. + +Students are too often infected with the phase of the moment, or by the +work of some distinguished exponent. This is quite natural, and to some +extent such emulation may be condoned, but if it becomes an obsession it +is fatal to the development of individualism. It is desirable, indeed +commendable, for students to be interested in contemporaneous work; but +they should realise that personality will never be achieved by +imitation, though emulation and experiment are legitimate methods of +training. + +Art training is largely in that of technique, consisting chiefly of the +handling of the tools and mediums involved. It is obvious that when this +technique is successfully acquired it implies a high standard of +craftsmanship. This is essential, but personality is of greater +importance and its development depends upon the individual. Some who +have nothing personal to express may be capable of attaining great +facility in various mediums, but stop at the imitative, and though this +may be lucrative, no great artistic distinction is possible. + +If personality is latent it will develop quite unconsciously, and the +endeavour of the student should be to see, understand and express the +subject of study or idea with sincerity, regardless of any current phase +however interesting. In this way only can be attained the personal +attitude and expression that really constitutes the interest in all +forms of art. + + + + +INDEX + + +Acanthus Foliage, 38, 263 + + “ Leaf (Greek) 264 + + “ “ (Roman) 266 + + “ “ (Byzantine) 267 + Romanesque, 268 + Gothic, 268 + Italian Renaissance, 279 + French Renaissance, 280 + Jacobean, 280 + Louis XIV, 283 + Louis XV, 284 + Louis XVI, 284 + Grinling Gibbons, 285 + Adam, 286 + System of the, 286 + +Adam, Robert, 123 + +Alberti, Leo Battista, 76 + +Ancient Pottery, 8 + +Animals in Art, 331, 334 + + “ “ Compound, 336 + +Angelo, M., 79 + +Anthemion, The, 262 + +Anthemius, 45 + +Apathy, Public, 8 + +Appliqué, 296 + +Appreciation of Design, 288 + +Architecture, Egyptian, 22 + Chaldean, 25 + Greek, 28 + Roman, 35 + Byzantine, 43 + Romanesque, 49 + Gothic, 59 + Renaissance, Italian, 75 + “ Florentine, 76 + “ Roman, 78 + “ Venetian, 80 + “ French, 85 + “ in England, 88 + “ Elizabethan, 91 + “ Jacobean, 93 + “ English, 102 + “ Louis XIII, 103 + “ Louis XIV, 106 + “ Louis XV, 110 + “ Later English, 113 + +Architectural Drawing, 158, 363 + +Architectural Features, Abacus, The, 173, 175, 178 + Arch, 20 + “ Pointed, 58 + “ Decorated, 64 + “ Perpendicular, 68 + “ 184 + Arcades, 200 + “ Vaulted, 201 + Architrave, 161, 164, 169, 172, 211 + Archivolt, The, 186, 187 + Attic, The, 208 + Baluster, The, 191 + Balustrading, 193 + Battlement, The, 66 + Base, The Doric, 181 + “ The Ionic, 182 + “ The Corinthian, 183 + Basement, The, 207 + Buttress, The, 59 + Capital, The Doric, 173 + “ The Ionic, 175 + “ The Corinthian, 178 + Clerestory, The, 51, 67 + Column, The, 172 + “ Employment of, 194 + “ Disposition and Spacing of, 195 + Corinthian Order, The, 163 + Cornice, 161, 164, 169, 171, 209 + Doric Order, The, 161 + Doors, 211 + Entablature, The Doric, 164 + “ The Ionic, 169 + “ The Corinthian, 171 + Frieze, The, 161, 164, 167, 169, 171, 213, 226 + Impost, The Doric, 185 + “ The Ionic, 186 + “ The Corinthian, 187 + Ionic Order, The, 163 + Keystone, The, 187 + Lintel, The, 19 + Mouldings, 61, 64, 68, 97, 107 + “ Profiles, 138 + “ Purpose of, 139 + “ Decoration of, 143 + “ Employment of 147 + Mutule, The, 164 + Order, The, 160 + “ The Doric, 161 + “ The Ionic, 163 + “ The Corinthian, 163 + Pedestal, The, 188 + Pedestal, The Doric, 189 + “ The Ionic, 190 + “ The Corinthian, 190 + Pediment, The, 209 + Piers, 60, 184, 200, 205 + Pilaster, The, 160, 199, 235 + Plynth, The, 161, 181, 183, 184, 188, 190, 191, 193, 204, 208 + Rustication, 205 + Subsidiary Order, The, 202 + Superimposed Orders, 197, 204 + System of Proportion, 159 + Triforium, The, 53, 60, 67 + Vault, The, 20, 36, 53 + “ Treatment of, 224 + Vaulting, Fan, 68 + Volute, The, 175 + Windows, 60, 213 + “ Plate Tracery, 61 + “ Tracery of, 63, 64 + +Art, Interest in, 1 + Definition of, 5 + As an Appeal, 5 + Ethical Side of, 14 + Desire for Novelty in, 15 + Egyptian, 23 + Chaldean, 25 + Greek, 33 + Roman, 38 + Græco-Roman, 40 + Byzantine, 45 + +Artistic Phases of Expression, 10 + +Aureole, The, 340 + + +Baluster, The, 153, 191, 246 + +Bank of Ireland, 136 + +Base, The Doric, 181 + +Base, The Ionic, 182 + + “ The Corinthian, 183 + +Basement, The, 207 + +Battlement, The, 66 + +Bazzi Gian Antonio (Sodoma), 83 + +Berain, Claude, 106 + + “ Jean, 106 + +Bernini, 80 + +Book Decoration, 300 + +Borders, 227 + + “ Treatment, 233 + +Boule, André Charles, 106, 109 + + “ Work, 298 + +Bramante, 78 + +Branching, Types of, 273 + +Brunelleschi, 76 + +Buttress, The, 59 + +Byzantine, Art, 45 + + +Caduceus, The, 342. + +Cannibalism, 336 + +Capital, The, 22, 50 + +Capital, Doric, 173 + Ionic, 175 + Corinthian, 178 + +Carved Work, 301 + Design for, 302 + +Ceilings, Jacobean, 97 + Louis XIII, 105 + Louis XIV, 108 + Louis XV, 112 + Treatment of, 218 + +Centaur, The, 339 + +Chaldean Art, 25 + +Chambers, Sir William, 136 + +Chambord, Chateau de, 86 + +Champleve Enamel, 47 + +Chenonceaux, sur Loire, 86 + +Chimney-piece, Jacobean, 94 + +Chippendale, 121 + +Choragic Monument, 32 + +Christian Art, Early, 46 + +Circle, Symbolic meaning of, 340 + +Cipriani, 126 + +Clerestory, The, 51, 67 + +Colour, Symbolism of, 345 + Use of, 353 + Opaque, 360 + +Column, The, 172 + Employment of, 194 + Disposition and Spacing of, 195 + +Commercial Production, 6 + Intercourse, 12 + +Convention, 292 + Accepted, 351 + +Cornucopia, The, 346 + +Corinthian, Order, 163 + Entablature, 171 + Capital, 178 + Base, 184 + Pedestal, 190 + Impost, 187 + +Craft Restriction, 256 + +Cressent, Charles, 111 + +Cross, The, 343 + +Crozier, The, 344 + +Crux Ansata, 343 + +Customs, Survival of, 311 + Early Burial, 322 + + +Dance, George, 136 + +Decorative, Materials, 289 + +Deities, Egyptian, 318 + +Deities, Greek and Roman, 316 + Scandinavian, 317 + Pan, 339 + +Delorme, Philibert, 87 + +Dentils, 146 + +Design, Mental vision in, 1 + Inspired, 2 + Process and material in, 2, 8 + Considerations in, 3 + Public demand, 3 + Training in, 4 + Influence in, 4, 8, 12, 18 + Architectural influence in, 14 + Appreciation of, 288 + Structural, 363 + +Domes, Byzantine, 43 + Treatment of, 224 + +Domestic Conditions, 54, 72, 74 + +Donatello, 76 + +Doors, Jacobean, 96 + Proportions and Treatment, 211 + +Doric Order, 28, 161 + Entablature, 164 + Capital, 173 + Base, 181 + Pedestal, 189 + Impost, 185 + + +Ecole de Médécine, 132 + +Echo, 319 + +Egyptian Art, 22 + +Enamel, Byzantine, 47 + +Endymion, 319 + +Enlarging Drawings, 360 + +Equipment, Mathematical, 365 + +Eurydice, 324 + +Evangelists, 331 + +Evolute Scroll, The, 234, 261 + + +Farnese Palace, 79 + +Fates, 318, 320 + +Figure Composition, 244 + +Filagree Jewellery, 258 + +Flowers, in Ornament 270 + +Fontainebleau, Palace of, 86 + +Forms in the round, 245 + +Four Courts, Dublin, 136 + +French Renaissance, 85 + Louis XIII, 103 + Louis XIV, 106 + Régence, 111 + Louis XV, 110 + Louis XVI, 127 + Empire, 135 + +Frieze, The, 226, 266 + +Furniture, Egyptian, 24 + Chaldean, 27 + Greek, 32 + Roman, 39 + Middle Age, 54 + Decorated Gothic, 66, 73 + Italian Renaissance, 84 + English Renaissance, 92 + Jacobean, 98 + Louis XIII, 105 + Louis XIV, 108 + Louis XV, 113 + English (Dutch Influence) 118 + Queen Anne, 120 + Chippendale, 121 + Lacquered, 113, 126 + Painted, 126 + Sheraton, 127 + Louis XVI, 133 + Empire, 135 + + +Gallo, Antonio San, 79 + +Gallo, Giuliano di San, 79 + +Gandon, James, 136 + +Gems, Symbolism of, 345 + +Gibbons, Grinling, 114, 137, 285 + +Gibbs, James, 115 + +Giocondo, 79 + +Giotto, 83 + +Gondouin, Jacques, 132 + +Gouthière, 133 + +Graces, Christian, 329 + +Græco-Roman Art, 40 + +Greek Art, 28 + +Grimani Palace, 80 + +Growth, Consistency in, 273 + + +Half Figures in Ornament, 278 + +Halo, The, 340 + +Hamadryads, 339 + +Hampton Court Palace, 114 + +Hand, Symbolism of the, 341 + +Harpy, The, 320, 338 + +Hawksmoor, Nicholas, 115 + +Hepplewhite, 126 + +Heraldry, 348 + +Holbein, 89 + +Holkham, Norfolk, 121 + +Holt, Thomas, 91 + +Horse Guards, Whitehall, 121 + +Husk Leaf, The, 269 + + +Impost, Doric, 185 + Ionic, 186 + Corinthian, 187 + +Impressionism, Early, 10 + +Influence of Material, 8, 258 + Political, 12, 17, 71 + Religious, 12, 17 + Commercial, 12, 17, 71 + Civic, 70 + Of the Crusades, 56 + Of Fashion, 352 + +Inspiration, Belief in, 2 + +Intarsia, 297 + +Interior treatment, Græco-Roman, 39 + Romanesque Church, 51 + Domestic, Tudor, 73 + Italian Renaissance, 83 + Jacobean, 94 + Louis XIII, 104 + Louis XIV, 107 + Louis, XV, 112 + Wren Period, 116 + Georgian, 121 + Adam, 126 + Louis, XVI, 133 + Walls, 216 + Ceilings, 218, 221, 222 + Vaults and Domes, 224 + +Ionic Order, Greek, 32 + Renaissance, 159 + Proportions of, 163 + Entablature, 169 + Capital, 175 + Base, 182 + Pedestal, 190 + Impost, 186 + +Italian Renaissance, 75, 78, 80 + + +Jewellery, Filagree, 258 + +Jones, Inigo, 81, 102, 137 + + +Kauffman, Angelica, 126 + +Kent, William, 121 + + +Lace, 297 + +Lacquered Furniture, 113, 126 + +Lares, Roman, 322 + +Leaves, Employment of, 275 + Treatment of, 293 + +Lebrun, 106 + +Legend, 323, 333 + +Lepautre, 106 + +Limitations, Human, 1 + +Lintel, The, 19 + +Louvre, 80, 86 + + +Maderno, Carlo, 79 + +Madrid, Chateau de, 86 + +Magical Qualities, Belief in, 325 + +Mainwaring, 123 + +Majano, Benedetto da, 77 + +Mansart, Jules Hardouin, 106 + +Mansion House, London, 136 + +Marble, Byzantine use of, 47, 300 + +Marquetry, 298 + +Marot, Daniel, 106, 109 + +Martyrdom, Symbols of, 345 + +Masks, 346 + +Mathematical Equipment, 365 + +Material in Design, 258 + +Mayhew, 123 + +Medusa, 346 + +Metal Work, Bronze, 42 + Byzantine, 47 + Repoussé, 304 + Cast, 306 + Mounts in Furniture, 108, 135 + +Methods of Expression, 292 + +Micheli, San, 80 + +Modelling, 301, 304 + +Mosaics, Byzantine, 47, 299 + +Mouldings, Attitude of, 148 + Bolection, 152 + Decorated Gothic, 64 + Decoration of, 143 + Drawn Metal, 155 + Employment of, 147 + Jacobean, 97 + Pointed Gothic, 61 + Plaster, 153 + Pottery, 154 + Profiles of, 138 + Purpose of, 139 + Repoussé, 157 + Rolled Metal, 155 + Spun Metal, 157 + Turned Wood, 153 + Wood Panel, 149 + +Muses, 328 + +Mythology, Origin of, 312 + Scandinavian, 317 + +Myths, Nature, 312 + Season, 314 + Sun, 315 + + +Nature, Myths, 312 + Study, 355 + +Natural Attraction, 288 + +Natural Suggestion, 353 + Phenomena, Belief in, 315 + +Needlework, 296 + +Newgate Prison, 136 + +Nimbus, The, 340 + +Noon, 318 + +Numbers, Belief in, 328 + + +Oppenord, Giles Marie, 111 + +Order, 160 + +Order, Doric, 161 + Ionic, 163 + Corinthian, 163 + +Originality, 1 + +Ornament, Roman, 39 + Byzantine, 45 + Romanesque, 50 + Pointed Gothic, 63 + Decorated Gothic, 65 + Perpendicular Gothic, 69 + French Renaissance, 88 + English “ 88, 91 + Later English “ 118 + Louis XVI, 134 + Empire, 135 + +Outline, Drawing, 254 + + +Painted Decoration, Roman, 39 + Renaissance, 82, 294 + +Painted Furniture, 126 + +Palazzo, Pitti, 77 + Strozzi, 77 + +Palladio, 78, 81 + +Pan, 339 + +Panels, Treatment of, 236 + Juxtaposition, 238 + The Composing Lines, 241 + Grouping and Massing, 242 + Division of, 242 + +Pantheon, Rome, 36 + +Passion, Symbols of the, 345 + +Pastoral Staff, 344 + +Parthenon, 30 + +Perugino, 83 + +Peruzzi, Baldazzare, 79 + +Pineau, Nicholas, 111 + +Piers, Gothic, 60 + +Pinturrichio, 83 + +Potters, Elementary, 9 + +Pottery, Ancient, 8 + Greek, 34 + +Predestination, 319 + +Prehistoric Workers, 9 + +Personal Production, 10 + +Primitive Essays, 8 + Requirements, 11 + +Prohibition, 324 + +Propitiation, 320 + + +Raffaelle, 79 + +Realism, 255 + +Régence, 111 + +Relief Work, Treatment of, 293, 301 + +Reproduction Processes, 304 + Drawing for, 359 + +Riesener, 133 + +Rococo, 111 + +Romano Giulio, 83 + +Rosette, The, 270 + + +Sacred Trees and Flowers, 329 + +Sacrifice, 321 + +Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti) 80 + +Sarto, Andrea del, 86 + +Scamozzi, Vincenzo, 81 + +Sceptre, The, 341 + +Scroll, The, 266 + +Season Myths, 314 + +Secular Symbols, 347 + +Serlio, 78, 87 + +Shells, Symbolism of, 345 + +Sheraton, 127 + +Sirens, The, 338 + +Social Conditions, Early, 11 + +Sodoma (Gian Antonio Bazzi) 83 + +Somerset House, 136 + +Soufflet, 110 + +Spires, Pointed Gothic, 64 + Decorated Gothic, 66 + Classic, 116 + +Spiritual Belief, Early, 323 + +St. Geneviéve (Pantheon) 110 + George, Bloomsbury, 115 + Mark, Library of, 81 + Martin in the Fields, 115 + Mary le Strand, 115 + Mary, Woolnoth, 115 + Paul, Covent Garden, 103 + Peter’s, Rome, 78 + Stephen’s, Walbrook, 116 + +Standards, 246 + +Starts in Ornament, 276 + +Stencilled Work, 295 + +Strapwork, 87 + +Structural Design, 363 + +Style, 16 + Phases in, 18 + “ “ Gothic, 60 + +Sun Myths, 315 + Signs, 340 + +Supports, 246 + +Surface Interest, 294 + +Symbols of the Evangelists, 331 + +Symbolic Ornament, 310 + + +Taboo, 322 + +Taste, 6 + +Tatti, 80 + +Technical Considerations, 292 + +Tendrils, 271 + +Textiles, Printed and Woven, 296, 361 + +Thorpe, Thomas, 91 + +Thyrsus, The, 342 + +Time, Symbols of, 346 + +Torches, 346 + +Torrigiano, 89 + +Totemism, 336 + +Tracery, 61 + Pointed, 63, 64, 68 + +Tracings, 368 + +Trident, The, 343 + +Triforium, 53, 60, 67 + +Trinity College, Cambridge, 116 + +Trinity, Symbols of the, 341 + +Triton, 339 + +Trophies, 347 + +Tuileries, The, 87 + + +Udine, Giovanni da, 83 + +Undulate, Line or Stem, 230, 266 + + +Vaga, Pierino del, 83 + +Vase, Greek, 29, 258 + Forms and Decoration, 248 + +Vase, Stretch out and Segments, 250 + +Vault, The, 20, 36, 53 + Treatment of, 224 + +Vaulting, Fan, 68 + +Veneer, 298 + +Venetian, Renaissance, 80 + +Versailles, Palace of, 106 + +Vesica Piscis, The, 340 + +Vignola, 78, 80, 87, 159 + +Vinci, Leonardo da, 86 + +Volute, The, 175 + + +Wallpaper, 290, 362 + +Whitehall, Banqueting House, 103 + +Windows, Glazing of, 47, 67 + Pointed Gothic, 61 + Decorated Gothic, 64 + Perpendicular Gothic, 68 + Domestic, 73, 74 + Jacobean, 98 + Treatment of, 213 + +Winds Personified, 319 + +Wood, Inlay, 297 + Treatment of, 289 + +Wren, Sir Christopher, 81, 114, 137 + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Design and Tradition, by Amor Fenn + +*** END OF THIS 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