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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 53850 ***
+
+                         DESIGN AND TRADITION
+
+“They are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only Beauty.”--_Oscar
+                                Wilde._
+
+[Illustration: Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. Rickards,
+                              F.R.I.B.A.
+
+ This drawing is remarkable as an anticipation of eventual appearance.
+   Thoroughly impressionistic in treatment, all irrelevant detail is
+                               omitted.]
+
+
+
+
+                         UNIVERSAL ART SERIES
+                     EDITED BY FREDERICK MARRIOTT
+
+                              DESIGN AND
+                               TRADITION
+
+                        A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
+                        PRINCIPLES AND HISTORIC
+                      DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
+                            AND THE APPLIED
+                                 ARTS
+
+                                  BY
+                               AMOR FENN
+
+                       [Illustration: colophon]
+
+                                LONDON
+                        CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD.
+                                 1920
+
+
+
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                         THE WESTMINSTER PRESS
+                              HARROW ROAD
+                                LONDON
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR’S PREFACE
+
+
+It may be urged with some reasonable basis of truth that much of the
+modern art work fails to attain the level of that of the past. It must
+be conceded, however, that demand and appreciation is more general and
+widely diffused. As social conditions have developed, interest in
+environment has been stimulated. Improved processes resulting in more
+economic production have rendered possible an indulgence by those of
+moderate means, attainable only at earlier periods by the wealthier
+class.
+
+As a result of this more general appreciation the professional services
+of the artist are necessarily in greater request, thus affording a
+sphere of work not only lucrative but temperamentally attractive.
+
+At the present time the facilities available to the prospective artist
+are considerably greater than at any previous period. In every district
+and important centre, there are schools specialising in the Arts and
+Crafts, giving opportunities for training at fees that are purely
+nominal. Most of these deal with the various phases of artistic
+expression on logical and sound lines, but the knowledge and experience
+essential to a successful artistic career is invariably acquired in
+professional work to which the art school training is preparatory.
+
+To those specialising in design, the study of Historic Style is of
+paramount importance. Intelligent investigation will show that in all
+the varying phases, the underlying factors are much the same, and
+appreciation of these will be found invaluable in personal work.
+
+Necessarily brief, this book has been prompted by the memory of early
+bewilderment and difficulties, when a guiding hand would have saved much
+valuable time and mis-directed energy.
+
+A considerable amount of the available space is devoted to Architectural
+features, with the conviction that a knowledge of these will be found
+helpful in the formation of methods, logical and constructive.
+
+Attention is directed to the frontispiece, a typical example of the
+extraordinary genius of E. A. Rickards, F.R.I.B.A., the original of
+which is in the possession of Philip Connard, A.R.A., to whom
+indebtedness for its use is acknowledged.
+
+The author’s thanks are also due to Miss Dora Bard and Mr. C. E. Bernard
+for the reproduction of drawings made by them during their tenure in
+successive years of the “Travelling Studentship” of the Society of
+British Decorators.
+
+For the use of the following photographs the author desires to make
+acknowledgment to the Authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+South Kensington, as holders of the Crown copyright:
+
+Nos. 257.
+     258.
+     259.
+     265.
+     271.
+     272.
+     273.
+     274.
+     275.
+     281A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER.....PAGE
+
+I Introductory.....1
+
+Human Limitations, p. 1--Inspiration--Process and Material, p. 2--Early
+Training, p. 4--Art and Existence, p. 5--Natural Taste--Commercial
+Production, p. 6--“Ornaments,” p. 7--Modern Development--Public Apathy,
+p. 8--Elementary Pattern, p. 9--Early Impressionism--Personal
+Production, p. 10--Early Social Conditions, p. 11--Influence--Commercial
+Intercourse, p. 12--Effect on Design, p. 13--Ethical side of Art, p.
+14--Desire for Novelty, p. 15.
+
+II Historic Review.....16
+
+Style, p. 16--Intercommunication--Climate and Material, p. 17--Phases in
+Style, p. 18--The Lintel, p. 19--The Arch, p. 20--Egyptian Art, p.
+22--Chaldean Art, p. 25--Greek Art, p. 28--Roman Art, p. 35--Vaulting,
+p. 36--Greek Influence, p. 37--Roman Development of Ornament, p.
+38--Græco-Roman Painted Decoration, p. 39--Byzantine Dome, p. 43--Early
+Christian Art, p. 46--Byzantine Metal Work, and Enamel, p. 47--Roman
+Influence Abroad--Romanesque Style, p. 49--Church Development, p.
+50--Dark Ages, p. 53--Crusades, p. 56--Origin of the Pointed Arch, p.
+58--Gothic Style, p. 59--Phases of Gothic--Early Pointed, p.
+60--Decorated Gothic, p. 64--Perpendicular Gothic--Glass Windows, p.
+67--Civic Influences, p. 70--Effect of Commerce--Classic Tradition in
+Italy, p. 71--Foreign Influence in England--The Dwelling House, p.
+72--The Reformation, p. 74--The Renaissance, p. 75--Early Florentine
+Exponents, p. 76--Rome, p. 78--Venice, p. 80--Venetian Influence, p.
+81--Painted Decoration, p. 82--Græco-Roman Influence, p. 83--Early
+French Renaissance, p. 85--Native Exploitation, p. 87--English
+Renaissance, p. 88--Italians in England, p. 89--Study of Classic
+Style--Thomas Thorpe, p. 91--Flemish Influence, p. 92--Jacobean Work, p.
+93--Development in Dwellings, p. 98--Evolution of Professional Designer,
+p. 101--Inigo Jones, p. 102--Louis XIII, p. 103--Louis XIV, p.
+106--“Boule” Work--Mirrors, p. 109--Louis XV, p. 110--Régence--Rococo,
+p. 111--Lacquer “Vernis Martin”--Later English Renaissance, p. 113--Sir
+Christopher Wren, p. 114--Classic Treatment of the Spire, p. 116--Dutch
+and French Influences, p. 118--Queen Anne Period--Early Georgian, p.
+120--Furniture Design, Chippendale, p. 121--Mayhew--Robert Adam, p.
+123--Hepplewhite, p. 126--Sheraton--Louis XVI, p. 127--Riesener and
+Gouthière, p. 133--Empire--Empire in England--Later English
+Architecture, p. 135--French Influence on Europe, p. 136.
+
+III Mouldings.....138
+
+Purpose--The Fillet--Sheltering Mouldings--The Cavetto, p. 139--Cyma
+Recta--Bracketing Mouldings--The Ovolo, p. 140--Cyma Reversa--Binding
+Mouldings, p. 141--The Torus--The Scotia--The Facia, p. 142--Decoration
+of Mouldings, p. 143--Orthodox Details--Angle Leaf, p. 145--Dentils, p.
+146--Employment of Mouldings, p. 147--Attitude, p. 148--Panel
+Mouldings--Woodwork, p. 149--Applied Mouldings, p. 151--Bolection
+Moulding, p. 152--Mouldings in Plaster Work--Wood Turning, p. 153--Metal
+Turning--Pottery, p. 154--Mechanically produced Metal Mouldings--Wrought
+Iron, p. 155--Silver Work, p. 156--Sheet Metal, Spinning, and Repoussé,
+p. 157.
+
+IV Architectural Proportions.....158
+
+Introduction, p. 158--System of Proportion, p. 159--The Order, p.
+160--Doric Order, p. 161--Ionic Order--Corinthian Order, p. 163--Doric
+Entablatures--Mutules, p. 164--Ionic Entablature, p. 169--Corinthian
+Entablature, p. 171--The Column, p. 172--The Capital--Doric Capital, p.
+173--Ionic Capital--Ionic Volute, p. 175--Corinthian Capital, p.
+178--The Base, p. 180--Doric Base, p. 181--Ionic Base, p.
+182--Corinthian Base--The Arch, p. 184--Doric Impost, p. 185--Doric
+Archivolt--Ionic Impost, p. 186--Ionic Archivolt--Corinthian
+Impost--Corinthian Archivolt--The Keystone, p. 187--The Pedestal, p.
+188--Doric Pedestal, p. 189--Ionic Pedestal--Corinthian Pedestal, p.
+190--The Baluster, p. 191--Spacing of Balusters--Balustrading, p.
+193--Use of Columns, p. 194--Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades, p.
+195--Orders above Orders, p. 197--The Pilaster, p. 199--Arcades, p.
+200--The Subsidiary Order, p. 202--Treatment of Superimposed Orders, p.
+204--Rustication, p. 205--The Basement, p. 207--The Attic, p. 208--The
+Pediment, p. 209--Doors, p. 211--Windows, p. 213.
+
+V Division of Surface.....216
+
+Wall Treatment, p. 216--Ceilings, p. 218--Jacobean--Carolean and
+Georgian, p. 221--Adam Ceilings, p. 222--Vaults and Domes, p. 224--The
+Cove, p. 225--The Frieze, p. 226--Borders, p. 227--Geometric
+Elements--The Undulate Line, p. 230--Repetition and Alternation, p.
+233--Treatment of Angles, p. 234--Pilaster Treatment--Panelled
+Pilasters, p. 235--Capitals and Bases--Treatment of Panels, p.
+236--Juxtaposition, p. 238--The Growth Line in Composition, p.
+241--Grouping and Massing of Detail--Division of Area, p. 242--Human and
+Animal Life in Composition, p. 244--Forms in the Round, p. 245 Supports
+and Balusters--Standards, p. 246--Proportion, p. 247--Vase Forms and
+Treatment, p. 248--Working Drawings, p. 249--The Segment or Stretch out,
+p. 250.
+
+VI Development of Conventional Ornament.....254
+
+Outline Drawing, p. 254--Undesirable Realism, p. 255--Craft
+Restrictions, p. 256--Materialistic Influence, p. 258--Early Renderings,
+p. 261--The Anthemion, p. 262--Greek Sculptured Ornament, p. 263--The
+Acanthus Leaf, p. 264--Roman Development--The Scroll, p.
+266--Græco-Roman--Byzantine, p. 267--Romanesque--Gothic--Italian
+Renaissance, p. 268--The Husk Leaf, p. 269--The Rosette, p.
+270--Tendrils, p. 271--Nature Influence--Inconsistent employment of
+Symbolic Elements, p. 272--Consistency in Growth--Branching, p.
+273--Treatment and Employment of Leaves, p. 275--The start in Ornament,
+p. 276--Italian Renaissance Influence--Jacobean, p. 280--French
+Renaissance--Henry II, p. 281--Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Régence--Louis
+XV, p. 283--Rococo--Louis XVI, p. 284--Grinling Gibbons School of
+Carving--Adam Style, p. 285--Empire--System of the Acanthus Leaf, p.
+286.
+
+VII Treatment in Design.....288
+
+Natural Attraction, p. 288--Decorative Materials, p. 289--Justification
+of Treatment, p. 290--Undesirable Imitation, p. 291--Technical
+Considerations--Methods of Expression, p. 292--Treatment of Leaves, p.
+293--Surface Interest--Painted Decoration, p. 294--Stencilled Work, p.
+295--Mechanical Production--Printed and Woven
+Fabrics--Needlework--Appliqué, p. 296--Lace-Wood Inlay--Intarsia, p.
+297--Veneer--Marquetry--“Boule” Work, p. 298--Mosaic, p. 299--Byzantine
+use of Marble--Book Decoration, p. 300--Bindings--Relief Work--Economic
+Result of Method--Desirable Treatment in Carving, p. 301--Backgrounds,
+p. 303--Reproduction Processes--Metal Repoussé, p. 304--Cast Metal, p.
+306--Character of Cast Work, p. 307.
+
+VII Mythology and Symbolism.....310
+
+Early Symbolic Ornament, p. 310--Customs, p. 311--Origin of
+Mythology--Nature Myths, p. 312--Light and Darkness--Melanesian Legend,
+p. 313--Darkness as a Devouring Monster--Season Myths, p. 314--Sun
+Myths--Belief in Natural Phenomena, p. 315--Greek and Roman Deities, p.
+316--Scandinavian Mythology, p. 317--Rising and Setting Symbolised, p.
+318--Winds Personified--Predestination, p. 319--The Fates--Propitiation
+and Sacrifice, p. 320--Early Burial Customs--Taboo--Roman Lares, p.
+322--Mediæval Legend--Early Spiritual Belief, p. 323--Prehistoric
+Treatment of Epileptics--Prohibition, p. 324--Belief in Magical
+Qualities, p. 325--The Shirt of Nessus--Swords, p. 326--Invulnerability,
+p. 327--Belief in Numbers--The Muses, p. 328--Sacred Trees and Flowers,
+p. 329--Sacred Animals--Evangelist Symbols, p. 331--The Serpent--The
+Dragon, p. 332--Poetic License in Tradition, p. 333--Animals in
+Christian Art, p. 334--Association of Human and Animal
+Qualities--Totemism--Cannibalism, p. 336--The Sphinx--Assyrian Winged
+Monsters, p. 337--Pegasus--The Harpy--Sirens, p. 338--Pan--The
+Nymphs--The Centaur, p. 339--Symbolism of the Circle, p. 340--Symbols of
+the Trinity--The Wand, a Symbol of Authority--The Hand, p. 341--The
+Caduceus--The Thyrsus, p. 342--The Trident--The Cross, p. 343--The
+Pastoral Staff, p. 344--Symbols of Martyrdom--Symbolism of Gems and
+Colours, p. 345--Masks--Symbols of Time, p. 346--Secular
+Symbols--Trophies, p. 347--Heraldry--Interest and Meaning in Modern Art,
+p. 348.
+
+IX Ways and Means.....350
+
+Perception, p. 350--Accepted Conventions, p. 351--Influence of
+Fashion--Harmonious Consistency, p. 352--Natural Suggestion--Colour
+Scheme, p. 353--Early Training--Nature Study, p. 355--Aspect and
+Attitude, p. 356--Treatment of Studies, p. 358--Drawings for
+Reproduction, p. 359--Opaque Colour--Method of Enlarging or Reducing
+Drawings, p. 360--Textile Designs, p. 361--Wall Papers, p.
+362--Architectural Drawings--Structural Design, p. 363--Lucid
+Arrangement of Details, p. 364--Mathematical Equipment, p. 365--Use of
+the Ruling Pen--Proportional Compasses, p. 367--Tracings--Conclusion, p.
+368.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. RICKARDS,
+F.R.I.B.A.                                                   _Frontispiece_
+
+ARCHITECTURE, HISTORIC                                       No.      Page
+
+Egyptian Temple, Section and Plan of                         10         23
+
+Temple, Entrance Façade                                      11         24
+
+Capital from Philæ                                           12         24
+
+Persian Capitals from Persepolis                             16         27
+
+Greek Doric Temple, The Parthenon                            21         30
+
+Ionic, The Erectheum                                         22         31
+
+Corinthian, The Choragic Monument                            23         32
+
+Vase paintings of Doric and Ionic Orders                     19         29
+
+House about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British Museum            20         29
+
+Roman, The Pantheon, Rome                                    26         36
+
+The Coliseum, Rome                                           27         37
+
+The Arch of Titus, Rome                                      28         38
+
+Byzantine St. Vitali Ravenna, Section and Plan               35         44
+
+Capitals                                                     36    (Plate)
+
+Interior, Ravenna                                            39    (Plate)
+
+Romanesque Capitals                                          42         50
+
+Tower                                                        43         50
+
+Plan, Cathedral at Worms                                     44         51
+
+Bay of Cathedral at Worms                                    45         52
+
+Window, St. Alban’s Abbey                                    46         52
+
+Church Interior with Triforium                               47         52
+
+Doorway, Kilpeck Church                                      49         54
+
+Gothic Buttresses                                            53         58
+
+Early Pointed Pier                                           54         60
+
+Early Pointed Bay of Church                                  55         61
+
+Early Lancet Windows                                         56         62
+
+Early Pointed Windows, Plate Tracery                         57         62
+
+Early Pointed Arch Mouldings                                 58         62
+
+Early Pointed Capital                                        59         63
+
+Early Pointed Tracery Windows                                60         63
+
+Early Pointed Spire                                          61         64
+
+Decorated, Tracery Windows                                   62         64
+
+Decorated, Carving                                           63         65
+
+Decorated, Arch Mouldings                                    64         65
+
+Decorated, Capital                                           65         66
+
+Decorated, Capital                                           66         66
+
+Decorated, Spire                                             67         66
+
+Perpendicular, Bay of Church showing Development
+  of Clerestory                                              68         67
+
+Perpendicular, Windows                                       69         68
+
+Perpendicular, Fan Vaulting                                  70         69
+
+Perpendicular, Tower                                         71         69
+
+Domestic Tudor, Window                                       75         74
+
+Renaissance, Italian, Strozzi Palace                         76         76
+
+Italian, Pandolfini Palace                                   77         77
+
+Italian, St. Peter’s, Rome                                   78         79
+
+Italian, Farnese Palace                                      79         80
+
+Italian, Vendramini Palace                                   80         81
+
+Italian, Library of St. Mark                                 81         82
+
+English, Banqueting House, Whitehall                         05       1031
+
+French, Louis XIII. Luxembourg                               06       1041
+
+French, Louis XIII. Barocco Detail, Ste.   Marie, Nevers     07       1051
+
+French, Louis XIV. Louvre                                    09       1061
+
+French, Louis XV. Pantheon                                   12       1101
+
+English, St. Paul’s Cathedral                                18       1151
+
+English, Spire, St. Mary le Strand                           19       1161
+
+Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia                                     5         19
+
+Tomb of Beni Hassan                                          17         28
+
+Tomb at Kyanea-Jaghu                                         18         28
+
+ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
+
+Arch, The Principle of the                                    6         20
+
+Balusters, Details of                                       170        192
+
+Cornice, Treatment where Order is not employed              180        209
+
+Doors, General Proportion of                                182        211
+
+Treatment of                                                183        212
+
+Frieze, Roman                                               198        226
+
+Frieze, Roman                                               199        227
+
+Gothic Vault, Section of                                       7        20
+
+Vaulting                                                       9        21
+
+Cross Vaulting                                                48        53
+
+Lintel, The                                                    4        19
+
+Lintel, The, Joggled Joints                                    8        21
+
+Orders, General Proportions of the                           154       162
+
+Order, The Doric                                             153       160
+
+The Doric Entablature, Vignola                               155       165
+
+The Doric Entablature, Mutular                               156       166
+
+Order, The Doric Capital                                     159       173
+
+The Doric Base                                               165       181
+
+The Doric Pedestal                                           169       189
+
+The Doric Archivolt                                          168       186
+
+The Doric Impost                                             168       186
+
+The Doric Arcading                                           174       201
+
+The Doric Arcading with Pedestal                             175       202
+
+The Doric Column and Pilaster                                173       200
+
+The Ionic Entablature                                        157       168
+
+The Ionic Capital                                            160       174
+
+The Ionic Capital (Angular Volutes)                          161       176
+
+The Ionic, Detail of Angular Volute                          162       177
+
+The Ionic Base                                               166       182
+
+The Ionic Pedestal                                           169       189
+
+The Ionic Archivolt                                          168       186
+
+The Ionic Impost                                             168       186
+
+The Corinthian Entablature                                   158       170
+
+The Corinthian Capital                                       163       179
+
+The Corinthian Capital                                       164       180
+
+The Corinthian Base                                          167       183
+
+The Corinthian Pedestal                                      169       189
+
+The Corinthian Archivolt                                     168       186
+
+The Corinthian Impost                                        168       186
+
+The Superimposed                                             172       198
+
+The Subsidiary                                               176       203
+
+The Subsidiary, Detail of Entablature                        180       209
+
+Pediment, The                                                181       210
+
+Pilaster The, Capital                                        209       236
+
+The, French Renaissance                                      208       236
+
+Rustication, Types of                                        178       206
+
+In Arcades                                                   179       207
+
+Spacing of Columns                                           171       196
+
+Windows                                                      184       214
+
+Three-Light                                                  185       215
+
+DECORATIVE FEATURES
+
+Acanthus Leaf, Brush Work                                    235       264
+
+Development                                                  251       281
+
+Development                                                  252       282
+
+Construction of                                              253       287
+
+Anthemion, Greek, Relief Treatment                           232       262
+
+Greek, Vase Painting                                         231       261
+
+Border, The Geometric, Key or Labyrinth                      200       228
+
+Border, The Geometric, Interlacing                           201       229
+
+The Scroll                                                   204       232
+
+The Evolute Scroll                                           207       234
+
+The Vertebrate                                               244       274
+
+Branching, Types of                                          243       274
+
+Inlay, Wood, Geometric                                       260       297
+
+Wood Borders                                                 261       297
+
+Wood Panel                                                   262       297
+
+Wood Panel                                                   263       298
+
+Wood, Italian Intarsia                                       264       298
+
+Metal “Boule” Work                                           266       299
+
+Metal “Boule” Work                                           267       299
+
+Inlaid Floor, Italian Renaissance                            188       219
+
+Lace                                                         259   (Plate)
+
+Marquetry                                                    265   (Plate)
+
+Mosaic Work, Spandril, Byzantine                              40   (Plate)
+
+Borders                                                      268   (Plate)
+
+Border, Roman                                                269   (Plate)
+
+Border, Roman                                                270   (Plate)
+
+Panel, Roman                                                 271   (Plate)
+
+Needlework                                                   257   (Plate)
+
+Appliqué                                                     258   (Plate)
+
+Relief Ornament, Prehistoric                                   2   (Plate)
+
+Greek Stone Carving                                          218   (Plate)
+
+Roman Stone Carving                                          237   (Plate)
+
+Roman Stone Carving                                           29        39
+
+Byzantine Stone Carving                                       37        46
+
+Byzantine Stone Carving                                       38        47
+
+Byzantine Stone Carving                                      216       244
+
+Romanesque Stone Carving                                     217       244
+
+Gothic Stone Carving                                         238       268
+
+Gothic Stone Carving                                         239       269
+
+Gothic Stone Carving                                         219   (Plate)
+
+Renaissance, Italian                                         248       278
+
+Renaissance, Italian                                         249       279
+
+Renaissance, French                                           88        86
+
+Renaissance, French                                          250       280
+
+Renaissance, French                                           90        88
+
+Jacobean Gouge Work                                          276       302
+
+Jacobean Wood Carving                                        277       303
+
+Jacobean Wood Carving                                         95        94
+
+Louis XIV. Wood Carving                                      275   (Plate)
+
+English Wood Carving                                         274   (Plate)
+
+Relief Ornament, French Wood Carving                         113       111
+
+French Wood Carving                                          279       306
+
+French Wood Carving                                          212       239
+
+French Wood Carving                                          211       238
+
+French, Part of Ceiling                                      210       237
+
+French Wood Carving                                          133       134
+
+Icelandic Wood Carving                                       280       306
+
+English 18th Century                                         273   (Plate)
+
+English, Modern                                              213       240
+
+Analysis of Composing Lines                                  214       241
+
+Rosettes, Types of                                           241       270
+
+Scroll, The, Greek Stone Carving                             233       262
+
+The Evolute, Archaic                                         229       259
+
+The Evolute, Savage Art                                      230       260
+
+Scroll, The, Wrought Iron                                    234       263
+
+Brush Work                                                   236       265
+
+As a Growth Line                                             202       230
+
+Italian Renaissance                                          240       270
+
+Start, The, Nest or Cup Leaf                                 246       277
+
+Half Figure                                                  247       277
+
+Tendril, Roman                                               242       272
+
+Terminals, Branch and Scroll                                 245       275
+
+Textiles, 14th Century Woven Fabric                            3        13
+
+14th Century Woven Fabric                                     51        56
+
+Sicilian Tapestry                                             52        57
+
+14th Century Tapestry                                        205       232
+
+Turkish Brocade                                              203       231
+
+French Brocade                                               206       233
+
+Details of Inhabited Pattern                                 256       295
+
+Tooled Book Binding                                          272   (Plate)
+
+FURNITURE
+
+Egyptian                                                      13        25
+
+Egyptian                                                      14        26
+
+Assyrian Seat                                                 15        27
+
+Greek                                                         24        33
+
+Roman Couch                                                   30        39
+
+Roman Sella or Seat                                           31        39
+
+Romanesque Chair                                              50        55
+
+Gothic Chair                                                  72        70
+
+Gothic Bedstead                                               73        71
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           86        84
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           87        85
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           92        89
+
+French Renaissance                                            91        88
+
+English 17th Century                                          99        98
+
+English 17th Century                                         100        99
+
+English 17th Century                                         101       100
+
+English 17th Century                                         102       100
+
+English 17th Century. Baluster                               221       246
+
+French Louis XIII                                            108       105
+
+French Louis XIV                                             111       108
+
+French Louis XV                                              265   (Plate)
+
+English late 17th Century                                    116       113
+
+English late 17th Century                                    117       114
+
+Dutch and Queen Anne Chairs                                  121       119
+
+English 18th Century                                         122       122
+
+French Louis XVI                                             132       133
+
+INTERIOR FEATURES
+
+Ceilings, Italian Renaissance                                187       218
+
+Italian, General Plan                                        189       220
+
+Italian Renaissance, Painted,                                 83   (Plate)
+
+Italian Renaissance, Painted,                                 85   (Plate)
+
+Tudor                                                        190       221
+
+Jacobean                                                     191       222
+
+Jacobean                                                     192       223
+
+Carolean                                                     193       224
+
+Robert Adam                                                  194       225
+
+Chimney Pieces, Gothic 13th Century                           74        71
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           93        90
+
+French Renaissance                                            89        87
+
+Jacobean                                                      96        95
+
+Domes and Vaults, Italian Renaissance:
+
+St. Peter’s, Rome                                            197   (Plate)
+
+Villa Madama                                                 196   (Plate)
+
+Ducal Palace, Venice                                         195   (Plate)
+
+Doors, Jacobean                                               97        96
+
+Jacobean                                                      98        97
+
+French Renaissance                                           278       305
+
+French Renaissance, Louis XV                                 114       112
+
+English Renaissance                                          120       117
+
+French Renaissance, Louis XVI                                130       132
+
+Frieze, The Jacobean, Carved Wood                             94        93
+
+French, Louis XVI                                            131       133
+
+Interior Decoration, Græco-Roman                              32        40
+
+Interior Decoration, Wall Division                           186       217
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           84   (Plate)
+
+French Renaissance, Louis XIV                                110       107
+
+English “Adam”                                               123       124
+
+English “Adam”                                               124       125
+
+French Louis XVI                                             126       128
+
+French Louis XVI                                             127       129
+
+French Louis XVI                                             128       130
+
+French Louis XVI                                             129       131
+
+METAL WORK
+
+Græco-Roman                                                   33        41
+
+Græco-Roman                                                   34        42
+
+Byzantine Tradition                                           41        48
+
+Wrought Iron                                                 282       307
+
+Wrought Iron, Venetian                                       283       307
+
+Repoussé                                                     103       101
+
+Repoussé                                                     281   (Plate)
+
+Cast                                                         104       102
+
+Cast, Louis XV                                               115       113
+
+Sheffield Plate                                              125       126
+
+Filagree Jewellery                                           228       257
+
+Cast Iron (Modern)                                           222       247
+
+Surface Decoration of                                        284       308
+
+METHOD
+
+Of Enlarging and Reducing Drawings                           286       361
+
+MOULDINGS
+
+Profiles of                                                  134       138
+
+Enrichment of                                                135       144
+
+Detail of the Dentil                                         136       147
+
+Aspect of                                                    137       148
+
+Stone, Panel Effect                                          138       149
+
+Wood Panels                                                  139       150
+
+Wood Panels, Applied                                         140       151
+
+Wood Panels, Applied                                         141       152
+
+The Bolection                                                142       152
+
+Table Top                                                    143       153
+
+Turned Wood                                                  144       153
+
+Pottery                                                      145       154
+
+Pottery                                                      146       154
+
+Rolled Metal                                                 147       155
+
+Drawn Metal                                                  148       155
+
+Wrought Iron, Swaged                                         149       156
+
+Wrought Iron, Built up                                       150       156
+
+Wrought Iron, Built up                                       151       156
+
+Spun Metal                                                   152       157
+
+VASE FORMS
+
+Primitive Pottery                                              1   (Plate)
+
+Greek Pottery                                                 25        34
+
+Greek Pottery, Painted Details                                19        29
+
+Effect of Perspective                                        220       245
+
+Segments of Contoured Surfaces                               226       251
+
+Segments of Contoured Surfaces                               227       252
+
+Stretch-out of the Cylinder                                  224       249
+
+Stretch-out of the Cone                                      225       250
+
+Types of Vase Decoration                                     223       248
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+It is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the
+creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that
+the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of
+elements common to all than with invention pure and simple.
+
+
+_Human Limitations_
+
+To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or
+acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not
+traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for
+instance, the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of
+human and bird form, and is in no sense an original creation.
+
+The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the
+reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real
+interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of
+personality, in other words, the individual point of view of the artist;
+which is more or less interesting, as it is more or less personal in
+idea and expression.
+
+In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be
+carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible
+source.
+
+Design is distinct from any phase of realistic expression inasmuch as
+the subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally
+visualised.
+
+
+“_Inspiration_”
+
+Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration,
+but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident
+than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to
+the individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought
+may be accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible
+for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem.
+
+It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of
+inspiration with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in
+the belief that it “does not feel like it.”
+
+The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a
+logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and
+conditions, and of evolving some desirable solution.
+
+Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires
+a facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a
+fallacy, as though many designs are for convenience expressed through
+this medium, any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the
+technical details of the final method of production, to be a practical
+design.
+
+
+_Process and Material_
+
+Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and
+process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this
+technical knowledge it is impossible to take full advantage of the
+method of production either in the direction of economy or effect.
+
+Other considerations are utilitarian and æsthetic, the former having
+regard to purpose, the latter to appearance.
+
+That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common
+enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian,
+but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the æsthetic point
+of view.
+
+An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed
+by popular or individual demand.
+
+Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to
+work to prescribed conditions.
+
+This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer
+who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more
+restricted.
+
+It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or
+historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony
+with existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite
+possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive.
+
+Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public
+demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far
+as possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of
+their best. Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall
+not be done would undoubtedly result in failure.
+
+To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman
+well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that
+he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties; and, in
+addition, the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight.
+
+
+_Early Training_
+
+The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is
+understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary
+student, the answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly
+students can be directed through a course of training that will enable
+them to produce at least work that is good, though it may not be
+personally distinctive.
+
+An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of
+traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe
+traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it
+may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much
+farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural
+faculty.
+
+Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look
+after itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the
+training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim.
+
+Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great
+responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study.
+
+The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are
+apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative.
+
+Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent
+beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in
+failing to develop the personality, which is the sole interest, and is
+the teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible.
+
+Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications
+reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which
+end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and
+possessed of method.
+
+Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been
+suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has
+little knowledge of Art, and still less of design.
+
+
+_Art and Existence_
+
+That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be
+possible--if not very interesting--if regulated only by considerations
+of utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the
+gratification of merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state
+Art becomes one of the mind’s necessities.
+
+The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,”
+and that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.”
+
+Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art
+is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.”
+
+Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in
+that which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory
+and music.
+
+The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and
+Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these
+possible to the public at large except in the most general sense?
+
+What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the
+furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the
+actual field for artistic expression.
+
+It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is
+sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic
+exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large.
+
+
+“_Natural Taste_”
+
+There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas
+the individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary
+affairs of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic
+selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment.
+
+It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be
+good or bad.
+
+Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it
+is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge
+which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate.
+
+
+_Commercial Production_
+
+It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result
+of commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the
+public is restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be
+urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes
+it his business to study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s
+standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as
+this is improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised.
+
+The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of
+the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and
+purpose, or perception based on artistic education.
+
+
+“_Ornaments_”
+
+This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in
+any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to
+the class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no
+possible utility and intended solely for display.
+
+It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the
+display of old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance,
+may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils, strictly
+utilitarian, were incidentally made beautiful.
+
+Modern furniture frequently offends--being too often constructed with
+less regard to utility than to external effect.
+
+The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the
+actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the
+perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the
+modern house--the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed,
+as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent
+the reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease
+may have much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to
+move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent
+on frequent change of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture
+and other personal belongings.
+
+
+_Modern Development_
+
+The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting
+in the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the
+large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a
+change in domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at
+hotels and restaurants.
+
+This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less
+interest in personal possession and environment; still further fostered
+by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in
+frequent change of style and locality.
+
+
+_Public Apathy_
+
+Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly
+appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art
+appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal
+indulgence; still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer
+if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and
+requirements.
+
+The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect
+implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account.
+
+It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery
+found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which,
+notwithstanding all endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state,
+sensitive to scratches and other damage. This difficulty may have
+suggested intentionally covering the surface with such scratches, etc.,
+more or less arranged, thus making a virtue of necessity.
+
+
+_Elementary Pattern_
+
+Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or
+incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or
+herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result
+of pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in
+plastering as trowel point.
+
+Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some
+form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative
+of any known form; and it is not till a much later period that any
+indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type.
+
+Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings
+singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily
+be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds.
+
+The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament
+was presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would
+readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute.
+
+Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is
+indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers
+of clay.
+
+There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for
+expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the
+marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may
+well be considered the first impressionists.
+
+
+_Early Impressionism_
+
+They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful
+distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of
+characteristics.
+
+The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form,
+and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and
+working condition is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast
+with the earlier ornament, which is not in any way imitative of, or
+traceable to, any natural suggestion.
+
+On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally
+three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such
+as directly arise from the process and material involved.
+
+The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the
+third--conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural
+suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of
+cultured appreciation of process and æsthetic considerations.
+
+
+_Personal Production_
+
+It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally
+produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or
+weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves
+more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being
+compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in
+course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported
+by his craft.
+
+Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ANCIENT POTTERY
+
+No. 1.
+
+     A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall.
+
+     B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, Oxon.
+
+     C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.
+
+     D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds, Bronze Age.
+
+     E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.
+
+     F. Early English puzzle jug.
+
+     G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset.
+
+     H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze Age, Ireland.
+]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.
+           C.             Etching on Bone.
+]
+
+the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill,
+would be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the
+professional worker and artist.
+
+To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early
+social conditions.
+
+The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying
+in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and
+herds; such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory.
+
+The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for
+storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and
+doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment.
+
+Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop
+agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would
+entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes.
+
+The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the
+fortress or castle for the protection of the town, and the more
+substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture.
+
+With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and the
+simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions.
+
+
+_Early Social Conditions_
+
+The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent
+upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on
+the various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of
+officials for effective collection and distribution. Social
+distinctions would be drawn between the various classes, governing,
+administrative, military, and non-combatant; the latter would furnish
+the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen,
+agriculturists and traders.
+
+In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility,
+priestly and legal classes.
+
+
+_Influence_
+
+Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later
+was subjected to various influences--Political, Religious, and
+Commercial.
+
+Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or
+interchange would result, or by conquest.
+
+Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste
+on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that
+of the Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman
+influence after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths.
+
+The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and
+Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier
+example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III in A.D. 726
+in response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the
+Byzantine art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine
+district.
+
+
+_Commercial Intercourse._
+
+The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the
+arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary
+to study market conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were
+therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste, thereby resulting
+in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source.
+
+[Illustration: No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.]
+
+Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian weavers, who, contrary to their
+local traditions, introduced heraldry into the patterns of their
+fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders.
+
+The Phœnicians were the early merchant adventurers, and traded in
+work of Tyrian and Sidonian production with remote parts of Europe,
+taking back local produce in exchange. Later on, through the medium of
+the Hanseatic league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron fire-backs
+from Sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations;
+of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement
+were considered and embodied.
+
+
+_Effect on Design_
+
+Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Art production was
+further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker.
+
+When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was
+invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing
+emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged
+as a professional.
+
+In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of
+architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the
+architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance.
+
+Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was
+taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many
+instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical
+side of the craft.
+
+Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer
+of the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of
+constructive detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen
+that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so
+much of this work is still in existence.
+
+
+_Ethical Side of Art_
+
+Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare,
+for instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of
+meaning and insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the
+license of the Rococo.
+
+Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was
+originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of,
+with resultant loss of character and interest.
+
+The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely
+for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the
+experience and point of view of past exploiters.
+
+
+_Desire for Novelty_
+
+The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old
+worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition
+a little further if possible.
+
+Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old
+friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it
+may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others,
+and whether it is worth doing.
+
+“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic
+considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time;
+but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new
+phases, have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the
+forgotten. In the meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes
+progressing, now and then retrogressing, but at all times unbroken.
+
+History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities
+and conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic
+development.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HISTORIC REVIEW
+
+
+Some of the factors in the evolution of Art have already been briefly
+suggested, but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing
+acquaintance, at least, with the various phases of historic developments
+is essential. The scope of the present work obviously renders it
+impossible to deal with the subject in detail, but libraries are
+accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge.
+
+It has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of
+any influence other than that of material and process, and this has
+continued in some of the crafts to the present time; but those more
+closely allied to building, particularly those associated with furniture
+and decoration, eventually became subject to the architectural phase or
+style of the period, which dominated form and detail.
+
+
+_Style._
+
+Style may be described as manner of expression, either individual or
+local, and for convenience is defined by nationality and period. It is
+usual to speak of Greek, Roman, Gothic, etc., of such a century; in the
+case of the Renaissance, it is customary to particularise the variants,
+as Italian, French, English, etc., also with the period or century.
+
+The development of style, intimately involved as it is in the social,
+religious and political history of nations, must ever be powerful in its
+interest and far-reaching in its appeal.
+
+The first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility, but in
+succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something
+more than this. And so with the progress of a race we can trace the
+progress of its decorative art.
+
+
+_Inter-Communication_
+
+Then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community
+inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact--either through
+conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations. Naturally
+the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest
+qualities, æsthetic and practical, and these qualities advance with the
+development of society and with progress in mechanical skill. As a
+result of conquest the civilisation of either conqueror or conquered
+must become the dominant influence, and the possible fusion and
+interchange of ideas may modify style to a considerable extent.
+
+
+_Climate and Material_
+
+Locality has always been a determining factor, particularly in
+architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised, and
+in most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions; for
+instance, where wood abounds we find it successfully employed.
+
+Climate is also largely responsible for architectural form. In the
+North, owing to heavy snows, the roofs are high-pitched. The early
+Egyptian buildings were of mud and wattle, the readiest material to
+hand, and form ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless
+district. It is interesting to note that the character of these
+structures was imparted to their later work in stone. This was used in
+the most important buildings, and was readily obtainable from the Nubian
+quarries and transported down the Nile on rafts.
+
+
+_Phases in Style_
+
+It must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made in
+styles, yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional, and
+which are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence. The
+phases of a transitional period can usually be defined; at first the new
+style is slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker
+exploiting it. This is followed by its being used in conjunction with
+the native construction, and lastly, the native interpretation of the
+foreign style is possibly grafted on to older forms.
+
+It should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate
+change in style, but that there are phases which can be described as
+typical, connected by periods of gradual change or transition; due,
+doubtless, to individual expression of taste, either on the part of
+exponent or patron, or as previously suggested, by influences political,
+religious or commercial.
+
+Careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was
+due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment, which in its
+turn became redundant in character and detail. Apart from the artistic
+point of view, these changes are interesting as reflective of the
+character of the times.
+
+From the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to
+be appreciated, the Lintel and the Arch. The Lintel, which is the
+earlier, may be described as a large stone style, and consists of the
+bridging of apertures by means of horizontal slabs, supported by
+vertical columns or piers. This is a method of construction with
+distinct limitations, as it was impossible to bridge large areas or
+spaces without frequent support.
+
+
+_The Lintel_
+
+[Illustration: No. 4. The Lintel.]
+
+The joints of the Lintel necessarily occur over the centres of the
+supporting columns, and the space between was controlled by the size of
+the obtainable material and the imposed weight it could bear; the result
+being, as in the great hall at Karnak, a forest of closely spaced
+columns. It was not until the principle of the Arch was developed into
+vaulting that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor
+spaces were possible.
+
+Lintel construction was employed in the Egyptian, Chaldean and Greek
+styles.
+
+The Arch, as a constructive form, did not appear until a later period,
+and possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and
+stones of small size.
+
+[Illustration: No. 5. Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia. Vault form, but not
+vault construction.]
+
+Form or shape is not involved, as it is quite possible to so shape the
+Lintel as to give the appearance of the Arch by cutting the underside
+to the required curve. In the early Greek architecture examples have
+been found of both Arch and vault appearance, but these are the result
+of horizontal courses, successively projecting; that is, built in the
+form of inverted steps, the underside being cut to the arch curve, and
+is a form of construction restricted to bridging relatively small areas.
+
+
+_The Arch_
+
+[Illustration: No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B. Arch appearance, result of
+cutting away.]
+
+The principle of the Arch depends upon the separate pieces of material
+being formed to a wedge shape, the joints corresponding to radial lines
+drawn through the centre from which the Arch curve is struck.
+
+The weak part of the Lintel is the centre of the span which may have a
+tendency to give way under pressure, but the wedged construction of the
+Arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the imposed weight.
+
+In contrast with the Lintel, material of small size could be employed,
+not only stone, but brick being used in Arch construction.
+
+[Illustration: No. 7. Section of Gothic Vault showing courses of stone
+and centering.]
+
+The Lintel, in relatively small spans, is sometimes composed of separate
+small stones, shaped to fit each other in the form of Joggled joints.
+
+[Illustration: No. 8.
+
+A. Lintel in one piece.
+
+B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming
+framework of structure.]
+
+The outward and manifest appearance suggests to the lay observer a
+striking divergence in the style known as Gothic from the Roman manner
+of building; but the main difference is in proportion and treatment of
+detail, the underlying principle being much the same. The use of the
+Arch and vaulting was common to both, but in the Gothic development
+greater strength was obtained, with even greater economy of material.
+The archivolts and intersecting ribs of vaults, with their supports,
+literally formed the bones of the building, constituting a framework to
+which the bays of walls and roofing were only a matter of filling in.
+
+In the words of Mr. C. H. Moore, in his work on “Development and
+Character of Gothic Architecture”--“the Gothic style developed into a
+system where stability depends not upon any inert massiveness except in
+the outermost abutments, but upon a logical adjustment of active parts
+whose opposing forces produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system
+of balanced thrusts, as opposed to the former system of inert
+stability.”
+
+
+_Egyptian_
+
+The Egyptian buildings, in common with those of Palestine, were
+frequently of mud, strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven, evidence
+of which is apparent in later incised decoration. Buildings were also of
+sun-baked bricks, those of an important character being faced with
+stone; the exteriors of these latter were simple and severe, the walls
+being slightly tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice, with
+gateways and entrances of massive form.
+
+The internal effect was of mystery, doubtless due to the comparative
+absence of light, and to the many columns necessary to carry the
+roofings. The columns which were mostly employed in the interiors, were
+squat and stunted in proportion, being from four to seven diameters in
+height, with capitals of the Lotus, Papyrus or Hathor variety. Mouldings
+were of the simplest character and sparsely used, and the decoration
+included renderings of the Lotus and Papyrus plants, either painted or
+incised in stone with the addition of colour.
+
+[Illustration: No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan of Egyptian
+Temple.]
+
+Egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental, while
+the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for
+symbolic expression, rather than by more æsthetic considerations.
+
+In Egyptian Art ornament is subordinated to the architecture, and the
+employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic
+character, added considerably to the decorative effect. In the wall
+pictures the figures were depicted in silhouette, in conventional
+attitudes, the head and limbs being displayed in severe profile, while
+the torso is represented in full front view. The methods of expression
+were painting, or incised in outline on stone, invariably filled in with
+colour, the effect in both being of flatness, with little suggestion of
+modelling or rotundity, the various features being defined by local
+colour.
+
+[Illustration: No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian Temple.]
+
+Though much of the Egyptian work was in the round, and evident of great
+sculptural ability and appreciation of form, yet generally their
+decorative work may be described as a colour style, rather than one in
+which light and shade were important factors.
+
+[Illustration: No. 12. Egyptian Capital from Philae.]
+
+With regard to the domestic life, the examples of furniture in the
+British Museum convey some idea, and these bear a remarkable similarity
+to forms with which we are familiar at the present day, both in detail
+and construction, which is simple and direct, with mortise and tenon
+joints. Turning was frequently employed, and, in the decoration of
+furniture, inlays of ivory, ebony and glass, the Egyptians being expert
+workers in both glass and enamels.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.
+
+A.  Stand Inlaid.
+B.  Ebony seat inlaid with ivory.
+C.  Folding stool.
+D.  Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory.
+]
+
+Illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea
+of the furniture, which is often depicted as gilded.
+
+The Egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman. Sometimes the couch
+took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end, and the
+legs and feet carved to complete the effect.
+
+
+_Chaldean_
+
+Chaldean art in character had much in common with that of Egypt, the
+difference being more that of expression than in idea, probably due to
+intercourse and mutual influence. The buildings, which were mostly in
+brick, often faced with a form of terra-cotta, stamped with relief or
+ornament, were pyramidal in general form, raised on terraces forming a
+succession of platforms, approached by steps or inclined planes. Columns
+were employed, but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes
+culminating in the Persian renderings at Persepolis.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.
+
+A.  Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400.
+B.              at Thebes.
+]
+
+Compound animal and human forms, analagous to the Egyptian sphinx, were
+employed, such as the winged lion and bull with human heads, generally
+to flank the gateways. Wall pictures in low relief formed part of the
+interior decoration, these being arranged in successive rows and
+representing historic episodes were, like the Egyptian decoration,
+probably coloured. A prominent detail in the decoration is that of the
+date palm which, symbolical in meaning, was the prototype of the Greek
+anthemion; the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form
+of the evolute scroll.
+
+Our conclusions regarding Assyrian woodwork are drawn from the
+sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the Assyrians
+faced their brick structures internally and externally. The examples in
+the British Museum are about 888 B.C.
+
+Furniture, such as tables, thrones and couches, was evidently made of
+wood, and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials.
+
+[Illustration: No. 15. Assyrian Seat.]
+
+On the monuments of Khorsabad representations have been discovered of
+chairs, supported by animals and human figures. The intention in the use
+of figures was probably to depict prisoners taken in war.
+
+Chairs, thrones, stools and tables were square in shape. The ends of the
+rails and legs were carved, and the ornamentation employed for these and
+similar positions included the heads of lions, bulls and rams, the
+sacred palm and pine cone.
+
+[Illustration: No. 16. Capitals from Persepolis.]
+
+The seats of chairs and thrones were much higher than is now customary,
+and necessitated the use of foot-stools. In some cases both chairs and
+tables were made to fold on a central pivot.
+
+In some cases metal was used either for part or for the complete
+structure.
+
+Exact chronology is a matter of surmise, but at an early period, about
+4000 B.C., in the valley of the Nile and in Mesopotamia, civilization
+had attained a very high level, extremely favourable to the development
+of architecture and the artistic crafts.
+
+The early Greeks, as a result of the peculiar formation of their coast
+line, like the later Scandinavians, were adventurers on the sea,
+piratical and trading, and were thus brought into communication with,
+and influenced by, the arts of Egypt and Chaldea.
+
+
+_Greek_
+
+[Illustration: No. 17. Early Treatment of Doric Order. Tomb of Beni
+Hassan.]
+
+Though, in their architecture, the Greeks progressed no further than the
+Lintel, yet they must be credited with the development of the system of
+the orders, which formed the basis of subsequent styles.
+
+The two prominent orders were the Doric and the Ionic; the former has
+its prototype in the tomb of Beni Hasan, the date of which is 1740 B.C.,
+while the latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of the
+capital, from Assyrian and Persian originals.
+
+[Illustration: No. 18. Early anticipation of Ionic Order. Tomb at
+Kyanea-Jaghu.]
+
+The capital of the Corinthian order may be considered to be a
+development of the Egyptian Papyrus form, the earliest features of both
+consisting of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like detail.
+
+[Illustration: No. 19. Greek Vase Paintings. A. Doric columns. B. Wall
+fountain. C. Ionic columns with pediment.]
+
+Characteristic Greek details, such as the Anthemion and wave scroll, are
+traceable to the same sources.
+
+Their architectural work, which was monumental in character, was mostly
+manifested in the temples, the domestic buildings being relatively
+unimportant.
+
+[Illustration: No. 20. Greek house about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British
+Museum, Bacchus visiting Icarius.]
+
+Some idea as to these may be gathered from the vase paintings in the
+British Museum, on which they appear simple in form, mostly Doric in
+character, and probably of wood construction, the metopes in the frieze
+being open spaces for purpose of interior lighting.
+
+Though the Greeks invested many of their creations with Epic and
+Symbolic meaning, much of their ornament was purely æsthetic.
+
+The sculptured metopes of the Parthenon, representing the conflict
+between the Lapithae and the Centaurs, are an example of the Epic
+treatment.
+
+The Sphinx, borrowed from Egyptian art, was, however, invested with a
+different meaning, and is an example of the Symbolic class, which formed
+so large a part in Greek art.
+
+Greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of
+mouldings, and the exterior columnar effect. The mouldings in the Ionic
+and Corinthian phases were enriched with carved details, probably
+developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration.
+
+[Illustration: No. 21. Front elevation and plan of Parthenon, Athens]
+
+[Illustration: No. 22. Greek Ionic Erectheum, Athens.]
+
+The Doric style was presumably so decorated, with painted details on the
+ovolo and abacus of the capital, and the corona and other members of the
+cornice.
+
+Colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes, mostly blue and
+red, resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas; the
+colour decoration forming horizontal bands.
+
+One important development, due to climatic conditions, was the pitched
+roof, which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form
+(literally gables), which were framed by the upper members of the
+entablature.
+
+This feature, technically known as the Pediment, was in buildings of
+importance invariably filled by sculpture, Mythological or Epic in
+subject, designed to occupy the shape.
+
+The styles mostly employed were the Doric and Ionic, and these were
+exploited contemporaneously, the Parthenon, 430 B.C., representing the
+culmination of the former.
+
+Of the Corinthian style--comparatively little used by the Greeks, though
+much employed and developed later--the Choragic monument at Athens, 330
+B.C., is the most complete example, though the leaf capital was
+anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier Tower of the Winds.
+
+The earliest representations of Greek furniture are to be found in the
+Syrian Room at the British Museum. These are the chairs dated about 6
+B.C., in which the antique figures are seated. The backs are
+perpendicular, and the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the
+legs.
+
+[Illustration: No. 23. Greek Corinthian, Choragic Monument, Athens.]
+
+The Greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa. It was used for sleeping
+and resting. Chairs and stools were sometimes made of metal, and were
+often of a folding type.
+
+Tables were constructed in various shapes--sometimes the supports were
+fashioned as heads and legs of lions and leopards, and sometimes as
+sphinxes with lifted wings. In common with other pieces of furniture,
+they were made in wood, metal and marble.
+
+[Illustration: No. 24. Greek Furniture.
+
+A.   Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan.
+B.     “       “    Vase painting.
+C.   Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C.
+D.   Chair from Hydria.
+E. }
+F. } Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C.
+]
+
+The vase rooms of the British Museum provide considerable matter for
+study with regard to the details of Greek furniture, couches especially
+are frequently depicted.
+
+The Greeks were expert workers in cast bronze, as is evidenced, not only
+by their statuary, but in many utensils of domestic life, notably the
+oil lamps, which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta.
+
+[Illustration: No. 25. Greek Pottery.
+
+A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C.
+B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C.
+C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white.
+D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C.
+E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C.
+]
+
+Soon after the sack of Corinth in 140 B.C., Greece became a Roman
+province, and the Greek art workers eventually found more encouragement
+from Roman patronage than in local requirement.
+
+They therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded,
+thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their
+conquerors.
+
+
+_Roman_
+
+Originally there were no special native characteristics by which Roman
+work could be distinguished, as the Romans absorbed various influences
+from the races that they conquered. Their conquests extended East and
+West, and from these widely differing outside influences the Roman style
+developed.
+
+The Romans, who by temperament, were great soldiers, organisers and
+engineers, rather than artistic, in their early essays in architecture
+were influenced by Etruscan work.
+
+Etruria (now Tuscany) is presumed to have been a Greek colony, and the
+local style, a form of debased Doric, was adopted by the first Tarquin
+(who was of Etruscan origin) and introduced to Rome about 610 B.C.
+
+With the growth of the Roman Empire, and its consequent wealth and
+development of luxury, great impetus was given to building and the arts
+generally.
+
+The orders based on the Greek originals were developed in detail and
+proportion, particularly in the latter respect. Whereas in the Greek
+Doric the height of the column varied from about four, to six and a half
+diameters, the Roman version became more slender, being about eight
+diameters in height.
+
+The Corinthian order, perhaps, underwent the greatest change, a change
+that has practically remained unaltered to the present day.
+
+
+_Vaulting_
+
+The most significant development in building was the Arch and subsequent
+vaulting, by means of which extensive covered areas were rendered
+possible. The Pantheon at Rome is covered with a hemispherical vault or
+dome 139 feet in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: No. 26. Section and interior elevation of Pantheon,
+Rome.]
+
+The dome, which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal
+ribs, resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons, or coffers, is
+really a casting in cement; and in principle is identical with the
+present method of building, in which concrete or cement forms a
+considerable part in construction.
+
+Apart from other reasons, the Arch was necessitated by small material,
+which, in the case of the Lintel, could not be employed without the
+device of joggelled joints. In the absence of suitable material to
+cover spans, it became necessary to devise some means to the desired
+result. This was achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of
+material cut to the necessary wedge form.
+
+The Arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the
+Cloaca Maxima, to aqueducts, bridges, and viaducts, from which its firm
+construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to
+buildings of many storeys.
+
+[Illustration: No. 27. Coliseum, Rome. Section and part elevation
+showing arch and vault construction.]
+
+
+_Greek Influence_
+
+Apart from the early employment and development of the Arch, the Romans
+were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources, and also
+were indebted to the Greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry, art,
+even to religion, whose gods they invested with different names.
+
+Notwithstanding, the Roman development in architecture was undoubtedly
+dignified and grand in manner, particularly in their treatment of the
+Corinthian order.
+
+With regard to detail, much of the delicacy and refinement of the Greek
+character was lost, yet this was compensated by greater variety and
+freedom of treatment, especially in the development of the Acanthus type
+of foliage.
+
+[Illustration: No. 28. Arch of Titus, Rome.]
+
+
+_Development of Ornament_
+
+Decoration was more generally used, pilaster and other panels being
+occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines, mostly composed of
+undulate stems, with scrolling branches, clothed with conventional
+leaves and flowers.
+
+There was also a tendency to employ occasionally natural types in
+foliage, and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human
+and animal form, which, though originally significant, were used for
+their æsthetic value.
+
+The Roman domestic life was materially different from the Greek, and
+while they had their Temples, they also had their palaces, public halls
+and baths, besides the amphitheatre and the circus.
+
+[Illustration: No. 29. Typical Roman Ornament.]
+
+Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii have thrown considerable light on
+the domestic life of the Romans--their dwellings, decorations and
+furniture.
+
+[Illustration: No. 30. Roman couch. Sepulchral urn, British Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 31. Roman Sella.]
+
+
+_Græco-Roman Painted Decoration_
+
+In the luxurious life of the Romans colour
+
+[Illustration: No. 32. Graeco-Roman Hall in house of Sallust, Pompeii.]
+
+decoration played a conspicuous part, as is evidenced in the painted
+work of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this, which is generally known as
+the Græco-Roman period, the interiors were decorated with paintings, the
+general scheme being based on an architectural setting, the wall areas
+being divided into bays by slender columns, sometimes by pilaster
+panels, with plinth, or dado, frieze, and cornice, the prevailing
+colours being red, buff and black.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Græco-Roman Hanging Lamp Bronze
+
+No. 33.]
+
+The decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings,
+through which distant vistas could be seen. The bays or spaces between
+the apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel
+pictures with frames; generally the supports were united by festoons or
+scrolling detail, the whole expressed by painting in colour without
+actual relief.
+
+The use of glass for glazing windows was employed in the later period;
+that the Romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the
+examples in the National collections.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+Græco-Roman
+Hand Lamp
+and Stand.
+Bronze
+
+No. 34.]
+
+For artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary, which
+were boat shape in form, sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended
+from branching stems or supported on tripod standards. These were
+invariably in cast bronze, though terra-cotta was also used, but in
+either material were extremely beautiful in form and detail.
+
+In any attempt to review the past, it is difficult to visualise the
+actual life at the back of the pageantry, with which we are naturally
+prone to be obsessed, in history as written; but the exhibits of the
+various domestic appliances of the Roman period at the British Museum
+are of considerable interest, and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to
+bring the individual to a closer understanding of the times and people.
+
+At Byzantium or Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire,
+a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the
+characteristics of East and West; and it was marked particularly by a
+grafting of earlier Greek detail on to simplified Roman forms.
+
+The establishment in 330 A.D. of Byzantium or Constantinople as the
+Eastern capital of the Roman Empire and the recognition by the state of
+Christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the
+associated crafts. Prior to this the early Christians had been compelled
+to hold their meetings secretly, and when this was no longer necessary
+they at first utilised for their public worship the existing Basilicas
+or public halls. Later on churches were built, the plan being arranged
+in the form of a Greek cross (_e.g._, with equal arms), surmounted by a
+central dome.
+
+
+_Domes_
+
+The dome was supported on four piers, united by arches, and the change
+in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the
+inner angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the
+imposed circle. These vaultings spreading from the angles are
+technically known as Pendentives. The
+
+[Illustration: No. 35. Byzantine. Section and plan of St. Vitali,
+Ravenna.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 36. Byzantine Capitals from Ravenna.]
+
+four arms of the cross constituting transepts, nave and chancel were
+also surmounted by either complete or semi-domes.
+
+The Byzantine dome differs from the Roman type in matters of detail,
+thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with
+resulting coffers as in that of the Pantheon. In this latter the
+lighting of the interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye,
+but in some Byzantine examples, notably St. Sophia (built for Justinian
+by Anthemius) the lighting is the result of windows ranged round the
+base, constituting what is known as the ariel type of dome.
+
+The dome of St. Sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the
+Pantheon, being only one-sixth of the diameter in height, the diameter
+being 106 ft. 7½ ins.
+
+The architectural features generally were considerably modified,
+particularly with regard to mouldings, which were almost eliminated. The
+entablature was also at times dispensed with, and arches springing
+direct from the capitals of supporting columns were general; a feature
+which is characteristic of the later Romanesque. The capitals became
+simple in form, being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes, in
+which the abacus is considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded.
+
+The carved details reveal simplicity of execution, being merely cut back
+from the surface, the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to
+the plastic feeling of the Roman work. Though the leaves employed were
+of the acanthus type, they were quite devoid of modelling, being merely
+channelled with V-shaped grooves; the eyes between the lobes being
+round and suggestive of the use of the drill, the execution being a
+reversion to the archaic Greek.
+
+[Illustration: No. 37. Byzantine Panels. St. Appollinare, Nuovo,
+Ravenna.]
+
+
+_Early Christian Art_
+
+A notable feature in the Byzantine detail is the prevalence of the
+circle, frequently grouped in three, four and five, with the respective
+significance of the Trinity, the Evangelists and the Cross, or Five
+Wounds. The grotesques of the Pagan detail are conspicuously absent,
+giving place to forms more in keeping with the new religion, such, for
+instance, as the cross and the vine.
+
+It is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured Roman was
+taken very seriously, but incidental to the religious observances were
+certain rites and symbolic forms, with which the Christians were
+familiar, and the early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy
+to invest some of these with a new meaning. During the period of
+intolerance and persecution, signs and symbols grew in importance as a
+
+[Illustration: No. 39. Byzantine Interior, Ravenna.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 40. 5th Century Mosaic Work in the Baptistery at
+Ravenna.
+
+From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.]
+
+means of secret communication; and in the later period when secrecy was
+no longer necessary, these became a corporate part of the ornament and
+decoration.
+
+[Illustration: No. 38. Byzantine Panel from the sarcophagus of St.
+Theodore. St. Appollinare in Classe, Ravenna.]
+
+In contrast to the Roman ornament, in which the effect depended mostly
+on light and shade, the Byzantine was a colour style, and it became
+customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs
+quartered and placed reciprocally, so that the figurings formed
+symmetrical patterns. Mosaic work, either of marble or glass,
+constituted the decoration in such suitable positions as the floors,
+spandrils, lunettes and domes, gold being largely employed in the
+backgrounds. Windows, at times large in area, were glazed as in Roman
+times with cast slabs of glass, set in metal frames, usually bronze; and
+thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were also used for glazing
+purposes.
+
+
+_Metal Work and Enamel_
+
+The Byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal,
+decorated in repoussé and with wire filigree; the metal work was
+invariably set with jewels and precious stones, in conjunction with
+champleve enamel, the whole being gilt.
+
+As a result of the Iconoclastic movement, and the decree of Pope Leo III
+in 726 A.D., the art workers, deprived of local patronage and compelled
+to pursue their crafts elsewhere, migrated to the Rhine district, where
+for some centuries the Byzantine traditions were preserved and largely
+influenced Western art, particularly with regard to the working in metal
+and enamels. The attraction of the centre of the Eastern Empire for
+northern adventurers had its effect in the introduction of the Byzantine
+style into the detail of the different phases of the Romanesque.
+
+[Illustration: No. 41. Champleve enamel Byzantine tradition.]
+
+The tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local
+craftsmen and modified according to local conditions, with the result
+that both in expression and in execution, the style tended to become
+more and more crude, until the original forms and details were almost
+entirely lost. But in spite of changes the classic feeling never
+completely died out.
+
+
+_Roman Influence Abroad_
+
+Under the Roman system, in colonizing, their architecture, customs and
+laws were imposed on the conquered population. When later, under stress
+of events, the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn,
+these left behind them universal traces of their occupation and
+influence. The inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on
+their own resources, were immediately menaced by invasions, which had
+been hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation, and for some
+protracted period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict, under which
+the arts naturally suffered. Eventually, from the chaos emerged a native
+manner of building, which, though rude and coarse in execution, was
+based on the Roman tradition.
+
+
+_Romanesque Style_
+
+The transition thus brought about is known for convenience as
+Romanesque. Its most typical exponents were possibly the Scandinavians,
+whose Christianised descendants, the Normans, preserved the same
+tradition. The work of the Saxons in England, although stimulated by the
+same influences, was much cruder in execution.
+
+This period was not remarkable for great artistic development, and
+luxury in any form was practically non-existent.
+
+Notwithstanding local character, the prevailing features are similar, in
+that the round arch is employed, supported by columns or piers, from
+which the arches spring direct, the entablature being eliminated.
+
+The columns are squat in proportion, and surmounted by capitals of
+truncated cone or cushion shape, the abacus being deep and square in
+plan.
+
+Mouldings were little used, and the archivolts were formed in a series
+of recessed bands, either plain or decorated. Distinct from the
+Byzantine style, the Romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of
+light and shade.
+
+[Illustration: No. 42. Romanesque Capitals from Cloister, St. Guillem du
+Desert, Herault. Reminiscent of Roman Corinthian.]
+
+Details were carved, and rude in execution, preserving to some extent
+the Byzantine feeling, the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem,
+with scroll branches, clothed with leafage, simply channelled or
+grooved, but less spikey in form.
+
+
+_Church Development_
+
+Of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most
+interesting examples of development. The usual plan consisted of an
+oblong nave with side aisles half its width and height.
+
+[Illustration: No. 43. Romanesque Tower, Thaon, Normandy.]
+
+At the end of the nave, projecting transepts separated it from the
+chancel (which is generally raised in level), continuing the line of
+nave, the whole taking the shape of the Latin cross in contrast to the
+Byzantine plan; the chancel end facing East, the nave West, and the
+transepts respectively North and South.
+
+A feature of this period is the Apse, a semi-circular extension of the
+choir or chancel; when the side aisles were extended to the latter they
+formed what is known as an ambulatory, or passage way, round the choir,
+within which was the altar, and the stalls for monks and clergy.
+
+The Narthex or atrium, of the basilicas, utilised by the early
+Christians for their public worship (to which were admitted those
+outside the community) was abandoned, its place being taken by the West
+entrance or porch, enclosed between two towers.
+
+[Illustration: No. 44. Romanesque plan of Cathedral, Worms.]
+
+The upper walls of the nave were carried on arches supported by columns,
+which constituted the division of the side aisles; these latter being
+formed by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer walls, the
+vaulting being roofed over.
+
+The upper part of the nave was pierced by windows, small and
+comparatively narrow, with semi-circular heads forming the Clerestory.
+Similar windows in some instances occur in the aisles, the jambs of
+these windows being bevelled both inside and out for the freer admission
+of light.
+
+The nave was roofed in with timber, but as the result of frequent
+destruction by fire, the roof was eventually vaulted; in early examples
+by the barrel or tunnel vault, but later this developed into
+cross-vaulting, which was also introduced into the side aisles.
+
+[Illustration: No. 45. Romanesque, bay of interior, Worms Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 47. Romanesque Church interior with Triforium.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 46. Romanesque Window, St. Alban’s Abbey.]
+
+In the early churches of this period the walls of the nave were unbroken
+except for the upper windows. With the development of vaulting, the
+space above the aisle vaults and the covering roof was used as a
+gallery known as the Triforium. This was not lighted from without, and
+was a distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque and early Gothic
+styles.
+
+The introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave entailed supports
+for the arch bands or vaulting ribs, which were carried on pilasters or
+half columns, dividing the interior façade into bays.
+
+[Illustration: No. 48. Construction of intersecting vaults.]
+
+
+_Dark Ages_
+
+The unsettled condition of Europe, both before and after the final
+subjugation of the Roman Empire by Charlemagne in 774 A.D., was
+necessarily detrimental to artistic progress, and the period to the
+fifteenth century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the
+arts and culture in general.
+
+Such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests,
+and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the
+people were kept in ignorance and subjection.
+
+Building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches, the
+domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier
+periods, though Eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by
+the alien adventurers to the Byzantine courts.
+
+This was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people
+indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment, to whom, however,
+personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous
+attire.
+
+[Illustration: No. 49. Romanesque, south door Kilpeck Church,
+Herefordshire.]
+
+Domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme. The dwellings of the
+well-to-do in England, similarly to those of the Scandinavians,
+consisted principally of a barn-like hall. The centre of the hall was
+occupied by a long table, and at one end raised on a platform or dais
+another table was placed in the opposite direction. At the latter sat
+the most important members of the household, while the lower part was
+reserved for retainers and servants. Heavy chairs and settles were used
+at the upper table, and benches or forms at the lower.
+
+Walls, when covered at all, were adorned with hangings, but then only at
+the dais end of the hall. Fireplaces in the modern sense were not known.
+The fire was built on the floor, and the smoke allowed to escape as best
+it might.
+
+Arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining.
+Beds were provided only for persons of distinction, and were placed in
+recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters. They were,
+in fact, little more than wooden boxes, with sacks of straw to serve as
+mattresses.
+
+Later, bedsteads were used of massive construction, which on occasions
+of journeying were placed on wheels, forming a sort of coach or carriage
+ironically termed whirlicots, in which the aged and infirm were
+transported.
+
+[Illustration: No. 50. Chair of Dagobert, French 7th century, bronze.]
+
+For some time after the Norman Conquest the unsettled state of the
+country rendered it necessary that household effects and valuables
+should be few in number and of such a nature as to be easily
+transportable. Thus chests in which belongings could be stored came into
+general use. They were simple in construction, and without carving, but
+were strengthened and decorated by hinges and scroll strappings in iron.
+Such chests served a double purpose, as they could be used as tables and
+seats.
+
+[Illustration: No. 51. 14th Century Textile Sicilian tradition.]
+
+For convenience of transport, chairs and stools were made with
+projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so as to be easily taken
+apart.
+
+
+_Crusades_
+
+That the Crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of
+Eastern art, is evidenced by the celebrated cup of Eden Hall, on the
+safe preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners,
+according to the couplet:
+
+“If that cup either break or fall,
+Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.”
+
+This cup is of Saracenic origin, and is of glass, painted in enamels,
+similar in character to the mosque lamps in the British Museum.
+
+Tapestries of Sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the
+medium of the Crusades, and led to the employment of painted wall
+decoration, evidently in imitation, even in some instances to indicating
+the folds of the material.
+
+[Illustration: No. 52. Sicilian Textile.]
+
+A precept exists in the twentieth year of the reign of Henry III
+directing “that the King’s great chamber at Westminster be painted a
+good green colour like a curtain,” and “that the King’s little wardrobe
+should also be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain.”
+
+This was undoubtedly suggested by the custom abroad of draping the walls
+with tapestries, though carpets were unknown. Probably the first time
+these were seen in England was in the apartments in the Temple occupied
+by the suite of the infant Don Sancho, archbishop elect of Toledo, who
+with Don Garcias Madinez, officiated as _avant-courriers_ to Eleanor of
+Castile in the autumn of 1255.
+
+
+_Pointed Arch_
+
+[Illustration: No. 53. Types of Buttress.]
+
+The origin of the pointed Arch, which is the chief characteristic of the
+Gothic style, is much disputed, but there is ample evidence that the new
+departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe
+soon after the First Crusade. It is reasonable to assume that this
+particular form was suggested by examples in Syria, where arches
+elliptic and even ogival in shape were employed.
+
+Though not common in Roman work, the pointed Arch was employed in the
+Aqueduct built to supply Constantinople with water, completed under
+Valens, 364-378 A.D., by which it is probable that the Saracenic work
+was inspired.
+
+Whatever the origin, the innovation was found to be economic, and more
+sound in construction than the older prevailing method. It was also more
+flexible in design, as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned
+with arches equal in height, which is not possible with the
+semi-circular form, except by the expedient of stepping.
+
+Further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the
+outer walls, as well as at the angles of the building.
+
+
+_Gothic Style_
+
+In France, England and Germany the Gothic style superseded the
+Romanesque with varying phases of transition, and with local development
+of character. In Spain the Moors had established a system of
+architecture thoroughly Eastern that was but little affected by the
+Gothic style, the influence of which is apparent in the later Spanish
+rendering of the Renaissance.
+
+In Italy the Gothic attained but slight development in comparison with
+more northern and western treatments, at least from a structural point
+of view. The Italian phase known as Lombardic is conspicuous for the
+evidence of Eastern and Byzantine traditions.
+
+
+_Phases of Gothic_
+
+The phases and dates of the Gothic style in England are as follow, and
+lasted well into the sixteenth century, with periods of transition:
+
+     Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307.
+
+     Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407.
+
+     Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547.
+
+[Illustration: No. 54. Early pointed Gothic Pier, elevation and plan.]
+
+In church architecture the general plan and essential features of the
+Romanesque style were preserved; but there was a complete change in the
+details, as well as a general lightening of the whole structure.
+
+The heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts,
+which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs, these shafts being
+bound together at bases and capitals.
+
+The Triforium was retained, the openings being arched and similar in
+detail to the windows.
+
+
+_Early Pointed_
+
+In the early variety of the Pointed Gothic the arches were acutely
+pointed, technically known as “lancet,” but later became more
+equilateral. The windows were narrow in proportion, and were single, or
+in groups.
+
+[Illustration: No. 55. Early pointed bay with Triforium. Window of Aisle
+is of later date.]
+
+Later they were divided into compartments, and the triangular head
+filled in with stonework, pierced with simple geometrical openings,
+known as plate tracery, thus forming a transition between the simple
+open lancet and the intersecting ribs, which constituted the true
+tracery of the later periods.
+
+Commonly shafts of circular section, with caps and bases, were employed
+in the windows, both internally and externally.
+
+Roofs were high pitched, and the ceilings vaulted, the vaulting ribs
+being moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses.
+
+Mouldings were rich in effect, being composed of a succession of hollows
+or flutings, contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief.
+
+[Illustration: No. 56. Early Lancet Windows. A. Canterbury Cathedral. B.
+Lincoln Cathedral. C. Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 57. Early pointed Gothic Windows. Plate tracery.]
+
+Carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts, sometimes in leaf-like
+forms in the bases and in the mouldings, also in the crockets, and
+finials of the gables, and pinnacles of the buttresses.
+
+[Illustration: No. 58. Early pointed Arch Mouldings.]
+
+The ornament was extremely conventional, that on capitals, crockets and
+other free positions consisting of crisply curling trefoil or
+cinquefoil groups of lobes having little resemblance to natural type.
+
+The later windows became more elaborate in the tracery, which was
+essentially geometric, and further elaborated by cusping. Triforium
+arches and canopy heads being similar in design.
+
+[Illustration: No. 59. Early pointed Gothic Capital.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 60. Pointed Gothic tracery Windows. A. Ely Cathedral.
+B. Meophan Church, Kent.]
+
+The central tower, which was common in the Romanesque, developed into
+the spire, which was carried to a great height; the lower part
+occasionally pierced with openings for purpose of interior lighting,
+forming the lantern.
+
+
+_Decorated Gothic_
+
+The principal characteristics of the Decorated period are the form of
+the Arch, the elimination of detached shafts and the enlarged clerestory
+with increased lighting area.
+
+The Arch, when used structurally, was still of the simple pointed form,
+but in small windows, niches and canopies, the shape at the head became
+ogival and the tracery displays considerable license as compared with
+that of the preceding phase.
+
+[Illustration: No. 61. Early pointed Gothic Spire, Warmington.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 62. Decorated Gothic Windows. A. Merton College,
+Oxford. B. Cathedral, Oxford.]
+
+Mouldings were shallower as contrasted with the undercut hollows of the
+earlier period; in many instances the arch mouldings were merely a
+continuation of those of the supporting piers, which took the place of
+the earlier detached shafts.
+
+The greatest innovation occurs in the foliage, in which natural
+suggestion is evident, adapted with considerable freedom, and skilful in
+execution.
+
+[Illustration: No. 63. Decorated Gothic Carving, Chancel screen,
+Southwell Minster.]
+
+In the preceding style the foliage of the capitals invariably sprung
+from the necking, in simple firm curves, revealing the underlying
+bell-shape. In the Decorated period the foliage generally wreaths round
+the structural form, the detail being frequently deeply pierced and cut
+away at the back till it was almost detached, giving an extremely rich
+effect.
+
+Diaper detail of pateræ, or foliage arranged in squares, occurs in the
+spandrils between arches.
+
+[Illustration: No. 64. Decorated Gothic Mouldings.]
+
+[Illustration: Nos. 65 & 66. Decorated Gothic Capitals, leaves deeply
+undercut and wreathed round bell.]
+
+A distinct feature of this period and of the succeeding Perpendicular
+style, is the battlement, which was used in all suitable positions
+either as a parapet or as a cresting. The Decorated variety differs from
+the later, in that the moulded edges only appear horizontally, whereas
+in the Perpendicular period the moulded edge is continuous, being
+carried round the angles of the battlement.
+
+Externally the spire gave place to the tower with culminating lantern.
+
+During the period of the style known as Decorated Gothic, furniture was
+framed and panelled, and the details closely resembled those used in
+architectural decoration in stone.
+
+[Illustration: No. 67. Decorated Gothic Spire, Whittlesea.]
+
+The general effect of Decorated is a tendency to horizontal banding, in
+contrast to the vertical effect of the earlier period, to which
+eventually the later Perpendicular reverted.
+
+
+_Perpendicular Gothic_
+
+In the succeeding phase the Triforium which had gradually become less
+important, entirely disappeared and the clerestory windows enlarged, to
+the extent that this part of the structure became merely a frame for the
+increased glass areas.
+
+It will be apparent from the foregoing that whereas in the early
+churches of the Romanesque period the interior effect was mysterious
+owing to inadequate openings for light, the later and growing tendency
+was to increase the lighting capacity by enlarging the windows of the
+clerestory.
+
+
+_Glass Windows_
+
+Doubtless the development in the size of windows was due to some extent
+to the growing use of glass, which, though rare, was employed during the
+later Romanesque through Byzantine tradition.
+
+[Illustration: No. 68. Perpendicular Gothic Bay shewing development of
+Clerestory.]
+
+These early windows were geometric in design, consisting of medallions,
+oval, circular or quatrefoil in shape, containing figure subjects set in
+a diapered background, the whole being executed in small pieces of
+coloured glass united by lead framings.
+
+While the windows were single openings, this form of glazing necessarily
+restricted the size, though more adequate lighting was achieved by
+grouping two or more windows together.
+
+With the development of tracery the technical difficulties were to some
+extent overcome; a window divided into comparatively small compartments
+could be more easily glazed than single openings of large size; thus
+glazed windows of greater dimensions were rendered possible.
+
+[Illustration: No. 69. Perpendicular Gothic Windows.
+
+A. Aylsham Church, Norfolk.
+
+B. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge.]
+
+In the Decorated windows the lower lights were devoted to the subject,
+which in many instances was carried through the area, regardless of the
+dividing bars or mullions. In the Perpendicular each light or opening
+had usually its own subject or figure, surmounted by canopies, the upper
+spaces formed by intersection of the tracery bars were occupied by
+various details suitable to the different shapes.
+
+The Arch of the Perpendicular style is materially different, being
+composed of elliptic curves struck from four centres.
+
+Mouldings became even more shallow in section, and the tracery less
+florid than formerly, though extremely rich in appearance when used in
+the profusion that developed in the fan vaulting of this period.
+
+[Illustration: No. 70. Perpendicular Gothic Fan Vaulting. St. Mary,
+Aldermary.]
+
+The foliation reverted to a more conventional character, and became
+lifeless and monotonous in comparison with the Decorated work.
+
+It must not be assumed that examples in every instance will be found
+complete in any of these phases; on the contrary, the various styles
+are to be found side by side in the same building, the result of later
+additions or rebuilding.
+
+[Illustration: No. 71. Perpendicular Gothic Tower, All Saints, Derby.]
+
+Painted decoration and sculpture were also employed during the various
+periods; wood-work where necessary was used, and in detail was in
+harmony with the architectural character of the period.
+
+
+_Civic Influences_
+
+[Illustration: No. 72. Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey, 13th
+century.]
+
+The feudal period was not favourable to the development of domestic
+conditions, though considerable advance had been made by the fourteenth
+century, chiefly by the Italian states and in the principal cities. The
+importance of the latter is evidenced particularly in the City of
+London, with its merchant class and civic authorities, who, by reason
+of their wealth, attained potential political influence, the prevailing
+contentious conditions necessitating the continual raising of large sums
+of money.
+
+Such conditions were favourable to the merchants, who, acting as
+bankers, supplied the means, and thus a class was established and
+apparently lived in profusion and some pretention to sumptuous
+environment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 73. Bedstead and Cradle from M.S. in Bodleian
+Library, 14th century.]
+
+
+_Effect of Commerce_
+
+Similar conditions to those in England prevailed on the Continent with
+certain local variations. A big stride was made with the development of
+commerce, mainly through the agency of Venetian and Flemish merchants.
+The effect of increasing opulence as signalised by the appearance in the
+home of such comfort and refinement as had formerly been possible only
+for princes and great nobles.
+
+Among the luxuries imported were Oriental silks, carpets and pottery.
+
+[Illustration: No. 74. Fireplace, 13th century.]
+
+
+_Italy_
+
+Whereas, throughout Europe generally, the Gothic character in furniture
+and woodwork developed on similar lines, in Italy alone its appeal to
+the national sympathies was not strong enough for it to become
+thoroughly assimilated, and there the Byzantine style persisted.
+
+The woods most in use were oak and chestnut. In Italy walnut and cypress
+were used--the latter being considered especially valuable for chests.
+
+Early examples of Italian chests are decorated with closely spaced
+incised ornament, filled in with colour.
+
+The Venetians derived from Persia and India a form of marquetry or inlay
+of ivory, metal and various woods, generally geometric in design. The
+wood used was stained in order to vary the colour.
+
+
+_Foreign Influence in England_
+
+Through the policy of seeking foreign princesses as brides for the
+English kings, foreign influences crept in, and had a marked effect on
+the development of style. Moreover, increasing commercial intercourse
+with the Continent paved the way for the introduction of the new ideas
+of the Renaissance then beginning to dawn in Italy.
+
+The Wars of the Roses checked progress in many ways, but this was but
+the more rapid when peace was restored with the advent of Henry VII.
+
+
+_The House_
+
+There was a great change in the character of the dwelling-house, which
+though still built on defensive lines, was also arranged with a view to
+domestic comfort and convenience. The commonest form of plan was that
+in which the buildings were grouped round a central court and surrounded
+by a moat. These buildings consisted of hall, parlour, kitchen and
+domestic offices. The hall itself was lofty, had an open-timbered roof,
+and was usually lighted from both sides. One end of the hall was
+invariably screened off, and as the screen did not reach to the roof the
+musicians’ gallery was placed above it. The fireplace was set in one of
+the side walls. The windows, as a rule, had few lights, and these had
+pointed and cusped heads. The upper rooms were accessible by staircases.
+
+A not uncommon feature on the upper floor was the long gallery, which
+generally traversed the whole length of the building immediately under
+the roof.
+
+The rooms were panelled most often to about two-thirds the height of the
+wall, while the remaining third was of plaster.
+
+The ceiling also was of plaster, which was moulded into intersecting
+ribs arranged geometrically, sometimes with stalactite pendants at the
+intersections.
+
+Fireplaces were made of stone, and chimney-pieces sometimes of wood.
+
+Furniture was beginning to assume some of its modern forms, as shown by
+the chairs, which were railed, and copied from Italian models.
+
+Buffets or sideboards with closed cupboards were in use. Table legs were
+carved or turned, and connected by stretchers.
+
+Windows were now glazed with leaded panes, and when made to open were of
+the casement type, with iron frames which were hinged and furnished with
+turnbuckle fastenings.
+
+Doors seldom had locks, but usually shut with latches of wrought iron.
+The hinges also were of wrought iron, and though simple in form were
+often quite ornamental.
+
+Henry VII and his successor were responsible for various country
+residences, an example which was followed by the nobility.
+
+During the latter monarch’s reign it became the fashion to arrange the
+plan of the mansion in the form of the letter H; that is, in two
+parallel wings connected at a right angle. In the reign of Elizabeth
+this was modified into a plan resembling the letter E, otherwise a
+façade, with wings bent at right angles, with a central projection
+forming the main entrance.
+
+In the domestic Tudor style the Arch was in vogue for window openings,
+etc., but much flattened in form.
+
+The windows were divided into a number of lights, by vertical mullions,
+with arch headings, occasionally cusped. If of tall proportions, they
+were further divided by horizontal bars or transoms, and were glazed
+with small panes of glass set in lead frames, arranged in some cases to
+open in iron casements.
+
+[Illustration: No. 75. Tudor Window with leaded lights.]
+
+
+_The Reformation_
+
+An important factor in the development of this period was the
+Reformation, with the resultant liberty of thought. Before this,
+architecture and the associated arts were entirely dominated by the
+Church, at the sacrifice of the individuality of the artist and
+craftsman, who after this emancipation were enabled to exploit their
+work untrammelled by clerical restriction.
+
+In some respects this was not productive of the best results, as it
+removed the various co-ordinated branches of work from the restraint of
+architectural dominance, with some loss to the unities. It also opened
+the way to the professional designer as distinct from the craftsman (who
+hitherto had been responsible for his share of the work) resulting in
+occasional loss of character.
+
+
+_Renaissance_
+
+The Renaissance, which had its origin it Italy, was the next factor in
+the evolution of architecture and the arts. As early as 1422 there were
+indications of the coming change, though the medieval system of
+construction was still adhered to.
+
+Impetus was given to this revival by the taking of Constantinople by the
+Turks in 1453 A.D., resulting in the dispersion of the Greek scholars,
+who found refuge in Italy.
+
+Gothic, essentially a Northern style, scarcely affected Italy, where
+Byzantine tradition persisted until the Revival of Learning in the
+latter half of the fifteenth century brought a fresh impulse into all
+branches of Art and Literature.
+
+An awakened interest in classical remains was an integral part of the
+vitality with which the great change known in its culmination as the
+Renaissance was imbued; and the commercial prosperity of the times was
+favourable to its encouragement and development.
+
+
+_Early Exponents_
+
+An active agent in this revival was Brunelleschi, a native of Florence,
+who in company with Donatello, visited Rome to study the remains of
+classical antiquity. His principal successor, Leo Battista Alberti,
+contributed largely to the new style. Ultimately the Roman Orders and
+their details were appropriated and adapted to local requirements.
+
+The most prominent artists of the day turned their attention to the
+designing and making of wood-work, and the decoration of rooms.
+
+[Illustration: No. 76. Strozzi Palace, Florence.]
+
+The earlier work is severely architectural in character, being closely
+based on the antique, with all the usual features of columns, pilasters,
+cornices and pediments.
+
+The greatest achievement of the architects of the Renaissance was
+perhaps their adaptation of the antique Roman style to the modified
+needs of secular buildings, of which the Palazzo Pitti at Florence by
+Brunelleschi is an early and notable example. This creating a form of
+architecture which perhaps reached its noblest expression in the Palazzo
+Strozzi, begun in 1489 A.D. by Benedetto da Majano.
+
+As previously suggested, climate and local material are essential agents
+in the formation of style, and from Tuscany stone of large size was
+easily obtainable.
+
+[Illustration: No. 77. Pandolfini Palace, Florence.]
+
+The contentious conditions existing in many of the Italian cities,
+entailing necessity for defence, must also be taken into account, and in
+connection with the foregoing were responsible for the massive and
+fortress-like construction of the principal dwellings of this period.
+
+In the best examples of these, though columns and pilasters were not
+employed in the façade, the stories are proportioned as if the orders
+were used. The crowning cornice, however, is proportioned to the whole,
+varying in height between one fourteenth to one fifteenth.
+
+From Florence the movement spread to Rome and other cities, but Venetian
+Renaissance indicates undoubted evidence of Lombardic influence.
+
+Until the end of the fifteenth century the period was one of experiment,
+but from 1500 to about 1560 the style may be said to have attained a
+phase distinct and local.
+
+At first the various features, structural and decorative, were frank
+reproductions from the antique, which were studied and measured, and
+from which systems of proportion were deduced by various exponents,
+among whom the names of Vignola, Palladio and Serlio are conspicuous.
+
+
+_Rome_
+
+The Roman version of the Renaissance, as distinct from that of Florence,
+was less massive, Rome being comparatively free from insurrectionary
+troubles. Columns and pilasters were used to divide the façade into
+bays, or in the inner courts, which were frequently arcaded, and the
+principal entrance became a prominent feature.
+
+The founder of the Roman school was Bramante, born in 1444 A.D.,
+originally a painter, who was responsible for the original design of St.
+Peter’s, at the instigation of Pope Julius II.
+
+The partly executed work was found to be too weak to bear the
+superstructure, and Bramante in the meanwhile dying, Raffaelle, Giocondo
+and Giuliano di San Gallo, and afterwards Baldazzare Peruzzi and Antonio
+San Gallo were engaged on the edifice.
+
+[Illustration: No. 78. St. Peter’s, Rome.]
+
+Finally Michael Angelo was entrusted with the sole conduct, and St.
+Peter’s in its present form must be credited to him, with the exception
+of the nave, which was added by Carlo Maderno.
+
+Of the secular buildings, the Farnese Palace, the work of San Gallo, is
+typical of the Roman adaptation of the antique architecture to the
+altered conditions.
+
+To the above list of architects of the Roman Renaissance may be added
+the names of Sansovino, Vignola and Bernini, the last-named being the
+author of designs for the Louvre at Paris.
+
+[Illustration: No. 79. Farnese Palace, Rome.]
+
+
+_Venice_
+
+The Venetian States, since the twelfth century, had been growing in
+power, and the Republic’s rise in importance was favourable to the arts,
+particularly to architecture.
+
+Local influence is evident in the comparatively restricted ground areas,
+entailing the maximum accommodation possible.
+
+The Venetian school is distinguished by the profuse use of columns and
+arcading; also for the employment of circular-headed windows, frequently
+subdivided by tracery of smaller arched and circular forms, and by
+general lightness of effect.
+
+The founder of the Venetian school was San Micheli, born in 1484 A.D.,
+who spent many years studying the ancient Roman monuments, and who was
+responsible for the Grimani Palace.
+
+Jacopo Tatti, a Florentine, more usually known as Sansovino, though
+mentioned in the Roman group of architects, was however more associated
+with Venice, his adopted city.
+
+[Illustration: No. 80. Vendramini Palace, Venice.]
+
+Prominent among his works is the Library of St. Mark, which consists of
+two orders, an upper of the Ionic, supported by an arcade in which the
+Doric is employed, the whole surmounted by a balustrade with statues on
+the piers.
+
+
+_Venetian Influence_
+
+In the Venetian school must be included the name of Andrea Palladio, who
+possibly had a greater influence on the architecture of the time than
+any of his contemporaries; an influence that may be traced in the work
+of Inigo Jones, and in that of Sir Christopher Wren and his immediate
+school.
+
+Vincenzo Scamozzi, who died in 1616 A.D., like Palladio and others, was
+influenced by the antique, and was perhaps the last architect of the
+Venetian school to attain celebrity.
+
+[Illustration: No. 81. Library of St. Mark by Sansovino, Venice.]
+
+
+_Painted Decoration_
+
+A conspicuous feature of the Italian Renaissance was the development of
+painted decoration, which had in Italy succeeded the Byzantine mosaic.
+
+As in this method of decoration, mouldings in relief were ineffective,
+and were replaced by decorative bands or borders, so in the succeeding
+painted work similar framings were adopted.
+
+[Illustration: No. 82. Painted Decoration. Palazzo Publico, Sienna, from
+a drawing by C. E. Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 83. Painted Ceiling in the Castello San Angelo, Rome,
+by Giulio Romano, from a drawing by Miss Dora Bard, Goldsmiths’ College
+School of Art.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the Villa
+Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence, from a drawing by C. E.
+Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 85. Ceiling-Painting from the Castello San Angelo,
+Rome, reminiscent of Graeco-Roman work, from a drawing by C. E. Bernard,
+Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.]
+
+Mosaics were in vogue in Italy to the twelfth century, when painted
+decoration came into favour, and notable in the exploitation of this
+latter phase was the school of Giotto in the early part of the
+fourteenth century.
+
+Vaultings and spandrils were covered with painted subjects, strongly
+framed by ornamental borders, which served to strengthen the sense of
+construction in reinforcing the dividing ribs.
+
+With the advent of the Renaissance, these divisional bands became more
+architectural in treatment, and large areas, such as ceilings, were
+subdivided, the sub-divisions being based on a logical sense of
+construction.
+
+The name of Pinturrichio is associated with the Renaissance, among his
+works being the decorations of the Appartamenti Borgia in the Vatican,
+the Choir in Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, and in Santa Maria Maggiore
+at Spello; contemporaneous was Perugino; another celebrated name is that
+of Gian Antonio Bazzi of Sienna, generally known as Sodoma.
+
+
+_Græco-Roman Influence_
+
+Later exploiters of painted decoration, Raffaelle at the Vatican, Giulio
+Romano, Pierino del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine, were evidently
+influenced by the then recent discovery of late Græco-Roman decorations
+in the remains of the Baths of Titus.
+
+The same influence is found also in minor details--in the decoration of
+rooms and in the various pieces of furniture.
+
+Walls were panelled, sometimes enriched with carving, with inlaid
+patterns in intarsia, or with inlay of different woods in imitation of
+marble mosaic. Hangings of Genoese velvet or stamped and gilded leather
+were often used.
+
+Chairs were at first simple in form, having straight backs and legs,
+with broad, elaborately carved rails at the head of the back and between
+the front legs.
+
+Chests or cassone, called also marriage coffers, because it was
+customary to give them as wedding presents, generally took the form of
+the sarcophagus, supported on claw feet. In many instances they were
+decorated with gilt gesso, or were covered with exuberant carving.
+
+With the development of inlay, which degenerated into picture making,
+some later examples show attempts at perspectives, in which arches,
+doors, balustrades and paved floors were depicted. Cabinets were
+invariably raised on open supports and furnished with doors enclosing
+compartments and sets of drawers, the fronts of which were frequently
+decorated.
+
+[Illustration: No. 86. Venetian Table.]
+
+Tables were inlaid, carved and gilded. The prevailing form was a
+rectangular top, sometimes of marble, with wide, richly carved supports
+consisting of human and animal forms at either end; these were connected
+by a central stretcher at the base, from which sprang a series of arched
+forms reaching to the underside of the top.
+
+Walnut was commonly employed for constructive purposes, and ebony and
+many other woods were used both for veneers and inlay, as also were
+such materials as ivory, tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl.
+
+It is not easy to form an idea of the furniture in ordinary use, as the
+examples which survive and which can generally be seen in museums are
+misleading, being typical rather of that belonging to the nobility and
+wealthy classes.
+
+Probably owing to the rougher usage to which it was subjected, and
+possibly also to its being but little esteemed by its owners, and
+consequently no effort being made to preserve it, the domestic furniture
+of the middle classes seems to have disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: No. 87. Carved Walnut Chair. Italian, 16th century.]
+
+
+_Early French Renaissance_
+
+France had been brought into contact with the new architecture through
+the Italian wars under Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I.
+
+The chief characteristic of the early French Renaissance is that the
+details of the new school were imposed on structures which were Gothic
+in general form.
+
+Italian architects were employed by Francis I, and although in the many
+important buildings erected for him he preferred native workmen,
+Italians were retained to furnish designs and lead the new style.
+Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea del Sarto were both employed in the
+decoration of Fontainebleau.
+
+[Illustration: No. 88. Wood Panelling. Early French Renaissance.]
+
+Fontainebleau, Chateau de Chambord, Chenonceaux sur Loire, Chateau de
+Madrid and the commencement of the Louvre were all due to Francis I, and
+the Italian influence was strengthened by the marriage of Henry II with
+Catharine di Medici.
+
+[Illustration: No. 89. Stone Chimney-piece, Fontainbleau, Henry II
+Salon.]
+
+
+_Native Exploitation_
+
+Under the influence of Vignola and Serlio, the Italian style became more
+popular, and finally extinguished the lingering Gothic tradition; and
+eventually the assimilated style became local, the first prominent
+native exploiter being Philibert Delorme, the architect of the
+Tuileries, for Queen Catharine of Medicis.
+
+Strapwork was a pronounced feature of this period, carved panels being
+subdivided by framings of straight and curved forms interlaced with
+cornucopæ and scroll work. Scrolling straps with I shaped incisions were
+also used.
+
+[Illustration: No. 90. Wood Panel. Early French Renaissance.]
+
+Masks are of frequent occurrence, and sometimes form scroll centres.
+
+Medallions were often employed, and were occupied by profile heads, and
+surrounded by foliated wreaths.
+
+Pilasters were narrow, and had sunk and moulded panels, lozenge shaped
+in the centre.
+
+In England great impetus was given to building, consequent on the
+suppression of the religious houses during the reign of Henry VIII, and
+mansions were erected in various parts of the country with some
+pretension to both external effect and domestic comfort, not merely by
+the nobility, but also by the wealthy merchant class.
+
+
+_English Renaissance_
+
+From the rise of the Italian Renaissance a century elapsed before the
+new style began to affect English work.
+
+[Illustration: No. 91. French Chair. Period Henry II.]
+
+In Italy classic tradition had never died, and consequently Gothic
+gained no real hold there, the best examples of Italian Gothic being
+inferior to those of France and England. In the early days of the
+Revival of Learning, when interest in architecture was at its height,
+Italians set out to emulate the style of building and decoration which
+prevailed in ancient Rome. Gradually the same spirit spread to other
+parts of Europe. Students were attracted to the birth-place of the
+Revival, and workers and designers from Italy were eagerly welcomed by
+her neighbours.
+
+Naturally enough each country interpreted the new style in a different
+way, and as it reached England chiefly through France and the
+Netherlands, the French and Flemish interpretations in turn influenced
+the development of the English style.
+
+[Illustration: No. 92. Walnut Chair upholstered in Appliqué. Italian,
+about 1600.]
+
+
+_Italians in England_
+
+Before either French or Flemish influence had been felt, however, there
+were Italian workers settled in England carrying out designs purely
+Italian in character. The earliest example is the tomb of Henry VII in
+Westminster Abbey, by Torrigiano. Many tombs and monuments were made
+entirely by Italians. Holbein, who was employed by Henry VIII, was
+distinctly a Renaissance painter and designer and encouraged the new
+movement.
+
+As the style became more widely disseminated it lost much of its
+original purity, and classical details were used in conjunction with
+Gothic forms and methods of construction, due, doubtless, to the
+apparent difficulty with which the native workers grasped the essentials
+of the new style; indeed, there is more intermixing of styles in England
+than in any other part of Europe with the exception of Flanders.
+
+[Illustration: No. 93. Stone Chimney-piece. Sala Borgia, Rome. 16th
+Century.]
+
+The purely Italian phase was followed by a rendering which was largely
+borrowed from French work, and this in turn was supplanted by the
+influence of the Flemish interpretation. The delicately modelled
+foliage, dolphins, candelabra, vases and cherubs, so characteristic of
+Italian and French work, were replaced by such typically Flemish details
+as interlacing strapwork with curved and scrolled ends, frequently
+cartouche-like in form, festoons of fruit and foliage, and terminal
+figures used as pilasters.
+
+
+_Study of Classic Style_
+
+In the late Jacobean and succeeding phases the classic manner was more
+thoroughly understood, and a more scholarly handling was the result,
+until the culmination was reached in the work of Inigo Jones and Wren.
+
+The Elizabethan phase indicates an imperfectly understood, and in many
+instances meaningless, employment and adaptation of Italian forms to the
+requirements of the times.
+
+A notable example if this is the central feature of the Public Schools
+at Oxford, the work of Thomas Holt, a native of York, in which the
+orders appear ranged one above the other.
+
+
+_Thomas Thorpe_
+
+The most prominent name associated with the architecture of the period
+is Thomas Thorpe, who was concerned in many of the principal edifices
+erected during the reign of Elizabeth and of her successor, James I.
+
+The general arrangement of woodwork consisted of architectural façades,
+and the orders and pediments were utilised wherever possible.
+
+Doorways and chimney-pieces offered the principal opportunities for
+display in interior work.
+
+Panelling was retained for the large halls and most of the rooms. The
+walls were frequently divided into bays by means of pilasters and
+surmounted by friezes and cornices more or less determined by
+traditional forms.
+
+
+_Flemish Influence_
+
+The style degenerated in the same reign into a coarser rendering, and
+was followed by a period of strong Flemish influence. There is, in fact,
+such a marked similarity between the later Elizabethan and Flemish
+furniture and wood-work that it is not easy to distinguish the
+nationality of examples of this period. In cases where figure sculpture
+is employed, however, it is not difficult to decide, as a considerably
+higher standard was attained by the Flemish school of figure carvers
+than is found in English work.
+
+Tapered pilaster-like supports, surmounted by half figures or Ionic
+caps, were often employed in the framing of doors and chimney-pieces,
+and sometimes on furniture. Table supports and newels of stairs
+increased in size. The heavy acorn-shaped baluster is a feature. Inlay
+came into use for panelling as well as for furniture.
+
+Synchronously with the changes in detail, there was a more classical
+tendency displayed in moulded features such as strings and cornices.
+
+In the early seventeenth century the scale of the details of Flemish
+work increased. Diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on square ones;
+turned work was split and the two halves applied; drop ornaments were
+used below tables and from the centres of panels under arches--all these
+being additions to the general structure.
+
+
+_Jacobean_
+
+English work developed in much the same way as Flemish, probably owing
+to the commerce in wood-work between England and Flanders at this time.
+
+In the earlier work, where the orders were employed, there was some
+regard to proportion and detail, probably direct translation of Italian
+designs, but in the later Jacobean work there was considerable
+falling-off, presumably due to native exploitation and experiment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 94. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.]
+
+Architectural feeling was prominent in the treatment of interiors, which
+were invariably panelled as in the earlier period. The characteristic
+“linen fold” variety of the late Tudor giving place to plain panelling,
+framed by stiles and rails closely spaced.
+
+Walls were occasionally divided into bays by means of pilasters, often
+supported on pedestals.
+
+The panels in the later development were invariably plain, but a
+decorated frieze, carved in relief, was carried round immediately under
+the cornice. Coats of arms at intervals sometimes supplied the
+decoration. The carved frieze gave place to a simple form of patterning,
+which was produced by sinking the ground to practically one level and
+leaving the ornament which had little or no modelling, flush with the
+face of the panel. This led to fretting out the pattern and applying it
+to the surface. The idea of planting ornament evidently spread, and may
+be seen in such obviously applied details as studs and half-balusters.
+
+A typical room of the period would be treated with plain panelling,
+perhaps divided into bays by pilasters, and all elaboration was confined
+to the doorways and chimney-piece.
+
+[Illustration: No. 95. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.]
+
+The chimney-piece might be in wood, stone or marble, and while there
+were many varieties of treatment, the designs readily fall under one
+general type. Columns or pilasters flanked the opening,
+
+[Illustration: No. 96. Jacobean Chimney-piece. Palace of
+Bromley-by-Bow.]
+
+carrying an entablature consisting of architrave frieze and cornice, the
+latter forming a shelf. Above this there was a similar arrangement, but
+on a smaller scale and with finer proportions. The space between the
+columns above the shelf was usually filled with carving, which sometimes
+took the form of armorial bearings. In many examples the upper part is
+divided into two panels, which were generally filled with carved
+ornament such as strapwork or shields charged with heraldic devices.
+
+Where the chimney-piece was of wood, the fireplace opening was
+surrounded by a stone lining, which had moulded splays on the upright
+jambs. In earlier examples the jambs were connected by a flattened arch
+with carved spandrils. In later work a horizontal panel was employed or
+a frieze of carved detail.
+
+The opening itself was wide, and was lined with brick or stone. The
+interior was occupied by a fire-back of cast-iron and a movable grate or
+basket supported on dogs.
+
+[Illustration: No. 97. Jacobean Door, shewing absense of architrave.]
+
+Doors were at first merely a part of the panelling without hanging
+frames, but later they were treated as important features of the rooms.
+They were often framed with columns and pilasters, surmounted by
+entablatures, with or without pediments. Obelisks were sometimes placed
+over the pilasters. The frieze was fluted or carved. In many cases the
+tympanum of the pediment or even one of the door panels bore the owner’s
+coat of arms.
+
+In the earlier phases the mouldings framing the panels were simple in
+form, and worked on the stiles and rails. But later they were applied,
+being wider in display and more elaborate in section. These applied
+mouldings, evidently the result of mechanical appliances, later led to
+extreme license in broken angles and panellings of complicated form.
+
+[Illustration: No. 98. Jacobean Doors.]
+
+Ceilings, and occasionally the frieze, were in plaster, decorated with
+intersecting ribs, or bands dividing the surface into compartments
+geometric in shape, and further enriched with stamped or modelled
+ornament.
+
+Windows were relatively small as to individual openings, large lighting
+areas being obtained by grouping a number of these side by side, and
+also in tiers, the dividing bars or mullions being either in wood or
+stone.
+
+Glazing took the form of small pieces of glass united by lead frames,
+commonly arranged in trellis form, resulting in diamond-shaped pieces.
+Occasionally painted or coloured glass was used, generally in heraldic
+devices in the upper portions of the windows.
+
+The windows themselves were frequently deeply embayed.
+
+
+_Development in Dwellings_
+
+The growing appreciation of domestic comfort, evident in the general
+arrangement of the buildings of this period, is also apparent in the
+furniture, which from this time approximates somewhat to the modern
+forms, though still crude, and leaving much to be desired in the way of
+personal comfort.
+
+[Illustration: No. 99. Oak Table, English. 17th century.]
+
+Tables, which had hitherto been mere portable boards laid on trestles,
+or, if fixed, were on heavy legs with rails below, developed into more
+useful forms. These were the draw-inge table which could be extended by
+drawing out two flaps worked on runners from beneath the normal top,
+and the gate-leg table, which in principle resembled the modern folding
+type. Large tables were formed by putting a number of gate-leg tables
+together, and when not so in use they could be placed in different parts
+of the room.
+
+[Illustration: No. 100. English Chairs, early 17th century.]
+
+Legs and the under rails of chairs and tables were turned in the lathe,
+and the carved details were invariably simple and direct in execution,
+similar in character to much of the work in the early French
+Renaissance, in contrast to the Italian carving, which was in high
+relief and plastic in character.
+
+The majority of examples in our national collection of this period are
+of Court furniture, and cannot be taken as typical of what was in common
+use. The over-ornamented Italian work compares unfavourably with the
+English Jacobean furniture, in which utility is obvious and the
+decoration subordinate and to the purpose.
+
+Oak was chiefly employed in England, but in Italy, and later in France,
+walnut was much used.
+
+[Illustration: No. 101. English Chair, middle of 17th century,
+influenced by Italian design.]
+
+Panelling was prevalent for interiors in the Italian and French
+Renaissance. In Italy, where the art of weaving had been preserved at
+Lucca, and other places, tapestry was also frequently employed as wall
+hangings, also as coverings for upholstered work.
+
+[Illustration: No. 102. Oak Chair, English, 17th century.]
+
+Compared with the earlier period, this was a time of luxury and display,
+favourable to the arts generally.
+
+Painting, freed from the restrictions of the church, broke away from the
+Byzantine traditions, and revelling in realism, lost to some extent its
+decorative character.
+
+[Illustration: Dutch Wall sconce 17th Centy Brass
+
+No. 103.]
+
+
+_Evolution of Professional Designer_
+
+Under patronage, the individual artist and craftsman was allowed to
+develop on his own lines, and no longer worked under the dominance of
+the architect. Demand, owing to growing appreciation of artistic
+production, eventuated in the evolution of the professional designer.
+
+
+_Inigo Jones_
+
+[Illustration: Dutch Wall Bracket 17th Centy Brass.
+
+No. 104.]
+
+Although the Renaissance had come to stay, the manner of its
+interpretation in England by the native workers was very far removed
+from the Italian school which had supplied the first impulse, until the
+advent of Inigo Jones in the reign of James I. This artist, who had
+visited Italy and studied principally the architecture of Palladio and
+his school, was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works. Under his influence
+proportions and details were used, which conformed more nearly to
+classic types.
+
+Born about 1572 A.D., he studied in Italy, where he became acquainted
+with the work of Palladio, and was a follower of the Venetian school.
+
+Dying in 1652, he left a tradition which would have had a more immediate
+effect but for the internecine troubles of the later period of his life.
+
+[Illustration: No. 105. Banqueting House, Whitehall. Inigo Jones.]
+
+A typical example of his work in London is the Banqueting House in
+Whitehall, the only part built of the projected palace for James I, now
+used as a museum by the United Service Institution. Also the Church of
+St. Paul, Covent Garden.
+
+
+_Louis XIII_
+
+By the time of Louis XIII the principles of the Renaissance had become
+thoroughly assimilated in France, and a native school of architecture
+had arisen of marked distinction. France from then onward took the
+initiative, though strongly influenced by the Venetian school.
+
+The orders were used consistently as to proportion and detail, but in
+the decoration considerable development in character is manifest.
+
+The general construction and details developed on
+
+[Illustration: No. 106. Louis XIII. Luxembourg Pavilion Entrance, by
+Salamon de Brose, 1615-24.]
+
+more architectural lines, and shew a better appreciation of the Italian
+originals. Pilasters were used to divide the wall surfaces, these and
+the entablatures closely following in detail the classic types. Panels
+were much wider than in the preceding style, generally occupying the
+whole space between the pilasters. The usual arrangement for these
+panels was to have them in two tiers--the shallow ones confined to the
+lower portions of walls and those of deeper proportions above.
+Fireplaces and doors were surrounded by boldly moulded architraves, and
+surmounted by panels occupied by carved details of scroll-work and
+foliage.
+
+[Illustration: No. 107. Ste. Marie, Nevers. Louis XIII. Example of
+Barocco (Flemish influence).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 108. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIII.]
+
+Ceilings were modelled in stucco and sub-divided into compartments,
+which were richly moulded, and in some cases decorated with paintings.
+
+During the reign of Louis XIII, chairs were made more comfortable by
+being upholstered in velvet, tapestry or needlework, instead of being
+smothered with carving. The frames were covered by velvet or other
+material, leaving only the legs and arms visible, and these were but
+slightly carved.
+
+
+_Louis XIV_
+
+In France the Renaissance reached its highest degree of splendour in the
+reign of Louis XIV.
+
+[Illustration: No. 109. Louis XIV. Louvre, Paris, by Perrault.]
+
+The palace of Versailles, designed by Jules Hardouin Mansart, was
+completed, and French designers were many and famous. Amongst the most
+prominent were Lebrun, who was responsible for much of the interior work
+at Versailles, Jean and Claude Berain, Lepautre, Daniel Marot and André
+Charles Boule, the inventor of the particular class of inlay which bears
+his name.
+
+The style of Louis XIV is characteristic of its time. Love of display
+was manifested in every direction, but nowhere did it give rise to
+greater magnificence than in furniture and decoration.
+
+The employment of architectural features, with a close approximation to
+accepted proportions, had been the keynote of the preceding style, but
+the work of this period broke away from all tradition. As a departure
+it was quite original, and constituted a phase in the development of the
+Renaissance that was purely and typically French, and this particularly
+in its massiveness and grandeur.
+
+[Illustration: No. 110. The King’s Bedchamber, Versailles. Louis XIV.]
+
+Panelling became more varied in proportion, and heavily framed with
+mouldings of the Bolection type. Glass was also used in panels as at
+Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, where the windows on one side of the
+gallery are repeated in form by mirrors in reciprocal positions.
+
+Important rooms were panelled and divided by pilasters, surmounted by
+entablatures. The Corinthian order was the one most frequently used.
+
+Panel mouldings were heavily and richly carved. Curved sections and
+facias were fluted, or carved with guilloche or leaf detail. Figures and
+_amorini_, heavy festoons, wreaths, cartouches and shields were among
+the decorative motifs. Strapwork, a survival of the preceding styles,
+was moulded and clothed with foliage of the acanthus variety.
+
+Ceilings were modelled in stucco and were divided into bold geometrical
+compartments by strongly moulded ribs. The compartments were sometimes
+occupied by paintings. In some cases the cornice was not taken up to the
+height of the ceiling, but the ceiling line was continued in form of a
+curve to meet the top of the cornice, forming what is known as a cove.
+
+[Illustration: No. 111. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIV.]
+
+Chairs were massive, the frames were carved and gilt, and the seats and
+backs upholstered in tapestry. In the latter part of the reign of Louis
+XIV metal was used in the construction of furniture in the form of
+mounts--as framing and protecting pieces to angles, and was gilt by the
+mercury process. The introduction of veneer probably led to this use of
+metal.
+
+
+_"Boule” Work_
+
+A method of decorating furniture with inlays of brass or tin and
+tortoiseshell originated by André Charles Boule, came into vogue. The
+sheets of metal and shell were placed together and cut simultaneously,
+with the result that the patterns produced were interchangeable--thus
+the metal pattern could be fitted with a tortoiseshell background and
+vice versa. There was a tendency for this style of work to become more
+ornate and showy, and later, instead of the transparent shell being used
+in its natural colour, either vermilion or gold leaf was placed
+underneath.
+
+
+_Mirrors_
+
+Mirrors, in the sixteenth century, had been imported from Italy, and
+those of considerable size were first made in Venice.
+
+Later glass manufactories were established in England--near
+Battersea--and in France, where larger mirrors and plates of glass were
+produced than hitherto.
+
+Rooms lined with mirrors became popular, in some cases even the ceiling
+being made of glass.
+
+Console tables, which were frequently gilt, were often placed under the
+large wall mirrors.
+
+Hanging bands of material were employed to drape the heads of windows
+and the tops of bedsteads. Beds were important pieces of furniture, and
+had elaborately carved head and foot boards. The overhanging Tester was
+also ornamented, and besides the valances already mentioned, was
+surmounted by groups of plumes.
+
+[Illustration: No. 112. Pantheon, Paris. Soufflet. Louis XV.]
+
+
+_Louis XV_
+
+Little advance was made in architecture during the reign of Louis XV, to
+which period belongs the Pantheon at Paris, originally the Church of St.
+Geneviéve, the work of Soufflet, born in 1713.
+
+
+_Régence_
+
+The style passed through two stages. The earlier, known as the
+Régence--the principal exponents of which were Charles Cressent, Gilles
+Marie Oppenord, and Nicholas Pineau--is distinguished by a certain
+reserve and moderation which were entirely abandoned in the later Rococo
+period.
+
+
+_Rococo_
+
+The term “Rococo” is derived from a French word meaning rockwork, and is
+applied to the style in which rock and shell forms are used as details.
+
+[Illustration: No. 113. Detail of Wood-carving, Regency Period.]
+
+Ornament became extravagant and meaningless, and was wrongly used to
+serve the purpose of construction, the actual constructive elements
+being at times completely ignored. It cannot be denied, however, that
+powerful draughtsmanship and inventiveness were displayed, but without
+the consideration of practical execution, which is essential to all good
+design.
+
+Evidently the artist or designer dominated the craftsman, who, however,
+grappled with difficulties in an admirable manner, often achieving
+results which would appear from the constructional point of view almost
+impossible of attainment.
+
+The work of the latter part of the period expresses the enervated and
+frivolous spirit of the time.
+
+Walls were panelled and often divided by pilasters, which, however, lost
+all structural significance.
+
+Cornices and friezes were dispensed with, the frieze being replaced by a
+cove curving into the ceiling.
+
+Mouldings were broken at angles and intersections into curves, scrolls
+and foliage.
+
+Carved details of the curiously twisted leafage peculiar to the style
+were employed wherever possible.
+
+Painted panels were fashionable, and were used particularly over
+doorheads. They were surrounded or framed by curved and enriched
+mouldings.
+
+[Illustration: No. 114. Carved Wood Door. Louis XV.]
+
+Interiors of this later period were invariably painted white, and partly
+gilt, the wall panels decorated with tapestry or paintings with which
+are associated the names of Bouchier, Watteau, and Fragonard.
+
+Ceilings were also painted, wall mirrors were employed and furniture (at
+this period at times extremely costly) was veneered and decorated with
+metal mounts in gilt ormolu.
+
+Chair and table legs were of the cabriole type.
+
+Bureaux fronts were swelled into curves both horizontally and
+vertically.
+
+Veneer and marqueterie were much used.
+
+Chased and gilt brass was employed to protect angles, as feet, handles,
+escutcheons and other ornamental details.
+
+[Illustration: French Louis XV
+
+No. 115.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 116. Chair with cane back English, later half 17th
+century.]
+
+
+_Lacquer “Vernis Martin"_
+
+Furniture was also decorated in imitation of Chinese lacquer. The
+principal worker in it was Robert Martin, who introduced a varnish of
+fine transparent quality.
+
+
+_Later English Renaissances_
+
+Artistic progress was hindered in England by the disturbed conditions
+at the time of the Civil War, and in consequence little change in style
+took place in this and the Commonwealth period.
+
+With the Restoration came the influence of the French Court, and foreign
+furniture was imported, thus giving fresh models for the English
+workers.
+
+One result of the Great Fire in 1666 was that a great impetus was given
+to architecture and to the crafts associated with it, and the influence
+of Wren and Grinling Gibbons produced a school of most efficient carvers
+and craftsmen.
+
+
+_Sir Christopher Wren_
+
+Wren was a worthy successor to Inigo Jones, and the general destruction
+wrought by the fire in the city gave him a fine field for his activity.
+He was employed not only to rebuild the churches, eighty-nine of which
+had been burnt, but also many of the city halls; and was commissioned by
+William and Mary to build the state-rooms at Hampton Court Palace.
+
+[Illustration: No. 117. English Chair, period of Charles II.]
+
+The style of Wren, which, like that of Inigo Jones, was based rather
+upon the Venetian school, was perpetuated and found individual exponents
+in the works of his pupils and immediate successors. Among whom may be
+mentioned James Gibbs (1720 to 1754), architect of St. Martin’s in the
+Fields (1726) and St. Mary le Strand, and Nicholas Hawksmoor, who was
+responsible for the churches of St. George’s, Bloomsbury, and St. Mary,
+Woolnoth, the latter commenced in 1716 was finished in 1718.
+
+[Illustration: No. 118. St. Paul’s Cathedral. Wren.]
+
+Notable among Wren’s churches is that of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, in the
+City of London; of his secular work an example may be cited in the
+library of Trinity College, Cambridge.
+
+
+_Classic Spires_
+
+A characteristic of the period in the churches of Wren and his school is
+the spire, which, though tapering like the Gothic variety, is invested
+with features quite Renaissance in form, arranged in successive tiers.
+
+The architecture of the period is in excellent proportion, and all the
+details of mouldings, capitals, etc., were executed in a masterly
+manner.
+
+Panelling was still employed, mostly in oak, and was now carried up to
+the ceiling. The panels were very wide, frequently bevelled at the
+edges--the stiles and rails forming the framings being much wider than
+hitherto. The framing mouldings were sometimes carved.
+
+[Illustration: No. 119. Spire of St. Mary le Strand.]
+
+Doorways and chimneypieces were surrounded by well-designed architraves,
+with carved mouldings, and were surmounted by pediments, above which it
+was not unusual to have carved festoons and pendants of fruit and
+foliage.
+
+[Illustration: No. 120. English Interior Wood-work. Late 17th and early
+18th century.]
+
+Pilasters were decorated with cherubs’ heads used as caps, and pendant
+drops of the usual type.
+
+Carving was profusely used, the details consisted mainly of interlacing
+scrollwork of acanthus-like foliage, heavy fruit and flower festoons and
+drops, trophies and cherubs’ heads. The relief was high, the work
+occasionally being detached, and the manner of execution was sharp and
+crisp, implying no hesitation on the part of the carver.
+
+The high relief necessitated building up thicknesses of wood, and formed
+a great contrast to the earlier work in which the ground was slightly
+set back, leaving the original panel face as the highest part of the
+pattern.
+
+The woods commonly used were oak for wainscotting and cedar for doors.
+Where it was intended that the woodwork should be painted or gilt it was
+made in deal. Some of the carving was in oak, but the favorite material
+was limewood, and pear; cedar or lime was used when small fine detail
+was required. Elm was employed for various articles such as dressers:
+ash, beech, birch, poplar, sycamore, English and Italian walnut were
+also used.
+
+
+_Dutch and French Influences_
+
+With William III and his Dutch court the influence of the Netherlands
+became once more apparent. It was coloured by the French style of the
+Louis XIV period, probably through an immigration of French workmen
+after the Edict of Nantes in 1685. This influence can be traced in some
+of the furniture at Hampton Court, particularly in the carved and gilt
+tables of French design and English workmanship.
+
+[Illustration: No. 121. A. Walnut Chair, period of Queen Anne. B. Dutch
+Chair, 17th century. C. Inlaid Chair, period of Queen Anne. D. Carved
+Chair, period of Queen Anne.]
+
+The chairs and settees of the period have shaped backs, generally with
+delicately carved central vertical panels of vase-like form; and
+cabriole legs with a carved shell ornament on the knee.
+
+Bureaux and corner cupboards were introduced. They were decorated with
+marqueterie or with inlay of boxwood or holly on a walnut ground.
+
+
+_Queen Anne Period_
+
+Flemish or Dutch influence prevailed during the period known as Queen
+Anne.
+
+The typical Queen Anne chair in common with all the furniture of the
+period was made of walnut. The seat was wide, the front legs cabriole
+shaped, ending, as a rule, in club or claw-and-ball feet. The back was
+high and curved at the top, and this was connected centrally with the
+seat by a long vase or fiddle-shaped splat. Carving was not much used,
+but the splat was sometimes ornamented with floral and other designs in
+marqueterie after the Dutch fashion.
+
+During this period an appreciation for Oriental china and lacquer work
+had an important effect on furniture and decoration.
+
+The later fashion of inlay and marquetry work of Sheraton was perhaps as
+much the outcome of the Dutch practice of this form of decoration, as it
+was due to the discovery of the possibilities of mahogany as a suitable
+wood for furniture.
+
+
+_Early Georgian_
+
+The eighteenth century in England was the age of the connoisseur and
+dilettante, and the struggling professional, literary or artistic, had
+little opportunity except by the favour of a patron. As for instance,
+Lord Burlington, who is reported to have practised architecture in
+conjunction with his _protégé_ Kent.
+
+William Kent, born in 1685, died 1748, a painter as well as an
+architect, was responsible for many designs, among which may be
+mentioned the Horse Guards in Whitehall, and Holkham in Norfolk for the
+Earl of Leicester.
+
+Georgian work shows more evidence of French influence, but is invariably
+stiff and heavy in feeling.
+
+In panelling rooms a surbase or dado was employed. The bolection
+moulding was universally used round panels.
+
+Doorways and chimneypieces were made up of architraves, surmounted by
+pediments, and were formal in design and detail. The Greek key was often
+most unsatisfactorily used in their decoration.
+
+
+_Chippendale_
+
+Among others, Chippendale’s name is associated with the furniture of
+this period, and his book of designs, published about the middle of the
+eighteenth century, contained, besides furniture, suggestions for the
+complete decoration of rooms. Chippendale was undoubtedly influenced by
+the Louis XV style, and at one period he attempted to exploit Chinese
+forms and details.
+
+The chairs designed by him were based on the earlier Queen Anne type,
+but the vase-shaped back was replaced by pierced and carved interlacing
+bands and ribbons. For a time the cabriole leg was retained, but
+
+[Illustration:
+
+No. 122. A. Transitional Chair, 18th century.
+         B. Mahogany                       Sheraton.
+         C.    “                           Chippendale.
+         D. Walnut                         Hepplewhite.
+]
+
+later examples have straight square legs. The chairs were fitted with
+loose upholstered seats covered with morocco leather.
+
+Furniture was generally in mahogany, which had been introduced a little
+earlier from the West Indies, and had become popular on account of the
+colour and figure developed by polishing. Mahogany lends itself to fine
+mouldings and detail, and this was evidently appreciated, as relief
+decoration on furniture in this wood received a more restrained
+treatment, while plain surfaces were made more extensive.
+
+
+_Mayhew_
+
+Contemporary workers were Mainwaring and Mayhew. Mayhew was responsible
+for a form of fretwork decoration which is often ascribed to
+Chippendale.
+
+
+_Adam Style_
+
+Prominent among his contemporaries, more perhaps for his influence on
+interior decoration, was Robert Adam, who died at the age of ninety-four
+in 1792.
+
+A student of the later antique Roman work, and inspired by the remains
+of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro, he evolved a style which bears his
+name, that was personal and distinctive. A style that had many
+followers, and which largely influenced the work of Sheraton.
+
+Simple as to structural form, and delicate in detail, it carried on the
+tradition of the later Graeco-Roman work on which it was founded,
+avoiding absolute reproduction.
+
+[Illustration: No. 123. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”]
+
+[Illustration: No. 124. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”]
+
+The Adam influence is evident also in the pottery of this period, and in
+the details of Sheffield plate.
+
+Examples of Robert Adam’s architectural design may be seen in London at
+the Adelphi, which was built as a speculation, in the Admiralty screen
+in Whitehall, and houses in Portland Place, W.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Sheffield Plate
+
+18th Centy
+
+No. 125. Adam influence.]
+
+
+_Hepplewhite_
+
+Hepplewhite also was designing and manufacturing about this time, and is
+noted principally for his japanned or painted furniture. In this process
+the wood was first coated with a preparation after the manner of Chinese
+or Japanese lacquer, and then decorated with fruit and flowers in gold
+on a background. Subsequently, furniture of this character, instead of
+being japanned, was merely painted white. Hepplewhite’s chair-backs
+differ in form from Chippendale’s, being shield or oval shaped.
+
+Satinwood came into use, and much of the work ascribed to Sheraton was
+made of it.
+
+Painted decoration of a delicate character, the details including
+ribbons, borders and medallions, was applied to table-tops, harpsichord
+cases, chair-backs and other objects. The names of Angelica Kauffmann
+and Cipriani are associated with this form of decoration.
+
+Hepplewhite and Sheraton were apparently influenced by the work of the
+brothers Adam, which was a distinct departure from the earlier style.
+The cabriole leg was rarely used, its place being taken by gracefully
+tapered forms.
+
+
+_Sheraton_
+
+Although some of Sheraton’s furniture had painted detail, he more often
+used marqueterie and inlay of fine design.
+
+Panels were treated in marqueterie, with ovals or other simple shapes
+surrounded by narrow bands or lines of contrasting colour.
+
+Sheraton sideboards were usually without backs, and were sometimes
+furnished with brass rails on top.
+
+Bookcases had glass doors with well designed and finely worked sash
+bars.
+
+The general tendency was towards elegance and refinement, and led to
+simplicity of treatment rather than over enrichment.
+
+Indeed this may be taken as the culminating period for the finest
+production of furniture, not only with regard to design and exquisite
+workmanship, but in carefully studied utility. This consideration may be
+seen in the dressing-tables and secretaires, which were full of
+ingenious devices, and secret drawers and contrivances for hiding papers
+and valuables were quite a feature of the work.
+
+
+_Louis XVI_
+
+Towards the end of the reign of Louis XV there was a distinct change in
+taste, and consequently in style. This was manifested by a return to
+simplicity of line,
+
+[Illustration: No. 126. Painted Interior Decoration. Marie Antoinette
+Boudoir. Louis XVI.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 127. Interior Treatment. Louis XVI.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 128. Chimney-piece with Mirror. Louis XVI.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 129. Library with fitted Book-cases. Louis XVI.]
+
+a more sparing use of enrichments and greater refinement of detail.
+
+[Illustration: No. 130. Door Treatment. Louis XVI.]
+
+Probably the same influence that inspired Adam was at work in France,
+when the license that marked the Rococo gave place to a more severe and
+restrained expression in the succeeding Louis XVI style, in which the
+curvilinear and plastic forms became once more structural in feeling and
+refined in detail.
+
+Associated with this change was Jacques Gondouin, who died at Paris in
+1818 at the age of eighty-one, whose most celebrated work is the Ecole
+de Médécine. He was also entrusted with the erection of the column in
+the Place Vendôme.
+
+
+_Riesener and Gouthière_
+
+[Illustration: No. 131. Detail of Cornice. Louis XVI.]
+
+The most familiar names associated with the wood-work at the Louis XVI
+period are Riesener and Gouthière. Riesener is famous for his furniture,
+and Gouthière for the highly finished chased mounts with which this
+furniture was decorated.
+
+[Illustration: No. 132. Arm-chair covered with Beauvais Tapestry. Louis
+XVI.]
+
+Interior woodwork was generally of oak, painted white. Pilasters were
+used, and were either carved or painted in colours. Mouldings were
+frequently gilt.
+
+Chairs and sofas were, in many instances, painted white and partly
+gilt. They were upholstered in silk or Beauvais tapestry, the designs of
+which were in panel form specially made for the purpose.
+
+Cabinets, tables and other pieces of furniture were often exquisitely
+inlaid with various woods, tulip, rosewood, pear, holly and ebony were
+the most common, and Sèvres porcelain placques and gilt metal mounts
+were also used to embellish them.
+
+[Illustration: No. 133. Carved Oak Panel. Louis XVI.]
+
+Furniture supports, such as table and chair legs, were straight, tapered
+and fluted, with husks in the hollows of the flutes.
+
+Among the decorative details were torches, quivers and other emblems,
+trophies, musical instruments, bouquets and festoons of flowers, and
+ribbons with peculiarly square and crisp folds. The laurel leaf was much
+used in borders, festoons and wreaths.
+
+The style of the Louis XVI period was more severe than the preceding
+one, and was, in fact, a reaction from the flippancy which
+characterised the reign of Louis XV. There was a tendency to return to
+more classic forms, which prepared the way for the still more austere
+Empire phase which was deliberately based on the Roman and Greek styles.
+
+
+_Empire_
+
+Furniture was made in mahogany, rosewood and ebony, and was decorated
+with brass mounts or with carved ornaments, which were gilded.
+
+Furniture legs and supports were fashioned after Greek and Roman forms,
+human figures and sphinxes being often employed.
+
+Inlay was used of ivory and metal, and this class of work attained a
+very high degree of excellence.
+
+Metal-work was unquestionably good, except that the details were
+somewhat hard in character.
+
+The most striking decorative features were sphinxes, winged figures of
+Liberty, masks, the thyrsus of Bacchus, laurel wreaths and festoons,
+which were all severe in treatment and delicate in execution.
+
+
+_Empire in England_
+
+The Empire style spread to other parts of Europe, and was closely
+imitated in England, where it was chiefly remarkable for the extreme
+nicety and finish of the metal-work, metal being extensively used for
+the enrichment of furniture, for clocks, vases, candlesticks, inkstands
+and other objects.
+
+
+_Later English Architecture_
+
+Probably the most important name associated with English architecture
+towards the end of the eighteenth century is that of Sir William
+Chambers, who died in 1796.
+
+Chambers, who at one time held the position of Surveyor General in the
+Board of Works, was one of those concerned in the establishment of the
+Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. During his professional career he
+executed commissions in various parts of the country, his principal work
+being Somerset House, which was commenced in 1776.
+
+Another name associated with this period is that of George Dance, who
+designed the Mansion House of the City of London, which was built during
+the years 1739-53. Dance died in 1768, and was succeeded by his son, who
+was the architect of Newgate Prison, the site of which is now occupied
+by a modern building.
+
+A pupil of Sir William Chambers, James Gandon, had the distinction of
+carrying off the first gold medal given for architecture by the
+newly-founded Royal Academy of Arts in 1768.
+
+He designed, among other works, the Customs House, the Four Courts, and
+the building which is now the Bank of Ireland, all at Dublin.
+
+
+_French Influence on Europe_
+
+Throughout this necessarily brief summary it will be noted that
+attention is mainly given to the architectural development in France and
+England. The rest of Europe was similarly affected more or less, both in
+the Gothic period and in the revival known as the Renaissance, in which
+the initiative was taken by France early in the seventeenth century.
+From which period may be dated the decline in Italian taste.
+
+French feeling, both as to form and detail, is apparent in not only
+Dutch and Flemish work, but in the more southern parts of Europe,
+particularly the phase known as Rococo.
+
+Even in England, though the architectural traditions of Inigo Jones and
+Sir Christopher Wren became national in character, French feeling is
+evident in much of the decorative work, as in the designs of Chippendale
+and his contemporaries; with the exception of the brilliant period of
+Grinling Gibbons, whose distinctive manner and robust treatment
+survived, and constituted a school of carving typically English and
+unique in its artistry and craftsmanship.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MOULDINGS
+
+
+In Architecture the edges of projecting courses are softened into curved
+profiles, sometimes enriched with details, which are technically known
+as mouldings. These are invariably a stumbling-block to the beginner,
+presumably due to want of appreciation of their purpose, which properly
+understood, is indicative of their desirable employment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 134. Forms of Mouldings.]
+
+Mouldings are an important factor in effect, not only in Architecture,
+but in structural form generally. In flat decoration they have to some
+extent their corollary in borders, the proportionate widths of which are
+governed by similar rules.
+
+Of mouldings with curved profiles there are only six distinct forms,
+though the individual character of these curves is subject to great
+variation in treatment.
+
+
+_Purpose_
+
+As suggested, mouldings have a distinct purpose, are, in fact,
+functional features, and may be defined as Sheltering or Crowning,
+Bracketing or Supporting, and Binding.
+
+In any composition where they may be necessary these functions should be
+taken into consideration.
+
+The profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve
+be refined or robust.
+
+In classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the
+other features are defined, and these proportions will be found useful
+in other than purely architectural design.
+
+
+_The Fillet_
+
+Mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or
+Fillets, the employment of which is universal.
+
+The Fillet in projection is equal to its height, and though strictly
+divisional in its employment, is shown in conjunction with the curved
+profiles to indicate relative proportion.
+
+
+_Sheltering Mouldings_
+
+There are two mouldings of curved profile in each category, the
+Sheltering being the Cavetto and the Cyma Recta.
+
+
+_The Cavetto_
+
+The Cavetto is the culminating moulding of the Italian Doric cornice,
+and is a concave curve, which may be the result of a quarter circle.
+
+The Cavetto profile is used in other positions, which would appear to
+challenge the previous statement, but reflection will confirm the
+contention.
+
+For instance, the vertical face of the Frieze in some instances
+terminates with a cavetto curve which, though surmounted by the cornice,
+is yet at the top of the frieze. The upper extremity of the column shaft
+is similarly treated, and, it may be urged, so is the lower, but this,
+though an exception to the rule, is at least an æsthetic necessity.
+
+The projection of the Cavetto is equal to the height of the curve, and
+the crowning Fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total
+height, preferably the latter.
+
+
+_Cyma Recta_
+
+The other sheltering moulding, the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double
+flexure with upper fillet. Its proper employment is as the crowning
+member of the cornice, though, like the Cavetto, it is employed in other
+positions, notably as a plinth moulding, when it appears in a reversed
+position.
+
+The projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile, the
+height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the
+whole.
+
+
+_Bracketing Mouldings_
+
+The supporting mouldings are the Ovolo and the Cyma Reversa.
+
+
+_The Ovolo_
+
+The Ovolo is composed of a full convex curve, either a quarter circle or
+slightly elliptic, which in height is equal to projection; and a fillet
+at base one-fifth the total height. Frequently this lower member is in
+the form of a half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet.
+
+As a Bracketing moulding the Ovolo occurs in the capital of the Doric
+column, and in the Ionic and Corinthian cornices under the corona or
+facia, and is employed in other positions, where the sense of support is
+justified.
+
+
+_Cyma Reversa_
+
+The Cyma Reversa, like the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure, and
+is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height. The
+projection is equal to the height of curved profile.
+
+The Cyma Reversa is employed in the cornice of the Doric order as a
+supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating
+Cavetto. It also occurs in the Capital of the column, where it forms the
+upper member of the abacus. An apparent contradiction of the theory of
+employment, which however is justified by the circumstance that the
+column forms the support for the entablature.
+
+It also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the
+pedestal, and is used in similar positions in the other orders.
+
+
+_Binding Mouldings_
+
+The Binding mouldings, the Torus and the Scotia, appear chiefly on
+columns and pilasters, particularly the Scotia, which is essentially a
+base moulding.
+
+
+_The Torus_
+
+The Torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle, with upper
+fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height. The projection is
+decided by the curvature, which is based on a semi-circle with centre
+slightly in advance of the vertical line of fillet.
+
+The Torus varies in size according to position. For instance, in the
+base of the Ionic column two are employed, the lower being the larger.
+It is also invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding
+beneath the Capitals; in the small form it is commonly known as a bead
+or astragal.
+
+This employment of the Torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in
+the sense of imparting strength by binding. When used in other positions
+its purpose should be equally evident.
+
+
+_The Scotia_
+
+The Scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper
+fillet, and is generally used between the upper and lower Torii of the
+base.
+
+The upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of
+curved profile. The extreme projection being merely equal to the height
+of curve and that of the upper fillet about one-half, the fillet being
+about one-fifth the total height.
+
+
+_The Facia_
+
+The foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles,
+but there is another member, the Facia, that is an important feature in
+composition.
+
+The Facia, which is rectilinear in form with external face vertical or
+slightly inclined, may be classed with the binding mouldings.
+
+With regard to proportion, the height of the Facia should either exceed
+or be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably
+surmounted. The projection being either considerably less or more than
+its height.
+
+When used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face
+is generally recessed, this recess being equal to the height of the top
+fillet of supporting moulding.
+
+Only occasionally the Facia is furnished with an upper fillet (for
+instance, when it occurs immediately below the Cyma Recta) to which it
+is reconciled by a Cavetto curve.
+
+The Facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved
+profile to which it is in valuable contrast.
+
+
+_Decoration of Mouldings_
+
+Mouldings may be plain or decorated, usually by carving, the details
+probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period.
+
+When thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile, and the
+details carved back from the face, leaving the highest parts in the
+original surface. The carving being deeper and more sharply defined in
+the case of mouldings that are in shadow. Such, for example, as the
+Ovolo, and in lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light.
+
+The decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a
+unit, composed on a central axis, in which curves are contrasted with
+vertical features.
+
+[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE CYMA RECTA
+
+ENRICHMENT OF THE FACIA
+
+ENRICHMENT OF THE OVOLO
+
+ENRICHMENT OF THE CYMA REVERSA
+
+ENRICHMENT OF THE TORUS
+
+No. 135.]
+
+The principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature
+or profile line.
+
+
+_Orthodox Details_
+
+Thus the orthodox detail of the Ovolo, technically known as the “Egg and
+Tongue,” consists of a framing curve, which is obtained by repeating the
+profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape. The angles between
+the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart.
+
+As previously stated, this moulding is deeply carved, the ovoid being
+bold and well-rounded; the edges of the framing curves (in some
+instances grooved or channelled) being left sharp and precise.
+
+Frequently the “Bead and Reel” enrichment occurs at the base of the
+Ovolo instead of the Fillet, this being the characteristic detail of the
+Bead or Astragal.
+
+The treatment of the Cyma Reversa is identical and results in the detail
+known as the “Leaf and Dart”; but the carving is not so deep and the
+relief, in consequence, comparatively slight.
+
+
+_Angle Leaf_
+
+When mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a
+covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle.
+
+The same principle is applicable to the Cyma Recta and the Cavetto,
+though these mouldings are more often left plain; when decorated the
+relief is comparatively slight.
+
+The Scotia needs no decoration, the cast shadow resulting from its form
+being sufficiently effective.
+
+The Torus, though frequently left plain, can be decorated in various
+ways.
+
+The Guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic, but as suggestive of
+its function, the Torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or
+cable. Leaves suggestive of a wreath are used, also a reed band crossed
+at intervals with ribbons, quite in keeping with the suggestion of
+binding.
+
+The Facia is generally plain, but the decoration, if used should,
+following the principle, be rectilinear in character; such as vertical
+flutings, or the key detail, both of which are used.
+
+
+_Dentils_
+
+Dentils, which form a distinctive feature in cornices, are a series of
+rectilinear blocks, attached to a Facia, and may be placed in the
+category of supporting members.
+
+In their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite
+projection.
+
+In proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three
+quarters their width in height, the intervals between being about half
+the width.
+
+The first Dentil at the angle, lines flush with the return face of
+supporting Facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end
+Dentils. This space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob, acorn-like
+in shape. The heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and
+downwards, or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face. Below the
+Dentils the supporting Facia is displayed to about the height of a
+fillet.
+
+Considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the
+Renaissance in the decoration of mouldings, license which is
+permissible providing the general principle be borne in mind. The
+concensus of opinion is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and
+absence of variety. The vertical tendency resulting from the
+bi-symmetrical character of the unit is desirable, and in happy contrast
+to the horizontal direction of the moulding, while it also emphasises
+the sense of structural support.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF THE DENTIL
+
+No. 136.]
+
+The profiles also are amenable to considerable variation, the curves
+being the direct result of Geometry, or Freehand, either treatment being
+a matter of attitude and discretion.
+
+
+_Employment_
+
+When employed in Architecture the forms and proportions given will be
+found most suitable. In interior decoration and structural work, as in
+furniture, considerable latitude is permissible.
+
+It must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be
+designed merely for the play of line, but for the effect resulting from
+light and shade. In those close to the eye and in fair light, elliptic
+curves will be more effective than more rounded sections, which are most
+suitable to remote positions.
+
+In composition, mouldings of curved profile should always be separated
+by fillets or occasionally a facia, and the various members associated
+with regard to their functional purpose. Obvious repetition of the same
+dimension is to be avoided, and contrast should exist not only in the
+shapes of profiles, but also in their respective heights.
+
+[Illustration: MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO PERSPECTIVE
+
+No. 137.]
+
+
+_Attitude_
+
+Attitude must be taken into account, as, for instance, in a cornice
+which is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not
+appear in elevation but in perspective; and not only the respective
+heights will be visible, but also the projections.
+
+When mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other should
+be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment. This is particularly
+necessary when the Ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils, or where it is
+surmounted by Modillions as in the Corinthian cornice.
+
+Panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the
+foregoing sense, though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the
+construction. Regarded as frames, their general purpose may be
+considered as to bind or enclose.
+
+In stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects,
+which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts, possible only
+on a large scale. A comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to
+sink channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area, which is
+left in the original plane. A treatment that is effective and
+comparatively economical.
+
+[Illustration: CHANNELLED MOULDING IN STONE
+
+No. 138.]
+
+
+_Wood Panelling_
+
+Panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate, but structurally
+necessary, as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some
+method of building up.
+
+Therefore, not only panelling, but doors and structural wood-work
+generally are constructed of stiles
+
+[Illustration: No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood.
+
+     A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed mouldings on stiles and
+     rails.
+
+     B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with framing with simple
+     moulded edges.
+
+     D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped mouldings on stiles and
+     rails.
+
+     E. Later Jacobean Panelling.
+
+     F. Later Jacobean Section of applied mouldings of the Bolection
+     type.
+]
+
+and rails, forming framings; the spaces enclosed being occupied by the
+panels.
+
+The edges of the stiles and rails are moulded. In the late Gothic and
+Tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed; but later the
+profiles became more distinct in contour.
+
+These early mouldings were narrow and simple in form, arrived at mainly
+by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame.
+
+
+_Applied Mouldings_
+
+Applied mouldings were apparently employed in the Jacobean period, and
+the sections became more elaborate. Worked independently, they were
+frequently higher in relief than the framings. The facility with which
+they could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion
+for complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point
+of view, though effective if not overdone.
+
+[Illustration: No. 140. Applied Mouldings.]
+
+In the composition of such mouldings it is desirable that the sizes and
+contours employed should be contrasting, and that all curved sections be
+divided by fillets.
+
+As the width of the moulding throughout is uniform, it is obvious that
+mitral angles must be perfect bi-sections of the meeting lines.
+
+With regard to proportion, the width of mouldings may generally be
+one-fourth to one-eighth that of the panel according to desired effect,
+robust or refined.
+
+[Illustration: No. 141. Part of Dresser.
+
+Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.]
+
+
+_Bolection Moulding_
+
+When boldness in appearance is required the type known as the Bolection
+Moulding may be used. This, in its orthodox form, is a species of inner
+frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails, and the panels,
+but was more commonly an applied moulding.
+
+[Illustration: No. 142. Bolection Moulding.]
+
+In any case, it is worked independently, and its outer edges lap the
+framing, on which it is in relief, resulting in strong effect of light
+and shade.
+
+Panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the orthodox
+enrichments or variants based on them, but should always be in contrast
+to the panels they enclose.
+
+In furniture, mouldings play an important part, and in many positions
+can be regulated by functional considerations. In horizontal positions,
+such as in tables and sideboards, where personal contact is possible,
+any moulded edges should be of softly rounded character for obvious
+reasons.
+
+[Illustration: TABLE TOP MOULDINGS
+
+No. 143.]
+
+
+_Plaster_
+
+In plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil.
+When decorated, the former only is possible, and as such work is
+originally modelled, it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic
+nature, such as interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or
+other forms.
+
+Mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut, though this is
+practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed.
+
+[Illustration: TURNED WOOD
+
+No. 144.]
+
+Mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various
+materials, and to some extent their character is affected by the
+formative process involved.
+
+
+_Wood-turning_
+
+Thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft, taking
+usually, as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs, the baluster
+form. As a rule there is little variation between the maximum and
+minimum diameters.
+
+The baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles, with
+intervening fillets, which latter may be fairly sharp, as they are by
+their position protected from damage.
+
+
+_Metal Turning_
+
+Turning is also employed in metal work, the stems and bodies of Dutch
+candelabra, both standard and hanging, being originally cast as to
+general form and finished in the lathe.
+
+[Illustration: THROWN
+
+MOULDED
+
+THROWN & TURNED
+
+POTTERY
+
+No. 145.]
+
+The general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning, except that
+the material being much harder, the mouldings can be more sharply
+defined and delicate in detail.
+
+
+_Pottery_
+
+The throwing of pottery is analagous to turning, but by this method
+little more can be accomplished than thickened edges. The Greek vases
+show some precision of profile, the result of turning on a lathe after
+the vessel had been formed on the wheel.
+
+[Illustration: No. 146. Moulded Vase in Terra-cotta.]
+
+In moulded pottery more definition is possible than in thrown variety,
+but the profiles are comparatively blunt and never attain the precision
+due to turning.
+
+
+_Metal Mouldings_
+
+In metal, mouldings may be rolled or drawn. In the first they are formed
+in the solid, but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and
+are therefore hollow and of uniform thickness.
+
+[Illustration: ROLLED METAL MOULDINGS
+
+No. 147.]
+
+By either method mouldings of any required section are obtainable
+provided they are not undercut.
+
+Both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in various sections and sizes
+in iron, brass, bronze, and silver.
+
+Where special sections are required, the cost of the tools necessary for
+their production would have to be taken into account.
+
+[Illustration: DRAWN METAL MOULDINGS
+
+No. 148.]
+
+
+_Wrought Iron_
+
+Though the employment of rolled or drawn mouldings is usual in wrought
+iron-work, the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in character.
+Preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or building
+up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material and
+method of working.
+
+[Illustration: No. 149. Wrought Iron Swaged Moulding.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.]
+
+
+_Silver-work_
+
+In silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand, the necessary
+draw plates being made by the workman.
+
+[Illustration: No. 151. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.]
+
+
+_Spinning_
+
+Mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning, in which
+undercutting is not permissible.
+
+[Illustration: SPUN METAL
+
+No. 152.]
+
+
+_Repoussé_
+
+They are also possible in Repoussé work, but are soft in character, and
+lack the precision that marks the mechanical production.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ARCHITECTURAL PROPORTIONS
+
+
+_Introduction_
+
+In architectural drawing concise draughtsmanship is essential, the
+profiles of mouldings in particular should be well defined.
+
+Architectural designs, which should always be drawn to scale, are
+expressed geometrically, that is in plan, elevation and section. The
+actual effect is therefore a matter of conjecture only to be grasped by
+those familiar with the arbitrary form of expression. Perspectives are
+generally made with a view to depicting the appearance to the
+uninitiated, but are practically useless as working drawings.
+
+The student is advised to take advantage of every opportunity of
+studying existing examples in museums and elsewhere. This study should
+not be confined to geometric drawings, but these should be supplemented
+by sketches and careful observation. Attention should also be paid to
+the profiles of mouldings.
+
+A practice should be made also of making freehand sketches of the
+various features, indicating broadly the effects of light and shade.
+
+The study of architectural proportions should be methodical, and the
+general divisions given here might advantageously be committed to
+memory. When this is accomplished attention may be devoted to individual
+features.
+
+
+_System of Proportion_
+
+It is customary, when any of the orders of Architecture are employed, to
+adopt a system of proportions which has been evolved from the best
+traditions of the past, and is generally accepted as the most
+satisfactory.
+
+Naturally these proportions are subject to modification to suit special
+conditions or personal treatment. According to the academic method, the
+diameter of the column is divided into two parts, which are called
+Modules, and each of these is again subdivided into thirty divisions
+called parts. This gives a scale by means of which all dimensions of
+height and projection are obtained. Since the diameter of the column
+forms the standard of measurement, the proportions of the relative parts
+are constant and in no way influenced by the size of the structure.
+
+This method, although very complete, is--owing to its multiplicity of
+dimensions--somewhat laborious in practice, and the method here proposed
+in its stead, though not claimed to be exact, will yet be found to be
+sufficiently accurate for ordinary requirements.
+
+It is proposed to deal here with the orders commonly employed in
+Renaissance architecture. These were based by the early exponents of the
+style on Roman examples. The Doric selected is that of Vignola, and is a
+refined version of the order used in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.
+The Ionic closely resembles the Roman Ionic order in the same building.
+The Corinthian is the Roman example from the Pantheon.
+
+
+_The Order_
+
+An Order consists of a vertical column and a horizontal entablature,
+while in some instances the column rests on a pedestal.
+
+It is desirable before dealing with proportions to enumerate the various
+parts of which an order is composed.
+
+The column consists of a shaft, base and capital.
+
+The shaft is circular on plan and invariably tapered.
+
+The base is composed of mouldings, which are circular on plan, and a
+rectangular block or plinth.
+
+The capital is circular on plan, and in the Doric and Corinthian orders
+is divided from the shaft by a necking moulding. The capital is
+surmounted by a feature known as the abacus, which is rectangular on
+plan, but varies in detail in the different orders.
+
+Columns may be isolated or engaged, that is, built into walls so that
+they form projections from the surface.
+
+[Illustration: No. 153. Doric Order with Pedestal.]
+
+The pilaster is always engaged, and is rectangular on plan, but
+otherwise it has the same general features and proportions as the
+column.
+
+The entablature is the superstructure supported by the columns. It
+consists of an architrave, which is the lowest part, a frieze, the
+intermediate part, and a series of projecting mouldings known as the
+cornice.
+
+The pedestal, which occasionally forms a support for the columns,
+consists of a plinth, die and capping. The lower part or plinth is
+separated from the die by mouldings, and the capping is a projecting
+course of mouldings forming a simple cornice.
+
+To sum up a simple classification, which may be termed the triology of
+the orders, will be found to assist the memory.
+
+The Orders commonly employed are three--the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.
+(There are two others which are less used, and are really derived from
+the other three: they are the Tuscan, which is a form of debased Doric,
+and the Composite, which is made up of the Ionic and Corinthian).
+
+The Order may be divided into three parts:
+
+                   Pedestal, Column and Entablature.
+
+These may again be sub-divided.
+
+The Pedestal into Plinth, Die and Capping.
+
+The Column into Base, Shaft and Capital.
+
+The Entablature into Architrave, Frieze and Cornice.
+
+The method of arriving at the proportions of the order is as follows. In
+this division the pedestal is not taken into account, but is reserved
+for later consideration.
+
+
+_Doric Order_
+
+Divide the total height into five equal parts. Then the upper fifth will
+give the height of the entablature and an eighth of the remaining
+four-fifths the diameter of the column. From this it will be seen that
+the column is eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters. In
+using the term diameter it must be understood that it is always the
+lower diameter of the column that is referred to.
+
+[Illustration: No. 154. General Proportions of the Orders.]
+
+The capital is half a diameter high exclusive of the necking moulding,
+and the base also is half a diameter. In all the orders the column is
+tapered; the upper diameter is in each case five-sixths of the lower or
+major diameter. The taper is not in a straight line, but a slight
+curve, which is known as entasis. It is obtained by drawing the lower
+third of the shaft vertical and from these lines springing a curve to
+the upper diameter, which may readily be done by slightly altering the
+angle of the pencil in ruling them.
+
+The entablature is divided as follows: the architrave is half a
+diameter, the frieze and cornice each three-quarters of a diameter.
+
+
+_Ionic Order_
+
+The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
+will be the entablature, and one ninth of the remainder the diameter of
+the column, hence the column will be nine diameters high.
+
+The capital is half a diameter high; the base also is half a diameter.
+
+The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts, three of
+these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the
+frieze and the remaining four that of the cornice.
+
+
+_Corinthian Order_
+
+The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
+is the height of the entablature. A tenth of the remainder will be the
+diameter of the column.
+
+The capital is one diameter and one-sixth in height exclusive of the
+necking moulding, and the base is half a diameter high, exclusive of the
+top fillet.
+
+The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic, and
+the mouldings, although more elaborate, are similar in character. The
+architrave and frieze are each three-tenths of the height and the
+cornice four-tenths.
+
+It will be seen from the foregoing that the diameters of the three
+orders are respectively one-eighth, one-ninth and one-tenth the heights
+of the columns, and that the entablature is, in the Doric, two diameters
+high or one fourth the height of the column; in the Corinthian also two
+diameters or one-fifth the height of the column. The Ionic is
+intermediate between the two.
+
+
+_Doric Entablatures_
+
+The Doric cornice is three-quarters of a diameter in height and one
+diameter in projection from the face of the frieze, which should always
+be in vertical alignment with the architrave.
+
+It is convenient to divide the cornice height into three. The upper
+third consists of a crowning cavetto moulding, supported by a cyma
+reversa, under which is a facia or corona, in turn supported by a dentil
+course. The lower third should be taken as the centre of the dentil
+course, and if the height from the top of the cavetto to the underside
+of the corona be bisected, the point of bisection should fall in the
+centre of the intervening reversa.
+
+
+_Mutules_
+
+In orthodox examples of the order the underside or soffit of the corona
+is decorated with a series of sunk panels. Those immediately over the
+triglyphs of the frieze are occupied by rows of conical drops. A
+variation of this and a treatment frequently employed is a series of
+brackets known as mutules. They consist of a facia and a reversa, which
+is carried round the upper edge to support the corona. When mutules are
+used the dentil course is omitted.
+
+[Illustration: No. 155. Doric Entablature, Vignola.]
+
+The dentils are rectilinear blocks on a flat projecting band, and they
+are supported by a cyma reversa moulding. A fillet beneath this moulding
+completes the cornice. The reversa is about the same height as the
+fillet, and the dentil course is about twice this height, but owing to
+the soffit of the corona sloping slightly upward and inwards the full
+height of the dentil facia is not apparent when drawn in elevation.
+
+[Illustration: No. 156. Doric Entablature, with Mutules.]
+
+Above the dentil facia is a small cavetto moulding and a fillet. These
+are directly beneath the corona, and are carried round to form the
+panels on its soffit.
+
+The Doric frieze is three-quarters of a diameter high. It is divided
+into panels technically known as metopes, by projecting features half a
+diameter in width which are called triglyphs.
+
+The metopes should be square, and one of the triglyphs is always placed
+immediately over each column, having the same central axis, hence the
+spacing of the columns apart is regulated by the triglyphs and metopes.
+Examples of various spacings of columns will be given later.
+
+The frieze is bounded above and below by rectilinear projecting bands or
+fillets; that at the top breaks round or follows the projection of the
+triglyphs.
+
+The triglyphs are so named because they are channelled vertically with
+grooves or glyphs, V shaped in section, with intervening spaces or
+inter-glyphs. The width of the triglyph should be divided into twelve
+parts--then the half glyphs which are placed at the angles will each be
+one of these parts, and the remaining two glyphs and three inter-glyphs
+are each two of them. The glyphs terminate at the base on the fillet
+band, but at the top are cut off a little below the upper fillet,
+invariably in a straight line, thus forming a triangular heading with
+the apex of the triangle sloping backwards and downwards in conformity
+with the V shaped section of the glyphs.
+
+Under the lower fillet band, and immediately below the triglyph, is a
+small fillet and six pendant drops of conical form known as guttae.
+
+[Illustration: No. 157. Ionic Entablature.]
+
+The architrave is half a diameter high, inclusive of the fillet band,
+which is roughly a sixth of this height. The small fillet and guttae are
+together equal in height to the fillet band.
+
+It may be taken as an invariable rule that whatever order is used, the
+face of the architrave must be in vertical alignment with the upper part
+of the shaft of the column.
+
+
+_Ionic Entablature_
+
+The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts; three of
+these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the
+frieze, and the remaining four that of the cornice.
+
+To find the projection of the cornice a line should be drawn at an angle
+of 45 degrees from the top of the frieze, and the profiles of the
+mouldings composing the cornice will fall within this line.
+
+The lowest member is a small reversa moulding, with a fillet supporting
+a dentil course, above which is an ovolo; these occupy half the height
+of the cornice. The remaining half is composed of the facia, surmounted
+by a reversa and the crowning cyma moulding, rather more than half of
+the height being allotted to these two.
+
+The frieze of the Ionic order has no characteristic detail as the Doric,
+and may be plain or decorated according to conditions, and should be in
+vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave. In some of
+the later Renaissance examples the profile of the Ionic frieze is a
+segmental curve of about a third of a circle.
+
+The architrave is usually formed of three facias, which may be either
+vertical or slightly inclined.
+
+[Illustration: No. 158. Corinthian Entablature.]
+
+A fifth of the total height is taken for the upper moulding, which is a
+reversa with its accompanying fillet.
+
+A point bisecting the underside of the fillet and bottom of architrave
+will give the line of the lower edge of the top facia. The other two
+facias should be taken in a decreasing ratio, the lower being the
+shorter.
+
+
+_Corinthian Entablature_
+
+The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic. The
+total height is divided into ten. Three of these parts form the
+architrave, three the frieze and four the cornice.
+
+An angle of 45 degrees set off from the top of the frieze will determine
+the general contour and projection of the cornice.
+
+The cornice is more complex than in the other styles, but a division of
+eleven will help to determine, three being the height to underside of
+bead moulding and seven that of the main facia. The lowest moulding of
+the cornice is a cyma reversa supporting a dentil course with a bead
+moulding above it. Above the bead there is an ovolo, which forms the bed
+of a series of brackets known as modillions. The height of the
+modillions is about one-fifth including the reversa moulding, which,
+besides completing the modillions, is carried round between them as a
+support for the upper facia.
+
+The modillions have a profile of ogee form. They are about a sixth of a
+diameter in width and project about twice their width, and are so spaced
+as to leave squares between them on the soffit or underside of the
+corona. The frieze, which may or may not be decorated, is in vertical
+alignment with the lowest member of the architrave.
+
+The architrave is made up of three facias with intervening mouldings. If
+the height be divided into two, the upper half is devoted to the first
+facia and reversa moulding, which latter occupies rather more than
+one-third; the remaining half is taken up by the other two facias in a
+diminishing ratio.
+
+
+_The Column--The Shaft_
+
+The general proportions of the column have already been given. The shaft
+is invariably tapered for two-thirds of its height, the lower third
+being cylindrical, and the taper terminates at the necking moulding. In
+all three orders the difference between the upper and lower diameters is
+the same, that is, the upper is five-sixths of the lower, but although
+the amount of taper is numerically the same, the different ratios of the
+diameters to the heights produce naturally very different results.
+
+The shaft of the Doric column may be plain or channelled with vertical
+grooves called flutes. There are twenty of these flutes round the
+circumference. On plan they are shallow, and may be formed of arcs of a
+third of a circle. The curves meet without intervening fillets. The
+flutes are finished off in segmental curves at the top and bottom,
+leaving a small plain space below the necking and above the base.
+
+The Ionic and Corinthian columns may have plain or decorated shafts. If
+decorated they have twenty-four flutes round the circumference. These
+are semi-circular on plan, and are spaced with fillets between them.
+
+
+_The Capital_
+
+The Capital is the culminating feature of the column in which horizontal
+lines predominate in æsthetic contrast to the vertical lines of the
+shaft. In all the orders there is some form of crowning block or
+moulding known as the abacus.[A]
+
+ [A] Though the proportions given are approximately accurate for
+ general division, it will be found necessary in detailing to adopt a
+ more intimate system of measurement. In the following diagrams the
+ diameter is divided into 36 parts, which are expressed in figures,
+ giving heights, etc., of the various features.
+
+
+_Doric Capital_
+
+The Doric abacus consists of a rectangular slab, square on plan, which
+in detail consists of a fillet and reversa moulding surmounting a facia.
+Its extreme width is one and a half times the upper diameter. The square
+abacus is supported by an ovolo, which is circular on plan, and is
+connected with the necking by three small fillets.
+
+[Illustration: No. 159. Doric Capital.]
+
+The capital is half a diameter in height, exclusive of the mouldings
+between the necking and the shaft, and the upper part to the underside
+of the ovolo occupies rather more than half.
+
+[Illustration: No. 160. Ionic Capital.]
+
+The necking is a vertical extension of the upper diameter of the column,
+and is separated from the shaft by a boldly projecting moulding, which
+in height should be about equal to the three small fillets below the
+ovolo. The moulding consists of a torus and a fillet, and a cavetto
+curve is carried from the underside of the fillet and dies into the line
+of the shaft of the column.
+
+Sometimes the ovolo is decorated with its characteristic egg and tongue
+detail, and occasionally the reversa of the abacus is also enriched.
+The necking is sometimes ornamented with four rosettes, which are placed
+centrally under the square faces of the abacus.
+
+
+_Ionic Capital_
+
+The Ionic capital is half a diameter high, and is readily distinguished
+by its bolster-like form with voluted ends. This bolster is rectangular
+on plan, and measures laterally rather more than one and a half
+diameters, while from back to front it is slightly less than a diameter.
+
+The shaft terminates in a cavetto curve, and is surmounted by a fillet,
+a small torus and an ovolo moulding, which is invariably decorated with
+egg and tongue detail. These mouldings all conform to the circular plan
+of the shaft. On the ovolo rests the voluted bolster.
+
+The abacus, which is square on plan, consists of a reversa moulding and
+fillet.
+
+From the top of the abacus to the base of the ovolo the height is about
+a third of a diameter, and one-fourth of this height will give the
+height of the abacus.
+
+The centre or eye of the volute can readily be found by dropping a
+perpendicular from the lower edge of the reversa to intersect the
+horizontal line defining the base of the ovolo. This point of
+intersection is the required centre.
+
+
+_To Draw the Volute_
+
+From this as centre and one part as radius describe a circle. Within
+this circle draw a square, having for a diagonal the diameter of the
+circle. Bisect the sides of the square and draw the diameters by joining
+the points of bi-section. Divide these diameters of the square into six
+and these points will be the centres for the segments of circles which
+form the volute. Vertical and horizontal lines drawn from the centres
+will define the extent of each segment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 161. Ionic Capital, with angular volutes.]
+
+For small scale drawings the volutes are drawn free-hand, but for larger
+working drawings it is necessary to use some method such as that given
+here.
+
+The angle formed by the meeting of the ovolo and the volute is masked by
+a detail of anthemion form.
+
+The ends of the bolster between the volutes consist of concave or ogee
+curves, which are symmetrically arranged from a centre line; moulded
+ridges or conventional leaf detail decorate the centre.
+
+The form of the Ionic capital, while suitable for a façade, requires
+some modification if it is to be carried round the side of a building,
+owing to the great dissimilarity in the front and side views. In this
+case the end volute of the capital at the angle of the building is
+projected forward at an angle of 45 degrees, and the side is then
+treated in the same way as the front.
+
+In late Renaissance buildings this difficulty was overcome by making all
+the volutes project at angles of 45 degrees, so that the four faces of
+the capital were uniform. This entails the bolster being dispensed with,
+and the volutes, no longer connected laterally, spring directly from the
+top of the ovolo moulding, and the space between the springing lines is
+occupied by a husk.
+
+[Illustration: No. 162. Ionic Capital. Detail of Angular Volute.]
+
+As the volutes make equal angles they conform more or less to a square
+plan. The plan of the abacus is composed of four concave curves with
+small straight intervals at the meeting angles. The general proportions
+for this form of capital are the same as for the bolster type.
+
+
+_Corinthian Capital_
+
+The Corinthian capital differs widely from those of the preceding orders
+in proportion and detail.
+
+Its general form may be described as a bell, which is circular on plan.
+It springs from the upper extremity of the shaft, from which it is
+separated by a necking moulding.
+
+Under the abacus it terminates in a fillet.
+
+The bell is one diameter high. The height of the abacus is one-sixth of
+a diameter in addition; on plan the abacus falls within a square, having
+four concave faces with short straight lines at the angles. The distance
+across the diagonal is two diameters. The bell is clothed with leaves of
+acanthus type, which are arranged in two tiers of eight leaves each.
+Between the upper leaves are eight stems with husks and branching
+scrolls, which terminate in volutes at the angles and centres.
+
+The necking moulding consists of a small torus and fillet.
+
+Although the arrangement of the principal features of the Corinthian
+capital is horizontal, yet owing to the channelling of the leaves and
+the firmly springing scrolls the vertical direction appears to
+predominate.
+
+This verticality emphasises the function of the capital as a supporting
+feature, and is æsthetically satisfactory, being in harmony with the
+flutings of the shaft.
+
+[Illustration: No. 163. Corinthian Capital.]
+
+The effect produced by the capitals of the other two orders is
+horizontal, and suggests the idea of binding. They are equally
+satisfactory as giving contrast of direction.
+
+[Illustration: No. 164. Corinthian Capital.
+
+Detail giving divisions of height, and profiles.]
+
+
+_The Base_
+
+In all the orders a square plinth is the lowest member of the base of
+the column. On this plinth rests a series of mouldings which follow the
+circular plan of the shaft. The shaft invariably terminates in a
+fillet, the diameter of which exceeds that of the column, and on to
+which the line of the shaft is carried by means of a curve.
+
+[Illustration: No. 165. Doric Base.]
+
+
+_Doric Base_
+
+The Doric base is extremely simple. It consists of the square plinth on
+which rests a torus moulding surmounted by a smaller moulding of the
+same section and a fillet above.
+
+The width of the plinth is one and a third the diameter of the column,
+and its height a quarter diameter or half the total height of the base.
+The other half is made up of the large torus, the small torus and
+fillet. The torus moulding should be bold in projection, practically
+semi-circular and at the fullest part of its curvature in vertical
+alignment with the centres of the horizontal faces of the plinth block.
+The small torus and fillet are about equal in height.
+
+
+_Ionic Base_
+
+[Illustration: No. 166. Ionic Base.]
+
+The Ionic base differs from the Doric in the introduction of a hollow or
+scotia moulding between the two torus mouldings. Æsthetically it may be
+considered more satisfactory in that the strong shadow obtained by the
+use of the scotia produces an effect of binding which adds to the
+impression of strength. The type is technically known as the Attic base.
+
+The total width is one and a third diameter.
+
+The height of half a diameter may be divided into three. One of these
+divisions will give the height of the plinth, one the large torus and
+the fillet above it, and the other the scotia and small torus with the
+fillets above and below. The fillets either side of the upper torus may
+be in the same vertical alignment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 167. Corinthian Base.]
+
+The smallest diameter of the base, which will be in the hollow of the
+scotia, should exceed the diameter of the shaft, or an effect of
+weakness will be imparted.
+
+As in the Doric base a curve of a quarter circle connects the shaft with
+the upper fillet.
+
+
+_Corinthian Base_
+
+The orthodox base of the Corinthian order is similar to that of the
+Ionic, with an additional scotia and small torus with its accompanying
+fillets.
+
+The width of the plinth is one and a third diameter.
+
+The height of half a diameter does not include the top fillet. The
+proportions may be approximated by dividing the height into four. One of
+these parts will be the height of the plinth, another that of the large
+torus and its fillet, the third--the upper edge of fillet of top scotia,
+and the fourth that of the upper scotia and torus with the intervening
+fillet. Vertically the uppermost fillet is in alignment with that of the
+upper scotia, and the extremity of the upper torus with the small bead
+mouldings dividing this from the lower scotia.
+
+Although this is the orthodox Corinthian base, it is not used as
+frequently as the Ionic type, but when the order is on a large scale the
+more elaborate version is justified.
+
+
+_The Arch_
+
+When the arch is used in conjunction with the column it is supported on
+pilasters which are attached to the columns. The columns and pilasters
+thus form piers.
+
+In the Doric order the columns are placed five diameters apart from
+centre to centre, in the Ionic five and a quarter, and in the Corinthian
+five and a half.
+
+The necking moulding of the capital is generally carried through above
+the arch, the outer line of which is struck so as to nearly touch the
+underside.
+
+The projection of the pilasters which carry the arch is half a diameter
+from the outer lines of the column, and is measured on the same level as
+the springing point of the arch.
+
+The centre from which the arch is struck is sometimes in the same
+horizontal line as the springing points, but more frequently a little
+above the line and thereby a rather better effect is produced.
+
+The arch-band or archivolt is the same width as the pilaster supporting
+it, and a series of mouldings known as the impost is placed at the top
+of the pilaster. The base of the pilaster consists of a plain plinth of
+slight projection equal in height to the base of the column.
+
+From the spacing of the columns and the proportions here given it will
+be seen that the height and width of the aperture made by the arch and
+pilasters are arrived at automatically, but if measured, the height will
+be found to be about twice the width and the top of the impost about
+two-thirds the height of the column. These proportions may be accepted
+as giving satisfactory results under ordinary conditions.
+
+As a general rule, in all the orders the impost is half a diameter high,
+and so is the same as the projection of the pilaster and the width of
+the archivolt.
+
+This rule is not always adhered to, however, but in any case the width
+of the archivolt should never be more than one-eighth or less than
+one-tenth of the diameter of the arch, and should always be the same as
+the width of the pilaster.
+
+
+_Doric Impost_
+
+The mouldings of the Doric Impost are as follows:
+
+At the top there is a fillet and a bold ovolo, below which there is a
+bead-moulding or small torus with fillet and two facias. The lower
+facia, which is of slight projection is one-fourth of the total height.
+The upper facia and fillet are half the remainder.
+
+[Illustration: No. 168. Detail of Archivolts and Imposts.]
+
+
+_Archivolt_
+
+The archivolt mouldings are in the Doric order, the same as those of the
+impost.
+
+
+_Ionic Impost_
+
+The total height of half a diameter may be divided into two, and the
+upper half sub-divided into three. Then the upper division will be the
+height of the top fillet and a reversa moulding; the second the height
+of a facia and the third an ovolo and small torus.
+
+The lower half of the impost consists of two facias, the upper of which
+is broader than the lower.
+
+
+_Ionic Archivolt_
+
+The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
+bold reversa moulding which occupies rather less than a fourth of the
+total width, and two facias of unequal widths. The width of the inner
+facia is nearly one-third more than that of the reversa moulding.
+
+
+_Corinthian Impost_
+
+The Corinthian impost differs from those of the other two orders in
+having a necking and necking moulding in place of the two unequal
+facias.
+
+The total height should be divided into two, and the upper half divided
+into four. Then the top fillet and reversa moulding will be one of these
+divisions, the facia two, and the supporting ovolo will occupy the
+remaining one.
+
+The lower half of the impost consists of a small torus and fillet
+beneath the ovolo, the necking, and the torus and fillet which form the
+necking moulding.
+
+
+_Corinthian Archivolt_
+
+The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
+reversa and three unequal facias.
+
+If the total width is divided into two, the point of bisection will be
+the centre of a small reversa moulding between the two outer facias. The
+outer reversa and the inner facia are each about one-sixth of the total
+width and the small reversa is about two-thirds of the inner facia.
+
+
+_The Keystone_
+
+A projecting block, or keystone, is sometimes used at the centre of the
+arch. The face width of its lowest edge should not be less than the
+width of the archivolt. Its height is not often less than one and a half
+times or more than twice this width.
+
+It may be decorated in various ways, and is frequently in the shape of a
+console. This form is especially suitable when the keystone comes in
+contact with the architrave of the entablature, in which case it is
+capped with a moulded abacus.
+
+
+_The Pedestal_
+
+The height of the pedestal is a fourth that of the column and
+entablature together, though this proportion may be varied to suit
+different conditions. For instance, when the pedestal forms part of the
+structure of a balcony or balustrading the height must be modified to
+suit the special requirements of the position.
+
+The pedestal is composed of plinth, die and capping.
+
+The width of the die is the same as the plinth of the base of the column
+above it, that is, one and one-third diameter. The projection of the
+capping, which is the same for all three orders is obtained by drawing a
+line at an angle of 30 degrees with the vertical from the top of the
+die.
+
+The width of the plinth corresponds to the projection of the capping,
+and is determined by dropping perpendiculars from the top fillet.
+
+The height of the mouldings between the die and plinth is determined by
+a line drawn from the bottom of the die at an angle of 45 degrees to
+intersect the vertical face of the plinth. The angle is the same for all
+the orders.
+
+
+_Doric Pedestal_
+
+In the Doric order the height of the capping is one-third diameter. The
+face of the die is square, and this determines the height of the plinth.
+
+[Illustration: No. 169. Detail of Pedestals.]
+
+The capping mouldings consist of a fillet, facia, ovolo, fillet and
+cavetto. The facia is carried to the underside of the fillet in a curve,
+and its height is half the total height of the capping. The facia is
+supported by the ovolo, and a fillet and cavetto complete the capping.
+
+The height of the course of mouldings at the top of the plinth should be
+divided into three, then the upper third will contain a cavetto moulding
+and fillet, and the remaining two-thirds an ogee and final fillet.
+
+
+_Ionic Pedestal_
+
+In the Ionic pedestal the plinth with its mouldings should occupy
+one-third the height and the capping one-fifth the remainder.
+
+The mouldings are similar to those of the Doric pedestal, but a little
+more elaborate. In the capping a reversa is used under the top fillet
+and a small torus or bead is placed between the ovolo and the cavetto.
+In the mouldings of the plinth a similar bead is introduced above the
+ogee moulding.
+
+
+_Corinthian Pedestal_
+
+The same general divisions as the Ionic will give the proportions of the
+Corinthian pedestal, the difference being that of the scale and the
+detail of the mouldings.
+
+The capping may be divided into two. The top half consists of a fillet,
+reversa and facia, and the lower half a supporting cyma recta, a bead
+and a cavetto curve. The plinth mouldings are the same as those of the
+Ionic pedestal with the addition of a torus beneath the ogee. The height
+of this torus is one-fourth the total height and is about equal to that
+of the cavetto and bead together.
+
+When the pedestal is employed the arch becomes proportionately larger.
+In the Doric order the columns are then spaced seven and a half
+diameters apart; in the Ionic seven and three quarters, and in the
+Corinthian eight diameters centre to centre.
+
+The archivolt, the radius of which is determined by the above spacing,
+is supported as before by an impost and pilaster. The base of the
+pilaster consists of a slightly projecting block equal in height to the
+plinth block of the pedestal.
+
+The height of the arch varies slightly, inasmuch as the inner curve may
+be about a diameter from the architrave, but in the Corinthian order
+should not fall below the level of the necking moulding of the capital.
+
+
+_The Baluster_
+
+As already stated, the pedestal may be used as a part of a balustrading
+associated with balusters, and must conform to the proportions
+necessitated by the conditions. The usual height for balustradings,
+whether to steps, balconies, or before windows, is three feet two
+inches, though in special cases it may be slightly more.
+
+The baluster is a species of small column. Its usual form is bulbous or
+vase-shaped, and it is furnished with a capital and base. A series of
+balusters is technically known as a balustrade.
+
+The balusters are raised on a plinth, which corresponds to the plinth of
+the pedestal, and surmounted by a rail of horizontal mouldings, which
+correspond to the capping of the pedestal; hence the baluster is of the
+same height as the die.
+
+The height of the baluster should be divided into five, then one-fifth
+will be the height of the base, and the capital exclusive of the necking
+will be another fifth. The extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft is
+one-third the total height of the baluster, and the diameter of the
+necking and the top of the shaft is about one-sixth. The capital has a
+square abacus slightly less in width than the plinth of the base. Below
+the abacus is
+
+[Illustration: No. 170. Detail of Balusters.]
+
+an ovolo and fillet, which are circular on plan. The necking is
+separated from the shaft by a small torus and fillet. The base has for
+its lowest member a square plinth, which occupies rather less than half
+the height and is equal in width to the extreme diameter of the bulbous
+shaft. Above the plinth is a scotia and a necking moulding, which are
+circular on plan.
+
+
+_Spacing of Balusters_
+
+The balusters should be spaced with not more than half their diameters
+or less than a third between their bases, except when employed on the
+rake of steps, when they may be slightly closer.
+
+
+_Balustrading_
+
+In a balustrading an unequal number of balusters should always be used,
+and not less than five in one group exclusive of the half balusters
+which are attached to the flanking or dividing dies. Seven and nine form
+very satisfactory groups, but if more than nine are necessary for the
+space to be filled, intermediate dies must be interposed, and these may
+vary from two-thirds to three-quarters the width of the principal dies.
+
+In some cases, when a large number of balusters are to be grouped, the
+dies are flanked by half dies, which are less in projection than the
+dies themselves.
+
+Balustrades are sometimes used above the cornice of a building, and
+their height should not be more than four-fifths or less than two-thirds
+the height of the entablature. This height would be exclusive of the
+plinth on which the balusters are raised. The height of the plinth is
+determined by the height of the building, and the projection of the
+cornice, as its purpose is to raise the balusters so that they may be
+seen from the ordinary point of view. The principal dies may be placed
+over columns or pilasters and should be equal in width to the upper
+diameters of these, though flanking half dies may be used in addition to
+avoid an appearance of thinness. The plinth and capping mouldings always
+follow the plan of the principal dies, and are carried in unbroken lines
+across each interval.
+
+When the height of the balustrade does not conform to the orthodox
+proportions the method of determining the relative proportions is as
+follows:--The height is divided into seven parts; of these one part
+gives the height of the capping, four the baluster and two the plinth.
+
+The mouldings in character and detail are the same as those of the
+pedestal, and should be in harmony with the order used.
+
+When balustrading forms part of a stair, the height on landings should
+be three feet two inches. On the rake two feet ten inches from the step
+at a line vertical with the face of the riser. The plinth is invariably
+used as a string enclosing the ends of the steps and following the rake
+or angle in a straight line, and carried to the levels by means of
+curving ramps.
+
+In interior work the bulbous shafts of balusters are often decorated
+with carved detail, and the mouldings also may be enriched.
+
+
+_Use of Columns_
+
+Columns were originally used in the porticos and courts of temples and
+other buildings, and sometimes to form supports for vaulted roofs.
+Wherever employed their function was directly structural, but this was
+not the case at the time of the Renaissance. The requirements demanded
+by widely different social conditions led to their being used more as
+decorative than structural features.
+
+The use of engaged columns and pilasters in a façade can be justified to
+some extent. Although such columns and pilasters may not be absolutely
+essential for support, yet they act as buttresses and add to the
+strength of the structure with a certain economy of material. Also they
+are æsthetically satisfactory in their effect of light and shade.
+
+
+_Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades_
+
+The disposition of columns either in a façade or a colonnade is
+controlled by proportions which have been found to be desirable or are
+necessitated by special features of the order itself. The latter is the
+case with the Doric order, the spacing being determined by the trigylphs
+and metopes. If the triglyphs are placed centrally over the columns or
+pilasters the spacing of these apart will be two and a half diameters
+centre to centre, three and three-quarters, or five diameters, with two,
+three or four metopes respectively between them in the frieze. With the
+wider spacing of five diameters it is usual to employ coupled columns to
+add to the appearance of strength. As the triglyphs are one and a
+quarter diameters apart centre to centre, the coupled columns are
+brought very close together, entailing a slight modification of the
+bases. Since the ordinary projection of the plinth of a sixth of a
+diameter beyond the line of the shaft is not possible between the two
+columns, the plinth-blocks are united, and the torus moulding made
+slightly less in projection.
+
+[Illustration: No. 171. Spacing of Columns.]
+
+The capitals being less in width are not affected, a small interval is
+left between the crowning reversa mouldings.
+
+In the Ionic order the columns are spaced three and a quarter, three and
+three-quarters and four and a quarter diameters centre to centre. The
+coupled columns used with the wide spacing are one and a half diameters
+centre to centre or half a diameter apart at the lower extremity of the
+shafts.
+
+The Corinthian spacing is slightly wider, three and a half diameters,
+four diameters, or with coupled columns four and a half diameters centre
+to centre. The coupled columns are placed as in the Ionic order one and
+a half diameters centre to centre.
+
+It is desirable that attention should be given to the vertical alignment
+of the principal features. Dentils and modillions and indeed all
+strongly marked features should centre with the columns, and be equally
+spaced in the intervals.
+
+
+_Orders Above Orders_
+
+Occasionally in façades orders are used above one another. The Colosseum
+is an antique Roman example of this, and it was a treatment often
+adopted by the architects of the early Renaissance. It is desirable that
+the simpler order should be the lower one. Ionic may be used over Doric,
+or Corinthian over Ionic.
+
+It is obvious that the central axes of the columns or pilasters of each
+order used should be in vertical alignment, not only when seen from the
+front, but in the case of detached columns, from the side view also.
+
+When engaged columns or pilasters are employed, the upper tier may be
+set back slightly from the face of the lower order which supports it; an
+example of this is to be found in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.
+
+The proportions of the upper order are obtained by making the lower
+diameter of the upper tier of columns or pilasters equal to the upper
+diameter of those
+
+[Illustration: No. 172. Order above Order.]
+
+of the supporting order, and an effect of continuous tapering is
+produced.
+
+It is usual to place above the entablature of the lower order a plinth
+on which the bases of the upper columns rest. The height of the plinth
+is regulated by the point of view, as its purpose is to display the
+bases of the imposed order above the projecting cornice. Generally this
+height will be about half a diameter.
+
+In many historical examples the upper columns are placed on pedestals,
+but this treatment, although useful when a balcony is desired, is not to
+be recommended as the extra width and projection which the use of the
+pedestal entails, gives an appearance of undue weight to be borne by the
+supporting columns. If balconies are necessary they may terminate with
+their own pedestals, which can be kept clear of the columns and should
+not exceed them in projection.
+
+
+_The Pilaster_
+
+It may be as well to deal here with the treatment of pilasters, which
+may be defined as columns in bas-relief. Their projection may vary from
+one-half to about one-sixth their face width, though in antique examples
+it is sometimes much less than this. In the pilasters of the Pantheon at
+Rome it is one-tenth.
+
+The projection is, however, partly determined by the order with which
+the pilaster is used, as an appearance of mutilation might easily be
+produced in the capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric
+capital, being composed of moulded profiles, is not in any way affected
+by the amount of projection. Nor does the Ionic capital suffer when the
+volutes are in one plane except when used on an angle. But if the later
+Renaissance type with the volutes arranged at angles of 45 degrees is
+employed, the projection of the pilaster must not be less than half its
+upper diameter, so that the volute on the return face may be complete.
+
+The Corinthian capital would be affected in the same way, and should
+also be not less than half a diameter in projection in order to obtain a
+satisfactory result.
+
+The pilaster is usually tapered, and when associated with columns and
+supporting the same entablature it is essential to preserve universal
+alignment in the upper extremities and the architrave, but when used by
+itself the pilaster is often not tapered. At the angle of buildings,
+where both faces are displayed, it is an invariable rule that pilasters
+should be straight.
+
+The details of capitals and bases are the same as those of the columns.
+When fluting is employed an odd number of channels should be used,
+usually seven on the front face.
+
+[Illustration: No. 173. Doric Order. Treatment of coupled Column and
+Pilaster.]
+
+
+_Arcades_
+
+Arcades, as already suggested, may be composed of a series of arches,
+supported on pilasters which flank the columns. The backs of the piers
+thus formed may be treated with pilasters, which can be repeated on the
+opposite wall, with the architrave frieze and cornice above.
+
+There are several alternative treatments for the ceilings of arcades.
+They may be flat and panelled by beams carried across in a line with the
+pilasters and with a cornice moulding carried round the sides of the
+beams.
+
+[Illustration: No. 174. Doric Arcading.]
+
+The interior can also be vaulted by means of archivolts springing from
+the line of the imposts. The archivolts should be supported by pilasters
+at the back of the piers and on the opposite wall, and a cornice may be
+carried round between the vaults. Cross vaulting also may be employed,
+and in this case the entablature is no longer necessary.
+
+The proportions already given determine the width of piers when an order
+is used, but when an order is not used some further general rules for
+proportions are necessary.
+
+The height of the opening formed by arches, which may spring from
+piers--with or without an impost--should be about twice the width. The
+supporting piers should not be less than a third or more than
+two-thirds the width of the aperture. In any form of arcading, piers
+must be employed at the angles, and these should be wider than the
+intermediate ones by a half, a third, or a fourth.
+
+[Illustration: No. 175. Doric Arch, with pedestal.]
+
+
+_Subsidiary Order_
+
+A secondary or subsidiary order is sometimes used in an arcading. The
+height of the arch should then be twice its width, and the height of the
+small order two-thirds the height of the column of the principal order.
+
+This height of two-thirds the column should be sub-divided into nine
+parts, of which eight will give the height of the column and the
+remaining one that of the entablature. The entablature consists of
+architrave and cornice, the frieze being omitted, and a division into
+five will give the relative proportions. Two-fifths may be taken as the
+height of the architrave and three that of the cornice.
+
+[Illustration: No. 176. Employment of the Subsidiary Order.]
+
+Pilasters are used with the columns of the subsidiary order with a space
+of half a diameter between them and the columns.
+
+[Illustration: No. 177. Subsidiary Order. Division of Entablature.]
+
+The archivolt should be equal in width to the upper diameter of the
+column, and the width of the lower edge of the keystone should also be
+of the same dimension.
+
+The subsidiary order may be the same as the principal order, but more
+often the Ionic is used in conjunction with the Doric, or the Corinthian
+with the Ionic.
+
+As regards the treatment of the bases, the horizontal alignment must be
+maintained. It is obvious that if the height of the base of the large
+column is adopted for the subsidiary one it will be very much out of
+proportion. This can be obviated by carrying through the plinth of the
+larger column to form a step on which the base of the smaller rests, and
+always the top line of the smaller bases should agree with that of the
+larger.
+
+
+_Superimposed Orders_
+
+When arcades are used one above the other, the lower order is usually
+mounted on a plinth, and the upper furnished with a pedestal. The height
+of the pedestal is determined by the balustrading or balcony, the height
+of which is governed by its use.
+
+If the Doric is taken as the lower order the centres of the columns are
+six and a quarter diameters apart, which gives a frieze of five metopes
+with intervening triglyphs. The plinth on which the order stands is
+three-quarters of a diameter high. The pilaster supporting the archivolt
+projects half a diameter, and the height of the arch is determined by
+the impost, which is two-thirds the height of the column inclusive of
+the plinth. The base of the pilaster may be moulded, but the top line
+should coincide with the top of the plinth.
+
+Above the Doric an Ionic order might be placed, and the die and plinth
+of the superimposed order should be kept as narrow as possible so as to
+reduce the impression of weight. The pilasters carrying the arch rest on
+the plinth of the pedestal, and the plinth mouldings are carried round
+the bases. The plinth and rail of the balustrading should not project
+but be kept between the pilasters.
+
+The centres of the arches of both tiers are in a line with the tops of
+the imposts, and the outer edges of the archivolts may nearly reach the
+lower lines of the architraves.
+
+When the Ionic is used as the lower order it may be surmounted by the
+Corinthian. The distance between the centres of the lower columns should
+then be six and a half diameters. The other proportions can be obtained
+in the same way as the preceding.
+
+If a subsidiary order is employed the columns of the principal order are
+placed further apart. In the case of the Doric the distance is seven and
+a half diameters, and the other orders are increased in proportion.
+
+
+_Rustication_
+
+The joints of the material used must necessarily be considered, and when
+plain piers or plain wall surfaces occur the joints may readily be
+accentuated and so turned to decorative account. The edges of the stones
+forming the separate courses may be chamfered or moulded. The joints may
+also be worked so as to form a square recess.
+
+[Illustration: No. 178. Rustication.]
+
+The surface of the stone is sometimes roughly tooled or frosted, or
+worked in an arbitrary pattern, which is termed “vermiculated.” This
+treatment probably gave rise to the word rustication.
+
+When rusticated work is used with an order the height of each course of
+stone should not be less than half a diameter, and when square recessed
+joints are used they can be one-eighth or one-tenth the height of the
+course.
+
+Occasionally only the horizontal courses are thus marked, and this has
+been objected to as producing a boarded appearance, though undoubtedly
+the horizontal effect is at times agreeably in contrast to the vertical
+features. A much more usual treatment in Renaissance examples was to
+emphasise the vertical joints also.
+
+The length of each stone should be from one and a half to three times
+the height.
+
+Rustication may be used in the formation of the arch, which frequently
+has at its springing line a slightly projecting course, in which the
+vertical joints are not emphasised.
+
+[Illustration: No. 179. Rusticated Arcade.]
+
+Rustication is also used in columns, either square on plan or conforming
+to the plan of the column.
+
+Its most legitimate employment is in basements and to emphasise the
+angles of buildings.
+
+
+_Basement_
+
+A basement is really a continuous pedestal on which an order rests. It
+necessarily varies in height according to conditions, thus if its
+purpose is merely to raise the ground floor it may be no more than three
+to six feet high, but if it is required to form a storey, it should not
+exceed the height of the order employed or be less than one half.
+
+The joints of the work in basements are generally accentuated by some
+form of rustication, and the heights of the horizontal courses should
+not be less than half a diameter of the column of the order above.
+
+When a high basement is used it is sometimes crowned with a cornice, or
+more frequently with a slightly projecting facia technically known as a
+plat-band. In either case, the height should be equal to that of the
+courses exclusive of moulded edges or chamfers. Also a plinth is placed
+at the base of the same height as the plat-band or a little more. When a
+cornice is used the plinth should be moulded and may then exceed the
+height of the courses.
+
+
+_Attic_
+
+An attic storey is sometimes used instead of a second order, and this
+may vary from one-third to one-tenth the height of the order beneath it.
+
+The attic may be quite plain, but it often has breakings or projections
+on its face corresponding to the vertical features of the supporting
+order.
+
+It usually forms a storey in a building, and then is of necessity
+pierced with windows.
+
+In architectural design the character and requirements of the building
+must, of course, be the first consideration, but the basement may
+constitute the ground floor, the height occupied by the order may
+contain two stories and the attic may be an upper floor.
+
+When an order is not employed the divisions and proportions already
+stated may still be applied, the heights and widths should govern each
+other as would be the case if the façade were divided into bays by
+columns or pilasters.
+
+In the absence of the order a cornice is substituted for the
+entablature, and this, according to different authorities, may be from
+one-twelfth to one-sixteenth the total height from the ground, but
+one-fourteenth or one-fifteenth will be found a safe mean.
+
+
+_The Pediment_
+
+The pediment in its original and orthodox employment was a gable
+conforming to the pitch of the roof. It is framed with mouldings, and
+the enclosed space is technically known as the tympanum.
+
+[Illustration: No. 180. Cornice where order is not employed.]
+
+The use made of the pediment by the architects of the Renaissance was
+not always justified in the strictest sense. It was often used to vary
+the sky line, and to form door and window heads. Although the latter use
+can be to some extent justified in exterior work, a similar employment
+in interiors may be open to question.
+
+The sloping lines of the pediment are not always straight, sometimes
+they are in the form of a curve composed of a segment of a circle. The
+triangular and curved forms are often used alternately in a row of
+windows with good effect.
+
+The lines of the pediment mouldings are not always continuous; sometimes
+the sloping or the horizontal lines or both are broken. This is a
+treatment that cannot readily be justified as the pediment is a feature
+that implies shelter.
+
+Sometimes ogee curves take the place of the straight sloping lines, and
+these terminate towards the centre, with scroll ends, leaving an
+interval between them.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF PEDIMENT
+
+No. 181.]
+
+The mouldings of the pediment are the same as those of the cornice, the
+crowning moulding of which is carried round and omitted in the
+horizontal course forming the base of the pediment.
+
+Beneath the cyma the mouldings of the cornice are repeated in their
+proper order, detailing at the lower angles on the top of the horizontal
+cornice, which terminates with the fillet above the facia.
+
+When dentils and modillions are introduced in the cornice they are
+invariably repeated in the mouldings of the pediment.
+
+The tympanum or face of the pediment should be in vertical alignment
+with the face of the frieze. When this space is small it is best left
+plain, but on a large scale the tympanum affords a very suitable
+position in which to place sculpture.
+
+The height of the pediment varies according to the width. Thus where the
+base is short, as in door and window heads, it will be comparatively
+higher than when used in a façade. The height may vary from a fourth to
+a fifth of the width of the base.
+
+
+_Doors_
+
+Obviously door openings should be of sufficient size to admit the free
+passage of a tall person. The minimum height for ordinary doors in
+domestic buildings should be six feet nine inches, and the width two
+feet nine inches. For entrance doors under similar conditions the width
+may be three feet six, but when it is more than this the door should be
+in two halves.
+
+[Illustration: No. 182. General proportions of doors and windows.]
+
+The size of doors should be proportioned to the building, and should be
+designed to meet probable requirements, thus in public buildings door
+openings should not be less than six feet wide.
+
+Generally a satisfactory proportion may be obtained by making the height
+twice the width, and the framing architrave one-sixth the width of the
+opening.
+
+If a frieze and cornice are carried over the door the height inclusive
+of architrave should be half the width of the opening.
+
+[Illustration: No. 183. Door Treatment.
+
+     A. Architrave with simple pilasters and consoles.
+
+     B. Ionic order rusticated, with pediment.
+
+     C. Doric order with pediment.
+
+     D. Doric order rusticated.
+]
+
+In addition to the framing architrave narrow pilasters bearing consoles
+supporting the cornice are sometimes used. The total width of architrave
+and pilaster may be about one-third the width, and the entire
+entablature one-third the height of the opening.
+
+The mouldings and decorations used should be in harmony with the general
+structure and in character with the order if one is used.
+
+Occasionally columns or pilasters are introduced, with or without the
+arch, but the same general proportions apply, the aperture being two
+squares.
+
+When doors are placed under arches the top line of the entablature
+should agree with that of the impost.
+
+When a pediment is used, the height should be one-fourth the width of
+the base.
+
+
+_Windows_
+
+The general proportions and treatments of doors apply also to windows,
+and if doors and windows are placed in the same line the heads of the
+openings should be in horizontal alignment. If this is not possible the
+top of the cornice may agree with the inner line of the window openings.
+
+Windows terminate below in a sill, or sometimes in a balcony, and as a
+general rule those on the same level should be similar in treatment, but
+an alternation such as already suggested with curved and straight lined
+pediments is quite satisfactory.
+
+The frieze and consoles of doors and windows are often decorated with
+relief ornament.
+
+When a façade is divided by columns or pilasters the bays are pierced
+with windows ranged above each
+
+[Illustration: No. 184. Windows.
+
+     A. Rusticated Architrave.
+
+     B. Rusticated Ionic Columns.
+
+     C. & D. Rustication with Horizontal and Vertical Joints Defined.
+]
+
+other, the heights varying with the different floors. Those on the first
+storey are usually of full height, and those above less in height and
+simpler in treatment. The width of apertures should be the same for the
+different levels, except in the case of basements, where they may be
+narrower.
+
+When an order is not employed in a façade variety may be obtained by
+grouping the windows; or three-light windows may be introduced. The
+centre light, which may be treated with an arched head, should be twice
+the width of the side lights.
+
+[Illustration: No. 185. Three-Light Window.]
+
+The number of windows in a façade should be odd, so that there may be a
+centre one, and the end windows of a range should be kept well clear of
+the angles of the building.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+DIVISION OF SURFACE
+
+
+In interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be
+divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form
+of the framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval;
+and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails
+or ribs, while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings.
+
+
+_Wall Treatment_
+
+In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with
+architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily
+employed.
+
+In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of
+pilasters--the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to
+the conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of
+pilasters in exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces
+between them are occupied by panels or other features.
+
+Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted
+on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the
+form of a Dado or surbase.
+
+In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice
+forms a bed moulding for the ceiling.
+
+Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in
+
+[Illustration: No. 186. Wall Division.
+
+     A. & B. Pilaster Treatment.
+
+     C. & D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.
+]
+
+some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the
+case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel.
+
+[Illustration: No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo,
+Florence. M. Angelo.]
+
+In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the
+division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both
+vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may
+be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide.
+
+
+_Ceilings_
+
+When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some
+relation to the general construction, though in the past this rule has
+not always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very
+desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden
+or plaster mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated.
+When mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be
+maintained between the framing ribs and the panels.
+
+[Illustration: No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo,
+Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.]
+
+The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs
+geometrically arranged with pateræ in between and fleur-de-lys details
+on the outer angles where the ribs met.
+
+[Illustration: No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Plan
+of general arrangement.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.]
+
+
+_Jacobean_
+
+In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands
+projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These
+bands were disposed in various ways--sometimes intersecting at right
+angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming
+geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines.
+
+If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is
+obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account.
+
+
+_Carolean and Georgian_
+
+In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the
+ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or
+oval in form--the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes
+the angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably
+left plain.
+
+
+_Adam Ceilings_
+
+[Illustration: No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall, Westmorland.]
+
+The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or
+circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons--an
+arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended
+
+[Illustration: No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.]
+
+as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated
+with the characteristic fan detail.
+
+[Illustration: No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.]
+
+
+_Vaults and Domes_
+
+In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal
+or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size
+towards the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more
+properly speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further
+the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as
+circles, unless the diameter be relatively small.
+
+[Illustration: No. 194. Adam Ceiling.]
+
+
+_The Cove_
+
+In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is
+technically known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of
+the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be
+decorated.
+
+When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be
+obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are
+themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make
+a break in the frieze or cove.
+
+It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in
+interior decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use
+it may be urged that, though considerations of actual weight and
+structure are not involved, yet the appearance of support has to be
+maintained, and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should
+realise the effect of stability.
+
+
+_The Frieze_
+
+[Illustration: No. 198. Festoon Frieze. Continuous treatment with
+vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, Tivoli]
+
+In considering the decoration of the various parts, the two principal
+questions to be asked are--what is the purpose? and, what is the
+attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be said to be to bind, and the
+attitude of the Frieze is certainly a horizontal one--therefore the
+usual continuous treatment is justified. This is not the only way in
+which the Frieze can be treated, however, for the continuous horizontal
+treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the Doric
+order. The employment of Festoons with intermediate
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Photo]
+
+No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice, Sansovino.
+
+[Alinari
+]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Photo]
+
+No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal division, resulting in
+panels. Villa Madama, Rome.
+
+[Alinari
+]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Photo]
+
+No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial division.
+
+[Alinari
+]
+
+pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the
+vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle
+is involved in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be
+in alignment with adjacent and dominant details.
+
+[Illustration: No. 199. Frieze. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome.
+Horizontal direction suggested by Gryffons, with vertical contrast by
+Candelabra.]
+
+All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as much
+interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary
+repetition.
+
+
+_Borders_
+
+Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the
+spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably
+uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations,
+where some license is permissible).
+
+As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be
+simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions.
+
+The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When
+on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines
+spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which
+case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the
+length, while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles.
+This treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines
+between those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and
+these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple
+forms.
+
+[Illustration: No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 201. Interlacing Borders.]
+
+The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which
+traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and
+then returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is
+an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is
+alternately dispensed with.
+
+
+_Geometric Elements_
+
+The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character.
+The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various
+angles, or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a
+combination of straight lines and curves.
+
+
+_The Undulate Line_
+
+[Illustration: No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric Curves.]
+
+Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered
+patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and
+dark masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting
+straight lines. When segmental curves are employed either the chequered
+or interlacing effect may be obtained. Such patterns are essentially
+geometric and mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested
+by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from
+either side of the border. This effect may be used with purely
+artificial detail, such as arises naturally from the spaces left, or
+with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident that the curve of
+the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres
+from which the arcs are struck.
+
+[Illustration: No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate Borders.]
+
+A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will
+be obtained by basing the stem upon
+
+[Illustration: No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 205. 14th Century Textile composed of Undulate
+Borders arranged obliquely.]
+
+a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The
+latter device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only
+the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded.
+
+[Illustration: No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century, composed of
+Borders.]
+
+Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details
+symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional
+flowers or rosettes to break the monotony.
+
+
+_Repetition and Alternation_
+
+Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal
+character, and should consist of the repetition of units with no
+interest beyond that imparted by alternation.
+
+The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to
+be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor
+of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit
+can be designed.
+
+
+_Treatment of Angles_
+
+[Illustration: No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border.
+
+A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal]
+
+The meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special
+treatment, and in those positions the detail should be compact and
+stronger in appearance than the general pattern. The simplest expedient
+is some form of patera or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should
+always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border. The only
+forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles,
+are the undulating stem, the wave, and its square form the key or
+labyrinth; but even with these the proportion of width to height at
+times needs modification. If a common divisor is not possible, the
+difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal
+and letting the two sides meet in the centre of the border, so that any
+slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable.
+
+
+_Pilaster Treatment_
+
+As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its
+treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural
+requirements, and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis
+and vertical in direction.
+
+When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be
+unequal in number--seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be
+further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only
+one-third of the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of
+husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the
+pilaster. In either case the general rule must be observed that the
+cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height.
+
+
+_Panelled Pilasters_
+
+Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about
+half the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably
+in pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the
+centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped
+panel. Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and
+this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this
+purpose the undulate stem should never be employed. Such detail requires
+a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster,
+but for the rest, it may consist of the same unit repeated, or of two
+alternating units.
+
+In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was
+customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and
+labels.
+
+
+_Capitals and Bases_
+
+The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other
+decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a
+modified Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster
+has plain or decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the
+pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a
+composite form in which the Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure
+together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be
+used. The Ionic type would also be suitable; when the base of the
+pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus
+may be bound with cross ribbons.
+
+[Illustration: No. 208. Pilaster Treatment. French Renaissance.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 209. Treatment of Pilaster Capital, with Vertical
+Emphasis.]
+
+
+_Treatment of Panels_
+
+Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and
+therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be
+considered--that is to say, the only question is, as to whether the
+surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane. In the
+decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane, since it is not desirable
+to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate diagonally or
+diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a ceiling,
+details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should
+grow towards the centre of the ceiling.
+
+[Illustration: No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth from Angle.]
+
+When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any
+height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule;
+but if the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it
+should remain vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform
+to the width.
+
+The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude,
+should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate
+terminals. If the enclosing border were removed the detail should, by
+its general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole
+surface may not be occupied.
+
+Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the
+panel--certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration
+than on adornment in more subordinate positions.
+
+The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do
+so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be
+carefully considered.
+
+[Illustration: No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central Feature based on
+Circle.]
+
+Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced
+one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the
+position of the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of
+panels; greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed
+designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs.
+
+
+_Juxtaposition_
+
+When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the
+other, they may exert influence on one another. For example, vertical
+features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent
+panel even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels
+are one above the other, central features should be avoided and the
+interest should be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the
+effect will be spotty and lacking in repose.
+
+[Illustration: No. 212. Panels in Juxtaposition.]
+
+As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their
+treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to
+which the more structural features must submit, there is open to them
+
+[Illustration: No. 213. Design for Panel based on Treatment of Celery.
+By C. A. Sheehan, Bristol.]
+
+a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first
+place, the panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the
+requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on
+in mural decoration. If not treated pictorially, ornament of a
+traditional character, or designs derived more directly from natural
+forms can be made use of. In either case the ornament must complete
+itself within the given area.
+
+
+_The Growth Line_
+
+[Illustration: No. 214. Analysis of Composing Lines of Panel.]
+
+In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used,
+but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for
+the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected
+growth. The disposition of leaves and other elements must also be
+characteristic, and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near
+enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such
+forms as branches or leaves approach or cross, they should always do so
+at decided angles; their points or extremities should never be directly
+opposed to other details or to margins. The main growth should be
+clearly discernible, and the direction of the stem lines evident even
+when clothed with foliage.
+
+
+_Grouping and Massing_
+
+It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that
+the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a
+design. In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped
+and massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious
+whole. Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in
+keeping with the general environment.
+
+Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail,
+because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail
+equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is
+obvious that the result will again be uniform--the only difference being
+that a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not
+undesirable in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel.
+
+
+_Division of Area_
+
+The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent
+should be guided by the scale. One expedient in panel designing is to
+draw within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other
+shape, a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to
+that which is to be less conspicuous.
+
+[Illustration: No. 215. Phases of Elaboration of Simple Shape.]
+
+Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses, but the grouping of
+these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders
+a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of
+adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling
+growth lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament.
+
+[Illustration: No. 216. Byzantine Panel. Composition based on Circles.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 217. Romanesque Lunette Panel. Composition based on
+Circular Shapes.]
+
+
+_Human and Animal Life_
+
+Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is
+employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to
+composition, inasmuch that they
+
+[Illustration: No. 218. Figure Composition. Recognition of Framing
+Lines.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 219. Figure Composition. Spandril Treatment.]
+
+must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the
+boundaries or framing lines.
+
+The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely
+conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted
+into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not
+possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the
+consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if
+consistency has to be observed.
+
+The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in
+particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings
+or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the
+memorial of Mr. Dick.
+
+
+_Forms in the Round_
+
+Forms in the round--such that can be seen from any point of view--need
+special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the
+surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of
+varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical
+lines, any one of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite,
+would appear straight, whereas those approaching the profiles would
+appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature.
+
+[Illustration: No. 220. Effect of Perspective of Vertical Division.]
+
+Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according
+to the profile curvature, and in decoration, for bodies that are
+bulbous in form, the foreshortening and its effect on details must be
+taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion.
+
+
+_Supports and Balusters_
+
+Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for
+furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and
+balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts,
+and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously
+suggested. Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in
+wood, these forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case
+may be further decorated by carved work. In supports, the general
+tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to
+enhance the structural suggestion.
+
+[Illustration: No. 221. Jacobean Baluster, Carved Wood, showing Vertical
+and Horizontal Contrast.]
+
+
+_Standards_
+
+In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the
+element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a
+greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in
+interior fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate
+but will convey the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards
+the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable, but when the
+standard is small the base can be circular, square or polygonal. The
+commonest form is a shaft, which is frequently tapered. This is
+supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base. At
+the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind. These different
+parts are held together by appropriate mouldings.
+
+The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size,
+should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with
+occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must
+also vary according to material.
+
+[Illustration: No. 222. Cast Iron Lamp Standard.]
+
+
+_Proportion_
+
+Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind
+of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and
+diameter. Obvious repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided.
+The profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting
+harmony or contrast--the curves either approaching one another in a
+flexible line or being deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used
+at intervals to mark the various stages.
+
+[Illustration: No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration.
+
+A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast.
+
+B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.]
+
+Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight
+lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may
+take other forms--they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the
+diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When
+unity of line is desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily
+into each other, even if broken at intervals by mouldings. In
+contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order
+to avoid indecision of form.
+
+
+_Positions for Decoration_
+
+The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by
+mouldings. The nature and direction of the decoration will be
+determined by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of
+the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid
+distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform
+curvature.
+
+If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of
+flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the
+vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an
+oblique direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or
+twining round the shape.
+
+[Illustration: No. 224. Stretch Out and Segments of the Cylinder.]
+
+In the vertical panel treatment, as in mouldings, the sectional or
+profile curve may be used to determine the general framing lines, with
+contrasting details between the panels. In order to give variety it may
+be desirable to combine two treatments--for instance, the horizontal
+band may be contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves.
+
+
+_Working Drawings_
+
+For a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in
+perspective. All the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel
+lines. It is obvious that except for profiles and general height,
+further details must be given for a working drawing.
+
+
+_The Segment or Stretch Out_
+
+[Illustration: No. 225. Stretch Out of the Cone.]
+
+In designing for forms in the round it is necessary to detail the
+ornament on a segment or a stretching-out of the area. This is easily
+done in the case of a cylinder of which the height is evident, and the
+extreme width and circumference easily obtainable. If the object is not
+in existence for direct measurement the width can be determined from the
+diameter as expressed in the drawing. As this diameter is about
+one-third of the circumference a parallelogram three times the width of
+the diameter will provide, in the flat, the complete area on which
+detail has to be drawn.
+
+Should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone--that is,
+with straight inclined sides and a circular plan, the procedure must
+necessarily be different. In this case the lines of the sides should be
+extended till they intersect. This intersection forms a centre from
+which arcs may be struck coinciding with the lines of top and base. The
+greatest diameter should be set off on each side of the elevation on the
+larger radius and the points joined up with the centres from which the
+arcs were struck. The result is a fan-shaped figure bounded by these
+outer lines and the two arcs. This figure gives the entire area of the
+surface of the truncated cone.
+
+In either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on, the
+surfaces can be sub-divided. For instance, if the decoration consists of
+a unit repeated three or six times round the form, it will not be
+necessary to reproduce the whole area, provided always that the profiles
+are straight or tapered.
+
+[Illustration: No. 226. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-sixth of
+Vase.]
+
+As the diameter is about one-third of the circumference the elevational
+drawing of the cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a diameter
+gives one-sixth.
+
+In the truncated cone shape the widths are similarly determined, but it
+will be found that the height, when measured on the centre line, is less
+than the lengths of the profile lines which constitute the actual
+height.
+
+When the profiles are curved, the procedure is more complicated. As in
+the case of the cone shape, there is naturally some discrepancy between
+the height of the elevation and the profile, the actual dimension of
+which is affected by perspective (as also in plan curvature).
+
+To obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured
+vertically with some flexible material, such as thin lead wire, which
+will readily embrace the curvature.
+
+If a division of a third or a sixth is required the diameter or half
+diameter can be taken, but the segment of the area should be set off on
+a fresh centre line quite independent of the elevational drawing.
+
+In order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be
+divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in
+curvature, and these can be lettered or numbered for identification. The
+distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on
+the new centre line, and then these can be used for drawing the
+parallels through.
+
+The various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines on
+the elevation. Lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give
+the required segment or area on the flat.
+
+[Illustration: No. 227. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-fifth of
+Vase.]
+
+If other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required,
+it will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the
+division can be obtained. Assuming that the elevation has been
+vertically divided as before, and the plan to be circular, a circle
+should be struck which is to represent the largest diameter and its
+circumference divided into the required number of parts. Lines are then
+drawn through to the centre. On the same centre other circles are
+struck with radii equal to the remaining horizontals, and each
+identified with the corresponding number or letter. The heights are
+obtained as before, and the diameters of the variations in the curvature
+can be ascertained by measuring round each of the plan curves in
+succession.
+
+In the case of the plan being other than circular, the same rules apply,
+but the different plans would have to be drawn in each individual
+example.
+
+Owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes, it is undesirable
+to employ the human figure, unless in bold relief, and then only on
+straight or slightly curved profiles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT
+
+
+The term Convention is applied to decoration in which there is distinct
+evidence of artistic restraint, which may be purely æsthetic or due to
+technical conditions.
+
+
+_Outline Drawing_
+
+The rendering of any form in outline is probably the simplest form of
+convention, which is generally accepted through tradition as
+representation. Though the objects so depicted really depend on light,
+shade, and local colour for their appearance.
+
+Such outline drawings may be in other respects realistic, but a further
+degree of convention is the desirable elimination of perspective where
+it is unsuitable to the effect desired. For instance, in silhouette,
+profile renderings only are intelligible, and in delicate bas-relief
+modelling any foreshortening should be avoided if confusing to the
+effect.
+
+In direct personal work, such as drawing or painting, when craft
+conditions other than that of the medium employed are not involved,
+convention is purely a matter of discretion and consideration of the
+nature and object of the work; but it is essential in design when the
+material and method of production have to be considered. In painting the
+artist may employ the full resources of his palette and be as realistic
+in his effect as is in his power, but if the purpose be mural
+decoration restraint is at once imposed.
+
+
+_Undesirable Realism_
+
+Under certain conditions realism would be out of place, and any attempt
+at illusion would fail to convince. The one time fashion of painting
+ceilings with sprawling deities of either sex, which cannot be seen
+without a painful crick in the neck, or worse still to suggest sky with
+floating amorini, occasionally framed by marble balustrading in
+wonderful perspective is deplorable.
+
+Such decoration, if it can be so termed, is not only stagey but is
+foredoomed to failure in effect, as the ordinary interior lighting is
+not adequate. Furthermore, it displays a lack of appreciation of
+fitness, and that the purpose of a ceiling is to convey a sense of
+shelter.
+
+Realism, though desirable in portraiture, either of individuals, places
+or events, is not necessarily of the greatest interest except to those
+concerned. In mural decoration realism should give place to convention,
+and the whole considered as a design with regard to balance of form and
+colour, and recognition of the surface to which the decoration is
+applied.
+
+The first attempts at decoration were the direct results of material and
+the manner of working, in which there was no attempt at representation.
+This was succeeded when the early artists attained more skill by a phase
+of realism, later still with acquired culture there was a deliberate
+return to convention.
+
+The dignified conception of the Egyptian rendering of the Lion, though
+thoroughly conventional, reveals technical skill and anatomical
+knowledge of a high order; also appreciation for desirable treatment,
+and may be contrasted favourably with those by Sir Edwin Landseer round
+the pedestal of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square, in which realism
+is not subordinated to the decorative and symbolic conditions.
+
+
+_Craft Restrictions_
+
+When any craft process is involved the design is only a means to the
+end, and convention is then imposed by the technical conditions of the
+craft in question. The designer has to keep these conditions in view,
+the desirable object being to make the greatest economic use of the
+process compatible with a good result. It would be a waste of both time
+and energy to depict effects that could not be realised.
+
+In woven or printed fabrics it is impossible to produce natural effects;
+even if that were possible the inevitable repetition of the unit would
+be not merely unnatural but a gross absurdity. The great bulk of the
+public do not understand convention, hence the popularity of textiles
+and wall-papers in which the designs consist of flowers treated (however
+inconsistently) in natural aspect as far as possible; in particular the
+Rose which, like the poor, is ever with us.
+
+Traditional ornament at its best has generally been conventional, the
+various details of foliage being æsthetic creations, with at times,
+perhaps, some suggestion derived from natural types. The scroll in the
+form of volutes as employed in the Ionic capital may have been suggested
+by the fossil known as the Ammonite
+
+[Illustration: No. 228. Filagree Jewellery.
+
+     A. Hook for Jacket in Silver. Swedish, Mid. 18th Century.
+
+     B. Pendant Cross. Gold set with Garnets. Modern Italian.
+
+     C. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern French.
+
+     D. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
+
+     E. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
+
+     F. Pendant. Northern Portuguese. 17th or early 18th Century.
+
+     G. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
+
+     H. Pendant. Gold. As worn by peasants in Etruria.
+]
+
+shell, so called because it resembles the ram’s horn of Jupiter Ammon.
+Its traditional employment in conjunction with the undulate stem, is
+certainly far from any natural suggestion in the way of growth, while
+the variety known as the evolute scroll is distinctly artificial.
+
+
+_Materialistic Influence_
+
+It is probable that it had its origin in the facility with which wire
+could be bent, and in early jewellery such scroll forms are conspicuous.
+
+A reasonable conjecture is that the similar forms in early repoussé
+work, such as that of the gold ornaments found at Enkomi, Cyprus and the
+painted decoration of the Greek vases, were inspired by the treatment
+which was the outcome of the use of metal in the form of thin wire.
+Similar details occur in Peruvian and New Guinea work, which is
+certainly coincidental as it is difficult to imagine these people having
+any communication with the Old World.
+
+Scandinavian and Keltic art was to a certain extent influenced by
+Eastern tradition through the medium of the Phœnician merchant
+adventurers; but no such conjecture is feasible in the Maori incised
+work and tattooing in which similar details occur.
+
+The scrolling line alone may be used, generally in decoration of small
+scale, as in the Greek vases. In this form it frequently occurs in
+pottery, either incised or painted, and in filagree jewellery. Wrought
+iron partakes largely of the scrolling character, but this, as in
+filagree, is the direct result of the material employed.
+
+Scandinavian and Keltic ornament consisted mainly
+
+[Illustration: No. 229. The Evolute Scroll.
+
+     A. Pottery (painted) Archaic Greek.
+
+     B. Pottery (painted) Cyprus, 800 B.C.
+
+     C. D. F. Gold Ornaments from Tombs at Enkomi, Cyprus.
+
+     E. Pottery (painted) Ancient Mexico.
+
+     G. Early Greek Stone Carving. Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos,
+     Boeotia.
+
+     H. Assyrian Stone Carving. Sacred Hom or Palm.
+]
+
+[Illustration: No. 230. The Evolute Scroll in Savage Art.
+
+     A. B. C. Spatula Handles, Carved Wood, New Guinea.
+
+     D. Detail on Paddle, Carved Wood, New Guinea.
+
+     E. Maori Chief’s Staff Handle, Carved Wood.
+
+     F. Detail from Tattooed Maori Head.
+
+     G. Engraved Bamboo, Borneo.
+
+     H. Carved Wood Detail, New Guinea.
+]
+
+of a series of scrolling forms, as also did much of the ornament of the
+illuminated Gothic work and mural decoration. The desire for variety and
+mass lead eventually to the employment of diverse elements, arising in
+many instances from different treatment of existing details; thus,
+during the Renaissance, the side view of a poppy-like flower suggested
+and became a profile mask, and the husk leaf was frequently elaborated
+into the form of a dolphin.
+
+[Illustration: No. 231. Scroll & Anthemion Ornament from Greek Vase
+Paintings.]
+
+
+_Early Renderings_
+
+The evolute scroll which plays so conspicuous a part in Greek art, was
+employed at earlier periods by the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and the
+widespread appreciation and use of this form of detail is plainly
+indicative that it was not disseminated from any one centre.
+
+In the early employment of these curved forms there is no evidence of
+natural suggestion, but later, leaves and floral details were added
+conveying the idea of growth. In Egyptian and Assyrian art certain
+natural types occur, such as the Lotus, Papyrus and the Palm, but these
+were utterly denaturalised, all realism being eliminated.
+
+These conventions, though incidentally decorative, were invested with
+symbolic meaning with which their employment was concerned rather than
+with the imitation of natural form.
+
+
+_The Anthemion_
+
+[Illustration: No. 232. Greek Anthemion. Relief Treatment.]
+
+The Anthemion alone or in conjunction with the scroll or evolute line,
+appears in a painted form in the Greek vase decoration. Examination of
+these will reveal evidence of brush-work, the separate details being the
+result of direct flexion. In sculptured form it appears in the Antefixe,
+also as a cresting or finial to the stele heads, the separate radial
+features being channelled with sunken grooves or with ridges in relief.
+
+[Illustration: No. 233. Greek Scroll from Choragic Monument of
+Lysikrates, Athens. Carved Stone.]
+
+It is conceivable that the attenuated effect of the mere scrolling line
+suggested the desirability of the occasional mass and variety that would
+be obtained by employing leaves.
+
+
+_Greek Sculptured Ornament_
+
+[Illustration: No. 234. Wrought Iron Scroll. Detail of Hinge, Notre
+Dame, Paris. Early French Gothic.]
+
+Greek sculptural ornament is comparatively devoid of natural suggestion,
+the branching scrolls with sheath leaves being æsthetic rather than
+imitative. The leaves employed bear little resemblance to those of the
+later Roman period, and consist generally of a succession of radial
+grooves with undulating or prickly edges, and are obviously adapted from
+the anthemion detail.
+
+In the scrolls employed on the Choragic monument at Athens the desire
+was evidently play of line and silhouette.
+
+The flexible and open form, though possible in bent metal or in painted
+work, is unsuitable to carving in stone. Adequate support being
+essential, the scrolls had to be united by the leaves, which were
+necessarily massed in form and decorated by channellings or grooves to
+give further detail and interest.
+
+A development of the leaf treatment was the division into lobes, each
+lobe being channelled with a group of radial grooves ending in
+serrations. The lobes were divided by holes, or, as they are generally
+termed, eyes, more or less circular in shape, and these were connected
+with the base of the leaf by pipes or Tines in relief, conforming with
+the general radial distribution.
+
+
+_Acanthus Leaf_
+
+[Illustration: No. 235. Acanthus Leaf. Composed of groups of Anthemions.
+Brush-work.]
+
+Leaves of this type are known as Acanthus, and it is a tradition that
+the leaf in its original employment was derived from a natural source.
+The anthemion, too, is often mis-called the honeysuckle owing to the
+supposed resemblance; but it is much more probable that both were purely
+artistic creations developing as previously suggested from the painted
+anthemion details. Elaboration and relief expression were the natural
+outcome of material, and desire for surface interest. The honeysuckle
+origin is completely confuted by comparison of the Greek anthemion with
+the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, by which it was evidently inspired.
+
+In Greek ornament such flowers as occur are mostly of the rosette type,
+quite conventional in character, though in the painted decoration such
+natural forms as the ivy and vine are evident; but these were always
+conventional in treatment and symbolic in interest.
+
+[Illustration: No. 236. Acanthus Scroll. Brush-work.]
+
+The Greeks were not creative in art either in their architecture or
+ornament, and were evidently indebted to the earlier culture of
+Mesopotamia for many of their details. As they based the anthemion on
+the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, so they borrowed the Ionic capital
+from Persia and the Corinthian variety had its prototype in the Egyptian
+Papyrus capital. Even their architecture was no advance in principle on
+that which previously existed.
+
+Their treatment, however, was extremely artistic, and they invested all
+their work with great refinement and delicacy of detail. At a later
+period under subjugation the Roman art development was practically in
+the hands of Greek designers and craftsmen, and acquired great freedom
+of expression marked by exquisite workmanship in the Græco-Roman period.
+
+
+_Roman Development_
+
+The details and treatment of ornament developed rapidly in the Roman
+period, in the variety and forms of the elements employed. The principal
+exponents were Greek, but the original austere character of expression
+underwent considerable modification.
+
+
+_The Scroll_
+
+In Roman art the scroll, which constituted the chief decoration of the
+friezes and panels, was greatly developed and rendered with more freedom
+and variety of treatment; assuming the form of a growing or climbing
+stem, bearing flowers and clothed with leaves. A treatment which is
+fairly consistent with such types as the Vine and other climbing growths
+in nature.
+
+The undulating stem with branching scrolls is prominent, both in friezes
+and panels; the character of the foliage became more varied, the stiff
+and formal acanthus leaf being only used in the capitals of columns and
+in structural features.
+
+The version employed in more decorative positions
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Photo]
+
+No. 237. Detail of Roman Frieze, in Carved Stone.
+
+[E. Richter.
+]
+
+exhibited greater freedom in form, attitude and section. Natural types
+for the sake of variety were used, generally in subordinated positions,
+and there is occasional evidence of the influence of these in the
+treatment of the acanthus detail.
+
+
+_Græco-Roman_
+
+The development of art during this period cannot be attributed to native
+talent, the Romans being content to borrow their art as they did their
+religion. It was rather due to the opulence of the times, though the
+practical character of the race resulted in a great advance in
+architecture.
+
+The later Roman, generally termed Græco-Roman, varied from the more
+robust treatment and reverted somewhat to the earlier Greek manner;
+tending to delicacy and refinement, but retaining the variety of
+character and detail.
+
+
+_Byzantine_
+
+The State recognition of Christianity had a great influence on art in
+that there was a return to symbolism. Various pagan elements associated
+with the earlier decoration that were unsuitable to the feeling of the
+time were eliminated. Eastern influence is evident, in not only the
+architecture but in the treatment which is known as Byzantine, of the
+foliage, which resembles that of the archaic Greek, the leaves being
+more stiffly lobed, and severely channelled with V-shaped grooves, in
+place of the subtle modelling of those of the Roman period.
+
+The stem or growth line is comparatively absent, and the prevalence of
+the circle as a shape or in the arrangement of details is evident.
+Decoration displays more regard to profile than to variety of relief,
+which was practically uniform.
+
+[Illustration: No. 238. Gothic Spandril. Carved Stone. Geometric basis
+obvious in central circle uniting angular shape with minor circular
+forms occupying angles.]
+
+The Byzantine influence is evident in the succeeding Romanesque.
+
+
+_Romanesque_
+
+Early Gothic detail, the closely curled foliage of which is suggestive
+of lobes though without serrations, is reminiscent of debased Roman
+tradition, evident also in the general shape and disposition of leaves
+in the capitals of columns. The floral ornament of the Middle or
+Decorated period, though freely adapted from natural types, shows traces
+at times of the earlier tradition in the treatment of lobed and serrated
+leaves.
+
+
+_Italian Renaissance_
+
+The Italian Renaissance was not merely a revival of Classic architecture
+adapted to more modern conditions, but was in its earlier stages a frank
+reproduction of the Roman ornament in design and rendering. In later
+development in Italy and other parts of Europe it acquired local
+character differing materially from the original. Fresh elements were
+adopted and details originally significant were introduced for purely
+decorative reasons.
+
+[Illustration: No. 239. Early Pointed Gothic Stone Carving. Ely
+Cathedral.]
+
+
+_The Husk Leaf_
+
+A feature of the foliated scroll is the Husk Leaf, either Acanthus, that
+is--lobed and serrated, or compounded of water leaves with smooth and
+undulating edges somewhat similar to the hart’s tongue fern.
+
+The Husk either grows tangentially from the stem which it sometimes
+envelopes in the sheath form, or has at its base a floral-like feature
+known as the Bract; this, however, was seldom employed in Greek
+ornament, a boss-like annulet being more general. The Husk is largely
+employed to mask or cover branching, and either, as previously stated,
+grows tangentially from the stem, or takes a bulbous form with a broad
+and rounded base when it appears to be threaded on, rather than
+articulated to, the stem.
+
+
+_The Rosette_
+
+[Illustration: No. 240. Italian Renaissance Scroll, shewing Acanthus
+husks with bracts, sheath leaves and floral terminals.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 241. Types of Rosettes.]
+
+Such flowers as were employed in the earlier ornament displayed little
+regard to nature, being mostly of the rosette form with petals radiating
+from the centre; as a rule these were composed of simple leaf-shaped
+petals in one, two or more tiers arranged concentrically; in this form
+of rosette the petals are symmetrical in shape. The number of petals is
+a matter of scale and taste, but an unequal number will invariably be
+found more interesting. Arrangements of five or seven in preference to
+four, six and eight. Frequently the spaces between the outer tier are
+occupied by narrow leaves suggestive of the sepals in natural flowers,
+and these serve the double purpose of giving variety and preserving the
+circular shape.
+
+Further variety can be imparted by the arrangements of the petals on a
+revolving instead of a straight axis, either consistently in one
+direction or symmetrically disposed from a centre in a palmate form.
+
+The Rosette in ornament is useful as a pause point, giving repose, but
+where it is desirable to continue the flow of line, other floral forms
+can be employed, such as the tulip or the lily, which are displayed to
+the best advantage in profile or perspective.
+
+In conventional ornament the flower petals should be in contrast to the
+leaves employed on the scrolling stem.
+
+The Pistil in nature is reflected in the various sprouting forms which
+emerge from the conventional flowers of the Renaissance, and at times
+develop into further stem growth. On æsthetic grounds this may be
+excused in cases where flow of line is of greater importance than
+consistency. The Pistil takes many forms, being frequently composed of a
+series of diminutive husks. Flower buds of similar husk form occur, the
+petals being similar to those of the flowers employed.
+
+
+_Tendrils_
+
+Tendrils serve a useful purpose in giving unity to the design, for which
+there is ample suggestion in such natural growths as the Vine, Pea, etc.
+Too often in traditional ornament they are employed to merely occupy
+obviously awkward spaces. In Roman ornament flowers articulated on
+tendril-like stems were often used apparently to occupy the
+spandril-like spaces resulting from the branching scrolls.
+
+[Illustration: No. 242. Ornamental Treatment of Tendril from Roman
+Frieze.]
+
+
+_Nature Influence_
+
+During the Roman development greater variety was introduced in the
+treatment of leaves and flowers which in many instances display evidence
+of natural suggestion. The main stems are sometimes twisted, a
+characteristic of some strongly growing natural types, but this was only
+a variant of the earlier treatment of decorating the scrolling stem with
+channels or hollow flutes.
+
+Birds and animals were also used in antique ornament--grotesque
+combinations of foliage with human and animal forms, and such symbolic
+monsters as the Gryphon and the Sphinx, were employed with little regard
+to the original significance. Other symbolic elements, such as wreaths,
+garlands, festoons, altars, tripods, and urns were also introduced
+merely for their decorative value and to afford variety.
+
+
+_Symbolic Employment_
+
+The modern mind is naturally out of sympathy with forms that have no
+direct appeal, but it should be considered that these elements were
+originally not merely the expression of the art of the period, but were
+also invested in many instances with symbolic meaning. The Roman citizen
+saw nothing incongruous in decorating a triumphal arch with the chaplet
+of the victor and trophies of arms.
+
+The later misuse of symbolic elements can only be defended on æsthetic
+grounds, and is probably undesirable. Without these there is still left
+sufficient material for beautiful effects. Dull slavish reproduction is
+not only without interest, but displays lack of inventiveness. It is
+possible in good hands to utilise the past tradition so as to appeal to
+modern appreciation.
+
+
+_Consistency in Growth_
+
+However arbitrary traditional ornament may appear, there is consistency
+in the best examples, which display in many details some general
+observance of the principle of natural growth. There may be no attempt
+to exploit any known type, the creation being purely artificial; still
+the association of stem, leaves and flowers is suggestive of natural
+growth.
+
+The arrangement is generally progressive, as in nature a plant develops
+outwards and onwards from the root, and the orthodox scroll ornament may
+be considered as a stem of undulate form (constituting the growth line)
+with branches, elaborated with leaves and flowers which are arranged
+successively.
+
+
+_Branching_
+
+In traditional ornament the most general form of branching is
+tangential, the scrolls and leaves emerging radially from the main
+stem, with slight divergence; but in nature many varieties of branching
+may be observed and applied with advantage in design.
+
+[Illustration: No. 243. Types of Branching. A. Tangential. B.
+Acute-angular. C. Right-angular.]
+
+Generally natural branching may be classified into Tangential, typical
+of grass growth and water-plants; Acute and Right-angular. The latter is
+sometimes usefully employed in ornament, as it conveys a sense of
+strength and vigour, though as a concession to the rhythmic flow of line
+it should follow for a short distance the curve of the main stem.
+
+[Illustration: No. 244. Formal Opposite Branching suitable for Vertical
+Borders & Pilasters.]
+
+Independent of the angle, branches may occur opposite, that is, grow
+simultaneously each side of the stem, Alternate, or spirally round the
+stem. The distances between the branches may be equal, or, as in some
+instances, in alternate long and short distances. The opposite
+arrangement of branches is most suitable where rigidity of effect is
+required, but the alternate branching is susceptible of greater freedom
+and license.
+
+The stem, as it throws out each branch, may gradually diminish in
+diameter, each branch being less than the parent stem; the length of
+each successive branch may also diminish and the leaves on these be
+subordinate in size to those of the main stem.
+
+[Illustration: No. 245. Branch and Scroll Terminations.]
+
+
+_Leaves_
+
+The detail of these smaller leaves may be less complex as they approach
+the terminals, a characteristic in natural growth where the necessary
+energy to produce the flowers results in restricted development of the
+leaves on the flower stalk.
+
+Equally consistent from the nature point of view is the employment of
+the large husk leaves which generally cover the points of branch
+emergence. As already stated, these are not articulated, but either
+spring tangentially from or are threaded on the main stem in contrast to
+the smaller leaves, which are often provided with individual stems.
+Occasionally the scroll terminals are not furnished with flowers but
+develop into sprays of small leaves radially disposed.
+
+
+_The Start_
+
+An essential condition in panel ornament is the Start or commencement,
+which should at least be consistent. The natural root is not in every
+case sufficient, though at times it may be employed with effect.
+
+The start point of the growth line or lines varies in position according
+to attitude. In panels in a horizontal plane, the start is frequently
+central and the traditional treatment is usually some form of rosette
+from which the other details radiate.
+
+In some positions, particularly pilaster panels, the ornament is
+suspended, which is consistently rendered by the employment of knobs and
+ribbons. Ribbons are not only logical, but interesting on account of the
+variety afforded and are also of service in giving unity to a
+composition. Extremely amenable to harmonious arrangement and
+susceptible of great variation, the ribbon can be twisted, folded or
+arranged in groups of pleatings, the ends being occasionally scrolled or
+split.
+
+The start mostly in evidence in ornament is that known as the Cup or
+Nest, which is composed of leaves arranged somewhat in the form of a
+tulip, with generally an inverted cup leaf below. It is composed of
+leaves either of the Acanthus or water type, but for the sake of variety
+one of these may appear in the upper part of the cup and the contrasting
+form in the lower. The proportion between the two parts as to height and
+width should also be varied, and when the cup leaf is used in pilaster
+panels it generally occupies the whole width of the base.
+
+[Illustration: No. 246. The Nest or Cup-leaf Start.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 247. Italian Renaissance Foliated Figure Start.]
+
+Such artificial objects as vases and baskets form fairly consistent base
+starts for floral detail, others as Altars and Tripods are not quite so
+logical, though useful in conveying a sense of support. Shields and
+Labels, generally employed centrally in wide panels where the ornament
+is displayed laterally, are effective in the contrast they afford to the
+floral details.
+
+[Illustration: No. 248. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
+Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.]
+
+The employment of half figures as starts cannot be defended; the
+illogical association of life, either human or animal, with foliage as
+employed by the designers of the later Italian Renaissance, is too
+incongruous to be excused on æsthetic grounds. Such were due to change
+in taste and desire for variety, and probably were suggested by the much
+earlier employment of compound animal forms as furniture supports.
+
+[Illustration: No. 249. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
+Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.]
+
+The Acanthus leaf prominent in Renaissance detail, was at first
+deliberately reproduced from Roman examples, and its architectural
+employment as in the capitals of the Corinthian order, has survived to
+modern times as the most suitable rendering for such structural
+features. In more decorative positions marked changes are evident in the
+later phases, the Cinque Cento renderings being perhaps the high water
+mark of the Italian designer. In these the lobes were angular in general
+outline, with beautifully balanced minor lobations and the surface
+contours delicate and subtle in modelling.
+
+
+_Renaissance Influence_
+
+The early examples of Italian Renaissance in France and England are
+generally pure in style, being in most instances of Italian design and
+execution. Later work by native exploiters in emulation of the style is
+invariably quite different, until the new style was better understood
+and assimilated; eventuating in versions that were distinctive and
+local.
+
+[Illustration: No. 250. Early French Renaissance Carving. Francis I.]
+
+In the early French Renaissance the acanthus leaf was generally
+displayed in profile, the lobe being elliptic and pointed in shape, with
+clearly defined minor divisions; the sectional form was comparatively
+simple. Similar treatment, without the precision and grace of line
+characterised the Jacobean work in England; the relief work of which,
+being rather in the category of flat carving, consisting mainly of
+incised lines and grooves by which leaf form was expressed in profile or
+silhouette. These were invariably archaic and crude, though in view of
+the direct and simple execution not without individuality and interest.
+
+
+_Jacobean._
+
+A characteristic feature of the Jacobean style is the ornamental
+interlacing strapwork, with foliated or
+
+[Illustration: No. 251. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.
+
+A. Greek. B. Roman. C. Byzantine. D. Romanesque. E. Decorated Gothic. F.
+G. Italian Renaissance. H. French Renaissance, Period of Francis I.]
+
+scrolling ends. This doubtless was in emulation of the French work of
+the period of Henry II, when strapping composed of straight and curved
+lines entered largely into ornamental detail. In the period of Louis
+XIII
+
+[Illustration: No. 252. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.
+
+I. French, Louis XIV. J. English, Grinling Gibbons. K. French, Louis XV.
+L. English, Adam. M. French, Louis XVI. N. Louis XVI (Salombier). O.
+English, Late 18th Century.]
+
+shield and cartouche shapes were much in vogue, on account probably of
+their mass value and the contrast afforded with the subordinate detail,
+which developed into the foliated strap frame of the Louis XIV style.
+
+The details of this latter period were expressed in bold relief, the
+decorated areas being well filled, in contrast to the earlier Italian
+style in which the background frequently predominated over the ornament.
+The sectioning or modelling of the leaves, which by this time were
+typically French, was elaborate but well considered as to harmonious
+play of line. Shell forms were employed and were effective, both as mass
+shapes and for the radial elaboration of their surfaces.
+
+In conjunction with artificial details, natural foliage was employed in
+the form of wreaths and festoons, composed of leaves and appropriate
+flowers; the conventional stem was little used, the foliated strap being
+more often evident.
+
+
+_Régence_
+
+The immediate successor of the style of the Grand Monarch was the phase
+known as Régence, in which the strap frame was moulded in section, and
+the whole detail became much lighter, resulting in more open or plain
+spaces.
+
+In the period of Louis XV restraint was thrown overboard, panels and
+enclosed areas were framed with mouldings irresponsible in curvature,
+and without regard to structural conditions. The growth line
+disappeared, the leafage and other details being arbitrarily disposed on
+the framing mouldings, which were generally in flattened and elongated
+curves opposed to each other in flexured lines. In comparison with the
+preceding Louis XIV style the ornament is thin and liney in character,
+the leaf, still of the acanthus type, is greatly modified both in form
+and detail, the ends of the lobes being curled and twisted spirally.
+
+
+_Rococo_
+
+In minor floral details natural types were employed, also such
+artificial features as canopies or hammercloths; rock and shell forms,
+and stalactite details suggestive of icicles are comprised in the later
+phase to which the term Rococo is applied.
+
+
+_Louis XVI_
+
+As a natural revulsion from the license of this period in the succeeding
+Louis XVI style there was a distinct reversion. The curved framings were
+abandoned and panels and other areas were enclosed by mouldings with
+regard both to structural and materialistic conditions. Great refinement
+is evident, not only in the mouldings but in the details throughout.
+
+In contrast to those of the Louis XIV period, panels were occupied
+rather than filled, the dominant details being placed at the upper and
+lower extremities and connected by vertical features either centrally or
+at the sides, steadily arranged as to alignment both horizontal and
+vertical. Familiar details thus employed are such amorous emblems as
+quivers, torches, trophies of musical instruments and bouquets and
+festoons of natural flowers.
+
+The artificial leaf reverted somewhat to the earlier Italian type, and
+was mostly displayed in profile with the lobes and serrations carefully
+composed. The detail though comparatively low in relief, was boldly
+modelled, and the direction and emphasis of the lobes and veinings of
+the leaves considered with regard to the composing lines.
+
+
+_Grinling Gibbons School of Carving_
+
+In England the work of the school of Grinling Gibbons was productive of
+a phase of ornamental expression distinctive for its artistry and
+technical skill. Conventional details were combined with natural forms
+of all kinds, the conspicuous arrangement being interlacing scrolls, and
+festoons and pendant swags.
+
+In the artificial leaf, with its boldly grooved surface and accentuated
+lobes, the evidence of the tool is manifest throughout.
+
+The tradition established by the Grinling Gibbons school had a lasting
+effect upon the native carving, which endured throughout the Georgian
+period, though largely influenced in detail by French taste--Rococo in
+particular.
+
+
+_Adam Style_
+
+The designs of the brothers Adam, which were in vogue in the reign of
+George III, though peculiarly individual and distinctive, were based
+upon the study of Græco-Roman details. In the Adam style the ornament is
+delicate in relief, and mostly displayed in profile. Panels and enclosed
+spaces are occupied, the decorative elements being carefully disposed
+with regard to balance and stability, with large areas of plain
+surface.
+
+The characteristic and prevailing details are the fan and delicate
+festoons of leaves or husks, at times of beads.
+
+The anthemion is much used on friezes and borders, and compound animal
+forms, such as the Sphinx, were borrowed from the antique, the same
+source doubtless inspiring the employment of vases, altars, and tripods.
+
+Medallions occur occupied by figures after the manner of the Greek
+vases. In some instances these were in pottery, the work of Wedgwood.
+
+The general structural form was architectural, the mouldings slight in
+projection and refined in their profiles being decorated by orthodox
+enrichments.
+
+The foliage is mostly artificial in character, the leaf lobes in those
+of the acanthus type being orderly in arrangement with regard to profile
+and radial display, with comparatively little modelling.
+
+
+_Empire_
+
+A similar revival of the Antique succeeded the Revolution in France, in
+the Empire style, which, more literal in reproduction than the Adam
+work, is characterised with, at times, undesirable severity and
+precision of detail, particularly in the treatment of the human figure.
+
+
+_System of the Acanthus Leaf_
+
+The system of the acanthus leaf is based entirely on radiation, the
+tines and veinings being arranged in consistently diverging directions
+from a common base or start-point. Whether the whole leaf be displayed
+or merely the half leaf used, the shape should be bounded by general
+lines controlling the lobes and their serrations--the mass shape forming
+a satisfactory silhouette.
+
+The length of the lobes should be relative to the breadth of the leaf,
+the maximum length agreeing with the maximum width, and the others in
+proportion.
+
+The edges or outlines of serrations and lobes should also be controlled
+by radial lines from the base.
+
+[Illustration: No. 253. Construction of the Acanthus Leaf.]
+
+In turn-overs and curling or twisting lobes the silhouette shape and
+composing line must be considered.
+
+The apex of leaf terminates with a central lobe balanced by side lobes
+repeated throughout. In treatment these may be displayed clear of each
+other, or they may overlap, but care must be taken to avoid confusion in
+effect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+TREATMENT IN DESIGN
+
+
+Appreciation of design by the individual is largely a matter of
+temperament, though it may be due to some extent to acquired knowledge.
+Generally, few are conscious of any guiding principle, and selection in
+their case is mostly the result of fashion or custom. To others certain
+colours and forms have an appeal, though they may be quite unconscious
+of, or unable to explain the attraction other than it suits their taste.
+
+In the last few years it has been recognised that colour may be employed
+beneficially in curative treatment, but the normal healthy individual is
+often indifferent to environment other than that of material
+gratification.
+
+When any artistic work creates pleasurable emotion, it is purely a
+matter of cause and effect. To design successfully involves some
+understanding of the causes or factors which constitute the appeal.
+
+
+_Natural Attraction_
+
+The attraction of colour and form is undoubtedly universal, and may be
+generally understood, though there are delicate degrees of proportion
+and association in both that may only be appreciated by the cultivated
+eye. Early essays in drawing generally exhibit an undesirable redundancy
+in curves, and in many instances the student is slow to realise that
+those that approximate to the elliptic form are proportionately of more
+interest than those obviously composed of segments of circles.
+Undoubtedly this subtlety of line is one of the predominant factors in
+appreciation of form.
+
+A factor in pattern that is largely responsible for the charm is the
+presence of small detail in juxtaposition with larger forms. This is
+entailed in instances by technical conditions, such, for instance, as in
+some tapestries where inhabited pattern is essential to the process of
+production.
+
+
+_Decorative Materials_
+
+Some materials are employed partly for their decorative effect, such as
+naturally figured woods and certain varieties of stone; and design
+mainly consists of judicious selection, use and treatment. Oak and
+walnut being woods extremely suitable for structural work and furniture
+have always been in request when obtainable.
+
+Polishing is to some extent a preservative, but work in oak or walnut,
+especially when carved, should be kept comparatively dull, otherwise
+confusion between the relief and the natural figuring would result. In
+mahogany or satinwood, where the chief interest exists in the figuring
+and colour, carving is undesirable and the best effects are obtained by
+high polish. It may be urged that in the Chippendale period the work was
+invariably carved, but the detail was always in very low relief, and the
+finishing dark in colour, in which the figuring was subdued. Mahogany in
+its more general employment owes its chief beauty to the development of
+figuring and colour.
+
+Certain marbles are used for their decorative effect, and the natural
+colour and figuring developed by polish. Statuary marble that is
+sometimes employed, is more suitable for carved details, and appears at
+its best when unpolished, though in this state it is extremely subject
+to discolouration owing to its absorbent nature.
+
+Granite, so popular in our cemeteries, is often polished, when the
+natural figuring is unpleasantly aggressive. An extremely hard stone and
+laborious to work, it is not suitable for carving, and is best left
+roughly tooled or frosted, when the natural chrystaline formation
+appears to the best advantage.
+
+
+_Justification of Treatment_
+
+The softer woods used in interior structural work are generally painted,
+partly as a preservative and largely because they do not possess any
+figuring of particular interest.
+
+Graining in imitation of more precious woods is often condemned as
+inartistic, but it may be urged in extenuation that it is the most
+economic treatment, as it helps to minimise the effect of wear and
+incidental damage.
+
+The use of pattern wall-papers and floor coverings can be justified on
+the same grounds, as in those with plain surfaces any disfigurement is
+readily seen. Wallpaper, however, is quite a legitimate form of
+decoration and not necessarily imitative, though to some extent it is
+reminiscent of the early custom of employing tapestries as wall
+coverings. A more durable and artistic treatment of interiors is that of
+the wainscotting of the Georgian period, but the initial cost is
+proportionately great, though probably when maintenance is taken into
+consideration it would be cheaper in the long run. Apart from the
+question of cost, the modern tendency is favourable to change of effect
+and environment, due partly to the facility afforded by the comparative
+cheapness of wall-paper, but even more to the prevalent short tenancies.
+
+
+_Undesirable Imitation_
+
+Many excellent designs are produced in wall-papers, though there is a
+tendency at times to reproduce textural effects which can only be
+justified on æsthetic grounds. Those of the frankly imitative kind
+cannot be condoned. It is still possible to have the hall and stairs
+papered and varnished to resemble slabs of precious marble, or patterns
+in mosaic, which were undreamt of in Byzantine times; and the orthodox
+design for the bathroom is still that of tiles with the joints neatly
+printed. Similar imitation is also apparent in linoleum, when the
+pattern simulates the appearance of either wood parquet or mosaic, or
+even worse--that of a Turkey or Axminster carpet.
+
+There is an element of priggishness in such cheap art in which, as
+though ashamed of poverty of material, there is an assumption of
+something better; and it is lamentable that there is not merely a market
+for these shams and imitations but curiously enough they also find
+appreciation.
+
+There are phases of work where simulation may to some extent be
+justified, for instance, silver is sometimes gilt. For this there is the
+excuse that silver, although a beautiful metal, is subject to oxidation
+and requires constant attention to keep bright. Gilding acts as a
+preservative, and is therefore justified in certain forms of silver
+work, which it is not convenient to clean in the ordinary way.
+
+
+_Technical Considerations_
+
+It has already been suggested that Design is not merely a question of
+idea and draughtsmanship, but is also dependent upon materialistic
+conditions, which, in practical work, must be understood and properly
+considered.
+
+Whether the intended design be for some form of flat pattern, such as
+weaving, etc., or for any particular craft expression, it is essential
+that the limitations of the process and material involved be clearly
+kept in view, and that suitable elements for expression be chosen.
+
+Convention, to a large extent, exists in the adaptation of forms,
+natural or otherwise, to the exigencies of production, a proper
+understanding of which will not only tend to economy in cost, but also
+to more effective results, if full advantage be taken of the craft or
+mechanical conditions, which should always be foreseen in design.
+
+
+_Methods of Expression_
+
+Methods of expression vary, according to position and material, and may
+be Flat--either silhouette, or with appearance of relief, or in actual
+relief.
+
+[Illustration: No. 254. A. B. C. Flat Treatment, Silhouette important.
+D. Relief Treatment of C.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 255. A. Flat Treatment. B. Relief of Husk Leaf.]
+
+Contrast exists always, thus in the Flat with or without outline the
+contrast is in Light and Dark, whether colour is involved or not.
+
+In Relief the contrast is in Light and Shade. Contrast exists also in
+both treatments in lines straight and curved--in the variety of the
+latter, in lines with mass forms, and in dominant forms with smaller
+detail.
+
+In the treatment of Flat Ornament the most important considerations are
+play of line and silhouette, and forms should be displayed in
+interesting profile; perspective and foreshortening being eliminated
+whenever they would result in distorted or inharmonious shapes.
+
+In Relief treatment the designer is concerned with the effect of Light
+and Shade in harmonious arrangement of mass and line.
+
+Perspective and foreshortening are permissible to some extent, but are
+largely dependent upon the work, greater license being allowable in high
+than in low relief.
+
+
+_Treatment of Leaves_
+
+In Flat ornament, leaves are invariably in profile, but in Relief
+expression they may be folded, that is, wrapped round the stem. Greater
+freedom is possible in the turn-overs.
+
+Relief ornament should recognise ground by details being occasionally
+displayed in lower relief.
+
+Whether expressed in Flat or Relief, the composing lines should always
+be emphatic, and their direction traceable through the details, floral
+or otherwise.
+
+
+_Surface Interest_
+
+In addition to the foregoing, a further consideration is that of
+interest of surface, which may consist of contrast in textures of rough
+surface with smooth, of patterning on form, veining and striation of
+leaves and flowers, and of the employment of trellis or imbricated
+pattern. The latter in conjunction with other details, occur in the
+decorative work of the later French Renaissance.
+
+
+_Painted Decoration_
+
+The technical means of obtaining the interest of surfaces is, of course,
+incidental to the process involved. If the decoration be the result of
+painting, the design is free and untrammelled by any other than purely
+æsthetic conditions. Such, for instance, as the desirable recognition of
+surface, and the pattern sense suggested by recurrence, if a decorative
+rather than a pictorial effect is desired.
+
+When the decorations consist of ornament, wholly or partly, they are
+occasionally rendered in a conventional manner, based upon the
+appearance of Relief, as in the Pompeian wall decorations and the
+painted work of the Italian Renaissance. There is ample precedent for
+this treatment in traditional painted decoration, but deliberate
+attempts at realistic effects are not only undesirable but to be
+deplored.
+
+The interest in Painted Decoration, apart from colour, design or
+subject, would be that of the individual manifestation of the designer
+and painter.
+
+
+_Stencilled Work_
+
+Stencilled decoration is a compromise between painting and mechanical
+printing, and is restricted by the unit. The repetition of this is
+practically mechanical, though considerable license is possible in the
+treatment of colour, which has to be personally applied and is therefore
+amenable to controlled variation.
+
+[Illustration: No. 256. Inhabited Details from Woven Fabrics. Interest
+imparted by patterning on forms.]
+
+The design in stencilled work is not limited to one unit, and is not
+subject to hard and fast rules, the plates being of a size convenient to
+handle. Alternate units, or a series can be employed, the interest,
+apart from colour and subject consisting mainly of contrast in detail,
+and in the individualism expressed.
+
+
+_Mechanical Production, Printed and Woven_
+
+In textiles, where such mechanical processes as printing and weaving are
+involved, the design is restricted to the unit, the repetition of which
+is infallible both as to form and colour.
+
+Apart from colour, the surface interest consists of suggested or actual
+contrasts of texture, the result of veining and striating leaves and
+flowers or of patterning forms or backgrounds with smaller details.
+
+
+_Needlework_
+
+Needlework, being a personal performance, has no such mechanical
+restriction; the design can, and should be, complete within the area,
+and the expression perfectly free. Beside Design and Colour, the surface
+interest is that of contrast in the different textures resulting from
+the various stitches, and the employment of darning, knots, laid-work,
+etc.
+
+
+_Appliqué_
+
+In Appliqué work, interest is imparted by the mass effects enriched by
+embroidery, the large shapes entailing detail of the inhabited variety
+to keep them from puckering. In all needlework the effect is due to some
+extent to light and shade, particularly in Appliqué, where a corded edge
+is employed.
+
+[Illustration: No. 257. Needlework, contrasting effect of various
+stitches.
+
+(Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 258. Needlework Appliqué. Interest due to contrast of
+material, effect of relief imparted by corded edges, and to embroidery
+on applied details. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 259. Lace. Surface interest due to contrast of
+various fillings. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+
+_Lace_
+
+In Lace, the interest consists solely of textural contrast, not only in
+the treatment of the various details, but in the patterning of intervals
+due to the necessary fillings. Design may be complete, or a repeated
+unit, according to the purpose and variety of lace.
+
+
+_Wood Inlay_
+
+[Illustration: No. 260. Wood Inlay. Geometric arrangement.]
+
+Design for Inlays in Wood-work may be free in expression, or a unit, at
+discretion. The latter variety frequently takes the form of lines spaced
+with regard to good proportion, forming borders, chequers and geometric
+shapes of various kinds. Floral or other forms simple in character and
+profile may be used, the design being expressed in silhouette.
+
+[Illustration: No. 261. Wood Inlay.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 262. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette depending on
+natural colour.]
+
+
+_Intarsia_
+
+In the Intarsia detail of the Italian Renaissance, the inlaid forms were
+elaborated by surface markings and graduated effects were obtained by
+means of hot sand; but the natural contrast in the varied colour and
+fibres of the material employed probably form the more legitimate
+interest in all inlaid work.
+
+[Illustration: No. 263. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette.]
+
+
+_Veneer, Marquetry_
+
+In Veneer work and in Marquetry, where the work is quartered and
+juxtaposed, the interest consists in the patterning of the figured
+woods, particularly when these are arranged to form reciprocal shapes.
+
+
+_Boule Work_
+
+The interest of Buhl or Boule work, an inlay of metal employed in the
+French Renaissance in the decoration of furniture, often in conjunction
+with tortoiseshell, is that of contrast of texture.
+
+[Illustration: No. 264. Italian Intarsia. Forms elaborated by incised
+lines.]
+
+In the design, profile or silhouette is the primary consideration, being
+used:
+
+1.  As a form of framing,
+2.  In angles or centres on table-tops,
+3.  In panels in furniture:
+
+[Illustration: No. 265. Louis XV Cabinet with Ormolu Mounts.
+
+Marquetry, veneer quartered and inlaid with floral detail. (Photo: V & A
+Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 266. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.]
+
+The design can invariably be complete within the area. Coloured grounds
+are employed as well as tortoiseshell.
+
+
+_Mosaic_
+
+Mosaic designs may be complete in themselves or be the result of
+repetition, according to attitude and purpose, and with regard to
+variety and colour, only restricted by æsthetic considerations.
+
+[Illustration: No. 267. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.]
+
+Owing to technical limitations, modelling can only be broadly suggested;
+therefore forms should be generally in silhouette except when on a large
+scale.
+
+When employed on walls and vaults, gold is frequently used in the
+backgrounds. This not only serves to define detail, but affords contrast
+to the general surface, the inevitable joints in the tessaræ adding also
+to the interest.
+
+
+_Byzantine Use of Marble_
+
+Associated with Mosaic decoration in the Byzantine Period was the
+employment of marble in shafts of columns and for lining walls by
+banding or slabbing, frequently quartered, so as to display the markings
+in reciprocal forms. Such marbles were chosen for figuring and colour,
+the former in its variety being an important factor in the surface
+interest.
+
+Similar employment of slabs occurs in the treatment of floors, where
+contrast in colour is the chief consideration. It is sometimes
+associated with Mosaic of small tesseræ, also in marble, whereas that
+used on walls and in vaults was frequently of glass.
+
+The foregoing is a broad summary of ornamental expression in the Flat,
+with the exception of Book Decoration.
+
+
+_Book Decoration_
+
+In Black and White, which is chiefly employed, the designs may be in
+tone or line with suggestion of rotundity or relief; or line
+decoratively employed, according to subject, or purely decorative.
+
+The same applies to renderings in colour. Designs for covers are
+controlled by the processes involved, whether printed, stamped or
+tooled.
+
+[Illustration: No. 268. Mosaic Borders.
+
+A. From Carthage.
+
+B. & C. Withington, Gloucester.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 269. Mosaic Border, Roman.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 270. Roman Mosaic. Woodchester, Gloucester.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 271. Roman Mosaic. Treatment in Light and Shade
+suggestive of relief. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 272. Tooled Bookbinding in Leather. Repetition due to
+tools or stamps. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 273. Modelled Plaster, shewing relatively large
+ground area. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 274. Wood Carving. Grinling Gibbons. Attention
+devoted to detail with elimination of ground. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 275. Wood Carving. French, Louis XIV. (Photo: V & A
+Museum).]
+
+
+_Bindings_
+
+In the two latter the ornament should be in profile or silhouette. In
+tooled bindings, repetition of unit or motif is essential, the design
+being the direct result of available tools.
+
+In such bindings further interest may be imparted by gilding either the
+detail or by introducing gold as powdering on shapes or backgrounds, or
+by the so-called inlaying of other colours.
+
+
+_Relief--Economic Result of Method_
+
+In Relief ornament, design and character should be the result of
+technical expression. If considered from an economic point of view, the
+tendency would naturally be to obtain the maximum effect with the
+minimum of labour; and this would invariably result, when the decoration
+is built up or applied to an existing ground as in modelled work, in
+slight occupation, with comparatively large intervals.
+
+In carving, where the original surface forms the highest relief, and has
+to be cut back to form the ground, the result would be reversed, the
+individual worker being more attracted to the treatment of detail than
+to clearing away uninteresting spaces. Carving, whether in wood or
+stone, is employed in various decorative positions, and except in the
+enrichment of friezes or mouldings--when the repeating unit is
+desirable--the design should be complete in itself.
+
+
+_Desirable Treatment in Carving_
+
+The treatment should evidence the direct employment of the tool, any
+attempt to efface or soften will result in loss of character and
+suggest the plastic effect incidental to modelling.
+
+For convenience, and possibly in the absence of more desirable examples,
+students are often allowed in their early attempts at carving to
+reproduce casts of plastic origin. This is undoubtedly pernicious, as
+the model is probably unsuitable, and the student is thereby biassed.
+Examples should be selected in which the characteristic treatment is
+sufficiently evident if a true and thorough appreciation of the craft is
+to be instilled.
+
+[Illustration: No. 276. Simple Jacobean Wood Carving. Direct gouge
+work.]
+
+In the design--which may occupy or fill the shape and can be
+symmetrically arranged on a central axis, or balanced--the effect is due
+mainly to Light and Shade. Further interest may be imparted by the
+sectional form or modelling of the details, groovings, striations or
+other textural suggestions.
+
+
+_Backgrounds_
+
+The employment of punched grounds in carved work is to be deprecated as
+mechanical in effect. Sufficient interest is obtainable by the process
+of cutting back, in the perfect levelling of which the carver need not
+be too concerned. Suspiciously uniform grounds are suggestive of work
+fret-sawed and applied.
+
+[Illustration: No. 277. Wood Carving. English. Late Elizabethan or Early
+Jacobean.]
+
+When carving in wood is in very high relief, it is occasionally, as in
+the Grinling Gibbons work, built up. This may not be a matter of great
+objection if properly attached, and the grain of fibre matched, but is,
+however, better avoided.
+
+
+_Reproduction Processes_
+
+Modelled ornament is generally employed in reproduction processes, such
+as moulding of Terra-cotta, plaster, etc. The design can be free in
+expression, or a unit of repetition according to requirement.
+
+The detail which is applied to an existing surface is invariably more
+open, with a resulting display in the background.
+
+The surface interest consists of contrasts in texture, the result of
+veining, striating and patterning forms. The relief is not, as in carved
+work, controlled by an original surface, but, being built up, is
+susceptible to greater variation. Mouldings may be broken by lapping and
+overlapping details, and though in some traditional work similar
+treatment occurs in wood-carving, it must be remembered that such
+details are too suggestive of, and more proper to, plastic renderings.
+
+In economic moulded work undercutting of details should be avoided as
+this is only possible in piece or elastic moulds. In wood-carving,
+however, there is no restriction.
+
+
+_Metal Repoussé_
+
+Freedom and variety in detail are possible in Metal Repoussé, but as the
+light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface,
+the design which is plastic in character incidental to method of
+working, should have regard for silhouette or profile display, and not
+be dependent upon surface modelling. The principal factor in effect is
+Light, both direct and reflected. Surface interest is the result of
+imparting by chasing various textures in striations or matt.
+
+[Illustration: No. 278. Wood Carving from Fontainbleau. Early French
+Renaissance.]
+
+Excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool,
+leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height, and imparting
+texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast.
+
+[Illustration: No. 279. Economic Wood Carving.]
+
+The method of working is simple, entailing manipulation from the face of
+the metal only, and the detail is left in slight relief by the ground
+being set back in the texturing. This treatment is only suitable where
+the ornamented area is enclosed. When the design is freely displayed on
+a ground without enclosing lines, it should appear in relief, the result
+of raising from the back; and texturing should be employed only on the
+details in contrast to the smooth ground. As in all applied work, the
+economic result is slight occupation.
+
+[Illustration: No. 280. Oak Box decorated with flat carving. Icelandic.
+18th Century.]
+
+
+_Metal, Cast_
+
+Cast metal is produced in sand moulds, a model or pattern being employed
+of which the casting is a reproduction. The
+
+[Illustration: No. 281. Repoussé Work.
+
+A. Pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different
+textures of ground.
+
+B. Pattern raised from back, and defined and enriched by tracing and
+matt tools on face, affording textural contrast with plain ground.
+
+(Photo of A. V & A Museum).]
+
+pattern may be originally modelled or carved, and this determines the
+character of the metal result, though it is a matter of indifference
+when the necessary finishing is by turning or filing.
+
+Castings in iron are left as they leave the mould, but in bronze, except
+in Cire Perdu casting, the surface has to be entirely worked down. In
+common work, however, this is accomplished by means of small files or
+riffles and by chasing the more elaborate details.
+
+[Illustration: No. 282. Wrought Iron, simple form enriched by use of
+punches.]
+
+
+_Character of Cast Work_
+
+[Illustration: No. 283. Gondola Prow. Wrought Iron, comparative flat
+surface enriched by chiselled work.]
+
+As a matter of opinion it is consistent that the
+
+[Illustration: No. 284. Surface Interest in Metal.
+
+A. Blade of State Battle-axe, damascened with silver, Indian.
+
+B. Blade of Khyber Knife, engraved, Indian.
+
+C. Hilt of Tulwar, damascened with gold, Indian.
+
+D. Vase, Bidri Ware, pewter inlaid with silver, Indian.
+
+E. Scabbard End, gold inlay, Indian.
+
+F. Ornament on Gauntled Sword, damascened with gold, Indian.]
+
+character of cast work should be plastic, and if the original pattern is
+the result of carving, care should be taken to impart the desired
+feeling, the pattern being merely a means to the end.
+
+Much depends upon the final finish; if this is to be bright, surface
+modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest
+resulting from contrast of textures. It, however, becomes of
+proportionate importance as the work is dull or toned, and therefore is
+subject to the ordinary conditions of Light and Shade.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM
+
+
+Traditional ornament is replete with forms and details that were
+originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment this
+was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their æsthetic
+value.
+
+Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in
+the Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory,
+sacrifice and religious observance.
+
+
+_Early Symbolic Ornament_
+
+It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural
+types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus,
+which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were
+therefore esteemed.
+
+These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line,
+are symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the
+periodical inundation of the Nile.
+
+The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the
+Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which
+undoubtedly influenced the later ornament.
+
+The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it
+was the symbol of Resolution overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief
+was that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed.
+
+Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times,
+implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the
+general community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is
+to be deplored.
+
+A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however is
+fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which
+represents the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the
+operation of venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the
+respective bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to
+blood-letting, the other for final bindings.
+
+
+_Customs_
+
+The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a
+survival--the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of
+a truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery--the
+latter of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that
+one can stand unprotected.
+
+The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards
+the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient
+times, if a stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it
+denoted a declaration of war; but if carried with the point behind, he
+came in friendship and peace.
+
+There are opportunities where the decorative element could be such as
+to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the
+decadence of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest,
+because it has no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated.
+
+
+_Origin of Mythology_
+
+Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom
+the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light
+and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to
+how they affected his personal comfort.
+
+The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more
+modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and
+Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression.
+
+
+_Nature Myths_
+
+Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of
+natural phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural.
+Inducing a belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in
+future existence. With this belief these aspects were eventually
+invested with personality.
+
+An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting
+for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to Gæa
+(Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light
+and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos
+revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance.
+
+A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest god Tani, who
+effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the
+Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree
+upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches.
+
+
+_Light and Darkness_
+
+Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting. The
+Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all his
+children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the
+Grave), which three Time cannot consume.
+
+An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except
+Zeus, for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and
+promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted.
+
+On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the
+stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being
+that of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being
+the sunrise.
+
+
+_Melanesian Myth_
+
+An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and
+his brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and
+setting forth in search, was successful in his quest. On his return he
+told his brothers to sit quite still, and when they felt something in
+their eyes to take no notice but keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep.
+When Night had lasted long enough, Qat took a slab of red obsidian and
+cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A tradition reminiscent of the
+“dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery, though the slab of red
+obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its suggestion.
+
+
+_Darkness as a Devouring Monster_
+
+In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant
+influence or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun,
+_e.g._, the Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by
+Apollo, and in Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by
+darkness.
+
+Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according to
+tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts
+and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn.
+
+
+_Season Myths_
+
+In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears
+some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god
+was killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of
+Odin, everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was
+forbidden to injure Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was
+made into an arrow and shot at random. It effected his death, but by
+general request of the gods, he was restored to life.
+
+Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the
+end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the
+tradition of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her
+mother, Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of
+Orpheus and Eurydice.
+
+
+_Sun Myths_
+
+Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and
+Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and
+transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the
+Sun, or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation.
+
+Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the
+North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over
+hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing
+the morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the
+Heavens, where she became the Morning Star.
+
+Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who
+for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which
+traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his
+daily course.
+
+
+_Belief in Natural Phenomena_
+
+It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and
+conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena,
+indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day.
+Thus we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and
+intelligence. We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the
+Sea treacherous, the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also
+customary to speak of the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of
+the sea and the “mouth” of a river or a cave.
+
+Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,”
+“howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile”
+or the sky “threatens.”
+
+These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and
+consciousness--a belief originally simple, but later becoming more
+complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in
+assigning different deities to the various elements.
+
+
+_Greek and Roman Deities_
+
+In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and six
+goddesses.
+
+_Greek._                _Gods._                _Roman._
+
+Zeus.             The air or the           Jupiter.
+                      living one (king)
+
+Apōllon.       Sun God.             Apollo.
+
+Ares.            War                 Mars.
+
+Hermes.              Messenger.           Mercury.
+
+Poseidon.            Sea God.             Neptune.
+
+Hephaistos.          Smith.               Vulcan.
+
+
+                    _Goddesses._
+
+Hera.               Queen.                 Juno.
+
+Demeter.            Tillage.               Ceres.
+
+Artemis.            Moon-Hunting.       Diana.
+
+Athenē.       Wisdom.                Minerva.
+
+Aphrodite.          Love and Beauty.       Venus.
+
+Hestĭa.       Home life.             Vesta.
+
+These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as
+follows:
+
+Dionȳsus.  The God of Wine.         Bacchus.
+
+Eros.            The love lad.            Cupid.
+
+Plutōn.    God of the Inferno.      Pluto.
+
+Kronos.            Time.                  Saturn.
+
+
+_Scandinavian Mythology_
+
+In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or first
+created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold,
+nourished by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he
+slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet,
+from whom was formed the race of Frost Giants.
+
+Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the
+Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the
+Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks;
+the brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a
+wall of defence against the Giants.
+
+As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the
+Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god
+dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly
+hills between the Earth and the Rainbow.
+
+The other gods or Asa were:
+
+Thor.           God of Thunder and War.
+
+Tyr.                Wisdom.
+
+Baldur.             Sun.
+
+Bragi.              Eloquence.
+
+Vidar.              Silence.
+
+Hodar.           The Blind.
+
+Harnod.        The Messenger
+                (divine intelligence)
+
+Odur.
+
+Loki.          God of Mischief.
+
+All these were sons of Odin--the youngest being Vale. The mansion of
+Odin was Gladsheim--that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was
+Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.”
+
+The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits
+of warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted
+nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death.
+
+Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like
+Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow.
+
+The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and
+Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash
+tree Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one
+to the Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a
+fountain of wonderful virtue.
+
+In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four
+stags; lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent Nithhöggr, while the
+squirrel Ratatösker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife
+between the serpent and the eagle at the top.
+
+
+_Rising and Setting Symbolised_
+
+The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised
+the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the
+setting.
+
+Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye
+at the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the
+setting sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was
+dedicated, symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with
+two horns on a stem rising from her head.
+
+The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of
+the Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the
+death of Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis.
+
+Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon
+is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the
+Latmian Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth.
+
+
+_Winds Personified_
+
+That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to
+imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo
+or Boreas, son of Astræus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind,
+and lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were
+Notus, (South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), Argestës (North-East),
+Volturnus (South-East), and Aferventus (South-West).
+
+The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition
+of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away
+till only her voice remained.
+
+
+_Predestination_
+
+To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes
+would be attributed to the wrath of some deity, even though there was
+no personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief
+in predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of
+Orestes and Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return
+of Ulysses from Troy.
+
+
+_The Fates_
+
+The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were
+arbitrarily controlled by the Parcæ or Fates, of which there were
+three--Clotho, who held the distaff--Lachesis, who spun the thread of
+life and Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was
+ended.
+
+Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the
+distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread
+between life and death.
+
+The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The
+former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an
+atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came
+near. Their names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm)
+indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind.
+Equally arbitrary were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there
+were likewise three, their names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood),
+Alectro (implacable), and Megæra (disputatious).
+
+
+_Propitiation and Sacrifice_
+
+Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the
+natural outcome, and the various traditions are probably records of
+actual occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous
+conditions.
+
+In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story
+of Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having
+offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the
+most beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next
+twelve months. This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was
+deferred till she reached womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet
+arrived at Aulis on its way to Troy. Calchas declared this would be
+wind-bound as long as the vow remained unfulfilled, but Artemis
+interposed at the last moment by spiriting Iphigenia away from the altar
+and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead.
+
+A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea
+monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was
+Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and
+on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the
+country and to appease the offended deity.
+
+Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by
+Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition
+of Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he
+encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of
+Troy. The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed,
+and in consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer.
+
+
+_Early Burial Customs_
+
+The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future
+existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have
+souls.
+
+It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not
+only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or
+slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their
+ministrations in the future life.
+
+
+_Taboo_
+
+The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the
+belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the
+present day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which
+means “consecrated” or “set apart.”
+
+It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty,
+whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the
+supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed.
+
+
+_Roman Lares_
+
+The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares were
+the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors.
+They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in
+the Lararium or shrine.
+
+There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of
+streets and roads.
+
+This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of
+sacrifice in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom
+modified in later times to the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the
+present day in burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the
+foundation-stone in public buildings.
+
+
+_Typical Legend_
+
+Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are
+reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated
+traditions of demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some
+difficult problem in design or construction for the solution of which
+the architect or builder enters into the usual compact with the evil
+one, the terms being that the latter party to the contract shall take
+possession of the first living being that enters into or crosses the
+structure.
+
+Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other animal
+being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every
+instance greater than his vanity.
+
+Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also
+anticipated and symbolised the Atonement.
+
+With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun
+and Moon, as it announced the hours.
+
+The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius.
+Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should
+be sacrificed.
+
+
+_Early Spiritual Belief_
+
+Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when
+the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to
+impress the primitive imagination and suggest the duality of
+being--physical and spiritual.
+
+In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the
+soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to
+wake the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be
+unable to return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and
+come is evidenced in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and
+other forms of tombs.
+
+
+_Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics_
+
+Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of
+trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by
+devils which would be released by making a hole in the head. This
+treatment was apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive
+instruments and ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could
+hardly have been a pleasant experience.
+
+The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life through
+the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a superstition that
+it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death
+occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.
+
+Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death
+chamber.
+
+
+_Prohibition_
+
+A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act
+or question.
+
+The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife
+of Orpheus, who, killed on her wedding night, was redeemed on condition
+that Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world.
+Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and
+Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.
+
+The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by
+Aëdonius, King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty.
+Orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled;
+therefore he lost her a second time.
+
+The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine
+beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar
+in idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and
+devotion.
+
+As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche
+and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and
+origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in
+abandonment.
+
+A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was
+condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards.
+She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to visit
+her on that day.
+
+Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and
+saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and
+wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.
+
+
+_Belief in Magical Qualities._
+
+The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual
+world, but also extended to inanimate objects which were sometimes
+invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus
+and Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was
+possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer
+with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility
+conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of
+Iceland.
+
+
+_The Shirt of Nessus_
+
+More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of
+misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition,
+Nessus the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by
+Hercules for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to
+Dejanira, assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love
+her exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on
+wearing it was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove
+the garment, he immolated himself on a funeral pyre.
+
+Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by
+Queen Morgan la Fay.
+
+
+_Swords_
+
+Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the
+belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the
+sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its
+origin in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later
+improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural
+origin; _e.g._, the sword of Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung
+or Gram (literally “grief”).
+
+The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the
+Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother
+smith, cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the
+cut was so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he
+attempted to move, when he fell in two pieces.
+
+Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later
+development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered
+the wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing
+the sheath, though he retained the sword.
+
+
+_Invulnerability_
+
+Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired.
+In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his
+mother Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he
+received his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.
+
+Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that
+sprang from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa
+with the Promethean unguent.
+
+Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by
+bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden
+leaf had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his
+death, being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.
+
+This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment of defensive
+armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be
+unprotected.
+
+
+_Belief in Numbers_
+
+Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic
+significance, _e.g._, “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of
+Beginning, Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of
+Trinity is Triad, and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.
+
+That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the
+Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to
+be under the rule of three gods--Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and
+Pluto (Hades). The first has three thunderbolts--Neptune, the Trident,
+and Pluto, Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.
+
+Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and
+Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were
+Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.
+
+
+_Muses_
+
+The Muses were three times three as follows:
+
+Calliope.              Epic Poetry.
+
+Clio.                  History.
+
+Melpomene.             Tragedy.
+
+Euterpe.               Lyric Poetry.
+
+Urania.                Astronomy.
+
+Terpsichore.           Dancing.
+
+Polyhegmnia.           Religious service.
+
+Erato.                 Erotic Poetry--Geometry.
+
+Thalia.                Comedy.
+
+The world is compounded of three elements--Earth, Water and Air.
+
+Man also is three--Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of
+Nature--Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.
+
+There are three Christian Graces--Faith, Hope and Charity, and three
+enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.
+
+The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World--the Winds--the
+Gospels--the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.
+
+“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.
+
+“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of
+Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages
+in the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the
+sleepers of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the
+world.
+
+
+_Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc._
+
+Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the
+Deities.
+
+The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress
+and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the
+Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter;
+the Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was
+given to the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic
+games had a wreath of wild olive--of green parsley in the Nemean games,
+and of dried parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.
+
+The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated the spirit of
+prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and
+poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.
+
+The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace,
+an olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating
+a peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art
+is generally borne by the martyr--indicating victory over Death. The
+Lily--which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of
+Eve as she went forth from Paradise--is the emblem of Chastity,
+Innocence and Purity and is associated with representations of the
+Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten Lily, which it was customary to plant on
+graves, was once white, the tradition being that Persephone, daughter of
+Demeter, delighted to wander about the flowering meads of Sicily. One
+springtime she tripped over the meadows, wreathed her head with wild
+lilies and, throwing herself on the leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of
+the infernal regions, fell in love with her and carried her to the
+nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow.
+
+In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and
+represents original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the
+Pomegranate (generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the
+symbol of the future life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are
+symbols of Christ, and the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.
+
+The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion--the leaf
+symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords
+or whips; the column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails;
+the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx,
+the nimbus. The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and
+the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.
+
+
+_Sacred Animals_
+
+Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and
+crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag
+to Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to
+Isis; the eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the
+Lares; the horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to
+Minerva; the bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and
+the lion to Vulcan.
+
+The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of
+the Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead,
+and so remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it
+receives life.
+
+
+_Evangelist Symbols_
+
+Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his
+gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.
+
+Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a
+descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a
+man.
+
+Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle--the former
+because his gospel opens with the priests sacrificing in the Temple,
+and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the
+divinity of the Logos.
+
+In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on
+fountains. The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual
+inundations of the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.
+
+
+_The Serpent_
+
+The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety, and,
+considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the
+symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that
+Æsculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.
+
+In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the
+Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery
+dragon, raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.
+
+
+_The Dragon_
+
+The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and
+Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the
+source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief
+thereby slew a dragon.
+
+The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the
+Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also
+a poetic allusion to flood or inundation.
+
+The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion
+to the power of the sun drying up the overflow, as also the deliverance
+of the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille
+(waterspout) which lived in the Seine.
+
+
+_Poetic License in Tradition_
+
+In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable
+occurrences have been handed down--in many cases completely
+transformed--by reason of this poetic license; _e.g._, the legend of
+Marsyas the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest
+of skill and being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.
+
+The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was
+one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that
+goddess, still discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the
+respective superiority of the instruments--the Dorian mode in the
+worship of Apollo employing the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in
+the worship of Cebele the flute, the reeds of which grew on the banks of
+the river Marsyas.
+
+Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos,
+King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos.
+All but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were
+punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly
+in sieves from a deep well.
+
+The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the
+Argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The
+soil of Argos, being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.
+
+The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in the tradition of
+Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen
+fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog--both slain by
+Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who
+reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two
+tribes.
+
+Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred
+lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains--a Greek myth based on the
+peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the
+Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to
+two ships which acted as supporters.
+
+A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to
+have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited
+the wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to
+defray the cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.
+
+
+_Animals in Christian Art_
+
+The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on monuments at
+the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and at the
+feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog appears on
+the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the
+standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.
+
+Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:
+
+The Ant.               Prudence.
+ “  Ape.               Malice, lust and cunning.
+ “  Ass.               Sobriety.
+ “  Asp.               Christ, or Christian Faith.
+ “  Bee.                 Industry.
+ “  Camel.               Submission.
+ “  Cock.                Vigilance.
+ “  Fox.                 Fraud and cunning.
+ “  Hog.                 Impurity.
+ “  Lamb.                Innocence.
+ “  Leopard.             Sin.
+ “  Ox.                  Pride.
+
+ “  Dragon, Serpent,  }  Satan and his crew.
+ “  Swine.            }
+
+ “  Lamb.             }
+ “  Pelican.          } Symbols of Christ.
+ “  Unicorn.          }
+
+The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus,
+appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted
+carrying a banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from
+its breast caught in a chalice.
+
+The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement. It
+is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of
+its breast.
+
+The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred
+years, is the symbol of the Resurrection.
+
+The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.
+
+The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and
+Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life
+with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is
+occasionally suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in
+general shape.
+
+
+_Association of Human and Animal Qualities_
+
+Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull
+and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the
+association of qualities--animal and human; and probably had their
+origin in an early belief in Totemism.
+
+
+_Totemism_
+
+Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain
+animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and
+appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the
+belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous,
+resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer.
+
+
+_Cannibalism_
+
+The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part
+of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.
+
+The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage
+or mentality.
+
+The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for
+protection or menace.
+
+The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies
+alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.
+
+Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as hovering,
+the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element denotes
+Intelligence, and bird claws--Ferocity.
+
+
+_The Sphinx_
+
+The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position,
+is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally
+female) and symbolises Intelligence and Power.
+
+The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented
+in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different
+meaning, that of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the
+tradition of the Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her
+destruction was accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that
+had resulted fatally for his predecessors.
+
+
+_Assyrian Winged Monsters_
+
+The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is
+symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the
+wings suggesting mobility or ever-present.
+
+The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle
+head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but
+alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the
+pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the
+ears.
+
+The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a
+lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth
+flames. From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.
+
+The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the
+head being the crater, the goat representing the mountain slopes, and
+the snake tail the morass at the foot.
+
+The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and serpent
+tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the
+mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of
+a lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted
+issuing from the mouth.
+
+
+_Pegasus_
+
+Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the Chimeræ,
+also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of poetic
+inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with the
+chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins
+and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.
+
+
+_The Harpy_
+
+In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts
+employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head,
+with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and
+ferocity, and was the personification of sudden events.
+
+
+_Sirens_
+
+Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers)
+of whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They
+symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure
+their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing. Failing to
+entrance Ulysses, they were doomed to destroy themselves.
+
+The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower
+limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion
+to their musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing
+harps or lutes.
+
+The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which
+capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower
+extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean.
+The Dolphin has the same significance.
+
+
+_Pan_
+
+A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a
+man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity
+displayed in creation and pervading all things.
+
+Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were
+under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.
+
+
+_The Nymphs_
+
+To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the forest
+trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin
+with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of
+such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.
+
+
+_Centaur_
+
+The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was an
+embodiment of the Thessalonian horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the
+Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the
+Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when
+entertained as guests.
+
+
+_The Circle_
+
+The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic
+meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that
+of Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its
+employment as the crown, orb and nimbus.
+
+In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two
+asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the
+power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the
+Assyrian version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string
+substituted for the asps.
+
+The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and Authority,
+not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated in
+pagan times.
+
+It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an
+indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of
+the three persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre,
+and sometimes is triangular in form.
+
+The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but
+not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or
+less ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is
+sometimes used to envelop the whole figure.
+
+
+_Symbols of the Trinity_
+
+Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as
+emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.
+
+The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning
+nor end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.
+
+The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone
+or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift
+this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is
+preserved in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the
+tests of strength.
+
+
+_The Wand a Symbol of Authority_
+
+Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre,
+mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a
+form which is still retained in the official mace.
+
+The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open
+hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to
+reward or punish.
+
+
+_The Hand_
+
+The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome--two
+joined hands signifying concord.
+
+Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented
+by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending
+from the fingers in token of divine Grace.
+
+The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of
+violence, and is so expressed on the shield of Ulster. An allusion to
+the tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land
+in Ireland, and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung
+it ashore.
+
+The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is
+represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in
+harmonious accord.
+
+
+_The Caduceus_
+
+The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the
+Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek
+mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or
+Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents
+quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which
+the serpents twined in peaceful amity.
+
+The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with
+wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is
+employed as an emblem of commerce.
+
+
+_Thyrsus_
+
+A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes
+different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with
+ivy leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears
+in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion
+to the Greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine)
+with the new wine to make it keep.
+
+It has also been attributed to a strategy of war, when Bacchus made a
+successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with
+branches, as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone
+being suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities
+took place at night.
+
+
+_The Trident_
+
+The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also
+variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use,
+are sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.
+
+
+_The Cross_
+
+Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it
+was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for
+ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred
+symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it
+symbolised the four cardinal points.
+
+Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was
+sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life
+generally.
+
+There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross
+with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice
+extends equally over the four quarters of the world.
+
+The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm,
+sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith,
+Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all
+Christian virtues.
+
+The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two transverse arms, when
+it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops
+at Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.
+
+The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter
+X, and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.
+
+The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T--frequently used in Byzantine
+representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent
+was uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the
+sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.
+
+The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the
+triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes
+the form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed
+in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.
+
+In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple
+form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more
+suggestive of voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical
+suffering belongs to a later period.
+
+It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St.
+Peter’s being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his
+execution.
+
+
+_The Pastoral Staff_
+
+The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the
+Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a
+curving head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both
+being indicative of authority.
+
+
+_Symbols of Martyrdom_
+
+Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as
+indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of
+Triumph over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of
+violent death, or by other implements of execution. These are
+represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint, as
+attributes and as a means of identification.
+
+As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and
+Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as
+the crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear,
+lantern, thirty pieces of silver, etc.
+
+
+_Symbolism of Gems, etc._
+
+In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic
+meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond--Invulnerable
+Faith, the Sardonyx--Power, the Sapphire--Hope, Gold represents Power or
+Glory, and Silver--Purity.
+
+Black represents Grief or Death, Blue--Hope and Divine Contemplation,
+pale blue--Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene conscience,
+Green--Faith, Gladness, pale green--Baptism, Grey--Tribulation,
+Purple--Justice or Royalty, Red--Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet--Fervour,
+and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet--Penitence, and
+White--Purity, Temperance and Innocence.
+
+Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a
+mere shell of the immortal soul. They are also used to indicate a
+pilgrim, by whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or
+form of spoon.
+
+Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and
+Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as
+ascending, the significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An
+earlier signification in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.
+
+
+_Masks_
+
+Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable to
+the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.
+
+The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē,
+was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the
+three Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of
+Athenē. As a punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the
+aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed
+to stone. A fate to which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her
+reflection in the burnished shield of Perseus.
+
+The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival,
+was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise
+that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired.
+The horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably
+accompanies the representations of Ceres.
+
+
+_Symbols of Time_
+
+Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter
+implement, though generally accepted is more strictly the emblem of
+Death, which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe
+the sickle would be more appropriate.
+
+
+_Secular Symbols_
+
+Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and
+crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations.
+
+The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the
+various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and
+other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the
+Bird of Wisdom.
+
+Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a
+winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by
+bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements,
+sheaves of corn and fruit.
+
+
+_Trophies_
+
+Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a
+decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the
+weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of
+victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions.
+
+Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration
+to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which was emulated
+in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs.
+
+
+_Heraldry_
+
+Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised
+chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period
+of complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way
+difficult.
+
+Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed
+later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the
+display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in
+chimney-pieces, is quite justified as indicative of ownership. Such
+details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass
+effect and variety.
+
+
+_Heraldry in Design_
+
+A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion
+gate at Mycenæ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and
+Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The
+shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the
+strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French
+Renaissance.
+
+It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers,
+especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to
+which there could be little objection if the employment of such details
+were justified by conditions.
+
+
+_Symbolism in Modern Art_
+
+Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of
+incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and
+to invest modern art--wherever possible--with meaning.
+
+
+_Present Apathy_
+
+In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the
+past, as is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally
+appreciated, but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to
+æsthetic environment; regarding art vaguely as the production and
+display of pictures and sculpture.
+
+The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the
+mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of
+domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is
+the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated.
+
+The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do
+more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any
+progress must necessarily be very slow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+WAYS AND MEANS
+
+
+Through the medium of sight, interest and emotion are excited by phases
+of colour and form, varying in individuals according to temperament. The
+artistic perception and appreciation of these are invariably due to
+natural faculty, though much may be acquired by intelligent study.
+
+
+_Perception_
+
+In most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the
+eye. Though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are
+essential, these can be acquired by practice. Perception, is of
+paramount importance, and it may be assumed that the artist’s vision is
+more sensitive to appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the
+layman.
+
+The interest of the average individual in art is generally that of
+subject and sentiment. This is probably a more natural and logical
+attitude than that of the artist, to whom--as a craftsman--the interest
+is often merely that of technique. These possibly represent the two
+extremes; the cultured individual is capable of appreciation of the
+ideal without consideration of schools and isms.
+
+Many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined
+knowledge than from the actual visual aspect--are apt to take forms for
+granted, to assume, for example, that an object is round when it is
+really subtilely polygonal. Theoretically a curve has no existence,
+being really a combination of straight lines varying in length and
+direction. Many beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a
+form as a right angle, and until their vision and judgment is trained,
+it is improbable that they can successfully render more subtile
+combinations. It is the business of the teacher to train the vision so
+that the perceptive faculties are developed, and instil in the mind of
+the student that art is only concerned with appearance. Any fact not
+visually apparent should be ignored.
+
+
+_Accepted Conventions_
+
+The whole subject is complicated by convention; thus for convenience,
+forms are drawn in outline, but these drawings are not representations,
+and are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and
+tradition. Drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the
+surface by a line or lines, and can only define at most two dimensions.
+When shade and shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid
+in the suggestion of the third dimension. Though these tend to a more
+lucid explanation, the work remains a convention if colour and
+atmosphere are rendered in monochrome.
+
+It is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent. That
+this to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright
+colour to the child and the savage. Subtle quantities and combinations
+are only appreciated by comparatively few, the faculty for colour being
+extremely rare.
+
+
+_Influence of Fashion_
+
+The average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue
+or fashion, though it is the polite custom to concede that the average
+woman is naturally endowed with taste. This is delicate ground, but the
+awful and impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume
+certainly do not justify the courtesy. There are superstitions in colour
+selection evidently the result of tradition, such, for instance, as red
+and yellow being suitable for a sallow complexion. The actual effect of
+these colours being to excite the complementaries, is hardly favourable
+to the misguided wearer.
+
+The average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially
+concerned. Not that he necessarily possesses more taste, but because he
+is observant of custom, and moreover, has generally an instinctive
+dislike to anything pronounced. At times, however, the women-folk take
+the initiative, and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are
+the selection of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex.
+
+In domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided
+by fashion, and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a
+lining for walls, it is probably adopted. But the choice, however it may
+be influenced, is made possibly without thought of the furniture and
+upholstery that is associated.
+
+
+_Harmonious Consistency_
+
+The colour scheme should be determined by aspect and by the use of the
+particular apartment. A sunny room should be treated differently to one
+with a north-east aspect, in which an appearance of warmth is
+desirable. Furniture, too, must be considered, reds being an unsuitable
+setting for oak as a rule, while mahogany is best associated with
+delicate greens and greys.
+
+It is a reasonable assumption that the training of the student should
+result in greater discrimination, and when the exercise consists of
+representing, it is a matter of careful approximation of colours and
+values. In original design the harmonious effect depends on the
+individual, who, in early attempts in colour, jumps at it, being
+unconscious of any guiding principle.
+
+
+_Natural Suggestion_
+
+It would seem that the wealth of colour combination in the various
+natural aspects apparent to all, would surely influence selection; that
+it generally fails to do so is testimony to lack of observation. Nature
+left alone never makes mistakes, and the colouring in flowers, land,
+sky, and water, the plumage of birds and other natural phenomena, is
+always harmonious if seen in original environment. When the balance and
+correct association is disturbed it is due to human interference, as is
+evident too often in the work of the landscape gardener and
+horticulturist.
+
+
+_Colour Scheme_
+
+In decoration the scheme may consist of tints or tones of any one
+colour, and the contrast is merely that of tone; in other words, of
+lighter and darker phases. This method of colouring, which is quite
+suitable in some instances, is fairly safe, as the latitude for error is
+greatly reduced, but certainly is not courageous.
+
+The problem arises, when the scheme involves the use of more than one
+colour, and the successful effect depends on judicious association and
+balance. The simple rule is never to display two only of the primary
+colours in juxtaposition, the presence of the third being essential to
+harmonious and satisfactory effect.
+
+This, as a principle, forms the basis of much of the Moresque
+decoration, in which the details were picked out in blue and red of
+positive hues, and separated or outlined with gold.
+
+More consideration is required when positive or pure colour is not in
+request, and the proportions of juxtaposed tints have to be relative. As
+any tint departs from the full strength of its particular category, so
+those associated should be proportionately remote.
+
+Respective quantities may vary and one colour occupy relatively a small
+part of the surface, when to preserve the balance it may be stronger in
+hue than others occupying adjacent and larger areas. For such
+contingencies it is impossible to give exact formulæ, as the pigments
+employed are not always constant. In the case of manufacturers of mixed
+paints, it is customary to issue samples of colours for the year or
+season, and they cannot guarantee repeating exactly any colour or tint
+in subsequent mixing. The same applies where coloured papers and
+textiles are concerned; therefore judgment based on principle and
+experience can be the only guide.
+
+The Primary colours are Red, Yellow and Blue; admixture of any two of
+these result in the Secondary colours which form the complementaries of
+the Primaries not involved. Thus blue and yellow combined result in
+green, which is the complementary of red, the complementary of yellow
+being purple, and that of blue, orange.
+
+Intensity of hue of any colour employed may vary considerably, and this
+variation should be proportional in other tints associated. Part of the
+charm of colour often depends on its complexity, in natural aspects due
+to atmosphere and varied phases of light. Pure colours should at times
+be avoided, that is, in the sense in which they are obtainable as
+pigments.
+
+
+_Early Training_
+
+Students should have attained some considerable facility in drawing
+before taking the study of design seriously, though probably part of the
+early training has dealt with extremely elementary forms leading in that
+direction. Undoubtedly, too, many enter on this phase of study without
+adequate preparation, having little appreciation of the underlying
+geometric construction, not only in design but in all form.
+
+This, on investigation, can always be found, and either the general mass
+or sub-divisions identified with some simple geometric shape enclosing
+the more intimate details. Correct approximation and placing are
+essential to the accuracy and success of the drawing. Too often through
+lack of training the tendency is to draw detail right away, without the
+necessary preliminary of determining the mass shapes.
+
+
+_Nature Study_
+
+The study of natural form is of paramount importance to prospective
+designers. Subjects should be selected as season or opportunity permit,
+not merely from plant and floral growth, but any form available, animate
+or inanimate that is suggestive of pattern or susceptible of ornamental
+treatment.
+
+Students in their early attempts in design invariably find convention a
+stumbling-block, and in making their studies from nature cannot at first
+grasp the idea that selection should be exercised, and that only those
+phases which are favourable to decorative results should be recorded.
+Design is not concerned with facts or exact portraiture so much as
+pattern, and only those features and attitudes that are suitable should
+be dealt with. To perpetuate the ugly and unsuitable is waste of both
+time and energy.
+
+
+_Aspect and Attitude_
+
+In too many instances the first aspect of the subject of study is
+recorded, even without any regard to natural attitude. It may be a spray
+of blossom taken by the student from the parent tree or shrub, which is
+fixed up in any position that comes handy. For this there is no excuse;
+the spray should not only be placed consistently, but to the best
+advantage, the object being to record aspects that are suggestive of
+decorative development.
+
+In design it is conditional that each individual detail should be
+primarily effective as a silhouette, surface interest being of secondary
+consideration.
+
+Any leaf or flower that does not conform should be so arranged as to
+satisfactorily comply with this condition, and this can easily be
+achieved by slightly shifting the point of view, as it is generally due
+to extreme foreshortening, or perspective that is confusing in
+appearance.
+
+[Illustration: No. 285. Natural Aspect of Various Leaves.
+
+Those in outline unsuitable without adaptation for ornament. The
+silhouette versions shew natural aspects that readily lend to decorative
+purposes.]
+
+Points of study to be noted are the stem growth, junctions and angles of
+branching and articulation of leaves, the difference in development of
+leaves on main stem and those on flower stalk, and phases of the
+flowers. The drawing should be explanatory as far as possible, and any
+detail not quite clear should be expressed in separate lucid diagrams.
+When readily accessible, a series of studies should be made of the same
+plant or growth at differing stages, so as to form a record of the life
+history and development.
+
+Care should be exercised to arrange the study with its explanatory
+details on the paper so as to satisfactorily occupy the area, not
+necessarily symmetrically, but with a view to desirable balance. Those
+with a natural faculty for design will probably do this instinctively,
+but the observance is important in developing the sense of arrangement.
+
+
+_Treatment_
+
+The drawings, which should be carefully detailed as to form, and
+intimate detail--in fact diagrammatic--can be in pencil or ink outline,
+light and shade is generally unimportant, though it may be lightly
+suggested.
+
+With regard to colour, except in examples of special suggestion, little
+time need be wasted in still life renderings, though suggestive colour
+schemes may well be noted, but the drawing should at least be lightly
+tinted, this serving the double purpose of fixing the pencil lines, and
+defining the silhouette shapes.
+
+These studies should form material for designs, not at first ambitious,
+but dealing with single leaves or flowers, and deriving from them
+details suitable to some form of decorative expression. These can be
+expressed in flat colour, with or without outline, or further ornamented
+by treatments suggestive of veining or striation. The blotching of some
+leaves during autumnal changes or any natural markings can often be
+turned to decorative account.
+
+
+_Drawings for Reproduction_
+
+Designs in some instances are in the form of perspective sketches, when
+it is desirable to convey an idea of their final appearance, but as a
+rule they are expressed as working drawings. This is imperative when the
+final production is the result of some mechanical production, as in book
+decoration and advertisement either black and white or in colour.
+Drawings for these are generally made larger and reduced to the required
+size by photography, and the blocks for printing made from the
+photograph.
+
+There is no fixed rule as to size of drawing or reduction, but if the
+designs are drawn for one-third reduction there will be no material
+alteration in values when produced. But as the reduction is increased
+there is a proportionate risk in alteration of values. It is desirable
+to bear the proposed reduction in mind and to work more boldly or with
+thicker lines, otherwise the final effect may be thin and weak. In pen
+drawing, the lines should be clear and distinct whatever their
+thickness.
+
+For designs in black and white, hot-pressed paper, Bristol board or
+smooth card are most suitable. The ink should be waterproof, as, if
+necessary, corrections with Chinese white can be more neatly made. Fine
+pens, except for very minute work, are not desirable, a Gillott’s
+ladies’ fine writing nib yielding as fine a line as is ordinarily
+required. For some classes of work a brush will be found more suitable,
+but care should be taken that all lines--whether thick or thin--are
+equally black.
+
+Designs in colour for illustration or advertisement, which are to be
+reproduced by lithography or the three-colour process, can be on card or
+Whatman paper. The colours employed being transparent or opaque,
+whichever is more suitable to working and effect. Larger designs for
+advertisement, such as posters, are usually painted in tempera or opaque
+colour, and these should be applied as far as possible edge to edge,
+overpainting being avoided.
+
+
+_Opaque Colour_
+
+Care should be taken in mixing the colour to the required tint or shade.
+This requires some experience, as when white forms part of the mixture,
+the effect when dry is always lighter and colder than when the paint is
+in the fluid state; therefore allowance for this should be made. Opaque
+and tempera colours are not used so fluid as ordinary transparent water
+colours, and if applied too thin will fail to cover the surface solidly,
+or dry blotchy. Cartridge paper is not only good enough but more
+suitable for opaque colour than papers of better quality. Not merely is
+there no advantage in these, but the texture is an unnecessary
+embarrassment; moreover cartridge paper can be obtained in continuous
+form of good width.
+
+
+_Enlarging and Reducing_
+
+When drawings are enlarged or reduced, the linear dimensions and not
+those of the area are implied; thus one half means one half of both
+width and height--really one-fourth of the area. It is obvious that half
+the area would be a different proportion, and it is the proportion that
+is concerned.
+
+[Illustration: No. 286. Diagonal Method of Enlarging or Reducing. Solid
+line shews given size.]
+
+Divisional measurement is rendered unnecessary by the diagonal method of
+proportion. Given a rectangular shape, which has to be reduced or
+enlarged, a diagonal line should be drawn, and prolonged if the latter,
+through opposite angles. A line parallel to either the vertical or
+horizontal can be drawn and returned at a right angle where it
+intersects the diagonal, and regardless of any dimensions, this will
+ensure the exact proportion of the original rectangle.
+
+It is obvious that such designs as the foregoing should be complete, and
+both in drawing and colour a perfect anticipation of the painted result,
+owing nothing of their effect to mechanical reproduction.
+
+
+_Textiles_
+
+In designs for printed and woven fabrics, though the process of
+production varies, it is still necessary that the drawing be complete in
+the technical indications. Otherwise the reproduced version may suffer,
+or at least not fulfil the intention of the designer, and it follows
+that the drawings should be concise in every detail, even to the colour
+effect desired.
+
+The drawings are usually to the full size in most printed fabrics. The
+design is not reproduced by any mechanical process, the blocks or
+rollers used in printing being cut by hand from a transferred tracing
+made from the original. Hence the importance of exactitude in joining
+and dimensions.
+
+In some instances the whole of the pattern is cut in relief in the wood,
+but in others, lines are the result of narrow strips of ribbon-like
+brass embedded in the surface of the block or roller. These have their
+influence on the design, as in the former method of production the lines
+can vary in thickness and can be invested with greater interest than the
+employment of the wire can give. The metal results in a hard line of
+unvarying thinness.
+
+Drawings for printed and woven fabrics are usually in opaque colour, and
+each tint employed should display a defined edge, graduated effects
+being only technically possible by means of tapering lines or stipple.
+Each distinct colour or tint involves separate printing; therefore as it
+is economically desirable to attain the best effect with the minimum
+cost, the utmost should be made of the colours employed.
+
+
+_Wallpapers_
+
+Wallpapers as a rule are printed in opaque colour, but in textiles, when
+the colour is transparent, more elaborate effects are possible by
+overprinting or super-imposing one colour on another. In woven fabrics
+similar effects can be obtained by judicious manipulation of the
+shuttles, but in all cases it should be borne in mind that a working
+drawing is necessary in which the details are clearly indicative of the
+final result.
+
+Designs that have to be realised by some form of handicraft require the
+same care and concise regard to detail, though the drawings need not be
+so complete as to appearance, and may be to scale or drawn full size
+according to condition.
+
+
+_Architectural Drawings_
+
+Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, that of eight feet to one
+inch being general, with working drawings to a scale of half an inch to
+the foot accompanied by full-size details and profiles of mouldings. The
+drawings are geometric, that is in plan, elevation, and section,
+expressed in line and generally tinted. On plans and sections arbitrary
+colours are employed to indicate material, for instance, red denotes
+brick, purple-grey, stone, warm grey, cement, Prussian blue, iron or
+steel, and burnt sienna or Vandyke brown, wood.
+
+These drawings convey little idea of the intended effect to the lay
+mind, and it is customary to suggest the eventual appearance by
+perspective views, but for practical reasons they constitute the most
+convenient form from which dimensions can be taken for working purposes.
+
+
+_Structural Design_
+
+In all structural design similar drawings are necessary, although sketch
+designs in perspective may be made to suggest effect, working drawings
+are imperative to the execution of the work. These, when reduced to the
+essential conditions of rendering, with explanatory details and
+sections, assume a very different aspect to the original sketch.
+
+The success of the completed work depends upon skilful detailing, which
+must be thoroughly explicit to be of real value.
+
+For convenience such working drawings are generally made on detail
+paper, which is usually obtainable in rolls sixty inches wide by
+twenty-five or fifty yards. This is sufficiently transparent to be
+employed for tracings, a great convenience when copies are in request,
+and is a good surface for pen, pencil or chalk, though somewhat thin for
+colour.
+
+Designs can be sketched in charcoal, and the desired lines drawn in ink.
+When dry the charcoal lines can be obliterated by rubbing with a leather
+or soft cloth, by which the charcoal is distributed, forming a tone over
+the whole surface. This is easily removable by india-rubber, and
+excellent relief effects can be obtained by judiciously taking out
+lights and strengthening shadows, though to avoid any possible
+misunderstanding it is usual to also indicate the relief by sections
+drawn through the details.
+
+
+_Lucid Arrangement_
+
+In geometric and working drawings when plans and sections are incidental
+to lucid explanation, these latter should appear relatively; that is,
+the plan should be in alignment with the elevation, etc. Statements and
+directions as to procedure are often necessary, and these, placed with
+judgment and in good lettering, are valuable in balancing the drawing.
+Not that this has any effect on the work, but because it has a good
+influence on the designer.
+
+Possibly the story of Giotto and the circle that figured in the early
+school primers is responsible for the very general impression that the
+use of mechanical instruments is inartistic. Another characteristic of
+the young beginner is a total disregard for anything in the nature of
+exact dimension.
+
+No useful purpose is served, and much valuable time is wasted, in
+attempts to accomplish freehand, forms that may be perfectly achieved by
+proper implements. Familiarity with the use of these will be found of
+great assistance in all design in which geometric construction, apparent
+or not, plays so large a part.
+
+Of this the average beginner has little conception, and though Geometry
+has been a subject of their early training, they seldom have any clear
+idea as to its employment in design. Except in few instances, they are
+unpractised in the use of geometrical instruments, and at times
+oblivious that these serve any practical purpose.
+
+
+_Mathematical Equipment_
+
+In design, where accuracy is of paramount importance, a reasonable
+equipment is imperative. Drawing boards vary in size, but for most
+ordinary work the antiquarian will suffice; the best type being that
+commonly used in engineering and architectural offices, with battens for
+adjustment and invariably a steel guide for the T square.
+
+Large T squares are more reliable on account of the wider head, the
+better sort being in mahogany with bevelled ebony edge. When accuracy is
+essential, the T square should only be employed for horizontal lines,
+those in a vertical direction being attained by the use of the set
+square, when the right angle can be assured by contact of the base of
+the latter on the edge of the T square.
+
+Set squares indispensable for ordinary work are those of the angles of
+45 degrees and 60 degrees. They should be large, about twelve inch, and
+in celluloid, which, being translucent, tends to greater accuracy.
+
+Bevelled set squares, usually in mahogany with ebony edge, are desirable
+when the ruling pen is used, and should be placed with the bevelled side
+to the surface of drawing as a precaution against blotting through the
+ink running off the edge from the pen. For the same reason the edge of
+the T square should be slightly tilted, so as not to be in contact with
+the drawing when ruling lines with the pen.
+
+The mathematical instruments in common request are dividers,
+indispensable in scale drawing. For delicate work spring dividers with
+needle points ensure greater accuracy. The bow or pencil compass, large
+with extending bar, and small; with spring bows, for minute work. For
+very large circles the beam compass is employed, consisting of a wood
+bar with two sliding clamps fitted respectively with point, and either
+pencil or pen which can be adjusted to the required radius.
+
+For ink drawings the bow or pen compass is employed for circular curves;
+spring bows for extremely small details, medium for general purposes.
+The large compass in the ordinary set is provided with both pen and
+pencil joints, which can be adjusted as required.
+
+
+_Use of the Ruling Pen_
+
+For straight lines the ruling pen should be employed. In this implement,
+the nibs, as in the pen compasses are provided with a screw, by means of
+which the pen can be adjusted to form thick or thin lines as required.
+Care should be taken in the adjustment; for the thinnest line the points
+should only be in contact. If screwed too tightly the nibs may be bent
+and would have to be re-set.
+
+There is a limit to the thickness of line in individual ruling pens,
+which are made in varying sizes for fine or bold work. Bow and ruling
+pens should never be filled to the full capacity, as they are then
+liable to flood and blot the work. It is better also to charge the pen
+with the filler, which is usually provided with the ordinary liquid ink,
+or a brush; otherwise blotting may result. If the pen is filled by
+dipping, the nibs should be wiped dry on each occasion on the external
+faces.
+
+In use the ruling pen should be held as vertical as possible, with the
+nibs perfectly parallel to the edge of T or set square, any divergence
+from the vertical might result in a curve instead of the straight line
+required. If the nibs are at an angle with the ruling edge, the ink will
+not flow freely, and there is also a tendency to cut the surface.
+
+
+_Proportional Compass_
+
+Another instrument of great use, though not so commonly in request, is
+the proportional compass, by means of which drawings are enlarged or
+reduced. It consists of two shanks furnished with points at each end,
+the shanks being slotted out centrally to form a slide. The adjustment
+is accomplished by a set screw which also forms a pivot, which, set at
+any of the marked divisions, assures the given proportion.
+
+
+_Tracings_
+
+Tracing paper is largely in request, not only as a means of repeating
+details and units by transferring, but when copies of a drawing are
+required. It can be obtained in rolls varying in width, forty inch being
+generally useful, and in different surfaces, rough and smooth, the
+former being good for pencil work--the smooth being more suitable for
+ink tracings.
+
+When tracings of a more durable character are required they are made on
+linen, which for this purpose has a highly glazed surface on which the
+ink will not always run equally. This can be rectified by lightly
+rubbing the surface with French chalk and by adding a little ox gall to
+the ink. The latter is a useful agent in counteracting any greasiness of
+surface and is often necessary in colour work.
+
+
+_Conclusion_
+
+The stimulus of competition is always healthy, and the necessity to
+attract has resulted generally in raising the standard, notably in forms
+of advertisement. The designer has not only to keep pace with modern
+conditions, but in some phases of work has also to anticipate future
+demand.
+
+Students are too often infected with the phase of the moment, or by the
+work of some distinguished exponent. This is quite natural, and to some
+extent such emulation may be condoned, but if it becomes an obsession it
+is fatal to the development of individualism. It is desirable, indeed
+commendable, for students to be interested in contemporaneous work; but
+they should realise that personality will never be achieved by
+imitation, though emulation and experiment are legitimate methods of
+training.
+
+Art training is largely in that of technique, consisting chiefly of the
+handling of the tools and mediums involved. It is obvious that when this
+technique is successfully acquired it implies a high standard of
+craftsmanship. This is essential, but personality is of greater
+importance and its development depends upon the individual. Some who
+have nothing personal to express may be capable of attaining great
+facility in various mediums, but stop at the imitative, and though this
+may be lucrative, no great artistic distinction is possible.
+
+If personality is latent it will develop quite unconsciously, and the
+endeavour of the student should be to see, understand and express the
+subject of study or idea with sincerity, regardless of any current phase
+however interesting. In this way only can be attained the personal
+attitude and expression that really constitutes the interest in all
+forms of art.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acanthus Foliage, 38, 263
+
+    “    Leaf (Greek) 264
+
+    “     “   (Roman) 266
+
+    “     “ (Byzantine) 267
+  Romanesque, 268
+  Gothic, 268
+  Italian Renaissance, 279
+  French Renaissance, 280
+  Jacobean, 280
+  Louis XIV, 283
+  Louis XV, 284
+  Louis XVI, 284
+  Grinling Gibbons, 285
+  Adam, 286
+  System of the, 286
+
+Adam, Robert, 123
+
+Alberti, Leo Battista, 76
+
+Ancient Pottery, 8
+
+Animals in Art, 331, 334
+
+   “        “   Compound, 336
+
+Angelo, M., 79
+
+Anthemion, The, 262
+
+Anthemius, 45
+
+Apathy, Public, 8
+
+Appliqué, 296
+
+Appreciation of Design, 288
+
+Architecture, Egyptian, 22
+  Chaldean, 25
+  Greek, 28
+  Roman, 35
+  Byzantine, 43
+  Romanesque, 49
+  Gothic, 59
+  Renaissance, Italian, 75
+       “       Florentine, 76
+       “       Roman, 78
+       “       Venetian, 80
+       “       French, 85
+       “       in England, 88
+       “       Elizabethan, 91
+       “       Jacobean, 93
+       “       English, 102
+       “       Louis XIII, 103
+       “       Louis XIV, 106
+       “       Louis XV, 110
+       “       Later English, 113
+
+Architectural Drawing, 158, 363
+
+Architectural Features, Abacus, The, 173, 175, 178
+  Arch, 20
+    “   Pointed, 58
+    “   Decorated, 64
+    “   Perpendicular, 68
+    “   184
+  Arcades, 200
+    “      Vaulted, 201
+  Architrave, 161, 164, 169, 172, 211
+  Archivolt, The, 186, 187
+  Attic, The, 208
+  Baluster, The, 191
+  Balustrading, 193
+  Battlement, The, 66
+  Base, The Doric, 181
+    “   The Ionic, 182
+    “   The Corinthian, 183
+  Basement, The, 207
+  Buttress, The, 59
+  Capital, The Doric, 173
+    “      The Ionic, 175
+    “      The Corinthian, 178
+  Clerestory, The, 51, 67
+  Column, The, 172
+    “     Employment of, 194
+    “     Disposition and Spacing of, 195
+  Corinthian Order, The, 163
+  Cornice, 161, 164, 169, 171, 209
+  Doric Order, The, 161
+  Doors, 211
+  Entablature, The Doric, 164
+       “       The Ionic, 169
+       “       The Corinthian, 171
+  Frieze, The, 161, 164, 167, 169, 171, 213, 226
+  Impost, The Doric, 185
+    “     The Ionic, 186
+    “     The Corinthian, 187
+  Ionic Order, The, 163
+  Keystone, The, 187
+  Lintel, The, 19
+  Mouldings, 61, 64, 68, 97, 107
+      “      Profiles, 138
+      “      Purpose of, 139
+      “      Decoration of, 143
+      “      Employment of 147
+  Mutule, The, 164
+  Order, The, 160
+    “    The Doric, 161
+    “    The Ionic, 163
+    “    The Corinthian, 163
+  Pedestal, The, 188
+  Pedestal, The Doric, 189
+      “     The Ionic, 190
+      “     The Corinthian, 190
+  Pediment, The, 209
+  Piers, 60, 184, 200, 205
+  Pilaster, The, 160, 199, 235
+  Plynth, The, 161, 181, 183, 184, 188, 190, 191, 193, 204, 208
+  Rustication, 205
+  Subsidiary Order, The, 202
+  Superimposed Orders, 197, 204
+  System of Proportion, 159
+  Triforium, The, 53, 60, 67
+  Vault, The, 20, 36, 53
+    “    Treatment of, 224
+  Vaulting, Fan, 68
+  Volute, The, 175
+  Windows, 60, 213
+    “      Plate Tracery, 61
+    “      Tracery of, 63, 64
+
+Art, Interest in, 1
+  Definition of, 5
+  As an Appeal, 5
+  Ethical Side of, 14
+  Desire for Novelty in, 15
+  Egyptian, 23
+  Chaldean, 25
+  Greek, 33
+  Roman, 38
+  Græco-Roman, 40
+  Byzantine, 45
+
+Artistic Phases of Expression, 10
+
+Aureole, The, 340
+
+
+Baluster, The, 153, 191, 246
+
+Bank of Ireland, 136
+
+Base, The Doric, 181
+
+Base, The Ionic, 182
+
+  “   The Corinthian, 183
+
+Basement, The, 207
+
+Battlement, The, 66
+
+Bazzi Gian Antonio (Sodoma), 83
+
+Berain, Claude, 106
+
+  “     Jean, 106
+
+Bernini, 80
+
+Book Decoration, 300
+
+Borders, 227
+
+   “     Treatment, 233
+
+Boule, André Charles, 106, 109
+
+  “    Work, 298
+
+Bramante, 78
+
+Branching, Types of, 273
+
+Brunelleschi, 76
+
+Buttress, The, 59
+
+Byzantine, Art, 45
+
+
+Caduceus, The, 342.
+
+Cannibalism, 336
+
+Capital, The, 22, 50
+
+Capital, Doric, 173
+  Ionic, 175
+  Corinthian, 178
+
+Carved Work, 301
+  Design for, 302
+
+Ceilings, Jacobean, 97
+  Louis XIII, 105
+  Louis XIV, 108
+  Louis XV, 112
+  Treatment of, 218
+
+Centaur, The, 339
+
+Chaldean Art, 25
+
+Chambers, Sir William, 136
+
+Chambord, Chateau de, 86
+
+Champleve Enamel, 47
+
+Chenonceaux, sur Loire, 86
+
+Chimney-piece, Jacobean, 94
+
+Chippendale, 121
+
+Choragic Monument, 32
+
+Christian Art, Early, 46
+
+Circle, Symbolic meaning of, 340
+
+Cipriani, 126
+
+Clerestory, The, 51, 67
+
+Colour, Symbolism of, 345
+  Use of, 353
+  Opaque, 360
+
+Column, The, 172
+  Employment of, 194
+  Disposition and Spacing of, 195
+
+Commercial Production, 6
+  Intercourse, 12
+
+Convention, 292
+  Accepted, 351
+
+Cornucopia, The, 346
+
+Corinthian, Order, 163
+  Entablature, 171
+  Capital, 178
+  Base, 184
+  Pedestal, 190
+  Impost, 187
+
+Craft Restriction, 256
+
+Cressent, Charles, 111
+
+Cross, The, 343
+
+Crozier, The, 344
+
+Crux Ansata, 343
+
+Customs, Survival of, 311
+  Early Burial, 322
+
+
+Dance, George, 136
+
+Decorative, Materials, 289
+
+Deities, Egyptian, 318
+
+Deities, Greek and Roman, 316
+  Scandinavian, 317
+  Pan, 339
+
+Delorme, Philibert, 87
+
+Dentils, 146
+
+Design, Mental vision in, 1
+  Inspired, 2
+  Process and material in, 2, 8
+  Considerations in, 3
+  Public demand, 3
+  Training in, 4
+  Influence in, 4, 8, 12, 18
+  Architectural influence in, 14
+  Appreciation of, 288
+  Structural, 363
+
+Domes, Byzantine, 43
+  Treatment of, 224
+
+Domestic Conditions, 54, 72, 74
+
+Donatello, 76
+
+Doors, Jacobean, 96
+  Proportions and Treatment, 211
+
+Doric Order, 28, 161
+  Entablature, 164
+  Capital, 173
+  Base, 181
+  Pedestal, 189
+  Impost, 185
+
+
+Ecole de Médécine, 132
+
+Echo, 319
+
+Egyptian Art, 22
+
+Enamel, Byzantine, 47
+
+Endymion, 319
+
+Enlarging Drawings, 360
+
+Equipment, Mathematical, 365
+
+Eurydice, 324
+
+Evangelists, 331
+
+Evolute Scroll, The, 234, 261
+
+
+Farnese Palace, 79
+
+Fates, 318, 320
+
+Figure Composition, 244
+
+Filagree Jewellery, 258
+
+Flowers, in Ornament 270
+
+Fontainebleau, Palace of, 86
+
+Forms in the round, 245
+
+Four Courts, Dublin, 136
+
+French Renaissance, 85
+  Louis XIII, 103
+  Louis XIV, 106
+  Régence, 111
+  Louis XV, 110
+  Louis XVI, 127
+  Empire, 135
+
+Frieze, The, 226, 266
+
+Furniture, Egyptian, 24
+  Chaldean, 27
+  Greek, 32
+  Roman, 39
+  Middle Age, 54
+  Decorated Gothic, 66, 73
+  Italian Renaissance, 84
+  English Renaissance, 92
+  Jacobean, 98
+  Louis XIII, 105
+  Louis XIV, 108
+  Louis XV, 113
+  English (Dutch Influence) 118
+  Queen Anne, 120
+  Chippendale, 121
+  Lacquered, 113, 126
+  Painted, 126
+  Sheraton, 127
+  Louis XVI, 133
+  Empire, 135
+
+
+Gallo, Antonio San, 79
+
+Gallo, Giuliano di San, 79
+
+Gandon, James, 136
+
+Gems, Symbolism of, 345
+
+Gibbons, Grinling, 114, 137, 285
+
+Gibbs, James, 115
+
+Giocondo, 79
+
+Giotto, 83
+
+Gondouin, Jacques, 132
+
+Gouthière, 133
+
+Graces, Christian, 329
+
+Græco-Roman Art, 40
+
+Greek Art, 28
+
+Grimani Palace, 80
+
+Growth, Consistency in, 273
+
+
+Half Figures in Ornament, 278
+
+Halo, The, 340
+
+Hamadryads, 339
+
+Hampton Court Palace, 114
+
+Hand, Symbolism of the, 341
+
+Harpy, The, 320, 338
+
+Hawksmoor, Nicholas, 115
+
+Hepplewhite, 126
+
+Heraldry, 348
+
+Holbein, 89
+
+Holkham, Norfolk, 121
+
+Holt, Thomas, 91
+
+Horse Guards, Whitehall, 121
+
+Husk Leaf, The, 269
+
+
+Impost, Doric, 185
+  Ionic, 186
+  Corinthian, 187
+
+Impressionism, Early, 10
+
+Influence of Material, 8, 258
+  Political, 12, 17, 71
+  Religious, 12, 17
+  Commercial, 12, 17, 71
+  Civic, 70
+  Of the Crusades, 56
+  Of Fashion, 352
+
+Inspiration, Belief in,  2
+
+Intarsia, 297
+
+Interior treatment, Græco-Roman, 39
+  Romanesque Church, 51
+  Domestic, Tudor, 73
+  Italian Renaissance, 83
+  Jacobean, 94
+  Louis XIII, 104
+  Louis XIV, 107
+  Louis, XV, 112
+  Wren Period, 116
+  Georgian, 121
+  Adam, 126
+  Louis, XVI, 133
+  Walls, 216
+  Ceilings, 218, 221, 222
+  Vaults and Domes, 224
+
+Ionic Order, Greek, 32
+  Renaissance, 159
+  Proportions of, 163
+  Entablature, 169
+  Capital, 175
+  Base, 182
+  Pedestal, 190
+  Impost, 186
+
+Italian Renaissance, 75, 78, 80
+
+
+Jewellery, Filagree, 258
+
+Jones, Inigo, 81, 102, 137
+
+
+Kauffman, Angelica, 126
+
+Kent, William,  121
+
+
+Lace, 297
+
+Lacquered Furniture, 113, 126
+
+Lares, Roman, 322
+
+Leaves, Employment of, 275
+  Treatment of, 293
+
+Lebrun, 106
+
+Legend, 323, 333
+
+Lepautre, 106
+
+Limitations, Human, 1
+
+Lintel, The, 19
+
+Louvre, 80, 86
+
+
+Maderno, Carlo, 79
+
+Madrid, Chateau de, 86
+
+Magical Qualities, Belief in, 325
+
+Mainwaring, 123
+
+Majano, Benedetto da, 77
+
+Mansart, Jules Hardouin, 106
+
+Mansion House, London, 136
+
+Marble, Byzantine use of, 47, 300
+
+Marquetry, 298
+
+Marot, Daniel, 106, 109
+
+Martyrdom, Symbols of, 345
+
+Masks, 346
+
+Mathematical Equipment, 365
+
+Material in Design, 258
+
+Mayhew, 123
+
+Medusa, 346
+
+Metal Work, Bronze, 42
+  Byzantine, 47
+  Repoussé, 304
+  Cast, 306
+  Mounts in Furniture, 108, 135
+
+Methods of Expression, 292
+
+Micheli, San, 80
+
+Modelling, 301, 304
+
+Mosaics, Byzantine, 47, 299
+
+Mouldings, Attitude of, 148
+  Bolection, 152
+  Decorated Gothic, 64
+  Decoration of, 143
+  Drawn Metal, 155
+  Employment of, 147
+  Jacobean, 97
+  Pointed Gothic, 61
+  Plaster, 153
+  Pottery, 154
+  Profiles of, 138
+  Purpose of, 139
+  Repoussé, 157
+  Rolled Metal, 155
+  Spun Metal, 157
+  Turned Wood, 153
+  Wood Panel, 149
+
+Muses, 328
+
+Mythology, Origin of, 312
+  Scandinavian, 317
+
+Myths, Nature, 312
+  Season, 314
+  Sun, 315
+
+
+Nature, Myths, 312
+  Study, 355
+
+Natural Attraction, 288
+
+Natural Suggestion, 353
+  Phenomena, Belief in, 315
+
+Needlework, 296
+
+Newgate Prison, 136
+
+Nimbus, The, 340
+
+Noon, 318
+
+Numbers, Belief in, 328
+
+
+Oppenord, Giles Marie, 111
+
+Order, 160
+
+Order, Doric, 161
+  Ionic, 163
+  Corinthian, 163
+
+Originality, 1
+
+Ornament, Roman, 39
+  Byzantine, 45
+  Romanesque, 50
+  Pointed Gothic, 63
+  Decorated Gothic, 65
+  Perpendicular Gothic, 69
+  French Renaissance, 88
+  English        “    88, 91
+  Later English  “    118
+  Louis XVI, 134
+  Empire, 135
+
+Outline, Drawing, 254
+
+
+Painted Decoration, Roman, 39
+  Renaissance, 82, 294
+
+Painted Furniture, 126
+
+Palazzo, Pitti, 77
+  Strozzi, 77
+
+Palladio, 78, 81
+
+Pan, 339
+
+Panels, Treatment of, 236
+  Juxtaposition, 238
+  The Composing Lines, 241
+  Grouping and Massing, 242
+  Division of, 242
+
+Pantheon, Rome, 36
+
+Passion, Symbols of the, 345
+
+Pastoral Staff, 344
+
+Parthenon, 30
+
+Perugino, 83
+
+Peruzzi, Baldazzare, 79
+
+Pineau, Nicholas, 111
+
+Piers, Gothic, 60
+
+Pinturrichio, 83
+
+Potters, Elementary, 9
+
+Pottery, Ancient, 8
+  Greek, 34
+
+Predestination, 319
+
+Prehistoric Workers, 9
+
+Personal Production, 10
+
+Primitive Essays, 8
+  Requirements, 11
+
+Prohibition, 324
+
+Propitiation, 320
+
+
+Raffaelle, 79
+
+Realism, 255
+
+Régence, 111
+
+Relief Work, Treatment of, 293, 301
+
+Reproduction Processes, 304
+  Drawing for, 359
+
+Riesener, 133
+
+Rococo, 111
+
+Romano Giulio, 83
+
+Rosette, The, 270
+
+
+Sacred Trees and Flowers, 329
+
+Sacrifice, 321
+
+Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti) 80
+
+Sarto, Andrea del, 86
+
+Scamozzi, Vincenzo, 81
+
+Sceptre, The, 341
+
+Scroll, The, 266
+
+Season Myths, 314
+
+Secular Symbols, 347
+
+Serlio, 78, 87
+
+Shells, Symbolism of, 345
+
+Sheraton, 127
+
+Sirens, The, 338
+
+Social Conditions, Early, 11
+
+Sodoma (Gian Antonio Bazzi) 83
+
+Somerset House, 136
+
+Soufflet, 110
+
+Spires, Pointed Gothic, 64
+  Decorated Gothic, 66
+  Classic, 116
+
+Spiritual Belief, Early, 323
+
+St. Geneviéve (Pantheon) 110
+  George, Bloomsbury, 115
+  Mark, Library of, 81
+  Martin in the Fields, 115
+  Mary le Strand, 115
+  Mary, Woolnoth, 115
+  Paul, Covent Garden, 103
+  Peter’s, Rome, 78
+  Stephen’s, Walbrook, 116
+
+Standards, 246
+
+Starts in Ornament, 276
+
+Stencilled Work, 295
+
+Strapwork, 87
+
+Structural Design, 363
+
+Style, 16
+  Phases in, 18
+     “    “  Gothic, 60
+
+Sun Myths, 315
+  Signs, 340
+
+Supports, 246
+
+Surface Interest, 294
+
+Symbols of the Evangelists, 331
+
+Symbolic Ornament, 310
+
+
+Taboo, 322
+
+Taste, 6
+
+Tatti, 80
+
+Technical Considerations, 292
+
+Tendrils, 271
+
+Textiles, Printed and Woven, 296, 361
+
+Thorpe, Thomas, 91
+
+Thyrsus, The, 342
+
+Time, Symbols of, 346
+
+Torches, 346
+
+Torrigiano, 89
+
+Totemism, 336
+
+Tracery, 61
+  Pointed, 63, 64, 68
+
+Tracings, 368
+
+Trident, The, 343
+
+Triforium, 53, 60, 67
+
+Trinity College, Cambridge, 116
+
+Trinity, Symbols of the, 341
+
+Triton, 339
+
+Trophies, 347
+
+Tuileries, The, 87
+
+
+Udine, Giovanni da, 83
+
+Undulate, Line or Stem, 230, 266
+
+
+Vaga, Pierino del, 83
+
+Vase, Greek, 29, 258
+  Forms and Decoration, 248
+
+Vase, Stretch out and Segments, 250
+
+Vault, The, 20, 36, 53
+  Treatment of, 224
+
+Vaulting, Fan, 68
+
+Veneer, 298
+
+Venetian, Renaissance, 80
+
+Versailles, Palace of, 106
+
+Vesica Piscis, The, 340
+
+Vignola, 78, 80, 87, 159
+
+Vinci, Leonardo da, 86
+
+Volute, The, 175
+
+
+Wallpaper, 290, 362
+
+Whitehall, Banqueting House, 103
+
+Windows, Glazing of, 47, 67
+  Pointed Gothic, 61
+  Decorated Gothic, 64
+  Perpendicular Gothic, 68
+  Domestic, 73, 74
+  Jacobean, 98
+  Treatment of, 213
+
+Winds Personified, 319
+
+Wood, Inlay, 297
+  Treatment of, 289
+
+Wren, Sir Christopher, 81, 114, 137
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Design and Tradition, by Amor Fenn
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 53850 ***
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+  The Project Gutenberg eBook of Design And Tradition, by Amor Fenn.
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 53850 ***</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""
+style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%;
+padding:1%;">
+<tr><td>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#CONTENTS">Contents.</a></p>
+<p class="c"><a href="#INDEX">Index.</a>:
+<a href="#A">A</a>,
+<a href="#B">B</a>,
+<a href="#C">C</a>,
+<a href="#D">D</a>,
+<a href="#E">E</a>,
+<a href="#F">F</a>,
+<a href="#G">G</a>,
+<a href="#H">H</a>,
+<a href="#I-i">I</a>,
+<a href="#J">J</a>,
+<a href="#K">K</a>,
+<a href="#L">L</a>,
+<a href="#M">M</a>,
+<a href="#N">N</a>,
+<a href="#O">O</a>,
+<a href="#P">P</a>,
+<a href="#R">R</a>,
+<a href="#S">S</a>,
+<a href="#T">T</a>,
+<a href="#U">U</a>,
+<a href="#V-i">V</a>,
+<a href="#W">W</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a><br /> <span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers]
+clicking on the image will bring up a larger version.)</span></p>
+
+<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="320" height="500" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="c">DESIGN AND TRADITION</p>
+
+<p class="c">“They are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only Beauty.”&mdash;<i>Oscar
+Wilde.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;">
+<a href="images/ill_004_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_004_sml.jpg" width="377" height="522" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. Rickards,
+F.R.I.B.A.</p>
+
+<p>This drawing is remarkable as an anticipation of eventual appearance.
+Thoroughly impressionistic in treatment, all irrelevant detail is
+omitted.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<div class="bboxx">
+<div class="bboxx">
+<p class="c">
+UNIVERSAL ART SERIES<br />
+EDITED BY FREDERICK MARRIOTT</p>
+</div></div></div>
+<div class="bbox">
+<div class="bboxx">
+<div class="bboxx">
+<h1>DESIGN AND<br />
+TRADITION</h1>
+
+<div class="cntrblk"><div class="cntrblk2">
+A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE<br />
+PRINCIPLES AND HISTORIC<br />
+DEVELOPMENT &nbsp;OF &nbsp;ARCHI-<br />TECTURE
+AND THE APPLIED<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5.2em;">ARTS</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<p class="cb">BY<br />
+AMOR FENN<br />
+<br />
+<img src="images/colophon.png"
+width="150"
+alt="colophon"
+/><br />
+<br />
+LONDON<br />
+CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD.<br />
+1920<br />
+</p></div></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="c"><img src="images/colophon2.png"
+width="75"
+alt="colophon"
+/>
+<br />
+THE WESTMINSTER PRESS<br />
+HARROW ROAD<br />
+LONDON<br />
+</p>
+
+<h2><a name="AUTHORS_PREFACE" id="AUTHORS_PREFACE"></a>AUTHOR’S PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T may be urged with some reasonable basis of truth that much of the
+modern art work fails to attain the level of that of the past. It must
+be conceded, however, that demand and appreciation is more general and
+widely diffused. As social conditions have developed, interest in
+environment has been stimulated. Improved processes resulting in more
+economic production have rendered possible an indulgence by those of
+moderate means, attainable only at earlier periods by the wealthier
+class.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of this more general appreciation the professional services
+of the artist are necessarily in greater request, thus affording a
+sphere of work not only lucrative but temperamentally attractive.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time the facilities available to the prospective artist
+are considerably greater than at any previous period. In every district
+and important centre, there are schools specialising in the Arts and
+Crafts, giving opportunities for training at fees that are purely
+nominal. Most of these deal with the various phases of artistic
+expression on logical and sound lines, but the knowledge and experience
+essential to a successful artistic career is invariably acquired in
+professional work to which the art school training is preparatory.</p>
+
+<p>To those specialising in design, the study of Historic Style is of
+paramount importance. Intelligent investigation will show that in all
+the varying phases, the underlying factors are much the same, and
+appreciation of these will be found invaluable in personal work.</p>
+
+<p>Necessarily brief, this book has been prompted by the memory of early
+bewilderment and difficulties, when a guiding hand would have saved much
+valuable time and mis-directed energy.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable amount of the available space is devoted to Architectural
+features, with the conviction that a knowledge of these will be found
+helpful in the formation of methods, logical and constructive.</p>
+
+<p>Attention is directed to the frontispiece, a typical example of the
+extraordinary genius of E. A. Rickards, F.R.I.B.A., the original of
+which is in the possession of Philip Connard, A.R.A., to whom
+indebtedness for its use is acknowledged.</p>
+
+<p>The author’s thanks are also due to Miss Dora Bard and Mr. C. E. Bernard
+for the reproduction of drawings made by them during their tenure in
+successive years of the “Travelling Studentship” of the Society of
+British Decorators.</p>
+
+<p>For the use of the following photographs the author desires to make
+acknowledgment to the Authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+South Kensington, as holders of the Crown copyright:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td valign="top" rowspan="5">Nos.</td> <td>257.<br />
+258.<br />
+259.<br />
+265.<br />
+271.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; </td>
+<td>272.<br />
+273.<br />
+274.<br />
+275.<br />
+281<small>A</small>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""
+style="margin:auto auto;max-width:80%;">
+<tr><td><small>CHAPTER</small></td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp">
+<td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_I">I</a></td>
+<td>Introductory</td>
+<td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Human Limitations, p. 1&mdash;Inspiration&mdash;Process and
+Material, p. <a href="#page_002">2</a>&mdash;Early Training, p. <a href="#page_004">4</a>&mdash;Art and Existence,
+p. <a href="#page_005">5</a>&mdash;Natural Taste&mdash;Commercial Production,
+p. <a href="#page_006">6</a>&mdash;“Ornaments,” p. <a href="#page_007">7</a>&mdash;Modern Development&mdash;Public
+Apathy, p. <a href="#page_008">8</a>&mdash;Elementary Pattern, p. <a href="#page_009">9</a>&mdash;Early
+Impressionism&mdash;Personal Production, p. <a href="#page_010">10</a>&mdash;Early
+Social Conditions, p. <a href="#page_011">11</a>&mdash;Influence&mdash;Commercial Intercourse,
+p. <a href="#page_012">12</a>&mdash;Effect on Design, p. <a href="#page_013">13</a>&mdash;Ethical side
+of Art, p. <a href="#page_014">14</a>&mdash;Desire for Novelty, p. <a href="#page_015">15</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II</a> </td><td>Historic Review</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_016">16</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Style, p. <a href="#page_016">16</a>&mdash;Intercommunication&mdash;Climate and
+Material, p. <a href="#page_017">17</a>&mdash;Phases in Style, p. <a href="#page_018">18</a>&mdash;The Lintel,
+p. <a href="#page_019">19</a>&mdash;The Arch, p. <a href="#page_020">20</a>&mdash;Egyptian Art, p. <a href="#page_022">22</a>&mdash;Chaldean
+Art, p. <a href="#page_025">25</a>&mdash;Greek Art, p. <a href="#page_028">28</a>&mdash;Roman Art, p.
+<a href="#page_035">35</a>&mdash;Vaulting, p. <a href="#page_036">36</a>&mdash;Greek Influence, p. <a href="#page_037">37</a>&mdash;Roman
+Development of Ornament, p. <a href="#page_038">38</a>&mdash;Græco-Roman
+Painted Decoration, p. <a href="#page_039">39</a>&mdash;Byzantine Dome, p. <a href="#page_043">43</a>&mdash;Early
+Christian Art, p. <a href="#page_046">46</a>&mdash;Byzantine Metal Work,
+and Enamel, p. <a href="#page_047">47</a>&mdash;Roman Influence Abroad&mdash;Romanesque
+Style, p. <a href="#page_049">49</a>&mdash;Church Development, p.
+<a href="#page_050">50</a>&mdash;Dark Ages, p. <a href="#page_053">53</a>&mdash;Crusades, p. <a href="#page_056">56</a>&mdash;Origin of
+the Pointed Arch, p. <a href="#page_058">58</a>&mdash;Gothic Style, p. <a href="#page_059">59</a>&mdash;Phases
+of Gothic&mdash;Early Pointed, p. <a href="#page_060">60</a>&mdash;Decorated Gothic,
+p. <a href="#page_064">64</a>&mdash;Perpendicular Gothic&mdash;Glass Windows, p. <a href="#page_067">67</a>&mdash;Civic
+Influences, p. <a href="#page_070">70</a>&mdash;Effect of Commerce&mdash;Classic
+Tradition in Italy, p. <a href="#page_071">71</a>&mdash;Foreign Influence
+in England&mdash;The Dwelling House, p. <a href="#page_072">72</a>&mdash;The Reformation,
+p. <a href="#page_074">74</a>&mdash;The Renaissance, p. <a href="#page_075">75</a>&mdash;Early Florentine
+Exponents, p. <a href="#page_076">76</a>&mdash;Rome, p. <a href="#page_078">78</a>&mdash;Venice, p.
+<a href="#page_080">80</a>&mdash;Venetian Influence, p. <a href="#page_081">81</a>&mdash;Painted Decoration,
+p. <a href="#page_082">82</a>&mdash;Græco-Roman Influence, p. <a href="#page_083">83</a>&mdash;Early French
+Renaissance, p. <a href="#page_085">85</a>&mdash;Native Exploitation, p. <a href="#page_087">87</a>&mdash;English
+Renaissance, p. <a href="#page_088">88</a>&mdash;Italians in England, p.
+<a href="#page_089">89</a>&mdash;Study of Classic Style&mdash;Thomas Thorpe, p. <a href="#page_091">91</a>&mdash;Flemish
+Influence, p. <a href="#page_092">92</a>&mdash;Jacobean Work, p. <a href="#page_093">93</a>&mdash;Development
+in Dwellings, p. <a href="#page_098">98</a>&mdash;Evolution of
+Professional Designer, p. <a href="#page_101">101</a>&mdash;Inigo Jones, p. <a href="#page_102">102</a>&mdash;Louis
+XIII, p. <a href="#page_103">103</a>&mdash;Louis XIV, p. <a href="#page_106">106</a>&mdash;“Boule”
+Work&mdash;Mirrors, p. <a href="#page_109">109</a>&mdash;Louis XV, p. <a href="#page_110">110</a>&mdash;Régence&mdash;Rococo,
+p. <a href="#page_111">111</a>&mdash;Lacquer “Vernis Martin”&mdash;Later
+English Renaissance, p. <a href="#page_113">113</a>&mdash;Sir Christopher
+Wren, p. <a href="#page_114">114</a>&mdash;Classic Treatment of the Spire, p. <a href="#page_116">116</a>&mdash;Dutch
+and French Influences, p. <a href="#page_118">118</a>&mdash;Queen Anne
+Period&mdash;Early Georgian, p. <a href="#page_120">120</a>&mdash;Furniture Design,
+Chippendale, p. <a href="#page_121">121</a>&mdash;Mayhew&mdash;Robert Adam, p.
+<a href="#page_123">123</a>&mdash;Hepplewhite, p. <a href="#page_126">126</a>&mdash;Sheraton&mdash;Louis XVI,
+p. <a href="#page_127">127</a>&mdash;Riesener and Gouthière, p. <a href="#page_133">133</a>&mdash;Empire&mdash;Empire
+in England&mdash;Later English Architecture,
+p. <a href="#page_135">135</a>&mdash;French Influence on Europe, p. <a href="#page_136">136</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III </a></td><td>  Mouldings</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Purpose&mdash;The Fillet&mdash;Sheltering Mouldings&mdash;The
+Cavetto, p. <a href="#page_139">139</a>&mdash;Cyma Recta&mdash;Bracketing Mouldings&mdash;The
+Ovolo, p. <a href="#page_140">140</a>&mdash;Cyma Reversa&mdash;Binding
+Mouldings, p. <a href="#page_141">141</a>&mdash;The Torus&mdash;The Scotia&mdash;The
+Facia, p. <a href="#page_142">142</a>&mdash;Decoration of Mouldings, p. <a href="#page_143">143</a>&mdash;Orthodox
+Details&mdash;Angle Leaf, p. <a href="#page_145">145</a>&mdash;Dentils, p.
+<a href="#page_146">146</a>&mdash;Employment of Mouldings, p. <a href="#page_147">147</a>&mdash;Attitude,
+p. <a href="#page_148">148</a>&mdash;Panel Mouldings&mdash;Woodwork, p. <a href="#page_149">149</a>&mdash;Applied
+Mouldings, p. <a href="#page_151">151</a>&mdash;Bolection Moulding, p.
+<a href="#page_152">152</a>&mdash;Mouldings in Plaster Work&mdash;Wood Turning,
+p. <a href="#page_153">153</a>&mdash;Metal Turning&mdash;Pottery, p. <a href="#page_154">154</a>&mdash;Mechanically
+produced Metal Mouldings&mdash;Wrought Iron, p.
+<a href="#page_155">155</a>&mdash;Silver Work, p. <a href="#page_156">156</a>&mdash;Sheet Metal, Spinning,
+and Repoussé, p. <a href="#page_157">157</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV</a></td><td> Architectural Proportions</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Introduction, p. <a href="#page_158">158</a>&mdash;System of Proportion, p. <a href="#page_159">159</a>&mdash;The
+Order, p. <a href="#page_160">160</a>&mdash;Doric Order, p. <a href="#page_161">161</a>&mdash;Ionic
+Order&mdash;Corinthian Order, p. <a href="#page_163">163</a>&mdash;Doric Entablatures&mdash;Mutules,
+p. <a href="#page_164">164</a>&mdash;Ionic Entablature, p. <a href="#page_169">169</a>&mdash;Corinthian
+Entablature, p. <a href="#page_171">171</a>&mdash;The Column, p. <a href="#page_172">172</a>&mdash;The
+Capital&mdash;Doric Capital, p. <a href="#page_173">173</a>&mdash;Ionic Capital&mdash;Ionic
+Volute, p. <a href="#page_175">175</a>&mdash;Corinthian Capital, p. <a href="#page_178">178</a>&mdash;The
+Base, p. <a href="#page_180">180</a>&mdash;Doric Base, p. <a href="#page_181">181</a>&mdash;Ionic Base,
+p. <a href="#page_182">182</a>&mdash;Corinthian Base&mdash;The Arch, p. <a href="#page_184">184</a>&mdash;Doric
+Impost, p. <a href="#page_185">185</a>&mdash;Doric Archivolt&mdash;Ionic Impost,
+p. <a href="#page_186">186</a>&mdash;Ionic Archivolt&mdash;Corinthian Impost&mdash;Corinthian
+Archivolt&mdash;The Keystone, p. <a href="#page_187">187</a>&mdash;The Pedestal,
+p. <a href="#page_188">188</a>&mdash;Doric Pedestal, p. <a href="#page_189">189</a>&mdash;Ionic Pedestal&mdash;Corinthian
+Pedestal, p. <a href="#page_190">190</a>&mdash;The Baluster, p. <a href="#page_191">191</a>&mdash;Spacing
+of Balusters&mdash;Balustrading, p. <a href="#page_193">193</a>&mdash;Use of
+Columns, p. <a href="#page_194">194</a>&mdash;Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades,
+p. <a href="#page_195">195</a>&mdash;Orders above Orders, p. <a href="#page_197">197</a>&mdash;The
+Pilaster, p. <a href="#page_199">199</a>&mdash;Arcades, p. <a href="#page_200">200</a>&mdash;The Subsidiary
+Order, p. <a href="#page_202">202</a>&mdash;Treatment of Superimposed Orders,
+p. <a href="#page_204">204</a>&mdash;Rustication, p. <a href="#page_205">205</a>&mdash;The Basement, p. <a href="#page_207">207</a>&mdash;The
+Attic, p. <a href="#page_208">208</a>&mdash;The Pediment, p. <a href="#page_209">209</a>&mdash;Doors, p.
+<a href="#page_211">211</a>&mdash;Windows, p. <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V</a></td><td>  Division of Surface</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Wall Treatment, p. <a href="#page_216">216</a>&mdash;Ceilings, p. <a href="#page_218">218</a>&mdash;Jacobean&mdash;Carolean
+and Georgian, p. <a href="#page_221">221</a>&mdash;Adam Ceilings,
+p. <a href="#page_222">222</a>&mdash;Vaults and Domes, p. <a href="#page_224">224</a>&mdash;The Cove, p.
+<a href="#page_225">225</a>&mdash;The Frieze, p. <a href="#page_226">226</a>&mdash;Borders, p. <a href="#page_227">227</a>&mdash;Geometric
+Elements&mdash;The Undulate Line, p. <a href="#page_230">230</a>&mdash;Repetition
+and Alternation, p. <a href="#page_233">233</a>&mdash;Treatment of Angles, p.
+<a href="#page_234">234</a>&mdash;Pilaster Treatment&mdash;Panelled Pilasters, p. <a href="#page_235">235</a>&mdash;Capitals
+and Bases&mdash;Treatment of Panels, p. <a href="#page_236">236</a>&mdash;Juxtaposition,
+p. <a href="#page_238">238</a>&mdash;The Growth Line in Composition,
+p. <a href="#page_241">241</a>&mdash;Grouping and Massing of Detail&mdash;Division
+of Area, p. <a href="#page_242">242</a>&mdash;Human and Animal Life
+in Composition, p. <a href="#page_244">244</a>&mdash;Forms in the Round, p. <a href="#page_245">245</a>
+Supports and Balusters&mdash;Standards, p. <a href="#page_246">246</a>&mdash;Proportion,
+p. <a href="#page_247">247</a>&mdash;Vase Forms and Treatment, p. <a href="#page_248">248</a>&mdash;Working
+Drawings, p. <a href="#page_249">249</a>&mdash;The Segment or Stretch
+out, p. <a href="#page_250">250</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI</a></td><td>  Development of Conventional Ornament</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_254">254</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Outline Drawing, p. <a href="#page_254">254</a>&mdash;Undesirable Realism, p.
+<a href="#page_255">255</a>&mdash;Craft Restrictions, p. <a href="#page_256">256</a>&mdash;Materialistic Influence,
+p. <a href="#page_258">258</a>&mdash;Early Renderings, p. <a href="#page_261">261</a>&mdash;The Anthemion,
+p. <a href="#page_262">262</a>&mdash;Greek Sculptured Ornament, p. <a href="#page_263">263</a>&mdash;The
+Acanthus Leaf, p. <a href="#page_264">264</a>&mdash;Roman Development&mdash;The
+Scroll, p. <a href="#page_266">266</a>&mdash;Græco-Roman&mdash;Byzantine,
+p. <a href="#page_267">267</a>&mdash;Romanesque&mdash;Gothic&mdash;Italian Renaissance,
+p. <a href="#page_268">268</a>&mdash;The Husk Leaf, p. <a href="#page_269">269</a>&mdash;The Rosette,
+p. <a href="#page_270">270</a>&mdash;Tendrils, p. <a href="#page_271">271</a>&mdash;Nature Influence&mdash;Inconsistent
+employment of Symbolic Elements, p.
+<a href="#page_272">272</a>&mdash;Consistency in Growth&mdash;Branching, p. <a href="#page_273">273</a>&mdash;Treatment
+and Employment of Leaves, p. <a href="#page_275">275</a>&mdash;The
+start in Ornament, p. <a href="#page_276">276</a>&mdash;Italian Renaissance
+Influence&mdash;Jacobean, p. <a href="#page_280">280</a>&mdash;French Renaissance&mdash;Henry
+II, p. <a href="#page_281">281</a>&mdash;Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Régence&mdash;Louis
+XV, p. <a href="#page_283">283</a>&mdash;Rococo&mdash;Louis XVI, p. <a href="#page_284">284</a>&mdash;Grinling
+Gibbons School of Carving&mdash;Adam Style, p. <a href="#page_285">285</a>&mdash;Empire&mdash;System
+of the Acanthus Leaf, p. <a href="#page_286">286</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII</a></td><td>  Treatment in Design</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Natural Attraction, p. <a href="#page_288">288</a>&mdash;Decorative Materials,
+p. <a href="#page_289">289</a>&mdash;Justification of Treatment, p. <a href="#page_290">290</a>&mdash;Undesirable
+Imitation, p. <a href="#page_291">291</a>&mdash;Technical Considerations&mdash;Methods
+of Expression, p. <a href="#page_292">292</a>&mdash;Treatment of Leaves,
+p. <a href="#page_293">293</a>&mdash;Surface Interest&mdash;Painted Decoration, p.
+<a href="#page_294">294</a>&mdash;Stencilled Work, p. <a href="#page_295">295</a>&mdash;Mechanical Production&mdash;Printed
+and Woven Fabrics&mdash;Needlework&mdash;Appliqué,
+p. <a href="#page_296">296</a>&mdash;Lace-Wood Inlay&mdash;Intarsia, p.
+<a href="#page_297">297</a>&mdash;Veneer&mdash;Marquetry&mdash;“Boule” Work, p. <a href="#page_298">298</a>&mdash;Mosaic,
+p. <a href="#page_299">299</a>&mdash;Byzantine use of Marble&mdash;Book
+Decoration, p. <a href="#page_300">300</a>&mdash;Bindings&mdash;Relief Work&mdash;Economic
+Result of Method&mdash;Desirable Treatment in
+Carving, p. <a href="#page_301">301</a>&mdash;Backgrounds, p. <a href="#page_303">303</a>&mdash;Reproduction
+Processes&mdash;Metal Repoussé, p. <a href="#page_304">304</a>&mdash;Cast Metal,
+p. <a href="#page_306">306</a>&mdash;Character of Cast Work, p. <a href="#page_307">307</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII</a></td><td> Mythology and Symbolism</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Early Symbolic Ornament, p. <a href="#page_310">310</a>&mdash;Customs, p. <a href="#page_311">311</a>&mdash;Origin
+of Mythology&mdash;Nature Myths, p. <a href="#page_312">312</a>&mdash;Light
+and Darkness&mdash;Melanesian Legend, p. <a href="#page_313">313</a>&mdash;Darkness
+as a Devouring Monster&mdash;Season Myths, p. <a href="#page_314">314</a>&mdash;Sun
+Myths&mdash;Belief in Natural Phenomena, p. <a href="#page_315">315</a>&mdash;Greek
+and Roman Deities, p. <a href="#page_316">316</a>&mdash;Scandinavian
+Mythology, p. <a href="#page_317">317</a>&mdash;Rising and Setting Symbolised,
+p. <a href="#page_318">318</a>&mdash;Winds Personified&mdash;Predestination, p. <a href="#page_319">319</a>&mdash;The
+Fates&mdash;Propitiation and Sacrifice, p. <a href="#page_320">320</a>&mdash;Early
+Burial Customs&mdash;Taboo&mdash;Roman Lares, p.
+<a href="#page_322">322</a>&mdash;Mediæval Legend&mdash;Early Spiritual Belief, p. <a href="#page_323">323</a>&mdash;Prehistoric
+Treatment of Epileptics&mdash;Prohibition,
+p. <a href="#page_324">324</a>&mdash;Belief in Magical Qualities, p. <a href="#page_325">325</a>&mdash;The
+Shirt of Nessus&mdash;Swords, p. <a href="#page_326">326</a>&mdash;Invulnerability,
+p. <a href="#page_327">327</a>&mdash;Belief in Numbers&mdash;The Muses, p. <a href="#page_328">328</a>&mdash;Sacred
+Trees and Flowers, p. <a href="#page_329">329</a>&mdash;Sacred Animals&mdash;Evangelist
+Symbols, p. <a href="#page_331">331</a>&mdash;The Serpent&mdash;The
+Dragon, p. <a href="#page_332">332</a>&mdash;Poetic License in Tradition, p. <a href="#page_333">333</a>&mdash;Animals
+in Christian Art, p. <a href="#page_334">334</a>&mdash;Association of
+Human and Animal Qualities&mdash;Totemism&mdash;Cannibalism,
+p. <a href="#page_336">336</a>&mdash;The Sphinx&mdash;Assyrian Winged Monsters,
+p. <a href="#page_337">337</a>&mdash;Pegasus&mdash;The Harpy&mdash;Sirens, p. <a href="#page_338">338</a>&mdash;Pan&mdash;The
+Nymphs&mdash;The Centaur, p. <a href="#page_339">339</a>&mdash;Symbolism
+of the Circle, p. <a href="#page_340">340</a>&mdash;Symbols of the Trinity&mdash;The
+Wand, a Symbol of Authority&mdash;The Hand,
+p. <a href="#page_341">341</a>&mdash;The Caduceus&mdash;The Thyrsus, p. <a href="#page_342">342</a>&mdash;The
+Trident&mdash;The Cross, p. <a href="#page_343">343</a>&mdash;The Pastoral Staff, p.
+<a href="#page_344">344</a>&mdash;Symbols of Martyrdom&mdash;Symbolism of Gems
+and Colours, p. <a href="#page_345">345</a>&mdash;Masks&mdash;Symbols of Time, p.
+<a href="#page_346">346</a>&mdash;Secular Symbols&mdash;Trophies, p. <a href="#page_347">347</a>&mdash;Heraldry&mdash;Interest
+and Meaning in Modern Art, p. <a href="#page_348">348</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX </a></td><td> Ways and Means</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_350">350</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Perception, p. <a href="#page_350">350</a>&mdash;Accepted Conventions, p. <a href="#page_351">351</a>&mdash;Influence
+of Fashion&mdash;Harmonious Consistency,
+p. <a href="#page_352">352</a>&mdash;Natural Suggestion&mdash;Colour Scheme, p.
+<a href="#page_353">353</a>&mdash;Early Training&mdash;Nature Study, p. <a href="#page_355">355</a>&mdash;Aspect
+and Attitude, p. <a href="#page_356">356</a>&mdash;Treatment of Studies, p. <a href="#page_358">358</a>&mdash;Drawings
+for Reproduction, p. <a href="#page_359">359</a>&mdash;Opaque
+Colour&mdash;Method of Enlarging or Reducing Drawings,
+p. <a href="#page_360">360</a>&mdash;Textile Designs, p. <a href="#page_361">361</a>&mdash;Wall Papers, p.
+<a href="#page_362">362</a>&mdash;Architectural Drawings&mdash;Structural Design, p.
+<a href="#page_363">363</a>&mdash;Lucid Arrangement of Details, p. <a href="#page_364">364</a>&mdash;Mathematical
+Equipment, p. <a href="#page_365">365</a>&mdash;Use of the Ruling Pen&mdash;Proportional
+Compasses, p. <a href="#page_367">367</a>&mdash;Tracings&mdash;Conclusion,
+p. <a href="#page_368">368</a>.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td>Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by <span class="smcap">E. A. Rickards</span>, F.R.I.B.A.</td>
+
+<td colspan="2"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>ARCHITECTURE, HISTORIC</th>
+<td class="rt">No.</td>
+<td class="rt">Page</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Egyptian Temple, Section and Plan of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_10">10</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_023">23</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Temple, Entrance Façade</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_11">11</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Capital from Philæ</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_12">12</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_024">24</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Persian Capitals from Persepolis</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_16">16</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_027">27</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Greek Doric Temple, The Parthenon</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_21">21</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_030">30</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Ionic, The Erectheum</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_22">22</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_031">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Corinthian, The Choragic Monument</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_23">23</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Vase paintings of Doric and Ionic Orders</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_19">19</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">House about 100 <small>A.D.</small> Bas-relief in British Museum</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_20">20</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Roman, The Pantheon, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_26">26</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_036">36</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Coliseum, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_27">27</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_037">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Arch of Titus, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_28">28</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_038">38</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Byzantine St. Vitali Ravenna, Section and Plan</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_35">35</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_044">44</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Capitals </td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_36">36</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Interior, Ravenna</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_39">39</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Romanesque Capitals</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_42">42</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Tower</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_43">43</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Plan, Cathedral at Worms</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_44">44</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_051">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Bay of Cathedral at Worms</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_45">45</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Window, St. Alban’s Abbey</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_46">46</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Church Interior with Triforium</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_47">47</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Doorway, Kilpeck Church</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_49">49</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_054">54</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Gothic Buttresses</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_53">53</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_058">58</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Pier</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_54">54</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Bay of Church</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_55">55</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Lancet Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_56">56</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Windows, Plate Tracery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_57">57</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Arch Mouldings</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_58">58</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_59">59</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Tracery Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_60">60</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Spire</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_61">61</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Tracery Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_62">62</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_63">63</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_065">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Arch Mouldings</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_64">64</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_065">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_65">65</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_66">66</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Spire</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_67">67</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Perpendicular, Bay of Church showing Development of Clerestory</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_68">67</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_067">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Perpendicular, Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_69">69</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_068">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Perpendicular, Fan Vaulting</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_70">70</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_069">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Perpendicular, Tower</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_71">71</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_069">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Domestic Tudor, Window</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_75">75</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_074">74</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Renaissance, Italian, Strozzi Palace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_76">76</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_076">76</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, Pandolfini Palace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_77">77</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_077">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, St. Peter’s, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_78">78</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_079">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, Farnese Palace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_79">79</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, Vendramini Palace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_80">80</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_081">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, Library of St. Mark</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_81">81</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English, Banqueting House, Whitehall</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_105">105</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XIII. Luxembourg</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_106">106</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XIII. Barocco Detail, Ste. Marie, Nevers</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_107">107</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XIV. Louvre</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_109">109</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XV. Pantheon</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_112">112</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English, St. Paul’s Cathedral</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_118">118</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English, Spire, St. Mary le Strand</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_119">119</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_5">5</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tomb of Beni Hassan</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_17">17</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_028">28</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tomb at Kyanea-Jaghu</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_18">18</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_028">28</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Arch, The Principle of the</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_6">6</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_020">20</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Balusters, Details of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_170">170</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Cornice, Treatment where Order is not employed</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_180">180</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Doors, General Proportion of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_182">182</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Treatment of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_183">183</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Frieze, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_198">198</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Frieze, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_199">199</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Gothic Vault, Section of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_7">7</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_020">20</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Vaulting</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_9">9</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Cross Vaulting</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_48">48</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_053">53</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Lintel, The</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_4">4</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Lintel, The, Joggled Joints</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_8">8</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_021">21</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Orders, General Proportions of the</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_154">154</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Order, The Doric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_153">153</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Entablature, Vignola</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_155">155</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Entablature, Mutular</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_156">156</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Order, The Doric Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_159">159</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Base</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_165">165</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Pedestal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_169">169</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Archivolt</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Impost</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Arcading</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_174">174</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Arcading with Pedestal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_175">175</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Column and Pilaster</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_173">173</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_200">200</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Entablature</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_157">157</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_160">160</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Capital (Angular Volutes)</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_161">161</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_176">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic, Detail of Angular Volute</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_162">162</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Base</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_166">166</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Pedestal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_169">169</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Archivolt</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Impost</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Entablature</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_158">158</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_163">163</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_164">164</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Base</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_167">167</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Pedestal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_169">169</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Archivolt</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Impost</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Superimposed</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_172">172</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Subsidiary</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_176">176</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Subsidiary, Detail of Entablature</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_180">180</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Pediment, The</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_181">181</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Pilaster The, Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_209">209</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_236">236</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The, French Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_208">208</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_236">236</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Rustication, Types of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_178">178</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">In Arcades</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_179">179</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_207">207</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Spacing of Columns</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_171">171</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_184">184</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_214">214</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Three-Light</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_185">185</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>DECORATIVE FEATURES</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Acanthus Leaf, Brush Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_235">235</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_264">264</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Development</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_251">251</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_281">281</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Development</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_252">252</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_282">282</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Construction of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_253">253</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_287">287</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Anthemion, Greek, Relief Treatment</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_232">232</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_262">262</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Greek, Vase Painting</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_231">231</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Border, The Geometric, Key or Labyrinth</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_200">200</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_228">228</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Border, The Geometric, Interlacing</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_201">201</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Scroll</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_204">204</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Evolute Scroll</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_207">207</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Vertebrate</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_244">244</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Branching, Types of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_243">243</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Inlay, Wood, Geometric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_260">260</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Wood Borders</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_261">261</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Wood Panel</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_262">262</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Wood Panel</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_263">263</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Wood, Italian Intarsia</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_264">264</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Metal “Boule” Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_266">266</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Metal “Boule” Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_267">267</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Inlaid Floor, Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_188">188</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Lace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_259">259</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Marquetry</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_265">265</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Mosaic Work, Spandril, Byzantine</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_40">40</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Borders</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_268">268</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Border, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_269">269</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Border, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_270">270</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Panel, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_271">271</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Needlework</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_257">257</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Appliqué</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_258">258</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Relief Ornament, Prehistoric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_2">2</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Greek Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_218">218</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Roman Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_237">237</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Roman Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_29">29</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Byzantine Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_37">37</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Byzantine Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_38">38</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_047">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Byzantine Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_216">216</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Romanesque Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_217">217</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Gothic Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_238">238</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_268">268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Gothic Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_239">239</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Gothic Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_219">219</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, Italian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_248">248</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_278">278</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, Italian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_249">249</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_279">279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, French</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_88">88</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_086">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, French</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_250">250</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, French</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_90">90</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_088">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean Gouge Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_276">276</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_277">277</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_95">95</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Louis XIV. Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_275">275</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_274">274</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Relief Ornament, French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_113">113</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_279">279</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_212">212</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_211">211</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Part of Ceiling</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_210">210</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_133">133</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Icelandic Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_280">280</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English 18th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_273">273</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English, Modern</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_213">213</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_240">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Analysis of Composing Lines</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_214">214</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Rosettes, Types of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_241">241</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Scroll, The, Greek Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_233">233</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_262">262</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Evolute, Archaic</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_229">229</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Evolute, Savage Art</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_230">230</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_260">260</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Scroll, The, Wrought Iron</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_234">234</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_263">263</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Brush Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_236">236</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">As a Growth Line</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_202">202</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_240">240</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Start, The, Nest or Cup Leaf</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_246">246</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_277">277</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Half Figure</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_247">247</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_277">277</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tendril, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_242">242</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_272">272</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Terminals, Branch and Scroll</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_245">245</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_275">275</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Textiles, 14th Century Woven Fabric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_3">3</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_013">13</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">14th Century Woven Fabric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_51">51</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_056">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Sicilian Tapestry</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_52">52</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_057">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">14th Century Tapestry</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_205">205</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Turkish Brocade</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_203">203</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_231">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Brocade</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_206">206</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Details of Inhabited Pattern</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_256">256</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_295">295</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tooled Book Binding</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_272">272</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>FURNITURE</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Egyptian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_13">13</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_025">25</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Egyptian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_14">14</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_026">26</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Assyrian Seat</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_15">15</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_027">27</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Greek</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_24">24</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_033">33</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Roman Couch</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_30">30</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Roman Sella or Seat</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_31">31</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Romanesque Chair</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_50">50</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_055">55</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Gothic Chair</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_72">72</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_070">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Gothic Bedstead</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_73">73</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_071">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_86">86</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_084">84</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_87">87</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_085">85</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_92">92</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_91">91</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_088">88</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_99">99</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_100">100</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_101">101</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_102">102</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century. Baluster</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_221">221</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_246">246</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Louis XIII</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_108">108</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Louis XIV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_111">111</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Louis XV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_265">265</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English late 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_116">116</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English late 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_117">117</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Dutch and Queen Anne Chairs</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_121">121</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 18th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_122">122</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_132">132</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>INTERIOR FEATURES</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Ceilings, Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_187">187</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_218">218</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, General Plan</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_189">189</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance, Painted,</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_83">83</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance, Painted,</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_85">85</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Tudor</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_190">190</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_221">221</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_191">191</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_192">192</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_223">223</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Carolean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_193">193</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Robert Adam</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_194">194</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Chimney Pieces, Gothic 13th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_74">74</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_071">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_93">93</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_89">89</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_96">96</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_095">95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Domes and Vaults, Italian Renaissance:</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">St. Peter’s, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_197">197</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Villa Madama</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_196">196</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Ducal Palace, Venice</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_195">195</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Doors, Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_97">97</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_096">96</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_98">98</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_278">278</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance, Louis XV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_114">114</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_120">120</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance, Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_130">130</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Frieze, The Jacobean, Carved Wood</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_94">94</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_093">93</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_131">131</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Interior Decoration, Græco-Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_32">32</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_040">40</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Interior Decoration, Wall Division</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_186">186</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_84">84</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance, Louis XIV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_110">110</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English “Adam”</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_123">123</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English “Adam”</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_124">124</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_126">126</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_127">127</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_128">128</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_129">129</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>METAL WORK</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Græco-Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_33">33</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_041">41</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Græco-Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_34">34</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_042">42</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Byzantine Tradition</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_41">41</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_048">48</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_282">282</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron, Venetian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_283">283</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Repoussé</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_103">103</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Repoussé</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_281">281</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Cast</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_104">104</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Cast, Louis XV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_115">115</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Sheffield Plate</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_125">125</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Filagree Jewellery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_228">228</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Cast Iron (Modern)</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_222">222</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_247">247</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Surface Decoration of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_284">284</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_308">308</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>METHOD</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Of Enlarging and Reducing Drawings</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_286">286</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_361">361</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>MOULDINGS</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Profiles of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_134">134</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Enrichment of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_135">135</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Detail of the Dentil</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_136">136</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Aspect of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_137">137</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Stone, Panel Effect</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_138">138</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wood Panels</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_139">139</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wood Panels, Applied</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_140">140</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wood Panels, Applied</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_141">141</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">The Bolection</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_142">142</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Table Top</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_143">143</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Turned Wood</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_144">144</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Pottery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_145">145</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Pottery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_146">146</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Rolled Metal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_147">147</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Drawn Metal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_148">148</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron, Swaged</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_149">149</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron, Built up</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_150">150</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron, Built up</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_151">151</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Spun Metal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_152">152</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>VASE FORMS</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Primitive Pottery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_1">1</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Greek Pottery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_25">25</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_034">34</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Greek Pottery, Painted Details</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_19">19</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Effect of Perspective</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_220">220</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_245">245</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Segments of Contoured Surfaces</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_226">226</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Segments of Contoured Surfaces</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_227">227</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_252">252</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Stretch-out of the Cylinder</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_224">224</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_249">249</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Stretch-out of the Cone</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_225">225</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Types of Vase Decoration</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_223">223</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_248">248</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a>{1}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /><br />
+INTRODUCTORY</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the
+creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that
+the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of
+elements common to all than with invention pure and simple.</p>
+
+<h3>Human Limitations</h3>
+
+<p>To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or
+acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not
+traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for
+instance, the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of
+human and bird form, and is in no sense an original creation.</p>
+
+<p>The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the
+reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real
+interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of
+personality, in other words, the individual point of view of the artist;
+which is more or less interesting, as it is more or less personal in
+idea and expression.</p>
+
+<p>In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be
+carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible
+source.</p>
+
+<p>Design is distinct from any phase of realistic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a>{2}</span> expression inasmuch as
+the subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally
+visualised.</p>
+
+<h3>“<i>Inspiration</i>”</h3>
+
+<p>Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration,
+but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident
+than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to
+the individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought
+may be accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible
+for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem.</p>
+
+<p>It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of
+inspiration with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in
+the belief that it “does not feel like it.”</p>
+
+<p>The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a
+logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and
+conditions, and of evolving some desirable solution.</p>
+
+<p>Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires
+a facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a
+fallacy, as though many designs are for convenience expressed through
+this medium, any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the
+technical details of the final method of production, to be a practical
+design.</p>
+
+<h3>Process and Material</h3>
+
+<p>Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and
+process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this
+technical knowledge it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a>{3}</span> impossible to take full advantage of the
+method of production either in the direction of economy or effect.</p>
+
+<p>Other considerations are utilitarian and æsthetic, the former having
+regard to purpose, the latter to appearance.</p>
+
+<p>That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common
+enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian,
+but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the æsthetic point
+of view.</p>
+
+<p>An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed
+by popular or individual demand.</p>
+
+<p>Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to
+work to prescribed conditions.</p>
+
+<p>This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer
+who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more
+restricted.</p>
+
+<p>It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or
+historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony
+with existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite
+possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive.</p>
+
+<p>Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public
+demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far
+as possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of
+their best. Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall
+not be done would undoubtedly result in failure.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman
+well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that
+he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a>{4}</span> and, in
+addition, the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Training</h3>
+
+<p>The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is
+understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary
+student, the answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly
+students can be directed through a course of training that will enable
+them to produce at least work that is good, though it may not be
+personally distinctive.</p>
+
+<p>An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of
+traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe
+traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it
+may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much
+farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural
+faculty.</p>
+
+<p>Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look
+after itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the
+training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim.</p>
+
+<p>Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great
+responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study.</p>
+
+<p>The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are
+apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative.</p>
+
+<p>Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent
+beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in
+failing to develop the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a>{5}</span> personality, which is the sole interest, and is
+the teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications
+reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which
+end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and
+possessed of method.</p>
+
+<p>Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been
+suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has
+little knowledge of Art, and still less of design.</p>
+
+<h3>Art and Existence</h3>
+
+<p>That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be
+possible&mdash;if not very interesting&mdash;if regulated only by considerations
+of utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the
+gratification of merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state
+Art becomes one of the mind’s necessities.</p>
+
+<p>The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,”
+and that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.”</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art
+is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.”</p>
+
+<p>Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in
+that which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory
+and music.</p>
+
+<p>The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and
+Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these
+possible to the public at large except in the most general sense?<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a>{6}</span></p>
+
+<p>What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the
+furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the
+actual field for artistic expression.</p>
+
+<p>It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is
+sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic
+exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large.</p>
+
+<h3>“<i>Natural Taste</i>”</h3>
+
+<p>There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas
+the individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary
+affairs of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic
+selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment.</p>
+
+<p>It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be
+good or bad.</p>
+
+<p>Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it
+is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge
+which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate.</p>
+
+<h3>Commercial Production</h3>
+
+<p>It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result
+of commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the
+public is restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be
+urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes
+it his business to study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s
+standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as
+this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a>{7}</span> is improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised.</p>
+
+<p>The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of
+the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and
+purpose, or perception based on artistic education.</p>
+
+<h3>“<i>Ornaments</i>”</h3>
+
+<p>This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in
+any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to
+the class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no
+possible utility and intended solely for display.</p>
+
+<p>It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the
+display of old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance,
+may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils, strictly
+utilitarian, were incidentally made beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>Modern furniture frequently offends&mdash;being too often constructed with
+less regard to utility than to external effect.</p>
+
+<p>The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the
+actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the
+perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the
+modern house&mdash;the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed,
+as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent
+the reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease
+may have much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to
+move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent
+on frequent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a>{8}</span> change of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture
+and other personal belongings.</p>
+
+<h3>Modern Development</h3>
+
+<p>The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting
+in the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the
+large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a
+change in domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at
+hotels and restaurants.</p>
+
+<p>This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less
+interest in personal possession and environment; still further fostered
+by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in
+frequent change of style and locality.</p>
+
+<h3>Public Apathy</h3>
+
+<p>Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly
+appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art
+appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal
+indulgence; still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer
+if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and
+requirements.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect
+implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account.</p>
+
+<p>It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery
+found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which,
+notwithstanding all endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state,
+sensitive to scratches and other damage. This difficulty may have
+suggested<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a>{9}</span> intentionally covering the surface with such scratches, etc.,
+more or less arranged, thus making a virtue of necessity.</p>
+
+<h3>Elementary Pattern</h3>
+
+<p>Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or
+incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or
+herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result
+of pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in
+plastering as trowel point.</p>
+
+<p>Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some
+form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative
+of any known form; and it is not till a much later period that any
+indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type.</p>
+
+<p>Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings
+singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily
+be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds.</p>
+
+<p>The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament
+was presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would
+readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute.</p>
+
+<p>Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is
+indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers
+of clay.</p>
+
+<p>There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for
+expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the
+marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may
+well be considered the first impressionists.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a>{10}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Early Impressionism</h3>
+
+<p>They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful
+distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of
+characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form,
+and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and
+working condition is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast
+with the earlier ornament, which is not in any way imitative of, or
+traceable to, any natural suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally
+three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such
+as directly arise from the process and material involved.</p>
+
+<p>The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the
+third&mdash;conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural
+suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of
+cultured appreciation of process and æsthetic considerations.</p>
+
+<h3>Personal Production</h3>
+
+<p>It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally
+produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or
+weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves
+more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being
+compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in
+course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported
+by his craft.</p>
+
+<p>Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a>{11}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_1" id="ill_1"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_031_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_031_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="2">No. 1.</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top" style="text-align:left;"><td>A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall.<br />
+B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, Oxon.<br />
+C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.<br />
+D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds, Bronze Age.<br /></td><td>
+E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.<br />
+F. Early English puzzle jug.<br />
+G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset.<br />
+H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze Age, Ireland.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_2" id="ill_2"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<a href="images/ill_032_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_032_sml.jpg" width="268" height="449" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p>
+No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.8em;">C.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;" &nbsp; &nbsp;  Etching on Bone.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill,
+would be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the
+professional worker and artist.</p>
+
+<p>To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early
+social conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying
+in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and
+herds; such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory.</p>
+
+<p>The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for
+storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and
+doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment.</p>
+
+<p>Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop
+agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would
+entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the
+fortress or castle for the protection of the town, and the more
+substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture.</p>
+
+<p>With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and the
+simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Social Conditions</h3>
+
+<p>The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent
+upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on
+the various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of
+officials for effective collection and distribution.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>{12}</span> Social
+distinctions would be drawn between the various classes, governing,
+administrative, military, and non-combatant; the latter would furnish
+the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen,
+agriculturists and traders.</p>
+
+<p>In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility,
+priestly and legal classes.</p>
+
+<h3>Influence</h3>
+
+<p>Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later
+was subjected to various influences&mdash;Political, Religious, and
+Commercial.</p>
+
+<p>Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or
+interchange would result, or by conquest.</p>
+
+<p>Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste
+on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that
+of the Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman
+influence after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths.</p>
+
+<p>The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and
+Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier
+example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III in <small>A.D.</small> 726
+in response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the
+Byzantine art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine
+district.</p>
+
+<h3>Commercial Intercourse.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_3" id="ill_3"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 204px;">
+<a href="images/ill_035_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_035_sml.jpg" width="204" height="284" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the
+arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary
+to study<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a>{13}</span> market conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were
+therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste, thereby resulting
+in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source.</p>
+
+<p>Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian weavers, who, contrary to their
+local traditions, introduced heraldry into the patterns of their
+fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders.</p>
+
+<p>The Phœnicians were the early merchant adventurers, and traded in
+work of Tyrian and Sidonian production with remote parts of Europe,
+taking back local produce in exchange. Later on, through the medium of
+the Hanseatic league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron fire-backs
+from Sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations;
+of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement
+were considered and embodied.</p>
+
+<h3>Effect on Design</h3>
+
+<p>Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Art<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a>{14}</span> production was
+further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker.</p>
+
+<p>When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was
+invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing
+emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged
+as a professional.</p>
+
+<p>In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of
+architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the
+architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance.</p>
+
+<p>Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was
+taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many
+instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical
+side of the craft.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer
+of the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of
+constructive detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen
+that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so
+much of this work is still in existence.</p>
+
+<h3>Ethical Side of Art</h3>
+
+<p>Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare,
+for instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of
+meaning and insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the
+license of the Rococo.</p>
+
+<p>Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was
+originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of,
+with resultant loss of character and interest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a>{15}</span></p>
+
+<p>The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely
+for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the
+experience and point of view of past exploiters.</p>
+
+<h3>Desire for Novelty</h3>
+
+<p>The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old
+worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition
+a little further if possible.</p>
+
+<p>Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old
+friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it
+may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others,
+and whether it is worth doing.</p>
+
+<p>“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic
+considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time;
+but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new
+phases, have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the
+forgotten. In the meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes
+progressing, now and then retrogressing, but at all times unbroken.</p>
+
+<p>History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities
+and conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic
+development.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a>{16}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /><br />
+HISTORIC REVIEW</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">S</span>OME of the factors in the evolution of Art have already been briefly
+suggested, but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing
+acquaintance, at least, with the various phases of historic developments
+is essential. The scope of the present work obviously renders it
+impossible to deal with the subject in detail, but libraries are
+accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of
+any influence other than that of material and process, and this has
+continued in some of the crafts to the present time; but those more
+closely allied to building, particularly those associated with furniture
+and decoration, eventually became subject to the architectural phase or
+style of the period, which dominated form and detail.</p>
+
+<h3>Style.</h3>
+
+<p>Style may be described as manner of expression, either individual or
+local, and for convenience is defined by nationality and period. It is
+usual to speak of Greek, Roman, Gothic, etc., of such a century; in the
+case of the Renaissance, it is customary to particularise the variants,
+as Italian, French, English, etc., also with the period or century.</p>
+
+<p>The development of style, intimately involved as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a>{17}</span> is in the social,
+religious and political history of nations, must ever be powerful in its
+interest and far-reaching in its appeal.</p>
+
+<p>The first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility, but in
+succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something
+more than this. And so with the progress of a race we can trace the
+progress of its decorative art.</p>
+
+<h3>Inter-Communication</h3>
+
+<p>Then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community
+inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact&mdash;either through
+conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations. Naturally
+the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest
+qualities, æsthetic and practical, and these qualities advance with the
+development of society and with progress in mechanical skill. As a
+result of conquest the civilisation of either conqueror or conquered
+must become the dominant influence, and the possible fusion and
+interchange of ideas may modify style to a considerable extent.</p>
+
+<h3>Climate and Material</h3>
+
+<p>Locality has always been a determining factor, particularly in
+architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised, and
+in most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions; for
+instance, where wood abounds we find it successfully employed.</p>
+
+<p>Climate is also largely responsible for architectural form. In the
+North, owing to heavy snows, the roofs are high-pitched. The early
+Egyptian buildings were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a>{18}</span> of mud and wattle, the readiest material to
+hand, and form ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless
+district. It is interesting to note that the character of these
+structures was imparted to their later work in stone. This was used in
+the most important buildings, and was readily obtainable from the Nubian
+quarries and transported down the Nile on rafts.</p>
+
+<h3>Phases in Style</h3>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made in
+styles, yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional, and
+which are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence. The
+phases of a transitional period can usually be defined; at first the new
+style is slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker
+exploiting it. This is followed by its being used in conjunction with
+the native construction, and lastly, the native interpretation of the
+foreign style is possibly grafted on to older forms.</p>
+
+<p>It should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate
+change in style, but that there are phases which can be described as
+typical, connected by periods of gradual change or transition; due,
+doubtless, to individual expression of taste, either on the part of
+exponent or patron, or as previously suggested, by influences political,
+religious or commercial.</p>
+
+<p>Careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was
+due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment, which in its
+turn became redundant in character and detail. Apart from the artistic
+point of view, these changes are interesting as reflective of the
+character of the times.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a>{19}</span></p>
+
+<p>From the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to
+be appreciated, the Lintel and the Arch. The Lintel, which is the
+earlier, may be described as a large stone style, and consists of the
+bridging of apertures by means of horizontal slabs, supported by
+vertical columns or piers. This is a method of construction with
+distinct limitations, as it was impossible to bridge large areas or
+spaces without frequent support.</p>
+
+<h3>The Lintel</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_4" id="ill_4"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 94px;">
+<a href="images/ill_041a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_041a_sml.jpg" width="94" height="126" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 4. The Lintel.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The joints of the Lintel necessarily occur over the centres of the
+supporting columns, and the space between was controlled by the size of
+the obtainable material and the imposed weight it could bear; the result
+being, as in the great hall at Karnak, a forest of closely spaced
+columns. It was not until the principle of the Arch was developed into
+vaulting that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor
+spaces were possible.</p>
+
+<p>Lintel construction was employed in the Egyptian, Chaldean and Greek
+styles.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch, as a constructive form, did not appear until a later period,
+and possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and
+stones of small size.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_5" id="ill_5"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;">
+<a href="images/ill_041b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_041b_sml.jpg" width="129" height="119" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 5. Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia. Vault form, but not
+vault construction.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Form or shape is not involved, as it is quite possible to so shape the
+Lintel as to give the appearance <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a>{20}</span>of the Arch by cutting the underside
+to the required curve. In the early Greek architecture examples have
+been found of both Arch and vault appearance, but these are the result
+of horizontal courses, successively projecting; that is, built in the
+form of inverted steps, the underside being cut to the arch curve, and
+is a form of construction restricted to bridging relatively small areas.</p>
+
+<h3>The Arch</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_6" id="ill_6"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<a href="images/ill_042a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_042a_sml.jpg" width="210" height="77" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B. Arch appearance, result of
+cutting away.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principle of the Arch depends upon the separate pieces of material
+being formed to a wedge shape, the joints corresponding to radial lines
+drawn through the centre from which the Arch curve is struck.</p>
+
+<p>The weak part of the Lintel is the centre of the span which may have a
+tendency to give way under pressure, but the wedged construction of the
+Arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the imposed weight.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast with the Lintel, material of small size could be employed,
+not only stone, but brick being used in Arch construction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_7" id="ill_7"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;">
+<a href="images/ill_042b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_042b_sml.jpg" width="191" height="229" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 7. Section of Gothic Vault showing courses of stone
+and centering.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Lintel, in relatively small spans, is sometimes composed of separate
+small stones, shaped to fit each other in the form of Joggled joints.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a>{21}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_8" id="ill_8"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_043a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_043a_sml.jpg" width="282" height="151" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 8.</p>
+
+<p>A. Lintel in one piece.</p>
+
+<p>B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_9" id="ill_9"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 227px;">
+<a href="images/ill_043b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_043b_sml.jpg" width="227" height="362" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming
+framework of structure.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The outward and manifest appearance suggests to the lay observer a
+striking divergence in the style known as Gothic from the Roman manner
+of building; but the main difference is in proportion and treatment of
+detail, the underlying principle being much the same. The use of the
+Arch and vaulting was common to both, but in the Gothic development
+greater strength was obtained, with even greater economy of material.
+The archivolts and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a>{22}</span> intersecting ribs of vaults, with their supports,
+literally formed the bones of the building, constituting a framework to
+which the bays of walls and roofing were only a matter of filling in.</p>
+
+<p>In the words of Mr. C. H. Moore, in his work on “Development and
+Character of Gothic Architecture”&mdash;“the Gothic style developed into a
+system where stability depends not upon any inert massiveness except in
+the outermost abutments, but upon a logical adjustment of active parts
+whose opposing forces produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system
+of balanced thrusts, as opposed to the former system of inert
+stability.”</p>
+
+<h3>Egyptian</h3>
+
+<p>The Egyptian buildings, in common with those of Palestine, were
+frequently of mud, strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven, evidence
+of which is apparent in later incised decoration. Buildings were also of
+sun-baked bricks, those of an important character being faced with
+stone; the exteriors of these latter were simple and severe, the walls
+being slightly tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice, with
+gateways and entrances of massive form.</p>
+
+<p>The internal effect was of mystery, doubtless due to the comparative
+absence of light, and to the many columns necessary to carry the
+roofings. The columns which were mostly employed in the interiors, were
+squat and stunted in proportion, being from four to seven diameters in
+height, with capitals of the Lotus, Papyrus or Hathor variety. Mouldings
+were of the simplest character and sparsely used, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a>{23}</span> decoration
+included renderings of the Lotus and Papyrus plants, either painted or
+incised in stone with the addition of colour.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_10" id="ill_10"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/ill_045_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_045_sml.jpg" width="288" height="280" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan of Egyptian
+Temple.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental, while
+the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for
+symbolic expression, rather than by more æsthetic considerations.</p>
+
+<p>In Egyptian Art ornament is subordinated to the architecture, and the
+employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic
+character, added considerably to the decorative effect. In the wall
+pictures the figures were depicted in silhouette, in conventional
+attitudes, the head and limbs being displayed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a>{24}</span> in severe profile, while
+the torso is represented in full front view. The methods of expression
+were painting, or incised in outline on stone, invariably filled in with
+colour, the effect in both being of flatness, with little suggestion of
+modelling or rotundity, the various features being defined by local
+colour.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_11" id="ill_11"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_046a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_046a_sml.jpg" width="279" height="137" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian Temple.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though much of the Egyptian work was in the round, and evident of great
+sculptural ability and appreciation of form, yet generally their
+decorative work may be described as a colour style, rather than one in
+which light and shade were important factors.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_12" id="ill_12"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 134px;">
+<a href="images/ill_046b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_046b_sml.jpg" width="134" height="165" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 12. Egyptian Capital from Philae.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With regard to the domestic life, the examples of furniture in the
+British Museum convey some idea, and these bear a remarkable similarity
+to forms with which we are familiar at the present day, both in detail
+and construction, which is simple and direct, with mortise and tenon
+joints. Turning was frequently employed, and, in the decoration of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a>{25}</span>
+furniture, inlays of ivory, ebony and glass, the Egyptians being expert
+workers in both glass and enamels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_13" id="ill_13"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;">
+<a href="images/ill_047_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_047_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p class="c">No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+A.  Stand Inlaid.<br />
+B.  Ebony seat inlaid with ivory.<br />
+C.  Folding stool.<br />
+D.  Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory.<br />
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea
+of the furniture, which is often depicted as gilded.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman. Sometimes the couch
+took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end, and the
+legs and feet carved to complete the effect.</p>
+
+<h3>Chaldean</h3>
+
+<p>Chaldean art in character had much in common with that of Egypt, the
+difference being more that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a>{26}</span> expression than in idea, probably due to
+intercourse and mutual influence. The buildings, which were mostly in
+brick, often faced with a form of terra-cotta, stamped with relief or
+ornament, were pyramidal in general form, raised on terraces forming a
+succession of platforms, approached by steps or inclined planes. Columns
+were employed, but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes
+culminating in the Persian renderings at Persepolis.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_14" id="ill_14"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_048_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_048_sml.jpg" width="282" height="199" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p class="c">
+No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+A.  Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400.<br />
+B.              at Thebes.<br />
+</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Compound animal and human forms, analagous to the Egyptian sphinx, were
+employed, such as the winged lion and bull with human heads, generally
+to flank the gateways. Wall pictures in low relief formed part of the
+interior decoration, these being arranged in successive rows and
+representing historic episodes were, like the Egyptian decoration,
+probably coloured. A prominent detail in the decoration is that of the
+date palm which, symbolical in meaning, was the prototype<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a>{27}</span> of the Greek
+anthemion; the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form
+of the evolute scroll.</p>
+
+<p>Our conclusions regarding Assyrian woodwork are drawn from the
+sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the Assyrians
+faced their brick structures internally and externally. The examples in
+the British Museum are about 888 <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p>Furniture, such as tables, thrones and couches, was evidently made of
+wood, and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_15" id="ill_15"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 107px;">
+<a href="images/ill_049a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_049a_sml.jpg" width="107" height="94" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 15. Assyrian Seat.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the monuments of Khorsabad representations have been discovered of
+chairs, supported by animals and human figures. The intention in the use
+of figures was probably to depict prisoners taken in war.</p>
+
+<p>Chairs, thrones, stools and tables were square in shape. The ends of the
+rails and legs were carved, and the ornamentation employed for these and
+similar positions included the heads of lions, bulls and rams, the
+sacred palm and pine cone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_16" id="ill_16"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;">
+<a href="images/ill_049b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_049b_sml.jpg" width="138" height="239" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 16. Capitals from Persepolis.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The seats of chairs and thrones were much higher than is now customary,
+and necessitated the use of foot-stools. In some cases both chairs and
+tables were made to fold on a central pivot.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases metal was used either for part or for the complete
+structure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a>{28}</span></p>
+
+<p>Exact chronology is a matter of surmise, but at an early period, about
+4000 <small>B.C.</small>, in the valley of the Nile and in Mesopotamia, civilization
+had attained a very high level, extremely favourable to the development
+of architecture and the artistic crafts.</p>
+
+<p>The early Greeks, as a result of the peculiar formation of their coast
+line, like the later Scandinavians, were adventurers on the sea,
+piratical and trading, and were thus brought into communication with,
+and influenced by, the arts of Egypt and Chaldea.</p>
+
+<h3>Greek</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_17" id="ill_17"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 159px;">
+<a href="images/ill_050a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_050a_sml.jpg" width="159" height="138" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 17. Early Treatment of Doric Order. Tomb of Beni
+Hassan.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though, in their architecture, the Greeks progressed no further than the
+Lintel, yet they must be credited with the development of the system of
+the orders, which formed the basis of subsequent styles.</p>
+
+<p>The two prominent orders were the Doric and the Ionic; the former has
+its prototype in the tomb of Beni Hasan, the date of which is 1740 <small>B.C.</small>,
+while the latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of the
+capital, from Assyrian and Persian originals.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_18" id="ill_18"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:163px;">
+<a href="images/ill_050b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_050b_sml.jpg" width="163" height="205" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 18. Early anticipation of Ionic Order. Tomb at
+Kyanea-Jaghu.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capital of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a>{29}</span> Corinthian order may be considered to be a
+development of the Egyptian Papyrus form, the earliest features of both
+consisting of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like detail.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_19" id="ill_19"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_051a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_051a_sml.jpg" width="295" height="185" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 19. Greek Vase Paintings. A. Doric columns. B. Wall
+fountain. C. Ionic columns with pediment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Characteristic Greek details, such as the Anthemion and wave scroll, are
+traceable to the same sources.</p>
+
+<p>Their architectural work, which was monumental in character, was mostly
+manifested in the temples, the domestic buildings being relatively
+unimportant.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_20" id="ill_20"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;">
+<a href="images/ill_051b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_051b_sml.jpg" width="191" height="106" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 20. Greek house about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British
+Museum, Bacchus visiting Icarius.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some idea as to these may be gathered from the vase paintings in the
+British Museum, on which they appear simple in form, mostly Doric in
+character, and probably of wood construction, the metopes in the frieze
+being open spaces for purpose of interior lighting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a>{30}</span></p>
+
+<p>Though the Greeks invested many of their creations with Epic and
+Symbolic meaning, much of their ornament was purely æsthetic.</p>
+
+<p>The sculptured metopes of the Parthenon, representing the conflict
+between the Lapithae and the Centaurs, are an example of the Epic
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The Sphinx, borrowed from Egyptian art, was, however, invested with a
+different meaning, and is an example of the Symbolic class, which formed
+so large a part in Greek art.</p>
+
+<p>Greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of
+mouldings, and the exterior columnar effect. The mouldings in the Ionic
+and Corinthian phases were enriched with carved details, probably
+developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_21" id="ill_21"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<a href="images/ill_052_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_052_sml.jpg" width="372" height="287" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 21. Front elevation and plan of Parthenon, Athens</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a>{31}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_22" id="ill_22"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;">
+<a href="images/ill_053_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_053_sml.jpg" width="385" height="327" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 22. Greek Ionic Erectheum, Athens.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Doric style was presumably so decorated, with painted details on the
+ovolo and abacus of the capital, and the corona and other members of the
+cornice.</p>
+
+<p>Colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes, mostly blue and
+red, resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas; the
+colour decoration forming horizontal bands.</p>
+
+<p>One important development, due to climatic conditions, was the pitched
+roof, which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form
+(literally gables), which were framed by the upper members of the
+entablature.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a>{32}</span></p>
+
+<p>This feature, technically known as the Pediment, was in buildings of
+importance invariably filled by sculpture, Mythological or Epic in
+subject, designed to occupy the shape.</p>
+
+<p>The styles mostly employed were the Doric and Ionic, and these were
+exploited contemporaneously, the Parthenon, 430 <small>B.C.</small>, representing the
+culmination of the former.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Corinthian style&mdash;comparatively little used by the Greeks, though
+much employed and developed later&mdash;the Choragic monument at Athens, 330
+<small>B.C.</small>, is the most complete example, though the leaf capital was
+anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier Tower of the Winds.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest representations of Greek furniture are to be found in the
+Syrian Room at the British Museum. These are the chairs dated about 6
+<small>B.C.</small>, in which the antique figures are seated. The backs are
+perpendicular, and the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the
+legs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_23" id="ill_23"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;">
+<a href="images/ill_054_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_054_sml.jpg" width="144" height="355" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 23. Greek Corinthian, Choragic Monument, Athens.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa. It was used for sleeping
+and resting. Chairs and stools were sometimes made of metal, and were
+often of a folding type.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a>{33}</span></p>
+
+<p>Tables were constructed in various shapes&mdash;sometimes the supports were
+fashioned as heads and legs of lions and leopards, and sometimes as
+sphinxes with lifted wings. In common with other pieces of furniture,
+they were made in wood, metal and marble.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_24" id="ill_24"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<a href="images/ill_055_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_055_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 24. Greek Furniture.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left;" class="nind">
+A.   Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan.<br />
+B.     <span class="ditto">“</span>       <span class="ditto">“</span>    Vase painting.<br />
+C.   Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C.<br />
+D.   Chair from Hydria.<br />
+E.   Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C<br />
+F.   Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The vase rooms of the British Museum provide considerable matter for
+study with regard to the details of Greek furniture, couches especially
+are frequently depicted.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks were expert workers in cast bronze, as is evidenced, not only
+by their statuary, but in many utensils of domestic life, notably the
+oil lamps, which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a>{34}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_25" id="ill_25"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;">
+<a href="images/ill_056_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_056_sml.jpg" width="390" height="528" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 25. Greek Pottery.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left;" class="nind">
+A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C.<br />
+B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C.<br />
+C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white.<br />
+D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C.<br />
+E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a>{35}</span></p>
+
+<p>Soon after the sack of Corinth in 140 <small>B.C.</small>, Greece became a Roman
+province, and the Greek art workers eventually found more encouragement
+from Roman patronage than in local requirement.</p>
+
+<p>They therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded,
+thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their
+conquerors.</p>
+
+<h3>Roman</h3>
+
+<p>Originally there were no special native characteristics by which Roman
+work could be distinguished, as the Romans absorbed various influences
+from the races that they conquered. Their conquests extended East and
+West, and from these widely differing outside influences the Roman style
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans, who by temperament, were great soldiers, organisers and
+engineers, rather than artistic, in their early essays in architecture
+were influenced by Etruscan work.</p>
+
+<p>Etruria (now Tuscany) is presumed to have been a Greek colony, and the
+local style, a form of debased Doric, was adopted by the first Tarquin
+(who was of Etruscan origin) and introduced to Rome about 610 <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p>With the growth of the Roman Empire, and its consequent wealth and
+development of luxury, great impetus was given to building and the arts
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>The orders based on the Greek originals were developed in detail and
+proportion, particularly in the latter respect. Whereas in the Greek
+Doric the height of the column varied from about four, to six and a half
+diameters, the Roman version became more slender, being about eight
+diameters in height.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a>{36}</span></p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian order, perhaps, underwent the greatest change, a change
+that has practically remained unaltered to the present day.</p>
+
+<h3>Vaulting</h3>
+
+<p>The most significant development in building was the Arch and subsequent
+vaulting, by means of which extensive covered areas were rendered
+possible. The Pantheon at Rome is covered with a hemispherical vault or
+dome 139 feet in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_26" id="ill_26"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/ill_058_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_058_sml.jpg" width="287" height="210" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 26. Section and interior elevation of Pantheon,
+Rome.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dome, which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal
+ribs, resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons, or coffers, is
+really a casting in cement; and in principle is identical with the
+present method of building, in which concrete or cement forms a
+considerable part in construction.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from other reasons, the Arch was necessitated by small material,
+which, in the case of the Lintel, could not be employed without the
+device of joggelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a>{37}</span> joints. In the absence of suitable material to
+cover spans, it became necessary to devise some means to the desired
+result. This was achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of
+material cut to the necessary wedge form.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the
+Cloaca Maxima, to aqueducts, bridges, and viaducts, from which its firm
+construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to
+buildings of many storeys.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_27" id="ill_27"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a href="images/ill_059_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_059_sml.jpg" width="270" height="188" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 27. Coliseum, Rome. Section and part elevation
+showing arch and vault construction.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Greek Influence</h3>
+
+<p>Apart from the early employment and development of the Arch, the Romans
+were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources, and also
+were indebted to the Greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry, art,
+even to religion, whose gods they invested with different names.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding, the Roman development in architecture was undoubtedly
+dignified and grand in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a>{38}</span> manner, particularly in their treatment of the
+Corinthian order.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to detail, much of the delicacy and refinement of the Greek
+character was lost, yet this was compensated by greater variety and
+freedom of treatment, especially in the development of the Acanthus type
+of foliage.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_28" id="ill_28"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_060_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_060_sml.jpg" width="279" height="268" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 28. Arch of Titus, Rome.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Development of Ornament</h3>
+
+<p>Decoration was more generally used, pilaster and other panels being
+occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines, mostly composed of
+undulate stems, with scrolling branches, clothed with conventional
+leaves and flowers.</p>
+
+<p>There was also a tendency to employ occasionally<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a>{39}</span> natural types in
+foliage, and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human
+and animal form, which, though originally significant, were used for
+their æsthetic value.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman domestic life was materially different from the Greek, and
+while they had their Temples, they also had their palaces, public halls
+and baths, besides the amphitheatre and the circus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_29" id="ill_29"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 203px;">
+<a href="images/ill_061a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_061a_sml.jpg" width="203" height="303" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 29. Typical Roman Ornament.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii have thrown considerable light on
+the domestic life of the Romans&mdash;their dwellings, decorations and
+furniture.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_30" id="ill_30"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_31" id="ill_31"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_061b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_061b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 30. Roman couch.
+Sepulchral urn,
+ British Museum.
+
+<span style="margin-left:3em;">No. 31. Roman Sella.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Græco-Roman Painted Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>In the luxurious life of the Romans colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a>{40}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_32" id="ill_32"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_062_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_062_sml.jpg" width="362" height="420" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 32. Graeco-Roman Hall in house of Sallust, Pompeii.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">decoration played a conspicuous part, as is evidenced in the painted
+work of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this, which is generally known as
+the Græco-Roman period, the interiors were decorated with paintings, the
+general scheme being based on an architectural setting, the wall areas
+being divided into bays by slender columns, sometimes by pilaster
+panels, with plinth, or dado,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a>{41}</span> frieze, and cornice, the prevailing
+colours being red, buff and black.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_33" id="ill_33"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<a href="images/ill_063_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_063_sml.jpg" width="268" height="366" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p>No. 33.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings,
+through which distant vistas could be seen. The bays or spaces between
+the apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel
+pictures with frames; generally the supports were united by festoons or
+scrolling detail, the whole expressed by painting in colour without
+actual relief.</p>
+
+<p>The use of glass for glazing windows was employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a>{42}</span> in the later period;
+that the Romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the
+examples in the National collections.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_34" id="ill_34"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<a href="images/ill_064_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_064_sml.jpg" width="250" height="364" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p>No. 34.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary, which
+were boat shape in form, sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended
+from branching stems or supported on tripod standards. These were
+invariably in cast bronze, though terra-cotta was also used, but in
+either material were extremely beautiful in form and detail.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a>{43}</span></p>
+
+<p>In any attempt to review the past, it is difficult to visualise the
+actual life at the back of the pageantry, with which we are naturally
+prone to be obsessed, in history as written; but the exhibits of the
+various domestic appliances of the Roman period at the British Museum
+are of considerable interest, and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to
+bring the individual to a closer understanding of the times and people.</p>
+
+<p>At Byzantium or Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire,
+a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the
+characteristics of East and West; and it was marked particularly by a
+grafting of earlier Greek detail on to simplified Roman forms.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment in 330 <small>A.D.</small> of Byzantium or Constantinople as the
+Eastern capital of the Roman Empire and the recognition by the state of
+Christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the
+associated crafts. Prior to this the early Christians had been compelled
+to hold their meetings secretly, and when this was no longer necessary
+they at first utilised for their public worship the existing Basilicas
+or public halls. Later on churches were built, the plan being arranged
+in the form of a Greek cross (<i>e.g.</i>, with equal arms), surmounted by a
+central dome.</p>
+
+<h3>Domes</h3>
+
+<p>The dome was supported on four piers, united by arches, and the change
+in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the
+inner angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the
+imposed circle. These vaultings spreading from the angles are
+technically known as Pendentives. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a>{44}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_35" id="ill_35"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 292px;">
+<a href="images/ill_066_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_066_sml.jpg" width="292" height="521" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 35. Byzantine. Section and plan of St. Vitali,
+Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a>{45}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_36" id="ill_36"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<a href="images/ill_067_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_067_sml.jpg" width="363" height="468" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 36. Byzantine Capitals from Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">four arms of the cross constituting transepts, nave and chancel were
+also surmounted by either complete or semi-domes.</p>
+
+<p>The Byzantine dome differs from the Roman type in matters of detail,
+thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with
+resulting coffers as in that of the Pantheon. In this latter the
+lighting of the interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye,
+but in some Byzantine examples, notably St. Sophia (built for Justinian
+by Anthemius) the lighting is the result of windows ranged round the
+base, constituting what is known as the ariel type of dome.</p>
+
+<p>The dome of St. Sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the
+Pantheon, being only one-sixth of the diameter in height, the diameter
+being 106 ft. 7½ ins.</p>
+
+<p>The architectural features generally were considerably modified,
+particularly with regard to mouldings, which were almost eliminated. The
+entablature was also at times dispensed with, and arches springing
+direct from the capitals of supporting columns were general; a feature
+which is characteristic of the later Romanesque. The capitals became
+simple in form, being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes, in
+which the abacus is considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded.</p>
+
+<p>The carved details reveal simplicity of execution, being merely cut back
+from the surface, the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to
+the plastic feeling of the Roman work. Though the leaves employed were
+of the acanthus type, they were quite devoid of modelling, being merely
+channelled with V-shaped<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a>{46}</span> grooves; the eyes between the lobes being
+round and suggestive of the use of the drill, the execution being a
+reversion to the archaic Greek.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_37" id="ill_37"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a href="images/ill_070_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_070_sml.jpg" width="349" height="171" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 37. Byzantine Panels. St. Appollinare, Nuovo,
+Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Early Christian Art</h3>
+
+<p>A notable feature in the Byzantine detail is the prevalence of the
+circle, frequently grouped in three, four and five, with the respective
+significance of the Trinity, the Evangelists and the Cross, or Five
+Wounds. The grotesques of the Pagan detail are conspicuously absent,
+giving place to forms more in keeping with the new religion, such, for
+instance, as the cross and the vine.</p>
+
+<p>It is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured Roman was
+taken very seriously, but incidental to the religious observances were
+certain rites and symbolic forms, with which the Christians were
+familiar, and the early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy
+to invest some of these with a new meaning. During the period of
+intolerance and persecution, signs and symbols grew in importance as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a>{47}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_39" id="ill_39"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a href="images/ill_071_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_071_sml.jpg" width="350" height="245" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 39. Byzantine Interior, Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_40" id="ill_40"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;">
+<a href="images/ill_072_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_072_sml.jpg" width="379" height="494" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 40. 5th Century Mosaic Work in the Baptistery at
+Ravenna.</p>
+
+<p>From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">means of secret communication; and in the later period when secrecy was
+no longer necessary, these became a corporate part of the ornament and
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_38" id="ill_38"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<a href="images/ill_073_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_073_sml.jpg" width="274" height="65" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 38. Byzantine Panel from the sarcophagus of St.
+Theodore. St. Appollinare in Classe, Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In contrast to the Roman ornament, in which the effect depended mostly
+on light and shade, the Byzantine was a colour style, and it became
+customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs
+quartered and placed reciprocally, so that the figurings formed
+symmetrical patterns. Mosaic work, either of marble or glass,
+constituted the decoration in such suitable positions as the floors,
+spandrils, lunettes and domes, gold being largely employed in the
+backgrounds. Windows, at times large in area, were glazed as in Roman
+times with cast slabs of glass, set in metal frames, usually bronze; and
+thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were also used for glazing
+purposes.</p>
+
+<h3>Metal Work and Enamel</h3>
+
+<p>The Byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal,
+decorated in repoussé and with wire filigree; the metal work was
+invariably set with jewels and precious stones, in conjunction with
+champleve enamel, the whole being gilt.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of the Iconoclastic movement, and the decree of Pope Leo III
+in 726 <small>A.D.</small>, the art workers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a>{48}</span> deprived of local patronage and compelled
+to pursue their crafts elsewhere, migrated to the Rhine district, where
+for some centuries the Byzantine traditions were preserved and largely
+influenced Western art, particularly with regard to the working in metal
+and enamels. The attraction of the centre of the Eastern Empire for
+northern adventurers had its effect in the introduction of the Byzantine
+style into the detail of the different phases of the Romanesque.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_41" id="ill_41"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_074_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_074_sml.jpg" width="280" height="213" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 41. Champleve enamel Byzantine tradition.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local
+craftsmen and modified according to local conditions, with the result
+that both in expression and in execution, the style tended to become
+more and more crude, until the original forms and details were almost
+entirely lost. But in spite of changes the classic feeling never
+completely died out.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a>{49}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Roman Influence Abroad</h3>
+
+<p>Under the Roman system, in colonizing, their architecture, customs and
+laws were imposed on the conquered population. When later, under stress
+of events, the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn,
+these left behind them universal traces of their occupation and
+influence. The inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on
+their own resources, were immediately menaced by invasions, which had
+been hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation, and for some
+protracted period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict, under which
+the arts naturally suffered. Eventually, from the chaos emerged a native
+manner of building, which, though rude and coarse in execution, was
+based on the Roman tradition.</p>
+
+<h3>Romanesque Style</h3>
+
+<p>The transition thus brought about is known for convenience as
+Romanesque. Its most typical exponents were possibly the Scandinavians,
+whose Christianised descendants, the Normans, preserved the same
+tradition. The work of the Saxons in England, although stimulated by the
+same influences, was much cruder in execution.</p>
+
+<p>This period was not remarkable for great artistic development, and
+luxury in any form was practically non-existent.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding local character, the prevailing features are similar, in
+that the round arch is employed, supported by columns or piers, from
+which the arches spring direct, the entablature being eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>The columns are squat in proportion, and surmounted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a>{50}</span> by capitals of
+truncated cone or cushion shape, the abacus being deep and square in
+plan.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings were little used, and the archivolts were formed in a series
+of recessed bands, either plain or decorated. Distinct from the
+Byzantine style, the Romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of
+light and shade.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_42" id="ill_42"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 181px;">
+<a href="images/ill_076a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_076a_sml.jpg" width="181" height="116" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 42. Romanesque Capitals from Cloister, St. Guillem du
+Desert, Herault. Reminiscent of Roman Corinthian.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Details were carved, and rude in execution, preserving to some extent
+the Byzantine feeling, the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem,
+with scroll branches, clothed with leafage, simply channelled or
+grooved, but less spikey in form.</p>
+
+<h3>Church Development</h3>
+
+<p>Of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most
+interesting examples of development. The usual plan consisted of an
+oblong nave with side aisles half its width and height.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_43" id="ill_43"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;">
+<a href="images/ill_076b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_076b_sml.jpg" width="166" height="323" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 43. Romanesque Tower, Thaon, Normandy.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the end of the nave, projecting transepts separated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a>{51}</span> it from the
+chancel (which is generally raised in level), continuing the line of
+nave, the whole taking the shape of the Latin cross in contrast to the
+Byzantine plan; the chancel end facing East, the nave West, and the
+transepts respectively North and South.</p>
+
+<p>A feature of this period is the Apse, a semi-circular extension of the
+choir or chancel; when the side aisles were extended to the latter they
+formed what is known as an ambulatory, or passage way, round the choir,
+within which was the altar, and the stalls for monks and clergy.</p>
+
+<p>The Narthex or atrium, of the basilicas, utilised by the early
+Christians for their public worship (to which were admitted those
+outside the community) was abandoned, its place being taken by the West
+entrance or porch, enclosed between two towers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_44" id="ill_44"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;">
+<a href="images/ill_077_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_077_sml.jpg" width="130" height="355" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 44. Romanesque plan of Cathedral, Worms.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The upper walls of the nave were carried on arches supported by columns,
+which constituted the division of the side aisles; these latter being
+formed by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer walls, the
+vaulting being roofed over.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of the nave was pierced by windows, small and
+comparatively narrow, with semi-circular heads forming the Clerestory.
+Similar windows in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a>{52}</span> some instances occur in the aisles, the jambs of
+these windows being bevelled both inside and out for the freer admission
+of light.</p>
+
+<p>The nave was roofed in with timber, but as the result of frequent
+destruction by fire, the roof was eventually vaulted; in early examples
+by the barrel or tunnel vault, but later this developed into
+cross-vaulting, which was also introduced into the side aisles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_45" id="ill_45"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;">
+<a href="images/ill_078a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_078a_sml.jpg" width="161" height="223" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 45. Romanesque, bay of interior, Worms Cathedral.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_47" id="ill_47"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 189px;">
+<a href="images/ill_078b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_078b_sml.jpg" width="189" height="309" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 47. Romanesque Church interior with Triforium.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_46" id="ill_46"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;">
+<a href="images/ill_078c_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_078c_sml.jpg" width="115" height="122" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 46. Romanesque Window, St. Alban’s Abbey.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the early churches of this period the walls of the nave were unbroken
+except for the upper windows. With the development of vaulting, the
+space above the aisle<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a>{53}</span> vaults and the covering roof was used as a
+gallery known as the Triforium. This was not lighted from without, and
+was a distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque and early Gothic
+styles.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave entailed supports
+for the arch bands or vaulting ribs, which were carried on pilasters or
+half columns, dividing the interior façade into bays.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_48" id="ill_48"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/ill_079_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_079_sml.jpg" width="188" height="246" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 48. Construction of intersecting vaults.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Dark Ages</h3>
+
+<p>The unsettled condition of Europe, both before and after the final
+subjugation of the Roman Empire by Charlemagne in 774 <small>A.D.</small>, was
+necessarily detrimental to artistic progress, and the period to the
+fifteenth century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the
+arts and culture in general.</p>
+
+<p>Such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests,
+and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the
+people were kept in ignorance and subjection.</p>
+
+<p>Building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches, the
+domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier
+periods, though Eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by
+the alien adventurers to the Byzantine courts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a>{54}</span></p>
+
+<p>This was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people
+indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment, to whom, however,
+personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous
+attire.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_49" id="ill_49"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;">
+<a href="images/ill_080_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_080_sml.jpg" width="265" height="347" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 49. Romanesque, south door Kilpeck Church,
+Herefordshire.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme. The dwellings of the
+well-to-do in England, similarly to those of the Scandinavians,
+consisted principally of a barn-like hall. The centre of the hall was
+occupied by a long table, and at one end raised on a platform or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a>{55}</span> dais
+another table was placed in the opposite direction. At the latter sat
+the most important members of the household, while the lower part was
+reserved for retainers and servants. Heavy chairs and settles were used
+at the upper table, and benches or forms at the lower.</p>
+
+<p>Walls, when covered at all, were adorned with hangings, but then only at
+the dais end of the hall. Fireplaces in the modern sense were not known.
+The fire was built on the floor, and the smoke allowed to escape as best
+it might.</p>
+
+<p>Arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining.
+Beds were provided only for persons of distinction, and were placed in
+recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters. They were,
+in fact, little more than wooden boxes, with sacks of straw to serve as
+mattresses.</p>
+
+<p>Later, bedsteads were used of massive construction, which on occasions
+of journeying were placed on wheels, forming a sort of coach or carriage
+ironically termed whirlicots, in which the aged and infirm were
+transported.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_50" id="ill_50"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;">
+<a href="images/ill_081_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_081_sml.jpg" width="172" height="178" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 50. Chair of Dagobert, French 7th century, bronze.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For some time after the Norman Conquest the unsettled state of the
+country rendered it necessary that household effects and valuables
+should be few in number and of such a nature <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a>{56}</span>as to be easily
+transportable. Thus chests in which belongings could be stored came into
+general use. They were simple in construction, and without carving, but
+were strengthened and decorated by hinges and scroll strappings in iron.
+Such chests served a double purpose, as they could be used as tables and
+seats.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_51" id="ill_51"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 211px;">
+<a href="images/ill_082_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_082_sml.jpg" width="211" height="295" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 51. 14th Century Textile Sicilian tradition.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For convenience of transport, chairs and stools were made with
+projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so as to be easily taken
+apart.</p>
+
+<h3>Crusades</h3>
+
+<p>That the Crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of
+Eastern art, is evidenced by the celebrated cup of Eden Hall, on the
+safe preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners,
+according to the couplet:</p>
+
+<p>
+“If that cup either break or fall,<br />
+Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.”<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>This cup is of Saracenic origin, and is of glass, painted in enamels,
+similar in character to the mosque lamps in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Tapestries of Sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the
+medium of the Crusades, and led<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a>{57}</span> to the employment of painted wall
+decoration, evidently in imitation, even in some instances to indicating
+the folds of the material.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_52" id="ill_52"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;">
+<a href="images/ill_083_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_083_sml.jpg" width="242" height="337" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 52. Sicilian Textile.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A precept exists in the twentieth year of the reign of Henry III
+directing “that the King’s great chamber at Westminster be painted a
+good green colour like a curtain,” and “that the King’s little wardrobe
+should also be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain.”</p>
+
+<p>This was undoubtedly suggested by the custom abroad of draping the walls
+with tapestries, though carpets were unknown. Probably the first time
+these were seen in England was in the apartments in the Temple occupied
+by the suite of the infant Don Sancho, archbishop elect of Toledo, who
+with Don Garcias Madinez, officiated as <i>avant-courriers</i> to Eleanor of
+Castile in the autumn of 1255.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a>{58}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Pointed Arch</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_53" id="ill_53"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<a href="images/ill_084_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_084_sml.jpg" width="289" height="433" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 53. Types of Buttress.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The origin of the pointed Arch, which is the chief characteristic of the
+Gothic style, is much disputed, but there is ample evidence that the new
+departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe
+soon after the First Crusade. It is reasonable<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a>{59}</span> to assume that this
+particular form was suggested by examples in Syria, where arches
+elliptic and even ogival in shape were employed.</p>
+
+<p>Though not common in Roman work, the pointed Arch was employed in the
+Aqueduct built to supply Constantinople with water, completed under
+Valens, 364-378 <small>A.D.</small>, by which it is probable that the Saracenic work
+was inspired.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the origin, the innovation was found to be economic, and more
+sound in construction than the older prevailing method. It was also more
+flexible in design, as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned
+with arches equal in height, which is not possible with the
+semi-circular form, except by the expedient of stepping.</p>
+
+<p>Further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the
+outer walls, as well as at the angles of the building.</p>
+
+<h3>Gothic Style</h3>
+
+<p>In France, England and Germany the Gothic style superseded the
+Romanesque with varying phases of transition, and with local development
+of character. In Spain the Moors had established a system of
+architecture thoroughly Eastern that was but little affected by the
+Gothic style, the influence of which is apparent in the later Spanish
+rendering of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy the Gothic attained but slight development in comparison with
+more northern and western treatments, at least from a structural point
+of view. The Italian phase known as Lombardic is conspicuous for the
+evidence of Eastern and Byzantine traditions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a>{60}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Phases of Gothic</h3>
+
+<p>The phases and dates of the Gothic style in England are as follow, and
+lasted well into the sixteenth century, with periods of transition:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_54" id="ill_54"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;">
+<a href="images/ill_086_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_086_sml.jpg" width="161" height="370" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 54. Early pointed Gothic Pier, elevation and plan.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In church architecture the general plan and essential features of the
+Romanesque style were preserved; but there was a complete change in the
+details, as well as a general lightening of the whole structure.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts,
+which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs, these shafts being
+bound together at bases and capitals.</p>
+
+<p>The Triforium was retained, the openings being arched and similar in
+detail to the windows.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Pointed</h3>
+
+<p>In the early variety of the Pointed Gothic the arches<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>{61}</span> were acutely
+pointed, technically known as “lancet,” but later became more
+equilateral. The windows were narrow in proportion, and were single, or
+in groups.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_55" id="ill_55"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 198px;">
+<a href="images/ill_087_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_087_sml.jpg" width="198" height="439" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 55. Early pointed bay with Triforium. Window of Aisle
+is of later date.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Later they were divided into compartments, and the triangular head
+filled in with stonework, pierced with simple geometrical openings,
+known as plate tracery, thus forming a transition between the simple
+open lancet and the intersecting ribs, which constituted the true
+tracery of the later periods.</p>
+
+<p>Commonly shafts of circular section, with caps and bases, were employed
+in the windows, both internally and externally.</p>
+
+<p>Roofs were high pitched, and the ceilings vaulted, the vaulting ribs
+being moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings were rich in effect, being composed of a succession of hollows
+or flutings, contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a>{62}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_56" id="ill_56"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
+<a href="images/ill_088a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_088a_sml.jpg" width="378" height="186" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 56. Early Lancet Windows. A. Canterbury Cathedral. B.
+Lincoln Cathedral. C. Salisbury Cathedral.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_57" id="ill_57"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/ill_088b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_088b_sml.jpg" width="288" height="137" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 57. Early pointed Gothic Windows. Plate tracery.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts, sometimes in leaf-like
+forms in the bases and in the mouldings, also in the crockets, and
+finials of the gables, and pinnacles of the buttresses.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_58" id="ill_58"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 213px;">
+<a href="images/ill_088c_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_088c_sml.jpg" width="213" height="121" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 58. Early pointed Arch Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ornament was extremely conventional, that on capitals, crockets and
+other free positions consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a>{63}</span> crisply curling trefoil or
+cinquefoil groups of lobes having little resemblance to natural type.</p>
+
+<p>The later windows became more elaborate in the tracery, which was
+essentially geometric, and further elaborated by cusping. Triforium
+arches and canopy heads being similar in design.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_59" id="ill_59"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<a href="images/ill_089a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_089a_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 59. Early pointed Gothic Capital.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_60" id="ill_60"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_089b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_089b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 60. Pointed Gothic tracery Windows. A. Ely Cathedral.
+B. Meophan Church, Kent.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The central tower, which was common in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a>{64}</span> Romanesque, developed into
+the spire, which was carried to a great height; the lower part
+occasionally pierced with openings for purpose of interior lighting,
+forming the lantern.</p>
+
+<h3>Decorated Gothic</h3>
+
+<p>The principal characteristics of the Decorated period are the form of
+the Arch, the elimination of detached shafts and the enlarged clerestory
+with increased lighting area.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch, when used structurally, was still of the simple pointed form,
+but in small windows, niches and canopies, the shape at the head became
+ogival and the tracery displays considerable license as compared with
+that of the preceding phase.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_61" id="ill_61"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="images/ill_090a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_090a_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 61. Early pointed Gothic Spire, Warmington.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_62" id="ill_62"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_090b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_090b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 62. Decorated Gothic Windows. A. Merton College,
+Oxford. B. Cathedral, Oxford.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mouldings were shallower as contrasted with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a>{65}</span> undercut hollows of the
+earlier period; in many instances the arch mouldings were merely a
+continuation of those of the supporting piers, which took the place of
+the earlier detached shafts.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest innovation occurs in the foliage, in which natural
+suggestion is evident, adapted with considerable freedom, and skilful in
+execution.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_63" id="ill_63"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<a href="images/ill_091a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_091a_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 63. Decorated Gothic Carving, Chancel screen,
+Southwell Minster.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the preceding style the foliage of the capitals invariably sprung
+from the necking, in simple firm curves, revealing the underlying
+bell-shape. In the Decorated period the foliage generally wreaths round
+the structural form, the detail being frequently deeply pierced and cut
+away at the back till it was almost detached, giving an extremely rich
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>Diaper detail of pateræ, or foliage arranged in squares, occurs in the
+spandrils between arches.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_64" id="ill_64"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="images/ill_091b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_091b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 64. Decorated Gothic Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a>{66}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_65" id="ill_65"></a></p>
+<p><a name="ill_66" id="ill_66"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 354px;">
+<a href="images/ill_092a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_092a_sml.jpg" width="354" height="176" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>Nos. 65 &amp; 66. Decorated Gothic Capitals, leaves deeply
+undercut and wreathed round bell.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A distinct feature of this period and of the succeeding Perpendicular
+style, is the battlement, which was used in all suitable positions
+either as a parapet or as a cresting. The Decorated variety differs from
+the later, in that the moulded edges only appear horizontally, whereas
+in the Perpendicular period the moulded edge is continuous, being
+carried round the angles of the battlement.</p>
+
+<p>Externally the spire gave place to the tower with culminating lantern.</p>
+
+<p>During the period of the style known as Decorated Gothic, furniture was
+framed and panelled, and the details closely resembled those used in
+architectural decoration in stone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_67" id="ill_67"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 72px;">
+<a href="images/ill_092b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_092b_sml.jpg" width="72" height="285" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 67. Decorated Gothic Spire, Whittlesea.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general effect of Decorated is a tendency to horizontal banding, in
+contrast to the vertical effect of the earlier period, to which
+eventually the later Perpendicular reverted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a>{67}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Perpendicular Gothic</h3>
+
+<p>In the succeeding phase the Triforium which had gradually become less
+important, entirely disappeared and the clerestory windows enlarged, to
+the extent that this part of the structure became merely a frame for the
+increased glass areas.</p>
+
+<p>It will be apparent from the foregoing that whereas in the early
+churches of the Romanesque period the interior effect was mysterious
+owing to inadequate openings for light, the later and growing tendency
+was to increase the lighting capacity by enlarging the windows of the
+clerestory.</p>
+
+<h3>Glass Windows</h3>
+
+<p>Doubtless the development in the size of windows was due to some extent
+to the growing use of glass, which, though rare, was employed during the
+later Romanesque through Byzantine tradition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_68" id="ill_68"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;">
+<a href="images/ill_093_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_093_sml.jpg" width="100" height="271" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 68. Perpendicular Gothic Bay shewing development of
+Clerestory.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These early windows were geometric in design, consisting of medallions,
+oval, circular or quatrefoil in shape, containing figure subjects set in
+a diapered background, the whole being executed in small pieces of
+coloured glass united by lead framings.</p>
+
+<p>While the windows were single openings, this form of glazing necessarily
+restricted the size, though more adequate lighting was achieved by
+grouping two or more windows together.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a>{68}</span></p>
+
+<p>With the development of tracery the technical difficulties were to some
+extent overcome; a window divided into comparatively small compartments
+could be more easily glazed than single openings of large size; thus
+glazed windows of greater dimensions were rendered possible.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_69" id="ill_69"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 193px;">
+<a href="images/ill_094_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_094_sml.jpg" width="193" height="296" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 69. Perpendicular Gothic Windows.</p>
+
+<p>A. Aylsham Church, Norfolk.</p>
+
+<p>B. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Decorated windows the lower lights were devoted to the subject,
+which in many instances was carried through the area, regardless of the
+dividing bars or mullions. In the Perpendicular each light or opening
+had usually its own subject or figure, surmounted by canopies, the upper
+spaces formed by intersection of the tracery bars were occupied by
+various details suitable to the different shapes.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch of the Perpendicular style is materially different, being
+composed of elliptic curves struck from four centres.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings became even more shallow in section, and the tracery less
+florid than formerly, though extremely rich in appearance when used in
+the profusion that developed in the fan vaulting of this period.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a>{69}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_70" id="ill_70"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_095_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_095_sml.jpg" width="282" height="435" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 70. Perpendicular Gothic Fan Vaulting. St. Mary,
+Aldermary.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The foliation reverted to a more conventional character, and became
+lifeless and monotonous in comparison with the Decorated work.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be assumed that examples in every instance will be found
+complete in any of these phases;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a>{70}</span> on the contrary, the various styles
+are to be found side by side in the same building, the result of later
+additions or rebuilding.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_71" id="ill_71"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 132px;">
+<a href="images/ill_096a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_096a_sml.jpg" width="132" height="361" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 71. Perpendicular Gothic Tower, All Saints, Derby.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Painted decoration and sculpture were also employed during the various
+periods; wood-work where necessary was used, and in detail was in
+harmony with the architectural character of the period.</p>
+
+<h3>Civic Influences</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_72" id="ill_72"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;">
+<a href="images/ill_096b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_096b_sml.jpg" width="164" height="261" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 72. Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey, 13th
+century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The feudal period was not favourable to the development of domestic
+conditions, though considerable advance had been made by the fourteenth
+century, chiefly by the Italian states and in the principal cities. The
+importance of the latter is evidenced particularly in the City of
+London, with its merchant class and civic authorities, who, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a>{71}</span> reason
+of their wealth, attained potential political influence, the prevailing
+contentious conditions necessitating the continual raising of large sums
+of money.</p>
+
+<p>Such conditions were favourable to the merchants, who, acting as
+bankers, supplied the means, and thus a class was established and
+apparently lived in profusion and some pretention to sumptuous
+environment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_73" id="ill_73"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;">
+<a href="images/ill_097a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_097a_sml.jpg" width="145" height="189" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 73. Bedstead and Cradle from M.S. in Bodleian
+Library, 14th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Effect of Commerce</h3>
+
+<p>Similar conditions to those in England prevailed on the Continent with
+certain local variations. A big stride was made with the development of
+commerce, mainly through the agency of Venetian and Flemish merchants.
+The effect of increasing opulence as signalised by the appearance in the
+home of such comfort and refinement as had formerly been possible only
+for princes and great nobles.</p>
+
+<p>Among the luxuries imported were Oriental silks, carpets and pottery.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_74" id="ill_74"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;">
+<a href="images/ill_097b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_097b_sml.jpg" width="164" height="210" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 74. Fireplace, 13th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Italy</h3>
+
+<p>Whereas, throughout Europe generally, the Gothic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a>{72}</span> character in furniture
+and woodwork developed on similar lines, in Italy alone its appeal to
+the national sympathies was not strong enough for it to become
+thoroughly assimilated, and there the Byzantine style persisted.</p>
+
+<p>The woods most in use were oak and chestnut. In Italy walnut and cypress
+were used&mdash;the latter being considered especially valuable for chests.</p>
+
+<p>Early examples of Italian chests are decorated with closely spaced
+incised ornament, filled in with colour.</p>
+
+<p>The Venetians derived from Persia and India a form of marquetry or inlay
+of ivory, metal and various woods, generally geometric in design. The
+wood used was stained in order to vary the colour.</p>
+
+<h3>Foreign Influence in England</h3>
+
+<p>Through the policy of seeking foreign princesses as brides for the
+English kings, foreign influences crept in, and had a marked effect on
+the development of style. Moreover, increasing commercial intercourse
+with the Continent paved the way for the introduction of the new ideas
+of the Renaissance then beginning to dawn in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Wars of the Roses checked progress in many ways, but this was but
+the more rapid when peace was restored with the advent of Henry VII.</p>
+
+<h3>The House</h3>
+
+<p>There was a great change in the character of the dwelling-house, which
+though still built on defensive lines, was also arranged with a view to
+domestic comfort and convenience. The commonest form of plan<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a>{73}</span> was that
+in which the buildings were grouped round a central court and surrounded
+by a moat. These buildings consisted of hall, parlour, kitchen and
+domestic offices. The hall itself was lofty, had an open-timbered roof,
+and was usually lighted from both sides. One end of the hall was
+invariably screened off, and as the screen did not reach to the roof the
+musicians’ gallery was placed above it. The fireplace was set in one of
+the side walls. The windows, as a rule, had few lights, and these had
+pointed and cusped heads. The upper rooms were accessible by staircases.</p>
+
+<p>A not uncommon feature on the upper floor was the long gallery, which
+generally traversed the whole length of the building immediately under
+the roof.</p>
+
+<p>The rooms were panelled most often to about two-thirds the height of the
+wall, while the remaining third was of plaster.</p>
+
+<p>The ceiling also was of plaster, which was moulded into intersecting
+ribs arranged geometrically, sometimes with stalactite pendants at the
+intersections.</p>
+
+<p>Fireplaces were made of stone, and chimney-pieces sometimes of wood.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture was beginning to assume some of its modern forms, as shown by
+the chairs, which were railed, and copied from Italian models.</p>
+
+<p>Buffets or sideboards with closed cupboards were in use. Table legs were
+carved or turned, and connected by stretchers.</p>
+
+<p>Windows were now glazed with leaded panes, and when made to open were of
+the casement type, with iron frames which were hinged and furnished with
+turnbuckle fastenings.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a>{74}</span></p>
+
+<p>Doors seldom had locks, but usually shut with latches of wrought iron.
+The hinges also were of wrought iron, and though simple in form were
+often quite ornamental.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VII and his successor were responsible for various country
+residences, an example which was followed by the nobility.</p>
+
+<p>During the latter monarch’s reign it became the fashion to arrange the
+plan of the mansion in the form of the letter H; that is, in two
+parallel wings connected at a right angle. In the reign of Elizabeth
+this was modified into a plan resembling the letter E, otherwise a
+façade, with wings bent at right angles, with a central projection
+forming the main entrance.</p>
+
+<p>In the domestic Tudor style the Arch was in vogue for window openings,
+etc., but much flattened in form.</p>
+
+<p>The windows were divided into a number of lights, by vertical mullions,
+with arch headings, occasionally cusped. If of tall proportions, they
+were further divided by horizontal bars or transoms, and were glazed
+with small panes of glass set in lead frames, arranged in some cases to
+open in iron casements.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_75" id="ill_75"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 186px;">
+<a href="images/ill_100_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_100_sml.jpg" width="186" height="212" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 75. Tudor Window with leaded lights.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Reformation</h3>
+
+<p>An important factor in the development of this period was the
+Reformation, with the resultant liberty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a>{75}</span> of thought. Before this,
+architecture and the associated arts were entirely dominated by the
+Church, at the sacrifice of the individuality of the artist and
+craftsman, who after this emancipation were enabled to exploit their
+work untrammelled by clerical restriction.</p>
+
+<p>In some respects this was not productive of the best results, as it
+removed the various co-ordinated branches of work from the restraint of
+architectural dominance, with some loss to the unities. It also opened
+the way to the professional designer as distinct from the craftsman (who
+hitherto had been responsible for his share of the work) resulting in
+occasional loss of character.</p>
+
+<h3>Renaissance</h3>
+
+<p>The Renaissance, which had its origin it Italy, was the next factor in
+the evolution of architecture and the arts. As early as 1422 there were
+indications of the coming change, though the medieval system of
+construction was still adhered to.</p>
+
+<p>Impetus was given to this revival by the taking of Constantinople by the
+Turks in 1453 <small>A.D.</small>, resulting in the dispersion of the Greek scholars,
+who found refuge in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic, essentially a Northern style, scarcely affected Italy, where
+Byzantine tradition persisted until the Revival of Learning in the
+latter half of the fifteenth century brought a fresh impulse into all
+branches of Art and Literature.</p>
+
+<p>An awakened interest in classical remains was an integral part of the
+vitality with which the great change<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a>{76}</span> known in its culmination as the
+Renaissance was imbued; and the commercial prosperity of the times was
+favourable to its encouragement and development.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Exponents</h3>
+
+<p>An active agent in this revival was Brunelleschi, a native of Florence,
+who in company with Donatello, visited Rome to study the remains of
+classical antiquity. His principal successor, Leo Battista Alberti,
+contributed largely to the new style. Ultimately the Roman Orders and
+their details were appropriated and adapted to local requirements.</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent artists of the day turned their attention to the
+designing and making of wood-work, and the decoration of rooms.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_76" id="ill_76"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 356px;">
+<a href="images/ill_102_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_102_sml.jpg" width="356" height="258" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 76. Strozzi Palace, Florence.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a>{77}</span></p>
+
+<p>The earlier work is severely architectural in character, being closely
+based on the antique, with all the usual features of columns, pilasters,
+cornices and pediments.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest achievement of the architects of the Renaissance was
+perhaps their adaptation of the antique Roman style to the modified
+needs of secular buildings, of which the Palazzo Pitti at Florence by
+Brunelleschi is an early and notable example. This creating a form of
+architecture which perhaps reached its noblest expression in the Palazzo
+Strozzi, begun in 1489 <small>A.D.</small> by Benedetto da Majano.</p>
+
+<p>As previously suggested, climate and local material are essential agents
+in the formation of style, and from Tuscany stone of large size was
+easily obtainable.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_77" id="ill_77"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/ill_103_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_103_sml.jpg" width="267" height="140" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 77. Pandolfini Palace, Florence.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The contentious conditions existing in many of the Italian cities,
+entailing necessity for defence, must also be taken into account, and in
+connection with the foregoing were responsible for the massive and
+fortress-like construction of the principal dwellings of this period.</p>
+
+<p>In the best examples of these, though columns and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a>{78}</span> pilasters were not
+employed in the façade, the stories are proportioned as if the orders
+were used. The crowning cornice, however, is proportioned to the whole,
+varying in height between one fourteenth to one fifteenth.</p>
+
+<p>From Florence the movement spread to Rome and other cities, but Venetian
+Renaissance indicates undoubted evidence of Lombardic influence.</p>
+
+<p>Until the end of the fifteenth century the period was one of experiment,
+but from 1500 to about 1560 the style may be said to have attained a
+phase distinct and local.</p>
+
+<p>At first the various features, structural and decorative, were frank
+reproductions from the antique, which were studied and measured, and
+from which systems of proportion were deduced by various exponents,
+among whom the names of Vignola, Palladio and Serlio are conspicuous.</p>
+
+<h3>Rome</h3>
+
+<p>The Roman version of the Renaissance, as distinct from that of Florence,
+was less massive, Rome being comparatively free from insurrectionary
+troubles. Columns and pilasters were used to divide the façade into
+bays, or in the inner courts, which were frequently arcaded, and the
+principal entrance became a prominent feature.</p>
+
+<p>The founder of the Roman school was Bramante, born in 1444 <small>A.D.</small>,
+originally a painter, who was responsible for the original design of St.
+Peter’s, at the instigation of Pope Julius II.</p>
+
+<p>The partly executed work was found to be too weak<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a>{79}</span> to bear the
+superstructure, and Bramante in the meanwhile dying, Raffaelle, Giocondo
+and Giuliano di San Gallo, and afterwards Baldazzare Peruzzi and Antonio
+San Gallo were engaged on the edifice.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_78" id="ill_78"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_105_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_105_sml.jpg" width="361" height="326" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 78. St. Peter’s, Rome.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Finally Michael Angelo was entrusted with the sole conduct, and St.
+Peter’s in its present form must be credited to him, with the exception
+of the nave, which was added by Carlo Maderno.</p>
+
+<p>Of the secular buildings, the Farnese Palace, the work of San Gallo, is
+typical of the Roman adaptation of the antique architecture to the
+altered conditions.</p>
+
+<p>To the above list of architects of the Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a>{80}</span> Renaissance may be added
+the names of Sansovino, Vignola and Bernini, the last-named being the
+author of designs for the Louvre at Paris.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_79" id="ill_79"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_106_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_106_sml.jpg" width="361" height="179" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 79. Farnese Palace, Rome.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Venice</h3>
+
+<p>The Venetian States, since the twelfth century, had been growing in
+power, and the Republic’s rise in importance was favourable to the arts,
+particularly to architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Local influence is evident in the comparatively restricted ground areas,
+entailing the maximum accommodation possible.</p>
+
+<p>The Venetian school is distinguished by the profuse use of columns and
+arcading; also for the employment of circular-headed windows, frequently
+subdivided by tracery of smaller arched and circular forms, and by
+general lightness of effect.</p>
+
+<p>The founder of the Venetian school was San Micheli, born in 1484 <small>A.D.</small>,
+who spent many years studying the ancient Roman monuments, and who was
+responsible for the Grimani Palace.</p>
+
+<p>Jacopo Tatti, a Florentine, more usually known as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a>{81}</span> Sansovino, though
+mentioned in the Roman group of architects, was however more associated
+with Venice, his adopted city.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_80" id="ill_80"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;">
+<a href="images/ill_107_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_107_sml.jpg" width="271" height="239" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 80. Vendramini Palace, Venice.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Prominent among his works is the Library of St. Mark, which consists of
+two orders, an upper of the Ionic, supported by an arcade in which the
+Doric is employed, the whole surmounted by a balustrade with statues on
+the piers.</p>
+
+<h3>Venetian Influence</h3>
+
+<p>In the Venetian school must be included the name of Andrea Palladio, who
+possibly had a greater influence on the architecture of the time than
+any of his contemporaries; an influence that may be traced in the work
+of Inigo Jones, and in that of Sir Christopher Wren and his immediate
+school.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a>{82}</span>Vincenzo Scamozzi, who died in 1616 <small>A.D.</small>, like Palladio and others, was
+influenced by the antique, and was perhaps the last architect of the
+Venetian school to attain celebrity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_81" id="ill_81"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<a href="images/ill_108_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_108_sml.jpg" width="274" height="324" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 81. Library of St. Mark by Sansovino, Venice.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Painted Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>A conspicuous feature of the Italian Renaissance was the development of
+painted decoration, which had in Italy succeeded the Byzantine mosaic.</p>
+
+<p>As in this method of decoration, mouldings in relief were ineffective,
+and were replaced by decorative bands or borders, so in the succeeding
+painted work similar framings were adopted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a>{83}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_82" id="ill_82"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/ill_109_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_109_sml.jpg" width="176" height="520" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 82. Painted Decoration. Palazzo Publico, Sienna, from
+a drawing by C. E. Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_83" id="ill_83"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 354px;">
+<a href="images/ill_110_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_110_sml.jpg" width="354" height="242" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 83. Painted Ceiling in the Castello San Angelo, Rome,
+by Giulio Romano, from a drawing by Miss Dora Bard, Goldsmiths’ College
+School of Art.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_84" id="ill_84"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;">
+<a href="images/ill_111a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_111a_sml.jpg" width="352" height="252" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the Villa
+Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence, from a drawing by C. E.
+Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.</p><p>No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the Villa
+Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence, from a drawing by C. E.
+Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_85" id="ill_85"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 348px;">
+<a href="images/ill_111b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_111b_sml.jpg" width="348" height="188" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 85. Ceiling-Painting from the Castello San Angelo,
+Rome, reminiscent of Graeco-Roman work, from a drawing by C. E. Bernard,
+Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mosaics were in vogue in Italy to the twelfth century, when painted
+decoration came into favour, and notable in the exploitation of this
+latter phase was the school of Giotto in the early part of the
+fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Vaultings and spandrils were covered with painted subjects, strongly
+framed by ornamental borders, which served to strengthen the sense of
+construction in reinforcing the dividing ribs.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of the Renaissance, these divisional bands became more
+architectural in treatment, and large areas, such as ceilings, were
+subdivided, the sub-divisions being based on a logical sense of
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>The name of Pinturrichio is associated with the Renaissance, among his
+works being the decorations of the Appartamenti Borgia in the Vatican,
+the Choir in Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, and in Santa Maria Maggiore
+at Spello; contemporaneous was Perugino; another celebrated name is that
+of Gian Antonio Bazzi of Sienna, generally known as Sodoma.</p>
+
+<h3>Græco-Roman Influence</h3>
+
+<p>Later exploiters of painted decoration, Raffaelle at the Vatican, Giulio
+Romano, Pierino del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine, were evidently
+influenced by the then recent discovery of late Græco-Roman decorations
+in the remains of the Baths of Titus.</p>
+
+<p>The same influence is found also in minor details&mdash;in the decoration of
+rooms and in the various pieces of furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Walls were panelled, sometimes enriched with carving, with inlaid
+patterns in intarsia, or with inlay of different woods in imitation of
+marble mosaic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a>{84}</span> Hangings of Genoese velvet or stamped and gilded leather
+were often used.</p>
+
+<p>Chairs were at first simple in form, having straight backs and legs,
+with broad, elaborately carved rails at the head of the back and between
+the front legs.</p>
+
+<p>Chests or cassone, called also marriage coffers, because it was
+customary to give them as wedding presents, generally took the form of
+the sarcophagus, supported on claw feet. In many instances they were
+decorated with gilt gesso, or were covered with exuberant carving.</p>
+
+<p>With the development of inlay, which degenerated into picture making,
+some later examples show attempts at perspectives, in which arches,
+doors, balustrades and paved floors were depicted. Cabinets were
+invariably raised on open supports and furnished with doors enclosing
+compartments and sets of drawers, the fronts of which were frequently
+decorated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_86" id="ill_86"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 215px;">
+<a href="images/ill_114_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_114_sml.jpg" width="215" height="145" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 86. Venetian Table.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tables were inlaid, carved and gilded. The prevailing form was a
+rectangular top, sometimes of marble, with wide, richly carved supports
+consisting of human and animal forms at either end; these were connected
+by a central stretcher at the base, from which sprang a series of arched
+forms reaching to the underside of the top.</p>
+
+<p>Walnut was commonly employed for constructive purposes, and ebony and
+many other woods were used<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a>{85}</span> both for veneers and inlay, as also were
+such materials as ivory, tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl.</p>
+
+<p>It is not easy to form an idea of the furniture in ordinary use, as the
+examples which survive and which can generally be seen in museums are
+misleading, being typical rather of that belonging to the nobility and
+wealthy classes.</p>
+
+<p>Probably owing to the rougher usage to which it was subjected, and
+possibly also to its being but little esteemed by its owners, and
+consequently no effort being made to preserve it, the domestic furniture
+of the middle classes seems to have disappeared.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_87" id="ill_87"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;">
+<a href="images/ill_115_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_115_sml.jpg" width="163" height="357" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 87. Carved Walnut Chair. Italian, 16th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Early French Renaissance</h3>
+
+<p>France had been brought into contact with the new architecture through
+the Italian wars under Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I.</p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristic of the early French Renaissance is that the
+details of the new school were imposed on structures which were Gothic
+in general form.</p>
+
+<p>Italian architects were employed by Francis I, and although in the many
+important buildings erected for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a>{86}</span> him he preferred native workmen,
+Italians were retained to furnish designs and lead the new style.
+Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea del Sarto were both employed in the
+decoration of Fontainebleau.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_88" id="ill_88"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/ill_116_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_116_sml.jpg" width="283" height="368" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 88. Wood Panelling. Early French Renaissance.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fontainebleau, Chateau de Chambord, Chenonceaux sur Loire, Chateau de
+Madrid and the commencement of the Louvre were all due to Francis I, and
+the Italian influence was strengthened by the marriage of Henry II with
+Catharine di Medici.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a>{87}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_89" id="ill_89"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 354px;">
+<a href="images/ill_117_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_117_sml.jpg" width="354" height="329" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 89. Stone Chimney-piece, Fontainbleau, Henry II
+Salon.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Native Exploitation</h3>
+
+<p>Under the influence of Vignola and Serlio, the Italian style became more
+popular, and finally extinguished the lingering Gothic tradition; and
+eventually the assimilated style became local, the first prominent
+native exploiter being Philibert Delorme, the architect of the
+Tuileries, for Queen Catharine of Medicis.</p>
+
+<p>Strapwork was a pronounced feature of this period, carved panels being
+subdivided by framings of straight and curved forms interlaced with
+cornucopæ and scroll work. Scrolling straps with I shaped incisions were
+also used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a>{88}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_90" id="ill_90"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;">
+<a href="images/ill_118a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_118a_sml.jpg" width="120" height="225" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 90. Wood Panel. Early French Renaissance.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Masks are of frequent occurrence, and sometimes form scroll centres.</p>
+
+<p>Medallions were often employed, and were occupied by profile heads, and
+surrounded by foliated wreaths.</p>
+
+<p>Pilasters were narrow, and had sunk and moulded panels, lozenge shaped
+in the centre.</p>
+
+<p>In England great impetus was given to building, consequent on the
+suppression of the religious houses during the reign of Henry VIII, and
+mansions were erected in various parts of the country with some
+pretension to both external effect and domestic comfort, not merely by
+the nobility, but also by the wealthy merchant class.</p>
+
+<h3>English Renaissance</h3>
+
+<p>From the rise of the Italian Renaissance a century elapsed before the
+new style began to affect English work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_91" id="ill_91"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;">
+<a href="images/ill_118b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_118b_sml.jpg" width="169" height="246" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 91. French Chair. Period Henry II.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Italy classic tradition had never died, and consequently Gothic
+gained no real hold there, the best examples of Italian Gothic being
+inferior to those of France and England. In the early days<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a>{89}</span> of the
+Revival of Learning, when interest in architecture was at its height,
+Italians set out to emulate the style of building and decoration which
+prevailed in ancient Rome. Gradually the same spirit spread to other
+parts of Europe. Students were attracted to the birth-place of the
+Revival, and workers and designers from Italy were eagerly welcomed by
+her neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally enough each country interpreted the new style in a different
+way, and as it reached England chiefly through France and the
+Netherlands, the French and Flemish interpretations in turn influenced
+the development of the English style.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_92" id="ill_92"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;">
+<a href="images/ill_119_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_119_sml.jpg" width="178" height="279" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 92. Walnut Chair upholstered in Appliqué. Italian,
+about 1600.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Italians in England</h3>
+
+<p>Before either French or Flemish influence had been felt, however, there
+were Italian workers settled in England carrying out designs purely
+Italian in character. The earliest example is the tomb of Henry VII in
+Westminster Abbey, by Torrigiano. Many tombs and monuments were made
+entirely by Italians. Holbein, who was employed by Henry VIII, was
+distinctly a Renaissance painter and designer and encouraged the new
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>As the style became more widely disseminated it lost<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a>{90}</span> much of its
+original purity, and classical details were used in conjunction with
+Gothic forms and methods of construction, due, doubtless, to the
+apparent difficulty with which the native workers grasped the essentials
+of the new style; indeed, there is more intermixing of styles in England
+than in any other part of Europe with the exception of Flanders.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_93" id="ill_93"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a href="images/ill_120_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_120_sml.jpg" width="278" height="374" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 93. Stone Chimney-piece. Sala Borgia, Rome. 16th
+Century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The purely Italian phase was followed by a rendering which was largely
+borrowed from French work,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a>{91}</span> and this in turn was supplanted by the
+influence of the Flemish interpretation. The delicately modelled
+foliage, dolphins, candelabra, vases and cherubs, so characteristic of
+Italian and French work, were replaced by such typically Flemish details
+as interlacing strapwork with curved and scrolled ends, frequently
+cartouche-like in form, festoons of fruit and foliage, and terminal
+figures used as pilasters.</p>
+
+<h3>Study of Classic Style</h3>
+
+<p>In the late Jacobean and succeeding phases the classic manner was more
+thoroughly understood, and a more scholarly handling was the result,
+until the culmination was reached in the work of Inigo Jones and Wren.</p>
+
+<p>The Elizabethan phase indicates an imperfectly understood, and in many
+instances meaningless, employment and adaptation of Italian forms to the
+requirements of the times.</p>
+
+<p>A notable example if this is the central feature of the Public Schools
+at Oxford, the work of Thomas Holt, a native of York, in which the
+orders appear ranged one above the other.</p>
+
+<h3>Thomas Thorpe</h3>
+
+<p>The most prominent name associated with the architecture of the period
+is Thomas Thorpe, who was concerned in many of the principal edifices
+erected during the reign of Elizabeth and of her successor, James I.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of woodwork consisted of architectural façades,
+and the orders and pediments were utilised wherever possible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a>{92}</span></p>
+
+<p>Doorways and chimney-pieces offered the principal opportunities for
+display in interior work.</p>
+
+<p>Panelling was retained for the large halls and most of the rooms. The
+walls were frequently divided into bays by means of pilasters and
+surmounted by friezes and cornices more or less determined by
+traditional forms.</p>
+
+<h3>Flemish Influence</h3>
+
+<p>The style degenerated in the same reign into a coarser rendering, and
+was followed by a period of strong Flemish influence. There is, in fact,
+such a marked similarity between the later Elizabethan and Flemish
+furniture and wood-work that it is not easy to distinguish the
+nationality of examples of this period. In cases where figure sculpture
+is employed, however, it is not difficult to decide, as a considerably
+higher standard was attained by the Flemish school of figure carvers
+than is found in English work.</p>
+
+<p>Tapered pilaster-like supports, surmounted by half figures or Ionic
+caps, were often employed in the framing of doors and chimney-pieces,
+and sometimes on furniture. Table supports and newels of stairs
+increased in size. The heavy acorn-shaped baluster is a feature. Inlay
+came into use for panelling as well as for furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Synchronously with the changes in detail, there was a more classical
+tendency displayed in moulded features such as strings and cornices.</p>
+
+<p>In the early seventeenth century the scale of the details of Flemish
+work increased. Diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on square ones;
+turned<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a>{93}</span> work was split and the two halves applied; drop ornaments were
+used below tables and from the centres of panels under arches&mdash;all these
+being additions to the general structure.</p>
+
+<h3>Jacobean</h3>
+
+<p>English work developed in much the same way as Flemish, probably owing
+to the commerce in wood-work between England and Flanders at this time.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier work, where the orders were employed, there was some
+regard to proportion and detail, probably direct translation of Italian
+designs, but in the later Jacobean work there was considerable
+falling-off, presumably due to native exploitation and experiment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_94" id="ill_94"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_123_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_123_sml.jpg" width="280" height="204" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 94. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Architectural feeling was prominent in the treatment of interiors, which
+were invariably panelled as in the earlier period. The characteristic
+“linen fold”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a>{94}</span> variety of the late Tudor giving place to plain panelling,
+framed by stiles and rails closely spaced.</p>
+
+<p>Walls were occasionally divided into bays by means of pilasters, often
+supported on pedestals.</p>
+
+<p>The panels in the later development were invariably plain, but a
+decorated frieze, carved in relief, was carried round immediately under
+the cornice. Coats of arms at intervals sometimes supplied the
+decoration. The carved frieze gave place to a simple form of patterning,
+which was produced by sinking the ground to practically one level and
+leaving the ornament which had little or no modelling, flush with the
+face of the panel. This led to fretting out the pattern and applying it
+to the surface. The idea of planting ornament evidently spread, and may
+be seen in such obviously applied details as studs and half-balusters.</p>
+
+<p>A typical room of the period would be treated with plain panelling,
+perhaps divided into bays by pilasters, and all elaboration was confined
+to the doorways and chimney-piece.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_95" id="ill_95"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 127px;">
+<a href="images/ill_124_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_124_sml.jpg" width="127" height="356" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 95. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chimney-piece might be in wood, stone or marble, and while there
+were many varieties of treatment, the designs readily fall under one
+general type. Columns or pilasters flanked the opening,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a>{95}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_96" id="ill_96"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_125_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_125_sml.jpg" width="361" height="406" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 96. Jacobean Chimney-piece. Palace of
+Bromley-by-Bow.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">carrying an entablature consisting of architrave frieze and cornice, the
+latter forming a shelf. Above this there was a similar arrangement, but
+on a smaller scale and with finer proportions. The space between the
+columns above the shelf was usually filled with carving, which sometimes
+took the form of armorial bearings. In many<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a>{96}</span> examples the upper part is
+divided into two panels, which were generally filled with carved
+ornament such as strapwork or shields charged with heraldic devices.</p>
+
+<p>Where the chimney-piece was of wood, the fireplace opening was
+surrounded by a stone lining, which had moulded splays on the upright
+jambs. In earlier examples the jambs were connected by a flattened arch
+with carved spandrils. In later work a horizontal panel was employed or
+a frieze of carved detail.</p>
+
+<p>The opening itself was wide, and was lined with brick or stone. The
+interior was occupied by a fire-back of cast-iron and a movable grate or
+basket supported on dogs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_97" id="ill_97"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_126_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_126_sml.jpg" width="194" height="392" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 97. Jacobean Door, shewing absense of architrave.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Doors were at first merely a part of the panelling without hanging
+frames, but later they were treated as important features of the rooms.
+They were often framed with columns and pilasters, surmounted by
+entablatures, with or without pediments. Obelisks were sometimes placed
+over the pilasters. The frieze<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a>{97}</span> was fluted or carved. In many cases the
+tympanum of the pediment or even one of the door panels bore the owner’s
+coat of arms.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier phases the mouldings framing the panels were simple in
+form, and worked on the stiles and rails. But later they were applied,
+being wider in display and more elaborate in section. These applied
+mouldings, evidently the result of mechanical appliances, later led to
+extreme license in broken angles and panellings of complicated form.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_98" id="ill_98"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/ill_127_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_127_sml.jpg" width="370" height="313" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 98. Jacobean Doors.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ceilings, and occasionally the frieze, were in plaster, decorated with
+intersecting ribs, or bands dividing the surface into compartments
+geometric in shape, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a>{98}</span> further enriched with stamped or modelled
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p>Windows were relatively small as to individual openings, large lighting
+areas being obtained by grouping a number of these side by side, and
+also in tiers, the dividing bars or mullions being either in wood or
+stone.</p>
+
+<p>Glazing took the form of small pieces of glass united by lead frames,
+commonly arranged in trellis form, resulting in diamond-shaped pieces.
+Occasionally painted or coloured glass was used, generally in heraldic
+devices in the upper portions of the windows.</p>
+
+<p>The windows themselves were frequently deeply embayed.</p>
+
+<h3>Development in Dwellings</h3>
+
+<p>The growing appreciation of domestic comfort, evident in the general
+arrangement of the buildings of this period, is also apparent in the
+furniture, which from this time approximates somewhat to the modern
+forms, though still crude, and leaving much to be desired in the way of
+personal comfort.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_99" id="ill_99"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 199px;">
+<a href="images/ill_128_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_128_sml.jpg" width="199" height="171" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 99. Oak Table, English. 17th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tables, which had hitherto been mere portable boards laid on trestles,
+or, if fixed, were on heavy legs with rails below, developed into more
+useful forms. These were the draw-inge table which could be extended by
+drawing out two flaps worked on runners from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a>{99}</span> beneath the normal top,
+and the gate-leg table, which in principle resembled the modern folding
+type. Large tables were formed by putting a number of gate-leg tables
+together, and when not so in use they could be placed in different parts
+of the room.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_100" id="ill_100"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
+<a href="images/ill_129_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_129_sml.jpg" width="381" height="276" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 100. English Chairs, early 17th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Legs and the under rails of chairs and tables were turned in the lathe,
+and the carved details were invariably simple and direct in execution,
+similar in character to much of the work in the early French
+Renaissance, in contrast to the Italian carving, which was in high
+relief and plastic in character.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of examples in our national collection of this period are
+of Court furniture, and cannot be taken as typical of what was in common
+use. The over-ornamented Italian work compares unfavourably with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a>{100}</span> the
+English Jacobean furniture, in which utility is obvious and the
+decoration subordinate and to the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Oak was chiefly employed in England, but in Italy, and later in France,
+walnut was much used.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_101" id="ill_101"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 195px;">
+<a href="images/ill_130a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_130a_sml.jpg" width="195" height="343" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 101. English Chair, middle of 17th century,
+influenced by Italian design.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Panelling was prevalent for interiors in the Italian and French
+Renaissance. In Italy, where the art of weaving had been preserved at
+Lucca, and other places, tapestry was also frequently employed as wall
+hangings, also as coverings for upholstered work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_102" id="ill_102"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;">
+<a href="images/ill_130b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_130b_sml.jpg" width="174" height="279" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 102. Oak Chair, English, 17th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Compared with the earlier period, this was a time of luxury and display,
+favourable to the arts generally.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a>{101}</span></p>
+
+<p>Painting, freed from the restrictions of the church, broke away from the
+Byzantine traditions, and revelling in realism, lost to some extent its
+decorative character.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_103" id="ill_103"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_131_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_131_sml.jpg" width="276" height="323" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 103.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Evolution of Professional Designer</h3>
+
+<p>Under patronage, the individual artist and craftsman was allowed to
+develop on his own lines, and no longer worked under the dominance of
+the architect. Demand, owing to growing appreciation of artistic
+production, eventuated in the evolution of the professional designer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a>{102}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Inigo Jones</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_104" id="ill_104"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;">
+<a href="images/ill_132_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_132_sml.jpg" width="290" height="281" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 104.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the Renaissance had come to stay, the manner of its
+interpretation in England by the native workers was very far removed
+from the Italian school which had supplied the first impulse, until the
+advent of Inigo Jones in the reign of James I. This artist, who had
+visited Italy and studied principally the architecture of Palladio and
+his school, was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works. Under his influence
+proportions and details were used, which conformed more nearly to
+classic types.</p>
+
+<p>Born about 1572 <small>A.D.</small>, he studied in Italy, where he became acquainted
+with the work of Palladio, and was a follower of the Venetian school.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a>{103}</span></p>
+
+<p>Dying in 1652, he left a tradition which would have had a more immediate
+effect but for the internecine troubles of the later period of his life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_105" id="ill_105"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<a href="images/ill_133_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_133_sml.jpg" width="284" height="175" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 105. Banqueting House, Whitehall. Inigo Jones.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A typical example of his work in London is the Banqueting House in
+Whitehall, the only part built of the projected palace for James I, now
+used as a museum by the United Service Institution. Also the Church of
+St. Paul, Covent Garden.</p>
+
+<h3>Louis XIII</h3>
+
+<p>By the time of Louis XIII the principles of the Renaissance had become
+thoroughly assimilated in France, and a native school of architecture
+had arisen of marked distinction. France from then onward took the
+initiative, though strongly influenced by the Venetian school.</p>
+
+<p>The orders were used consistently as to proportion and detail, but in
+the decoration considerable development in character is manifest.</p>
+
+<p>The general construction and details developed on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a>{104}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_106" id="ill_106"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_134_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_134_sml.jpg" width="362" height="473" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 106. Louis XIII. Luxembourg Pavilion Entrance, by
+Salamon de Brose, 1615-24.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">more architectural lines, and shew a better appreciation of the Italian
+originals. Pilasters were used to divide the wall surfaces, these and
+the entablatures<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a>{105}</span> closely following in detail the classic types. Panels
+were much wider than in the preceding style, generally occupying the
+whole space between the pilasters. The usual arrangement for these
+panels was to have them in two tiers&mdash;the shallow ones confined to the
+lower portions of walls and those of deeper proportions above.
+Fireplaces and doors were surrounded by boldly moulded architraves, and
+surmounted by panels occupied by carved details of scroll-work and
+foliage.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_107" id="ill_107"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_135a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_135a_sml.jpg" width="192" height="208" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 107. Ste. Marie, Nevers. Louis XIII. Example of
+Barocco (Flemish influence).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_108" id="ill_108"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;">
+<a href="images/ill_135b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_135b_sml.jpg" width="161" height="219" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 108. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIII.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ceilings were modelled in stucco and sub-divided into compartments,
+which were richly moulded, and in some cases decorated with paintings.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Louis XIII, chairs were made more comfortable by
+being upholstered in velvet, tapestry or needlework, instead of being
+smothered with carving. The frames were covered by velvet or other
+material, leaving only<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a>{106}</span> the legs and arms visible, and these were but
+slightly carved.</p>
+
+<h3>Louis XIV</h3>
+
+<p>In France the Renaissance reached its highest degree of splendour in the
+reign of Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_109" id="ill_109"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_136_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_136_sml.jpg" width="279" height="173" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 109. Louis XIV. Louvre, Paris, by Perrault.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The palace of Versailles, designed by Jules Hardouin Mansart, was
+completed, and French designers were many and famous. Amongst the most
+prominent were Lebrun, who was responsible for much of the interior work
+at Versailles, Jean and Claude Berain, Lepautre, Daniel Marot and André
+Charles Boule, the inventor of the particular class of inlay which bears
+his name.</p>
+
+<p>The style of Louis XIV is characteristic of its time. Love of display
+was manifested in every direction, but nowhere did it give rise to
+greater magnificence than in furniture and decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of architectural features, with a close approximation to
+accepted proportions, had been the keynote of the preceding style, but
+the work of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a>{107}</span> period broke away from all tradition. As a departure
+it was quite original, and constituted a phase in the development of the
+Renaissance that was purely and typically French, and this particularly
+in its massiveness and grandeur.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_110" id="ill_110"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<a href="images/ill_137_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_137_sml.jpg" width="357" height="402" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 110. The King’s Bedchamber, Versailles. Louis XIV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Panelling became more varied in proportion, and heavily framed with
+mouldings of the Bolection type.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a>{108}</span> Glass was also used in panels as at
+Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, where the windows on one side of the
+gallery are repeated in form by mirrors in reciprocal positions.</p>
+
+<p>Important rooms were panelled and divided by pilasters, surmounted by
+entablatures. The Corinthian order was the one most frequently used.</p>
+
+<p>Panel mouldings were heavily and richly carved. Curved sections and
+facias were fluted, or carved with guilloche or leaf detail. Figures and
+<i>amorini</i>, heavy festoons, wreaths, cartouches and shields were among
+the decorative motifs. Strapwork, a survival of the preceding styles,
+was moulded and clothed with foliage of the acanthus variety.</p>
+
+<p>Ceilings were modelled in stucco and were divided into bold geometrical
+compartments by strongly moulded ribs. The compartments were sometimes
+occupied by paintings. In some cases the cornice was not taken up to the
+height of the ceiling, but the ceiling line was continued in form of a
+curve to meet the top of the cornice, forming what is known as a cove.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_111" id="ill_111"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 163px;">
+<a href="images/ill_138_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_138_sml.jpg" width="163" height="249" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 111. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Chairs were massive, the frames were carved and gilt, and the seats and
+backs upholstered in tapestry. In the latter part of the reign of Louis
+XIV metal was used in the construction of furniture in the form of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>{109}</span>
+mounts&mdash;as framing and protecting pieces to angles, and was gilt by the
+mercury process. The introduction of veneer probably led to this use of
+metal.</p>
+
+<h3>"Boule” Work</h3>
+
+<p>A method of decorating furniture with inlays of brass or tin and
+tortoiseshell originated by André Charles Boule, came into vogue. The
+sheets of metal and shell were placed together and cut simultaneously,
+with the result that the patterns produced were interchangeable&mdash;thus
+the metal pattern could be fitted with a tortoiseshell background and
+vice versa. There was a tendency for this style of work to become more
+ornate and showy, and later, instead of the transparent shell being used
+in its natural colour, either vermilion or gold leaf was placed
+underneath.</p>
+
+<h3>Mirrors</h3>
+
+<p>Mirrors, in the sixteenth century, had been imported from Italy, and
+those of considerable size were first made in Venice.</p>
+
+<p>Later glass manufactories were established in England&mdash;near
+Battersea&mdash;and in France, where larger mirrors and plates of glass were
+produced than hitherto.</p>
+
+<p>Rooms lined with mirrors became popular, in some cases even the ceiling
+being made of glass.</p>
+
+<p>Console tables, which were frequently gilt, were often placed under the
+large wall mirrors.</p>
+
+<p>Hanging bands of material were employed to drape the heads of windows
+and the tops of bedsteads. Beds were important pieces of furniture, and
+had elaborately<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a>{110}</span> carved head and foot boards. The overhanging Tester was
+also ornamented, and besides the valances already mentioned, was
+surmounted by groups of plumes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_112" id="ill_112"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_140_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_140_sml.jpg" width="362" height="373" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 112. Pantheon, Paris. Soufflet. Louis XV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Louis XV</h3>
+
+<p>Little advance was made in architecture during the reign of Louis XV, to
+which period belongs the Pantheon at Paris, originally the Church of St.
+Geneviéve, the work of Soufflet, born in 1713.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a>{111}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Régence</h3>
+
+<p>The style passed through two stages. The earlier, known as the
+Régence&mdash;the principal exponents of which were Charles Cressent, Gilles
+Marie Oppenord, and Nicholas Pineau&mdash;is distinguished by a certain
+reserve and moderation which were entirely abandoned in the later Rococo
+period.</p>
+
+<h3>Rococo</h3>
+
+<p>The term “Rococo” is derived from a French word meaning rockwork, and is
+applied to the style in which rock and shell forms are used as details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_113" id="ill_113"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;">
+<a href="images/ill_141_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_141_sml.jpg" width="199" height="241" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 113. Detail of Wood-carving, Regency Period.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ornament became extravagant and meaningless, and was wrongly used to
+serve the purpose of construction, the actual constructive elements
+being at times completely ignored. It cannot be denied, however, that
+powerful draughtsmanship and inventiveness were displayed, but without
+the consideration of practical execution, which is essential to all good
+design.</p>
+
+<p>Evidently the artist or designer dominated the craftsman, who, however,
+grappled with difficulties in an admirable manner, often achieving
+results which would appear from the constructional point of view almost
+impossible of attainment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a>{112}</span></p>
+
+<p>The work of the latter part of the period expresses the enervated and
+frivolous spirit of the time.</p>
+
+<p>Walls were panelled and often divided by pilasters, which, however, lost
+all structural significance.</p>
+
+<p>Cornices and friezes were dispensed with, the frieze being replaced by a
+cove curving into the ceiling.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings were broken at angles and intersections into curves, scrolls
+and foliage.</p>
+
+<p>Carved details of the curiously twisted leafage peculiar to the style
+were employed wherever possible.</p>
+
+<p>Painted panels were fashionable, and were used particularly over
+doorheads. They were surrounded or framed by curved and enriched
+mouldings.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_114" id="ill_114"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 168px;">
+<a href="images/ill_142_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_142_sml.jpg" width="168" height="354" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 114. Carved Wood Door. Louis XV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Interiors of this later period were invariably painted white, and partly
+gilt, the wall panels decorated with tapestry or paintings with which
+are associated the names of Bouchier, Watteau, and Fragonard.</p>
+
+<p>Ceilings were also painted, wall mirrors were employed and furniture (at
+this period at times extremely costly) was veneered and decorated with
+metal mounts in gilt ormolu.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a>{113}</span></p>
+
+<p>Chair and table legs were of the cabriole type.</p>
+
+<p>Bureaux fronts were swelled into curves both horizontally and
+vertically.</p>
+
+<p>Veneer and marqueterie were much used.</p>
+
+<p>Chased and gilt brass was employed to protect angles, as feet, handles,
+escutcheons and other ornamental details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_115" id="ill_115"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;">
+<a href="images/ill_143a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_143a_sml.jpg" width="195" height="286" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 115.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_116" id="ill_116"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 162px;">
+<a href="images/ill_143b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_143b_sml.jpg" width="162" height="375" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 116. Chair with cane back English, later half 17th
+century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Lacquer “Vernis Martin"</h3>
+
+<p>Furniture was also decorated in imitation of Chinese lacquer. The
+principal worker in it was Robert Martin, who introduced a varnish of
+fine transparent quality.</p>
+
+<h3>Later English Renaissances</h3>
+
+<p>Artistic progress was hindered in England by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a>{114}</span> disturbed conditions
+at the time of the Civil War, and in consequence little change in style
+took place in this and the Commonwealth period.</p>
+
+<p>With the Restoration came the influence of the French Court, and foreign
+furniture was imported, thus giving fresh models for the English
+workers.</p>
+
+<p>One result of the Great Fire in 1666 was that a great impetus was given
+to architecture and to the crafts associated with it, and the influence
+of Wren and Grinling Gibbons produced a school of most efficient carvers
+and craftsmen.</p>
+
+<h3>Sir Christopher Wren</h3>
+
+<p>Wren was a worthy successor to Inigo Jones, and the general destruction
+wrought by the fire in the city gave him a fine field for his activity.
+He was employed not only to rebuild the churches, eighty-nine of which
+had been burnt, but also many of the city halls; and was commissioned by
+William and Mary to build the state-rooms at Hampton Court Palace.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_117" id="ill_117"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;">
+<a href="images/ill_144_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_144_sml.jpg" width="171" height="315" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 117. English Chair, period of Charles II.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The style of Wren, which, like that of Inigo Jones, was based rather
+upon the Venetian school, was perpetuated and found individual exponents
+in the works<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>{115}</span> of his pupils and immediate successors. Among whom may be
+mentioned James Gibbs (1720 to 1754), architect of St. Martin’s in the
+Fields (1726) and St. Mary le Strand, and Nicholas Hawksmoor, who was
+responsible for the churches of St. George’s, Bloomsbury, and St. Mary,
+Woolnoth, the latter commenced in 1716 was finished in 1718.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_118" id="ill_118"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/ill_145_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_145_sml.jpg" width="364" height="423" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 118. St. Paul’s Cathedral. Wren.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a>{116}</span></p>
+
+<p>Notable among Wren’s churches is that of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, in the
+City of London; of his secular work an example may be cited in the
+library of Trinity College, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<h3>Classic Spires</h3>
+
+<p>A characteristic of the period in the churches of Wren and his school is
+the spire, which, though tapering like the Gothic variety, is invested
+with features quite Renaissance in form, arranged in successive tiers.</p>
+
+<p>The architecture of the period is in excellent proportion, and all the
+details of mouldings, capitals, etc., were executed in a masterly
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>Panelling was still employed, mostly in oak, and was now carried up to
+the ceiling. The panels were very wide, frequently bevelled at the
+edges&mdash;the stiles and rails forming the framings being much wider than
+hitherto. The framing mouldings were sometimes carved.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_119" id="ill_119"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 126px;">
+<a href="images/ill_146_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_146_sml.jpg" width="126" height="369" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 119. Spire of St. Mary le Strand.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Doorways and chimneypieces were surrounded by well-designed architraves,
+with carved mouldings, and were surmounted by pediments, above which it
+was not unusual to have carved festoons and pendants of fruit and
+foliage.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>{117}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_120" id="ill_120"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;">
+<a href="images/ill_147_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_147_sml.jpg" width="352" height="556" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 120. English Interior Wood-work. Late 17th and early
+18th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>{118}</span></p>
+
+<p>Pilasters were decorated with cherubs’ heads used as caps, and pendant
+drops of the usual type.</p>
+
+<p>Carving was profusely used, the details consisted mainly of interlacing
+scrollwork of acanthus-like foliage, heavy fruit and flower festoons and
+drops, trophies and cherubs’ heads. The relief was high, the work
+occasionally being detached, and the manner of execution was sharp and
+crisp, implying no hesitation on the part of the carver.</p>
+
+<p>The high relief necessitated building up thicknesses of wood, and formed
+a great contrast to the earlier work in which the ground was slightly
+set back, leaving the original panel face as the highest part of the
+pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The woods commonly used were oak for wainscotting and cedar for doors.
+Where it was intended that the woodwork should be painted or gilt it was
+made in deal. Some of the carving was in oak, but the favorite material
+was limewood, and pear; cedar or lime was used when small fine detail
+was required. Elm was employed for various articles such as dressers:
+ash, beech, birch, poplar, sycamore, English and Italian walnut were
+also used.</p>
+
+<h3>Dutch and French Influences</h3>
+
+<p>With William III and his Dutch court the influence of the Netherlands
+became once more apparent. It was coloured by the French style of the
+Louis XIV period, probably through an immigration of French workmen
+after the Edict of Nantes in 1685. This influence can be traced in some
+of the furniture at Hampton Court, particularly in the carved and gilt
+tables of French design and English workmanship.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a>{119}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_121" id="ill_121"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;">
+<a href="images/ill_149_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_149_sml.jpg" width="392" height="546" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 121. A. Walnut Chair, period of Queen Anne. B. Dutch
+Chair, 17th century. C. Inlaid Chair, period of Queen Anne. D. Carved
+Chair, period of Queen Anne.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a>{120}</span></p>
+
+<p>The chairs and settees of the period have shaped backs, generally with
+delicately carved central vertical panels of vase-like form; and
+cabriole legs with a carved shell ornament on the knee.</p>
+
+<p>Bureaux and corner cupboards were introduced. They were decorated with
+marqueterie or with inlay of boxwood or holly on a walnut ground.</p>
+
+<h3>Queen Anne Period</h3>
+
+<p>Flemish or Dutch influence prevailed during the period known as Queen
+Anne.</p>
+
+<p>The typical Queen Anne chair in common with all the furniture of the
+period was made of walnut. The seat was wide, the front legs cabriole
+shaped, ending, as a rule, in club or claw-and-ball feet. The back was
+high and curved at the top, and this was connected centrally with the
+seat by a long vase or fiddle-shaped splat. Carving was not much used,
+but the splat was sometimes ornamented with floral and other designs in
+marqueterie after the Dutch fashion.</p>
+
+<p>During this period an appreciation for Oriental china and lacquer work
+had an important effect on furniture and decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The later fashion of inlay and marquetry work of Sheraton was perhaps as
+much the outcome of the Dutch practice of this form of decoration, as it
+was due to the discovery of the possibilities of mahogany as a suitable
+wood for furniture.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Georgian</h3>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century in England was the age of the connoisseur and
+dilettante, and the struggling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>{121}</span> professional, literary or artistic, had
+little opportunity except by the favour of a patron. As for instance,
+Lord Burlington, who is reported to have practised architecture in
+conjunction with his <i>protégé</i> Kent.</p>
+
+<p>William Kent, born in 1685, died 1748, a painter as well as an
+architect, was responsible for many designs, among which may be
+mentioned the Horse Guards in Whitehall, and Holkham in Norfolk for the
+Earl of Leicester.</p>
+
+<p>Georgian work shows more evidence of French influence, but is invariably
+stiff and heavy in feeling.</p>
+
+<p>In panelling rooms a surbase or dado was employed. The bolection
+moulding was universally used round panels.</p>
+
+<p>Doorways and chimneypieces were made up of architraves, surmounted by
+pediments, and were formal in design and detail. The Greek key was often
+most unsatisfactorily used in their decoration.</p>
+
+<h3>Chippendale</h3>
+
+<p>Among others, Chippendale’s name is associated with the furniture of
+this period, and his book of designs, published about the middle of the
+eighteenth century, contained, besides furniture, suggestions for the
+complete decoration of rooms. Chippendale was undoubtedly influenced by
+the Louis XV style, and at one period he attempted to exploit Chinese
+forms and details.</p>
+
+<p>The chairs designed by him were based on the earlier Queen Anne type,
+but the vase-shaped back was replaced by pierced and carved interlacing
+bands and ribbons. For a time the cabriole leg was retained, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a>{122}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_122" id="ill_122"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/ill_152_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_152_sml.jpg" width="369" height="473" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">No. 122.</td><td align="left">A. Transitional Chair, 18th century.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">B. Mahogany<span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Sheraton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">C. &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="ditto">“</span>&nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Chippendale.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">D. Walnut &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Hepplewhite.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a>{123}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">later examples have straight square legs. The chairs were fitted with
+loose upholstered seats covered with morocco leather.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture was generally in mahogany, which had been introduced a little
+earlier from the West Indies, and had become popular on account of the
+colour and figure developed by polishing. Mahogany lends itself to fine
+mouldings and detail, and this was evidently appreciated, as relief
+decoration on furniture in this wood received a more restrained
+treatment, while plain surfaces were made more extensive.</p>
+
+<h3>Mayhew</h3>
+
+<p>Contemporary workers were Mainwaring and Mayhew. Mayhew was responsible
+for a form of fretwork decoration which is often ascribed to
+Chippendale.</p>
+
+<h3>Adam Style</h3>
+
+<p>Prominent among his contemporaries, more perhaps for his influence on
+interior decoration, was Robert Adam, who died at the age of ninety-four
+in 1792.</p>
+
+<p>A student of the later antique Roman work, and inspired by the remains
+of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro, he evolved a style which bears his
+name, that was personal and distinctive. A style that had many
+followers, and which largely influenced the work of Sheraton.</p>
+
+<p>Simple as to structural form, and delicate in detail, it carried on the
+tradition of the later Graeco-Roman work on which it was founded,
+avoiding absolute reproduction.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a>{124}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_123" id="ill_123"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;">
+<a href="images/ill_154_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_154_sml.jpg" width="327" height="554" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 123. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a>{125}</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a>{126}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_124" id="ill_124"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<a href="images/ill_155_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_155_sml.jpg" width="326" height="552" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 124. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Adam influence is evident also in the pottery of this period, and in
+the details of Sheffield plate.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of Robert Adam’s architectural design may be seen in London at
+the Adelphi, which was built as a speculation, in the Admiralty screen
+in Whitehall, and houses in Portland Place, W.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_125" id="ill_125"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;">
+<a href="images/ill_156_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_156_sml.jpg" width="148" height="274" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 125. Adam influence.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Hepplewhite</h3>
+
+<p>Hepplewhite also was designing and manufacturing about this time, and is
+noted principally for his japanned or painted furniture. In this process
+the wood was first coated with a preparation after the manner of Chinese
+or Japanese lacquer, and then decorated with fruit and flowers in gold
+on a background. Subsequently, furniture of this character, instead of
+being japanned, was merely painted white. Hepplewhite’s chair-backs
+differ in form from Chippendale’s, being shield or oval shaped.</p>
+
+<p>Satinwood came into use, and much of the work ascribed to Sheraton was
+made of it.</p>
+
+<p>Painted decoration of a delicate character, the details including
+ribbons, borders and medallions, was applied to table-tops, harpsichord
+cases, chair-backs and other objects. The names of Angelica Kauffmann
+and Cipriani are associated with this form of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Hepplewhite and Sheraton were apparently influenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a>{127}</span> by the work of the
+brothers Adam, which was a distinct departure from the earlier style.
+The cabriole leg was rarely used, its place being taken by gracefully
+tapered forms.</p>
+
+<h3>Sheraton</h3>
+
+<p>Although some of Sheraton’s furniture had painted detail, he more often
+used marqueterie and inlay of fine design.</p>
+
+<p>Panels were treated in marqueterie, with ovals or other simple shapes
+surrounded by narrow bands or lines of contrasting colour.</p>
+
+<p>Sheraton sideboards were usually without backs, and were sometimes
+furnished with brass rails on top.</p>
+
+<p>Bookcases had glass doors with well designed and finely worked sash
+bars.</p>
+
+<p>The general tendency was towards elegance and refinement, and led to
+simplicity of treatment rather than over enrichment.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed this may be taken as the culminating period for the finest
+production of furniture, not only with regard to design and exquisite
+workmanship, but in carefully studied utility. This consideration may be
+seen in the dressing-tables and secretaires, which were full of
+ingenious devices, and secret drawers and contrivances for hiding papers
+and valuables were quite a feature of the work.</p>
+
+<h3>Louis XVI</h3>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the reign of Louis XV there was a distinct change in
+taste, and consequently in style. This was manifested by a return to
+simplicity of line,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a>{128}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_126" id="ill_126"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_158_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_158_sml.jpg" width="361" height="553" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 126. Painted Interior Decoration. Marie Antoinette
+Boudoir. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a>{129}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_127" id="ill_127"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_159_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_159_sml.jpg" width="360" height="490" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 127. Interior Treatment. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a>{130}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_128" id="ill_128"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/ill_160_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_160_sml.jpg" width="365" height="498" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 128. Chimney-piece with Mirror. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a>{131}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_129" id="ill_129"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;">
+<a href="images/ill_161_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_161_sml.jpg" width="355" height="469" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 129. Library with fitted Book-cases. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a>{132}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">a more sparing use of enrichments and greater refinement of detail.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_130" id="ill_130"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;">
+<a href="images/ill_162_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_162_sml.jpg" width="368" height="336" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 130. Door Treatment. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Probably the same influence that inspired Adam was at work in France,
+when the license that marked the Rococo gave place to a more severe and
+restrained expression in the succeeding Louis XVI style, in which the
+curvilinear and plastic forms became once more structural in feeling and
+refined in detail.</p>
+
+<p>Associated with this change was Jacques Gondouin, who died at Paris in
+1818 at the age of eighty-one, whose most celebrated work is the Ecole
+de Médécine.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a>{133}</span> He was also entrusted with the erection of the column in
+the Place Vendôme.</p>
+
+<h3>Riesener and Gouthière</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_131" id="ill_131"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_163a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_163a_sml.jpg" width="192" height="184" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 131. Detail of Cornice. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most familiar names associated with the wood-work at the Louis XVI
+period are Riesener and Gouthière. Riesener is famous for his furniture,
+and Gouthière for the highly finished chased mounts with which this
+furniture was decorated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_132" id="ill_132"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/ill_163b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_163b_sml.jpg" width="239" height="327" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 132. Arm-chair covered with Beauvais Tapestry. Louis
+XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Interior woodwork was generally of oak, painted white. Pilasters were
+used, and were either carved or painted in colours. Mouldings were
+frequently gilt.</p>
+
+<p>Chairs and sofas were, in many instances, painted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a>{134}</span> white and partly
+gilt. They were upholstered in silk or Beauvais tapestry, the designs of
+which were in panel form specially made for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Cabinets, tables and other pieces of furniture were often exquisitely
+inlaid with various woods, tulip, rosewood, pear, holly and ebony were
+the most common, and Sèvres porcelain placques and gilt metal mounts
+were also used to embellish them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_133" id="ill_133"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_164_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_164_sml.jpg" width="192" height="423" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 133. Carved Oak Panel. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Furniture supports, such as table and chair legs, were straight, tapered
+and fluted, with husks in the hollows of the flutes.</p>
+
+<p>Among the decorative details were torches, quivers and other emblems,
+trophies, musical instruments, bouquets and festoons of flowers, and
+ribbons with peculiarly square and crisp folds. The laurel leaf was much
+used in borders, festoons and wreaths.</p>
+
+<p>The style of the Louis XVI period was more severe than the preceding
+one, and was, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a>{135}</span> fact, a reaction from the flippancy which
+characterised the reign of Louis XV. There was a tendency to return to
+more classic forms, which prepared the way for the still more austere
+Empire phase which was deliberately based on the Roman and Greek styles.</p>
+
+<h3>Empire</h3>
+
+<p>Furniture was made in mahogany, rosewood and ebony, and was decorated
+with brass mounts or with carved ornaments, which were gilded.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture legs and supports were fashioned after Greek and Roman forms,
+human figures and sphinxes being often employed.</p>
+
+<p>Inlay was used of ivory and metal, and this class of work attained a
+very high degree of excellence.</p>
+
+<p>Metal-work was unquestionably good, except that the details were
+somewhat hard in character.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking decorative features were sphinxes, winged figures of
+Liberty, masks, the thyrsus of Bacchus, laurel wreaths and festoons,
+which were all severe in treatment and delicate in execution.</p>
+
+<h3>Empire in England</h3>
+
+<p>The Empire style spread to other parts of Europe, and was closely
+imitated in England, where it was chiefly remarkable for the extreme
+nicety and finish of the metal-work, metal being extensively used for
+the enrichment of furniture, for clocks, vases, candlesticks, inkstands
+and other objects.</p>
+
+<h3>Later English Architecture</h3>
+
+<p>Probably the most important name associated with English architecture
+towards the end of the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a>{136}</span> century is that of Sir William
+Chambers, who died in 1796.</p>
+
+<p>Chambers, who at one time held the position of Surveyor General in the
+Board of Works, was one of those concerned in the establishment of the
+Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. During his professional career he
+executed commissions in various parts of the country, his principal work
+being Somerset House, which was commenced in 1776.</p>
+
+<p>Another name associated with this period is that of George Dance, who
+designed the Mansion House of the City of London, which was built during
+the years 1739-53. Dance died in 1768, and was succeeded by his son, who
+was the architect of Newgate Prison, the site of which is now occupied
+by a modern building.</p>
+
+<p>A pupil of Sir William Chambers, James Gandon, had the distinction of
+carrying off the first gold medal given for architecture by the
+newly-founded Royal Academy of Arts in 1768.</p>
+
+<p>He designed, among other works, the Customs House, the Four Courts, and
+the building which is now the Bank of Ireland, all at Dublin.</p>
+
+<h3>French Influence on Europe</h3>
+
+<p>Throughout this necessarily brief summary it will be noted that
+attention is mainly given to the architectural development in France and
+England. The rest of Europe was similarly affected more or less, both in
+the Gothic period and in the revival known as the Renaissance, in which
+the initiative was taken by France early in the seventeenth century.
+From which period may be dated the decline in Italian taste.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a>{137}</span></p>
+
+<p>French feeling, both as to form and detail, is apparent in not only
+Dutch and Flemish work, but in the more southern parts of Europe,
+particularly the phase known as Rococo.</p>
+
+<p>Even in England, though the architectural traditions of Inigo Jones and
+Sir Christopher Wren became national in character, French feeling is
+evident in much of the decorative work, as in the designs of Chippendale
+and his contemporaries; with the exception of the brilliant period of
+Grinling Gibbons, whose distinctive manner and robust treatment
+survived, and constituted a school of carving typically English and
+unique in its artistry and craftsmanship.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a>{138}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /><br />
+MOULDINGS</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N Architecture the edges of projecting courses are softened into curved
+profiles, sometimes enriched with details, which are technically known
+as mouldings. These are invariably a stumbling-block to the beginner,
+presumably due to want of appreciation of their purpose, which properly
+understood, is indicative of their desirable employment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_134" id="ill_134"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;">
+<a href="images/ill_177a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_177a_sml.jpg" width="179" height="300" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 134. Forms of Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mouldings are an important factor in effect, not only in Architecture,
+but in structural form generally. In flat decoration they have to some
+extent their corollary in borders, the proportionate widths of which are
+governed by similar rules.</p>
+
+<p>Of mouldings with curved profiles there are only six distinct forms,
+though the individual character of these curves is subject to great
+variation in treatment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a>{139}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Purpose</h3>
+
+<p>As suggested, mouldings have a distinct purpose, are, in fact,
+functional features, and may be defined as Sheltering or Crowning,
+Bracketing or Supporting, and Binding.</p>
+
+<p>In any composition where they may be necessary these functions should be
+taken into consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve
+be refined or robust.</p>
+
+<p>In classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the
+other features are defined, and these proportions will be found useful
+in other than purely architectural design.</p>
+
+<h3>The Fillet</h3>
+
+<p>Mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or
+Fillets, the employment of which is universal.</p>
+
+<p>The Fillet in projection is equal to its height, and though strictly
+divisional in its employment, is shown in conjunction with the curved
+profiles to indicate relative proportion.</p>
+
+<h3>Sheltering Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>There are two mouldings of curved profile in each category, the
+Sheltering being the Cavetto and the Cyma Recta.</p>
+
+<h3>The Cavetto</h3>
+
+<p>The Cavetto is the culminating moulding of the Italian Doric cornice,
+and is a concave curve, which may be the result of a quarter circle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a>{140}</span></p>
+
+<p>The Cavetto profile is used in other positions, which would appear to
+challenge the previous statement, but reflection will confirm the
+contention.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, the vertical face of the Frieze in some instances
+terminates with a cavetto curve which, though surmounted by the cornice,
+is yet at the top of the frieze. The upper extremity of the column shaft
+is similarly treated, and, it may be urged, so is the lower, but this,
+though an exception to the rule, is at least an æsthetic necessity.</p>
+
+<p>The projection of the Cavetto is equal to the height of the curve, and
+the crowning Fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total
+height, preferably the latter.</p>
+
+<h3>Cyma Recta</h3>
+
+<p>The other sheltering moulding, the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double
+flexure with upper fillet. Its proper employment is as the crowning
+member of the cornice, though, like the Cavetto, it is employed in other
+positions, notably as a plinth moulding, when it appears in a reversed
+position.</p>
+
+<p>The projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile, the
+height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the
+whole.</p>
+
+<h3>Bracketing Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>The supporting mouldings are the Ovolo and the Cyma Reversa.</p>
+
+<h3>The Ovolo</h3>
+
+<p>The Ovolo is composed of a full convex curve, either a quarter circle or
+slightly elliptic, which in height is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a>{141}</span> equal to projection; and a fillet
+at base one-fifth the total height. Frequently this lower member is in
+the form of a half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet.</p>
+
+<p>As a Bracketing moulding the Ovolo occurs in the capital of the Doric
+column, and in the Ionic and Corinthian cornices under the corona or
+facia, and is employed in other positions, where the sense of support is
+justified.</p>
+
+<h3>Cyma Reversa</h3>
+
+<p>The Cyma Reversa, like the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure, and
+is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height. The
+projection is equal to the height of curved profile.</p>
+
+<p>The Cyma Reversa is employed in the cornice of the Doric order as a
+supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating
+Cavetto. It also occurs in the Capital of the column, where it forms the
+upper member of the abacus. An apparent contradiction of the theory of
+employment, which however is justified by the circumstance that the
+column forms the support for the entablature.</p>
+
+<p>It also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the
+pedestal, and is used in similar positions in the other orders.</p>
+
+<h3>Binding Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>The Binding mouldings, the Torus and the Scotia, appear chiefly on
+columns and pilasters, particularly the Scotia, which is essentially a
+base moulding.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>{142}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Torus</h3>
+
+<p>The Torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle, with upper
+fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height. The projection is
+decided by the curvature, which is based on a semi-circle with centre
+slightly in advance of the vertical line of fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The Torus varies in size according to position. For instance, in the
+base of the Ionic column two are employed, the lower being the larger.
+It is also invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding
+beneath the Capitals; in the small form it is commonly known as a bead
+or astragal.</p>
+
+<p>This employment of the Torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in
+the sense of imparting strength by binding. When used in other positions
+its purpose should be equally evident.</p>
+
+<h3>The Scotia</h3>
+
+<p>The Scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper
+fillet, and is generally used between the upper and lower Torii of the
+base.</p>
+
+<p>The upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of
+curved profile. The extreme projection being merely equal to the height
+of curve and that of the upper fillet about one-half, the fillet being
+about one-fifth the total height.</p>
+
+<h3>The Facia</h3>
+
+<p>The foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles,
+but there is another member, the Facia, that is an important feature in
+composition.</p>
+
+<p>The Facia, which is rectilinear in form with external<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a>{143}</span> face vertical or
+slightly inclined, may be classed with the binding mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to proportion, the height of the Facia should either exceed
+or be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably
+surmounted. The projection being either considerably less or more than
+its height.</p>
+
+<p>When used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face
+is generally recessed, this recess being equal to the height of the top
+fillet of supporting moulding.</p>
+
+<p>Only occasionally the Facia is furnished with an upper fillet (for
+instance, when it occurs immediately below the Cyma Recta) to which it
+is reconciled by a Cavetto curve.</p>
+
+<p>The Facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved
+profile to which it is in valuable contrast.</p>
+
+<h3>Decoration of Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>Mouldings may be plain or decorated, usually by carving, the details
+probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period.</p>
+
+<p>When thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile, and the
+details carved back from the face, leaving the highest parts in the
+original surface. The carving being deeper and more sharply defined in
+the case of mouldings that are in shadow. Such, for example, as the
+Ovolo, and in lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a
+unit, composed on a central axis, in which curves are contrasted with
+vertical features.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a>{144}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_135" id="ill_135"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/ill_174_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_174_sml.jpg" width="364" height="556" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 135.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a>{145}</span></p>
+
+<p>The principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature
+or profile line.</p>
+
+<h3>Orthodox Details</h3>
+
+<p>Thus the orthodox detail of the Ovolo, technically known as the “Egg and
+Tongue,” consists of a framing curve, which is obtained by repeating the
+profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape. The angles between
+the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart.</p>
+
+<p>As previously stated, this moulding is deeply carved, the ovoid being
+bold and well-rounded; the edges of the framing curves (in some
+instances grooved or channelled) being left sharp and precise.</p>
+
+<p>Frequently the “Bead and Reel” enrichment occurs at the base of the
+Ovolo instead of the Fillet, this being the characteristic detail of the
+Bead or Astragal.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of the Cyma Reversa is identical and results in the detail
+known as the “Leaf and Dart”; but the carving is not so deep and the
+relief, in consequence, comparatively slight.</p>
+
+<h3>Angle Leaf</h3>
+
+<p>When mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a
+covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle.</p>
+
+<p>The same principle is applicable to the Cyma Recta and the Cavetto,
+though these mouldings are more often left plain; when decorated the
+relief is comparatively slight.</p>
+
+<p>The Scotia needs no decoration, the cast shadow resulting from its form
+being sufficiently effective.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a>{146}</span></p>
+
+<p>The Torus, though frequently left plain, can be decorated in various
+ways.</p>
+
+<p>The Guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic, but as suggestive of
+its function, the Torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or
+cable. Leaves suggestive of a wreath are used, also a reed band crossed
+at intervals with ribbons, quite in keeping with the suggestion of
+binding.</p>
+
+<p>The Facia is generally plain, but the decoration, if used should,
+following the principle, be rectilinear in character; such as vertical
+flutings, or the key detail, both of which are used.</p>
+
+<h3>Dentils</h3>
+
+<p>Dentils, which form a distinctive feature in cornices, are a series of
+rectilinear blocks, attached to a Facia, and may be placed in the
+category of supporting members.</p>
+
+<p>In their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite
+projection.</p>
+
+<p>In proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three
+quarters their width in height, the intervals between being about half
+the width.</p>
+
+<p>The first Dentil at the angle, lines flush with the return face of
+supporting Facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end
+Dentils. This space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob, acorn-like
+in shape. The heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and
+downwards, or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face. Below the
+Dentils the supporting Facia is displayed to about the height of a
+fillet.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the
+Renaissance in the decoration of mouldings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a>{147}</span> license which is
+permissible providing the general principle be borne in mind. The
+concensus of opinion is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and
+absence of variety. The vertical tendency resulting from the
+bi-symmetrical character of the unit is desirable, and in happy contrast
+to the horizontal direction of the moulding, while it also emphasises
+the sense of structural support.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_136" id="ill_136"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/ill_177_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_177_sml.jpg" width="365" height="187" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DETAIL OF THE DENTIL</p>
+
+<p>No. 136.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The profiles also are amenable to considerable variation, the curves
+being the direct result of Geometry, or Freehand, either treatment being
+a matter of attitude and discretion.</p>
+
+<h3>Employment</h3>
+
+<p>When employed in Architecture the forms and proportions given will be
+found most suitable. In interior decoration and structural work, as in
+furniture, considerable latitude is permissible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a>{148}</span></p>
+
+<p>It must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be
+designed merely for the play of line, but for the effect resulting from
+light and shade. In those close to the eye and in fair light, elliptic
+curves will be more effective than more rounded sections, which are most
+suitable to remote positions.</p>
+
+<p>In composition, mouldings of curved profile should always be separated
+by fillets or occasionally a facia, and the various members associated
+with regard to their functional purpose. Obvious repetition of the same
+dimension is to be avoided, and contrast should exist not only in the
+shapes of profiles, but also in their respective heights.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_137" id="ill_137"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/ill_178_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_178_sml.jpg" width="267" height="233" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO PERSPECTIVE</p>
+
+<p>No. 137.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Attitude</h3>
+
+<p>Attitude must be taken into account, as, for instance, in a cornice
+which is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not
+appear in elevation but in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a>{149}</span> perspective; and not only the respective
+heights will be visible, but also the projections.</p>
+
+<p>When mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other should
+be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment. This is particularly
+necessary when the Ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils, or where it is
+surmounted by Modillions as in the Corinthian cornice.</p>
+
+<p>Panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the
+foregoing sense, though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the
+construction. Regarded as frames, their general purpose may be
+considered as to bind or enclose.</p>
+
+<p>In stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects,
+which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts, possible only
+on a large scale. A comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to
+sink channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area, which is
+left in the original plane. A treatment that is effective and
+comparatively economical.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_138" id="ill_138"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;">
+<a href="images/ill_179_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_179_sml.jpg" width="211" height="112" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CHANNELLED MOULDING IN STONE</p>
+
+<p>No. 138.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Wood Panelling</h3>
+
+<p>Panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate, but structurally
+necessary, as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some
+method of building up.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, not only panelling, but doors and structural wood-work
+generally are constructed of stiles<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a>{150}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_139" id="ill_139"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<a href="images/ill_180_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_180_sml.jpg" width="310" height="461" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed mouldings on stiles and
+rails.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with framing with simple
+moulded edges.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+
+D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped mouldings on stiles and
+rails.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+
+E. Later Jacobean Panelling.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+
+F. Later Jacobean Section of applied mouldings of the Bolection type.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a>{151}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">and rails, forming framings; the spaces enclosed being occupied by the
+panels.</p>
+
+<p>The edges of the stiles and rails are moulded. In the late Gothic and
+Tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed; but later the
+profiles became more distinct in contour.</p>
+
+<p>These early mouldings were narrow and simple in form, arrived at mainly
+by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame.</p>
+
+<h3>Applied Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>Applied mouldings were apparently employed in the Jacobean period, and
+the sections became more elaborate. Worked independently, they were
+frequently higher in relief than the framings. The facility with which
+they could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion
+for complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point
+of view, though effective if not overdone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_140" id="ill_140"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;">
+<a href="images/ill_181_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_181_sml.jpg" width="143" height="342" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 140. Applied Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the composition of such mouldings it is desirable that the sizes and
+contours employed should be contrasting, and that all curved sections be
+divided by fillets.</p>
+
+<p>As the width of the moulding throughout is uniform, it is obvious that
+mitral angles must be perfect bi-sections of the meeting lines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a>{152}</span></p>
+
+<p>With regard to proportion, the width of mouldings may generally be
+one-fourth to one-eighth that of the panel according to desired effect,
+robust or refined.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_141" id="ill_141"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<a href="images/ill_182a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_182a_sml.jpg" width="284" height="140" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 141. Part of Dresser.</p>
+
+<p>Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Bolection Moulding</h3>
+
+<p>When boldness in appearance is required the type known as the Bolection
+Moulding may be used. This, in its orthodox form, is a species of inner
+frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails, and the panels,
+but was more commonly an applied moulding.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_142" id="ill_142"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 54px;">
+<a href="images/ill_182b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_182b_sml.jpg" width="54" height="123" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 142. Bolection Moulding.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In any case, it is worked independently, and its outer edges lap the
+framing, on which it is in relief, resulting in strong effect of light
+and shade.</p>
+
+<p>Panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the orthodox
+enrichments or variants based on them, but should always be in contrast
+to the panels they enclose.</p>
+
+<p>In furniture, mouldings play an important part, and in many positions
+can be regulated by functional considerations. In horizontal positions,
+such as in tables and sideboards, where personal contact<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a>{153}</span> is possible,
+any moulded edges should be of softly rounded character for obvious
+reasons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_143" id="ill_143"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;">
+<a href="images/ill_183a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_183a_sml.jpg" width="148" height="36" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TABLE TOP MOULDINGS</p>
+
+<p>No. 143.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Plaster</h3>
+
+<p>In plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil.
+When decorated, the former only is possible, and as such work is
+originally modelled, it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic
+nature, such as interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or
+other forms.</p>
+
+<p>Mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut, though this is
+practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_144" id="ill_144"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 197px;">
+<a href="images/ill_183b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_183b_sml.jpg" width="197" height="265" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TURNED WOOD</p>
+
+<p>No. 144.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various
+materials, and to some extent their character is affected by the
+formative process involved.</p>
+
+<h3>Wood-turning</h3>
+
+<p>Thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft, taking
+usually, as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs, the baluster
+form. As a rule there<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a>{154}</span> is little variation between the maximum and
+minimum diameters.</p>
+
+<p>The baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles, with
+intervening fillets, which latter may be fairly sharp, as they are by
+their position protected from damage.</p>
+
+<h3>Metal Turning</h3>
+
+<p>Turning is also employed in metal work, the stems and bodies of Dutch
+candelabra, both standard and hanging, being originally cast as to
+general form and finished in the lathe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_145" id="ill_145"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 166px;">
+<a href="images/ill_184a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_184a_sml.jpg" width="166" height="230" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 145.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning, except that
+the material being much harder, the mouldings can be more sharply
+defined and delicate in detail.</p>
+
+<h3>Pottery</h3>
+
+<p>The throwing of pottery is analagous to turning, but by this method
+little more can be accomplished than thickened edges. The Greek vases
+show some precision of profile, the result of turning on a lathe after
+the vessel had been formed on the wheel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_146" id="ill_146"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;">
+<a href="images/ill_184b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_184b_sml.jpg" width="114" height="163" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 146. Moulded Vase in Terra-cotta.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In moulded pottery more definition is possible than in thrown variety,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a>{155}</span>
+but the profiles are comparatively blunt and never attain the precision
+due to turning.</p>
+
+<h3>Metal Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>In metal, mouldings may be rolled or drawn. In the first they are formed
+in the solid, but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and
+are therefore hollow and of uniform thickness.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_147" id="ill_147"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/ill_185a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_185a_sml.jpg" width="176" height="193" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ROLLED METAL MOULDINGS</p>
+
+<p>No. 147.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>By either method mouldings of any required section are obtainable
+provided they are not undercut.</p>
+
+<p>Both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in various sections and sizes
+in iron, brass, bronze, and silver.</p>
+
+<p>Where special sections are required, the cost of the tools necessary for
+their production would have to be taken into account.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_148" id="ill_148"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_185b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_185b_sml.jpg" width="194" height="223" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DRAWN METAL MOULDINGS</p>
+
+<p>No. 148.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Wrought Iron</h3>
+
+<p>Though the employment of rolled or drawn<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a>{156}</span> mouldings is usual in wrought
+iron-work, the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in character.
+Preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or building
+up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material and
+method of working.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_149" id="ill_149"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_150" id="ill_150"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_186a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_186a_sml.jpg" width="355" height="88" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 149. Wrought Iron Swaged Moulding.
+<span style="margin-left:8%;">
+No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_186b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_186b_sml.jpg" width="280" height="248" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Silver-work</h3>
+
+<p>In silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand, the necessary
+draw plates being made by the workman.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_151" id="ill_151"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_186b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_186b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 151. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a>{157}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Spinning</h3>
+
+<p>Mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning, in which
+undercutting is not permissible.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_152" id="ill_152"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;">
+<a href="images/ill_187_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_187_sml.jpg" width="183" height="132" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SPUN METAL</p>
+
+<p>No. 152.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Repoussé</h3>
+
+<p>They are also possible in Repoussé work, but are soft in character, and
+lack the precision that marks the mechanical production.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a>{158}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /><br />
+ARCHITECTURAL PROPORTIONS</h2>
+
+<h3>Introduction</h3>
+
+<p>In architectural drawing concise draughtsmanship is essential, the
+profiles of mouldings in particular should be well defined.</p>
+
+<p>Architectural designs, which should always be drawn to scale, are
+expressed geometrically, that is in plan, elevation and section. The
+actual effect is therefore a matter of conjecture only to be grasped by
+those familiar with the arbitrary form of expression. Perspectives are
+generally made with a view to depicting the appearance to the
+uninitiated, but are practically useless as working drawings.</p>
+
+<p>The student is advised to take advantage of every opportunity of
+studying existing examples in museums and elsewhere. This study should
+not be confined to geometric drawings, but these should be supplemented
+by sketches and careful observation. Attention should also be paid to
+the profiles of mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>A practice should be made also of making freehand sketches of the
+various features, indicating broadly the effects of light and shade.</p>
+
+<p>The study of architectural proportions should be methodical, and the
+general divisions given here might advantageously be committed to
+memory. When this is accomplished attention may be devoted to individual
+features.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a>{159}</span></p>
+
+<h3>System of Proportion</h3>
+
+<p>It is customary, when any of the orders of Architecture are employed, to
+adopt a system of proportions which has been evolved from the best
+traditions of the past, and is generally accepted as the most
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally these proportions are subject to modification to suit special
+conditions or personal treatment. According to the academic method, the
+diameter of the column is divided into two parts, which are called
+Modules, and each of these is again subdivided into thirty divisions
+called parts. This gives a scale by means of which all dimensions of
+height and projection are obtained. Since the diameter of the column
+forms the standard of measurement, the proportions of the relative parts
+are constant and in no way influenced by the size of the structure.</p>
+
+<p>This method, although very complete, is&mdash;owing to its multiplicity of
+dimensions&mdash;somewhat laborious in practice, and the method here proposed
+in its stead, though not claimed to be exact, will yet be found to be
+sufficiently accurate for ordinary requirements.</p>
+
+<p>It is proposed to deal here with the orders commonly employed in
+Renaissance architecture. These were based by the early exponents of the
+style on Roman examples. The Doric selected is that of Vignola, and is a
+refined version of the order used in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.
+The Ionic closely resembles the Roman Ionic order in the same building.
+The Corinthian is the Roman example from the Pantheon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a>{160}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Order</h3>
+
+<p>An Order consists of a vertical column and a horizontal entablature,
+while in some instances the column rests on a pedestal.</p>
+
+<p>It is desirable before dealing with proportions to enumerate the various
+parts of which an order is composed.</p>
+
+<p>The column consists of a shaft, base and capital.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft is circular on plan and invariably tapered.</p>
+
+<p>The base is composed of mouldings, which are circular on plan, and a
+rectangular block or plinth.</p>
+
+<p>The capital is circular on plan, and in the Doric and Corinthian orders
+is divided from the shaft by a necking moulding. The capital is
+surmounted by a feature known as the abacus, which is rectangular on
+plan, but varies in detail in the different orders.</p>
+
+<p>Columns may be isolated or engaged, that is, built into walls so that
+they form projections from the surface.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_153" id="ill_153"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 134px;">
+<a href="images/ill_190_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_190_sml.jpg" width="134" height="507" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 153. Doric Order with Pedestal.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pilaster is always engaged, and is rectangular on plan, but
+otherwise it has the same general features and proportions as the
+column.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a>{161}</span></p>
+
+<p>The entablature is the superstructure supported by the columns. It
+consists of an architrave, which is the lowest part, a frieze, the
+intermediate part, and a series of projecting mouldings known as the
+cornice.</p>
+
+<p>The pedestal, which occasionally forms a support for the columns,
+consists of a plinth, die and capping. The lower part or plinth is
+separated from the die by mouldings, and the capping is a projecting
+course of mouldings forming a simple cornice.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up a simple classification, which may be termed the triology of
+the orders, will be found to assist the memory.</p>
+
+<p>The Orders commonly employed are three&mdash;the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.
+(There are two others which are less used, and are really derived from
+the other three: they are the Tuscan, which is a form of debased Doric,
+and the Composite, which is made up of the Ionic and Corinthian).</p>
+
+<p>The Order may be divided into three parts:</p>
+
+<p class="c">
+Pedestal, Column and Entablature.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>These may again be sub-divided.</p>
+
+<p>The Pedestal into Plinth, Die and Capping.</p>
+
+<p>The Column into Base, Shaft and Capital.</p>
+
+<p>The Entablature into Architrave, Frieze and Cornice.</p>
+
+<p>The method of arriving at the proportions of the order is as follows. In
+this division the pedestal is not taken into account, but is reserved
+for later consideration.</p>
+
+<h3>Doric Order</h3>
+
+<p>Divide the total height into five equal parts. Then the upper fifth will
+give the height of the entablature and an eighth of the remaining
+four-fifths the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a>{162}</span> diameter of the column. From this it will be seen that
+the column is eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters. In
+using the term diameter it must be understood that it is always the
+lower diameter of the column that is referred to.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_154" id="ill_154"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;">
+<a href="images/ill_192_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_192_sml.jpg" width="368" height="378" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 154. General Proportions of the Orders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capital is half a diameter high exclusive of the necking moulding,
+and the base also is half a diameter. In all the orders the column is
+tapered; the upper diameter is in each case five-sixths of the lower or
+major<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a>{163}</span> diameter. The taper is not in a straight line, but a slight
+curve, which is known as entasis. It is obtained by drawing the lower
+third of the shaft vertical and from these lines springing a curve to
+the upper diameter, which may readily be done by slightly altering the
+angle of the pencil in ruling them.</p>
+
+<p>The entablature is divided as follows: the architrave is half a
+diameter, the frieze and cornice each three-quarters of a diameter.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Order</h3>
+
+<p>The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
+will be the entablature, and one ninth of the remainder the diameter of
+the column, hence the column will be nine diameters high.</p>
+
+<p>The capital is half a diameter high; the base also is half a diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts, three of
+these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the
+frieze and the remaining four that of the cornice.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Order</h3>
+
+<p>The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
+is the height of the entablature. A tenth of the remainder will be the
+diameter of the column.</p>
+
+<p>The capital is one diameter and one-sixth in height exclusive of the
+necking moulding, and the base is half a diameter high, exclusive of the
+top fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic, and
+the mouldings, although more elaborate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a>{164}</span> are similar in character. The
+architrave and frieze are each three-tenths of the height and the
+cornice four-tenths.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the foregoing that the diameters of the three
+orders are respectively one-eighth, one-ninth and one-tenth the heights
+of the columns, and that the entablature is, in the Doric, two diameters
+high or one fourth the height of the column; in the Corinthian also two
+diameters or one-fifth the height of the column. The Ionic is
+intermediate between the two.</p>
+
+<h3>Doric Entablatures</h3>
+
+<p>The Doric cornice is three-quarters of a diameter in height and one
+diameter in projection from the face of the frieze, which should always
+be in vertical alignment with the architrave.</p>
+
+<p>It is convenient to divide the cornice height into three. The upper
+third consists of a crowning cavetto moulding, supported by a cyma
+reversa, under which is a facia or corona, in turn supported by a dentil
+course. The lower third should be taken as the centre of the dentil
+course, and if the height from the top of the cavetto to the underside
+of the corona be bisected, the point of bisection should fall in the
+centre of the intervening reversa.</p>
+
+<h3>Mutules</h3>
+
+<p>In orthodox examples of the order the underside or soffit of the corona
+is decorated with a series of sunk panels. Those immediately over the
+triglyphs of the frieze are occupied by rows of conical drops. A
+variation of this and a treatment frequently employed is a series of
+brackets known as mutules. They consist of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a>{165}</span> facia and a reversa, which
+is carried round the upper edge to support the corona. When mutules are
+used the dentil course is omitted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_155" id="ill_155"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/ill_195_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_195_sml.jpg" width="364" height="420" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PLAN OF CORNICE<br />
+No. 155. Doric Entablature, Vignola.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dentils are rectilinear blocks on a flat projecting band, and they
+are supported by a cyma reversa moulding. A fillet beneath this moulding
+completes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a>{166}</span> cornice. The reversa is about the same height as the
+fillet, and the dentil course is about twice this height, but owing to
+the soffit of the corona sloping slightly upward and inwards the full
+height of the dentil facia is not apparent when drawn in elevation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_156" id="ill_156"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_196_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_196_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PLAN OF CORNICE<br />
+No. 156. Doric Entablature, with Mutules.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a>{167}</span></p>
+
+<p>Above the dentil facia is a small cavetto moulding and a fillet. These
+are directly beneath the corona, and are carried round to form the
+panels on its soffit.</p>
+
+<p>The Doric frieze is three-quarters of a diameter high. It is divided
+into panels technically known as metopes, by projecting features half a
+diameter in width which are called triglyphs.</p>
+
+<p>The metopes should be square, and one of the triglyphs is always placed
+immediately over each column, having the same central axis, hence the
+spacing of the columns apart is regulated by the triglyphs and metopes.
+Examples of various spacings of columns will be given later.</p>
+
+<p>The frieze is bounded above and below by rectilinear projecting bands or
+fillets; that at the top breaks round or follows the projection of the
+triglyphs.</p>
+
+<p>The triglyphs are so named because they are channelled vertically with
+grooves or glyphs, V shaped in section, with intervening spaces or
+inter-glyphs. The width of the triglyph should be divided into twelve
+parts&mdash;then the half glyphs which are placed at the angles will each be
+one of these parts, and the remaining two glyphs and three inter-glyphs
+are each two of them. The glyphs terminate at the base on the fillet
+band, but at the top are cut off a little below the upper fillet,
+invariably in a straight line, thus forming a triangular heading with
+the apex of the triangle sloping backwards and downwards in conformity
+with the V shaped section of the glyphs.</p>
+
+<p>Under the lower fillet band, and immediately below the triglyph, is a
+small fillet and six pendant drops of conical form known as guttae.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a>{168}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_157" id="ill_157"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;">
+<a href="images/ill_198_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_198_sml.jpg" width="296" height="512" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PLAN OF CORNICE<br />
+No. 157. Ionic Entablature.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a>{169}</span></p>
+
+<p>The architrave is half a diameter high, inclusive of the fillet band,
+which is roughly a sixth of this height. The small fillet and guttae are
+together equal in height to the fillet band.</p>
+
+<p>It may be taken as an invariable rule that whatever order is used, the
+face of the architrave must be in vertical alignment with the upper part
+of the shaft of the column.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Entablature</h3>
+
+<p>The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts; three of
+these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the
+frieze, and the remaining four that of the cornice.</p>
+
+<p>To find the projection of the cornice a line should be drawn at an angle
+of 45 degrees from the top of the frieze, and the profiles of the
+mouldings composing the cornice will fall within this line.</p>
+
+<p>The lowest member is a small reversa moulding, with a fillet supporting
+a dentil course, above which is an ovolo; these occupy half the height
+of the cornice. The remaining half is composed of the facia, surmounted
+by a reversa and the crowning cyma moulding, rather more than half of
+the height being allotted to these two.</p>
+
+<p>The frieze of the Ionic order has no characteristic detail as the Doric,
+and may be plain or decorated according to conditions, and should be in
+vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave. In some of
+the later Renaissance examples the profile of the Ionic frieze is a
+segmental curve of about a third of a circle.</p>
+
+<p>The architrave is usually formed of three facias, which may be either
+vertical or slightly inclined.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a>{170}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_158" id="ill_158"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a href="images/ill_200_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_200_sml.jpg" width="297" height="534" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 158. Corinthian Entablature.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a>{171}</span></p>
+
+<p>A fifth of the total height is taken for the upper moulding, which is a
+reversa with its accompanying fillet.</p>
+
+<p>A point bisecting the underside of the fillet and bottom of architrave
+will give the line of the lower edge of the top facia. The other two
+facias should be taken in a decreasing ratio, the lower being the
+shorter.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Entablature</h3>
+
+<p>The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic. The
+total height is divided into ten. Three of these parts form the
+architrave, three the frieze and four the cornice.</p>
+
+<p>An angle of 45 degrees set off from the top of the frieze will determine
+the general contour and projection of the cornice.</p>
+
+<p>The cornice is more complex than in the other styles, but a division of
+eleven will help to determine, three being the height to underside of
+bead moulding and seven that of the main facia. The lowest moulding of
+the cornice is a cyma reversa supporting a dentil course with a bead
+moulding above it. Above the bead there is an ovolo, which forms the bed
+of a series of brackets known as modillions. The height of the
+modillions is about one-fifth including the reversa moulding, which,
+besides completing the modillions, is carried round between them as a
+support for the upper facia.</p>
+
+<p>The modillions have a profile of ogee form. They are about a sixth of a
+diameter in width and project about twice their width, and are so spaced
+as to leave squares between them on the soffit or underside of the
+corona. The frieze, which may or may not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a>{172}</span> decorated, is in vertical
+alignment with the lowest member of the architrave.</p>
+
+<p>The architrave is made up of three facias with intervening mouldings. If
+the height be divided into two, the upper half is devoted to the first
+facia and reversa moulding, which latter occupies rather more than
+one-third; the remaining half is taken up by the other two facias in a
+diminishing ratio.</p>
+
+<h3>The Column&mdash;The Shaft</h3>
+
+<p>The general proportions of the column have already been given. The shaft
+is invariably tapered for two-thirds of its height, the lower third
+being cylindrical, and the taper terminates at the necking moulding. In
+all three orders the difference between the upper and lower diameters is
+the same, that is, the upper is five-sixths of the lower, but although
+the amount of taper is numerically the same, the different ratios of the
+diameters to the heights produce naturally very different results.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft of the Doric column may be plain or channelled with vertical
+grooves called flutes. There are twenty of these flutes round the
+circumference. On plan they are shallow, and may be formed of arcs of a
+third of a circle. The curves meet without intervening fillets. The
+flutes are finished off in segmental curves at the top and bottom,
+leaving a small plain space below the necking and above the base.</p>
+
+<p>The Ionic and Corinthian columns may have plain or decorated shafts. If
+decorated they have twenty-four flutes round the circumference. These
+are semi-circular on plan, and are spaced with fillets between them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a>{173}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Capital</h3>
+
+<p>The Capital is the culminating feature of the column in which horizontal
+lines predominate in æsthetic contrast to the vertical lines of the
+shaft. In all the orders there is some form of crowning block or
+moulding known as the abacus.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Though the proportions given are approximately accurate for
+general division, it will be found necessary in detailing to adopt a
+more intimate system of measurement. In the following diagrams the
+diameter is divided into 36 parts, which are expressed in figures,
+giving heights, etc., of the various features.</p></div>
+
+<h3>Doric Capital</h3>
+
+<p>The Doric abacus consists of a rectangular slab, square on plan, which
+in detail consists of a fillet and reversa moulding surmounting a facia.
+Its extreme width is one and a half times the upper diameter. The square
+abacus is supported by an ovolo, which is circular on plan, and is
+connected with the necking by three small fillets.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a>{174}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_159" id="ill_159"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 236px;">
+<a href="images/ill_203_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_203_sml.jpg" width="236" height="429" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 159. Doric Capital.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capital is half a diameter in height, exclusive of the mouldings
+between the necking and the shaft, and the upper part to the underside
+of the ovolo occupies rather more than half.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_160" id="ill_160"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;">
+<a href="images/ill_204_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_204_sml.jpg" width="374" height="327" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 160. Ionic Capital.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The necking is a vertical extension of the upper diameter of the column,
+and is separated from the shaft by a boldly projecting moulding, which
+in height should be about equal to the three small fillets below the
+ovolo. The moulding consists of a torus and a fillet, and a cavetto
+curve is carried from the underside of the fillet and dies into the line
+of the shaft of the column.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the ovolo is decorated with its characteristic egg and tongue
+detail, and occasionally the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>{175}</span> reversa of the abacus is also enriched.
+The necking is sometimes ornamented with four rosettes, which are placed
+centrally under the square faces of the abacus.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Capital</h3>
+
+<p>The Ionic capital is half a diameter high, and is readily distinguished
+by its bolster-like form with voluted ends. This bolster is rectangular
+on plan, and measures laterally rather more than one and a half
+diameters, while from back to front it is slightly less than a diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft terminates in a cavetto curve, and is surmounted by a fillet,
+a small torus and an ovolo moulding, which is invariably decorated with
+egg and tongue detail. These mouldings all conform to the circular plan
+of the shaft. On the ovolo rests the voluted bolster.</p>
+
+<p>The abacus, which is square on plan, consists of a reversa moulding and
+fillet.</p>
+
+<p>From the top of the abacus to the base of the ovolo the height is about
+a third of a diameter, and one-fourth of this height will give the
+height of the abacus.</p>
+
+<p>The centre or eye of the volute can readily be found by dropping a
+perpendicular from the lower edge of the reversa to intersect the
+horizontal line defining the base of the ovolo. This point of
+intersection is the required centre.</p>
+
+<h3>To Draw the Volute</h3>
+
+<p>From this as centre and one part as radius describe a circle. Within
+this circle draw a square, having for a diagonal the diameter of the
+circle. Bisect the sides of the square and draw the diameters by joining
+the points of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a>{176}</span> bi-section. Divide these diameters of the square into six
+and these points will be the centres for the segments of circles which
+form the volute. Vertical and horizontal lines drawn from the centres
+will define the extent of each segment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_161" id="ill_161"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/ill_206_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_206_sml.jpg" width="239" height="425" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 161. Ionic Capital, with angular volutes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For small scale drawings the volutes are drawn free-hand, but for larger
+working drawings it is necessary to use some method such as that given
+here.</p>
+
+<p>The angle formed by the meeting of the ovolo and the volute is masked by
+a detail of anthemion form.</p>
+
+<p>The ends of the bolster between the volutes consist of concave or ogee
+curves, which are symmetrically arranged from a centre line; moulded
+ridges or conventional leaf detail decorate the centre.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the Ionic capital, while suitable for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a>{177}</span> façade, requires
+some modification if it is to be carried round the side of a building,
+owing to the great dissimilarity in the front and side views. In this
+case the end volute of the capital at the angle of the building is
+projected forward at an angle of 45 degrees, and the side is then
+treated in the same way as the front.</p>
+
+<p>In late Renaissance buildings this difficulty was overcome by making all
+the volutes project at angles of 45 degrees, so that the four faces of
+the capital were uniform. This entails the bolster being dispensed with,
+and the volutes, no longer connected laterally, spring directly from the
+top of the ovolo moulding, and the space between the springing lines is
+occupied by a husk.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_162" id="ill_162"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/ill_207_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_207_sml.jpg" width="288" height="289" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 162. Ionic Capital. Detail of Angular Volute.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the volutes make equal angles they conform more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>{178}</span> or less to a square
+plan. The plan of the abacus is composed of four concave curves with
+small straight intervals at the meeting angles. The general proportions
+for this form of capital are the same as for the bolster type.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Capital</h3>
+
+<p>The Corinthian capital differs widely from those of the preceding orders
+in proportion and detail.</p>
+
+<p>Its general form may be described as a bell, which is circular on plan.
+It springs from the upper extremity of the shaft, from which it is
+separated by a necking moulding.</p>
+
+<p>Under the abacus it terminates in a fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The bell is one diameter high. The height of the abacus is one-sixth of
+a diameter in addition; on plan the abacus falls within a square, having
+four concave faces with short straight lines at the angles. The distance
+across the diagonal is two diameters. The bell is clothed with leaves of
+acanthus type, which are arranged in two tiers of eight leaves each.
+Between the upper leaves are eight stems with husks and branching
+scrolls, which terminate in volutes at the angles and centres.</p>
+
+<p>The necking moulding consists of a small torus and fillet.</p>
+
+<p>Although the arrangement of the principal features of the Corinthian
+capital is horizontal, yet owing to the channelling of the leaves and
+the firmly springing scrolls the vertical direction appears to
+predominate.</p>
+
+<p>This verticality emphasises the function of the capital as a supporting
+feature, and is æsthetically satisfactory, being in harmony with the
+flutings of the shaft.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a>{179}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_163" id="ill_163"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_209_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_209_sml.jpg" width="361" height="586" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 163. Corinthian Capital.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a>{180}</span></p>
+
+<p>The effect produced by the capitals of the other two orders is
+horizontal, and suggests the idea of binding. They are equally
+satisfactory as giving contrast of direction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_164" id="ill_164"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 237px;">
+<a href="images/ill_210_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_210_sml.jpg" width="237" height="368" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 164. Corinthian Capital.</p>
+
+<p>Detail giving divisions of height, and profiles.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Base</h3>
+
+<p>In all the orders a square plinth is the lowest member of the base of
+the column. On this plinth rests a series of mouldings which follow the
+circular plan of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a>{181}</span> the shaft. The shaft invariably terminates in a
+fillet, the diameter of which exceeds that of the column, and on to
+which the line of the shaft is carried by means of a curve.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_165" id="ill_165"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_211_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_211_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 165. Doric Base.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Doric Base</h3>
+
+<p>The Doric base is extremely simple. It consists of the square plinth on
+which rests a torus moulding<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a>{182}</span> surmounted by a smaller moulding of the
+same section and a fillet above.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the plinth is one and a third the diameter of the column,
+and its height a quarter diameter or half the total height of the base.
+The other half is made up of the large torus, the small torus and
+fillet. The torus moulding should be bold in projection, practically
+semi-circular and at the fullest part of its curvature in vertical
+alignment with the centres of the horizontal faces of the plinth block.
+The small torus and fillet are about equal in height.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Base</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_166" id="ill_166"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="images/ill_212_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_212_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 166. Ionic Base.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Ionic base differs from the Doric in the introduction of a hollow or
+scotia moulding between the two torus mouldings. Æsthetically it may be
+considered more satisfactory in that the strong shadow obtained by the
+use of the scotia<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>{183}</span> produces an effect of binding which adds to the
+impression of strength. The type is technically known as the Attic base.</p>
+
+<p>The total width is one and a third diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The height of half a diameter may be divided into three. One of these
+divisions will give the height of the plinth, one the large torus and
+the fillet above it, and the other the scotia and small torus with the
+fillets above and below. The fillets either side of the upper torus may
+be in the same vertical alignment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_167" id="ill_167"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 240px;">
+<a href="images/ill_213_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_213_sml.jpg" width="240" height="406" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 167. Corinthian Base.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The smallest diameter of the base, which will be in the hollow of the
+scotia, should exceed the diameter of the shaft, or an effect of
+weakness will be imparted.</p>
+
+<p>As in the Doric base a curve of a quarter circle connects the shaft with
+the upper fillet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a>{184}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Base</h3>
+
+<p>The orthodox base of the Corinthian order is similar to that of the
+Ionic, with an additional scotia and small torus with its accompanying
+fillets.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the plinth is one and a third diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The height of half a diameter does not include the top fillet. The
+proportions may be approximated by dividing the height into four. One of
+these parts will be the height of the plinth, another that of the large
+torus and its fillet, the third&mdash;the upper edge of fillet of top scotia,
+and the fourth that of the upper scotia and torus with the intervening
+fillet. Vertically the uppermost fillet is in alignment with that of the
+upper scotia, and the extremity of the upper torus with the small bead
+mouldings dividing this from the lower scotia.</p>
+
+<p>Although this is the orthodox Corinthian base, it is not used as
+frequently as the Ionic type, but when the order is on a large scale the
+more elaborate version is justified.</p>
+
+<h3>The Arch</h3>
+
+<p>When the arch is used in conjunction with the column it is supported on
+pilasters which are attached to the columns. The columns and pilasters
+thus form piers.</p>
+
+<p>In the Doric order the columns are placed five diameters apart from
+centre to centre, in the Ionic five and a quarter, and in the Corinthian
+five and a half.</p>
+
+<p>The necking moulding of the capital is generally carried through above
+the arch, the outer line of which is struck so as to nearly touch the
+underside.</p>
+
+<p>The projection of the pilasters which carry the arch<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a>{185}</span> is half a diameter
+from the outer lines of the column, and is measured on the same level as
+the springing point of the arch.</p>
+
+<p>The centre from which the arch is struck is sometimes in the same
+horizontal line as the springing points, but more frequently a little
+above the line and thereby a rather better effect is produced.</p>
+
+<p>The arch-band or archivolt is the same width as the pilaster supporting
+it, and a series of mouldings known as the impost is placed at the top
+of the pilaster. The base of the pilaster consists of a plain plinth of
+slight projection equal in height to the base of the column.</p>
+
+<p>From the spacing of the columns and the proportions here given it will
+be seen that the height and width of the aperture made by the arch and
+pilasters are arrived at automatically, but if measured, the height will
+be found to be about twice the width and the top of the impost about
+two-thirds the height of the column. These proportions may be accepted
+as giving satisfactory results under ordinary conditions.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, in all the orders the impost is half a diameter high,
+and so is the same as the projection of the pilaster and the width of
+the archivolt.</p>
+
+<p>This rule is not always adhered to, however, but in any case the width
+of the archivolt should never be more than one-eighth or less than
+one-tenth of the diameter of the arch, and should always be the same as
+the width of the pilaster.</p>
+
+<h3>Doric Impost</h3>
+
+<p>The mouldings of the Doric Impost are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>At the top there is a fillet and a bold ovolo, below<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a>{186}</span> which there is a
+bead-moulding or small torus with fillet and two facias. The lower
+facia, which is of slight projection is one-fourth of the total height.
+The upper facia and fillet are half the remainder.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_168" id="ill_168"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_216_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_216_sml.jpg" width="361" height="248" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 168. Detail of Archivolts and Imposts.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Archivolt</h3>
+
+<p>The archivolt mouldings are in the Doric order, the same as those of the
+impost.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Impost</h3>
+
+<p>The total height of half a diameter may be divided into two, and the
+upper half sub-divided into three. Then the upper division will be the
+height of the top fillet and a reversa moulding; the second the height
+of a facia and the third an ovolo and small torus.</p>
+
+<p>The lower half of the impost consists of two facias, the upper of which
+is broader than the lower.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a>{187}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Archivolt</h3>
+
+<p>The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
+bold reversa moulding which occupies rather less than a fourth of the
+total width, and two facias of unequal widths. The width of the inner
+facia is nearly one-third more than that of the reversa moulding.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Impost</h3>
+
+<p>The Corinthian impost differs from those of the other two orders in
+having a necking and necking moulding in place of the two unequal
+facias.</p>
+
+<p>The total height should be divided into two, and the upper half divided
+into four. Then the top fillet and reversa moulding will be one of these
+divisions, the facia two, and the supporting ovolo will occupy the
+remaining one.</p>
+
+<p>The lower half of the impost consists of a small torus and fillet
+beneath the ovolo, the necking, and the torus and fillet which form the
+necking moulding.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Archivolt</h3>
+
+<p>The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
+reversa and three unequal facias.</p>
+
+<p>If the total width is divided into two, the point of bisection will be
+the centre of a small reversa moulding between the two outer facias. The
+outer reversa and the inner facia are each about one-sixth of the total
+width and the small reversa is about two-thirds of the inner facia.</p>
+
+<h3>The Keystone</h3>
+
+<p>A projecting block, or keystone, is sometimes used<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a>{188}</span> at the centre of the
+arch. The face width of its lowest edge should not be less than the
+width of the archivolt. Its height is not often less than one and a half
+times or more than twice this width.</p>
+
+<p>It may be decorated in various ways, and is frequently in the shape of a
+console. This form is especially suitable when the keystone comes in
+contact with the architrave of the entablature, in which case it is
+capped with a moulded abacus.</p>
+
+<h3>The Pedestal</h3>
+
+<p>The height of the pedestal is a fourth that of the column and
+entablature together, though this proportion may be varied to suit
+different conditions. For instance, when the pedestal forms part of the
+structure of a balcony or balustrading the height must be modified to
+suit the special requirements of the position.</p>
+
+<p>The pedestal is composed of plinth, die and capping.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the die is the same as the plinth of the base of the column
+above it, that is, one and one-third diameter. The projection of the
+capping, which is the same for all three orders is obtained by drawing a
+line at an angle of 30 degrees with the vertical from the top of the
+die.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the plinth corresponds to the projection of the capping,
+and is determined by dropping perpendiculars from the top fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the mouldings between the die and plinth is determined by
+a line drawn from the bottom of the die at an angle of 45 degrees to
+intersect the vertical face of the plinth. The angle is the same for all
+the orders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a>{189}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Doric Pedestal</h3>
+
+<p>In the Doric order the height of the capping is one-third diameter. The
+face of the die is square, and this determines the height of the plinth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_169" id="ill_169"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_219_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_219_sml.jpg" width="362" height="308" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 169. Detail of Pedestals.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capping mouldings consist of a fillet, facia, ovolo, fillet and
+cavetto. The facia is carried to the underside of the fillet in a curve,
+and its height is half the total height of the capping. The facia is
+supported by the ovolo, and a fillet and cavetto complete the capping.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the course of mouldings at the top of the plinth should be
+divided into three, then the upper third will contain a cavetto moulding
+and fillet, and the remaining two-thirds an ogee and final fillet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a>{190}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Pedestal</h3>
+
+<p>In the Ionic pedestal the plinth with its mouldings should occupy
+one-third the height and the capping one-fifth the remainder.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings are similar to those of the Doric pedestal, but a little
+more elaborate. In the capping a reversa is used under the top fillet
+and a small torus or bead is placed between the ovolo and the cavetto.
+In the mouldings of the plinth a similar bead is introduced above the
+ogee moulding.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Pedestal</h3>
+
+<p>The same general divisions as the Ionic will give the proportions of the
+Corinthian pedestal, the difference being that of the scale and the
+detail of the mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>The capping may be divided into two. The top half consists of a fillet,
+reversa and facia, and the lower half a supporting cyma recta, a bead
+and a cavetto curve. The plinth mouldings are the same as those of the
+Ionic pedestal with the addition of a torus beneath the ogee. The height
+of this torus is one-fourth the total height and is about equal to that
+of the cavetto and bead together.</p>
+
+<p>When the pedestal is employed the arch becomes proportionately larger.
+In the Doric order the columns are then spaced seven and a half
+diameters apart; in the Ionic seven and three quarters, and in the
+Corinthian eight diameters centre to centre.</p>
+
+<p>The archivolt, the radius of which is determined by the above spacing,
+is supported as before by an impost and pilaster. The base of the
+pilaster consists of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a>{191}</span> slightly projecting block equal in height to the
+plinth block of the pedestal.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the arch varies slightly, inasmuch as the inner curve may
+be about a diameter from the architrave, but in the Corinthian order
+should not fall below the level of the necking moulding of the capital.</p>
+
+<h3>The Baluster</h3>
+
+<p>As already stated, the pedestal may be used as a part of a balustrading
+associated with balusters, and must conform to the proportions
+necessitated by the conditions. The usual height for balustradings,
+whether to steps, balconies, or before windows, is three feet two
+inches, though in special cases it may be slightly more.</p>
+
+<p>The baluster is a species of small column. Its usual form is bulbous or
+vase-shaped, and it is furnished with a capital and base. A series of
+balusters is technically known as a balustrade.</p>
+
+<p>The balusters are raised on a plinth, which corresponds to the plinth of
+the pedestal, and surmounted by a rail of horizontal mouldings, which
+correspond to the capping of the pedestal; hence the baluster is of the
+same height as the die.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the baluster should be divided into five, then one-fifth
+will be the height of the base, and the capital exclusive of the necking
+will be another fifth. The extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft is
+one-third the total height of the baluster, and the diameter of the
+necking and the top of the shaft is about one-sixth. The capital has a
+square abacus slightly less in width than the plinth of the base. Below
+the abacus is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a>{192}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_170" id="ill_170"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 553px;">
+<a href="images/ill_222_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_222_sml.jpg" width="553" height="378" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 170. Detail of Balusters.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a>{193}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">an ovolo and fillet, which are circular on plan. The necking is
+separated from the shaft by a small torus and fillet. The base has for
+its lowest member a square plinth, which occupies rather less than half
+the height and is equal in width to the extreme diameter of the bulbous
+shaft. Above the plinth is a scotia and a necking moulding, which are
+circular on plan.</p>
+
+<h3>Spacing of Balusters</h3>
+
+<p>The balusters should be spaced with not more than half their diameters
+or less than a third between their bases, except when employed on the
+rake of steps, when they may be slightly closer.</p>
+
+<h3>Balustrading</h3>
+
+<p>In a balustrading an unequal number of balusters should always be used,
+and not less than five in one group exclusive of the half balusters
+which are attached to the flanking or dividing dies. Seven and nine form
+very satisfactory groups, but if more than nine are necessary for the
+space to be filled, intermediate dies must be interposed, and these may
+vary from two-thirds to three-quarters the width of the principal dies.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases, when a large number of balusters are to be grouped, the
+dies are flanked by half dies, which are less in projection than the
+dies themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Balustrades are sometimes used above the cornice of a building, and
+their height should not be more than four-fifths or less than two-thirds
+the height of the entablature. This height would be exclusive of the
+plinth on which the balusters are raised. The height of the plinth is
+determined by the height of the building, and the projection of the
+cornice, as its purpose is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a>{194}</span> to raise the balusters so that they may be
+seen from the ordinary point of view. The principal dies may be placed
+over columns or pilasters and should be equal in width to the upper
+diameters of these, though flanking half dies may be used in addition to
+avoid an appearance of thinness. The plinth and capping mouldings always
+follow the plan of the principal dies, and are carried in unbroken lines
+across each interval.</p>
+
+<p>When the height of the balustrade does not conform to the orthodox
+proportions the method of determining the relative proportions is as
+follows:&mdash;The height is divided into seven parts; of these one part
+gives the height of the capping, four the baluster and two the plinth.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings in character and detail are the same as those of the
+pedestal, and should be in harmony with the order used.</p>
+
+<p>When balustrading forms part of a stair, the height on landings should
+be three feet two inches. On the rake two feet ten inches from the step
+at a line vertical with the face of the riser. The plinth is invariably
+used as a string enclosing the ends of the steps and following the rake
+or angle in a straight line, and carried to the levels by means of
+curving ramps.</p>
+
+<p>In interior work the bulbous shafts of balusters are often decorated
+with carved detail, and the mouldings also may be enriched.</p>
+
+<h3>Use of Columns</h3>
+
+<p>Columns were originally used in the porticos and courts of temples and
+other buildings, and sometimes to form supports for vaulted roofs.
+Wherever employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a>{195}</span> their function was directly structural, but this was
+not the case at the time of the Renaissance. The requirements demanded
+by widely different social conditions led to their being used more as
+decorative than structural features.</p>
+
+<p>The use of engaged columns and pilasters in a façade can be justified to
+some extent. Although such columns and pilasters may not be absolutely
+essential for support, yet they act as buttresses and add to the
+strength of the structure with a certain economy of material. Also they
+are æsthetically satisfactory in their effect of light and shade.</p>
+
+<h3>Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades</h3>
+
+<p>The disposition of columns either in a façade or a colonnade is
+controlled by proportions which have been found to be desirable or are
+necessitated by special features of the order itself. The latter is the
+case with the Doric order, the spacing being determined by the trigylphs
+and metopes. If the triglyphs are placed centrally over the columns or
+pilasters the spacing of these apart will be two and a half diameters
+centre to centre, three and three-quarters, or five diameters, with two,
+three or four metopes respectively between them in the frieze. With the
+wider spacing of five diameters it is usual to employ coupled columns to
+add to the appearance of strength. As the triglyphs are one and a
+quarter diameters apart centre to centre, the coupled columns are
+brought very close together, entailing a slight modification of the
+bases. Since the ordinary projection of the plinth of a sixth of a
+diameter beyond the line of the shaft is not possible<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a>{196}</span> between the two
+columns, the plinth-blocks are united, and the torus moulding made
+slightly less in projection.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_171" id="ill_171"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
+<a href="images/ill_226_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_226_sml.jpg" width="381" height="362" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 171. Spacing of Columns.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capitals being less in width are not affected, a small interval is
+left between the crowning reversa mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>In the Ionic order the columns are spaced three and a quarter, three and
+three-quarters and four and a quarter diameters centre to centre. The
+coupled columns used with the wide spacing are one and a half<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a>{197}</span> diameters
+centre to centre or half a diameter apart at the lower extremity of the
+shafts.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian spacing is slightly wider, three and a half diameters,
+four diameters, or with coupled columns four and a half diameters centre
+to centre. The coupled columns are placed as in the Ionic order one and
+a half diameters centre to centre.</p>
+
+<p>It is desirable that attention should be given to the vertical alignment
+of the principal features. Dentils and modillions and indeed all
+strongly marked features should centre with the columns, and be equally
+spaced in the intervals.</p>
+
+<h3>Orders Above Orders</h3>
+
+<p>Occasionally in façades orders are used above one another. The Colosseum
+is an antique Roman example of this, and it was a treatment often
+adopted by the architects of the early Renaissance. It is desirable that
+the simpler order should be the lower one. Ionic may be used over Doric,
+or Corinthian over Ionic.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the central axes of the columns or pilasters of each
+order used should be in vertical alignment, not only when seen from the
+front, but in the case of detached columns, from the side view also.</p>
+
+<p>When engaged columns or pilasters are employed, the upper tier may be
+set back slightly from the face of the lower order which supports it; an
+example of this is to be found in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The proportions of the upper order are obtained by making the lower
+diameter of the upper tier of columns or pilasters equal to the upper
+diameter of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a>{198}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_172" id="ill_172"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<a href="images/ill_228_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_228_sml.jpg" width="275" height="555" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 172. Order above Order.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a>{199}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">of the supporting order, and an effect of continuous tapering is
+produced.</p>
+
+<p>It is usual to place above the entablature of the lower order a plinth
+on which the bases of the upper columns rest. The height of the plinth
+is regulated by the point of view, as its purpose is to display the
+bases of the imposed order above the projecting cornice. Generally this
+height will be about half a diameter.</p>
+
+<p>In many historical examples the upper columns are placed on pedestals,
+but this treatment, although useful when a balcony is desired, is not to
+be recommended as the extra width and projection which the use of the
+pedestal entails, gives an appearance of undue weight to be borne by the
+supporting columns. If balconies are necessary they may terminate with
+their own pedestals, which can be kept clear of the columns and should
+not exceed them in projection.</p>
+
+<h3>The Pilaster</h3>
+
+<p>It may be as well to deal here with the treatment of pilasters, which
+may be defined as columns in bas-relief. Their projection may vary from
+one-half to about one-sixth their face width, though in antique examples
+it is sometimes much less than this. In the pilasters of the Pantheon at
+Rome it is one-tenth.</p>
+
+<p>The projection is, however, partly determined by the order with which
+the pilaster is used, as an appearance of mutilation might easily be
+produced in the capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric
+capital, being composed of moulded profiles, is not in any way affected
+by the amount of projection. Nor does the Ionic capital suffer when the
+volutes are in one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a>{200}</span> plane except when used on an angle. But if the later
+Renaissance type with the volutes arranged at angles of 45 degrees is
+employed, the projection of the pilaster must not be less than half its
+upper diameter, so that the volute on the return face may be complete.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian capital would be affected in the same way, and should
+also be not less than half a diameter in projection in order to obtain a
+satisfactory result.</p>
+
+<p>The pilaster is usually tapered, and when associated with columns and
+supporting the same entablature it is essential to preserve universal
+alignment in the upper extremities and the architrave, but when used by
+itself the pilaster is often not tapered. At the angle of buildings,
+where both faces are displayed, it is an invariable rule that pilasters
+should be straight.</p>
+
+<p>The details of capitals and bases are the same as those of the columns.
+When fluting is employed an odd number of channels should be used,
+usually seven on the front face.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_173" id="ill_173"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 131px;">
+<a href="images/ill_230_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_230_sml.jpg" width="131" height="343" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 173. Doric Order. Treatment of coupled Column and
+Pilaster.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Arcades</h3>
+
+<p>Arcades, as already suggested, may be composed of a series of arches,
+supported on pilasters which flank the columns. The backs of the piers
+thus formed may<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a>{201}</span> be treated with pilasters, which can be repeated on the
+opposite wall, with the architrave frieze and cornice above.</p>
+
+<p>There are several alternative treatments for the ceilings of arcades.
+They may be flat and panelled by beams carried across in a line with the
+pilasters and with a cornice moulding carried round the sides of the
+beams.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_174" id="ill_174"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;">
+<a href="images/ill_231_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_231_sml.jpg" width="216" height="286" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 174. Doric Arcading.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The interior can also be vaulted by means of archivolts springing from
+the line of the imposts. The archivolts should be supported by pilasters
+at the back of the piers and on the opposite wall, and a cornice may be
+carried round between the vaults. Cross vaulting also may be employed,
+and in this case the entablature is no longer necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The proportions already given determine the width of piers when an order
+is used, but when an order is not used some further general rules for
+proportions are necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the opening formed by arches, which may spring from
+piers&mdash;with or without an impost&mdash;should be about twice the width. The
+supporting piers should not be less than a third or more than
+two-thirds<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a>{202}</span> the width of the aperture. In any form of arcading, piers
+must be employed at the angles, and these should be wider than the
+intermediate ones by a half, a third, or a fourth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_175" id="ill_175"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_232_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_232_sml.jpg" width="279" height="355" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 175. Doric Arch, with pedestal.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Subsidiary Order</h3>
+
+<p>A secondary or subsidiary order is sometimes used in an arcading. The
+height of the arch should then be twice its width, and the height of the
+small order two-thirds the height of the column of the principal order.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a>{203}</span>This height of two-thirds the column should be sub-divided into nine
+parts, of which eight will give the height of the column and the
+remaining one that of the entablature. The entablature consists of
+architrave and cornice, the frieze being omitted, and a division into
+five will give the relative proportions. Two-fifths may be taken as the
+height of the architrave and three that of the cornice.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_176" id="ill_176"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_233_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_233_sml.jpg" width="362" height="374" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 176. Employment of the Subsidiary Order.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pilasters are used with the columns of the subsidiary order with a space
+of half a diameter between them and the columns.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a>{204}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_177" id="ill_177"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_234_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_234_sml.jpg" width="192" height="187" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 177. Subsidiary Order. Division of Entablature.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The archivolt should be equal in width to the upper diameter of the
+column, and the width of the lower edge of the keystone should also be
+of the same dimension.</p>
+
+<p>The subsidiary order may be the same as the principal order, but more
+often the Ionic is used in conjunction with the Doric, or the Corinthian
+with the Ionic.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the treatment of the bases, the horizontal alignment must be
+maintained. It is obvious that if the height of the base of the large
+column is adopted for the subsidiary one it will be very much out of
+proportion. This can be obviated by carrying through the plinth of the
+larger column to form a step on which the base of the smaller rests, and
+always the top line of the smaller bases should agree with that of the
+larger.</p>
+
+<h3>Superimposed Orders</h3>
+
+<p>When arcades are used one above the other, the lower order is usually
+mounted on a plinth, and the upper furnished with a pedestal. The height
+of the pedestal is determined by the balustrading or balcony, the height
+of which is governed by its use.</p>
+
+<p>If the Doric is taken as the lower order the centres of the columns are
+six and a quarter diameters apart, which gives a frieze of five metopes
+with intervening<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a>{205}</span> triglyphs. The plinth on which the order stands is
+three-quarters of a diameter high. The pilaster supporting the archivolt
+projects half a diameter, and the height of the arch is determined by
+the impost, which is two-thirds the height of the column inclusive of
+the plinth. The base of the pilaster may be moulded, but the top line
+should coincide with the top of the plinth.</p>
+
+<p>Above the Doric an Ionic order might be placed, and the die and plinth
+of the superimposed order should be kept as narrow as possible so as to
+reduce the impression of weight. The pilasters carrying the arch rest on
+the plinth of the pedestal, and the plinth mouldings are carried round
+the bases. The plinth and rail of the balustrading should not project
+but be kept between the pilasters.</p>
+
+<p>The centres of the arches of both tiers are in a line with the tops of
+the imposts, and the outer edges of the archivolts may nearly reach the
+lower lines of the architraves.</p>
+
+<p>When the Ionic is used as the lower order it may be surmounted by the
+Corinthian. The distance between the centres of the lower columns should
+then be six and a half diameters. The other proportions can be obtained
+in the same way as the preceding.</p>
+
+<p>If a subsidiary order is employed the columns of the principal order are
+placed further apart. In the case of the Doric the distance is seven and
+a half diameters, and the other orders are increased in proportion.</p>
+
+<h3>Rustication</h3>
+
+<p>The joints of the material used must necessarily be considered, and when
+plain piers or plain wall surfaces<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a>{206}</span> occur the joints may readily be
+accentuated and so turned to decorative account. The edges of the stones
+forming the separate courses may be chamfered or moulded. The joints may
+also be worked so as to form a square recess.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_178" id="ill_178"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_236_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_236_sml.jpg" width="276" height="139" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TYPES OF RUSTICATION<br />
+No. 178. Rustication.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The surface of the stone is sometimes roughly tooled or frosted, or
+worked in an arbitrary pattern, which is termed “vermiculated.” This
+treatment probably gave rise to the word rustication.</p>
+
+<p>When rusticated work is used with an order the height of each course of
+stone should not be less than half a diameter, and when square recessed
+joints are used they can be one-eighth or one-tenth the height of the
+course.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally only the horizontal courses are thus marked, and this has
+been objected to as producing a boarded appearance, though undoubtedly
+the horizontal effect is at times agreeably in contrast to the vertical
+features. A much more usual treatment in Renaissance examples was to
+emphasise the vertical joints also.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a>{207}</span></p>
+
+<p>The length of each stone should be from one and a half to three times
+the height.</p>
+
+<p>Rustication may be used in the formation of the arch, which frequently
+has at its springing line a slightly projecting course, in which the
+vertical joints are not emphasised.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_179" id="ill_179"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_237_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_237_sml.jpg" width="280" height="184" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 179. Rusticated Arcade.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rustication is also used in columns, either square on plan or conforming
+to the plan of the column.</p>
+
+<p>Its most legitimate employment is in basements and to emphasise the
+angles of buildings.</p>
+
+<h3>Basement</h3>
+
+<p>A basement is really a continuous pedestal on which an order rests. It
+necessarily varies in height according to conditions, thus if its
+purpose is merely to raise the ground floor it may be no more than three
+to six feet high, but if it is required to form a storey, it should not
+exceed the height of the order employed or be less than one half.</p>
+
+<p>The joints of the work in basements are generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a>{208}</span> accentuated by some
+form of rustication, and the heights of the horizontal courses should
+not be less than half a diameter of the column of the order above.</p>
+
+<p>When a high basement is used it is sometimes crowned with a cornice, or
+more frequently with a slightly projecting facia technically known as a
+plat-band. In either case, the height should be equal to that of the
+courses exclusive of moulded edges or chamfers. Also a plinth is placed
+at the base of the same height as the plat-band or a little more. When a
+cornice is used the plinth should be moulded and may then exceed the
+height of the courses.</p>
+
+<h3>Attic</h3>
+
+<p>An attic storey is sometimes used instead of a second order, and this
+may vary from one-third to one-tenth the height of the order beneath it.</p>
+
+<p>The attic may be quite plain, but it often has breakings or projections
+on its face corresponding to the vertical features of the supporting
+order.</p>
+
+<p>It usually forms a storey in a building, and then is of necessity
+pierced with windows.</p>
+
+<p>In architectural design the character and requirements of the building
+must, of course, be the first consideration, but the basement may
+constitute the ground floor, the height occupied by the order may
+contain two stories and the attic may be an upper floor.</p>
+
+<p>When an order is not employed the divisions and proportions already
+stated may still be applied, the heights and widths should govern each
+other as would be the case if the façade were divided into bays by
+columns or pilasters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a>{209}</span></p>
+
+<p>In the absence of the order a cornice is substituted for the
+entablature, and this, according to different authorities, may be from
+one-twelfth to one-sixteenth the total height from the ground, but
+one-fourteenth or one-fifteenth will be found a safe mean.</p>
+
+<h3>The Pediment</h3>
+
+<p>The pediment in its original and orthodox employment was a gable
+conforming to the pitch of the roof. It is framed with mouldings, and
+the enclosed space is technically known as the tympanum.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_180" id="ill_180"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 198px;">
+<a href="images/ill_239_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_239_sml.jpg" width="198" height="200" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 180. Cornice where order is not employed.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The use made of the pediment by the architects of the Renaissance was
+not always justified in the strictest sense. It was often used to vary
+the sky line, and to form door and window heads. Although the latter use
+can be to some extent justified in exterior work, a similar employment
+in interiors may be open to question.</p>
+
+<p>The sloping lines of the pediment are not always straight, sometimes
+they are in the form of a curve composed of a segment of a circle. The
+triangular and curved forms are often used alternately in a row of
+windows with good effect.</p>
+
+<p>The lines of the pediment mouldings are not always continuous; sometimes
+the sloping or the horizontal lines or both are broken. This is a
+treatment that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a>{210}</span> cannot readily be justified as the pediment is a feature
+that implies shelter.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes ogee curves take the place of the straight sloping lines, and
+these terminate towards the centre, with scroll ends, leaving an
+interval between them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_181" id="ill_181"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a href="images/ill_240_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_240_sml.jpg" width="367" height="232" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DETAIL OF PEDIMENT</p>
+
+<p>No. 181.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mouldings of the pediment are the same as those of the cornice, the
+crowning moulding of which is carried round and omitted in the
+horizontal course forming the base of the pediment.</p>
+
+<p>Beneath the cyma the mouldings of the cornice are repeated in their
+proper order, detailing at the lower angles on the top of the horizontal
+cornice, which terminates with the fillet above the facia.</p>
+
+<p>When dentils and modillions are introduced in the cornice they are
+invariably repeated in the mouldings of the pediment.</p>
+
+<p>The tympanum or face of the pediment should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a>{211}</span> in vertical alignment
+with the face of the frieze. When this space is small it is best left
+plain, but on a large scale the tympanum affords a very suitable
+position in which to place sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the pediment varies according to the width. Thus where the
+base is short, as in door and window heads, it will be comparatively
+higher than when used in a façade. The height may vary from a fourth to
+a fifth of the width of the base.</p>
+
+<h3>Doors</h3>
+
+<p>Obviously door openings should be of sufficient size to admit the free
+passage of a tall person. The minimum height for ordinary doors in
+domestic buildings should be six feet nine inches, and the width two
+feet nine inches. For entrance doors under similar conditions the width
+may be three feet six, but when it is more than this the door should be
+in two halves.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_182" id="ill_182"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;">
+<a href="images/ill_241_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_241_sml.jpg" width="145" height="199" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 182. General proportions of doors and windows.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The size of doors should be proportioned to the building, and should be
+designed to meet probable requirements, thus in public buildings door
+openings should not be less than six feet wide.</p>
+
+<p>Generally a satisfactory proportion may be obtained by making the height
+twice the width, and the framing architrave one-sixth the width of the
+opening.</p>
+
+<p>If a frieze and cornice are carried over the door the height inclusive
+of architrave should be half the width of the opening.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a>{212}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_183" id="ill_183"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
+<a href="images/ill_242_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_242_sml.jpg" width="378" height="553" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 183. Door Treatment.</p>
+
+<p>A. Architrave with simple pilasters and consoles.
+
+B. Ionic order rusticated, with pediment.
+
+C. Doric order with pediment.
+
+D. Doric order rusticated.
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a>{213}</span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the framing architrave narrow pilasters bearing consoles
+supporting the cornice are sometimes used. The total width of architrave
+and pilaster may be about one-third the width, and the entire
+entablature one-third the height of the opening.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings and decorations used should be in harmony with the general
+structure and in character with the order if one is used.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally columns or pilasters are introduced, with or without the
+arch, but the same general proportions apply, the aperture being two
+squares.</p>
+
+<p>When doors are placed under arches the top line of the entablature
+should agree with that of the impost.</p>
+
+<p>When a pediment is used, the height should be one-fourth the width of
+the base.</p>
+
+<h3>Windows</h3>
+
+<p>The general proportions and treatments of doors apply also to windows,
+and if doors and windows are placed in the same line the heads of the
+openings should be in horizontal alignment. If this is not possible the
+top of the cornice may agree with the inner line of the window openings.</p>
+
+<p>Windows terminate below in a sill, or sometimes in a balcony, and as a
+general rule those on the same level should be similar in treatment, but
+an alternation such as already suggested with curved and straight lined
+pediments is quite satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>The frieze and consoles of doors and windows are often decorated with
+relief ornament.</p>
+
+<p>When a façade is divided by columns or pilasters the bays are pierced
+with windows ranged above each<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a>{214}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_184" id="ill_184"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 356px;">
+<a href="images/ill_244_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_244_sml.jpg" width="356" height="548" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 184. Windows.</p>
+<p>A. Rusticated Architrave.
+
+B. Rusticated Ionic Columns.
+
+C. &amp; D. Rustication with Horizontal and Vertical Joints Defined.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a>{215}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">other, the heights varying with the different floors. Those on the first
+storey are usually of full height, and those above less in height and
+simpler in treatment. The width of apertures should be the same for the
+different levels, except in the case of basements, where they may be
+narrower.</p>
+
+<p>When an order is not employed in a façade variety may be obtained by
+grouping the windows; or three-light windows may be introduced. The
+centre light, which may be treated with an arched head, should be twice
+the width of the side lights.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_185" id="ill_185"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;">
+<a href="images/ill_245_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_245_sml.jpg" width="235" height="200" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 185. Three-Light Window.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The number of windows in a façade should be odd, so that there may be a
+centre one, and the end windows of a range should be kept well clear of
+the angles of the building.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a>{216}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /><br />
+DIVISION OF SURFACE</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be
+divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form
+of the framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval;
+and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails
+or ribs, while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings.</p>
+
+<h3>Wall Treatment</h3>
+
+<p>In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with
+architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of
+pilasters&mdash;the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to
+the conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of
+pilasters in exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces
+between them are occupied by panels or other features.</p>
+
+<p>Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted
+on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the
+form of a Dado or surbase.</p>
+
+<p>In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice
+forms a bed moulding for the ceiling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a>{217}</span>Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_186" id="ill_186"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_247_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_247_sml.jpg" width="360" height="529" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 186. Wall Division.</p>
+<p>A. &amp; B. Pilaster Treatment.</p>
+
+<p>C. &amp; D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a>{218}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the
+case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_187" id="ill_187"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;">
+<a href="images/ill_248_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_248_sml.jpg" width="366" height="320" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo,
+Florence. M. Angelo.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the
+division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both
+vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may
+be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide.</p>
+
+<h3>Ceilings</h3>
+
+<p>When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some
+relation to the general<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a>{219}</span> construction, though in the past this rule has
+not always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very
+desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden
+or plaster mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated.
+When mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be
+maintained between the framing ribs and the panels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_188" id="ill_188"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 359px;">
+<a href="images/ill_249_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_249_sml.jpg" width="359" height="318" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo,
+Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs
+geometrically arranged with pateræ in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a>{220}</span> between and fleur-de-lys details
+on the outer angles where the ribs met.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_189" id="ill_189"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/ill_250_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_250_sml.jpg" width="365" height="462" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Plan
+of general arrangement.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a>{221}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_190" id="ill_190"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_251_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_251_sml.jpg" width="360" height="227" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Jacobean</h3>
+
+<p>In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands
+projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These
+bands were disposed in various ways&mdash;sometimes intersecting at right
+angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming
+geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines.</p>
+
+<p>If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is
+obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account.</p>
+
+<h3>Carolean and Georgian</h3>
+
+<p>In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the
+ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or
+oval in form&mdash;the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes
+the angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably
+left plain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a>{222}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Adam Ceilings</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_191" id="ill_191"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/ill_252_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_252_sml.jpg" width="287" height="451" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall, Westmorland.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or
+circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons&mdash;an
+arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a>{223}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_192" id="ill_192"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_253_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_253_sml.jpg" width="360" height="540" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a>{224}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated
+with the characteristic fan detail.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_193" id="ill_193"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_254_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_254_sml.jpg" width="280" height="315" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Vaults and Domes</h3>
+
+<p>In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal
+or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size
+towards the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more
+properly speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further
+the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as
+circles, unless the diameter be relatively small.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a>{225}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_194" id="ill_194"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a href="images/ill_255_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_255_sml.jpg" width="367" height="456" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 194. Adam Ceiling.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Cove</h3>
+
+<p>In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is
+technically known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of
+the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be
+decorated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a>{226}</span></p>
+
+<p>When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be
+obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are
+themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make
+a break in the frieze or cove.</p>
+
+<p>It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in
+interior decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use
+it may be urged that, though considerations of actual weight and
+structure are not involved, yet the appearance of support has to be
+maintained, and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should
+realise the effect of stability.</p>
+
+<h3>The Frieze</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_198" id="ill_198"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 217px;">
+<a href="images/ill_256_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_256_sml.jpg" width="217" height="170" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 198. Festoon Frieze. Continuous treatment with
+vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, Tivoli</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In considering the decoration of the various parts, the two principal
+questions to be asked are&mdash;what is the purpose? and, what is the
+attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be said to be to bind, and the
+attitude of the Frieze is certainly a horizontal one&mdash;therefore the
+usual continuous treatment is justified. This is not the only way in
+which the Frieze can be treated, however, for the continuous horizontal
+treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the Doric
+order. The employment of Festoons with intermediate<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a>{227}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_195" id="ill_195"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_257a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_257a_sml.jpg" width="361" height="266" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice, Sansovino.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_196" id="ill_196"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_257b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_257b_sml.jpg" width="360" height="282" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p>No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal division, resulting in
+panels. Villa Madama, Rome.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_197" id="ill_197"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_258_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_258_sml.jpg" width="360" height="279" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial division.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the
+vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle
+is involved in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be
+in alignment with adjacent and dominant details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_199" id="ill_199"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;">
+<a href="images/ill_259_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_259_sml.jpg" width="211" height="106" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 199. Frieze. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome.
+Horizontal direction suggested by Gryffons, with vertical contrast by
+Candelabra.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as much
+interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary
+repetition.</p>
+
+<h3>Borders</h3>
+
+<p>Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the
+spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably
+uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations,
+where some license is permissible).</p>
+
+<p>As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be
+simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions.</p>
+
+<p>The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When
+on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines
+spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which
+case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the
+length, while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles.
+This treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a>{228}</span>
+between those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and
+these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple
+forms.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_200" id="ill_200"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_260_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_260_sml.jpg" width="360" height="497" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a>{229}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_201" id="ill_201"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 351px;">
+<a href="images/ill_261_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_261_sml.jpg" width="351" height="431" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 201. Interlacing Borders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which
+traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and
+then returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is
+an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is
+alternately dispensed with.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a>{230}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Geometric Elements</h3>
+
+<p>The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character.
+The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various
+angles, or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a
+combination of straight lines and curves.</p>
+
+<h3>The Undulate Line</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_202" id="ill_202"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<a href="images/ill_262_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_262_sml.jpg" width="289" height="289" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric Curves.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered
+patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and
+dark masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting
+straight lines. When segmental curves are employed either the chequered
+or interlacing effect may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a>{231}</span> obtained. Such patterns are essentially
+geometric and mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested
+by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from
+either side of the border. This effect may be used with purely
+artificial detail, such as arises naturally from the spaces left, or
+with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident that the curve of
+the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres
+from which the arcs are struck.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_203" id="ill_203"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 285px;">
+<a href="images/ill_263_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_263_sml.jpg" width="285" height="342" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate Borders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will
+be obtained by basing the stem upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a>{232}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_204" id="ill_204"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_264a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_264a_sml.jpg" width="360" height="122" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_205" id="ill_205"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 240px;">
+<a href="images/ill_264b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_264b_sml.jpg" width="240" height="334" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 205. 14th Century Textile composed of Undulate
+Borders arranged obliquely.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a>{233}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The
+latter device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only
+the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_206" id="ill_206"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/ill_265_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_265_sml.jpg" width="287" height="271" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century, composed of
+Borders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details
+symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional
+flowers or rosettes to break the monotony.</p>
+
+<h3>Repetition and Alternation</h3>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal
+character, and should consist of the repetition of units with no
+interest beyond that imparted by alternation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a>{234}</span></p>
+
+<p>The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to
+be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor
+of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit
+can be designed.</p>
+
+<h3>Treatment of Angles</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_207" id="ill_207"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 238px;">
+<a href="images/ill_266_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_266_sml.jpg" width="238" height="321" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border.</p>
+
+<p>A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special
+treatment, and in those positions the detail should be compact and
+stronger in appearance than the general pattern. The simplest expedient
+is some form of patera or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should
+always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border. The only
+forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles,
+are the undulating stem, the wave, and its square form the key or
+labyrinth; but even with these the proportion of width to height at
+times needs modification. If a common divisor is not possible, the
+difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal
+and letting<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a>{235}</span> the two sides meet in the centre of the border, so that any
+slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable.</p>
+
+<h3>Pilaster Treatment</h3>
+
+<p>As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its
+treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural
+requirements, and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis
+and vertical in direction.</p>
+
+<p>When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be
+unequal in number&mdash;seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be
+further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only
+one-third of the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of
+husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the
+pilaster. In either case the general rule must be observed that the
+cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height.</p>
+
+<h3>Panelled Pilasters</h3>
+
+<p>Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about
+half the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably
+in pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the
+centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped
+panel. Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and
+this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this
+purpose the undulate stem should never be employed. Such detail requires
+a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster,
+but for the rest, it may<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a>{236}</span> consist of the same unit repeated, or of two
+alternating units.</p>
+
+<p>In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was
+customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and
+labels.</p>
+
+<h3>Capitals and Bases</h3>
+
+<p>The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other
+decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a
+modified Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster
+has plain or decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the
+pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a
+composite form in which the Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure
+together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be
+used. The Ionic type would also be suitable; when the base of the
+pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus
+may be bound with cross ribbons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_208" id="ill_208"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 60px;">
+<a href="images/ill_268a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_268a_sml.jpg" width="60" height="283" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 208. Pilaster Treatment. French Renaissance.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_209" id="ill_209"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;">
+<a href="images/ill_268b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_268b_sml.jpg" width="171" height="186" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 209. Treatment of Pilaster Capital, with Vertical
+Emphasis.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Treatment of Panels</h3>
+
+<p>Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and
+therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be
+considered&mdash;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a>{237}</span>that is to say, the only question is, as to whether the
+surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane. In the
+decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane, since it is not desirable
+to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate diagonally or
+diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a ceiling,
+details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should
+grow towards the centre of the ceiling.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_210" id="ill_210"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_269_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_269_sml.jpg" width="276" height="222" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth from Angle.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any
+height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule;
+but if the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it
+should remain vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform
+to the width.</p>
+
+<p>The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude,
+should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate
+terminals. If<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a>{238}</span> the enclosing border were removed the detail should, by
+its general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole
+surface may not be occupied.</p>
+
+<p>Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the
+panel&mdash;certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration
+than on adornment in more subordinate positions.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do
+so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be
+carefully considered.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_211" id="ill_211"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_270_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_270_sml.jpg" width="282" height="159" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central Feature based on
+Circle.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced
+one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the
+position of the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of
+panels; greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed
+designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs.</p>
+
+<h3>Juxtaposition</h3>
+
+<p>When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the
+other, they may exert influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a>{239}</span> on one another. For example, vertical
+features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent
+panel even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels
+are one above the other, central features should be avoided and the
+interest should be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the
+effect will be spotty and lacking in repose.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_212" id="ill_212"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/ill_271_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_271_sml.jpg" width="239" height="325" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 212. Panels in Juxtaposition.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their
+treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to
+which the more structural features must submit, there is open to them<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a>{240}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_213" id="ill_213"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 285px;">
+<a href="images/ill_272_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_272_sml.jpg" width="285" height="409" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 213. Design for Panel based on Treatment of Celery.
+By C. A. Sheehan, Bristol.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first
+place, the panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the
+requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on
+in mural decoration. If not treated pictorially, ornament of a
+traditional character, or designs derived more directly from natural
+forms can be made use of. In either case<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a>{241}</span> the ornament must complete
+itself within the given area.</p>
+
+<h3>The Growth Line</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_214" id="ill_214"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 291px;">
+<a href="images/ill_273_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_273_sml.jpg" width="291" height="406" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 214. Analysis of Composing Lines of Panel.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used,
+but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for
+the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected
+growth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a>{242}</span> The disposition of leaves and other elements must also be
+characteristic, and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near
+enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such
+forms as branches or leaves approach or cross, they should always do so
+at decided angles; their points or extremities should never be directly
+opposed to other details or to margins. The main growth should be
+clearly discernible, and the direction of the stem lines evident even
+when clothed with foliage.</p>
+
+<h3>Grouping and Massing</h3>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that
+the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a
+design. In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped
+and massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious
+whole. Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in
+keeping with the general environment.</p>
+
+<p>Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail,
+because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail
+equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is
+obvious that the result will again be uniform&mdash;the only difference being
+that a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not
+undesirable in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel.</p>
+
+<h3>Division of Area</h3>
+
+<p>The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent
+should be guided by the scale. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a>{243}</span> expedient in panel designing is to
+draw within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other
+shape, a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to
+that which is to be less conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_215" id="ill_215"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/ill_275_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_275_sml.jpg" width="288" height="446" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 215. Phases of Elaboration of Simple Shape.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a>{244}</span> but the grouping of
+these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders
+a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of
+adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling
+growth lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_216" id="ill_216"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a href="images/ill_276a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_276a_sml.jpg" width="270" height="156" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 216. Byzantine Panel. Composition based on Circles.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_217" id="ill_217"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_276b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_276b_sml.jpg" width="276" height="150" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 217. Romanesque Lunette Panel. Composition based on
+Circular Shapes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Human and Animal Life</h3>
+
+<p>Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is
+employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to
+composition, inasmuch that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a>{245}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_218" id="ill_218"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_277_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_277_sml.jpg" width="360" height="472" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 218. Figure Composition. Recognition of Framing
+Lines.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_219" id="ill_219"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/ill_278_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_278_sml.jpg" width="369" height="492" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 219. Figure Composition. Spandril Treatment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the
+boundaries or framing lines.</p>
+
+<p>The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely
+conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted
+into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not
+possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the
+consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if
+consistency has to be observed.</p>
+
+<p>The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in
+particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings
+or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the
+memorial of Mr. Dick.</p>
+
+<h3>Forms in the Round</h3>
+
+<p>Forms in the round&mdash;such that can be seen from any point of view&mdash;need
+special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the
+surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of
+varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical
+lines, any one of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite,
+would appear straight, whereas those approaching the profiles would
+appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_220" id="ill_220"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;">
+<a href="images/ill_279_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_279_sml.jpg" width="141" height="98" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 220. Effect of Perspective of Vertical Division.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according
+to the profile curvature, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a>{246}</span> decoration, for bodies that are
+bulbous in form, the foreshortening and its effect on details must be
+taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion.</p>
+
+<h3>Supports and Balusters</h3>
+
+<p>Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for
+furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and
+balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts,
+and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously
+suggested. Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in
+wood, these forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case
+may be further decorated by carved work. In supports, the general
+tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to
+enhance the structural suggestion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_221" id="ill_221"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 109px;">
+<a href="images/ill_280_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_280_sml.jpg" width="109" height="288" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 221. Jacobean Baluster, Carved Wood, showing Vertical
+and Horizontal Contrast.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Standards</h3>
+
+<p>In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the
+element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a
+greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in
+interior fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate
+but will convey the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards
+the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable, but when<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a>{247}</span> the
+standard is small the base can be circular, square or polygonal. The
+commonest form is a shaft, which is frequently tapered. This is
+supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base. At
+the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind. These different
+parts are held together by appropriate mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size,
+should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with
+occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must
+also vary according to material.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_222" id="ill_222"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 209px;">
+<a href="images/ill_281_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_281_sml.jpg" width="209" height="475" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 222. Cast Iron Lamp Standard.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Proportion</h3>
+
+<p>Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind
+of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and
+diameter. Obvious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248"></a>{248}</span> repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided.
+The profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting
+harmony or contrast&mdash;the curves either approaching one another in a
+flexible line or being deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used
+at intervals to mark the various stages.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_223" id="ill_223"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;">
+<a href="images/ill_282_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_282_sml.jpg" width="377" height="174" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration.</p>
+
+<p>A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast.</p>
+
+<p>B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight
+lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may
+take other forms&mdash;they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the
+diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When
+unity of line is desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily
+into each other, even if broken at intervals by mouldings. In
+contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order
+to avoid indecision of form.</p>
+
+<h3>Positions for Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by
+mouldings. The nature and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249"></a>{249}</span> direction of the decoration will be
+determined by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of
+the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid
+distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform
+curvature.</p>
+
+<p>If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of
+flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the
+vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an
+oblique direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or
+twining round the shape.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_224" id="ill_224"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_283_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_283_sml.jpg" width="361" height="116" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 224. Stretch Out and Segments of the Cylinder.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the vertical panel treatment, as in mouldings, the sectional or
+profile curve may be used to determine the general framing lines, with
+contrasting details between the panels. In order to give variety it may
+be desirable to combine two treatments&mdash;for instance, the horizontal
+band may be contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves.</p>
+
+<h3>Working Drawings</h3>
+
+<p>For a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in
+perspective. All the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel
+lines. It is obvious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a>{250}</span> that except for profiles and general height,
+further details must be given for a working drawing.</p>
+
+<h3>The Segment or Stretch Out</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_225" id="ill_225"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_284_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_284_sml.jpg" width="192" height="208" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 225. Stretch Out of the Cone.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In designing for forms in the round it is necessary to detail the
+ornament on a segment or a stretching-out of the area. This is easily
+done in the case of a cylinder of which the height is evident, and the
+extreme width and circumference easily obtainable. If the object is not
+in existence for direct measurement the width can be determined from the
+diameter as expressed in the drawing. As this diameter is about
+one-third of the circumference a parallelogram three times the width of
+the diameter will provide, in the flat, the complete area on which
+detail has to be drawn.</p>
+
+<p>Should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone&mdash;that is,
+with straight inclined sides and a circular plan, the procedure must
+necessarily be different. In this case the lines of the sides should be
+extended till they intersect. This intersection forms a centre from
+which arcs may be struck coinciding with the lines of top and base. The
+greatest diameter should be set off on each side of the elevation on the
+larger radius and the points joined up with the centres from which the
+arcs were struck. The result is a fan-shaped figure<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a>{251}</span> bounded by these
+outer lines and the two arcs. This figure gives the entire area of the
+surface of the truncated cone.</p>
+
+<p>In either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on, the
+surfaces can be sub-divided. For instance, if the decoration consists of
+a unit repeated three or six times round the form, it will not be
+necessary to reproduce the whole area, provided always that the profiles
+are straight or tapered.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_226" id="ill_226"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 198px;">
+<a href="images/ill_285_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_285_sml.jpg" width="198" height="144" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 226. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-sixth of
+Vase.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the diameter is about one-third of the circumference the elevational
+drawing of the cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a diameter
+gives one-sixth.</p>
+
+<p>In the truncated cone shape the widths are similarly determined, but it
+will be found that the height, when measured on the centre line, is less
+than the lengths of the profile lines which constitute the actual
+height.</p>
+
+<p>When the profiles are curved, the procedure is more complicated. As in
+the case of the cone shape, there is naturally some discrepancy between
+the height of the elevation and the profile, the actual dimension of
+which is affected by perspective (as also in plan curvature).</p>
+
+<p>To obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured
+vertically with some flexible material, such as thin lead wire, which
+will readily embrace the curvature.</p>
+
+<p>If a division of a third or a sixth is required the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a>{252}</span> diameter or half
+diameter can be taken, but the segment of the area should be set off on
+a fresh centre line quite independent of the elevational drawing.</p>
+
+<p>In order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be
+divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in
+curvature, and these can be lettered or numbered for identification. The
+distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on
+the new centre line, and then these can be used for drawing the
+parallels through.</p>
+
+<p>The various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines on
+the elevation. Lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give
+the required segment or area on the flat.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_227" id="ill_227"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<a href="images/ill_286_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_286_sml.jpg" width="210" height="261" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 227. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-fifth of
+Vase.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required,
+it will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the
+division can be obtained. Assuming that the elevation has been
+vertically divided as before, and the plan to be circular, a circle
+should be struck which is to represent the largest diameter and its
+circumference divided into the required number of parts. Lines are then
+drawn through<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a>{253}</span> to the centre. On the same centre other circles are
+struck with radii equal to the remaining horizontals, and each
+identified with the corresponding number or letter. The heights are
+obtained as before, and the diameters of the variations in the curvature
+can be ascertained by measuring round each of the plan curves in
+succession.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the plan being other than circular, the same rules apply,
+but the different plans would have to be drawn in each individual
+example.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes, it is undesirable
+to employ the human figure, unless in bold relief, and then only on
+straight or slightly curved profiles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a>{254}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /><br />
+DEVELOPMENT OF CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE term Convention is applied to decoration in which there is distinct
+evidence of artistic restraint, which may be purely æsthetic or due to
+technical conditions.</p>
+
+<h3>Outline Drawing</h3>
+
+<p>The rendering of any form in outline is probably the simplest form of
+convention, which is generally accepted through tradition as
+representation. Though the objects so depicted really depend on light,
+shade, and local colour for their appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Such outline drawings may be in other respects realistic, but a further
+degree of convention is the desirable elimination of perspective where
+it is unsuitable to the effect desired. For instance, in silhouette,
+profile renderings only are intelligible, and in delicate bas-relief
+modelling any foreshortening should be avoided if confusing to the
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>In direct personal work, such as drawing or painting, when craft
+conditions other than that of the medium employed are not involved,
+convention is purely a matter of discretion and consideration of the
+nature and object of the work; but it is essential in design when the
+material and method of production have to be considered. In painting the
+artist may employ the full resources of his palette and be as realistic
+in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a>{255}</span> effect as is in his power, but if the purpose be mural
+decoration restraint is at once imposed.</p>
+
+<h3>Undesirable Realism</h3>
+
+<p>Under certain conditions realism would be out of place, and any attempt
+at illusion would fail to convince. The one time fashion of painting
+ceilings with sprawling deities of either sex, which cannot be seen
+without a painful crick in the neck, or worse still to suggest sky with
+floating amorini, occasionally framed by marble balustrading in
+wonderful perspective is deplorable.</p>
+
+<p>Such decoration, if it can be so termed, is not only stagey but is
+foredoomed to failure in effect, as the ordinary interior lighting is
+not adequate. Furthermore, it displays a lack of appreciation of
+fitness, and that the purpose of a ceiling is to convey a sense of
+shelter.</p>
+
+<p>Realism, though desirable in portraiture, either of individuals, places
+or events, is not necessarily of the greatest interest except to those
+concerned. In mural decoration realism should give place to convention,
+and the whole considered as a design with regard to balance of form and
+colour, and recognition of the surface to which the decoration is
+applied.</p>
+
+<p>The first attempts at decoration were the direct results of material and
+the manner of working, in which there was no attempt at representation.
+This was succeeded when the early artists attained more skill by a phase
+of realism, later still with acquired culture there was a deliberate
+return to convention.</p>
+
+<p>The dignified conception of the Egyptian rendering<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a>{256}</span> of the Lion, though
+thoroughly conventional, reveals technical skill and anatomical
+knowledge of a high order; also appreciation for desirable treatment,
+and may be contrasted favourably with those by Sir Edwin Landseer round
+the pedestal of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square, in which realism
+is not subordinated to the decorative and symbolic conditions.</p>
+
+<h3>Craft Restrictions</h3>
+
+<p>When any craft process is involved the design is only a means to the
+end, and convention is then imposed by the technical conditions of the
+craft in question. The designer has to keep these conditions in view,
+the desirable object being to make the greatest economic use of the
+process compatible with a good result. It would be a waste of both time
+and energy to depict effects that could not be realised.</p>
+
+<p>In woven or printed fabrics it is impossible to produce natural effects;
+even if that were possible the inevitable repetition of the unit would
+be not merely unnatural but a gross absurdity. The great bulk of the
+public do not understand convention, hence the popularity of textiles
+and wall-papers in which the designs consist of flowers treated (however
+inconsistently) in natural aspect as far as possible; in particular the
+Rose which, like the poor, is ever with us.</p>
+
+<p>Traditional ornament at its best has generally been conventional, the
+various details of foliage being æsthetic creations, with at times,
+perhaps, some suggestion derived from natural types. The scroll in the
+form of volutes as employed in the Ionic capital may have been suggested
+by the fossil known as the Ammonite<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a>{257}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_228" id="ill_228"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_291_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_291_sml.jpg" width="362" height="511" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 228. Filagree Jewellery.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">A. Hook for Jacket in Silver. Swedish, Mid. 18th Century.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">B. Pendant Cross. Gold set with Garnets. Modern Italian.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">C. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern French.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">D. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">E. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">F. Pendant. Northern Portuguese. 17th or early 18th Century.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">G. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">H. Pendant. Gold. As worn by peasants in Etruria.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a>{258}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">shell, so called because it resembles the ram’s horn of Jupiter Ammon.
+Its traditional employment in conjunction with the undulate stem, is
+certainly far from any natural suggestion in the way of growth, while
+the variety known as the evolute scroll is distinctly artificial.</p>
+
+<h3>Materialistic Influence</h3>
+
+<p>It is probable that it had its origin in the facility with which wire
+could be bent, and in early jewellery such scroll forms are conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>A reasonable conjecture is that the similar forms in early repoussé
+work, such as that of the gold ornaments found at Enkomi, Cyprus and the
+painted decoration of the Greek vases, were inspired by the treatment
+which was the outcome of the use of metal in the form of thin wire.
+Similar details occur in Peruvian and New Guinea work, which is
+certainly coincidental as it is difficult to imagine these people having
+any communication with the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>Scandinavian and Keltic art was to a certain extent influenced by
+Eastern tradition through the medium of the Phœnician merchant
+adventurers; but no such conjecture is feasible in the Maori incised
+work and tattooing in which similar details occur.</p>
+
+<p>The scrolling line alone may be used, generally in decoration of small
+scale, as in the Greek vases. In this form it frequently occurs in
+pottery, either incised or painted, and in filagree jewellery. Wrought
+iron partakes largely of the scrolling character, but this, as in
+filagree, is the direct result of the material employed.</p>
+
+<p>Scandinavian and Keltic ornament consisted mainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a>{259}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_229" id="ill_229"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/ill_293_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_293_sml.jpg" width="370" height="499" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 229. The Evolute Scroll.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">A. Pottery (painted) Archaic Greek.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">B. Pottery (painted) Cyprus, 800 B.C.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">C. D. F. Gold Ornaments from Tombs at Enkomi, Cyprus.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">E. Pottery (painted) Ancient Mexico.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">G. Early Greek Stone Carving. Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos,
+Boeotia.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">H. Assyrian Stone Carving. Sacred Hom or Palm.
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a>{260}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_230" id="ill_230"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/ill_294_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_294_sml.jpg" width="370" height="511" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 230. The Evolute Scroll in Savage Art.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">A. B. C. Spatula Handles, Carved Wood, New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">D. Detail on Paddle, Carved Wood, New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">E. Maori Chief’s Staff Handle, Carved Wood.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">F. Detail from Tattooed Maori Head.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">G. Engraved Bamboo, Borneo.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">H. Carved Wood Detail, New Guinea.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a>{261}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">of a series of scrolling forms, as also did much of the ornament of the
+illuminated Gothic work and mural decoration. The desire for variety and
+mass lead eventually to the employment of diverse elements, arising in
+many instances from different treatment of existing details; thus,
+during the Renaissance, the side view of a poppy-like flower suggested
+and became a profile mask, and the husk leaf was frequently elaborated
+into the form of a dolphin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_231" id="ill_231"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 139px;">
+<a href="images/ill_295_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_295_sml.jpg" width="139" height="189" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 231. Scroll &amp; Anthemion Ornament from Greek Vase
+Paintings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Early Renderings</h3>
+
+<p>The evolute scroll which plays so conspicuous a part in Greek art, was
+employed at earlier periods by the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and the
+widespread appreciation and use of this form of detail is plainly
+indicative that it was not disseminated from any one centre.</p>
+
+<p>In the early employment of these curved forms there is no evidence of
+natural suggestion, but later, leaves and floral details were added
+conveying the idea of growth. In Egyptian and Assyrian art certain
+natural types occur, such as the Lotus, Papyrus and the Palm, but these
+were utterly denaturalised, all realism being eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>These conventions, though incidentally decorative, were invested with
+symbolic meaning with which their employment was concerned rather than
+with the imitation of natural form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a>{262}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Anthemion</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_232" id="ill_232"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 272px;">
+<a href="images/ill_296a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_296a_sml.jpg" width="272" height="120" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 232. Greek Anthemion. Relief Treatment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Anthemion alone or in conjunction with the scroll or evolute line,
+appears in a painted form in the Greek vase decoration. Examination of
+these will reveal evidence of brush-work, the separate details being the
+result of direct flexion. In sculptured form it appears in the Antefixe,
+also as a cresting or finial to the stele heads, the separate radial
+features being channelled with sunken grooves or with ridges in relief.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_233" id="ill_233"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<a href="images/ill_296b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_296b_sml.jpg" width="274" height="132" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 233. Greek Scroll from Choragic Monument of
+Lysikrates, Athens. Carved Stone.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is conceivable that the attenuated effect of the mere scrolling line
+suggested the desirability of the occasional mass and variety that would
+be obtained by employing leaves.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a>{263}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Greek Sculptured Ornament</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_234" id="ill_234"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;">
+<a href="images/ill_297_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_297_sml.jpg" width="245" height="432" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 234. Wrought Iron Scroll. Detail of Hinge, Notre
+Dame, Paris. Early French Gothic.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Greek sculptural ornament is comparatively devoid of natural suggestion,
+the branching scrolls with sheath leaves being æsthetic rather than
+imitative. The leaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a>{264}</span> employed bear little resemblance to those of the
+later Roman period, and consist generally of a succession of radial
+grooves with undulating or prickly edges, and are obviously adapted from
+the anthemion detail.</p>
+
+<p>In the scrolls employed on the Choragic monument at Athens the desire
+was evidently play of line and silhouette.</p>
+
+<p>The flexible and open form, though possible in bent metal or in painted
+work, is unsuitable to carving in stone. Adequate support being
+essential, the scrolls had to be united by the leaves, which were
+necessarily massed in form and decorated by channellings or grooves to
+give further detail and interest.</p>
+
+<p>A development of the leaf treatment was the division into lobes, each
+lobe being channelled with a group of radial grooves ending in
+serrations. The lobes were divided by holes, or, as they are generally
+termed, eyes, more or less circular in shape, and these were connected
+with the base of the leaf by pipes or Tines in relief, conforming with
+the general radial distribution.</p>
+
+<h3>Acanthus Leaf</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_235" id="ill_235"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 137px;">
+<a href="images/ill_298_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_298_sml.jpg" width="137" height="281" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 235. Acanthus Leaf. Composed of groups of Anthemions.
+Brush-work.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Leaves of this type are known as Acanthus, and it is a tradition that
+the leaf in its original employment was derived from a natural source.
+The anthemion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a>{265}</span> too, is often mis-called the honeysuckle owing to the
+supposed resemblance; but it is much more probable that both were purely
+artistic creations developing as previously suggested from the painted
+anthemion details. Elaboration and relief expression were the natural
+outcome of material, and desire for surface interest. The honeysuckle
+origin is completely confuted by comparison of the Greek anthemion with
+the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, by which it was evidently inspired.</p>
+
+<p>In Greek ornament such flowers as occur are mostly of the rosette type,
+quite conventional in character, though in the painted decoration such
+natural forms as the ivy and vine are evident; but these were always
+conventional in treatment and symbolic in interest.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_236" id="ill_236"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_299_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_299_sml.jpg" width="194" height="207" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 236. Acanthus Scroll. Brush-work.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Greeks were not creative in art either in their architecture or
+ornament, and were evidently indebted to the earlier culture of
+Mesopotamia for many of their details. As they based the anthemion on
+the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, so they borrowed the Ionic capital
+from Persia and the Corinthian variety had its prototype in the Egyptian
+Papyrus capital. Even their architecture was no advance in principle on
+that which previously existed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a>{266}</span></p>
+
+<p>Their treatment, however, was extremely artistic, and they invested all
+their work with great refinement and delicacy of detail. At a later
+period under subjugation the Roman art development was practically in
+the hands of Greek designers and craftsmen, and acquired great freedom
+of expression marked by exquisite workmanship in the Græco-Roman period.</p>
+
+<h3>Roman Development</h3>
+
+<p>The details and treatment of ornament developed rapidly in the Roman
+period, in the variety and forms of the elements employed. The principal
+exponents were Greek, but the original austere character of expression
+underwent considerable modification.</p>
+
+<h3>The Scroll</h3>
+
+<p>In Roman art the scroll, which constituted the chief decoration of the
+friezes and panels, was greatly developed and rendered with more freedom
+and variety of treatment; assuming the form of a growing or climbing
+stem, bearing flowers and clothed with leaves. A treatment which is
+fairly consistent with such types as the Vine and other climbing growths
+in nature.</p>
+
+<p>The undulating stem with branching scrolls is prominent, both in friezes
+and panels; the character of the foliage became more varied, the stiff
+and formal acanthus leaf being only used in the capitals of columns and
+in structural features.</p>
+
+<p>The version employed in more decorative positions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a>{267}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_237" id="ill_237"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_301_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_301_sml.jpg" width="361" height="270" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 237. Detail of Roman Frieze, in Carved Stone.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="nind">exhibited greater freedom in form, attitude and section. Natural types
+for the sake of variety were used, generally in subordinated positions,
+and there is occasional evidence of the influence of these in the
+treatment of the acanthus detail.</p>
+
+<h3>Græco-Roman</h3>
+
+<p>The development of art during this period cannot be attributed to native
+talent, the Romans being content to borrow their art as they did their
+religion. It was rather due to the opulence of the times, though the
+practical character of the race resulted in a great advance in
+architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The later Roman, generally termed Græco-Roman, varied from the more
+robust treatment and reverted somewhat to the earlier Greek manner;
+tending to delicacy and refinement, but retaining the variety of
+character and detail.</p>
+
+<h3>Byzantine</h3>
+
+<p>The State recognition of Christianity had a great influence on art in
+that there was a return to symbolism. Various pagan elements associated
+with the earlier decoration that were unsuitable to the feeling of the
+time were eliminated. Eastern influence is evident, in not only the
+architecture but in the treatment which is known as Byzantine, of the
+foliage, which resembles that of the archaic Greek, the leaves being
+more stiffly lobed, and severely channelled with V-shaped grooves, in
+place of the subtle modelling of those of the Roman period.</p>
+
+<p>The stem or growth line is comparatively absent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a>{268}</span> and the prevalence of
+the circle as a shape or in the arrangement of details is evident.
+Decoration displays more regard to profile than to variety of relief,
+which was practically uniform.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_238" id="ill_238"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/ill_304_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_304_sml.jpg" width="281" height="132" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 238. Gothic Spandril. Carved Stone. Geometric basis
+obvious in central circle uniting angular shape with minor circular
+forms occupying angles.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Byzantine influence is evident in the succeeding Romanesque.</p>
+
+<h3>Romanesque</h3>
+
+<p>Early Gothic detail, the closely curled foliage of which is suggestive
+of lobes though without serrations, is reminiscent of debased Roman
+tradition, evident also in the general shape and disposition of leaves
+in the capitals of columns. The floral ornament of the Middle or
+Decorated period, though freely adapted from natural types, shows traces
+at times of the earlier tradition in the treatment of lobed and serrated
+leaves.</p>
+
+<h3>Italian Renaissance</h3>
+
+<p>The Italian Renaissance was not merely a revival of Classic architecture
+adapted to more modern conditions, but was in its earlier stages a frank
+reproduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a>{269}</span> of the Roman ornament in design and rendering. In later
+development in Italy and other parts of Europe it acquired local
+character differing materially from the original. Fresh elements were
+adopted and details originally significant were introduced for purely
+decorative reasons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_239" id="ill_239"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<a href="images/ill_305_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_305_sml.jpg" width="220" height="283" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 239. Early Pointed Gothic Stone Carving. Ely
+Cathedral.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Husk Leaf</h3>
+
+<p>A feature of the foliated scroll is the Husk Leaf, either Acanthus, that
+is&mdash;lobed and serrated, or compounded of water leaves with smooth and
+undulating edges somewhat similar to the hart’s tongue fern.</p>
+
+<p>The Husk either grows tangentially from the stem which it sometimes
+envelopes in the sheath form, or has at its base a floral-like feature
+known as the Bract; this, however, was seldom employed in Greek
+ornament, a boss-like annulet being more general. The Husk is largely
+employed to mask or cover branching, and either, as previously stated,
+grows tangentially from the stem, or takes a bulbous form with a broad
+and rounded base when it appears to be threaded on, rather than
+articulated to, the stem.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a>{270}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Rosette</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_240" id="ill_240"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a href="images/ill_306a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_306a_sml.jpg" width="270" height="119" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 240. Italian Renaissance Scroll, shewing Acanthus
+husks with bracts, sheath leaves and floral terminals.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_241" id="ill_241"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a href="images/ill_306b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_306b_sml.jpg" width="278" height="179" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 241. Types of Rosettes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such flowers as were employed in the earlier ornament displayed little
+regard to nature, being mostly of the rosette form with petals radiating
+from the centre; as a rule these were composed of simple leaf-shaped
+petals in one, two or more tiers arranged concentrically; in this form
+of rosette the petals are symmetrical in shape. The number of petals is
+a matter of scale and taste, but an unequal number will invariably be
+found more interesting. Arrangements of five or seven in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a>{271}</span> preference to
+four, six and eight. Frequently the spaces between the outer tier are
+occupied by narrow leaves suggestive of the sepals in natural flowers,
+and these serve the double purpose of giving variety and preserving the
+circular shape.</p>
+
+<p>Further variety can be imparted by the arrangements of the petals on a
+revolving instead of a straight axis, either consistently in one
+direction or symmetrically disposed from a centre in a palmate form.</p>
+
+<p>The Rosette in ornament is useful as a pause point, giving repose, but
+where it is desirable to continue the flow of line, other floral forms
+can be employed, such as the tulip or the lily, which are displayed to
+the best advantage in profile or perspective.</p>
+
+<p>In conventional ornament the flower petals should be in contrast to the
+leaves employed on the scrolling stem.</p>
+
+<p>The Pistil in nature is reflected in the various sprouting forms which
+emerge from the conventional flowers of the Renaissance, and at times
+develop into further stem growth. On æsthetic grounds this may be
+excused in cases where flow of line is of greater importance than
+consistency. The Pistil takes many forms, being frequently composed of a
+series of diminutive husks. Flower buds of similar husk form occur, the
+petals being similar to those of the flowers employed.</p>
+
+<h3>Tendrils</h3>
+
+<p>Tendrils serve a useful purpose in giving unity to the design, for which
+there is ample suggestion in such natural growths as the Vine, Pea, etc.
+Too often in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a>{272}</span> traditional ornament they are employed to merely occupy
+obviously awkward spaces. In Roman ornament flowers articulated on
+tendril-like stems were often used apparently to occupy the
+spandril-like spaces resulting from the branching scrolls.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_242" id="ill_242"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 181px;">
+<a href="images/ill_308_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_308_sml.jpg" width="181" height="184" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 242. Ornamental Treatment of Tendril from Roman
+Frieze.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Nature Influence</h3>
+
+<p>During the Roman development greater variety was introduced in the
+treatment of leaves and flowers which in many instances display evidence
+of natural suggestion. The main stems are sometimes twisted, a
+characteristic of some strongly growing natural types, but this was only
+a variant of the earlier treatment of decorating the scrolling stem with
+channels or hollow flutes.</p>
+
+<p>Birds and animals were also used in antique ornament&mdash;grotesque
+combinations of foliage with human and animal forms, and such symbolic
+monsters as the Gryphon and the Sphinx, were employed with little regard
+to the original significance. Other symbolic elements, such as wreaths,
+garlands, festoons, altars, tripods, and urns were also introduced
+merely for their decorative value and to afford variety.</p>
+
+<h3>Symbolic Employment</h3>
+
+<p>The modern mind is naturally out of sympathy with forms that have no
+direct appeal, but it should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a>{273}</span> considered that these elements were
+originally not merely the expression of the art of the period, but were
+also invested in many instances with symbolic meaning. The Roman citizen
+saw nothing incongruous in decorating a triumphal arch with the chaplet
+of the victor and trophies of arms.</p>
+
+<p>The later misuse of symbolic elements can only be defended on æsthetic
+grounds, and is probably undesirable. Without these there is still left
+sufficient material for beautiful effects. Dull slavish reproduction is
+not only without interest, but displays lack of inventiveness. It is
+possible in good hands to utilise the past tradition so as to appeal to
+modern appreciation.</p>
+
+<h3>Consistency in Growth</h3>
+
+<p>However arbitrary traditional ornament may appear, there is consistency
+in the best examples, which display in many details some general
+observance of the principle of natural growth. There may be no attempt
+to exploit any known type, the creation being purely artificial; still
+the association of stem, leaves and flowers is suggestive of natural
+growth.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement is generally progressive, as in nature a plant develops
+outwards and onwards from the root, and the orthodox scroll ornament may
+be considered as a stem of undulate form (constituting the growth line)
+with branches, elaborated with leaves and flowers which are arranged
+successively.</p>
+
+<h3>Branching</h3>
+
+<p>In traditional ornament the most general form of branching is
+tangential, the scrolls and leaves emerging<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a>{274}</span> radially from the main
+stem, with slight divergence; but in nature many varieties of branching
+may be observed and applied with advantage in design.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_243" id="ill_243"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_310a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_310a_sml.jpg" width="279" height="143" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 243. Types of Branching.<br /> A. Tangential. B.
+Acute-angular. C. Right-angular.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Generally natural branching may be classified into Tangential, typical
+of grass growth and water-plants; Acute and Right-angular. The latter is
+sometimes usefully employed in ornament, as it conveys a sense of
+strength and vigour, though as a concession to the rhythmic flow of line
+it should follow for a short distance the curve of the main stem.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_244" id="ill_244"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 199px;">
+<a href="images/ill_310b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_310b_sml.jpg" width="199" height="165" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 244. Formal Opposite Branching suitable for Vertical
+Borders &amp; Pilasters.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Independent of the angle, branches may occur opposite, that is, grow
+simultaneously each side of the stem, Alternate, or spirally round the
+stem. The distances between the branches may be equal, or, as in some
+instances, in alternate long and short distances. The opposite<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a>{275}</span>
+arrangement of branches is most suitable where rigidity of effect is
+required, but the alternate branching is susceptible of greater freedom
+and license.</p>
+
+<p>The stem, as it throws out each branch, may gradually diminish in
+diameter, each branch being less than the parent stem; the length of
+each successive branch may also diminish and the leaves on these be
+subordinate in size to those of the main stem.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_245" id="ill_245"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;">
+<a href="images/ill_311_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_311_sml.jpg" width="249" height="308" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 245. Branch and Scroll Terminations.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Leaves</h3>
+
+<p>The detail of these smaller leaves may be less complex as they approach
+the terminals, a characteristic in natural growth where the necessary
+energy to produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a>{276}</span> the flowers results in restricted development of the
+leaves on the flower stalk.</p>
+
+<p>Equally consistent from the nature point of view is the employment of
+the large husk leaves which generally cover the points of branch
+emergence. As already stated, these are not articulated, but either
+spring tangentially from or are threaded on the main stem in contrast to
+the smaller leaves, which are often provided with individual stems.
+Occasionally the scroll terminals are not furnished with flowers but
+develop into sprays of small leaves radially disposed.</p>
+
+<h3>The Start</h3>
+
+<p>An essential condition in panel ornament is the Start or commencement,
+which should at least be consistent. The natural root is not in every
+case sufficient, though at times it may be employed with effect.</p>
+
+<p>The start point of the growth line or lines varies in position according
+to attitude. In panels in a horizontal plane, the start is frequently
+central and the traditional treatment is usually some form of rosette
+from which the other details radiate.</p>
+
+<p>In some positions, particularly pilaster panels, the ornament is
+suspended, which is consistently rendered by the employment of knobs and
+ribbons. Ribbons are not only logical, but interesting on account of the
+variety afforded and are also of service in giving unity to a
+composition. Extremely amenable to harmonious arrangement and
+susceptible of great variation, the ribbon can be twisted, folded or
+arranged in groups of pleatings, the ends being occasionally scrolled or
+split.</p>
+
+<p>The start mostly in evidence in ornament is that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a>{277}</span> known as the Cup or
+Nest, which is composed of leaves arranged somewhat in the form of a
+tulip, with generally an inverted cup leaf below. It is composed of
+leaves either of the Acanthus or water type, but for the sake of variety
+one of these may appear in the upper part of the cup and the contrasting
+form in the lower. The proportion between the two parts as to height and
+width should also be varied, and when the cup leaf is used in pilaster
+panels it generally occupies the whole width of the base.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_246" id="ill_246"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_313a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_313a_sml.jpg" width="194" height="248" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 246. The Nest or Cup-leaf Start.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_247" id="ill_247"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/ill_313b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_313b_sml.jpg" width="176" height="219" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 247. Italian Renaissance Foliated Figure Start.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such artificial objects as vases and baskets form fairly consistent base
+starts for floral detail, others as Altars and Tripods are not quite so
+logical, though useful in conveying a sense of support. Shields and
+Labels, generally employed centrally in wide panels where the ornament<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a>{278}</span>
+is displayed laterally, are effective in the contrast they afford to the
+floral details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_248" id="ill_248"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;">
+<a href="images/ill_314_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_314_sml.jpg" width="235" height="341" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 248. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
+Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The employment of half figures as starts cannot be defended; the
+illogical association of life, either human or animal, with foliage as
+employed by the designers of the later Italian Renaissance, is too
+incongruous to be excused on æsthetic grounds. Such were due to change
+in taste and desire for variety, and probably were suggested by the much
+earlier employment of compound animal forms as furniture supports.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a>{279}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_249" id="ill_249"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 234px;">
+<a href="images/ill_315_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_315_sml.jpg" width="234" height="348" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 249. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
+Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Acanthus leaf prominent in Renaissance detail, was at first
+deliberately reproduced from Roman examples, and its architectural
+employment as in the capitals of the Corinthian order, has survived to
+modern times as the most suitable rendering for such structural
+features. In more decorative positions marked changes are evident in the
+later phases, the Cinque Cento renderings being perhaps the high water
+mark of the Italian designer. In these the lobes were angular in general
+outline, with beautifully balanced minor lobations<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280"></a>{280}</span> and the surface
+contours delicate and subtle in modelling.</p>
+
+<h3>Renaissance Influence</h3>
+
+<p>The early examples of Italian Renaissance in France and England are
+generally pure in style, being in most instances of Italian design and
+execution. Later work by native exploiters in emulation of the style is
+invariably quite different, until the new style was better understood
+and assimilated; eventuating in versions that were distinctive and
+local.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_250" id="ill_250"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/ill_316_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_316_sml.jpg" width="369" height="72" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 250. Early French Renaissance Carving. Francis I.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the early French Renaissance the acanthus leaf was generally
+displayed in profile, the lobe being elliptic and pointed in shape, with
+clearly defined minor divisions; the sectional form was comparatively
+simple. Similar treatment, without the precision and grace of line
+characterised the Jacobean work in England; the relief work of which,
+being rather in the category of flat carving, consisting mainly of
+incised lines and grooves by which leaf form was expressed in profile or
+silhouette. These were invariably archaic and crude, though in view of
+the direct and simple execution not without individuality and interest.</p>
+
+<h3>Jacobean.</h3>
+
+<p>A characteristic feature of the Jacobean style is the ornamental
+interlacing strapwork, with foliated or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281"></a>{281}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_251" id="ill_251"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 359px;">
+<a href="images/ill_317_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_317_sml.jpg" width="359" height="444" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 251. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.</p>
+
+<p>A. Greek. B. Roman. C. Byzantine. D. Romanesque. E. Decorated Gothic. F.
+G. Italian Renaissance. H. French Renaissance, Period of Francis I.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">scrolling ends. This doubtless was in emulation of the French work of
+the period of Henry II, when strapping composed of straight and curved
+lines entered largely into ornamental detail. In the period of Louis
+XIII<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282"></a>{282}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_252" id="ill_252"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 359px;">
+<a href="images/ill_318_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_318_sml.jpg" width="359" height="478" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 252. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.</p>
+
+<p>I. French, Louis XIV. J. English, Grinling Gibbons. K. French, Louis XV.
+L. English, Adam. M. French, Louis XVI. N. Louis XVI (Salombier). O.
+English, Late 18th Century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283"></a>{283}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">shield and cartouche shapes were much in vogue, on account probably of
+their mass value and the contrast afforded with the subordinate detail,
+which developed into the foliated strap frame of the Louis XIV style.</p>
+
+<p>The details of this latter period were expressed in bold relief, the
+decorated areas being well filled, in contrast to the earlier Italian
+style in which the background frequently predominated over the ornament.
+The sectioning or modelling of the leaves, which by this time were
+typically French, was elaborate but well considered as to harmonious
+play of line. Shell forms were employed and were effective, both as mass
+shapes and for the radial elaboration of their surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>In conjunction with artificial details, natural foliage was employed in
+the form of wreaths and festoons, composed of leaves and appropriate
+flowers; the conventional stem was little used, the foliated strap being
+more often evident.</p>
+
+<h3>Régence</h3>
+
+<p>The immediate successor of the style of the Grand Monarch was the phase
+known as Régence, in which the strap frame was moulded in section, and
+the whole detail became much lighter, resulting in more open or plain
+spaces.</p>
+
+<p>In the period of Louis XV restraint was thrown overboard, panels and
+enclosed areas were framed with mouldings irresponsible in curvature,
+and without regard to structural conditions. The growth line
+disappeared, the leafage and other details being arbitrarily disposed on
+the framing mouldings, which were generally in flattened and elongated
+curves opposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284"></a>{284}</span> to each other in flexured lines. In comparison with the
+preceding Louis XIV style the ornament is thin and liney in character,
+the leaf, still of the acanthus type, is greatly modified both in form
+and detail, the ends of the lobes being curled and twisted spirally.</p>
+
+<h3>Rococo</h3>
+
+<p>In minor floral details natural types were employed, also such
+artificial features as canopies or hammercloths; rock and shell forms,
+and stalactite details suggestive of icicles are comprised in the later
+phase to which the term Rococo is applied.</p>
+
+<h3>Louis XVI</h3>
+
+<p>As a natural revulsion from the license of this period in the succeeding
+Louis XVI style there was a distinct reversion. The curved framings were
+abandoned and panels and other areas were enclosed by mouldings with
+regard both to structural and materialistic conditions. Great refinement
+is evident, not only in the mouldings but in the details throughout.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast to those of the Louis XIV period, panels were occupied
+rather than filled, the dominant details being placed at the upper and
+lower extremities and connected by vertical features either centrally or
+at the sides, steadily arranged as to alignment both horizontal and
+vertical. Familiar details thus employed are such amorous emblems as
+quivers, torches, trophies of musical instruments and bouquets and
+festoons of natural flowers.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial leaf reverted somewhat to the earlier Italian type, and
+was mostly displayed in profile with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285"></a>{285}</span> the lobes and serrations carefully
+composed. The detail though comparatively low in relief, was boldly
+modelled, and the direction and emphasis of the lobes and veinings of
+the leaves considered with regard to the composing lines.</p>
+
+<h3>Grinling Gibbons School of Carving</h3>
+
+<p>In England the work of the school of Grinling Gibbons was productive of
+a phase of ornamental expression distinctive for its artistry and
+technical skill. Conventional details were combined with natural forms
+of all kinds, the conspicuous arrangement being interlacing scrolls, and
+festoons and pendant swags.</p>
+
+<p>In the artificial leaf, with its boldly grooved surface and accentuated
+lobes, the evidence of the tool is manifest throughout.</p>
+
+<p>The tradition established by the Grinling Gibbons school had a lasting
+effect upon the native carving, which endured throughout the Georgian
+period, though largely influenced in detail by French taste&mdash;Rococo in
+particular.</p>
+
+<h3>Adam Style</h3>
+
+<p>The designs of the brothers Adam, which were in vogue in the reign of
+George III, though peculiarly individual and distinctive, were based
+upon the study of Græco-Roman details. In the Adam style the ornament is
+delicate in relief, and mostly displayed in profile. Panels and enclosed
+spaces are occupied, the decorative elements being carefully disposed
+with regard to balance and stability, with large areas of plain
+surface.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286"></a>{286}</span></p>
+
+<p>The characteristic and prevailing details are the fan and delicate
+festoons of leaves or husks, at times of beads.</p>
+
+<p>The anthemion is much used on friezes and borders, and compound animal
+forms, such as the Sphinx, were borrowed from the antique, the same
+source doubtless inspiring the employment of vases, altars, and tripods.</p>
+
+<p>Medallions occur occupied by figures after the manner of the Greek
+vases. In some instances these were in pottery, the work of Wedgwood.</p>
+
+<p>The general structural form was architectural, the mouldings slight in
+projection and refined in their profiles being decorated by orthodox
+enrichments.</p>
+
+<p>The foliage is mostly artificial in character, the leaf lobes in those
+of the acanthus type being orderly in arrangement with regard to profile
+and radial display, with comparatively little modelling.</p>
+
+<h3>Empire</h3>
+
+<p>A similar revival of the Antique succeeded the Revolution in France, in
+the Empire style, which, more literal in reproduction than the Adam
+work, is characterised with, at times, undesirable severity and
+precision of detail, particularly in the treatment of the human figure.</p>
+
+<h3>System of the Acanthus Leaf</h3>
+
+<p>The system of the acanthus leaf is based entirely on radiation, the
+tines and veinings being arranged in consistently diverging directions
+from a common base or start-point. Whether the whole leaf be displayed
+or merely the half leaf used, the shape should be bounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287"></a>{287}</span> by general
+lines controlling the lobes and their serrations&mdash;the mass shape forming
+a satisfactory silhouette.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the lobes should be relative to the breadth of the leaf,
+the maximum length agreeing with the maximum width, and the others in
+proportion.</p>
+
+<p>The edges or outlines of serrations and lobes should also be controlled
+by radial lines from the base.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_253" id="ill_253"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;">
+<a href="images/ill_323_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_323_sml.jpg" width="225" height="224" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 253. Construction of the Acanthus Leaf.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In turn-overs and curling or twisting lobes the silhouette shape and
+composing line must be considered.</p>
+
+<p>The apex of leaf terminates with a central lobe balanced by side lobes
+repeated throughout. In treatment these may be displayed clear of each
+other, or they may overlap, but care must be taken to avoid confusion in
+effect.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288"></a>{288}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /><br />
+TREATMENT IN DESIGN</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>PPRECIATION of design by the individual is largely a matter of
+temperament, though it may be due to some extent to acquired knowledge.
+Generally, few are conscious of any guiding principle, and selection in
+their case is mostly the result of fashion or custom. To others certain
+colours and forms have an appeal, though they may be quite unconscious
+of, or unable to explain the attraction other than it suits their taste.</p>
+
+<p>In the last few years it has been recognised that colour may be employed
+beneficially in curative treatment, but the normal healthy individual is
+often indifferent to environment other than that of material
+gratification.</p>
+
+<p>When any artistic work creates pleasurable emotion, it is purely a
+matter of cause and effect. To design successfully involves some
+understanding of the causes or factors which constitute the appeal.</p>
+
+<h3>Natural Attraction</h3>
+
+<p>The attraction of colour and form is undoubtedly universal, and may be
+generally understood, though there are delicate degrees of proportion
+and association in both that may only be appreciated by the cultivated
+eye. Early essays in drawing generally exhibit an undesirable redundancy
+in curves, and in many<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289"></a>{289}</span> instances the student is slow to realise that
+those that approximate to the elliptic form are proportionately of more
+interest than those obviously composed of segments of circles.
+Undoubtedly this subtlety of line is one of the predominant factors in
+appreciation of form.</p>
+
+<p>A factor in pattern that is largely responsible for the charm is the
+presence of small detail in juxtaposition with larger forms. This is
+entailed in instances by technical conditions, such, for instance, as in
+some tapestries where inhabited pattern is essential to the process of
+production.</p>
+
+<h3>Decorative Materials</h3>
+
+<p>Some materials are employed partly for their decorative effect, such as
+naturally figured woods and certain varieties of stone; and design
+mainly consists of judicious selection, use and treatment. Oak and
+walnut being woods extremely suitable for structural work and furniture
+have always been in request when obtainable.</p>
+
+<p>Polishing is to some extent a preservative, but work in oak or walnut,
+especially when carved, should be kept comparatively dull, otherwise
+confusion between the relief and the natural figuring would result. In
+mahogany or satinwood, where the chief interest exists in the figuring
+and colour, carving is undesirable and the best effects are obtained by
+high polish. It may be urged that in the Chippendale period the work was
+invariably carved, but the detail was always in very low relief, and the
+finishing dark in colour, in which the figuring was subdued. Mahogany in
+its more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290"></a>{290}</span> general employment owes its chief beauty to the development of
+figuring and colour.</p>
+
+<p>Certain marbles are used for their decorative effect, and the natural
+colour and figuring developed by polish. Statuary marble that is
+sometimes employed, is more suitable for carved details, and appears at
+its best when unpolished, though in this state it is extremely subject
+to discolouration owing to its absorbent nature.</p>
+
+<p>Granite, so popular in our cemeteries, is often polished, when the
+natural figuring is unpleasantly aggressive. An extremely hard stone and
+laborious to work, it is not suitable for carving, and is best left
+roughly tooled or frosted, when the natural chrystaline formation
+appears to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<h3>Justification of Treatment</h3>
+
+<p>The softer woods used in interior structural work are generally painted,
+partly as a preservative and largely because they do not possess any
+figuring of particular interest.</p>
+
+<p>Graining in imitation of more precious woods is often condemned as
+inartistic, but it may be urged in extenuation that it is the most
+economic treatment, as it helps to minimise the effect of wear and
+incidental damage.</p>
+
+<p>The use of pattern wall-papers and floor coverings can be justified on
+the same grounds, as in those with plain surfaces any disfigurement is
+readily seen. Wallpaper, however, is quite a legitimate form of
+decoration and not necessarily imitative, though to some extent it is
+reminiscent of the early custom of employing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291"></a>{291}</span> tapestries as wall
+coverings. A more durable and artistic treatment of interiors is that of
+the wainscotting of the Georgian period, but the initial cost is
+proportionately great, though probably when maintenance is taken into
+consideration it would be cheaper in the long run. Apart from the
+question of cost, the modern tendency is favourable to change of effect
+and environment, due partly to the facility afforded by the comparative
+cheapness of wall-paper, but even more to the prevalent short tenancies.</p>
+
+<h3>Undesirable Imitation</h3>
+
+<p>Many excellent designs are produced in wall-papers, though there is a
+tendency at times to reproduce textural effects which can only be
+justified on æsthetic grounds. Those of the frankly imitative kind
+cannot be condoned. It is still possible to have the hall and stairs
+papered and varnished to resemble slabs of precious marble, or patterns
+in mosaic, which were undreamt of in Byzantine times; and the orthodox
+design for the bathroom is still that of tiles with the joints neatly
+printed. Similar imitation is also apparent in linoleum, when the
+pattern simulates the appearance of either wood parquet or mosaic, or
+even worse&mdash;that of a Turkey or Axminster carpet.</p>
+
+<p>There is an element of priggishness in such cheap art in which, as
+though ashamed of poverty of material, there is an assumption of
+something better; and it is lamentable that there is not merely a market
+for these shams and imitations but curiously enough they also find
+appreciation.</p>
+
+<p>There are phases of work where simulation may to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292"></a>{292}</span> some extent be
+justified, for instance, silver is sometimes gilt. For this there is the
+excuse that silver, although a beautiful metal, is subject to oxidation
+and requires constant attention to keep bright. Gilding acts as a
+preservative, and is therefore justified in certain forms of silver
+work, which it is not convenient to clean in the ordinary way.</p>
+
+<h3>Technical Considerations</h3>
+
+<p>It has already been suggested that Design is not merely a question of
+idea and draughtsmanship, but is also dependent upon materialistic
+conditions, which, in practical work, must be understood and properly
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the intended design be for some form of flat pattern, such as
+weaving, etc., or for any particular craft expression, it is essential
+that the limitations of the process and material involved be clearly
+kept in view, and that suitable elements for expression be chosen.</p>
+
+<p>Convention, to a large extent, exists in the adaptation of forms,
+natural or otherwise, to the exigencies of production, a proper
+understanding of which will not only tend to economy in cost, but also
+to more effective results, if full advantage be taken of the craft or
+mechanical conditions, which should always be foreseen in design.</p>
+
+<h3>Methods of Expression</h3>
+
+<p>Methods of expression vary, according to position and material, and may
+be Flat&mdash;either silhouette, or with appearance of relief, or in actual
+relief.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293"></a>{293}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_254" id="ill_254"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;">
+<a href="images/ill_329a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_329a_sml.jpg" width="222" height="333" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 254. A. B. C. Flat Treatment, Silhouette important.
+D. Relief Treatment of C.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_255" id="ill_255"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<a href="images/ill_329b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_329b_sml.jpg" width="219" height="330" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 255. A. Flat Treatment. B. Relief of Husk Leaf.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Contrast exists always, thus in the Flat with or without outline the
+contrast is in Light and Dark, whether colour is involved or not.</p>
+
+<p>In Relief the contrast is in Light and Shade. Contrast exists also in
+both treatments in lines straight and curved&mdash;in the variety of the
+latter, in lines with mass forms, and in dominant forms with smaller
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>In the treatment of Flat Ornament the most important considerations are
+play of line and silhouette, and forms should be displayed in
+interesting profile; perspective and foreshortening being eliminated
+whenever they would result in distorted or inharmonious shapes.</p>
+
+<p>In Relief treatment the designer is concerned with the effect of Light
+and Shade in harmonious arrangement of mass and line.</p>
+
+<p>Perspective and foreshortening are permissible to some extent, but are
+largely dependent upon the work, greater license being allowable in high
+than in low relief.</p>
+
+<h3>Treatment of Leaves</h3>
+
+<p>In Flat ornament, leaves are invariably in profile, but in Relief
+expression they may be folded, that is, wrapped round the stem. Greater
+freedom is possible in the turn-overs.</p>
+
+<p>Relief ornament should recognise ground by details being occasionally
+displayed in lower relief.</p>
+
+<p>Whether expressed in Flat or Relief, the composing lines should always
+be emphatic, and their direction traceable through the details, floral
+or otherwise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294"></a>{294}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Surface Interest</h3>
+
+<p>In addition to the foregoing, a further consideration is that of
+interest of surface, which may consist of contrast in textures of rough
+surface with smooth, of patterning on form, veining and striation of
+leaves and flowers, and of the employment of trellis or imbricated
+pattern. The latter in conjunction with other details, occur in the
+decorative work of the later French Renaissance.</p>
+
+<h3>Painted Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>The technical means of obtaining the interest of surfaces is, of course,
+incidental to the process involved. If the decoration be the result of
+painting, the design is free and untrammelled by any other than purely
+æsthetic conditions. Such, for instance, as the desirable recognition of
+surface, and the pattern sense suggested by recurrence, if a decorative
+rather than a pictorial effect is desired.</p>
+
+<p>When the decorations consist of ornament, wholly or partly, they are
+occasionally rendered in a conventional manner, based upon the
+appearance of Relief, as in the Pompeian wall decorations and the
+painted work of the Italian Renaissance. There is ample precedent for
+this treatment in traditional painted decoration, but deliberate
+attempts at realistic effects are not only undesirable but to be
+deplored.</p>
+
+<p>The interest in Painted Decoration, apart from colour, design or
+subject, would be that of the individual manifestation of the designer
+and painter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295"></a>{295}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Stencilled Work</h3>
+
+<p>Stencilled decoration is a compromise between painting and mechanical
+printing, and is restricted by the unit. The repetition of this is
+practically mechanical, though considerable license is possible in the
+treatment of colour, which has to be personally applied and is therefore
+amenable to controlled variation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_256" id="ill_256"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_333_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_333_sml.jpg" width="360" height="388" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 256. Inhabited Details from Woven Fabrics. Interest
+imparted by patterning on forms.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The design in stencilled work is not limited to one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296"></a>{296}</span> unit, and is not
+subject to hard and fast rules, the plates being of a size convenient to
+handle. Alternate units, or a series can be employed, the interest,
+apart from colour and subject consisting mainly of contrast in detail,
+and in the individualism expressed.</p>
+
+<h3>Mechanical Production, Printed and Woven</h3>
+
+<p>In textiles, where such mechanical processes as printing and weaving are
+involved, the design is restricted to the unit, the repetition of which
+is infallible both as to form and colour.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from colour, the surface interest consists of suggested or actual
+contrasts of texture, the result of veining and striating leaves and
+flowers or of patterning forms or backgrounds with smaller details.</p>
+
+<h3>Needlework</h3>
+
+<p>Needlework, being a personal performance, has no such mechanical
+restriction; the design can, and should be, complete within the area,
+and the expression perfectly free. Beside Design and Colour, the surface
+interest is that of contrast in the different textures resulting from
+the various stitches, and the employment of darning, knots, laid-work,
+etc.</p>
+
+<h3>Appliqué</h3>
+
+<p>In Appliqué work, interest is imparted by the mass effects enriched by
+embroidery, the large shapes entailing detail of the inhabited variety
+to keep them from puckering. In all needlework the effect is due to some
+extent to light and shade, particularly in Appliqué, where a corded edge
+is employed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297"></a>{297}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_257" id="ill_257"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 66px;">
+<a href="images/ill_335_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_335_sml.jpg" width="66" height="90" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 257. Needlework, contrasting effect of various
+stitches.</p>
+
+<p>(Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_258" id="ill_258"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a href="images/ill_336_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_336_sml.jpg" width="297" height="495" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 258. Needlework Appliqué. Interest due to contrast of
+material, effect of relief imparted by corded edges, and to embroidery
+on applied details.</p><p> (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_259" id="ill_259"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<a href="images/ill_337_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_337_sml.jpg" width="357" height="454" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 259. Lace. Surface interest due to contrast of
+various fillings. (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Lace</h3>
+
+<p>In Lace, the interest consists solely of textural contrast, not only in
+the treatment of the various details, but in the patterning of intervals
+due to the necessary fillings. Design may be complete, or a repeated
+unit, according to the purpose and variety of lace.</p>
+
+<h3>Wood Inlay</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_260" id="ill_260"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 90px;">
+<a href="images/ill_339a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_339a_sml.jpg" width="90" height="130" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 260. Wood Inlay. Geometric arrangement.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Design for Inlays in Wood-work may be free in expression, or a unit, at
+discretion. The latter variety frequently takes the form of lines spaced
+with regard to good proportion, forming borders, chequers and geometric
+shapes of various kinds. Floral or other forms simple in character and
+profile may be used, the design being expressed in silhouette.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_261" id="ill_261"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_339b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_339b_sml.jpg" width="194" height="98" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 261. Wood Inlay.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_262" id="ill_262"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 116px;">
+<a href="images/ill_339c_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_339c_sml.jpg" width="116" height="276" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 262. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette depending on
+natural colour.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Intarsia</h3>
+
+<p>In the Intarsia detail of the Italian Renaissance, the inlaid forms were
+elaborated by surface markings and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298"></a>{298}</span> graduated effects were obtained by
+means of hot sand; but the natural contrast in the varied colour and
+fibres of the material employed probably form the more legitimate
+interest in all inlaid work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_263" id="ill_263"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 98px;">
+<a href="images/ill_340a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_340a_sml.jpg" width="98" height="191" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 263. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Veneer, Marquetry</h3>
+
+<p>In Veneer work and in Marquetry, where the work is quartered and
+juxtaposed, the interest consists in the patterning of the figured
+woods, particularly when these are arranged to form reciprocal shapes.</p>
+
+<h3>Boule Work</h3>
+
+<p>The interest of Buhl or Boule work, an inlay of metal employed in the
+French Renaissance in the decoration of furniture, often in conjunction
+with tortoiseshell, is that of contrast of texture.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_264" id="ill_264"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/ill_340b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_340b_sml.jpg" width="370" height="102" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 264. Italian Intarsia. Forms elaborated by incised
+lines.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the design, profile or silhouette is the primary consideration, being
+used:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1.  As a form of framing,</li>
+<li>2.  In angles or centres on table-tops,</li>
+<li>3.  In panels in furniture:</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><a name="ill_265" id="ill_265"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/ill_341_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_341_sml.jpg" width="267" height="529" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 265. Louis XV Cabinet with Ormolu Mounts.</p>
+
+<p>Marquetry, veneer quartered and inlaid with floral detail. (Photo: V &amp; A
+Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_266" id="ill_266"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_343a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_343a_sml.jpg" width="279" height="194" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 266. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299"></a>{299}</span></p>
+
+<p>The design can invariably be complete within the area. Coloured grounds
+are employed as well as tortoiseshell.</p>
+
+<h3>Mosaic</h3>
+
+<p>Mosaic designs may be complete in themselves or be the result of
+repetition, according to attitude and purpose, and with regard to
+variety and colour, only restricted by æsthetic considerations.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_267" id="ill_267"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 228px;">
+<a href="images/ill_343b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_343b_sml.jpg" width="228" height="247" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 267. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing to technical limitations, modelling can only be broadly suggested;
+therefore forms should be generally in silhouette except when on a large
+scale.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300"></a>{300}</span></p>
+
+<p>When employed on walls and vaults, gold is frequently used in the
+backgrounds. This not only serves to define detail, but affords contrast
+to the general surface, the inevitable joints in the tessaræ adding also
+to the interest.</p>
+
+<h3>Byzantine Use of Marble</h3>
+
+<p>Associated with Mosaic decoration in the Byzantine Period was the
+employment of marble in shafts of columns and for lining walls by
+banding or slabbing, frequently quartered, so as to display the markings
+in reciprocal forms. Such marbles were chosen for figuring and colour,
+the former in its variety being an important factor in the surface
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>Similar employment of slabs occurs in the treatment of floors, where
+contrast in colour is the chief consideration. It is sometimes
+associated with Mosaic of small tesseræ, also in marble, whereas that
+used on walls and in vaults was frequently of glass.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing is a broad summary of ornamental expression in the Flat,
+with the exception of Book Decoration.</p>
+
+<h3>Book Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>In Black and White, which is chiefly employed, the designs may be in
+tone or line with suggestion of rotundity or relief; or line
+decoratively employed, according to subject, or purely decorative.</p>
+
+<p>The same applies to renderings in colour. Designs for covers are
+controlled by the processes involved, whether printed, stamped or
+tooled.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301"></a>{301}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_268" id="ill_268"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 269px;">
+<a href="images/ill_345_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_345_sml.jpg" width="269" height="373" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 268. Mosaic Borders.</p>
+
+<p>A. From Carthage.
+<span style="margin-left:5%;">B. &amp; C. Withington, Gloucester.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_269" id="ill_269"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;">
+<a href="images/ill_346_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_346_sml.jpg" width="373" height="267" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 269. Mosaic Border, Roman.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_270" id="ill_270"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_347_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_347_sml.jpg" width="360" height="306" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 270. Roman Mosaic. Woodchester, Gloucester.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_271" id="ill_271"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<a href="images/ill_348_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_348_sml.jpg" width="363" height="375" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 271. Roman Mosaic. Treatment in Light and Shade
+suggestive of relief. (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_272" id="ill_272"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<a href="images/ill_349_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_349_sml.jpg" width="266" height="354" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 272. Tooled Bookbinding in Leather.<br /> Repetition due to
+tools or stamps.<br /> (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_273" id="ill_273"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<a href="images/ill_350_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_350_sml.jpg" width="357" height="252" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 273. Modelled Plaster, shewing relatively large
+ground area.<br /> (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_274" id="ill_274"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;">
+<a href="images/ill_351_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_351_sml.jpg" width="353" height="520" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 274. Wood Carving. Grinling Gibbons.<br /> Attention
+devoted to detail with elimination of ground. <br />(Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_275" id="ill_275"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;">
+<a href="images/ill_352_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_352_sml.jpg" width="222" height="442" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 275. Wood Carving. French, Louis XIV.<br /> (Photo: V &amp; A
+Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Bindings</h3>
+
+<p>In the two latter the ornament should be in profile or silhouette. In
+tooled bindings, repetition of unit or motif is essential, the design
+being the direct result of available tools.</p>
+
+<p>In such bindings further interest may be imparted by gilding either the
+detail or by introducing gold as powdering on shapes or backgrounds, or
+by the so-called inlaying of other colours.</p>
+
+<h3>Relief&mdash;Economic Result of Method</h3>
+
+<p>In Relief ornament, design and character should be the result of
+technical expression. If considered from an economic point of view, the
+tendency would naturally be to obtain the maximum effect with the
+minimum of labour; and this would invariably result, when the decoration
+is built up or applied to an existing ground as in modelled work, in
+slight occupation, with comparatively large intervals.</p>
+
+<p>In carving, where the original surface forms the highest relief, and has
+to be cut back to form the ground, the result would be reversed, the
+individual worker being more attracted to the treatment of detail than
+to clearing away uninteresting spaces. Carving, whether in wood or
+stone, is employed in various decorative positions, and except in the
+enrichment of friezes or mouldings&mdash;when the repeating unit is
+desirable&mdash;the design should be complete in itself.</p>
+
+<h3>Desirable Treatment in Carving</h3>
+
+<p>The treatment should evidence the direct employment of the tool, any
+attempt to efface or soften will<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302"></a>{302}</span> result in loss of character and
+suggest the plastic effect incidental to modelling.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience, and possibly in the absence of more desirable examples,
+students are often allowed in their early attempts at carving to
+reproduce casts of plastic origin. This is undoubtedly pernicious, as
+the model is probably unsuitable, and the student is thereby biassed.
+Examples should be selected in which the characteristic treatment is
+sufficiently evident if a true and thorough appreciation of the craft is
+to be instilled.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_276" id="ill_276"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 215px;">
+<a href="images/ill_354_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_354_sml.jpg" width="215" height="375" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 276. Simple Jacobean Wood Carving. Direct gouge
+work.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the design&mdash;which may occupy or fill the shape and can be
+symmetrically arranged on a central axis, or balanced&mdash;the effect is due
+mainly to Light and Shade. Further interest may be imparted by the
+sectional form or modelling of the details, groovings, striations or
+other textural suggestions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303"></a>{303}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Backgrounds</h3>
+
+<p>The employment of punched grounds in carved work is to be deprecated as
+mechanical in effect. Sufficient interest is obtainable by the process
+of cutting back, in the perfect levelling of which the carver need not
+be too concerned. Suspiciously uniform grounds are suggestive of work
+fret-sawed and applied.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_277" id="ill_277"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;">
+<a href="images/ill_355_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_355_sml.jpg" width="249" height="307" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 277. Wood Carving. English.<br /> Late Elizabethan or Early
+Jacobean.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When carving in wood is in very high relief, it is occasionally, as in
+the Grinling Gibbons work, built up. This may not be a matter of great
+objection if properly attached, and the grain of fibre matched, but is,
+however, better avoided.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304"></a>{304}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Reproduction Processes</h3>
+
+<p>Modelled ornament is generally employed in reproduction processes, such
+as moulding of Terra-cotta, plaster, etc. The design can be free in
+expression, or a unit of repetition according to requirement.</p>
+
+<p>The detail which is applied to an existing surface is invariably more
+open, with a resulting display in the background.</p>
+
+<p>The surface interest consists of contrasts in texture, the result of
+veining, striating and patterning forms. The relief is not, as in carved
+work, controlled by an original surface, but, being built up, is
+susceptible to greater variation. Mouldings may be broken by lapping and
+overlapping details, and though in some traditional work similar
+treatment occurs in wood-carving, it must be remembered that such
+details are too suggestive of, and more proper to, plastic renderings.</p>
+
+<p>In economic moulded work undercutting of details should be avoided as
+this is only possible in piece or elastic moulds. In wood-carving,
+however, there is no restriction.</p>
+
+<h3>Metal Repoussé</h3>
+
+<p>Freedom and variety in detail are possible in Metal Repoussé, but as the
+light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface,
+the design which is plastic in character incidental to method of
+working, should have regard for silhouette or profile display, and not
+be dependent upon surface modelling. The principal factor in effect is
+Light, both direct and reflected. Surface interest is the result of
+imparting by chasing various textures in striations or matt.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305"></a>{305}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_278" id="ill_278"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/ill_357_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_357_sml.jpg" width="281" height="481" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 278. Wood Carving from Fontainbleau. Early French
+Renaissance.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306"></a>{306}</span></p>
+
+<p>Excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool,
+leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height, and imparting
+texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_279" id="ill_279"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/ill_358a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_358a_sml.jpg" width="188" height="220" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 279. Economic Wood Carving.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The method of working is simple, entailing manipulation from the face of
+the metal only, and the detail is left in slight relief by the ground
+being set back in the texturing. This treatment is only suitable where
+the ornamented area is enclosed. When the design is freely displayed on
+a ground without enclosing lines, it should appear in relief, the result
+of raising from the back; and texturing should be employed only on the
+details in contrast to the smooth ground. As in all applied work, the
+economic result is slight occupation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_280" id="ill_280"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 219px;">
+<a href="images/ill_358b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_358b_sml.jpg" width="219" height="137" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 280. Oak Box decorated with flat carving. Icelandic.
+18th Century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Metal, Cast</h3>
+
+<p>Cast metal is produced in sand moulds, a model or pattern being employed
+of which the casting is a reproduction. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307"></a>{307}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_281" id="ill_281"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 540px;">
+<a href="images/ill_359_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_359_sml.jpg" width="540" height="348" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 281. Repoussé Work.</p>
+
+<p>A. Pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different
+textures of ground.</p>
+
+<p>B. Pattern raised from back, and defined and enriched by tracing and
+matt tools on face, affording textural contrast with plain ground.</p>
+
+<p>(Photo of A. V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">pattern may be originally modelled or carved, and this determines the
+character of the metal result, though it is a matter of indifference
+when the necessary finishing is by turning or filing.</p>
+
+<p>Castings in iron are left as they leave the mould, but in bronze, except
+in Cire Perdu casting, the surface has to be entirely worked down. In
+common work, however, this is accomplished by means of small files or
+riffles and by chasing the more elaborate details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_282" id="ill_282"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 69px;">
+<a href="images/ill_361a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_361a_sml.jpg" width="69" height="118" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 282. Wrought Iron, simple form enriched by use of
+punches.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Character of Cast Work</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_283" id="ill_283"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_361b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_361b_sml.jpg" width="282" height="261" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 283. Gondola Prow. Wrought Iron, comparative flat
+surface enriched by chiselled work.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a matter of opinion it is consistent that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308"></a>{308}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_284" id="ill_284"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/ill_362_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_362_sml.jpg" width="364" height="516" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 284. Surface Interest in Metal.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">A. Blade of State Battle-axe, damascened with silver, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">B. Blade of Khyber Knife, engraved, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">C. Hilt of Tulwar, damascened with gold, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">D. Vase, Bidri Ware, pewter inlaid with silver, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">E. Scabbard End, gold inlay, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">F. Ornament on Gauntled Sword, damascened with gold, Indian.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309"></a>{309}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">character of cast work should be plastic, and if the original pattern is
+the result of carving, care should be taken to impart the desired
+feeling, the pattern being merely a means to the end.</p>
+
+<p>Much depends upon the final finish; if this is to be bright, surface
+modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest
+resulting from contrast of textures. It, however, becomes of
+proportionate importance as the work is dull or toned, and therefore is
+subject to the ordinary conditions of Light and Shade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310"></a>{310}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /><br />
+MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>RADITIONAL ornament is replete with forms and details that were
+originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment this
+was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their æsthetic
+value.</p>
+
+<p>Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in
+the Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory,
+sacrifice and religious observance.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Symbolic Ornament</h3>
+
+<p>It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural
+types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus,
+which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were
+therefore esteemed.</p>
+
+<p>These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line,
+are symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the
+periodical inundation of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the
+Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which
+undoubtedly influenced the later ornament.</p>
+
+<p>The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it
+was the symbol of Resolution<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311"></a>{311}</span> overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief
+was that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed.</p>
+
+<p>Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times,
+implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the
+general community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is
+to be deplored.</p>
+
+<p>A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however is
+fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which
+represents the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the
+operation of venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the
+respective bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to
+blood-letting, the other for final bindings.</p>
+
+<h3>Customs</h3>
+
+<p>The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a
+survival&mdash;the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of
+a truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery&mdash;the
+latter of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that
+one can stand unprotected.</p>
+
+<p>The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards
+the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient
+times, if a stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it
+denoted a declaration of war; but if carried with the point behind, he
+came in friendship and peace.</p>
+
+<p>There are opportunities where the decorative element<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312"></a>{312}</span> could be such as
+to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the
+decadence of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest,
+because it has no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated.</p>
+
+<h3>Origin of Mythology</h3>
+
+<p>Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom
+the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light
+and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to
+how they affected his personal comfort.</p>
+
+<p>The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more
+modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and
+Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression.</p>
+
+<h3>Nature Myths</h3>
+
+<p>Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of
+natural phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural.
+Inducing a belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in
+future existence. With this belief these aspects were eventually
+invested with personality.</p>
+
+<p>An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting
+for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to Gæa
+(Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light
+and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos
+revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance.</p>
+
+<p>A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313"></a>{313}</span> god Tani, who
+effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the
+Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree
+upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches.</p>
+
+<h3>Light and Darkness</h3>
+
+<p>Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting. The
+Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all his
+children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the
+Grave), which three Time cannot consume.</p>
+
+<p>An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except
+Zeus, for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and
+promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted.</p>
+
+<p>On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the
+stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being
+that of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being
+the sunrise.</p>
+
+<h3>Melanesian Myth</h3>
+
+<p>An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and
+his brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and
+setting forth in search, was successful in his quest. On his return he
+told his brothers to sit quite still, and when they felt something in
+their eyes to take no notice but keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep.
+When Night had lasted long enough, Qat took a slab of red obsidian and
+cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A tradition reminiscent of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314"></a>{314}</span>
+“dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery, though the slab of red
+obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its suggestion.</p>
+
+<h3>Darkness as a Devouring Monster</h3>
+
+<p>In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant
+influence or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun,
+<i>e.g.</i>, the Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by
+Apollo, and in Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by
+darkness.</p>
+
+<p>Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according to
+tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts
+and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn.</p>
+
+<h3>Season Myths</h3>
+
+<p>In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears
+some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god
+was killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of
+Odin, everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was
+forbidden to injure Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was
+made into an arrow and shot at random. It effected his death, but by
+general request of the gods, he was restored to life.</p>
+
+<p>Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the
+end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the
+tradition of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her
+mother, Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of
+Orpheus and Eurydice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315"></a>{315}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Sun Myths</h3>
+
+<p>Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and
+Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and
+transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the
+Sun, or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the
+North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over
+hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing
+the morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the
+Heavens, where she became the Morning Star.</p>
+
+<p>Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who
+for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which
+traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his
+daily course.</p>
+
+<h3>Belief in Natural Phenomena</h3>
+
+<p>It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and
+conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena,
+indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day.
+Thus we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and
+intelligence. We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the
+Sea treacherous, the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also
+customary to speak of the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of
+the sea and the “mouth” of a river or a cave.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316"></a>{316}</span></p>
+
+<p>Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,”
+“howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile”
+or the sky “threatens.”</p>
+
+<p>These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and
+consciousness&mdash;a belief originally simple, but later becoming more
+complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in
+assigning different deities to the various elements.</p>
+
+<h3>Greek and Roman Deities</h3>
+
+<p>In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and six
+goddesses.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td class="c"><i>Greek.</i></td>
+<td class="c"><i>Gods.</i></td>
+<td class="c"><i>Roman.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Zeus.</td><td align="left">The air or the living one (king)</td><td align="left">Jupiter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Apōllon.</td><td align="left">The Sun God.</td><td align="left">Apollo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ares.</td><td align="left">The War God.</td><td align="left">Mars.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hermes.</td><td align="left">The Messenger.</td><td align="left">Mercury.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Poseidon.</td><td align="left">The Sea God.</td><td align="left">Neptune.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hephaistos.</td><td align="left">The Smith.</td><td align="left">Vulcan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><i>Goddesses.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hera.</td><td align="left">Queen.</td><td align="left">Juno.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Demeter.</td><td align="left">Tillage.</td><td align="left">Ceres.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Artemis.</td><td align="left">Moon-Hunting.</td><td align="left">Diana.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Athenē.</td><td align="left">Wisdom.</td><td align="left">Minerva.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Aphrodite.</td><td align="left">Love and Beauty.</td><td align="left">Venus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hestĭa.</td><td align="left">Home life.</td><td align="left">Vesta.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as
+follows:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317"></a>{317}</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Dionȳsus.</td><td align="left">The God of Wine.</td><td align="left">Bacchus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Eros.</td><td align="left">The love lad.</td><td align="left">Cupid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Plutōn.</td><td align="left">God of the Inferno.</td><td align="left">Pluto.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kronos.</td><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; Time.</td><td align="left">Saturn.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3>Scandinavian Mythology</h3>
+
+<p>In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or first
+created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold,
+nourished by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he
+slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet,
+from whom was formed the race of Frost Giants.</p>
+
+<p>Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the
+Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the
+Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks;
+the brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a
+wall of defence against the Giants.</p>
+
+<p>As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the
+Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god
+dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly
+hills between the Earth and the Rainbow.</p>
+
+<p>The other gods or Asa were:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Thor.</td><td align="left">God of Thunder and War.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tyr.</td><td align="left">God of Wisdom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Baldur.</td><td align="left">God of Sun.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bragi.</td><td align="left">God of Eloquence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vidar.</td><td align="left">God of Silence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hodar.</td><td align="left">The Blind.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318"></a>{318}</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Harnod.</td><td align="left">The Messenger (divine intelligence)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Odur.</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Loki.</td><td align="left">God of Mischief.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>All these were sons of Odin&mdash;the youngest being Vale. The mansion of
+Odin was Gladsheim&mdash;that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was
+Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.”</p>
+
+<p>The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits
+of warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted
+nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death.</p>
+
+<p>Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like
+Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow.</p>
+
+<p>The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and
+Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash
+tree Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one
+to the Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a
+fountain of wonderful virtue.</p>
+
+<p>In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four
+stags; lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent Nithhöggr, while the
+squirrel Ratatösker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife
+between the serpent and the eagle at the top.</p>
+
+<h3>Rising and Setting Symbolised</h3>
+
+<p>The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised
+the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the
+setting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319"></a>{319}</span></p>
+
+<p>Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye
+at the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the
+setting sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was
+dedicated, symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with
+two horns on a stem rising from her head.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of
+the Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the
+death of Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis.</p>
+
+<p>Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon
+is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the
+Latmian Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth.</p>
+
+<h3>Winds Personified</h3>
+
+<p>That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to
+imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo
+or Boreas, son of Astræus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind,
+and lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were
+Notus, (South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), Argestës (North-East),
+Volturnus (South-East), and Aferventus (South-West).</p>
+
+<p>The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition
+of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away
+till only her voice remained.</p>
+
+<h3>Predestination</h3>
+
+<p>To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes
+would be attributed to the wrath<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320"></a>{320}</span> of some deity, even though there was
+no personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief
+in predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of
+Orestes and Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return
+of Ulysses from Troy.</p>
+
+<h3>The Fates</h3>
+
+<p>The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were
+arbitrarily controlled by the Parcæ or Fates, of which there were
+three&mdash;Clotho, who held the distaff&mdash;Lachesis, who spun the thread of
+life and Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was
+ended.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the
+distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread
+between life and death.</p>
+
+<p>The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The
+former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an
+atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came
+near. Their names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm)
+indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind.
+Equally arbitrary were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there
+were likewise three, their names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood),
+Alectro (implacable), and Megæra (disputatious).</p>
+
+<h3>Propitiation and Sacrifice</h3>
+
+<p>Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the
+natural outcome, and the various traditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321"></a>{321}</span> are probably records of
+actual occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story
+of Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having
+offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the
+most beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next
+twelve months. This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was
+deferred till she reached womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet
+arrived at Aulis on its way to Troy. Calchas declared this would be
+wind-bound as long as the vow remained unfulfilled, but Artemis
+interposed at the last moment by spiriting Iphigenia away from the altar
+and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead.</p>
+
+<p>A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea
+monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was
+Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and
+on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the
+country and to appease the offended deity.</p>
+
+<p>Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by
+Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition
+of Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he
+encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of
+Troy. The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed,
+and in consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322"></a>{322}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Early Burial Customs</h3>
+
+<p>The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future
+existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have
+souls.</p>
+
+<p>It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not
+only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or
+slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their
+ministrations in the future life.</p>
+
+<h3>Taboo</h3>
+
+<p>The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the
+belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the
+present day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which
+means “consecrated” or “set apart.”</p>
+
+<p>It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty,
+whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the
+supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed.</p>
+
+<h3>Roman Lares</h3>
+
+<p>The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares were
+the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors.
+They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in
+the Lararium or shrine.</p>
+
+<p>There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of
+streets and roads.</p>
+
+<p>This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of
+sacrifice in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom
+modified in later times to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323"></a>{323}</span> the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the
+present day in burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the
+foundation-stone in public buildings.</p>
+
+<h3>Typical Legend</h3>
+
+<p>Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are
+reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated
+traditions of demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some
+difficult problem in design or construction for the solution of which
+the architect or builder enters into the usual compact with the evil
+one, the terms being that the latter party to the contract shall take
+possession of the first living being that enters into or crosses the
+structure.</p>
+
+<p>Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other animal
+being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every
+instance greater than his vanity.</p>
+
+<p>Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also
+anticipated and symbolised the Atonement.</p>
+
+<p>With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun
+and Moon, as it announced the hours.</p>
+
+<p>The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius.
+Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should
+be sacrificed.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Spiritual Belief</h3>
+
+<p>Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when
+the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to
+impress the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324"></a>{324}</span> primitive imagination and suggest the duality of
+being&mdash;physical and spiritual.</p>
+
+<p>In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the
+soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to
+wake the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be
+unable to return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and
+come is evidenced in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and
+other forms of tombs.</p>
+
+<h3>Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics</h3>
+
+<p>Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of
+trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by
+devils which would be released by making a hole in the head. This
+treatment was apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive
+instruments and ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could
+hardly have been a pleasant experience.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life through
+the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a superstition that
+it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death
+occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.</p>
+
+<p>Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death
+chamber.</p>
+
+<h3>Prohibition</h3>
+
+<p>A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act
+or question.</p>
+
+<p>The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife
+of Orpheus, who, killed on her<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325"></a>{325}</span> wedding night, was redeemed on condition
+that Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world.
+Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and
+Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.</p>
+
+<p>The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by
+Aëdonius, King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty.
+Orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled;
+therefore he lost her a second time.</p>
+
+<p>The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine
+beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar
+in idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and
+devotion.</p>
+
+<p>As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche
+and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and
+origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in
+abandonment.</p>
+
+<p>A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was
+condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards.
+She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to visit
+her on that day.</p>
+
+<p>Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and
+saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and
+wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.</p>
+
+<h3>Belief in Magical Qualities.</h3>
+
+<p>The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual
+world, but also extended to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326"></a>{326}</span> inanimate objects which were sometimes
+invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus
+and Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was
+possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer
+with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility
+conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of
+Iceland.</p>
+
+<h3>The Shirt of Nessus</h3>
+
+<p>More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of
+misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition,
+Nessus the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by
+Hercules for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to
+Dejanira, assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love
+her exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on
+wearing it was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove
+the garment, he immolated himself on a funeral pyre.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by
+Queen Morgan la Fay.</p>
+
+<h3>Swords</h3>
+
+<p>Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the
+belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the
+sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its
+origin in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later
+improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural
+origin; <i>e.g.</i>, the sword of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327"></a>{327}</span> Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung
+or Gram (literally “grief”).</p>
+
+<p>The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the
+Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother
+smith, cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the
+cut was so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he
+attempted to move, when he fell in two pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later
+development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered
+the wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing
+the sheath, though he retained the sword.</p>
+
+<h3>Invulnerability</h3>
+
+<p>Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired.
+In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his
+mother Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he
+received his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that
+sprang from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa
+with the Promethean unguent.</p>
+
+<p>Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by
+bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden
+leaf had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his
+death, being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.</p>
+
+<p>This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328"></a>{328}</span> of defensive
+armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be
+unprotected.</p>
+
+<h3>Belief in Numbers</h3>
+
+<p>Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic
+significance, <i>e.g.</i>, “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of
+Beginning, Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of
+Trinity is Triad, and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.</p>
+
+<p>That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the
+Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to
+be under the rule of three gods&mdash;Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and
+Pluto (Hades). The first has three thunderbolts&mdash;Neptune, the Trident,
+and Pluto, Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.</p>
+
+<p>Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and
+Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were
+Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.</p>
+
+<h3>Muses</h3>
+
+<p>The Muses were three times three as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Calliope.</td><td align="left">Epic Poetry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Clio.</td><td align="left">History.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Melpomene.</td><td align="left">Tragedy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Euterpe.</td><td align="left">Lyric Poetry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Urania.</td><td align="left">Astronomy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Terpsichore.</td><td align="left">Dancing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Polyhegmnia.</td><td align="left">Religious service.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Erato.</td><td align="left">Erotic Poetry&mdash;Geometry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thalia.</td><td align="left">Comedy.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329"></a>{329}</span></p>
+
+<p>The world is compounded of three elements&mdash;Earth, Water and Air.</p>
+
+<p>Man also is three&mdash;Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of
+Nature&mdash;Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.</p>
+
+<p>There are three Christian Graces&mdash;Faith, Hope and Charity, and three
+enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.</p>
+
+<p>The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World&mdash;the Winds&mdash;the
+Gospels&mdash;the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.</p>
+
+<p>“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of
+Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages
+in the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the
+sleepers of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the
+world.</p>
+
+<h3>Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc.</h3>
+
+<p>Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the
+Deities.</p>
+
+<p>The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress
+and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the
+Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter;
+the Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was
+given to the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic
+games had a wreath of wild olive&mdash;of green parsley in the Nemean games,
+and of dried parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.</p>
+
+<p>The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330"></a>{330}</span> the spirit of
+prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and
+poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.</p>
+
+<p>The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace,
+an olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating
+a peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art
+is generally borne by the martyr&mdash;indicating victory over Death. The
+Lily&mdash;which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of
+Eve as she went forth from Paradise&mdash;is the emblem of Chastity,
+Innocence and Purity and is associated with representations of the
+Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten Lily, which it was customary to plant on
+graves, was once white, the tradition being that Persephone, daughter of
+Demeter, delighted to wander about the flowering meads of Sicily. One
+springtime she tripped over the meadows, wreathed her head with wild
+lilies and, throwing herself on the leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of
+the infernal regions, fell in love with her and carried her to the
+nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow.</p>
+
+<p>In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and
+represents original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the
+Pomegranate (generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the
+symbol of the future life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are
+symbols of Christ, and the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.</p>
+
+<p>The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion&mdash;the leaf
+symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords
+or whips; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331"></a>{331}</span> column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails;
+the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx,
+the nimbus. The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and
+the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.</p>
+
+<h3>Sacred Animals</h3>
+
+<p>Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and
+crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag
+to Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to
+Isis; the eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the
+Lares; the horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to
+Minerva; the bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and
+the lion to Vulcan.</p>
+
+<p>The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of
+the Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead,
+and so remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it
+receives life.</p>
+
+<h3>Evangelist Symbols</h3>
+
+<p>Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his
+gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a
+descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a
+man.</p>
+
+<p>Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle&mdash;the former
+because his gospel opens with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332"></a>{332}</span> the priests sacrificing in the Temple,
+and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the
+divinity of the Logos.</p>
+
+<p>In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on
+fountains. The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual
+inundations of the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.</p>
+
+<h3>The Serpent</h3>
+
+<p>The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety, and,
+considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the
+symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that
+Æsculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the
+Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery
+dragon, raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.</p>
+
+<h3>The Dragon</h3>
+
+<p>The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and
+Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the
+source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief
+thereby slew a dragon.</p>
+
+<p>The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the
+Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also
+a poetic allusion to flood or inundation.</p>
+
+<p>The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion
+to the power of the sun drying up<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333"></a>{333}</span> the overflow, as also the deliverance
+of the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille
+(waterspout) which lived in the Seine.</p>
+
+<h3>Poetic License in Tradition</h3>
+
+<p>In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable
+occurrences have been handed down&mdash;in many cases completely
+transformed&mdash;by reason of this poetic license; <i>e.g.</i>, the legend of
+Marsyas the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest
+of skill and being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.</p>
+
+<p>The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was
+one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that
+goddess, still discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the
+respective superiority of the instruments&mdash;the Dorian mode in the
+worship of Apollo employing the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in
+the worship of Cebele the flute, the reeds of which grew on the banks of
+the river Marsyas.</p>
+
+<p>Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos,
+King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos.
+All but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were
+punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly
+in sieves from a deep well.</p>
+
+<p>The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the
+Argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The
+soil of Argos, being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334"></a>{334}</span> the tradition of
+Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen
+fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog&mdash;both slain by
+Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who
+reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred
+lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains&mdash;a Greek myth based on the
+peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the
+Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to
+two ships which acted as supporters.</p>
+
+<p>A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to
+have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited
+the wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to
+defray the cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.</p>
+
+<h3>Animals in Christian Art</h3>
+
+<p>The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on monuments at
+the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and at the
+feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog appears on
+the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the
+standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.</p>
+
+<p>Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">The</td><td> Ant.</td><td align="left">Prudence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Ape.</td><td align="left">Malice, lust and cunning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Ass.</td><td align="left">Sobriety.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Asp.</td><td align="left">Christ, or Christian Faith.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335"></a>{335}</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Bee.</td><td align="left">Industry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Camel.</td><td align="left">Submission.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Cock.</td><td align="left">Vigilance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Fox.</td><td align="left">Fraud and cunning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Hog.</td><td align="left">Impurity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Lamb.</td><td align="left">Innocence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Leopard.</td><td align="left">Sin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Ox.</td><td align="left">Pride.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Dragon, Serpent, Swine.&nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align="left">Satan and his crew.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Lamb.</td><td valign="middle" rowspan="3" class="bl">-Symbols of Christ.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Pelican.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Unicorn.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus,
+appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted
+carrying a banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from
+its breast caught in a chalice.</p>
+
+<p>The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement. It
+is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of
+its breast.</p>
+
+<p>The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred
+years, is the symbol of the Resurrection.</p>
+
+<p>The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and
+Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life
+with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is
+occasionally suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in
+general shape.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336"></a>{336}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Association of Human and Animal Qualities</h3>
+
+<p>Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull
+and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the
+association of qualities&mdash;animal and human; and probably had their
+origin in an early belief in Totemism.</p>
+
+<h3>Totemism</h3>
+
+<p>Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain
+animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and
+appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the
+belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous,
+resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer.</p>
+
+<h3>Cannibalism</h3>
+
+<p>The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part
+of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.</p>
+
+<p>The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage
+or mentality.</p>
+
+<p>The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for
+protection or menace.</p>
+
+<p>The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies
+alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.</p>
+
+<p>Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as hovering,
+the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element denotes
+Intelligence, and bird claws&mdash;Ferocity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337"></a>{337}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Sphinx</h3>
+
+<p>The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position,
+is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally
+female) and symbolises Intelligence and Power.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented
+in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different
+meaning, that of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the
+tradition of the Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her
+destruction was accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that
+had resulted fatally for his predecessors.</p>
+
+<h3>Assyrian Winged Monsters</h3>
+
+<p>The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is
+symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the
+wings suggesting mobility or ever-present.</p>
+
+<p>The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle
+head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but
+alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the
+pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the
+ears.</p>
+
+<p>The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a
+lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth
+flames. From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.</p>
+
+<p>The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the
+head being the crater, the goat<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338"></a>{338}</span> representing the mountain slopes, and
+the snake tail the morass at the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and serpent
+tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the
+mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of
+a lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted
+issuing from the mouth.</p>
+
+<h3>Pegasus</h3>
+
+<p>Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the Chimeræ,
+also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of poetic
+inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with the
+chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins
+and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.</p>
+
+<h3>The Harpy</h3>
+
+<p>In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts
+employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head,
+with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and
+ferocity, and was the personification of sudden events.</p>
+
+<h3>Sirens</h3>
+
+<p>Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers)
+of whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They
+symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure
+their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339"></a>{339}</span> Failing to
+entrance Ulysses, they were doomed to destroy themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower
+limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion
+to their musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing
+harps or lutes.</p>
+
+<p>The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which
+capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower
+extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean.
+The Dolphin has the same significance.</p>
+
+<h3>Pan</h3>
+
+<p>A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a
+man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity
+displayed in creation and pervading all things.</p>
+
+<p>Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were
+under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.</p>
+
+<h3>The Nymphs</h3>
+
+<p>To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the forest
+trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin
+with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of
+such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.</p>
+
+<h3>Centaur</h3>
+
+<p>The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was an
+embodiment of the Thessalonian<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340"></a>{340}</span> horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the
+Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the
+Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when
+entertained as guests.</p>
+
+<h3>The Circle</h3>
+
+<p>The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic
+meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that
+of Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its
+employment as the crown, orb and nimbus.</p>
+
+<p>In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two
+asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the
+power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the
+Assyrian version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string
+substituted for the asps.</p>
+
+<p>The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and Authority,
+not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated in
+pagan times.</p>
+
+<p>It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an
+indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of
+the three persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre,
+and sometimes is triangular in form.</p>
+
+<p>The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but
+not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or
+less ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is
+sometimes used to envelop the whole figure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341"></a>{341}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Symbols of the Trinity</h3>
+
+<p>Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as
+emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.</p>
+
+<p>The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning
+nor end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.</p>
+
+<p>The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone
+or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift
+this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is
+preserved in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the
+tests of strength.</p>
+
+<h3>The Wand a Symbol of Authority</h3>
+
+<p>Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre,
+mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a
+form which is still retained in the official mace.</p>
+
+<p>The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open
+hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to
+reward or punish.</p>
+
+<h3>The Hand</h3>
+
+<p>The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome&mdash;two
+joined hands signifying concord.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented
+by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending
+from the fingers in token of divine Grace.</p>
+
+<p>The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of
+violence, and is so expressed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342"></a>{342}</span> shield of Ulster. An allusion to
+the tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land
+in Ireland, and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung
+it ashore.</p>
+
+<p>The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is
+represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in
+harmonious accord.</p>
+
+<h3>The Caduceus</h3>
+
+<p>The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the
+Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek
+mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or
+Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents
+quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which
+the serpents twined in peaceful amity.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with
+wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is
+employed as an emblem of commerce.</p>
+
+<h3>Thyrsus</h3>
+
+<p>A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes
+different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with
+ivy leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears
+in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion
+to the Greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine)
+with the new wine to make it keep.</p>
+
+<p>It has also been attributed to a strategy of war,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343"></a>{343}</span> when Bacchus made a
+successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with
+branches, as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone
+being suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities
+took place at night.</p>
+
+<h3>The Trident</h3>
+
+<p>The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also
+variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use,
+are sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.</p>
+
+<h3>The Cross</h3>
+
+<p>Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it
+was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for
+ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred
+symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it
+symbolised the four cardinal points.</p>
+
+<p>Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was
+sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross
+with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice
+extends equally over the four quarters of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm,
+sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith,
+Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all
+Christian virtues.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344"></a>{344}</span> transverse arms, when
+it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops
+at Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.</p>
+
+<p>The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter
+X, and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.</p>
+
+<p>The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T&mdash;frequently used in Byzantine
+representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent
+was uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the
+sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.</p>
+
+<p>The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the
+triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes
+the form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed
+in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.</p>
+
+<p>In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple
+form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more
+suggestive of voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical
+suffering belongs to a later period.</p>
+
+<p>It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St.
+Peter’s being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his
+execution.</p>
+
+<h3>The Pastoral Staff</h3>
+
+<p>The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the
+Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a
+curving head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both
+being indicative of authority.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345"></a>{345}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Symbols of Martyrdom</h3>
+
+<p>Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as
+indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of
+Triumph over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of
+violent death, or by other implements of execution. These are
+represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint, as
+attributes and as a means of identification.</p>
+
+<p>As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and
+Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as
+the crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear,
+lantern, thirty pieces of silver, etc.</p>
+
+<h3>Symbolism of Gems, etc.</h3>
+
+<p>In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic
+meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond&mdash;Invulnerable
+Faith, the Sardonyx&mdash;Power, the Sapphire&mdash;Hope, Gold represents Power or
+Glory, and Silver&mdash;Purity.</p>
+
+<p>Black represents Grief or Death, Blue&mdash;Hope and Divine Contemplation,
+pale blue&mdash;Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene conscience,
+Green&mdash;Faith, Gladness, pale green&mdash;Baptism, Grey&mdash;Tribulation,
+Purple&mdash;Justice or Royalty, Red&mdash;Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet&mdash;Fervour,
+and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet&mdash;Penitence, and
+White&mdash;Purity, Temperance and Innocence.</p>
+
+<p>Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a
+mere shell of the immortal soul. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346"></a>{346}</span> are also used to indicate a
+pilgrim, by whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or
+form of spoon.</p>
+
+<p>Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and
+Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as
+ascending, the significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An
+earlier signification in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.</p>
+
+<h3>Masks</h3>
+
+<p>Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable to
+the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē,
+was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the
+three Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of
+Athenē. As a punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the
+aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed
+to stone. A fate to which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her
+reflection in the burnished shield of Perseus.</p>
+
+<p>The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival,
+was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise
+that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired.
+The horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably
+accompanies the representations of Ceres.</p>
+
+<h3>Symbols of Time</h3>
+
+<p>Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter
+implement, though generally accepted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347"></a>{347}</span> is more strictly the emblem of
+Death, which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe
+the sickle would be more appropriate.</p>
+
+<h3>Secular Symbols</h3>
+
+<p>Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and
+crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations.</p>
+
+<p>The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the
+various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and
+other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the
+Bird of Wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a
+winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by
+bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements,
+sheaves of corn and fruit.</p>
+
+<h3>Trophies</h3>
+
+<p>Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a
+decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the
+weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of
+victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions.</p>
+
+<p>Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration
+to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which was emulated
+in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348"></a>{348}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Heraldry</h3>
+
+<p>Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised
+chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period
+of complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way
+difficult.</p>
+
+<p>Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed
+later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the
+display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in
+chimney-pieces, is quite justified as indicative of ownership. Such
+details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass
+effect and variety.</p>
+
+<h3>Heraldry in Design</h3>
+
+<p>A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion
+gate at Mycenæ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and
+Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The
+shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the
+strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers,
+especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to
+which there could be little objection if the employment of such details
+were justified by conditions.</p>
+
+<h3>Symbolism in Modern Art</h3>
+
+<p>Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of
+incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and
+to invest modern art&mdash;wherever possible&mdash;with meaning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349"></a>{349}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Present Apathy</h3>
+
+<p>In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the
+past, as is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally
+appreciated, but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to
+æsthetic environment; regarding art vaguely as the production and
+display of pictures and sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the
+mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of
+domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is
+the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do
+more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any
+progress must necessarily be very slow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350"></a>{350}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /><br />
+WAYS AND MEANS</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HROUGH the medium of sight, interest and emotion are excited by phases
+of colour and form, varying in individuals according to temperament. The
+artistic perception and appreciation of these are invariably due to
+natural faculty, though much may be acquired by intelligent study.</p>
+
+<h3>Perception</h3>
+
+<p>In most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the
+eye. Though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are
+essential, these can be acquired by practice. Perception, is of
+paramount importance, and it may be assumed that the artist’s vision is
+more sensitive to appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the
+layman.</p>
+
+<p>The interest of the average individual in art is generally that of
+subject and sentiment. This is probably a more natural and logical
+attitude than that of the artist, to whom&mdash;as a craftsman&mdash;the interest
+is often merely that of technique. These possibly represent the two
+extremes; the cultured individual is capable of appreciation of the
+ideal without consideration of schools and isms.</p>
+
+<p>Many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined
+knowledge than from the actual visual aspect&mdash;are apt to take forms for
+granted, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351"></a>{351}</span> assume, for example, that an object is round when it is
+really subtilely polygonal. Theoretically a curve has no existence,
+being really a combination of straight lines varying in length and
+direction. Many beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a
+form as a right angle, and until their vision and judgment is trained,
+it is improbable that they can successfully render more subtile
+combinations. It is the business of the teacher to train the vision so
+that the perceptive faculties are developed, and instil in the mind of
+the student that art is only concerned with appearance. Any fact not
+visually apparent should be ignored.</p>
+
+<h3>Accepted Conventions</h3>
+
+<p>The whole subject is complicated by convention; thus for convenience,
+forms are drawn in outline, but these drawings are not representations,
+and are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and
+tradition. Drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the
+surface by a line or lines, and can only define at most two dimensions.
+When shade and shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid
+in the suggestion of the third dimension. Though these tend to a more
+lucid explanation, the work remains a convention if colour and
+atmosphere are rendered in monochrome.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent. That
+this to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright
+colour to the child and the savage. Subtle quantities and combinations
+are only appreciated by comparatively few, the faculty for colour being
+extremely rare.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352"></a>{352}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Influence of Fashion</h3>
+
+<p>The average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue
+or fashion, though it is the polite custom to concede that the average
+woman is naturally endowed with taste. This is delicate ground, but the
+awful and impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume
+certainly do not justify the courtesy. There are superstitions in colour
+selection evidently the result of tradition, such, for instance, as red
+and yellow being suitable for a sallow complexion. The actual effect of
+these colours being to excite the complementaries, is hardly favourable
+to the misguided wearer.</p>
+
+<p>The average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially
+concerned. Not that he necessarily possesses more taste, but because he
+is observant of custom, and moreover, has generally an instinctive
+dislike to anything pronounced. At times, however, the women-folk take
+the initiative, and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are
+the selection of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex.</p>
+
+<p>In domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided
+by fashion, and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a
+lining for walls, it is probably adopted. But the choice, however it may
+be influenced, is made possibly without thought of the furniture and
+upholstery that is associated.</p>
+
+<h3>Harmonious Consistency</h3>
+
+<p>The colour scheme should be determined by aspect and by the use of the
+particular apartment. A sunny room should be treated differently to one
+with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353"></a>{353}</span> north-east aspect, in which an appearance of warmth is
+desirable. Furniture, too, must be considered, reds being an unsuitable
+setting for oak as a rule, while mahogany is best associated with
+delicate greens and greys.</p>
+
+<p>It is a reasonable assumption that the training of the student should
+result in greater discrimination, and when the exercise consists of
+representing, it is a matter of careful approximation of colours and
+values. In original design the harmonious effect depends on the
+individual, who, in early attempts in colour, jumps at it, being
+unconscious of any guiding principle.</p>
+
+<h3>Natural Suggestion</h3>
+
+<p>It would seem that the wealth of colour combination in the various
+natural aspects apparent to all, would surely influence selection; that
+it generally fails to do so is testimony to lack of observation. Nature
+left alone never makes mistakes, and the colouring in flowers, land,
+sky, and water, the plumage of birds and other natural phenomena, is
+always harmonious if seen in original environment. When the balance and
+correct association is disturbed it is due to human interference, as is
+evident too often in the work of the landscape gardener and
+horticulturist.</p>
+
+<h3>Colour Scheme</h3>
+
+<p>In decoration the scheme may consist of tints or tones of any one
+colour, and the contrast is merely that of tone; in other words, of
+lighter and darker phases. This method of colouring, which is quite
+suitable in some instances, is fairly safe, as the latitude for error is
+greatly reduced, but certainly is not courageous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354"></a>{354}</span></p>
+
+<p>The problem arises, when the scheme involves the use of more than one
+colour, and the successful effect depends on judicious association and
+balance. The simple rule is never to display two only of the primary
+colours in juxtaposition, the presence of the third being essential to
+harmonious and satisfactory effect.</p>
+
+<p>This, as a principle, forms the basis of much of the Moresque
+decoration, in which the details were picked out in blue and red of
+positive hues, and separated or outlined with gold.</p>
+
+<p>More consideration is required when positive or pure colour is not in
+request, and the proportions of juxtaposed tints have to be relative. As
+any tint departs from the full strength of its particular category, so
+those associated should be proportionately remote.</p>
+
+<p>Respective quantities may vary and one colour occupy relatively a small
+part of the surface, when to preserve the balance it may be stronger in
+hue than others occupying adjacent and larger areas. For such
+contingencies it is impossible to give exact formulæ, as the pigments
+employed are not always constant. In the case of manufacturers of mixed
+paints, it is customary to issue samples of colours for the year or
+season, and they cannot guarantee repeating exactly any colour or tint
+in subsequent mixing. The same applies where coloured papers and
+textiles are concerned; therefore judgment based on principle and
+experience can be the only guide.</p>
+
+<p>The Primary colours are Red, Yellow and Blue; admixture of any two of
+these result in the Secondary colours which form the complementaries of
+the Primaries not involved. Thus blue and yellow combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355"></a>{355}</span> result in
+green, which is the complementary of red, the complementary of yellow
+being purple, and that of blue, orange.</p>
+
+<p>Intensity of hue of any colour employed may vary considerably, and this
+variation should be proportional in other tints associated. Part of the
+charm of colour often depends on its complexity, in natural aspects due
+to atmosphere and varied phases of light. Pure colours should at times
+be avoided, that is, in the sense in which they are obtainable as
+pigments.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Training</h3>
+
+<p>Students should have attained some considerable facility in drawing
+before taking the study of design seriously, though probably part of the
+early training has dealt with extremely elementary forms leading in that
+direction. Undoubtedly, too, many enter on this phase of study without
+adequate preparation, having little appreciation of the underlying
+geometric construction, not only in design but in all form.</p>
+
+<p>This, on investigation, can always be found, and either the general mass
+or sub-divisions identified with some simple geometric shape enclosing
+the more intimate details. Correct approximation and placing are
+essential to the accuracy and success of the drawing. Too often through
+lack of training the tendency is to draw detail right away, without the
+necessary preliminary of determining the mass shapes.</p>
+
+<h3>Nature Study</h3>
+
+<p>The study of natural form is of paramount importance to prospective
+designers. Subjects should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356"></a>{356}</span> selected as season or opportunity permit,
+not merely from plant and floral growth, but any form available, animate
+or inanimate that is suggestive of pattern or susceptible of ornamental
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Students in their early attempts in design invariably find convention a
+stumbling-block, and in making their studies from nature cannot at first
+grasp the idea that selection should be exercised, and that only those
+phases which are favourable to decorative results should be recorded.
+Design is not concerned with facts or exact portraiture so much as
+pattern, and only those features and attitudes that are suitable should
+be dealt with. To perpetuate the ugly and unsuitable is waste of both
+time and energy.</p>
+
+<h3>Aspect and Attitude</h3>
+
+<p>In too many instances the first aspect of the subject of study is
+recorded, even without any regard to natural attitude. It may be a spray
+of blossom taken by the student from the parent tree or shrub, which is
+fixed up in any position that comes handy. For this there is no excuse;
+the spray should not only be placed consistently, but to the best
+advantage, the object being to record aspects that are suggestive of
+decorative development.</p>
+
+<p>In design it is conditional that each individual detail should be
+primarily effective as a silhouette, surface interest being of secondary
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Any leaf or flower that does not conform should be so arranged as to
+satisfactorily comply with this condition, and this can easily be
+achieved by slightly shifting the point of view, as it is generally due
+to extreme<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357"></a>{357}</span> foreshortening, or perspective that is confusing in
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_285" id="ill_285"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_411_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_411_sml.jpg" width="361" height="415" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 285. Natural Aspect of Various Leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Those in outline unsuitable without adaptation for ornament. The
+silhouette versions shew natural aspects that readily lend to decorative
+purposes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Points of study to be noted are the stem growth, junctions and angles of
+branching and articulation of leaves, the difference in development of
+leaves on main<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358"></a>{358}</span> stem and those on flower stalk, and phases of the
+flowers. The drawing should be explanatory as far as possible, and any
+detail not quite clear should be expressed in separate lucid diagrams.
+When readily accessible, a series of studies should be made of the same
+plant or growth at differing stages, so as to form a record of the life
+history and development.</p>
+
+<p>Care should be exercised to arrange the study with its explanatory
+details on the paper so as to satisfactorily occupy the area, not
+necessarily symmetrically, but with a view to desirable balance. Those
+with a natural faculty for design will probably do this instinctively,
+but the observance is important in developing the sense of arrangement.</p>
+
+<h3>Treatment</h3>
+
+<p>The drawings, which should be carefully detailed as to form, and
+intimate detail&mdash;in fact diagrammatic&mdash;can be in pencil or ink outline,
+light and shade is generally unimportant, though it may be lightly
+suggested.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to colour, except in examples of special suggestion, little
+time need be wasted in still life renderings, though suggestive colour
+schemes may well be noted, but the drawing should at least be lightly
+tinted, this serving the double purpose of fixing the pencil lines, and
+defining the silhouette shapes.</p>
+
+<p>These studies should form material for designs, not at first ambitious,
+but dealing with single leaves or flowers, and deriving from them
+details suitable to some form of decorative expression. These can be
+expressed in flat colour, with or without outline, or further ornamented
+by treatments suggestive of veining<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359"></a>{359}</span> or striation. The blotching of some
+leaves during autumnal changes or any natural markings can often be
+turned to decorative account.</p>
+
+<h3>Drawings for Reproduction</h3>
+
+<p>Designs in some instances are in the form of perspective sketches, when
+it is desirable to convey an idea of their final appearance, but as a
+rule they are expressed as working drawings. This is imperative when the
+final production is the result of some mechanical production, as in book
+decoration and advertisement either black and white or in colour.
+Drawings for these are generally made larger and reduced to the required
+size by photography, and the blocks for printing made from the
+photograph.</p>
+
+<p>There is no fixed rule as to size of drawing or reduction, but if the
+designs are drawn for one-third reduction there will be no material
+alteration in values when produced. But as the reduction is increased
+there is a proportionate risk in alteration of values. It is desirable
+to bear the proposed reduction in mind and to work more boldly or with
+thicker lines, otherwise the final effect may be thin and weak. In pen
+drawing, the lines should be clear and distinct whatever their
+thickness.</p>
+
+<p>For designs in black and white, hot-pressed paper, Bristol board or
+smooth card are most suitable. The ink should be waterproof, as, if
+necessary, corrections with Chinese white can be more neatly made. Fine
+pens, except for very minute work, are not desirable, a Gillott’s
+ladies’ fine writing nib yielding as fine a line as is ordinarily
+required. For some classes of work a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360"></a>{360}</span> brush will be found more suitable,
+but care should be taken that all lines&mdash;whether thick or thin&mdash;are
+equally black.</p>
+
+<p>Designs in colour for illustration or advertisement, which are to be
+reproduced by lithography or the three-colour process, can be on card or
+Whatman paper. The colours employed being transparent or opaque,
+whichever is more suitable to working and effect. Larger designs for
+advertisement, such as posters, are usually painted in tempera or opaque
+colour, and these should be applied as far as possible edge to edge,
+overpainting being avoided.</p>
+
+<h3>Opaque Colour</h3>
+
+<p>Care should be taken in mixing the colour to the required tint or shade.
+This requires some experience, as when white forms part of the mixture,
+the effect when dry is always lighter and colder than when the paint is
+in the fluid state; therefore allowance for this should be made. Opaque
+and tempera colours are not used so fluid as ordinary transparent water
+colours, and if applied too thin will fail to cover the surface solidly,
+or dry blotchy. Cartridge paper is not only good enough but more
+suitable for opaque colour than papers of better quality. Not merely is
+there no advantage in these, but the texture is an unnecessary
+embarrassment; moreover cartridge paper can be obtained in continuous
+form of good width.</p>
+
+<h3>Enlarging and Reducing</h3>
+
+<p>When drawings are enlarged or reduced, the linear dimensions and not
+those of the area are implied; thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361"></a>{361}</span> one half means one half of both
+width and height&mdash;really one-fourth of the area. It is obvious that half
+the area would be a different proportion, and it is the proportion that
+is concerned.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_286" id="ill_286"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;">
+<a href="images/ill_415_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_415_sml.jpg" width="169" height="222" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 286. Diagonal Method of Enlarging or Reducing. Solid
+line shews given size.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Divisional measurement is rendered unnecessary by the diagonal method of
+proportion. Given a rectangular shape, which has to be reduced or
+enlarged, a diagonal line should be drawn, and prolonged if the latter,
+through opposite angles. A line parallel to either the vertical or
+horizontal can be drawn and returned at a right angle where it
+intersects the diagonal, and regardless of any dimensions, this will
+ensure the exact proportion of the original rectangle.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that such designs as the foregoing should be complete, and
+both in drawing and colour a perfect anticipation of the painted result,
+owing nothing of their effect to mechanical reproduction.</p>
+
+<h3>Textiles</h3>
+
+<p>In designs for printed and woven fabrics, though the process of
+production varies, it is still necessary that the drawing be complete in
+the technical indications. Otherwise the reproduced version may suffer,
+or at least not fulfil the intention of the designer, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362"></a>{362}</span> it follows
+that the drawings should be concise in every detail, even to the colour
+effect desired.</p>
+
+<p>The drawings are usually to the full size in most printed fabrics. The
+design is not reproduced by any mechanical process, the blocks or
+rollers used in printing being cut by hand from a transferred tracing
+made from the original. Hence the importance of exactitude in joining
+and dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>In some instances the whole of the pattern is cut in relief in the wood,
+but in others, lines are the result of narrow strips of ribbon-like
+brass embedded in the surface of the block or roller. These have their
+influence on the design, as in the former method of production the lines
+can vary in thickness and can be invested with greater interest than the
+employment of the wire can give. The metal results in a hard line of
+unvarying thinness.</p>
+
+<p>Drawings for printed and woven fabrics are usually in opaque colour, and
+each tint employed should display a defined edge, graduated effects
+being only technically possible by means of tapering lines or stipple.
+Each distinct colour or tint involves separate printing; therefore as it
+is economically desirable to attain the best effect with the minimum
+cost, the utmost should be made of the colours employed.</p>
+
+<h3>Wallpapers</h3>
+
+<p>Wallpapers as a rule are printed in opaque colour, but in textiles, when
+the colour is transparent, more elaborate effects are possible by
+overprinting or super-imposing one colour on another. In woven fabrics
+similar effects can be obtained by judicious manipulation<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363"></a>{363}</span> of the
+shuttles, but in all cases it should be borne in mind that a working
+drawing is necessary in which the details are clearly indicative of the
+final result.</p>
+
+<p>Designs that have to be realised by some form of handicraft require the
+same care and concise regard to detail, though the drawings need not be
+so complete as to appearance, and may be to scale or drawn full size
+according to condition.</p>
+
+<h3>Architectural Drawings</h3>
+
+<p>Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, that of eight feet to one
+inch being general, with working drawings to a scale of half an inch to
+the foot accompanied by full-size details and profiles of mouldings. The
+drawings are geometric, that is in plan, elevation, and section,
+expressed in line and generally tinted. On plans and sections arbitrary
+colours are employed to indicate material, for instance, red denotes
+brick, purple-grey, stone, warm grey, cement, Prussian blue, iron or
+steel, and burnt sienna or Vandyke brown, wood.</p>
+
+<p>These drawings convey little idea of the intended effect to the lay
+mind, and it is customary to suggest the eventual appearance by
+perspective views, but for practical reasons they constitute the most
+convenient form from which dimensions can be taken for working purposes.</p>
+
+<h3>Structural Design</h3>
+
+<p>In all structural design similar drawings are necessary, although sketch
+designs in perspective may be made to suggest effect, working drawings
+are imperative<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364"></a>{364}</span> to the execution of the work. These, when reduced to the
+essential conditions of rendering, with explanatory details and
+sections, assume a very different aspect to the original sketch.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the completed work depends upon skilful detailing, which
+must be thoroughly explicit to be of real value.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience such working drawings are generally made on detail
+paper, which is usually obtainable in rolls sixty inches wide by
+twenty-five or fifty yards. This is sufficiently transparent to be
+employed for tracings, a great convenience when copies are in request,
+and is a good surface for pen, pencil or chalk, though somewhat thin for
+colour.</p>
+
+<p>Designs can be sketched in charcoal, and the desired lines drawn in ink.
+When dry the charcoal lines can be obliterated by rubbing with a leather
+or soft cloth, by which the charcoal is distributed, forming a tone over
+the whole surface. This is easily removable by india-rubber, and
+excellent relief effects can be obtained by judiciously taking out
+lights and strengthening shadows, though to avoid any possible
+misunderstanding it is usual to also indicate the relief by sections
+drawn through the details.</p>
+
+<h3>Lucid Arrangement</h3>
+
+<p>In geometric and working drawings when plans and sections are incidental
+to lucid explanation, these latter should appear relatively; that is,
+the plan should be in alignment with the elevation, etc. Statements and
+directions as to procedure are often necessary, and these, placed with
+judgment and in good lettering, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365"></a>{365}</span> valuable in balancing the drawing.
+Not that this has any effect on the work, but because it has a good
+influence on the designer.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the story of Giotto and the circle that figured in the early
+school primers is responsible for the very general impression that the
+use of mechanical instruments is inartistic. Another characteristic of
+the young beginner is a total disregard for anything in the nature of
+exact dimension.</p>
+
+<p>No useful purpose is served, and much valuable time is wasted, in
+attempts to accomplish freehand, forms that may be perfectly achieved by
+proper implements. Familiarity with the use of these will be found of
+great assistance in all design in which geometric construction, apparent
+or not, plays so large a part.</p>
+
+<p>Of this the average beginner has little conception, and though Geometry
+has been a subject of their early training, they seldom have any clear
+idea as to its employment in design. Except in few instances, they are
+unpractised in the use of geometrical instruments, and at times
+oblivious that these serve any practical purpose.</p>
+
+<h3>Mathematical Equipment</h3>
+
+<p>In design, where accuracy is of paramount importance, a reasonable
+equipment is imperative. Drawing boards vary in size, but for most
+ordinary work the antiquarian will suffice; the best type being that
+commonly used in engineering and architectural offices, with battens for
+adjustment and invariably a steel guide for the T square.</p>
+
+<p>Large T squares are more reliable on account of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366"></a>{366}</span> wider head, the
+better sort being in mahogany with bevelled ebony edge. When accuracy is
+essential, the T square should only be employed for horizontal lines,
+those in a vertical direction being attained by the use of the set
+square, when the right angle can be assured by contact of the base of
+the latter on the edge of the T square.</p>
+
+<p>Set squares indispensable for ordinary work are those of the angles of
+45 degrees and 60 degrees. They should be large, about twelve inch, and
+in celluloid, which, being translucent, tends to greater accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Bevelled set squares, usually in mahogany with ebony edge, are desirable
+when the ruling pen is used, and should be placed with the bevelled side
+to the surface of drawing as a precaution against blotting through the
+ink running off the edge from the pen. For the same reason the edge of
+the T square should be slightly tilted, so as not to be in contact with
+the drawing when ruling lines with the pen.</p>
+
+<p>The mathematical instruments in common request are dividers,
+indispensable in scale drawing. For delicate work spring dividers with
+needle points ensure greater accuracy. The bow or pencil compass, large
+with extending bar, and small; with spring bows, for minute work. For
+very large circles the beam compass is employed, consisting of a wood
+bar with two sliding clamps fitted respectively with point, and either
+pencil or pen which can be adjusted to the required radius.</p>
+
+<p>For ink drawings the bow or pen compass is employed for circular curves;
+spring bows for extremely small details, medium for general purposes.
+The large<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367"></a>{367}</span> compass in the ordinary set is provided with both pen and
+pencil joints, which can be adjusted as required.</p>
+
+<h3>Use of the Ruling Pen</h3>
+
+<p>For straight lines the ruling pen should be employed. In this implement,
+the nibs, as in the pen compasses are provided with a screw, by means of
+which the pen can be adjusted to form thick or thin lines as required.
+Care should be taken in the adjustment; for the thinnest line the points
+should only be in contact. If screwed too tightly the nibs may be bent
+and would have to be re-set.</p>
+
+<p>There is a limit to the thickness of line in individual ruling pens,
+which are made in varying sizes for fine or bold work. Bow and ruling
+pens should never be filled to the full capacity, as they are then
+liable to flood and blot the work. It is better also to charge the pen
+with the filler, which is usually provided with the ordinary liquid ink,
+or a brush; otherwise blotting may result. If the pen is filled by
+dipping, the nibs should be wiped dry on each occasion on the external
+faces.</p>
+
+<p>In use the ruling pen should be held as vertical as possible, with the
+nibs perfectly parallel to the edge of T or set square, any divergence
+from the vertical might result in a curve instead of the straight line
+required. If the nibs are at an angle with the ruling edge, the ink will
+not flow freely, and there is also a tendency to cut the surface.</p>
+
+<h3>Proportional Compass</h3>
+
+<p>Another instrument of great use, though not so commonly in request, is
+the proportional compass, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368"></a>{368}</span> means of which drawings are enlarged or
+reduced. It consists of two shanks furnished with points at each end,
+the shanks being slotted out centrally to form a slide. The adjustment
+is accomplished by a set screw which also forms a pivot, which, set at
+any of the marked divisions, assures the given proportion.</p>
+
+<h3>Tracings</h3>
+
+<p>Tracing paper is largely in request, not only as a means of repeating
+details and units by transferring, but when copies of a drawing are
+required. It can be obtained in rolls varying in width, forty inch being
+generally useful, and in different surfaces, rough and smooth, the
+former being good for pencil work&mdash;the smooth being more suitable for
+ink tracings.</p>
+
+<p>When tracings of a more durable character are required they are made on
+linen, which for this purpose has a highly glazed surface on which the
+ink will not always run equally. This can be rectified by lightly
+rubbing the surface with French chalk and by adding a little ox gall to
+the ink. The latter is a useful agent in counteracting any greasiness of
+surface and is often necessary in colour work.</p>
+
+<h3>Conclusion</h3>
+
+<p>The stimulus of competition is always healthy, and the necessity to
+attract has resulted generally in raising the standard, notably in forms
+of advertisement. The designer has not only to keep pace with modern
+conditions, but in some phases of work has also to anticipate future
+demand.</p>
+
+<p>Students are too often infected with the phase of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369"></a>{369}</span> moment, or by the
+work of some distinguished exponent. This is quite natural, and to some
+extent such emulation may be condoned, but if it becomes an obsession it
+is fatal to the development of individualism. It is desirable, indeed
+commendable, for students to be interested in contemporaneous work; but
+they should realise that personality will never be achieved by
+imitation, though emulation and experiment are legitimate methods of
+training.</p>
+
+<p>Art training is largely in that of technique, consisting chiefly of the
+handling of the tools and mediums involved. It is obvious that when this
+technique is successfully acquired it implies a high standard of
+craftsmanship. This is essential, but personality is of greater
+importance and its development depends upon the individual. Some who
+have nothing personal to express may be capable of attaining great
+facility in various mediums, but stop at the imitative, and though this
+may be lucrative, no great artistic distinction is possible.</p>
+
+<p>If personality is latent it will develop quite unconsciously, and the
+endeavour of the student should be to see, understand and express the
+subject of study or idea with sincerity, regardless of any current phase
+however interesting. In this way only can be attained the personal
+attitude and expression that really constitutes the interest in all
+forms of art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370"></a>{370}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371"></a>{371}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#A">A</a>,
+<a href="#B">B</a>,
+<a href="#C">C</a>,
+<a href="#D">D</a>,
+<a href="#E">E</a>,
+<a href="#F">F</a>,
+<a href="#G">G</a>,
+<a href="#H">H</a>,
+<a href="#I-i">I</a>,
+<a href="#J">J</a>,
+<a href="#K">K</a>,
+<a href="#L">L</a>,
+<a href="#M">M</a>,
+<a href="#N">N</a>,
+<a href="#O">O</a>,
+<a href="#P">P</a>,
+<a href="#R">R</a>,
+<a href="#S">S</a>,
+<a href="#T">T</a>,
+<a href="#U">U</a>,
+<a href="#V-i">V</a>,
+<a href="#W">W</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+<a name="A" id="A"></a><span class="letra2">A</span>canthus Foliage, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; Leaf (Greek) <a href="#page_264">264</a></span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  “&nbsp;  (Roman) <a href="#page_266">266</a></span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  “ (Byzantine) <a href="#page_267">267</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#page_268">268</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gothic, <a href="#page_268">268</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page_279">279</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Renaissance, <a href="#page_280">280</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_280">280</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_283">283</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XV, <a href="#page_284">284</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XVI, <a href="#page_284">284</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grinling Gibbons, <a href="#page_285">285</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adam, <a href="#page_286">286</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">System of the, <a href="#page_286">286</a></span><br />
+
+Adam, Robert, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br />
+
+Alberti, Leo Battista, <a href="#page_076">76</a><br />
+
+Ancient Pottery, <a href="#page_008">8</a><br />
+
+Animals in Art, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; “&nbsp;  Compound, <a href="#page_336">336</a></span><br />
+
+Angelo, M., <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Anthemion, The, <a href="#page_262">262</a><br />
+
+Anthemius, <a href="#page_045">45</a><br />
+
+Apathy, Public, <a href="#page_008">8</a><br />
+
+Appliqué, <a href="#page_296">296</a><br />
+
+Appreciation of Design, <a href="#page_288">288</a><br />
+
+Architecture, Egyptian, <a href="#page_022">22</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaldean, <a href="#page_025">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_028">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_035">35</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_043">43</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#page_049">49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gothic, <a href="#page_059">59</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, Italian, <a href="#page_075">75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Florentine, <a href="#page_076">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Roman, <a href="#page_078">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Venetian, <a href="#page_080">80</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  French, <a href="#page_085">85</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  in England, <a href="#page_088">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Elizabethan, <a href="#page_091">91</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Jacobean, <a href="#page_093">93</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  English, <a href="#page_102">102</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Louis XIII, <a href="#page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Louis XIV, <a href="#page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Louis XV, <a href="#page_110">110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Later English, <a href="#page_113">113</a></span><br />
+
+Architectural Drawing, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br />
+
+Architectural Features, Abacus, The, <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arch, <a href="#page_020">20</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  Pointed, <a href="#page_058">58</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  Decorated, <a href="#page_064">64</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  Perpendicular, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  <a href="#page_184">184</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arcades, <a href="#page_200">200</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Vaulted, <a href="#page_201">201</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Architrave, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archivolt, The, <a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Attic, The, <a href="#page_208">208</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baluster, The, <a href="#page_191">191</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balustrading, <a href="#page_193">193</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Battlement, The, <a href="#page_066">66</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base, The Doric, <a href="#page_181">181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  The Ionic, <a href="#page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Basement, The, <a href="#page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buttress, The, <a href="#page_059">59</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital, The Doric, <a href="#page_173">173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Ionic, <a href="#page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Corinthian, <a href="#page_178">178</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clerestory, The, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Column, The, <a href="#page_172">172</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  Employment of, <a href="#page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  Disposition and Spacing of, <a href="#page_195">195</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian Order, The, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cornice, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doric Order, The, <a href="#page_161">161</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doors, <a href="#page_211">211</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entablature, The Doric, <a href="#page_164">164</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  The Ionic, <a href="#page_169">169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_171">171</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Frieze, The, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Impost, The Doric, <a href="#page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  The Ionic, <a href="#page_186">186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic Order, The, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keystone, The, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lintel, The, <a href="#page_019">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mouldings, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Profiles, <a href="#page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Purpose of, <a href="#page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Decoration of, <a href="#page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Employment of <a href="#page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mutule, The, <a href="#page_164">164</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order, The, <a href="#page_160">160</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; The Doric, <a href="#page_161">161</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; The Ionic, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; The Corinthian, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, The, 188<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372"></a>{372}</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, The Doric, <a href="#page_189">189</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  The Ionic, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pediment, The, <a href="#page_209">209</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Piers, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pilaster, The, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plynth, The, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_183">183</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rustication, <a href="#page_205">205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Subsidiary Order, The, <a href="#page_202">202</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Superimposed Orders, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">System of Proportion, <a href="#page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triforium, The, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vault, The, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; Treatment of, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaulting, Fan, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volute, The, <a href="#page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Windows, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plate Tracery, <a href="#page_061">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tracery of, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a></span><br />
+
+Art, Interest in, <a href="#page_001">1</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Definition of, <a href="#page_005">5</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">As an Appeal, <a href="#page_005">5</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ethical Side of, <a href="#page_014">14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Desire for Novelty in, <a href="#page_015">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian, <a href="#page_023">23</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaldean, <a href="#page_025">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_033">33</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_038">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Græco-Roman, <a href="#page_040">40</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_045">45</a></span><br />
+
+Artistic Phases of Expression, <a href="#page_010">10</a><br />
+
+Aureole, The, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="B" id="B"></a><span class="letra2">B</span><span class="smcap">aluster</span>, The, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a><br />
+
+Bank of Ireland, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Base, The Doric, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br />
+
+Base, The Ionic, <a href="#page_182">182</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_183">183</a></span><br />
+
+Basement, The, <a href="#page_207">207</a><br />
+
+Battlement, The, <a href="#page_066">66</a><br />
+
+Bazzi Gian Antonio (Sodoma), <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Berain, Claude, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  Jean, <a href="#page_106">106</a></span><br />
+
+Bernini, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Book Decoration, <a href="#page_300">300</a><br />
+
+Borders, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  Treatment, <a href="#page_233">233</a></span><br />
+
+Boule, André Charles, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; Work, <a href="#page_298">298</a></span><br />
+
+Bramante, <a href="#page_078">78</a><br />
+
+Branching, Types of, <a href="#page_273">273</a><br />
+
+Brunelleschi, <a href="#page_076">76</a><br />
+
+Buttress, The, <a href="#page_059">59</a><br />
+
+Byzantine, Art, <a href="#page_045">45</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="C" id="C"></a><span class="letra2">C</span><span class="smcap">aduceus</span>, The, <a href="#page_342">342</a>.<br />
+
+Cannibalism, <a href="#page_336">336</a><br />
+
+Capital, The, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_050">50</a><br />
+
+Capital, Doric, <a href="#page_173">173</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic, <a href="#page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian, <a href="#page_178">178</a></span><br />
+
+Carved Work, <a href="#page_301">301</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Design for, <a href="#page_302">302</a></span><br />
+
+Ceilings, Jacobean, <a href="#page_097">97</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIII, <a href="#page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XV, <a href="#page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_218">218</a></span><br />
+
+Centaur, The, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br />
+
+Chaldean Art, <a href="#page_025">25</a><br />
+
+Chambers, Sir William, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Chambord, Chateau de, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Champleve Enamel, <a href="#page_047">47</a><br />
+
+Chenonceaux, sur Loire, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Chimney-piece, Jacobean, <a href="#page_094">94</a><br />
+
+Chippendale, <a href="#page_121">121</a><br />
+
+Choragic Monument, <a href="#page_032">32</a><br />
+
+Christian Art, Early, <a href="#page_046">46</a><br />
+
+Circle, Symbolic meaning of, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+Cipriani, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Clerestory, The, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a><br />
+
+Colour, Symbolism of, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Use of, <a href="#page_353">353</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Opaque, <a href="#page_360">360</a></span><br />
+
+Column, The, <a href="#page_172">172</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Employment of, <a href="#page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Disposition and Spacing of, <a href="#page_195">195</a></span><br />
+
+Commercial Production, <a href="#page_006">6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Intercourse, <a href="#page_012">12</a></span><br />
+
+Convention, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Accepted, <a href="#page_351">351</a></span><br />
+
+Cornucopia, The, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Corinthian, Order, <a href="#page_163">163</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entablature, <a href="#page_171">171</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital, <a href="#page_178">178</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base, <a href="#page_184">184</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Impost, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+
+Craft Restriction, <a href="#page_256">256</a><br />
+
+Cressent, Charles, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Cross, The, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br />
+
+Crozier, The, <a href="#page_344">344</a><br />
+
+Crux Ansata, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br />
+
+Customs, Survival of, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early Burial, <a href="#page_322">322</a></span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="D" id="D"></a><span class="letra2">D</span><span class="smcap">ance</span>, George, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Decorative, Materials, <a href="#page_289">289</a><br />
+
+Deities, Egyptian, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br />
+
+Deities, Greek and Roman, <a href="#page_316">316</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scandinavian, <a href="#page_317">317</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pan, 339<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373"></a>{373}</span></span><br />
+
+Delorme, Philibert, <a href="#page_087">87</a><br />
+
+Dentils, <a href="#page_146">146</a><br />
+
+Design, Mental vision in, <a href="#page_001">1</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inspired, <a href="#page_002">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Process and material in, <a href="#page_002">2</a>, <a href="#page_008">8</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Considerations in, <a href="#page_003">3</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Public demand, <a href="#page_003">3</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Training in, <a href="#page_004">4</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Influence in, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Architectural influence in, <a href="#page_014">14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Appreciation of, <a href="#page_288">288</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Structural, <a href="#page_363">363</a></span><br />
+
+Domes, Byzantine, <a href="#page_043">43</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br />
+
+Domestic Conditions, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a><br />
+
+Donatello, <a href="#page_076">76</a><br />
+
+Doors, Jacobean, <a href="#page_096">96</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Proportions and Treatment, <a href="#page_211">211</a></span><br />
+
+Doric Order, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entablature, <a href="#page_164">164</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital, <a href="#page_173">173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base, <a href="#page_181">181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, <a href="#page_189">189</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Impost, <a href="#page_185">185</a></span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="E" id="E"></a><span class="letra2">E</span><span class="smcap">cole</span> de Médécine, <a href="#page_132">132</a><br />
+
+Echo, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br />
+
+Egyptian Art, <a href="#page_022">22</a><br />
+
+Enamel, Byzantine, <a href="#page_047">47</a><br />
+
+Endymion, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br />
+
+Enlarging Drawings, <a href="#page_360">360</a><br />
+
+Equipment, Mathematical, <a href="#page_365">365</a><br />
+
+Eurydice, <a href="#page_324">324</a><br />
+
+Evangelists, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br />
+
+Evolute Scroll, The, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="F" id="F"></a><span class="letra2">F</span><span class="smcap">arnese</span> Palace, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Fates, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br />
+
+Figure Composition, <a href="#page_244">244</a><br />
+
+Filagree Jewellery, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+
+Flowers, in Ornament <a href="#page_270">270</a><br />
+
+Fontainebleau, Palace of, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Forms in the round, <a href="#page_245">245</a><br />
+
+Four Courts, Dublin, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+French Renaissance, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIII, <a href="#page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Régence, <a href="#page_111">111</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XV, <a href="#page_110">110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XVI, <a href="#page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Empire, <a href="#page_135">135</a></span><br />
+
+Frieze, The, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a><br />
+
+Furniture, Egyptian, <a href="#page_024">24</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaldean, <a href="#page_027">27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_032">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_039">39</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Middle Age, <a href="#page_054">54</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page_084">84</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English Renaissance, <a href="#page_092">92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_098">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIII, <a href="#page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XV, <a href="#page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English (Dutch Influence) <a href="#page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Queen Anne, <a href="#page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chippendale, <a href="#page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lacquered, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Painted, <a href="#page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sheraton, <a href="#page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XVI, <a href="#page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Empire, <a href="#page_135">135</a></span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="G" id="G"></a><span class="letra2">G</span><span class="smcap">allo</span>, Antonio San, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Gallo, Giuliano di San, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Gandon, James, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Gems, Symbolism of, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+
+Gibbons, Grinling, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a><br />
+
+Gibbs, James, <a href="#page_115">115</a><br />
+
+Giocondo, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Giotto, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Gondouin, Jacques, <a href="#page_132">132</a><br />
+
+Gouthière, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br />
+
+Graces, Christian, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br />
+
+Græco-Roman Art, <a href="#page_040">40</a><br />
+
+Greek Art, <a href="#page_028">28</a><br />
+
+Grimani Palace, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Growth, Consistency in, <a href="#page_273">273</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="H" id="H"></a><span class="letra2">H</span><span class="smcap">alf</span> Figures in Ornament, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br />
+
+Halo, The, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+Hamadryads, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br />
+
+Hampton Court Palace, <a href="#page_114">114</a><br />
+
+Hand, Symbolism of the, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br />
+
+Harpy, The, <a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a><br />
+
+Hawksmoor, Nicholas, <a href="#page_115">115</a><br />
+
+Hepplewhite, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Heraldry, <a href="#page_348">348</a><br />
+
+Holbein, <a href="#page_089">89</a><br />
+
+Holkham, Norfolk, <a href="#page_121">121</a><br />
+
+Holt, Thomas, <a href="#page_091">91</a><br />
+
+Horse Guards, Whitehall, <a href="#page_121">121</a><br />
+
+Husk Leaf, The, <a href="#page_269">269</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="I-i" id="I-i"></a><span class="letra2">I</span><span class="smcap">mpost</span>, Doric, <a href="#page_185">185</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic, <a href="#page_186">186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+
+Impressionism, Early, <a href="#page_010">10</a><br />
+
+Influence of Material, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Political, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Religious, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Commercial, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civic, 70<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374"></a>{374}</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Of the Crusades, <a href="#page_056">56</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Of Fashion, <a href="#page_352">352</a></span><br />
+
+Inspiration, Belief in,  <a href="#page_002">2</a><br />
+
+Intarsia, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br />
+
+Interior treatment, Græco-Roman, <a href="#page_039">39</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque Church, <a href="#page_051">51</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domestic, Tudor, <a href="#page_073">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page_083">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_094">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIII, <a href="#page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis, XV, <a href="#page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wren Period, <a href="#page_116">116</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Georgian, <a href="#page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adam, <a href="#page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis, XVI, <a href="#page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Walls, <a href="#page_216">216</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceilings, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaults and Domes, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br />
+
+Ionic Order, Greek, <a href="#page_032">32</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Proportions of, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entablature, <a href="#page_169">169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital, <a href="#page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base, <a href="#page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Impost, <a href="#page_186">186</a></span><br />
+
+Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="J" id="J"></a><span class="letra2">J</span><span class="smcap">ewellery</span>, Filagree, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+
+Jones, Inigo, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="K" id="K"></a><span class="letra2">K</span><span class="smcap">auffman</span>, Angelica, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Kent, William,  <a href="#page_121">121</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="L" id="L"></a><span class="letra2">L</span><span class="smcap">ace</span>, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br />
+
+Lacquered Furniture, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Lares, Roman, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br />
+
+Leaves, Employment of, <a href="#page_275">275</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_293">293</a></span><br />
+
+Lebrun, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+Legend, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a><br />
+
+Lepautre, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+Limitations, Human, <a href="#page_001">1</a><br />
+
+Lintel, The, <a href="#page_019">19</a><br />
+
+Louvre, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="M" id="M"></a><span class="letra2">M</span><span class="smcap">aderno</span>, Carlo, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Madrid, Chateau de, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Magical Qualities, Belief in, <a href="#page_325">325</a><br />
+
+Mainwaring, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br />
+
+Majano, Benedetto da, <a href="#page_077">77</a><br />
+
+Mansart, Jules Hardouin, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+Mansion House, London, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Marble, Byzantine use of, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a><br />
+
+Marquetry, <a href="#page_298">298</a><br />
+
+Marot, Daniel, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a><br />
+
+Martyrdom, Symbols of, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+
+Masks, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Mathematical Equipment, <a href="#page_365">365</a><br />
+
+Material in Design, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+
+Mayhew, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br />
+
+Medusa, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Metal Work, Bronze, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_047">47</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Repoussé, <a href="#page_304">304</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cast, <a href="#page_306">306</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mounts in Furniture, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a></span><br />
+
+Methods of Expression, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br />
+
+Micheli, San, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Modelling, <a href="#page_301">301</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a><br />
+
+Mosaics, Byzantine, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a><br />
+
+Mouldings, Attitude of, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolection, <a href="#page_152">152</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_064">64</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decoration of, <a href="#page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drawn Metal, <a href="#page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Employment of, <a href="#page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_097">97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pointed Gothic, <a href="#page_061">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plaster, <a href="#page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pottery, <a href="#page_154">154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Profiles of, <a href="#page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Purpose of, <a href="#page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Repoussé, <a href="#page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rolled Metal, <a href="#page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spun Metal, <a href="#page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turned Wood, <a href="#page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wood Panel, <a href="#page_149">149</a></span><br />
+
+Muses, <a href="#page_328">328</a><br />
+
+Mythology, Origin of, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scandinavian, <a href="#page_317">317</a></span><br />
+
+Myths, Nature, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Season, <a href="#page_314">314</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sun, <a href="#page_315">315</a></span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="N" id="N"></a><span class="letra2">N</span><span class="smcap">ature</span>, Myths, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Study, <a href="#page_355">355</a></span><br />
+
+Natural Attraction, <a href="#page_288">288</a><br />
+
+Natural Suggestion, <a href="#page_353">353</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phenomena, Belief in, <a href="#page_315">315</a></span><br />
+
+Needlework, <a href="#page_296">296</a><br />
+
+Newgate Prison, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Nimbus, The, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+Noon, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br />
+
+Numbers, Belief in, <a href="#page_328">328</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="O" id="O"></a><span class="letra2">O</span><span class="smcap">ppenord</span>, Giles Marie, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Order, 160<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375"></a>{375}</span><br />
+
+Order, Doric, <a href="#page_161">161</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+
+Originality, <a href="#page_001">1</a><br />
+
+Ornament, Roman, <a href="#page_039">39</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_045">45</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#page_050">50</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pointed Gothic, <a href="#page_063">63</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_065">65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Perpendicular Gothic, <a href="#page_069">69</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Renaissance, <a href="#page_088">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; “&nbsp; &nbsp; <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Later English&nbsp; “&nbsp; &nbsp; <a href="#page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XVI, <a href="#page_134">134</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Empire, <a href="#page_135">135</a></span><br />
+
+Outline, Drawing, <a href="#page_254">254</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="P" id="P"></a><span class="letra2">P</span><span class="smcap">ainted</span> Decoration, Roman, <a href="#page_039">39</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a></span><br />
+
+Painted Furniture, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Palazzo, Pitti, <a href="#page_077">77</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Strozzi, <a href="#page_077">77</a></span><br />
+
+Palladio, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a><br />
+
+Pan, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br />
+
+Panels, Treatment of, <a href="#page_236">236</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Juxtaposition, <a href="#page_238">238</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Composing Lines, <a href="#page_241">241</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grouping and Massing, <a href="#page_242">242</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Division of, <a href="#page_242">242</a></span><br />
+
+Pantheon, Rome, <a href="#page_036">36</a><br />
+
+Passion, Symbols of the, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+
+Pastoral Staff, <a href="#page_344">344</a><br />
+
+Parthenon, <a href="#page_030">30</a><br />
+
+Perugino, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Peruzzi, Baldazzare, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Pineau, Nicholas, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Piers, Gothic, <a href="#page_060">60</a><br />
+
+Pinturrichio, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Potters, Elementary, <a href="#page_009">9</a><br />
+
+Pottery, Ancient, <a href="#page_008">8</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_034">34</a></span><br />
+
+Predestination, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br />
+
+Prehistoric Workers, <a href="#page_009">9</a><br />
+
+Personal Production, <a href="#page_010">10</a><br />
+
+Primitive Essays, <a href="#page_008">8</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Requirements, <a href="#page_011">11</a></span><br />
+
+Prohibition, <a href="#page_324">324</a><br />
+
+Propitiation, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="R" id="R"></a><span class="letra2">R</span><span class="smcap">affaelle</span>, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Realism, <a href="#page_255">255</a><br />
+
+Régence, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Relief Work, Treatment of, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a><br />
+
+Reproduction Processes, <a href="#page_304">304</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drawing for, <a href="#page_359">359</a></span><br />
+
+Riesener, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br />
+
+Rococo, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Romano Giulio, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Rosette, The, <a href="#page_270">270</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="S" id="S"></a><span class="letra2">S</span><span class="smcap">acred</span> Trees and Flowers, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br />
+
+Sacrifice, <a href="#page_321">321</a><br />
+
+Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti) <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Sarto, Andrea del, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Scamozzi, Vincenzo, <a href="#page_081">81</a><br />
+
+Sceptre, The, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br />
+
+Scroll, The, <a href="#page_266">266</a><br />
+
+Season Myths, <a href="#page_314">314</a><br />
+
+Secular Symbols, <a href="#page_347">347</a><br />
+
+Serlio, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a><br />
+
+Shells, Symbolism of, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+
+Sheraton, <a href="#page_127">127</a><br />
+
+Sirens, The, <a href="#page_338">338</a><br />
+
+Social Conditions, Early, <a href="#page_011">11</a><br />
+
+Sodoma (Gian Antonio Bazzi) <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Somerset House, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Soufflet, <a href="#page_110">110</a><br />
+
+Spires, Pointed Gothic, <a href="#page_064">64</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_066">66</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Classic, <a href="#page_116">116</a></span><br />
+
+Spiritual Belief, Early, <a href="#page_323">323</a><br />
+
+St. Geneviéve (Pantheon) <a href="#page_110">110</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">George, Bloomsbury, <a href="#page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mark, Library of, <a href="#page_081">81</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martin in the Fields, <a href="#page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mary le Strand, <a href="#page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mary, Woolnoth, <a href="#page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paul, Covent Garden, <a href="#page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peter’s, Rome, <a href="#page_078">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stephen’s, Walbrook, <a href="#page_116">116</a></span><br />
+
+Standards, <a href="#page_246">246</a><br />
+
+Starts in Ornament, <a href="#page_276">276</a><br />
+
+Stencilled Work, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br />
+
+Strapwork, <a href="#page_087">87</a><br />
+
+Structural Design, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br />
+
+Style, <a href="#page_016">16</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phases in, <a href="#page_018">18</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; “&nbsp; Gothic, <a href="#page_060">60</a></span><br />
+
+Sun Myths, <a href="#page_315">315</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Signs, <a href="#page_340">340</a></span><br />
+
+Supports, <a href="#page_246">246</a><br />
+
+Surface Interest, <a href="#page_294">294</a><br />
+
+Symbols of the Evangelists, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br />
+
+Symbolic Ornament, <a href="#page_310">310</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="T" id="T"></a><span class="letra2">T</span><span class="smcap">aboo</span>, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br />
+
+Taste, <a href="#page_006">6</a><br />
+
+Tatti, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Technical Considerations, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br />
+
+Tendrils, <a href="#page_271">271</a><br />
+
+Textiles, Printed and Woven, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, 361<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376"></a>{376}</span><br />
+
+Thorpe, Thomas, <a href="#page_091">91</a><br />
+
+Thyrsus, The, <a href="#page_342">342</a><br />
+
+Time, Symbols of, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Torches, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Torrigiano, <a href="#page_089">89</a><br />
+
+Totemism, <a href="#page_336">336</a><br />
+
+Tracery, <a href="#page_061">61</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pointed, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span><br />
+
+Tracings, <a href="#page_368">368</a><br />
+
+Trident, The, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br />
+
+Triforium, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a><br />
+
+Trinity College, Cambridge, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br />
+
+Trinity, Symbols of the, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br />
+
+Triton, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br />
+
+Trophies, <a href="#page_347">347</a><br />
+
+Tuileries, The, <a href="#page_087">87</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="U" id="U"></a><span class="letra2">U</span><span class="smcap">dine</span>, Giovanni da, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Undulate, Line or Stem, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="V-i" id="V-i"></a><span class="letra2">V</span><span class="smcap">aga</span>, Pierino del, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Vase, Greek, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Forms and Decoration, <a href="#page_248">248</a></span><br />
+
+Vase, Stretch out and Segments, <a href="#page_250">250</a><br />
+
+Vault, The, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br />
+
+Vaulting, Fan, <a href="#page_068">68</a><br />
+
+Veneer, <a href="#page_298">298</a><br />
+
+Venetian, Renaissance, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Versailles, Palace of, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+Vesica Piscis, The, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+Vignola, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a><br />
+
+Vinci, Leonardo da, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Volute, The, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="W" id="W"></a><span class="letra2">W</span><span class="smcap">allpaper</span>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br />
+
+Whitehall, Banqueting House, <a href="#page_103">103</a><br />
+
+Windows, Glazing of, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pointed Gothic, <a href="#page_061">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_064">64</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Perpendicular Gothic, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domestic, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_098">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_213">213</a></span><br />
+
+Winds Personified, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br />
+
+Wood, Inlay, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_289">289</a></span><br />
+
+Wren, Sir Christopher, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 53850 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #53850 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53850)
diff --git a/old/53850-0.txt b/old/53850-0.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Design and Tradition, by Amor Fenn
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Design and Tradition
+
+Author: Amor Fenn
+
+Release Date: December 31, 2016 [EBook #53850]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DESIGN AND TRADITION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images available at The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                         DESIGN AND TRADITION
+
+“They are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only Beauty.”--_Oscar
+                                Wilde._
+
+[Illustration: Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. Rickards,
+                              F.R.I.B.A.
+
+ This drawing is remarkable as an anticipation of eventual appearance.
+   Thoroughly impressionistic in treatment, all irrelevant detail is
+                               omitted.]
+
+
+
+
+                         UNIVERSAL ART SERIES
+                     EDITED BY FREDERICK MARRIOTT
+
+                              DESIGN AND
+                               TRADITION
+
+                        A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
+                        PRINCIPLES AND HISTORIC
+                      DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
+                            AND THE APPLIED
+                                 ARTS
+
+                                  BY
+                               AMOR FENN
+
+                       [Illustration: colophon]
+
+                                LONDON
+                        CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD.
+                                 1920
+
+
+
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                         THE WESTMINSTER PRESS
+                              HARROW ROAD
+                                LONDON
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR’S PREFACE
+
+
+It may be urged with some reasonable basis of truth that much of the
+modern art work fails to attain the level of that of the past. It must
+be conceded, however, that demand and appreciation is more general and
+widely diffused. As social conditions have developed, interest in
+environment has been stimulated. Improved processes resulting in more
+economic production have rendered possible an indulgence by those of
+moderate means, attainable only at earlier periods by the wealthier
+class.
+
+As a result of this more general appreciation the professional services
+of the artist are necessarily in greater request, thus affording a
+sphere of work not only lucrative but temperamentally attractive.
+
+At the present time the facilities available to the prospective artist
+are considerably greater than at any previous period. In every district
+and important centre, there are schools specialising in the Arts and
+Crafts, giving opportunities for training at fees that are purely
+nominal. Most of these deal with the various phases of artistic
+expression on logical and sound lines, but the knowledge and experience
+essential to a successful artistic career is invariably acquired in
+professional work to which the art school training is preparatory.
+
+To those specialising in design, the study of Historic Style is of
+paramount importance. Intelligent investigation will show that in all
+the varying phases, the underlying factors are much the same, and
+appreciation of these will be found invaluable in personal work.
+
+Necessarily brief, this book has been prompted by the memory of early
+bewilderment and difficulties, when a guiding hand would have saved much
+valuable time and mis-directed energy.
+
+A considerable amount of the available space is devoted to Architectural
+features, with the conviction that a knowledge of these will be found
+helpful in the formation of methods, logical and constructive.
+
+Attention is directed to the frontispiece, a typical example of the
+extraordinary genius of E. A. Rickards, F.R.I.B.A., the original of
+which is in the possession of Philip Connard, A.R.A., to whom
+indebtedness for its use is acknowledged.
+
+The author’s thanks are also due to Miss Dora Bard and Mr. C. E. Bernard
+for the reproduction of drawings made by them during their tenure in
+successive years of the “Travelling Studentship” of the Society of
+British Decorators.
+
+For the use of the following photographs the author desires to make
+acknowledgment to the Authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+South Kensington, as holders of the Crown copyright:
+
+Nos. 257.
+     258.
+     259.
+     265.
+     271.
+     272.
+     273.
+     274.
+     275.
+     281A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER.....PAGE
+
+I Introductory.....1
+
+Human Limitations, p. 1--Inspiration--Process and Material, p. 2--Early
+Training, p. 4--Art and Existence, p. 5--Natural Taste--Commercial
+Production, p. 6--“Ornaments,” p. 7--Modern Development--Public Apathy,
+p. 8--Elementary Pattern, p. 9--Early Impressionism--Personal
+Production, p. 10--Early Social Conditions, p. 11--Influence--Commercial
+Intercourse, p. 12--Effect on Design, p. 13--Ethical side of Art, p.
+14--Desire for Novelty, p. 15.
+
+II Historic Review.....16
+
+Style, p. 16--Intercommunication--Climate and Material, p. 17--Phases in
+Style, p. 18--The Lintel, p. 19--The Arch, p. 20--Egyptian Art, p.
+22--Chaldean Art, p. 25--Greek Art, p. 28--Roman Art, p. 35--Vaulting,
+p. 36--Greek Influence, p. 37--Roman Development of Ornament, p.
+38--Græco-Roman Painted Decoration, p. 39--Byzantine Dome, p. 43--Early
+Christian Art, p. 46--Byzantine Metal Work, and Enamel, p. 47--Roman
+Influence Abroad--Romanesque Style, p. 49--Church Development, p.
+50--Dark Ages, p. 53--Crusades, p. 56--Origin of the Pointed Arch, p.
+58--Gothic Style, p. 59--Phases of Gothic--Early Pointed, p.
+60--Decorated Gothic, p. 64--Perpendicular Gothic--Glass Windows, p.
+67--Civic Influences, p. 70--Effect of Commerce--Classic Tradition in
+Italy, p. 71--Foreign Influence in England--The Dwelling House, p.
+72--The Reformation, p. 74--The Renaissance, p. 75--Early Florentine
+Exponents, p. 76--Rome, p. 78--Venice, p. 80--Venetian Influence, p.
+81--Painted Decoration, p. 82--Græco-Roman Influence, p. 83--Early
+French Renaissance, p. 85--Native Exploitation, p. 87--English
+Renaissance, p. 88--Italians in England, p. 89--Study of Classic
+Style--Thomas Thorpe, p. 91--Flemish Influence, p. 92--Jacobean Work, p.
+93--Development in Dwellings, p. 98--Evolution of Professional Designer,
+p. 101--Inigo Jones, p. 102--Louis XIII, p. 103--Louis XIV, p.
+106--“Boule” Work--Mirrors, p. 109--Louis XV, p. 110--Régence--Rococo,
+p. 111--Lacquer “Vernis Martin”--Later English Renaissance, p. 113--Sir
+Christopher Wren, p. 114--Classic Treatment of the Spire, p. 116--Dutch
+and French Influences, p. 118--Queen Anne Period--Early Georgian, p.
+120--Furniture Design, Chippendale, p. 121--Mayhew--Robert Adam, p.
+123--Hepplewhite, p. 126--Sheraton--Louis XVI, p. 127--Riesener and
+Gouthière, p. 133--Empire--Empire in England--Later English
+Architecture, p. 135--French Influence on Europe, p. 136.
+
+III Mouldings.....138
+
+Purpose--The Fillet--Sheltering Mouldings--The Cavetto, p. 139--Cyma
+Recta--Bracketing Mouldings--The Ovolo, p. 140--Cyma Reversa--Binding
+Mouldings, p. 141--The Torus--The Scotia--The Facia, p. 142--Decoration
+of Mouldings, p. 143--Orthodox Details--Angle Leaf, p. 145--Dentils, p.
+146--Employment of Mouldings, p. 147--Attitude, p. 148--Panel
+Mouldings--Woodwork, p. 149--Applied Mouldings, p. 151--Bolection
+Moulding, p. 152--Mouldings in Plaster Work--Wood Turning, p. 153--Metal
+Turning--Pottery, p. 154--Mechanically produced Metal Mouldings--Wrought
+Iron, p. 155--Silver Work, p. 156--Sheet Metal, Spinning, and Repoussé,
+p. 157.
+
+IV Architectural Proportions.....158
+
+Introduction, p. 158--System of Proportion, p. 159--The Order, p.
+160--Doric Order, p. 161--Ionic Order--Corinthian Order, p. 163--Doric
+Entablatures--Mutules, p. 164--Ionic Entablature, p. 169--Corinthian
+Entablature, p. 171--The Column, p. 172--The Capital--Doric Capital, p.
+173--Ionic Capital--Ionic Volute, p. 175--Corinthian Capital, p.
+178--The Base, p. 180--Doric Base, p. 181--Ionic Base, p.
+182--Corinthian Base--The Arch, p. 184--Doric Impost, p. 185--Doric
+Archivolt--Ionic Impost, p. 186--Ionic Archivolt--Corinthian
+Impost--Corinthian Archivolt--The Keystone, p. 187--The Pedestal, p.
+188--Doric Pedestal, p. 189--Ionic Pedestal--Corinthian Pedestal, p.
+190--The Baluster, p. 191--Spacing of Balusters--Balustrading, p.
+193--Use of Columns, p. 194--Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades, p.
+195--Orders above Orders, p. 197--The Pilaster, p. 199--Arcades, p.
+200--The Subsidiary Order, p. 202--Treatment of Superimposed Orders, p.
+204--Rustication, p. 205--The Basement, p. 207--The Attic, p. 208--The
+Pediment, p. 209--Doors, p. 211--Windows, p. 213.
+
+V Division of Surface.....216
+
+Wall Treatment, p. 216--Ceilings, p. 218--Jacobean--Carolean and
+Georgian, p. 221--Adam Ceilings, p. 222--Vaults and Domes, p. 224--The
+Cove, p. 225--The Frieze, p. 226--Borders, p. 227--Geometric
+Elements--The Undulate Line, p. 230--Repetition and Alternation, p.
+233--Treatment of Angles, p. 234--Pilaster Treatment--Panelled
+Pilasters, p. 235--Capitals and Bases--Treatment of Panels, p.
+236--Juxtaposition, p. 238--The Growth Line in Composition, p.
+241--Grouping and Massing of Detail--Division of Area, p. 242--Human and
+Animal Life in Composition, p. 244--Forms in the Round, p. 245 Supports
+and Balusters--Standards, p. 246--Proportion, p. 247--Vase Forms and
+Treatment, p. 248--Working Drawings, p. 249--The Segment or Stretch out,
+p. 250.
+
+VI Development of Conventional Ornament.....254
+
+Outline Drawing, p. 254--Undesirable Realism, p. 255--Craft
+Restrictions, p. 256--Materialistic Influence, p. 258--Early Renderings,
+p. 261--The Anthemion, p. 262--Greek Sculptured Ornament, p. 263--The
+Acanthus Leaf, p. 264--Roman Development--The Scroll, p.
+266--Græco-Roman--Byzantine, p. 267--Romanesque--Gothic--Italian
+Renaissance, p. 268--The Husk Leaf, p. 269--The Rosette, p.
+270--Tendrils, p. 271--Nature Influence--Inconsistent employment of
+Symbolic Elements, p. 272--Consistency in Growth--Branching, p.
+273--Treatment and Employment of Leaves, p. 275--The start in Ornament,
+p. 276--Italian Renaissance Influence--Jacobean, p. 280--French
+Renaissance--Henry II, p. 281--Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Régence--Louis
+XV, p. 283--Rococo--Louis XVI, p. 284--Grinling Gibbons School of
+Carving--Adam Style, p. 285--Empire--System of the Acanthus Leaf, p.
+286.
+
+VII Treatment in Design.....288
+
+Natural Attraction, p. 288--Decorative Materials, p. 289--Justification
+of Treatment, p. 290--Undesirable Imitation, p. 291--Technical
+Considerations--Methods of Expression, p. 292--Treatment of Leaves, p.
+293--Surface Interest--Painted Decoration, p. 294--Stencilled Work, p.
+295--Mechanical Production--Printed and Woven
+Fabrics--Needlework--Appliqué, p. 296--Lace-Wood Inlay--Intarsia, p.
+297--Veneer--Marquetry--“Boule” Work, p. 298--Mosaic, p. 299--Byzantine
+use of Marble--Book Decoration, p. 300--Bindings--Relief Work--Economic
+Result of Method--Desirable Treatment in Carving, p. 301--Backgrounds,
+p. 303--Reproduction Processes--Metal Repoussé, p. 304--Cast Metal, p.
+306--Character of Cast Work, p. 307.
+
+VII Mythology and Symbolism.....310
+
+Early Symbolic Ornament, p. 310--Customs, p. 311--Origin of
+Mythology--Nature Myths, p. 312--Light and Darkness--Melanesian Legend,
+p. 313--Darkness as a Devouring Monster--Season Myths, p. 314--Sun
+Myths--Belief in Natural Phenomena, p. 315--Greek and Roman Deities, p.
+316--Scandinavian Mythology, p. 317--Rising and Setting Symbolised, p.
+318--Winds Personified--Predestination, p. 319--The Fates--Propitiation
+and Sacrifice, p. 320--Early Burial Customs--Taboo--Roman Lares, p.
+322--Mediæval Legend--Early Spiritual Belief, p. 323--Prehistoric
+Treatment of Epileptics--Prohibition, p. 324--Belief in Magical
+Qualities, p. 325--The Shirt of Nessus--Swords, p. 326--Invulnerability,
+p. 327--Belief in Numbers--The Muses, p. 328--Sacred Trees and Flowers,
+p. 329--Sacred Animals--Evangelist Symbols, p. 331--The Serpent--The
+Dragon, p. 332--Poetic License in Tradition, p. 333--Animals in
+Christian Art, p. 334--Association of Human and Animal
+Qualities--Totemism--Cannibalism, p. 336--The Sphinx--Assyrian Winged
+Monsters, p. 337--Pegasus--The Harpy--Sirens, p. 338--Pan--The
+Nymphs--The Centaur, p. 339--Symbolism of the Circle, p. 340--Symbols of
+the Trinity--The Wand, a Symbol of Authority--The Hand, p. 341--The
+Caduceus--The Thyrsus, p. 342--The Trident--The Cross, p. 343--The
+Pastoral Staff, p. 344--Symbols of Martyrdom--Symbolism of Gems and
+Colours, p. 345--Masks--Symbols of Time, p. 346--Secular
+Symbols--Trophies, p. 347--Heraldry--Interest and Meaning in Modern Art,
+p. 348.
+
+IX Ways and Means.....350
+
+Perception, p. 350--Accepted Conventions, p. 351--Influence of
+Fashion--Harmonious Consistency, p. 352--Natural Suggestion--Colour
+Scheme, p. 353--Early Training--Nature Study, p. 355--Aspect and
+Attitude, p. 356--Treatment of Studies, p. 358--Drawings for
+Reproduction, p. 359--Opaque Colour--Method of Enlarging or Reducing
+Drawings, p. 360--Textile Designs, p. 361--Wall Papers, p.
+362--Architectural Drawings--Structural Design, p. 363--Lucid
+Arrangement of Details, p. 364--Mathematical Equipment, p. 365--Use of
+the Ruling Pen--Proportional Compasses, p. 367--Tracings--Conclusion, p.
+368.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. RICKARDS,
+F.R.I.B.A.                                                   _Frontispiece_
+
+ARCHITECTURE, HISTORIC                                       No.      Page
+
+Egyptian Temple, Section and Plan of                         10         23
+
+Temple, Entrance Façade                                      11         24
+
+Capital from Philæ                                           12         24
+
+Persian Capitals from Persepolis                             16         27
+
+Greek Doric Temple, The Parthenon                            21         30
+
+Ionic, The Erectheum                                         22         31
+
+Corinthian, The Choragic Monument                            23         32
+
+Vase paintings of Doric and Ionic Orders                     19         29
+
+House about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British Museum            20         29
+
+Roman, The Pantheon, Rome                                    26         36
+
+The Coliseum, Rome                                           27         37
+
+The Arch of Titus, Rome                                      28         38
+
+Byzantine St. Vitali Ravenna, Section and Plan               35         44
+
+Capitals                                                     36    (Plate)
+
+Interior, Ravenna                                            39    (Plate)
+
+Romanesque Capitals                                          42         50
+
+Tower                                                        43         50
+
+Plan, Cathedral at Worms                                     44         51
+
+Bay of Cathedral at Worms                                    45         52
+
+Window, St. Alban’s Abbey                                    46         52
+
+Church Interior with Triforium                               47         52
+
+Doorway, Kilpeck Church                                      49         54
+
+Gothic Buttresses                                            53         58
+
+Early Pointed Pier                                           54         60
+
+Early Pointed Bay of Church                                  55         61
+
+Early Lancet Windows                                         56         62
+
+Early Pointed Windows, Plate Tracery                         57         62
+
+Early Pointed Arch Mouldings                                 58         62
+
+Early Pointed Capital                                        59         63
+
+Early Pointed Tracery Windows                                60         63
+
+Early Pointed Spire                                          61         64
+
+Decorated, Tracery Windows                                   62         64
+
+Decorated, Carving                                           63         65
+
+Decorated, Arch Mouldings                                    64         65
+
+Decorated, Capital                                           65         66
+
+Decorated, Capital                                           66         66
+
+Decorated, Spire                                             67         66
+
+Perpendicular, Bay of Church showing Development
+  of Clerestory                                              68         67
+
+Perpendicular, Windows                                       69         68
+
+Perpendicular, Fan Vaulting                                  70         69
+
+Perpendicular, Tower                                         71         69
+
+Domestic Tudor, Window                                       75         74
+
+Renaissance, Italian, Strozzi Palace                         76         76
+
+Italian, Pandolfini Palace                                   77         77
+
+Italian, St. Peter’s, Rome                                   78         79
+
+Italian, Farnese Palace                                      79         80
+
+Italian, Vendramini Palace                                   80         81
+
+Italian, Library of St. Mark                                 81         82
+
+English, Banqueting House, Whitehall                         05       1031
+
+French, Louis XIII. Luxembourg                               06       1041
+
+French, Louis XIII. Barocco Detail, Ste.   Marie, Nevers     07       1051
+
+French, Louis XIV. Louvre                                    09       1061
+
+French, Louis XV. Pantheon                                   12       1101
+
+English, St. Paul’s Cathedral                                18       1151
+
+English, Spire, St. Mary le Strand                           19       1161
+
+Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia                                     5         19
+
+Tomb of Beni Hassan                                          17         28
+
+Tomb at Kyanea-Jaghu                                         18         28
+
+ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
+
+Arch, The Principle of the                                    6         20
+
+Balusters, Details of                                       170        192
+
+Cornice, Treatment where Order is not employed              180        209
+
+Doors, General Proportion of                                182        211
+
+Treatment of                                                183        212
+
+Frieze, Roman                                               198        226
+
+Frieze, Roman                                               199        227
+
+Gothic Vault, Section of                                       7        20
+
+Vaulting                                                       9        21
+
+Cross Vaulting                                                48        53
+
+Lintel, The                                                    4        19
+
+Lintel, The, Joggled Joints                                    8        21
+
+Orders, General Proportions of the                           154       162
+
+Order, The Doric                                             153       160
+
+The Doric Entablature, Vignola                               155       165
+
+The Doric Entablature, Mutular                               156       166
+
+Order, The Doric Capital                                     159       173
+
+The Doric Base                                               165       181
+
+The Doric Pedestal                                           169       189
+
+The Doric Archivolt                                          168       186
+
+The Doric Impost                                             168       186
+
+The Doric Arcading                                           174       201
+
+The Doric Arcading with Pedestal                             175       202
+
+The Doric Column and Pilaster                                173       200
+
+The Ionic Entablature                                        157       168
+
+The Ionic Capital                                            160       174
+
+The Ionic Capital (Angular Volutes)                          161       176
+
+The Ionic, Detail of Angular Volute                          162       177
+
+The Ionic Base                                               166       182
+
+The Ionic Pedestal                                           169       189
+
+The Ionic Archivolt                                          168       186
+
+The Ionic Impost                                             168       186
+
+The Corinthian Entablature                                   158       170
+
+The Corinthian Capital                                       163       179
+
+The Corinthian Capital                                       164       180
+
+The Corinthian Base                                          167       183
+
+The Corinthian Pedestal                                      169       189
+
+The Corinthian Archivolt                                     168       186
+
+The Corinthian Impost                                        168       186
+
+The Superimposed                                             172       198
+
+The Subsidiary                                               176       203
+
+The Subsidiary, Detail of Entablature                        180       209
+
+Pediment, The                                                181       210
+
+Pilaster The, Capital                                        209       236
+
+The, French Renaissance                                      208       236
+
+Rustication, Types of                                        178       206
+
+In Arcades                                                   179       207
+
+Spacing of Columns                                           171       196
+
+Windows                                                      184       214
+
+Three-Light                                                  185       215
+
+DECORATIVE FEATURES
+
+Acanthus Leaf, Brush Work                                    235       264
+
+Development                                                  251       281
+
+Development                                                  252       282
+
+Construction of                                              253       287
+
+Anthemion, Greek, Relief Treatment                           232       262
+
+Greek, Vase Painting                                         231       261
+
+Border, The Geometric, Key or Labyrinth                      200       228
+
+Border, The Geometric, Interlacing                           201       229
+
+The Scroll                                                   204       232
+
+The Evolute Scroll                                           207       234
+
+The Vertebrate                                               244       274
+
+Branching, Types of                                          243       274
+
+Inlay, Wood, Geometric                                       260       297
+
+Wood Borders                                                 261       297
+
+Wood Panel                                                   262       297
+
+Wood Panel                                                   263       298
+
+Wood, Italian Intarsia                                       264       298
+
+Metal “Boule” Work                                           266       299
+
+Metal “Boule” Work                                           267       299
+
+Inlaid Floor, Italian Renaissance                            188       219
+
+Lace                                                         259   (Plate)
+
+Marquetry                                                    265   (Plate)
+
+Mosaic Work, Spandril, Byzantine                              40   (Plate)
+
+Borders                                                      268   (Plate)
+
+Border, Roman                                                269   (Plate)
+
+Border, Roman                                                270   (Plate)
+
+Panel, Roman                                                 271   (Plate)
+
+Needlework                                                   257   (Plate)
+
+Appliqué                                                     258   (Plate)
+
+Relief Ornament, Prehistoric                                   2   (Plate)
+
+Greek Stone Carving                                          218   (Plate)
+
+Roman Stone Carving                                          237   (Plate)
+
+Roman Stone Carving                                           29        39
+
+Byzantine Stone Carving                                       37        46
+
+Byzantine Stone Carving                                       38        47
+
+Byzantine Stone Carving                                      216       244
+
+Romanesque Stone Carving                                     217       244
+
+Gothic Stone Carving                                         238       268
+
+Gothic Stone Carving                                         239       269
+
+Gothic Stone Carving                                         219   (Plate)
+
+Renaissance, Italian                                         248       278
+
+Renaissance, Italian                                         249       279
+
+Renaissance, French                                           88        86
+
+Renaissance, French                                          250       280
+
+Renaissance, French                                           90        88
+
+Jacobean Gouge Work                                          276       302
+
+Jacobean Wood Carving                                        277       303
+
+Jacobean Wood Carving                                         95        94
+
+Louis XIV. Wood Carving                                      275   (Plate)
+
+English Wood Carving                                         274   (Plate)
+
+Relief Ornament, French Wood Carving                         113       111
+
+French Wood Carving                                          279       306
+
+French Wood Carving                                          212       239
+
+French Wood Carving                                          211       238
+
+French, Part of Ceiling                                      210       237
+
+French Wood Carving                                          133       134
+
+Icelandic Wood Carving                                       280       306
+
+English 18th Century                                         273   (Plate)
+
+English, Modern                                              213       240
+
+Analysis of Composing Lines                                  214       241
+
+Rosettes, Types of                                           241       270
+
+Scroll, The, Greek Stone Carving                             233       262
+
+The Evolute, Archaic                                         229       259
+
+The Evolute, Savage Art                                      230       260
+
+Scroll, The, Wrought Iron                                    234       263
+
+Brush Work                                                   236       265
+
+As a Growth Line                                             202       230
+
+Italian Renaissance                                          240       270
+
+Start, The, Nest or Cup Leaf                                 246       277
+
+Half Figure                                                  247       277
+
+Tendril, Roman                                               242       272
+
+Terminals, Branch and Scroll                                 245       275
+
+Textiles, 14th Century Woven Fabric                            3        13
+
+14th Century Woven Fabric                                     51        56
+
+Sicilian Tapestry                                             52        57
+
+14th Century Tapestry                                        205       232
+
+Turkish Brocade                                              203       231
+
+French Brocade                                               206       233
+
+Details of Inhabited Pattern                                 256       295
+
+Tooled Book Binding                                          272   (Plate)
+
+FURNITURE
+
+Egyptian                                                      13        25
+
+Egyptian                                                      14        26
+
+Assyrian Seat                                                 15        27
+
+Greek                                                         24        33
+
+Roman Couch                                                   30        39
+
+Roman Sella or Seat                                           31        39
+
+Romanesque Chair                                              50        55
+
+Gothic Chair                                                  72        70
+
+Gothic Bedstead                                               73        71
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           86        84
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           87        85
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           92        89
+
+French Renaissance                                            91        88
+
+English 17th Century                                          99        98
+
+English 17th Century                                         100        99
+
+English 17th Century                                         101       100
+
+English 17th Century                                         102       100
+
+English 17th Century. Baluster                               221       246
+
+French Louis XIII                                            108       105
+
+French Louis XIV                                             111       108
+
+French Louis XV                                              265   (Plate)
+
+English late 17th Century                                    116       113
+
+English late 17th Century                                    117       114
+
+Dutch and Queen Anne Chairs                                  121       119
+
+English 18th Century                                         122       122
+
+French Louis XVI                                             132       133
+
+INTERIOR FEATURES
+
+Ceilings, Italian Renaissance                                187       218
+
+Italian, General Plan                                        189       220
+
+Italian Renaissance, Painted,                                 83   (Plate)
+
+Italian Renaissance, Painted,                                 85   (Plate)
+
+Tudor                                                        190       221
+
+Jacobean                                                     191       222
+
+Jacobean                                                     192       223
+
+Carolean                                                     193       224
+
+Robert Adam                                                  194       225
+
+Chimney Pieces, Gothic 13th Century                           74        71
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           93        90
+
+French Renaissance                                            89        87
+
+Jacobean                                                      96        95
+
+Domes and Vaults, Italian Renaissance:
+
+St. Peter’s, Rome                                            197   (Plate)
+
+Villa Madama                                                 196   (Plate)
+
+Ducal Palace, Venice                                         195   (Plate)
+
+Doors, Jacobean                                               97        96
+
+Jacobean                                                      98        97
+
+French Renaissance                                           278       305
+
+French Renaissance, Louis XV                                 114       112
+
+English Renaissance                                          120       117
+
+French Renaissance, Louis XVI                                130       132
+
+Frieze, The Jacobean, Carved Wood                             94        93
+
+French, Louis XVI                                            131       133
+
+Interior Decoration, Græco-Roman                              32        40
+
+Interior Decoration, Wall Division                           186       217
+
+Italian Renaissance                                           84   (Plate)
+
+French Renaissance, Louis XIV                                110       107
+
+English “Adam”                                               123       124
+
+English “Adam”                                               124       125
+
+French Louis XVI                                             126       128
+
+French Louis XVI                                             127       129
+
+French Louis XVI                                             128       130
+
+French Louis XVI                                             129       131
+
+METAL WORK
+
+Græco-Roman                                                   33        41
+
+Græco-Roman                                                   34        42
+
+Byzantine Tradition                                           41        48
+
+Wrought Iron                                                 282       307
+
+Wrought Iron, Venetian                                       283       307
+
+Repoussé                                                     103       101
+
+Repoussé                                                     281   (Plate)
+
+Cast                                                         104       102
+
+Cast, Louis XV                                               115       113
+
+Sheffield Plate                                              125       126
+
+Filagree Jewellery                                           228       257
+
+Cast Iron (Modern)                                           222       247
+
+Surface Decoration of                                        284       308
+
+METHOD
+
+Of Enlarging and Reducing Drawings                           286       361
+
+MOULDINGS
+
+Profiles of                                                  134       138
+
+Enrichment of                                                135       144
+
+Detail of the Dentil                                         136       147
+
+Aspect of                                                    137       148
+
+Stone, Panel Effect                                          138       149
+
+Wood Panels                                                  139       150
+
+Wood Panels, Applied                                         140       151
+
+Wood Panels, Applied                                         141       152
+
+The Bolection                                                142       152
+
+Table Top                                                    143       153
+
+Turned Wood                                                  144       153
+
+Pottery                                                      145       154
+
+Pottery                                                      146       154
+
+Rolled Metal                                                 147       155
+
+Drawn Metal                                                  148       155
+
+Wrought Iron, Swaged                                         149       156
+
+Wrought Iron, Built up                                       150       156
+
+Wrought Iron, Built up                                       151       156
+
+Spun Metal                                                   152       157
+
+VASE FORMS
+
+Primitive Pottery                                              1   (Plate)
+
+Greek Pottery                                                 25        34
+
+Greek Pottery, Painted Details                                19        29
+
+Effect of Perspective                                        220       245
+
+Segments of Contoured Surfaces                               226       251
+
+Segments of Contoured Surfaces                               227       252
+
+Stretch-out of the Cylinder                                  224       249
+
+Stretch-out of the Cone                                      225       250
+
+Types of Vase Decoration                                     223       248
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+It is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the
+creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that
+the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of
+elements common to all than with invention pure and simple.
+
+
+_Human Limitations_
+
+To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or
+acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not
+traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for
+instance, the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of
+human and bird form, and is in no sense an original creation.
+
+The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the
+reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real
+interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of
+personality, in other words, the individual point of view of the artist;
+which is more or less interesting, as it is more or less personal in
+idea and expression.
+
+In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be
+carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible
+source.
+
+Design is distinct from any phase of realistic expression inasmuch as
+the subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally
+visualised.
+
+
+“_Inspiration_”
+
+Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration,
+but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident
+than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to
+the individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought
+may be accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible
+for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem.
+
+It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of
+inspiration with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in
+the belief that it “does not feel like it.”
+
+The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a
+logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and
+conditions, and of evolving some desirable solution.
+
+Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires
+a facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a
+fallacy, as though many designs are for convenience expressed through
+this medium, any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the
+technical details of the final method of production, to be a practical
+design.
+
+
+_Process and Material_
+
+Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and
+process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this
+technical knowledge it is impossible to take full advantage of the
+method of production either in the direction of economy or effect.
+
+Other considerations are utilitarian and æsthetic, the former having
+regard to purpose, the latter to appearance.
+
+That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common
+enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian,
+but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the æsthetic point
+of view.
+
+An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed
+by popular or individual demand.
+
+Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to
+work to prescribed conditions.
+
+This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer
+who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more
+restricted.
+
+It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or
+historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony
+with existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite
+possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive.
+
+Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public
+demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far
+as possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of
+their best. Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall
+not be done would undoubtedly result in failure.
+
+To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman
+well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that
+he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties; and, in
+addition, the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight.
+
+
+_Early Training_
+
+The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is
+understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary
+student, the answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly
+students can be directed through a course of training that will enable
+them to produce at least work that is good, though it may not be
+personally distinctive.
+
+An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of
+traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe
+traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it
+may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much
+farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural
+faculty.
+
+Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look
+after itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the
+training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim.
+
+Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great
+responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study.
+
+The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are
+apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative.
+
+Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent
+beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in
+failing to develop the personality, which is the sole interest, and is
+the teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible.
+
+Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications
+reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which
+end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and
+possessed of method.
+
+Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been
+suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has
+little knowledge of Art, and still less of design.
+
+
+_Art and Existence_
+
+That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be
+possible--if not very interesting--if regulated only by considerations
+of utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the
+gratification of merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state
+Art becomes one of the mind’s necessities.
+
+The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,”
+and that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.”
+
+Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art
+is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.”
+
+Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in
+that which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory
+and music.
+
+The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and
+Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these
+possible to the public at large except in the most general sense?
+
+What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the
+furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the
+actual field for artistic expression.
+
+It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is
+sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic
+exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large.
+
+
+“_Natural Taste_”
+
+There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas
+the individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary
+affairs of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic
+selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment.
+
+It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be
+good or bad.
+
+Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it
+is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge
+which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate.
+
+
+_Commercial Production_
+
+It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result
+of commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the
+public is restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be
+urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes
+it his business to study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s
+standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as
+this is improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised.
+
+The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of
+the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and
+purpose, or perception based on artistic education.
+
+
+“_Ornaments_”
+
+This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in
+any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to
+the class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no
+possible utility and intended solely for display.
+
+It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the
+display of old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance,
+may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils, strictly
+utilitarian, were incidentally made beautiful.
+
+Modern furniture frequently offends--being too often constructed with
+less regard to utility than to external effect.
+
+The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the
+actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the
+perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the
+modern house--the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed,
+as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent
+the reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease
+may have much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to
+move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent
+on frequent change of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture
+and other personal belongings.
+
+
+_Modern Development_
+
+The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting
+in the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the
+large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a
+change in domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at
+hotels and restaurants.
+
+This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less
+interest in personal possession and environment; still further fostered
+by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in
+frequent change of style and locality.
+
+
+_Public Apathy_
+
+Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly
+appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art
+appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal
+indulgence; still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer
+if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and
+requirements.
+
+The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect
+implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account.
+
+It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery
+found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which,
+notwithstanding all endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state,
+sensitive to scratches and other damage. This difficulty may have
+suggested intentionally covering the surface with such scratches, etc.,
+more or less arranged, thus making a virtue of necessity.
+
+
+_Elementary Pattern_
+
+Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or
+incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or
+herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result
+of pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in
+plastering as trowel point.
+
+Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some
+form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative
+of any known form; and it is not till a much later period that any
+indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type.
+
+Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings
+singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily
+be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds.
+
+The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament
+was presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would
+readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute.
+
+Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is
+indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers
+of clay.
+
+There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for
+expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the
+marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may
+well be considered the first impressionists.
+
+
+_Early Impressionism_
+
+They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful
+distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of
+characteristics.
+
+The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form,
+and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and
+working condition is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast
+with the earlier ornament, which is not in any way imitative of, or
+traceable to, any natural suggestion.
+
+On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally
+three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such
+as directly arise from the process and material involved.
+
+The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the
+third--conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural
+suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of
+cultured appreciation of process and æsthetic considerations.
+
+
+_Personal Production_
+
+It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally
+produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or
+weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves
+more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being
+compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in
+course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported
+by his craft.
+
+Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ANCIENT POTTERY
+
+No. 1.
+
+     A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall.
+
+     B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, Oxon.
+
+     C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.
+
+     D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds, Bronze Age.
+
+     E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.
+
+     F. Early English puzzle jug.
+
+     G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset.
+
+     H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze Age, Ireland.
+]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.
+           C.             Etching on Bone.
+]
+
+the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill,
+would be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the
+professional worker and artist.
+
+To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early
+social conditions.
+
+The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying
+in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and
+herds; such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory.
+
+The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for
+storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and
+doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment.
+
+Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop
+agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would
+entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes.
+
+The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the
+fortress or castle for the protection of the town, and the more
+substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture.
+
+With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and the
+simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions.
+
+
+_Early Social Conditions_
+
+The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent
+upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on
+the various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of
+officials for effective collection and distribution. Social
+distinctions would be drawn between the various classes, governing,
+administrative, military, and non-combatant; the latter would furnish
+the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen,
+agriculturists and traders.
+
+In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility,
+priestly and legal classes.
+
+
+_Influence_
+
+Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later
+was subjected to various influences--Political, Religious, and
+Commercial.
+
+Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or
+interchange would result, or by conquest.
+
+Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste
+on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that
+of the Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman
+influence after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths.
+
+The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and
+Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier
+example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III in A.D. 726
+in response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the
+Byzantine art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine
+district.
+
+
+_Commercial Intercourse._
+
+The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the
+arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary
+to study market conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were
+therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste, thereby resulting
+in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source.
+
+[Illustration: No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.]
+
+Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian weavers, who, contrary to their
+local traditions, introduced heraldry into the patterns of their
+fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders.
+
+The Phœnicians were the early merchant adventurers, and traded in
+work of Tyrian and Sidonian production with remote parts of Europe,
+taking back local produce in exchange. Later on, through the medium of
+the Hanseatic league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron fire-backs
+from Sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations;
+of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement
+were considered and embodied.
+
+
+_Effect on Design_
+
+Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Art production was
+further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker.
+
+When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was
+invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing
+emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged
+as a professional.
+
+In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of
+architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the
+architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance.
+
+Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was
+taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many
+instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical
+side of the craft.
+
+Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer
+of the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of
+constructive detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen
+that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so
+much of this work is still in existence.
+
+
+_Ethical Side of Art_
+
+Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare,
+for instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of
+meaning and insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the
+license of the Rococo.
+
+Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was
+originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of,
+with resultant loss of character and interest.
+
+The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely
+for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the
+experience and point of view of past exploiters.
+
+
+_Desire for Novelty_
+
+The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old
+worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition
+a little further if possible.
+
+Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old
+friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it
+may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others,
+and whether it is worth doing.
+
+“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic
+considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time;
+but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new
+phases, have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the
+forgotten. In the meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes
+progressing, now and then retrogressing, but at all times unbroken.
+
+History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities
+and conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic
+development.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HISTORIC REVIEW
+
+
+Some of the factors in the evolution of Art have already been briefly
+suggested, but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing
+acquaintance, at least, with the various phases of historic developments
+is essential. The scope of the present work obviously renders it
+impossible to deal with the subject in detail, but libraries are
+accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge.
+
+It has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of
+any influence other than that of material and process, and this has
+continued in some of the crafts to the present time; but those more
+closely allied to building, particularly those associated with furniture
+and decoration, eventually became subject to the architectural phase or
+style of the period, which dominated form and detail.
+
+
+_Style._
+
+Style may be described as manner of expression, either individual or
+local, and for convenience is defined by nationality and period. It is
+usual to speak of Greek, Roman, Gothic, etc., of such a century; in the
+case of the Renaissance, it is customary to particularise the variants,
+as Italian, French, English, etc., also with the period or century.
+
+The development of style, intimately involved as it is in the social,
+religious and political history of nations, must ever be powerful in its
+interest and far-reaching in its appeal.
+
+The first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility, but in
+succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something
+more than this. And so with the progress of a race we can trace the
+progress of its decorative art.
+
+
+_Inter-Communication_
+
+Then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community
+inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact--either through
+conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations. Naturally
+the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest
+qualities, æsthetic and practical, and these qualities advance with the
+development of society and with progress in mechanical skill. As a
+result of conquest the civilisation of either conqueror or conquered
+must become the dominant influence, and the possible fusion and
+interchange of ideas may modify style to a considerable extent.
+
+
+_Climate and Material_
+
+Locality has always been a determining factor, particularly in
+architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised, and
+in most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions; for
+instance, where wood abounds we find it successfully employed.
+
+Climate is also largely responsible for architectural form. In the
+North, owing to heavy snows, the roofs are high-pitched. The early
+Egyptian buildings were of mud and wattle, the readiest material to
+hand, and form ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless
+district. It is interesting to note that the character of these
+structures was imparted to their later work in stone. This was used in
+the most important buildings, and was readily obtainable from the Nubian
+quarries and transported down the Nile on rafts.
+
+
+_Phases in Style_
+
+It must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made in
+styles, yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional, and
+which are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence. The
+phases of a transitional period can usually be defined; at first the new
+style is slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker
+exploiting it. This is followed by its being used in conjunction with
+the native construction, and lastly, the native interpretation of the
+foreign style is possibly grafted on to older forms.
+
+It should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate
+change in style, but that there are phases which can be described as
+typical, connected by periods of gradual change or transition; due,
+doubtless, to individual expression of taste, either on the part of
+exponent or patron, or as previously suggested, by influences political,
+religious or commercial.
+
+Careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was
+due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment, which in its
+turn became redundant in character and detail. Apart from the artistic
+point of view, these changes are interesting as reflective of the
+character of the times.
+
+From the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to
+be appreciated, the Lintel and the Arch. The Lintel, which is the
+earlier, may be described as a large stone style, and consists of the
+bridging of apertures by means of horizontal slabs, supported by
+vertical columns or piers. This is a method of construction with
+distinct limitations, as it was impossible to bridge large areas or
+spaces without frequent support.
+
+
+_The Lintel_
+
+[Illustration: No. 4. The Lintel.]
+
+The joints of the Lintel necessarily occur over the centres of the
+supporting columns, and the space between was controlled by the size of
+the obtainable material and the imposed weight it could bear; the result
+being, as in the great hall at Karnak, a forest of closely spaced
+columns. It was not until the principle of the Arch was developed into
+vaulting that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor
+spaces were possible.
+
+Lintel construction was employed in the Egyptian, Chaldean and Greek
+styles.
+
+The Arch, as a constructive form, did not appear until a later period,
+and possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and
+stones of small size.
+
+[Illustration: No. 5. Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia. Vault form, but not
+vault construction.]
+
+Form or shape is not involved, as it is quite possible to so shape the
+Lintel as to give the appearance of the Arch by cutting the underside
+to the required curve. In the early Greek architecture examples have
+been found of both Arch and vault appearance, but these are the result
+of horizontal courses, successively projecting; that is, built in the
+form of inverted steps, the underside being cut to the arch curve, and
+is a form of construction restricted to bridging relatively small areas.
+
+
+_The Arch_
+
+[Illustration: No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B. Arch appearance, result of
+cutting away.]
+
+The principle of the Arch depends upon the separate pieces of material
+being formed to a wedge shape, the joints corresponding to radial lines
+drawn through the centre from which the Arch curve is struck.
+
+The weak part of the Lintel is the centre of the span which may have a
+tendency to give way under pressure, but the wedged construction of the
+Arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the imposed weight.
+
+In contrast with the Lintel, material of small size could be employed,
+not only stone, but brick being used in Arch construction.
+
+[Illustration: No. 7. Section of Gothic Vault showing courses of stone
+and centering.]
+
+The Lintel, in relatively small spans, is sometimes composed of separate
+small stones, shaped to fit each other in the form of Joggled joints.
+
+[Illustration: No. 8.
+
+A. Lintel in one piece.
+
+B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming
+framework of structure.]
+
+The outward and manifest appearance suggests to the lay observer a
+striking divergence in the style known as Gothic from the Roman manner
+of building; but the main difference is in proportion and treatment of
+detail, the underlying principle being much the same. The use of the
+Arch and vaulting was common to both, but in the Gothic development
+greater strength was obtained, with even greater economy of material.
+The archivolts and intersecting ribs of vaults, with their supports,
+literally formed the bones of the building, constituting a framework to
+which the bays of walls and roofing were only a matter of filling in.
+
+In the words of Mr. C. H. Moore, in his work on “Development and
+Character of Gothic Architecture”--“the Gothic style developed into a
+system where stability depends not upon any inert massiveness except in
+the outermost abutments, but upon a logical adjustment of active parts
+whose opposing forces produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system
+of balanced thrusts, as opposed to the former system of inert
+stability.”
+
+
+_Egyptian_
+
+The Egyptian buildings, in common with those of Palestine, were
+frequently of mud, strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven, evidence
+of which is apparent in later incised decoration. Buildings were also of
+sun-baked bricks, those of an important character being faced with
+stone; the exteriors of these latter were simple and severe, the walls
+being slightly tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice, with
+gateways and entrances of massive form.
+
+The internal effect was of mystery, doubtless due to the comparative
+absence of light, and to the many columns necessary to carry the
+roofings. The columns which were mostly employed in the interiors, were
+squat and stunted in proportion, being from four to seven diameters in
+height, with capitals of the Lotus, Papyrus or Hathor variety. Mouldings
+were of the simplest character and sparsely used, and the decoration
+included renderings of the Lotus and Papyrus plants, either painted or
+incised in stone with the addition of colour.
+
+[Illustration: No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan of Egyptian
+Temple.]
+
+Egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental, while
+the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for
+symbolic expression, rather than by more æsthetic considerations.
+
+In Egyptian Art ornament is subordinated to the architecture, and the
+employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic
+character, added considerably to the decorative effect. In the wall
+pictures the figures were depicted in silhouette, in conventional
+attitudes, the head and limbs being displayed in severe profile, while
+the torso is represented in full front view. The methods of expression
+were painting, or incised in outline on stone, invariably filled in with
+colour, the effect in both being of flatness, with little suggestion of
+modelling or rotundity, the various features being defined by local
+colour.
+
+[Illustration: No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian Temple.]
+
+Though much of the Egyptian work was in the round, and evident of great
+sculptural ability and appreciation of form, yet generally their
+decorative work may be described as a colour style, rather than one in
+which light and shade were important factors.
+
+[Illustration: No. 12. Egyptian Capital from Philae.]
+
+With regard to the domestic life, the examples of furniture in the
+British Museum convey some idea, and these bear a remarkable similarity
+to forms with which we are familiar at the present day, both in detail
+and construction, which is simple and direct, with mortise and tenon
+joints. Turning was frequently employed, and, in the decoration of
+furniture, inlays of ivory, ebony and glass, the Egyptians being expert
+workers in both glass and enamels.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.
+
+A.  Stand Inlaid.
+B.  Ebony seat inlaid with ivory.
+C.  Folding stool.
+D.  Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory.
+]
+
+Illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea
+of the furniture, which is often depicted as gilded.
+
+The Egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman. Sometimes the couch
+took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end, and the
+legs and feet carved to complete the effect.
+
+
+_Chaldean_
+
+Chaldean art in character had much in common with that of Egypt, the
+difference being more that of expression than in idea, probably due to
+intercourse and mutual influence. The buildings, which were mostly in
+brick, often faced with a form of terra-cotta, stamped with relief or
+ornament, were pyramidal in general form, raised on terraces forming a
+succession of platforms, approached by steps or inclined planes. Columns
+were employed, but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes
+culminating in the Persian renderings at Persepolis.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.
+
+A.  Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400.
+B.              at Thebes.
+]
+
+Compound animal and human forms, analagous to the Egyptian sphinx, were
+employed, such as the winged lion and bull with human heads, generally
+to flank the gateways. Wall pictures in low relief formed part of the
+interior decoration, these being arranged in successive rows and
+representing historic episodes were, like the Egyptian decoration,
+probably coloured. A prominent detail in the decoration is that of the
+date palm which, symbolical in meaning, was the prototype of the Greek
+anthemion; the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form
+of the evolute scroll.
+
+Our conclusions regarding Assyrian woodwork are drawn from the
+sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the Assyrians
+faced their brick structures internally and externally. The examples in
+the British Museum are about 888 B.C.
+
+Furniture, such as tables, thrones and couches, was evidently made of
+wood, and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials.
+
+[Illustration: No. 15. Assyrian Seat.]
+
+On the monuments of Khorsabad representations have been discovered of
+chairs, supported by animals and human figures. The intention in the use
+of figures was probably to depict prisoners taken in war.
+
+Chairs, thrones, stools and tables were square in shape. The ends of the
+rails and legs were carved, and the ornamentation employed for these and
+similar positions included the heads of lions, bulls and rams, the
+sacred palm and pine cone.
+
+[Illustration: No. 16. Capitals from Persepolis.]
+
+The seats of chairs and thrones were much higher than is now customary,
+and necessitated the use of foot-stools. In some cases both chairs and
+tables were made to fold on a central pivot.
+
+In some cases metal was used either for part or for the complete
+structure.
+
+Exact chronology is a matter of surmise, but at an early period, about
+4000 B.C., in the valley of the Nile and in Mesopotamia, civilization
+had attained a very high level, extremely favourable to the development
+of architecture and the artistic crafts.
+
+The early Greeks, as a result of the peculiar formation of their coast
+line, like the later Scandinavians, were adventurers on the sea,
+piratical and trading, and were thus brought into communication with,
+and influenced by, the arts of Egypt and Chaldea.
+
+
+_Greek_
+
+[Illustration: No. 17. Early Treatment of Doric Order. Tomb of Beni
+Hassan.]
+
+Though, in their architecture, the Greeks progressed no further than the
+Lintel, yet they must be credited with the development of the system of
+the orders, which formed the basis of subsequent styles.
+
+The two prominent orders were the Doric and the Ionic; the former has
+its prototype in the tomb of Beni Hasan, the date of which is 1740 B.C.,
+while the latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of the
+capital, from Assyrian and Persian originals.
+
+[Illustration: No. 18. Early anticipation of Ionic Order. Tomb at
+Kyanea-Jaghu.]
+
+The capital of the Corinthian order may be considered to be a
+development of the Egyptian Papyrus form, the earliest features of both
+consisting of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like detail.
+
+[Illustration: No. 19. Greek Vase Paintings. A. Doric columns. B. Wall
+fountain. C. Ionic columns with pediment.]
+
+Characteristic Greek details, such as the Anthemion and wave scroll, are
+traceable to the same sources.
+
+Their architectural work, which was monumental in character, was mostly
+manifested in the temples, the domestic buildings being relatively
+unimportant.
+
+[Illustration: No. 20. Greek house about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British
+Museum, Bacchus visiting Icarius.]
+
+Some idea as to these may be gathered from the vase paintings in the
+British Museum, on which they appear simple in form, mostly Doric in
+character, and probably of wood construction, the metopes in the frieze
+being open spaces for purpose of interior lighting.
+
+Though the Greeks invested many of their creations with Epic and
+Symbolic meaning, much of their ornament was purely æsthetic.
+
+The sculptured metopes of the Parthenon, representing the conflict
+between the Lapithae and the Centaurs, are an example of the Epic
+treatment.
+
+The Sphinx, borrowed from Egyptian art, was, however, invested with a
+different meaning, and is an example of the Symbolic class, which formed
+so large a part in Greek art.
+
+Greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of
+mouldings, and the exterior columnar effect. The mouldings in the Ionic
+and Corinthian phases were enriched with carved details, probably
+developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration.
+
+[Illustration: No. 21. Front elevation and plan of Parthenon, Athens]
+
+[Illustration: No. 22. Greek Ionic Erectheum, Athens.]
+
+The Doric style was presumably so decorated, with painted details on the
+ovolo and abacus of the capital, and the corona and other members of the
+cornice.
+
+Colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes, mostly blue and
+red, resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas; the
+colour decoration forming horizontal bands.
+
+One important development, due to climatic conditions, was the pitched
+roof, which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form
+(literally gables), which were framed by the upper members of the
+entablature.
+
+This feature, technically known as the Pediment, was in buildings of
+importance invariably filled by sculpture, Mythological or Epic in
+subject, designed to occupy the shape.
+
+The styles mostly employed were the Doric and Ionic, and these were
+exploited contemporaneously, the Parthenon, 430 B.C., representing the
+culmination of the former.
+
+Of the Corinthian style--comparatively little used by the Greeks, though
+much employed and developed later--the Choragic monument at Athens, 330
+B.C., is the most complete example, though the leaf capital was
+anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier Tower of the Winds.
+
+The earliest representations of Greek furniture are to be found in the
+Syrian Room at the British Museum. These are the chairs dated about 6
+B.C., in which the antique figures are seated. The backs are
+perpendicular, and the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the
+legs.
+
+[Illustration: No. 23. Greek Corinthian, Choragic Monument, Athens.]
+
+The Greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa. It was used for sleeping
+and resting. Chairs and stools were sometimes made of metal, and were
+often of a folding type.
+
+Tables were constructed in various shapes--sometimes the supports were
+fashioned as heads and legs of lions and leopards, and sometimes as
+sphinxes with lifted wings. In common with other pieces of furniture,
+they were made in wood, metal and marble.
+
+[Illustration: No. 24. Greek Furniture.
+
+A.   Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan.
+B.     “       “    Vase painting.
+C.   Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C.
+D.   Chair from Hydria.
+E. }
+F. } Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C.
+]
+
+The vase rooms of the British Museum provide considerable matter for
+study with regard to the details of Greek furniture, couches especially
+are frequently depicted.
+
+The Greeks were expert workers in cast bronze, as is evidenced, not only
+by their statuary, but in many utensils of domestic life, notably the
+oil lamps, which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta.
+
+[Illustration: No. 25. Greek Pottery.
+
+A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C.
+B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C.
+C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white.
+D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C.
+E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C.
+]
+
+Soon after the sack of Corinth in 140 B.C., Greece became a Roman
+province, and the Greek art workers eventually found more encouragement
+from Roman patronage than in local requirement.
+
+They therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded,
+thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their
+conquerors.
+
+
+_Roman_
+
+Originally there were no special native characteristics by which Roman
+work could be distinguished, as the Romans absorbed various influences
+from the races that they conquered. Their conquests extended East and
+West, and from these widely differing outside influences the Roman style
+developed.
+
+The Romans, who by temperament, were great soldiers, organisers and
+engineers, rather than artistic, in their early essays in architecture
+were influenced by Etruscan work.
+
+Etruria (now Tuscany) is presumed to have been a Greek colony, and the
+local style, a form of debased Doric, was adopted by the first Tarquin
+(who was of Etruscan origin) and introduced to Rome about 610 B.C.
+
+With the growth of the Roman Empire, and its consequent wealth and
+development of luxury, great impetus was given to building and the arts
+generally.
+
+The orders based on the Greek originals were developed in detail and
+proportion, particularly in the latter respect. Whereas in the Greek
+Doric the height of the column varied from about four, to six and a half
+diameters, the Roman version became more slender, being about eight
+diameters in height.
+
+The Corinthian order, perhaps, underwent the greatest change, a change
+that has practically remained unaltered to the present day.
+
+
+_Vaulting_
+
+The most significant development in building was the Arch and subsequent
+vaulting, by means of which extensive covered areas were rendered
+possible. The Pantheon at Rome is covered with a hemispherical vault or
+dome 139 feet in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: No. 26. Section and interior elevation of Pantheon,
+Rome.]
+
+The dome, which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal
+ribs, resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons, or coffers, is
+really a casting in cement; and in principle is identical with the
+present method of building, in which concrete or cement forms a
+considerable part in construction.
+
+Apart from other reasons, the Arch was necessitated by small material,
+which, in the case of the Lintel, could not be employed without the
+device of joggelled joints. In the absence of suitable material to
+cover spans, it became necessary to devise some means to the desired
+result. This was achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of
+material cut to the necessary wedge form.
+
+The Arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the
+Cloaca Maxima, to aqueducts, bridges, and viaducts, from which its firm
+construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to
+buildings of many storeys.
+
+[Illustration: No. 27. Coliseum, Rome. Section and part elevation
+showing arch and vault construction.]
+
+
+_Greek Influence_
+
+Apart from the early employment and development of the Arch, the Romans
+were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources, and also
+were indebted to the Greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry, art,
+even to religion, whose gods they invested with different names.
+
+Notwithstanding, the Roman development in architecture was undoubtedly
+dignified and grand in manner, particularly in their treatment of the
+Corinthian order.
+
+With regard to detail, much of the delicacy and refinement of the Greek
+character was lost, yet this was compensated by greater variety and
+freedom of treatment, especially in the development of the Acanthus type
+of foliage.
+
+[Illustration: No. 28. Arch of Titus, Rome.]
+
+
+_Development of Ornament_
+
+Decoration was more generally used, pilaster and other panels being
+occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines, mostly composed of
+undulate stems, with scrolling branches, clothed with conventional
+leaves and flowers.
+
+There was also a tendency to employ occasionally natural types in
+foliage, and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human
+and animal form, which, though originally significant, were used for
+their æsthetic value.
+
+The Roman domestic life was materially different from the Greek, and
+while they had their Temples, they also had their palaces, public halls
+and baths, besides the amphitheatre and the circus.
+
+[Illustration: No. 29. Typical Roman Ornament.]
+
+Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii have thrown considerable light on
+the domestic life of the Romans--their dwellings, decorations and
+furniture.
+
+[Illustration: No. 30. Roman couch. Sepulchral urn, British Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 31. Roman Sella.]
+
+
+_Græco-Roman Painted Decoration_
+
+In the luxurious life of the Romans colour
+
+[Illustration: No. 32. Graeco-Roman Hall in house of Sallust, Pompeii.]
+
+decoration played a conspicuous part, as is evidenced in the painted
+work of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this, which is generally known as
+the Græco-Roman period, the interiors were decorated with paintings, the
+general scheme being based on an architectural setting, the wall areas
+being divided into bays by slender columns, sometimes by pilaster
+panels, with plinth, or dado, frieze, and cornice, the prevailing
+colours being red, buff and black.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Græco-Roman Hanging Lamp Bronze
+
+No. 33.]
+
+The decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings,
+through which distant vistas could be seen. The bays or spaces between
+the apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel
+pictures with frames; generally the supports were united by festoons or
+scrolling detail, the whole expressed by painting in colour without
+actual relief.
+
+The use of glass for glazing windows was employed in the later period;
+that the Romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the
+examples in the National collections.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+Græco-Roman
+Hand Lamp
+and Stand.
+Bronze
+
+No. 34.]
+
+For artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary, which
+were boat shape in form, sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended
+from branching stems or supported on tripod standards. These were
+invariably in cast bronze, though terra-cotta was also used, but in
+either material were extremely beautiful in form and detail.
+
+In any attempt to review the past, it is difficult to visualise the
+actual life at the back of the pageantry, with which we are naturally
+prone to be obsessed, in history as written; but the exhibits of the
+various domestic appliances of the Roman period at the British Museum
+are of considerable interest, and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to
+bring the individual to a closer understanding of the times and people.
+
+At Byzantium or Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire,
+a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the
+characteristics of East and West; and it was marked particularly by a
+grafting of earlier Greek detail on to simplified Roman forms.
+
+The establishment in 330 A.D. of Byzantium or Constantinople as the
+Eastern capital of the Roman Empire and the recognition by the state of
+Christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the
+associated crafts. Prior to this the early Christians had been compelled
+to hold their meetings secretly, and when this was no longer necessary
+they at first utilised for their public worship the existing Basilicas
+or public halls. Later on churches were built, the plan being arranged
+in the form of a Greek cross (_e.g._, with equal arms), surmounted by a
+central dome.
+
+
+_Domes_
+
+The dome was supported on four piers, united by arches, and the change
+in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the
+inner angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the
+imposed circle. These vaultings spreading from the angles are
+technically known as Pendentives. The
+
+[Illustration: No. 35. Byzantine. Section and plan of St. Vitali,
+Ravenna.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 36. Byzantine Capitals from Ravenna.]
+
+four arms of the cross constituting transepts, nave and chancel were
+also surmounted by either complete or semi-domes.
+
+The Byzantine dome differs from the Roman type in matters of detail,
+thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with
+resulting coffers as in that of the Pantheon. In this latter the
+lighting of the interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye,
+but in some Byzantine examples, notably St. Sophia (built for Justinian
+by Anthemius) the lighting is the result of windows ranged round the
+base, constituting what is known as the ariel type of dome.
+
+The dome of St. Sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the
+Pantheon, being only one-sixth of the diameter in height, the diameter
+being 106 ft. 7½ ins.
+
+The architectural features generally were considerably modified,
+particularly with regard to mouldings, which were almost eliminated. The
+entablature was also at times dispensed with, and arches springing
+direct from the capitals of supporting columns were general; a feature
+which is characteristic of the later Romanesque. The capitals became
+simple in form, being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes, in
+which the abacus is considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded.
+
+The carved details reveal simplicity of execution, being merely cut back
+from the surface, the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to
+the plastic feeling of the Roman work. Though the leaves employed were
+of the acanthus type, they were quite devoid of modelling, being merely
+channelled with V-shaped grooves; the eyes between the lobes being
+round and suggestive of the use of the drill, the execution being a
+reversion to the archaic Greek.
+
+[Illustration: No. 37. Byzantine Panels. St. Appollinare, Nuovo,
+Ravenna.]
+
+
+_Early Christian Art_
+
+A notable feature in the Byzantine detail is the prevalence of the
+circle, frequently grouped in three, four and five, with the respective
+significance of the Trinity, the Evangelists and the Cross, or Five
+Wounds. The grotesques of the Pagan detail are conspicuously absent,
+giving place to forms more in keeping with the new religion, such, for
+instance, as the cross and the vine.
+
+It is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured Roman was
+taken very seriously, but incidental to the religious observances were
+certain rites and symbolic forms, with which the Christians were
+familiar, and the early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy
+to invest some of these with a new meaning. During the period of
+intolerance and persecution, signs and symbols grew in importance as a
+
+[Illustration: No. 39. Byzantine Interior, Ravenna.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 40. 5th Century Mosaic Work in the Baptistery at
+Ravenna.
+
+From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.]
+
+means of secret communication; and in the later period when secrecy was
+no longer necessary, these became a corporate part of the ornament and
+decoration.
+
+[Illustration: No. 38. Byzantine Panel from the sarcophagus of St.
+Theodore. St. Appollinare in Classe, Ravenna.]
+
+In contrast to the Roman ornament, in which the effect depended mostly
+on light and shade, the Byzantine was a colour style, and it became
+customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs
+quartered and placed reciprocally, so that the figurings formed
+symmetrical patterns. Mosaic work, either of marble or glass,
+constituted the decoration in such suitable positions as the floors,
+spandrils, lunettes and domes, gold being largely employed in the
+backgrounds. Windows, at times large in area, were glazed as in Roman
+times with cast slabs of glass, set in metal frames, usually bronze; and
+thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were also used for glazing
+purposes.
+
+
+_Metal Work and Enamel_
+
+The Byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal,
+decorated in repoussé and with wire filigree; the metal work was
+invariably set with jewels and precious stones, in conjunction with
+champleve enamel, the whole being gilt.
+
+As a result of the Iconoclastic movement, and the decree of Pope Leo III
+in 726 A.D., the art workers, deprived of local patronage and compelled
+to pursue their crafts elsewhere, migrated to the Rhine district, where
+for some centuries the Byzantine traditions were preserved and largely
+influenced Western art, particularly with regard to the working in metal
+and enamels. The attraction of the centre of the Eastern Empire for
+northern adventurers had its effect in the introduction of the Byzantine
+style into the detail of the different phases of the Romanesque.
+
+[Illustration: No. 41. Champleve enamel Byzantine tradition.]
+
+The tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local
+craftsmen and modified according to local conditions, with the result
+that both in expression and in execution, the style tended to become
+more and more crude, until the original forms and details were almost
+entirely lost. But in spite of changes the classic feeling never
+completely died out.
+
+
+_Roman Influence Abroad_
+
+Under the Roman system, in colonizing, their architecture, customs and
+laws were imposed on the conquered population. When later, under stress
+of events, the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn,
+these left behind them universal traces of their occupation and
+influence. The inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on
+their own resources, were immediately menaced by invasions, which had
+been hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation, and for some
+protracted period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict, under which
+the arts naturally suffered. Eventually, from the chaos emerged a native
+manner of building, which, though rude and coarse in execution, was
+based on the Roman tradition.
+
+
+_Romanesque Style_
+
+The transition thus brought about is known for convenience as
+Romanesque. Its most typical exponents were possibly the Scandinavians,
+whose Christianised descendants, the Normans, preserved the same
+tradition. The work of the Saxons in England, although stimulated by the
+same influences, was much cruder in execution.
+
+This period was not remarkable for great artistic development, and
+luxury in any form was practically non-existent.
+
+Notwithstanding local character, the prevailing features are similar, in
+that the round arch is employed, supported by columns or piers, from
+which the arches spring direct, the entablature being eliminated.
+
+The columns are squat in proportion, and surmounted by capitals of
+truncated cone or cushion shape, the abacus being deep and square in
+plan.
+
+Mouldings were little used, and the archivolts were formed in a series
+of recessed bands, either plain or decorated. Distinct from the
+Byzantine style, the Romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of
+light and shade.
+
+[Illustration: No. 42. Romanesque Capitals from Cloister, St. Guillem du
+Desert, Herault. Reminiscent of Roman Corinthian.]
+
+Details were carved, and rude in execution, preserving to some extent
+the Byzantine feeling, the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem,
+with scroll branches, clothed with leafage, simply channelled or
+grooved, but less spikey in form.
+
+
+_Church Development_
+
+Of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most
+interesting examples of development. The usual plan consisted of an
+oblong nave with side aisles half its width and height.
+
+[Illustration: No. 43. Romanesque Tower, Thaon, Normandy.]
+
+At the end of the nave, projecting transepts separated it from the
+chancel (which is generally raised in level), continuing the line of
+nave, the whole taking the shape of the Latin cross in contrast to the
+Byzantine plan; the chancel end facing East, the nave West, and the
+transepts respectively North and South.
+
+A feature of this period is the Apse, a semi-circular extension of the
+choir or chancel; when the side aisles were extended to the latter they
+formed what is known as an ambulatory, or passage way, round the choir,
+within which was the altar, and the stalls for monks and clergy.
+
+The Narthex or atrium, of the basilicas, utilised by the early
+Christians for their public worship (to which were admitted those
+outside the community) was abandoned, its place being taken by the West
+entrance or porch, enclosed between two towers.
+
+[Illustration: No. 44. Romanesque plan of Cathedral, Worms.]
+
+The upper walls of the nave were carried on arches supported by columns,
+which constituted the division of the side aisles; these latter being
+formed by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer walls, the
+vaulting being roofed over.
+
+The upper part of the nave was pierced by windows, small and
+comparatively narrow, with semi-circular heads forming the Clerestory.
+Similar windows in some instances occur in the aisles, the jambs of
+these windows being bevelled both inside and out for the freer admission
+of light.
+
+The nave was roofed in with timber, but as the result of frequent
+destruction by fire, the roof was eventually vaulted; in early examples
+by the barrel or tunnel vault, but later this developed into
+cross-vaulting, which was also introduced into the side aisles.
+
+[Illustration: No. 45. Romanesque, bay of interior, Worms Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 47. Romanesque Church interior with Triforium.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 46. Romanesque Window, St. Alban’s Abbey.]
+
+In the early churches of this period the walls of the nave were unbroken
+except for the upper windows. With the development of vaulting, the
+space above the aisle vaults and the covering roof was used as a
+gallery known as the Triforium. This was not lighted from without, and
+was a distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque and early Gothic
+styles.
+
+The introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave entailed supports
+for the arch bands or vaulting ribs, which were carried on pilasters or
+half columns, dividing the interior façade into bays.
+
+[Illustration: No. 48. Construction of intersecting vaults.]
+
+
+_Dark Ages_
+
+The unsettled condition of Europe, both before and after the final
+subjugation of the Roman Empire by Charlemagne in 774 A.D., was
+necessarily detrimental to artistic progress, and the period to the
+fifteenth century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the
+arts and culture in general.
+
+Such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests,
+and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the
+people were kept in ignorance and subjection.
+
+Building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches, the
+domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier
+periods, though Eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by
+the alien adventurers to the Byzantine courts.
+
+This was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people
+indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment, to whom, however,
+personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous
+attire.
+
+[Illustration: No. 49. Romanesque, south door Kilpeck Church,
+Herefordshire.]
+
+Domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme. The dwellings of the
+well-to-do in England, similarly to those of the Scandinavians,
+consisted principally of a barn-like hall. The centre of the hall was
+occupied by a long table, and at one end raised on a platform or dais
+another table was placed in the opposite direction. At the latter sat
+the most important members of the household, while the lower part was
+reserved for retainers and servants. Heavy chairs and settles were used
+at the upper table, and benches or forms at the lower.
+
+Walls, when covered at all, were adorned with hangings, but then only at
+the dais end of the hall. Fireplaces in the modern sense were not known.
+The fire was built on the floor, and the smoke allowed to escape as best
+it might.
+
+Arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining.
+Beds were provided only for persons of distinction, and were placed in
+recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters. They were,
+in fact, little more than wooden boxes, with sacks of straw to serve as
+mattresses.
+
+Later, bedsteads were used of massive construction, which on occasions
+of journeying were placed on wheels, forming a sort of coach or carriage
+ironically termed whirlicots, in which the aged and infirm were
+transported.
+
+[Illustration: No. 50. Chair of Dagobert, French 7th century, bronze.]
+
+For some time after the Norman Conquest the unsettled state of the
+country rendered it necessary that household effects and valuables
+should be few in number and of such a nature as to be easily
+transportable. Thus chests in which belongings could be stored came into
+general use. They were simple in construction, and without carving, but
+were strengthened and decorated by hinges and scroll strappings in iron.
+Such chests served a double purpose, as they could be used as tables and
+seats.
+
+[Illustration: No. 51. 14th Century Textile Sicilian tradition.]
+
+For convenience of transport, chairs and stools were made with
+projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so as to be easily taken
+apart.
+
+
+_Crusades_
+
+That the Crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of
+Eastern art, is evidenced by the celebrated cup of Eden Hall, on the
+safe preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners,
+according to the couplet:
+
+“If that cup either break or fall,
+Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.”
+
+This cup is of Saracenic origin, and is of glass, painted in enamels,
+similar in character to the mosque lamps in the British Museum.
+
+Tapestries of Sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the
+medium of the Crusades, and led to the employment of painted wall
+decoration, evidently in imitation, even in some instances to indicating
+the folds of the material.
+
+[Illustration: No. 52. Sicilian Textile.]
+
+A precept exists in the twentieth year of the reign of Henry III
+directing “that the King’s great chamber at Westminster be painted a
+good green colour like a curtain,” and “that the King’s little wardrobe
+should also be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain.”
+
+This was undoubtedly suggested by the custom abroad of draping the walls
+with tapestries, though carpets were unknown. Probably the first time
+these were seen in England was in the apartments in the Temple occupied
+by the suite of the infant Don Sancho, archbishop elect of Toledo, who
+with Don Garcias Madinez, officiated as _avant-courriers_ to Eleanor of
+Castile in the autumn of 1255.
+
+
+_Pointed Arch_
+
+[Illustration: No. 53. Types of Buttress.]
+
+The origin of the pointed Arch, which is the chief characteristic of the
+Gothic style, is much disputed, but there is ample evidence that the new
+departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe
+soon after the First Crusade. It is reasonable to assume that this
+particular form was suggested by examples in Syria, where arches
+elliptic and even ogival in shape were employed.
+
+Though not common in Roman work, the pointed Arch was employed in the
+Aqueduct built to supply Constantinople with water, completed under
+Valens, 364-378 A.D., by which it is probable that the Saracenic work
+was inspired.
+
+Whatever the origin, the innovation was found to be economic, and more
+sound in construction than the older prevailing method. It was also more
+flexible in design, as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned
+with arches equal in height, which is not possible with the
+semi-circular form, except by the expedient of stepping.
+
+Further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the
+outer walls, as well as at the angles of the building.
+
+
+_Gothic Style_
+
+In France, England and Germany the Gothic style superseded the
+Romanesque with varying phases of transition, and with local development
+of character. In Spain the Moors had established a system of
+architecture thoroughly Eastern that was but little affected by the
+Gothic style, the influence of which is apparent in the later Spanish
+rendering of the Renaissance.
+
+In Italy the Gothic attained but slight development in comparison with
+more northern and western treatments, at least from a structural point
+of view. The Italian phase known as Lombardic is conspicuous for the
+evidence of Eastern and Byzantine traditions.
+
+
+_Phases of Gothic_
+
+The phases and dates of the Gothic style in England are as follow, and
+lasted well into the sixteenth century, with periods of transition:
+
+     Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307.
+
+     Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407.
+
+     Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547.
+
+[Illustration: No. 54. Early pointed Gothic Pier, elevation and plan.]
+
+In church architecture the general plan and essential features of the
+Romanesque style were preserved; but there was a complete change in the
+details, as well as a general lightening of the whole structure.
+
+The heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts,
+which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs, these shafts being
+bound together at bases and capitals.
+
+The Triforium was retained, the openings being arched and similar in
+detail to the windows.
+
+
+_Early Pointed_
+
+In the early variety of the Pointed Gothic the arches were acutely
+pointed, technically known as “lancet,” but later became more
+equilateral. The windows were narrow in proportion, and were single, or
+in groups.
+
+[Illustration: No. 55. Early pointed bay with Triforium. Window of Aisle
+is of later date.]
+
+Later they were divided into compartments, and the triangular head
+filled in with stonework, pierced with simple geometrical openings,
+known as plate tracery, thus forming a transition between the simple
+open lancet and the intersecting ribs, which constituted the true
+tracery of the later periods.
+
+Commonly shafts of circular section, with caps and bases, were employed
+in the windows, both internally and externally.
+
+Roofs were high pitched, and the ceilings vaulted, the vaulting ribs
+being moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses.
+
+Mouldings were rich in effect, being composed of a succession of hollows
+or flutings, contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief.
+
+[Illustration: No. 56. Early Lancet Windows. A. Canterbury Cathedral. B.
+Lincoln Cathedral. C. Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 57. Early pointed Gothic Windows. Plate tracery.]
+
+Carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts, sometimes in leaf-like
+forms in the bases and in the mouldings, also in the crockets, and
+finials of the gables, and pinnacles of the buttresses.
+
+[Illustration: No. 58. Early pointed Arch Mouldings.]
+
+The ornament was extremely conventional, that on capitals, crockets and
+other free positions consisting of crisply curling trefoil or
+cinquefoil groups of lobes having little resemblance to natural type.
+
+The later windows became more elaborate in the tracery, which was
+essentially geometric, and further elaborated by cusping. Triforium
+arches and canopy heads being similar in design.
+
+[Illustration: No. 59. Early pointed Gothic Capital.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 60. Pointed Gothic tracery Windows. A. Ely Cathedral.
+B. Meophan Church, Kent.]
+
+The central tower, which was common in the Romanesque, developed into
+the spire, which was carried to a great height; the lower part
+occasionally pierced with openings for purpose of interior lighting,
+forming the lantern.
+
+
+_Decorated Gothic_
+
+The principal characteristics of the Decorated period are the form of
+the Arch, the elimination of detached shafts and the enlarged clerestory
+with increased lighting area.
+
+The Arch, when used structurally, was still of the simple pointed form,
+but in small windows, niches and canopies, the shape at the head became
+ogival and the tracery displays considerable license as compared with
+that of the preceding phase.
+
+[Illustration: No. 61. Early pointed Gothic Spire, Warmington.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 62. Decorated Gothic Windows. A. Merton College,
+Oxford. B. Cathedral, Oxford.]
+
+Mouldings were shallower as contrasted with the undercut hollows of the
+earlier period; in many instances the arch mouldings were merely a
+continuation of those of the supporting piers, which took the place of
+the earlier detached shafts.
+
+The greatest innovation occurs in the foliage, in which natural
+suggestion is evident, adapted with considerable freedom, and skilful in
+execution.
+
+[Illustration: No. 63. Decorated Gothic Carving, Chancel screen,
+Southwell Minster.]
+
+In the preceding style the foliage of the capitals invariably sprung
+from the necking, in simple firm curves, revealing the underlying
+bell-shape. In the Decorated period the foliage generally wreaths round
+the structural form, the detail being frequently deeply pierced and cut
+away at the back till it was almost detached, giving an extremely rich
+effect.
+
+Diaper detail of pateræ, or foliage arranged in squares, occurs in the
+spandrils between arches.
+
+[Illustration: No. 64. Decorated Gothic Mouldings.]
+
+[Illustration: Nos. 65 & 66. Decorated Gothic Capitals, leaves deeply
+undercut and wreathed round bell.]
+
+A distinct feature of this period and of the succeeding Perpendicular
+style, is the battlement, which was used in all suitable positions
+either as a parapet or as a cresting. The Decorated variety differs from
+the later, in that the moulded edges only appear horizontally, whereas
+in the Perpendicular period the moulded edge is continuous, being
+carried round the angles of the battlement.
+
+Externally the spire gave place to the tower with culminating lantern.
+
+During the period of the style known as Decorated Gothic, furniture was
+framed and panelled, and the details closely resembled those used in
+architectural decoration in stone.
+
+[Illustration: No. 67. Decorated Gothic Spire, Whittlesea.]
+
+The general effect of Decorated is a tendency to horizontal banding, in
+contrast to the vertical effect of the earlier period, to which
+eventually the later Perpendicular reverted.
+
+
+_Perpendicular Gothic_
+
+In the succeeding phase the Triforium which had gradually become less
+important, entirely disappeared and the clerestory windows enlarged, to
+the extent that this part of the structure became merely a frame for the
+increased glass areas.
+
+It will be apparent from the foregoing that whereas in the early
+churches of the Romanesque period the interior effect was mysterious
+owing to inadequate openings for light, the later and growing tendency
+was to increase the lighting capacity by enlarging the windows of the
+clerestory.
+
+
+_Glass Windows_
+
+Doubtless the development in the size of windows was due to some extent
+to the growing use of glass, which, though rare, was employed during the
+later Romanesque through Byzantine tradition.
+
+[Illustration: No. 68. Perpendicular Gothic Bay shewing development of
+Clerestory.]
+
+These early windows were geometric in design, consisting of medallions,
+oval, circular or quatrefoil in shape, containing figure subjects set in
+a diapered background, the whole being executed in small pieces of
+coloured glass united by lead framings.
+
+While the windows were single openings, this form of glazing necessarily
+restricted the size, though more adequate lighting was achieved by
+grouping two or more windows together.
+
+With the development of tracery the technical difficulties were to some
+extent overcome; a window divided into comparatively small compartments
+could be more easily glazed than single openings of large size; thus
+glazed windows of greater dimensions were rendered possible.
+
+[Illustration: No. 69. Perpendicular Gothic Windows.
+
+A. Aylsham Church, Norfolk.
+
+B. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge.]
+
+In the Decorated windows the lower lights were devoted to the subject,
+which in many instances was carried through the area, regardless of the
+dividing bars or mullions. In the Perpendicular each light or opening
+had usually its own subject or figure, surmounted by canopies, the upper
+spaces formed by intersection of the tracery bars were occupied by
+various details suitable to the different shapes.
+
+The Arch of the Perpendicular style is materially different, being
+composed of elliptic curves struck from four centres.
+
+Mouldings became even more shallow in section, and the tracery less
+florid than formerly, though extremely rich in appearance when used in
+the profusion that developed in the fan vaulting of this period.
+
+[Illustration: No. 70. Perpendicular Gothic Fan Vaulting. St. Mary,
+Aldermary.]
+
+The foliation reverted to a more conventional character, and became
+lifeless and monotonous in comparison with the Decorated work.
+
+It must not be assumed that examples in every instance will be found
+complete in any of these phases; on the contrary, the various styles
+are to be found side by side in the same building, the result of later
+additions or rebuilding.
+
+[Illustration: No. 71. Perpendicular Gothic Tower, All Saints, Derby.]
+
+Painted decoration and sculpture were also employed during the various
+periods; wood-work where necessary was used, and in detail was in
+harmony with the architectural character of the period.
+
+
+_Civic Influences_
+
+[Illustration: No. 72. Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey, 13th
+century.]
+
+The feudal period was not favourable to the development of domestic
+conditions, though considerable advance had been made by the fourteenth
+century, chiefly by the Italian states and in the principal cities. The
+importance of the latter is evidenced particularly in the City of
+London, with its merchant class and civic authorities, who, by reason
+of their wealth, attained potential political influence, the prevailing
+contentious conditions necessitating the continual raising of large sums
+of money.
+
+Such conditions were favourable to the merchants, who, acting as
+bankers, supplied the means, and thus a class was established and
+apparently lived in profusion and some pretention to sumptuous
+environment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 73. Bedstead and Cradle from M.S. in Bodleian
+Library, 14th century.]
+
+
+_Effect of Commerce_
+
+Similar conditions to those in England prevailed on the Continent with
+certain local variations. A big stride was made with the development of
+commerce, mainly through the agency of Venetian and Flemish merchants.
+The effect of increasing opulence as signalised by the appearance in the
+home of such comfort and refinement as had formerly been possible only
+for princes and great nobles.
+
+Among the luxuries imported were Oriental silks, carpets and pottery.
+
+[Illustration: No. 74. Fireplace, 13th century.]
+
+
+_Italy_
+
+Whereas, throughout Europe generally, the Gothic character in furniture
+and woodwork developed on similar lines, in Italy alone its appeal to
+the national sympathies was not strong enough for it to become
+thoroughly assimilated, and there the Byzantine style persisted.
+
+The woods most in use were oak and chestnut. In Italy walnut and cypress
+were used--the latter being considered especially valuable for chests.
+
+Early examples of Italian chests are decorated with closely spaced
+incised ornament, filled in with colour.
+
+The Venetians derived from Persia and India a form of marquetry or inlay
+of ivory, metal and various woods, generally geometric in design. The
+wood used was stained in order to vary the colour.
+
+
+_Foreign Influence in England_
+
+Through the policy of seeking foreign princesses as brides for the
+English kings, foreign influences crept in, and had a marked effect on
+the development of style. Moreover, increasing commercial intercourse
+with the Continent paved the way for the introduction of the new ideas
+of the Renaissance then beginning to dawn in Italy.
+
+The Wars of the Roses checked progress in many ways, but this was but
+the more rapid when peace was restored with the advent of Henry VII.
+
+
+_The House_
+
+There was a great change in the character of the dwelling-house, which
+though still built on defensive lines, was also arranged with a view to
+domestic comfort and convenience. The commonest form of plan was that
+in which the buildings were grouped round a central court and surrounded
+by a moat. These buildings consisted of hall, parlour, kitchen and
+domestic offices. The hall itself was lofty, had an open-timbered roof,
+and was usually lighted from both sides. One end of the hall was
+invariably screened off, and as the screen did not reach to the roof the
+musicians’ gallery was placed above it. The fireplace was set in one of
+the side walls. The windows, as a rule, had few lights, and these had
+pointed and cusped heads. The upper rooms were accessible by staircases.
+
+A not uncommon feature on the upper floor was the long gallery, which
+generally traversed the whole length of the building immediately under
+the roof.
+
+The rooms were panelled most often to about two-thirds the height of the
+wall, while the remaining third was of plaster.
+
+The ceiling also was of plaster, which was moulded into intersecting
+ribs arranged geometrically, sometimes with stalactite pendants at the
+intersections.
+
+Fireplaces were made of stone, and chimney-pieces sometimes of wood.
+
+Furniture was beginning to assume some of its modern forms, as shown by
+the chairs, which were railed, and copied from Italian models.
+
+Buffets or sideboards with closed cupboards were in use. Table legs were
+carved or turned, and connected by stretchers.
+
+Windows were now glazed with leaded panes, and when made to open were of
+the casement type, with iron frames which were hinged and furnished with
+turnbuckle fastenings.
+
+Doors seldom had locks, but usually shut with latches of wrought iron.
+The hinges also were of wrought iron, and though simple in form were
+often quite ornamental.
+
+Henry VII and his successor were responsible for various country
+residences, an example which was followed by the nobility.
+
+During the latter monarch’s reign it became the fashion to arrange the
+plan of the mansion in the form of the letter H; that is, in two
+parallel wings connected at a right angle. In the reign of Elizabeth
+this was modified into a plan resembling the letter E, otherwise a
+façade, with wings bent at right angles, with a central projection
+forming the main entrance.
+
+In the domestic Tudor style the Arch was in vogue for window openings,
+etc., but much flattened in form.
+
+The windows were divided into a number of lights, by vertical mullions,
+with arch headings, occasionally cusped. If of tall proportions, they
+were further divided by horizontal bars or transoms, and were glazed
+with small panes of glass set in lead frames, arranged in some cases to
+open in iron casements.
+
+[Illustration: No. 75. Tudor Window with leaded lights.]
+
+
+_The Reformation_
+
+An important factor in the development of this period was the
+Reformation, with the resultant liberty of thought. Before this,
+architecture and the associated arts were entirely dominated by the
+Church, at the sacrifice of the individuality of the artist and
+craftsman, who after this emancipation were enabled to exploit their
+work untrammelled by clerical restriction.
+
+In some respects this was not productive of the best results, as it
+removed the various co-ordinated branches of work from the restraint of
+architectural dominance, with some loss to the unities. It also opened
+the way to the professional designer as distinct from the craftsman (who
+hitherto had been responsible for his share of the work) resulting in
+occasional loss of character.
+
+
+_Renaissance_
+
+The Renaissance, which had its origin it Italy, was the next factor in
+the evolution of architecture and the arts. As early as 1422 there were
+indications of the coming change, though the medieval system of
+construction was still adhered to.
+
+Impetus was given to this revival by the taking of Constantinople by the
+Turks in 1453 A.D., resulting in the dispersion of the Greek scholars,
+who found refuge in Italy.
+
+Gothic, essentially a Northern style, scarcely affected Italy, where
+Byzantine tradition persisted until the Revival of Learning in the
+latter half of the fifteenth century brought a fresh impulse into all
+branches of Art and Literature.
+
+An awakened interest in classical remains was an integral part of the
+vitality with which the great change known in its culmination as the
+Renaissance was imbued; and the commercial prosperity of the times was
+favourable to its encouragement and development.
+
+
+_Early Exponents_
+
+An active agent in this revival was Brunelleschi, a native of Florence,
+who in company with Donatello, visited Rome to study the remains of
+classical antiquity. His principal successor, Leo Battista Alberti,
+contributed largely to the new style. Ultimately the Roman Orders and
+their details were appropriated and adapted to local requirements.
+
+The most prominent artists of the day turned their attention to the
+designing and making of wood-work, and the decoration of rooms.
+
+[Illustration: No. 76. Strozzi Palace, Florence.]
+
+The earlier work is severely architectural in character, being closely
+based on the antique, with all the usual features of columns, pilasters,
+cornices and pediments.
+
+The greatest achievement of the architects of the Renaissance was
+perhaps their adaptation of the antique Roman style to the modified
+needs of secular buildings, of which the Palazzo Pitti at Florence by
+Brunelleschi is an early and notable example. This creating a form of
+architecture which perhaps reached its noblest expression in the Palazzo
+Strozzi, begun in 1489 A.D. by Benedetto da Majano.
+
+As previously suggested, climate and local material are essential agents
+in the formation of style, and from Tuscany stone of large size was
+easily obtainable.
+
+[Illustration: No. 77. Pandolfini Palace, Florence.]
+
+The contentious conditions existing in many of the Italian cities,
+entailing necessity for defence, must also be taken into account, and in
+connection with the foregoing were responsible for the massive and
+fortress-like construction of the principal dwellings of this period.
+
+In the best examples of these, though columns and pilasters were not
+employed in the façade, the stories are proportioned as if the orders
+were used. The crowning cornice, however, is proportioned to the whole,
+varying in height between one fourteenth to one fifteenth.
+
+From Florence the movement spread to Rome and other cities, but Venetian
+Renaissance indicates undoubted evidence of Lombardic influence.
+
+Until the end of the fifteenth century the period was one of experiment,
+but from 1500 to about 1560 the style may be said to have attained a
+phase distinct and local.
+
+At first the various features, structural and decorative, were frank
+reproductions from the antique, which were studied and measured, and
+from which systems of proportion were deduced by various exponents,
+among whom the names of Vignola, Palladio and Serlio are conspicuous.
+
+
+_Rome_
+
+The Roman version of the Renaissance, as distinct from that of Florence,
+was less massive, Rome being comparatively free from insurrectionary
+troubles. Columns and pilasters were used to divide the façade into
+bays, or in the inner courts, which were frequently arcaded, and the
+principal entrance became a prominent feature.
+
+The founder of the Roman school was Bramante, born in 1444 A.D.,
+originally a painter, who was responsible for the original design of St.
+Peter’s, at the instigation of Pope Julius II.
+
+The partly executed work was found to be too weak to bear the
+superstructure, and Bramante in the meanwhile dying, Raffaelle, Giocondo
+and Giuliano di San Gallo, and afterwards Baldazzare Peruzzi and Antonio
+San Gallo were engaged on the edifice.
+
+[Illustration: No. 78. St. Peter’s, Rome.]
+
+Finally Michael Angelo was entrusted with the sole conduct, and St.
+Peter’s in its present form must be credited to him, with the exception
+of the nave, which was added by Carlo Maderno.
+
+Of the secular buildings, the Farnese Palace, the work of San Gallo, is
+typical of the Roman adaptation of the antique architecture to the
+altered conditions.
+
+To the above list of architects of the Roman Renaissance may be added
+the names of Sansovino, Vignola and Bernini, the last-named being the
+author of designs for the Louvre at Paris.
+
+[Illustration: No. 79. Farnese Palace, Rome.]
+
+
+_Venice_
+
+The Venetian States, since the twelfth century, had been growing in
+power, and the Republic’s rise in importance was favourable to the arts,
+particularly to architecture.
+
+Local influence is evident in the comparatively restricted ground areas,
+entailing the maximum accommodation possible.
+
+The Venetian school is distinguished by the profuse use of columns and
+arcading; also for the employment of circular-headed windows, frequently
+subdivided by tracery of smaller arched and circular forms, and by
+general lightness of effect.
+
+The founder of the Venetian school was San Micheli, born in 1484 A.D.,
+who spent many years studying the ancient Roman monuments, and who was
+responsible for the Grimani Palace.
+
+Jacopo Tatti, a Florentine, more usually known as Sansovino, though
+mentioned in the Roman group of architects, was however more associated
+with Venice, his adopted city.
+
+[Illustration: No. 80. Vendramini Palace, Venice.]
+
+Prominent among his works is the Library of St. Mark, which consists of
+two orders, an upper of the Ionic, supported by an arcade in which the
+Doric is employed, the whole surmounted by a balustrade with statues on
+the piers.
+
+
+_Venetian Influence_
+
+In the Venetian school must be included the name of Andrea Palladio, who
+possibly had a greater influence on the architecture of the time than
+any of his contemporaries; an influence that may be traced in the work
+of Inigo Jones, and in that of Sir Christopher Wren and his immediate
+school.
+
+Vincenzo Scamozzi, who died in 1616 A.D., like Palladio and others, was
+influenced by the antique, and was perhaps the last architect of the
+Venetian school to attain celebrity.
+
+[Illustration: No. 81. Library of St. Mark by Sansovino, Venice.]
+
+
+_Painted Decoration_
+
+A conspicuous feature of the Italian Renaissance was the development of
+painted decoration, which had in Italy succeeded the Byzantine mosaic.
+
+As in this method of decoration, mouldings in relief were ineffective,
+and were replaced by decorative bands or borders, so in the succeeding
+painted work similar framings were adopted.
+
+[Illustration: No. 82. Painted Decoration. Palazzo Publico, Sienna, from
+a drawing by C. E. Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 83. Painted Ceiling in the Castello San Angelo, Rome,
+by Giulio Romano, from a drawing by Miss Dora Bard, Goldsmiths’ College
+School of Art.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the Villa
+Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence, from a drawing by C. E.
+Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 85. Ceiling-Painting from the Castello San Angelo,
+Rome, reminiscent of Graeco-Roman work, from a drawing by C. E. Bernard,
+Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.]
+
+Mosaics were in vogue in Italy to the twelfth century, when painted
+decoration came into favour, and notable in the exploitation of this
+latter phase was the school of Giotto in the early part of the
+fourteenth century.
+
+Vaultings and spandrils were covered with painted subjects, strongly
+framed by ornamental borders, which served to strengthen the sense of
+construction in reinforcing the dividing ribs.
+
+With the advent of the Renaissance, these divisional bands became more
+architectural in treatment, and large areas, such as ceilings, were
+subdivided, the sub-divisions being based on a logical sense of
+construction.
+
+The name of Pinturrichio is associated with the Renaissance, among his
+works being the decorations of the Appartamenti Borgia in the Vatican,
+the Choir in Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, and in Santa Maria Maggiore
+at Spello; contemporaneous was Perugino; another celebrated name is that
+of Gian Antonio Bazzi of Sienna, generally known as Sodoma.
+
+
+_Græco-Roman Influence_
+
+Later exploiters of painted decoration, Raffaelle at the Vatican, Giulio
+Romano, Pierino del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine, were evidently
+influenced by the then recent discovery of late Græco-Roman decorations
+in the remains of the Baths of Titus.
+
+The same influence is found also in minor details--in the decoration of
+rooms and in the various pieces of furniture.
+
+Walls were panelled, sometimes enriched with carving, with inlaid
+patterns in intarsia, or with inlay of different woods in imitation of
+marble mosaic. Hangings of Genoese velvet or stamped and gilded leather
+were often used.
+
+Chairs were at first simple in form, having straight backs and legs,
+with broad, elaborately carved rails at the head of the back and between
+the front legs.
+
+Chests or cassone, called also marriage coffers, because it was
+customary to give them as wedding presents, generally took the form of
+the sarcophagus, supported on claw feet. In many instances they were
+decorated with gilt gesso, or were covered with exuberant carving.
+
+With the development of inlay, which degenerated into picture making,
+some later examples show attempts at perspectives, in which arches,
+doors, balustrades and paved floors were depicted. Cabinets were
+invariably raised on open supports and furnished with doors enclosing
+compartments and sets of drawers, the fronts of which were frequently
+decorated.
+
+[Illustration: No. 86. Venetian Table.]
+
+Tables were inlaid, carved and gilded. The prevailing form was a
+rectangular top, sometimes of marble, with wide, richly carved supports
+consisting of human and animal forms at either end; these were connected
+by a central stretcher at the base, from which sprang a series of arched
+forms reaching to the underside of the top.
+
+Walnut was commonly employed for constructive purposes, and ebony and
+many other woods were used both for veneers and inlay, as also were
+such materials as ivory, tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl.
+
+It is not easy to form an idea of the furniture in ordinary use, as the
+examples which survive and which can generally be seen in museums are
+misleading, being typical rather of that belonging to the nobility and
+wealthy classes.
+
+Probably owing to the rougher usage to which it was subjected, and
+possibly also to its being but little esteemed by its owners, and
+consequently no effort being made to preserve it, the domestic furniture
+of the middle classes seems to have disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: No. 87. Carved Walnut Chair. Italian, 16th century.]
+
+
+_Early French Renaissance_
+
+France had been brought into contact with the new architecture through
+the Italian wars under Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I.
+
+The chief characteristic of the early French Renaissance is that the
+details of the new school were imposed on structures which were Gothic
+in general form.
+
+Italian architects were employed by Francis I, and although in the many
+important buildings erected for him he preferred native workmen,
+Italians were retained to furnish designs and lead the new style.
+Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea del Sarto were both employed in the
+decoration of Fontainebleau.
+
+[Illustration: No. 88. Wood Panelling. Early French Renaissance.]
+
+Fontainebleau, Chateau de Chambord, Chenonceaux sur Loire, Chateau de
+Madrid and the commencement of the Louvre were all due to Francis I, and
+the Italian influence was strengthened by the marriage of Henry II with
+Catharine di Medici.
+
+[Illustration: No. 89. Stone Chimney-piece, Fontainbleau, Henry II
+Salon.]
+
+
+_Native Exploitation_
+
+Under the influence of Vignola and Serlio, the Italian style became more
+popular, and finally extinguished the lingering Gothic tradition; and
+eventually the assimilated style became local, the first prominent
+native exploiter being Philibert Delorme, the architect of the
+Tuileries, for Queen Catharine of Medicis.
+
+Strapwork was a pronounced feature of this period, carved panels being
+subdivided by framings of straight and curved forms interlaced with
+cornucopæ and scroll work. Scrolling straps with I shaped incisions were
+also used.
+
+[Illustration: No. 90. Wood Panel. Early French Renaissance.]
+
+Masks are of frequent occurrence, and sometimes form scroll centres.
+
+Medallions were often employed, and were occupied by profile heads, and
+surrounded by foliated wreaths.
+
+Pilasters were narrow, and had sunk and moulded panels, lozenge shaped
+in the centre.
+
+In England great impetus was given to building, consequent on the
+suppression of the religious houses during the reign of Henry VIII, and
+mansions were erected in various parts of the country with some
+pretension to both external effect and domestic comfort, not merely by
+the nobility, but also by the wealthy merchant class.
+
+
+_English Renaissance_
+
+From the rise of the Italian Renaissance a century elapsed before the
+new style began to affect English work.
+
+[Illustration: No. 91. French Chair. Period Henry II.]
+
+In Italy classic tradition had never died, and consequently Gothic
+gained no real hold there, the best examples of Italian Gothic being
+inferior to those of France and England. In the early days of the
+Revival of Learning, when interest in architecture was at its height,
+Italians set out to emulate the style of building and decoration which
+prevailed in ancient Rome. Gradually the same spirit spread to other
+parts of Europe. Students were attracted to the birth-place of the
+Revival, and workers and designers from Italy were eagerly welcomed by
+her neighbours.
+
+Naturally enough each country interpreted the new style in a different
+way, and as it reached England chiefly through France and the
+Netherlands, the French and Flemish interpretations in turn influenced
+the development of the English style.
+
+[Illustration: No. 92. Walnut Chair upholstered in Appliqué. Italian,
+about 1600.]
+
+
+_Italians in England_
+
+Before either French or Flemish influence had been felt, however, there
+were Italian workers settled in England carrying out designs purely
+Italian in character. The earliest example is the tomb of Henry VII in
+Westminster Abbey, by Torrigiano. Many tombs and monuments were made
+entirely by Italians. Holbein, who was employed by Henry VIII, was
+distinctly a Renaissance painter and designer and encouraged the new
+movement.
+
+As the style became more widely disseminated it lost much of its
+original purity, and classical details were used in conjunction with
+Gothic forms and methods of construction, due, doubtless, to the
+apparent difficulty with which the native workers grasped the essentials
+of the new style; indeed, there is more intermixing of styles in England
+than in any other part of Europe with the exception of Flanders.
+
+[Illustration: No. 93. Stone Chimney-piece. Sala Borgia, Rome. 16th
+Century.]
+
+The purely Italian phase was followed by a rendering which was largely
+borrowed from French work, and this in turn was supplanted by the
+influence of the Flemish interpretation. The delicately modelled
+foliage, dolphins, candelabra, vases and cherubs, so characteristic of
+Italian and French work, were replaced by such typically Flemish details
+as interlacing strapwork with curved and scrolled ends, frequently
+cartouche-like in form, festoons of fruit and foliage, and terminal
+figures used as pilasters.
+
+
+_Study of Classic Style_
+
+In the late Jacobean and succeeding phases the classic manner was more
+thoroughly understood, and a more scholarly handling was the result,
+until the culmination was reached in the work of Inigo Jones and Wren.
+
+The Elizabethan phase indicates an imperfectly understood, and in many
+instances meaningless, employment and adaptation of Italian forms to the
+requirements of the times.
+
+A notable example if this is the central feature of the Public Schools
+at Oxford, the work of Thomas Holt, a native of York, in which the
+orders appear ranged one above the other.
+
+
+_Thomas Thorpe_
+
+The most prominent name associated with the architecture of the period
+is Thomas Thorpe, who was concerned in many of the principal edifices
+erected during the reign of Elizabeth and of her successor, James I.
+
+The general arrangement of woodwork consisted of architectural façades,
+and the orders and pediments were utilised wherever possible.
+
+Doorways and chimney-pieces offered the principal opportunities for
+display in interior work.
+
+Panelling was retained for the large halls and most of the rooms. The
+walls were frequently divided into bays by means of pilasters and
+surmounted by friezes and cornices more or less determined by
+traditional forms.
+
+
+_Flemish Influence_
+
+The style degenerated in the same reign into a coarser rendering, and
+was followed by a period of strong Flemish influence. There is, in fact,
+such a marked similarity between the later Elizabethan and Flemish
+furniture and wood-work that it is not easy to distinguish the
+nationality of examples of this period. In cases where figure sculpture
+is employed, however, it is not difficult to decide, as a considerably
+higher standard was attained by the Flemish school of figure carvers
+than is found in English work.
+
+Tapered pilaster-like supports, surmounted by half figures or Ionic
+caps, were often employed in the framing of doors and chimney-pieces,
+and sometimes on furniture. Table supports and newels of stairs
+increased in size. The heavy acorn-shaped baluster is a feature. Inlay
+came into use for panelling as well as for furniture.
+
+Synchronously with the changes in detail, there was a more classical
+tendency displayed in moulded features such as strings and cornices.
+
+In the early seventeenth century the scale of the details of Flemish
+work increased. Diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on square ones;
+turned work was split and the two halves applied; drop ornaments were
+used below tables and from the centres of panels under arches--all these
+being additions to the general structure.
+
+
+_Jacobean_
+
+English work developed in much the same way as Flemish, probably owing
+to the commerce in wood-work between England and Flanders at this time.
+
+In the earlier work, where the orders were employed, there was some
+regard to proportion and detail, probably direct translation of Italian
+designs, but in the later Jacobean work there was considerable
+falling-off, presumably due to native exploitation and experiment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 94. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.]
+
+Architectural feeling was prominent in the treatment of interiors, which
+were invariably panelled as in the earlier period. The characteristic
+“linen fold” variety of the late Tudor giving place to plain panelling,
+framed by stiles and rails closely spaced.
+
+Walls were occasionally divided into bays by means of pilasters, often
+supported on pedestals.
+
+The panels in the later development were invariably plain, but a
+decorated frieze, carved in relief, was carried round immediately under
+the cornice. Coats of arms at intervals sometimes supplied the
+decoration. The carved frieze gave place to a simple form of patterning,
+which was produced by sinking the ground to practically one level and
+leaving the ornament which had little or no modelling, flush with the
+face of the panel. This led to fretting out the pattern and applying it
+to the surface. The idea of planting ornament evidently spread, and may
+be seen in such obviously applied details as studs and half-balusters.
+
+A typical room of the period would be treated with plain panelling,
+perhaps divided into bays by pilasters, and all elaboration was confined
+to the doorways and chimney-piece.
+
+[Illustration: No. 95. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.]
+
+The chimney-piece might be in wood, stone or marble, and while there
+were many varieties of treatment, the designs readily fall under one
+general type. Columns or pilasters flanked the opening,
+
+[Illustration: No. 96. Jacobean Chimney-piece. Palace of
+Bromley-by-Bow.]
+
+carrying an entablature consisting of architrave frieze and cornice, the
+latter forming a shelf. Above this there was a similar arrangement, but
+on a smaller scale and with finer proportions. The space between the
+columns above the shelf was usually filled with carving, which sometimes
+took the form of armorial bearings. In many examples the upper part is
+divided into two panels, which were generally filled with carved
+ornament such as strapwork or shields charged with heraldic devices.
+
+Where the chimney-piece was of wood, the fireplace opening was
+surrounded by a stone lining, which had moulded splays on the upright
+jambs. In earlier examples the jambs were connected by a flattened arch
+with carved spandrils. In later work a horizontal panel was employed or
+a frieze of carved detail.
+
+The opening itself was wide, and was lined with brick or stone. The
+interior was occupied by a fire-back of cast-iron and a movable grate or
+basket supported on dogs.
+
+[Illustration: No. 97. Jacobean Door, shewing absense of architrave.]
+
+Doors were at first merely a part of the panelling without hanging
+frames, but later they were treated as important features of the rooms.
+They were often framed with columns and pilasters, surmounted by
+entablatures, with or without pediments. Obelisks were sometimes placed
+over the pilasters. The frieze was fluted or carved. In many cases the
+tympanum of the pediment or even one of the door panels bore the owner’s
+coat of arms.
+
+In the earlier phases the mouldings framing the panels were simple in
+form, and worked on the stiles and rails. But later they were applied,
+being wider in display and more elaborate in section. These applied
+mouldings, evidently the result of mechanical appliances, later led to
+extreme license in broken angles and panellings of complicated form.
+
+[Illustration: No. 98. Jacobean Doors.]
+
+Ceilings, and occasionally the frieze, were in plaster, decorated with
+intersecting ribs, or bands dividing the surface into compartments
+geometric in shape, and further enriched with stamped or modelled
+ornament.
+
+Windows were relatively small as to individual openings, large lighting
+areas being obtained by grouping a number of these side by side, and
+also in tiers, the dividing bars or mullions being either in wood or
+stone.
+
+Glazing took the form of small pieces of glass united by lead frames,
+commonly arranged in trellis form, resulting in diamond-shaped pieces.
+Occasionally painted or coloured glass was used, generally in heraldic
+devices in the upper portions of the windows.
+
+The windows themselves were frequently deeply embayed.
+
+
+_Development in Dwellings_
+
+The growing appreciation of domestic comfort, evident in the general
+arrangement of the buildings of this period, is also apparent in the
+furniture, which from this time approximates somewhat to the modern
+forms, though still crude, and leaving much to be desired in the way of
+personal comfort.
+
+[Illustration: No. 99. Oak Table, English. 17th century.]
+
+Tables, which had hitherto been mere portable boards laid on trestles,
+or, if fixed, were on heavy legs with rails below, developed into more
+useful forms. These were the draw-inge table which could be extended by
+drawing out two flaps worked on runners from beneath the normal top,
+and the gate-leg table, which in principle resembled the modern folding
+type. Large tables were formed by putting a number of gate-leg tables
+together, and when not so in use they could be placed in different parts
+of the room.
+
+[Illustration: No. 100. English Chairs, early 17th century.]
+
+Legs and the under rails of chairs and tables were turned in the lathe,
+and the carved details were invariably simple and direct in execution,
+similar in character to much of the work in the early French
+Renaissance, in contrast to the Italian carving, which was in high
+relief and plastic in character.
+
+The majority of examples in our national collection of this period are
+of Court furniture, and cannot be taken as typical of what was in common
+use. The over-ornamented Italian work compares unfavourably with the
+English Jacobean furniture, in which utility is obvious and the
+decoration subordinate and to the purpose.
+
+Oak was chiefly employed in England, but in Italy, and later in France,
+walnut was much used.
+
+[Illustration: No. 101. English Chair, middle of 17th century,
+influenced by Italian design.]
+
+Panelling was prevalent for interiors in the Italian and French
+Renaissance. In Italy, where the art of weaving had been preserved at
+Lucca, and other places, tapestry was also frequently employed as wall
+hangings, also as coverings for upholstered work.
+
+[Illustration: No. 102. Oak Chair, English, 17th century.]
+
+Compared with the earlier period, this was a time of luxury and display,
+favourable to the arts generally.
+
+Painting, freed from the restrictions of the church, broke away from the
+Byzantine traditions, and revelling in realism, lost to some extent its
+decorative character.
+
+[Illustration: Dutch Wall sconce 17th Centy Brass
+
+No. 103.]
+
+
+_Evolution of Professional Designer_
+
+Under patronage, the individual artist and craftsman was allowed to
+develop on his own lines, and no longer worked under the dominance of
+the architect. Demand, owing to growing appreciation of artistic
+production, eventuated in the evolution of the professional designer.
+
+
+_Inigo Jones_
+
+[Illustration: Dutch Wall Bracket 17th Centy Brass.
+
+No. 104.]
+
+Although the Renaissance had come to stay, the manner of its
+interpretation in England by the native workers was very far removed
+from the Italian school which had supplied the first impulse, until the
+advent of Inigo Jones in the reign of James I. This artist, who had
+visited Italy and studied principally the architecture of Palladio and
+his school, was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works. Under his influence
+proportions and details were used, which conformed more nearly to
+classic types.
+
+Born about 1572 A.D., he studied in Italy, where he became acquainted
+with the work of Palladio, and was a follower of the Venetian school.
+
+Dying in 1652, he left a tradition which would have had a more immediate
+effect but for the internecine troubles of the later period of his life.
+
+[Illustration: No. 105. Banqueting House, Whitehall. Inigo Jones.]
+
+A typical example of his work in London is the Banqueting House in
+Whitehall, the only part built of the projected palace for James I, now
+used as a museum by the United Service Institution. Also the Church of
+St. Paul, Covent Garden.
+
+
+_Louis XIII_
+
+By the time of Louis XIII the principles of the Renaissance had become
+thoroughly assimilated in France, and a native school of architecture
+had arisen of marked distinction. France from then onward took the
+initiative, though strongly influenced by the Venetian school.
+
+The orders were used consistently as to proportion and detail, but in
+the decoration considerable development in character is manifest.
+
+The general construction and details developed on
+
+[Illustration: No. 106. Louis XIII. Luxembourg Pavilion Entrance, by
+Salamon de Brose, 1615-24.]
+
+more architectural lines, and shew a better appreciation of the Italian
+originals. Pilasters were used to divide the wall surfaces, these and
+the entablatures closely following in detail the classic types. Panels
+were much wider than in the preceding style, generally occupying the
+whole space between the pilasters. The usual arrangement for these
+panels was to have them in two tiers--the shallow ones confined to the
+lower portions of walls and those of deeper proportions above.
+Fireplaces and doors were surrounded by boldly moulded architraves, and
+surmounted by panels occupied by carved details of scroll-work and
+foliage.
+
+[Illustration: No. 107. Ste. Marie, Nevers. Louis XIII. Example of
+Barocco (Flemish influence).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 108. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIII.]
+
+Ceilings were modelled in stucco and sub-divided into compartments,
+which were richly moulded, and in some cases decorated with paintings.
+
+During the reign of Louis XIII, chairs were made more comfortable by
+being upholstered in velvet, tapestry or needlework, instead of being
+smothered with carving. The frames were covered by velvet or other
+material, leaving only the legs and arms visible, and these were but
+slightly carved.
+
+
+_Louis XIV_
+
+In France the Renaissance reached its highest degree of splendour in the
+reign of Louis XIV.
+
+[Illustration: No. 109. Louis XIV. Louvre, Paris, by Perrault.]
+
+The palace of Versailles, designed by Jules Hardouin Mansart, was
+completed, and French designers were many and famous. Amongst the most
+prominent were Lebrun, who was responsible for much of the interior work
+at Versailles, Jean and Claude Berain, Lepautre, Daniel Marot and André
+Charles Boule, the inventor of the particular class of inlay which bears
+his name.
+
+The style of Louis XIV is characteristic of its time. Love of display
+was manifested in every direction, but nowhere did it give rise to
+greater magnificence than in furniture and decoration.
+
+The employment of architectural features, with a close approximation to
+accepted proportions, had been the keynote of the preceding style, but
+the work of this period broke away from all tradition. As a departure
+it was quite original, and constituted a phase in the development of the
+Renaissance that was purely and typically French, and this particularly
+in its massiveness and grandeur.
+
+[Illustration: No. 110. The King’s Bedchamber, Versailles. Louis XIV.]
+
+Panelling became more varied in proportion, and heavily framed with
+mouldings of the Bolection type. Glass was also used in panels as at
+Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, where the windows on one side of the
+gallery are repeated in form by mirrors in reciprocal positions.
+
+Important rooms were panelled and divided by pilasters, surmounted by
+entablatures. The Corinthian order was the one most frequently used.
+
+Panel mouldings were heavily and richly carved. Curved sections and
+facias were fluted, or carved with guilloche or leaf detail. Figures and
+_amorini_, heavy festoons, wreaths, cartouches and shields were among
+the decorative motifs. Strapwork, a survival of the preceding styles,
+was moulded and clothed with foliage of the acanthus variety.
+
+Ceilings were modelled in stucco and were divided into bold geometrical
+compartments by strongly moulded ribs. The compartments were sometimes
+occupied by paintings. In some cases the cornice was not taken up to the
+height of the ceiling, but the ceiling line was continued in form of a
+curve to meet the top of the cornice, forming what is known as a cove.
+
+[Illustration: No. 111. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIV.]
+
+Chairs were massive, the frames were carved and gilt, and the seats and
+backs upholstered in tapestry. In the latter part of the reign of Louis
+XIV metal was used in the construction of furniture in the form of
+mounts--as framing and protecting pieces to angles, and was gilt by the
+mercury process. The introduction of veneer probably led to this use of
+metal.
+
+
+_"Boule” Work_
+
+A method of decorating furniture with inlays of brass or tin and
+tortoiseshell originated by André Charles Boule, came into vogue. The
+sheets of metal and shell were placed together and cut simultaneously,
+with the result that the patterns produced were interchangeable--thus
+the metal pattern could be fitted with a tortoiseshell background and
+vice versa. There was a tendency for this style of work to become more
+ornate and showy, and later, instead of the transparent shell being used
+in its natural colour, either vermilion or gold leaf was placed
+underneath.
+
+
+_Mirrors_
+
+Mirrors, in the sixteenth century, had been imported from Italy, and
+those of considerable size were first made in Venice.
+
+Later glass manufactories were established in England--near
+Battersea--and in France, where larger mirrors and plates of glass were
+produced than hitherto.
+
+Rooms lined with mirrors became popular, in some cases even the ceiling
+being made of glass.
+
+Console tables, which were frequently gilt, were often placed under the
+large wall mirrors.
+
+Hanging bands of material were employed to drape the heads of windows
+and the tops of bedsteads. Beds were important pieces of furniture, and
+had elaborately carved head and foot boards. The overhanging Tester was
+also ornamented, and besides the valances already mentioned, was
+surmounted by groups of plumes.
+
+[Illustration: No. 112. Pantheon, Paris. Soufflet. Louis XV.]
+
+
+_Louis XV_
+
+Little advance was made in architecture during the reign of Louis XV, to
+which period belongs the Pantheon at Paris, originally the Church of St.
+Geneviéve, the work of Soufflet, born in 1713.
+
+
+_Régence_
+
+The style passed through two stages. The earlier, known as the
+Régence--the principal exponents of which were Charles Cressent, Gilles
+Marie Oppenord, and Nicholas Pineau--is distinguished by a certain
+reserve and moderation which were entirely abandoned in the later Rococo
+period.
+
+
+_Rococo_
+
+The term “Rococo” is derived from a French word meaning rockwork, and is
+applied to the style in which rock and shell forms are used as details.
+
+[Illustration: No. 113. Detail of Wood-carving, Regency Period.]
+
+Ornament became extravagant and meaningless, and was wrongly used to
+serve the purpose of construction, the actual constructive elements
+being at times completely ignored. It cannot be denied, however, that
+powerful draughtsmanship and inventiveness were displayed, but without
+the consideration of practical execution, which is essential to all good
+design.
+
+Evidently the artist or designer dominated the craftsman, who, however,
+grappled with difficulties in an admirable manner, often achieving
+results which would appear from the constructional point of view almost
+impossible of attainment.
+
+The work of the latter part of the period expresses the enervated and
+frivolous spirit of the time.
+
+Walls were panelled and often divided by pilasters, which, however, lost
+all structural significance.
+
+Cornices and friezes were dispensed with, the frieze being replaced by a
+cove curving into the ceiling.
+
+Mouldings were broken at angles and intersections into curves, scrolls
+and foliage.
+
+Carved details of the curiously twisted leafage peculiar to the style
+were employed wherever possible.
+
+Painted panels were fashionable, and were used particularly over
+doorheads. They were surrounded or framed by curved and enriched
+mouldings.
+
+[Illustration: No. 114. Carved Wood Door. Louis XV.]
+
+Interiors of this later period were invariably painted white, and partly
+gilt, the wall panels decorated with tapestry or paintings with which
+are associated the names of Bouchier, Watteau, and Fragonard.
+
+Ceilings were also painted, wall mirrors were employed and furniture (at
+this period at times extremely costly) was veneered and decorated with
+metal mounts in gilt ormolu.
+
+Chair and table legs were of the cabriole type.
+
+Bureaux fronts were swelled into curves both horizontally and
+vertically.
+
+Veneer and marqueterie were much used.
+
+Chased and gilt brass was employed to protect angles, as feet, handles,
+escutcheons and other ornamental details.
+
+[Illustration: French Louis XV
+
+No. 115.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 116. Chair with cane back English, later half 17th
+century.]
+
+
+_Lacquer “Vernis Martin"_
+
+Furniture was also decorated in imitation of Chinese lacquer. The
+principal worker in it was Robert Martin, who introduced a varnish of
+fine transparent quality.
+
+
+_Later English Renaissances_
+
+Artistic progress was hindered in England by the disturbed conditions
+at the time of the Civil War, and in consequence little change in style
+took place in this and the Commonwealth period.
+
+With the Restoration came the influence of the French Court, and foreign
+furniture was imported, thus giving fresh models for the English
+workers.
+
+One result of the Great Fire in 1666 was that a great impetus was given
+to architecture and to the crafts associated with it, and the influence
+of Wren and Grinling Gibbons produced a school of most efficient carvers
+and craftsmen.
+
+
+_Sir Christopher Wren_
+
+Wren was a worthy successor to Inigo Jones, and the general destruction
+wrought by the fire in the city gave him a fine field for his activity.
+He was employed not only to rebuild the churches, eighty-nine of which
+had been burnt, but also many of the city halls; and was commissioned by
+William and Mary to build the state-rooms at Hampton Court Palace.
+
+[Illustration: No. 117. English Chair, period of Charles II.]
+
+The style of Wren, which, like that of Inigo Jones, was based rather
+upon the Venetian school, was perpetuated and found individual exponents
+in the works of his pupils and immediate successors. Among whom may be
+mentioned James Gibbs (1720 to 1754), architect of St. Martin’s in the
+Fields (1726) and St. Mary le Strand, and Nicholas Hawksmoor, who was
+responsible for the churches of St. George’s, Bloomsbury, and St. Mary,
+Woolnoth, the latter commenced in 1716 was finished in 1718.
+
+[Illustration: No. 118. St. Paul’s Cathedral. Wren.]
+
+Notable among Wren’s churches is that of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, in the
+City of London; of his secular work an example may be cited in the
+library of Trinity College, Cambridge.
+
+
+_Classic Spires_
+
+A characteristic of the period in the churches of Wren and his school is
+the spire, which, though tapering like the Gothic variety, is invested
+with features quite Renaissance in form, arranged in successive tiers.
+
+The architecture of the period is in excellent proportion, and all the
+details of mouldings, capitals, etc., were executed in a masterly
+manner.
+
+Panelling was still employed, mostly in oak, and was now carried up to
+the ceiling. The panels were very wide, frequently bevelled at the
+edges--the stiles and rails forming the framings being much wider than
+hitherto. The framing mouldings were sometimes carved.
+
+[Illustration: No. 119. Spire of St. Mary le Strand.]
+
+Doorways and chimneypieces were surrounded by well-designed architraves,
+with carved mouldings, and were surmounted by pediments, above which it
+was not unusual to have carved festoons and pendants of fruit and
+foliage.
+
+[Illustration: No. 120. English Interior Wood-work. Late 17th and early
+18th century.]
+
+Pilasters were decorated with cherubs’ heads used as caps, and pendant
+drops of the usual type.
+
+Carving was profusely used, the details consisted mainly of interlacing
+scrollwork of acanthus-like foliage, heavy fruit and flower festoons and
+drops, trophies and cherubs’ heads. The relief was high, the work
+occasionally being detached, and the manner of execution was sharp and
+crisp, implying no hesitation on the part of the carver.
+
+The high relief necessitated building up thicknesses of wood, and formed
+a great contrast to the earlier work in which the ground was slightly
+set back, leaving the original panel face as the highest part of the
+pattern.
+
+The woods commonly used were oak for wainscotting and cedar for doors.
+Where it was intended that the woodwork should be painted or gilt it was
+made in deal. Some of the carving was in oak, but the favorite material
+was limewood, and pear; cedar or lime was used when small fine detail
+was required. Elm was employed for various articles such as dressers:
+ash, beech, birch, poplar, sycamore, English and Italian walnut were
+also used.
+
+
+_Dutch and French Influences_
+
+With William III and his Dutch court the influence of the Netherlands
+became once more apparent. It was coloured by the French style of the
+Louis XIV period, probably through an immigration of French workmen
+after the Edict of Nantes in 1685. This influence can be traced in some
+of the furniture at Hampton Court, particularly in the carved and gilt
+tables of French design and English workmanship.
+
+[Illustration: No. 121. A. Walnut Chair, period of Queen Anne. B. Dutch
+Chair, 17th century. C. Inlaid Chair, period of Queen Anne. D. Carved
+Chair, period of Queen Anne.]
+
+The chairs and settees of the period have shaped backs, generally with
+delicately carved central vertical panels of vase-like form; and
+cabriole legs with a carved shell ornament on the knee.
+
+Bureaux and corner cupboards were introduced. They were decorated with
+marqueterie or with inlay of boxwood or holly on a walnut ground.
+
+
+_Queen Anne Period_
+
+Flemish or Dutch influence prevailed during the period known as Queen
+Anne.
+
+The typical Queen Anne chair in common with all the furniture of the
+period was made of walnut. The seat was wide, the front legs cabriole
+shaped, ending, as a rule, in club or claw-and-ball feet. The back was
+high and curved at the top, and this was connected centrally with the
+seat by a long vase or fiddle-shaped splat. Carving was not much used,
+but the splat was sometimes ornamented with floral and other designs in
+marqueterie after the Dutch fashion.
+
+During this period an appreciation for Oriental china and lacquer work
+had an important effect on furniture and decoration.
+
+The later fashion of inlay and marquetry work of Sheraton was perhaps as
+much the outcome of the Dutch practice of this form of decoration, as it
+was due to the discovery of the possibilities of mahogany as a suitable
+wood for furniture.
+
+
+_Early Georgian_
+
+The eighteenth century in England was the age of the connoisseur and
+dilettante, and the struggling professional, literary or artistic, had
+little opportunity except by the favour of a patron. As for instance,
+Lord Burlington, who is reported to have practised architecture in
+conjunction with his _protégé_ Kent.
+
+William Kent, born in 1685, died 1748, a painter as well as an
+architect, was responsible for many designs, among which may be
+mentioned the Horse Guards in Whitehall, and Holkham in Norfolk for the
+Earl of Leicester.
+
+Georgian work shows more evidence of French influence, but is invariably
+stiff and heavy in feeling.
+
+In panelling rooms a surbase or dado was employed. The bolection
+moulding was universally used round panels.
+
+Doorways and chimneypieces were made up of architraves, surmounted by
+pediments, and were formal in design and detail. The Greek key was often
+most unsatisfactorily used in their decoration.
+
+
+_Chippendale_
+
+Among others, Chippendale’s name is associated with the furniture of
+this period, and his book of designs, published about the middle of the
+eighteenth century, contained, besides furniture, suggestions for the
+complete decoration of rooms. Chippendale was undoubtedly influenced by
+the Louis XV style, and at one period he attempted to exploit Chinese
+forms and details.
+
+The chairs designed by him were based on the earlier Queen Anne type,
+but the vase-shaped back was replaced by pierced and carved interlacing
+bands and ribbons. For a time the cabriole leg was retained, but
+
+[Illustration:
+
+No. 122. A. Transitional Chair, 18th century.
+         B. Mahogany                       Sheraton.
+         C.    “                           Chippendale.
+         D. Walnut                         Hepplewhite.
+]
+
+later examples have straight square legs. The chairs were fitted with
+loose upholstered seats covered with morocco leather.
+
+Furniture was generally in mahogany, which had been introduced a little
+earlier from the West Indies, and had become popular on account of the
+colour and figure developed by polishing. Mahogany lends itself to fine
+mouldings and detail, and this was evidently appreciated, as relief
+decoration on furniture in this wood received a more restrained
+treatment, while plain surfaces were made more extensive.
+
+
+_Mayhew_
+
+Contemporary workers were Mainwaring and Mayhew. Mayhew was responsible
+for a form of fretwork decoration which is often ascribed to
+Chippendale.
+
+
+_Adam Style_
+
+Prominent among his contemporaries, more perhaps for his influence on
+interior decoration, was Robert Adam, who died at the age of ninety-four
+in 1792.
+
+A student of the later antique Roman work, and inspired by the remains
+of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro, he evolved a style which bears his
+name, that was personal and distinctive. A style that had many
+followers, and which largely influenced the work of Sheraton.
+
+Simple as to structural form, and delicate in detail, it carried on the
+tradition of the later Graeco-Roman work on which it was founded,
+avoiding absolute reproduction.
+
+[Illustration: No. 123. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”]
+
+[Illustration: No. 124. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”]
+
+The Adam influence is evident also in the pottery of this period, and in
+the details of Sheffield plate.
+
+Examples of Robert Adam’s architectural design may be seen in London at
+the Adelphi, which was built as a speculation, in the Admiralty screen
+in Whitehall, and houses in Portland Place, W.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Sheffield Plate
+
+18th Centy
+
+No. 125. Adam influence.]
+
+
+_Hepplewhite_
+
+Hepplewhite also was designing and manufacturing about this time, and is
+noted principally for his japanned or painted furniture. In this process
+the wood was first coated with a preparation after the manner of Chinese
+or Japanese lacquer, and then decorated with fruit and flowers in gold
+on a background. Subsequently, furniture of this character, instead of
+being japanned, was merely painted white. Hepplewhite’s chair-backs
+differ in form from Chippendale’s, being shield or oval shaped.
+
+Satinwood came into use, and much of the work ascribed to Sheraton was
+made of it.
+
+Painted decoration of a delicate character, the details including
+ribbons, borders and medallions, was applied to table-tops, harpsichord
+cases, chair-backs and other objects. The names of Angelica Kauffmann
+and Cipriani are associated with this form of decoration.
+
+Hepplewhite and Sheraton were apparently influenced by the work of the
+brothers Adam, which was a distinct departure from the earlier style.
+The cabriole leg was rarely used, its place being taken by gracefully
+tapered forms.
+
+
+_Sheraton_
+
+Although some of Sheraton’s furniture had painted detail, he more often
+used marqueterie and inlay of fine design.
+
+Panels were treated in marqueterie, with ovals or other simple shapes
+surrounded by narrow bands or lines of contrasting colour.
+
+Sheraton sideboards were usually without backs, and were sometimes
+furnished with brass rails on top.
+
+Bookcases had glass doors with well designed and finely worked sash
+bars.
+
+The general tendency was towards elegance and refinement, and led to
+simplicity of treatment rather than over enrichment.
+
+Indeed this may be taken as the culminating period for the finest
+production of furniture, not only with regard to design and exquisite
+workmanship, but in carefully studied utility. This consideration may be
+seen in the dressing-tables and secretaires, which were full of
+ingenious devices, and secret drawers and contrivances for hiding papers
+and valuables were quite a feature of the work.
+
+
+_Louis XVI_
+
+Towards the end of the reign of Louis XV there was a distinct change in
+taste, and consequently in style. This was manifested by a return to
+simplicity of line,
+
+[Illustration: No. 126. Painted Interior Decoration. Marie Antoinette
+Boudoir. Louis XVI.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 127. Interior Treatment. Louis XVI.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 128. Chimney-piece with Mirror. Louis XVI.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 129. Library with fitted Book-cases. Louis XVI.]
+
+a more sparing use of enrichments and greater refinement of detail.
+
+[Illustration: No. 130. Door Treatment. Louis XVI.]
+
+Probably the same influence that inspired Adam was at work in France,
+when the license that marked the Rococo gave place to a more severe and
+restrained expression in the succeeding Louis XVI style, in which the
+curvilinear and plastic forms became once more structural in feeling and
+refined in detail.
+
+Associated with this change was Jacques Gondouin, who died at Paris in
+1818 at the age of eighty-one, whose most celebrated work is the Ecole
+de Médécine. He was also entrusted with the erection of the column in
+the Place Vendôme.
+
+
+_Riesener and Gouthière_
+
+[Illustration: No. 131. Detail of Cornice. Louis XVI.]
+
+The most familiar names associated with the wood-work at the Louis XVI
+period are Riesener and Gouthière. Riesener is famous for his furniture,
+and Gouthière for the highly finished chased mounts with which this
+furniture was decorated.
+
+[Illustration: No. 132. Arm-chair covered with Beauvais Tapestry. Louis
+XVI.]
+
+Interior woodwork was generally of oak, painted white. Pilasters were
+used, and were either carved or painted in colours. Mouldings were
+frequently gilt.
+
+Chairs and sofas were, in many instances, painted white and partly
+gilt. They were upholstered in silk or Beauvais tapestry, the designs of
+which were in panel form specially made for the purpose.
+
+Cabinets, tables and other pieces of furniture were often exquisitely
+inlaid with various woods, tulip, rosewood, pear, holly and ebony were
+the most common, and Sèvres porcelain placques and gilt metal mounts
+were also used to embellish them.
+
+[Illustration: No. 133. Carved Oak Panel. Louis XVI.]
+
+Furniture supports, such as table and chair legs, were straight, tapered
+and fluted, with husks in the hollows of the flutes.
+
+Among the decorative details were torches, quivers and other emblems,
+trophies, musical instruments, bouquets and festoons of flowers, and
+ribbons with peculiarly square and crisp folds. The laurel leaf was much
+used in borders, festoons and wreaths.
+
+The style of the Louis XVI period was more severe than the preceding
+one, and was, in fact, a reaction from the flippancy which
+characterised the reign of Louis XV. There was a tendency to return to
+more classic forms, which prepared the way for the still more austere
+Empire phase which was deliberately based on the Roman and Greek styles.
+
+
+_Empire_
+
+Furniture was made in mahogany, rosewood and ebony, and was decorated
+with brass mounts or with carved ornaments, which were gilded.
+
+Furniture legs and supports were fashioned after Greek and Roman forms,
+human figures and sphinxes being often employed.
+
+Inlay was used of ivory and metal, and this class of work attained a
+very high degree of excellence.
+
+Metal-work was unquestionably good, except that the details were
+somewhat hard in character.
+
+The most striking decorative features were sphinxes, winged figures of
+Liberty, masks, the thyrsus of Bacchus, laurel wreaths and festoons,
+which were all severe in treatment and delicate in execution.
+
+
+_Empire in England_
+
+The Empire style spread to other parts of Europe, and was closely
+imitated in England, where it was chiefly remarkable for the extreme
+nicety and finish of the metal-work, metal being extensively used for
+the enrichment of furniture, for clocks, vases, candlesticks, inkstands
+and other objects.
+
+
+_Later English Architecture_
+
+Probably the most important name associated with English architecture
+towards the end of the eighteenth century is that of Sir William
+Chambers, who died in 1796.
+
+Chambers, who at one time held the position of Surveyor General in the
+Board of Works, was one of those concerned in the establishment of the
+Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. During his professional career he
+executed commissions in various parts of the country, his principal work
+being Somerset House, which was commenced in 1776.
+
+Another name associated with this period is that of George Dance, who
+designed the Mansion House of the City of London, which was built during
+the years 1739-53. Dance died in 1768, and was succeeded by his son, who
+was the architect of Newgate Prison, the site of which is now occupied
+by a modern building.
+
+A pupil of Sir William Chambers, James Gandon, had the distinction of
+carrying off the first gold medal given for architecture by the
+newly-founded Royal Academy of Arts in 1768.
+
+He designed, among other works, the Customs House, the Four Courts, and
+the building which is now the Bank of Ireland, all at Dublin.
+
+
+_French Influence on Europe_
+
+Throughout this necessarily brief summary it will be noted that
+attention is mainly given to the architectural development in France and
+England. The rest of Europe was similarly affected more or less, both in
+the Gothic period and in the revival known as the Renaissance, in which
+the initiative was taken by France early in the seventeenth century.
+From which period may be dated the decline in Italian taste.
+
+French feeling, both as to form and detail, is apparent in not only
+Dutch and Flemish work, but in the more southern parts of Europe,
+particularly the phase known as Rococo.
+
+Even in England, though the architectural traditions of Inigo Jones and
+Sir Christopher Wren became national in character, French feeling is
+evident in much of the decorative work, as in the designs of Chippendale
+and his contemporaries; with the exception of the brilliant period of
+Grinling Gibbons, whose distinctive manner and robust treatment
+survived, and constituted a school of carving typically English and
+unique in its artistry and craftsmanship.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MOULDINGS
+
+
+In Architecture the edges of projecting courses are softened into curved
+profiles, sometimes enriched with details, which are technically known
+as mouldings. These are invariably a stumbling-block to the beginner,
+presumably due to want of appreciation of their purpose, which properly
+understood, is indicative of their desirable employment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 134. Forms of Mouldings.]
+
+Mouldings are an important factor in effect, not only in Architecture,
+but in structural form generally. In flat decoration they have to some
+extent their corollary in borders, the proportionate widths of which are
+governed by similar rules.
+
+Of mouldings with curved profiles there are only six distinct forms,
+though the individual character of these curves is subject to great
+variation in treatment.
+
+
+_Purpose_
+
+As suggested, mouldings have a distinct purpose, are, in fact,
+functional features, and may be defined as Sheltering or Crowning,
+Bracketing or Supporting, and Binding.
+
+In any composition where they may be necessary these functions should be
+taken into consideration.
+
+The profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve
+be refined or robust.
+
+In classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the
+other features are defined, and these proportions will be found useful
+in other than purely architectural design.
+
+
+_The Fillet_
+
+Mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or
+Fillets, the employment of which is universal.
+
+The Fillet in projection is equal to its height, and though strictly
+divisional in its employment, is shown in conjunction with the curved
+profiles to indicate relative proportion.
+
+
+_Sheltering Mouldings_
+
+There are two mouldings of curved profile in each category, the
+Sheltering being the Cavetto and the Cyma Recta.
+
+
+_The Cavetto_
+
+The Cavetto is the culminating moulding of the Italian Doric cornice,
+and is a concave curve, which may be the result of a quarter circle.
+
+The Cavetto profile is used in other positions, which would appear to
+challenge the previous statement, but reflection will confirm the
+contention.
+
+For instance, the vertical face of the Frieze in some instances
+terminates with a cavetto curve which, though surmounted by the cornice,
+is yet at the top of the frieze. The upper extremity of the column shaft
+is similarly treated, and, it may be urged, so is the lower, but this,
+though an exception to the rule, is at least an æsthetic necessity.
+
+The projection of the Cavetto is equal to the height of the curve, and
+the crowning Fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total
+height, preferably the latter.
+
+
+_Cyma Recta_
+
+The other sheltering moulding, the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double
+flexure with upper fillet. Its proper employment is as the crowning
+member of the cornice, though, like the Cavetto, it is employed in other
+positions, notably as a plinth moulding, when it appears in a reversed
+position.
+
+The projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile, the
+height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the
+whole.
+
+
+_Bracketing Mouldings_
+
+The supporting mouldings are the Ovolo and the Cyma Reversa.
+
+
+_The Ovolo_
+
+The Ovolo is composed of a full convex curve, either a quarter circle or
+slightly elliptic, which in height is equal to projection; and a fillet
+at base one-fifth the total height. Frequently this lower member is in
+the form of a half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet.
+
+As a Bracketing moulding the Ovolo occurs in the capital of the Doric
+column, and in the Ionic and Corinthian cornices under the corona or
+facia, and is employed in other positions, where the sense of support is
+justified.
+
+
+_Cyma Reversa_
+
+The Cyma Reversa, like the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure, and
+is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height. The
+projection is equal to the height of curved profile.
+
+The Cyma Reversa is employed in the cornice of the Doric order as a
+supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating
+Cavetto. It also occurs in the Capital of the column, where it forms the
+upper member of the abacus. An apparent contradiction of the theory of
+employment, which however is justified by the circumstance that the
+column forms the support for the entablature.
+
+It also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the
+pedestal, and is used in similar positions in the other orders.
+
+
+_Binding Mouldings_
+
+The Binding mouldings, the Torus and the Scotia, appear chiefly on
+columns and pilasters, particularly the Scotia, which is essentially a
+base moulding.
+
+
+_The Torus_
+
+The Torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle, with upper
+fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height. The projection is
+decided by the curvature, which is based on a semi-circle with centre
+slightly in advance of the vertical line of fillet.
+
+The Torus varies in size according to position. For instance, in the
+base of the Ionic column two are employed, the lower being the larger.
+It is also invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding
+beneath the Capitals; in the small form it is commonly known as a bead
+or astragal.
+
+This employment of the Torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in
+the sense of imparting strength by binding. When used in other positions
+its purpose should be equally evident.
+
+
+_The Scotia_
+
+The Scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper
+fillet, and is generally used between the upper and lower Torii of the
+base.
+
+The upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of
+curved profile. The extreme projection being merely equal to the height
+of curve and that of the upper fillet about one-half, the fillet being
+about one-fifth the total height.
+
+
+_The Facia_
+
+The foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles,
+but there is another member, the Facia, that is an important feature in
+composition.
+
+The Facia, which is rectilinear in form with external face vertical or
+slightly inclined, may be classed with the binding mouldings.
+
+With regard to proportion, the height of the Facia should either exceed
+or be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably
+surmounted. The projection being either considerably less or more than
+its height.
+
+When used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face
+is generally recessed, this recess being equal to the height of the top
+fillet of supporting moulding.
+
+Only occasionally the Facia is furnished with an upper fillet (for
+instance, when it occurs immediately below the Cyma Recta) to which it
+is reconciled by a Cavetto curve.
+
+The Facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved
+profile to which it is in valuable contrast.
+
+
+_Decoration of Mouldings_
+
+Mouldings may be plain or decorated, usually by carving, the details
+probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period.
+
+When thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile, and the
+details carved back from the face, leaving the highest parts in the
+original surface. The carving being deeper and more sharply defined in
+the case of mouldings that are in shadow. Such, for example, as the
+Ovolo, and in lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light.
+
+The decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a
+unit, composed on a central axis, in which curves are contrasted with
+vertical features.
+
+[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE CYMA RECTA
+
+ENRICHMENT OF THE FACIA
+
+ENRICHMENT OF THE OVOLO
+
+ENRICHMENT OF THE CYMA REVERSA
+
+ENRICHMENT OF THE TORUS
+
+No. 135.]
+
+The principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature
+or profile line.
+
+
+_Orthodox Details_
+
+Thus the orthodox detail of the Ovolo, technically known as the “Egg and
+Tongue,” consists of a framing curve, which is obtained by repeating the
+profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape. The angles between
+the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart.
+
+As previously stated, this moulding is deeply carved, the ovoid being
+bold and well-rounded; the edges of the framing curves (in some
+instances grooved or channelled) being left sharp and precise.
+
+Frequently the “Bead and Reel” enrichment occurs at the base of the
+Ovolo instead of the Fillet, this being the characteristic detail of the
+Bead or Astragal.
+
+The treatment of the Cyma Reversa is identical and results in the detail
+known as the “Leaf and Dart”; but the carving is not so deep and the
+relief, in consequence, comparatively slight.
+
+
+_Angle Leaf_
+
+When mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a
+covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle.
+
+The same principle is applicable to the Cyma Recta and the Cavetto,
+though these mouldings are more often left plain; when decorated the
+relief is comparatively slight.
+
+The Scotia needs no decoration, the cast shadow resulting from its form
+being sufficiently effective.
+
+The Torus, though frequently left plain, can be decorated in various
+ways.
+
+The Guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic, but as suggestive of
+its function, the Torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or
+cable. Leaves suggestive of a wreath are used, also a reed band crossed
+at intervals with ribbons, quite in keeping with the suggestion of
+binding.
+
+The Facia is generally plain, but the decoration, if used should,
+following the principle, be rectilinear in character; such as vertical
+flutings, or the key detail, both of which are used.
+
+
+_Dentils_
+
+Dentils, which form a distinctive feature in cornices, are a series of
+rectilinear blocks, attached to a Facia, and may be placed in the
+category of supporting members.
+
+In their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite
+projection.
+
+In proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three
+quarters their width in height, the intervals between being about half
+the width.
+
+The first Dentil at the angle, lines flush with the return face of
+supporting Facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end
+Dentils. This space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob, acorn-like
+in shape. The heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and
+downwards, or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face. Below the
+Dentils the supporting Facia is displayed to about the height of a
+fillet.
+
+Considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the
+Renaissance in the decoration of mouldings, license which is
+permissible providing the general principle be borne in mind. The
+concensus of opinion is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and
+absence of variety. The vertical tendency resulting from the
+bi-symmetrical character of the unit is desirable, and in happy contrast
+to the horizontal direction of the moulding, while it also emphasises
+the sense of structural support.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF THE DENTIL
+
+No. 136.]
+
+The profiles also are amenable to considerable variation, the curves
+being the direct result of Geometry, or Freehand, either treatment being
+a matter of attitude and discretion.
+
+
+_Employment_
+
+When employed in Architecture the forms and proportions given will be
+found most suitable. In interior decoration and structural work, as in
+furniture, considerable latitude is permissible.
+
+It must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be
+designed merely for the play of line, but for the effect resulting from
+light and shade. In those close to the eye and in fair light, elliptic
+curves will be more effective than more rounded sections, which are most
+suitable to remote positions.
+
+In composition, mouldings of curved profile should always be separated
+by fillets or occasionally a facia, and the various members associated
+with regard to their functional purpose. Obvious repetition of the same
+dimension is to be avoided, and contrast should exist not only in the
+shapes of profiles, but also in their respective heights.
+
+[Illustration: MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO PERSPECTIVE
+
+No. 137.]
+
+
+_Attitude_
+
+Attitude must be taken into account, as, for instance, in a cornice
+which is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not
+appear in elevation but in perspective; and not only the respective
+heights will be visible, but also the projections.
+
+When mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other should
+be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment. This is particularly
+necessary when the Ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils, or where it is
+surmounted by Modillions as in the Corinthian cornice.
+
+Panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the
+foregoing sense, though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the
+construction. Regarded as frames, their general purpose may be
+considered as to bind or enclose.
+
+In stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects,
+which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts, possible only
+on a large scale. A comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to
+sink channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area, which is
+left in the original plane. A treatment that is effective and
+comparatively economical.
+
+[Illustration: CHANNELLED MOULDING IN STONE
+
+No. 138.]
+
+
+_Wood Panelling_
+
+Panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate, but structurally
+necessary, as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some
+method of building up.
+
+Therefore, not only panelling, but doors and structural wood-work
+generally are constructed of stiles
+
+[Illustration: No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood.
+
+     A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed mouldings on stiles and
+     rails.
+
+     B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with framing with simple
+     moulded edges.
+
+     D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped mouldings on stiles and
+     rails.
+
+     E. Later Jacobean Panelling.
+
+     F. Later Jacobean Section of applied mouldings of the Bolection
+     type.
+]
+
+and rails, forming framings; the spaces enclosed being occupied by the
+panels.
+
+The edges of the stiles and rails are moulded. In the late Gothic and
+Tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed; but later the
+profiles became more distinct in contour.
+
+These early mouldings were narrow and simple in form, arrived at mainly
+by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame.
+
+
+_Applied Mouldings_
+
+Applied mouldings were apparently employed in the Jacobean period, and
+the sections became more elaborate. Worked independently, they were
+frequently higher in relief than the framings. The facility with which
+they could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion
+for complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point
+of view, though effective if not overdone.
+
+[Illustration: No. 140. Applied Mouldings.]
+
+In the composition of such mouldings it is desirable that the sizes and
+contours employed should be contrasting, and that all curved sections be
+divided by fillets.
+
+As the width of the moulding throughout is uniform, it is obvious that
+mitral angles must be perfect bi-sections of the meeting lines.
+
+With regard to proportion, the width of mouldings may generally be
+one-fourth to one-eighth that of the panel according to desired effect,
+robust or refined.
+
+[Illustration: No. 141. Part of Dresser.
+
+Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.]
+
+
+_Bolection Moulding_
+
+When boldness in appearance is required the type known as the Bolection
+Moulding may be used. This, in its orthodox form, is a species of inner
+frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails, and the panels,
+but was more commonly an applied moulding.
+
+[Illustration: No. 142. Bolection Moulding.]
+
+In any case, it is worked independently, and its outer edges lap the
+framing, on which it is in relief, resulting in strong effect of light
+and shade.
+
+Panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the orthodox
+enrichments or variants based on them, but should always be in contrast
+to the panels they enclose.
+
+In furniture, mouldings play an important part, and in many positions
+can be regulated by functional considerations. In horizontal positions,
+such as in tables and sideboards, where personal contact is possible,
+any moulded edges should be of softly rounded character for obvious
+reasons.
+
+[Illustration: TABLE TOP MOULDINGS
+
+No. 143.]
+
+
+_Plaster_
+
+In plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil.
+When decorated, the former only is possible, and as such work is
+originally modelled, it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic
+nature, such as interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or
+other forms.
+
+Mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut, though this is
+practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed.
+
+[Illustration: TURNED WOOD
+
+No. 144.]
+
+Mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various
+materials, and to some extent their character is affected by the
+formative process involved.
+
+
+_Wood-turning_
+
+Thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft, taking
+usually, as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs, the baluster
+form. As a rule there is little variation between the maximum and
+minimum diameters.
+
+The baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles, with
+intervening fillets, which latter may be fairly sharp, as they are by
+their position protected from damage.
+
+
+_Metal Turning_
+
+Turning is also employed in metal work, the stems and bodies of Dutch
+candelabra, both standard and hanging, being originally cast as to
+general form and finished in the lathe.
+
+[Illustration: THROWN
+
+MOULDED
+
+THROWN & TURNED
+
+POTTERY
+
+No. 145.]
+
+The general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning, except that
+the material being much harder, the mouldings can be more sharply
+defined and delicate in detail.
+
+
+_Pottery_
+
+The throwing of pottery is analagous to turning, but by this method
+little more can be accomplished than thickened edges. The Greek vases
+show some precision of profile, the result of turning on a lathe after
+the vessel had been formed on the wheel.
+
+[Illustration: No. 146. Moulded Vase in Terra-cotta.]
+
+In moulded pottery more definition is possible than in thrown variety,
+but the profiles are comparatively blunt and never attain the precision
+due to turning.
+
+
+_Metal Mouldings_
+
+In metal, mouldings may be rolled or drawn. In the first they are formed
+in the solid, but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and
+are therefore hollow and of uniform thickness.
+
+[Illustration: ROLLED METAL MOULDINGS
+
+No. 147.]
+
+By either method mouldings of any required section are obtainable
+provided they are not undercut.
+
+Both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in various sections and sizes
+in iron, brass, bronze, and silver.
+
+Where special sections are required, the cost of the tools necessary for
+their production would have to be taken into account.
+
+[Illustration: DRAWN METAL MOULDINGS
+
+No. 148.]
+
+
+_Wrought Iron_
+
+Though the employment of rolled or drawn mouldings is usual in wrought
+iron-work, the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in character.
+Preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or building
+up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material and
+method of working.
+
+[Illustration: No. 149. Wrought Iron Swaged Moulding.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.]
+
+
+_Silver-work_
+
+In silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand, the necessary
+draw plates being made by the workman.
+
+[Illustration: No. 151. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.]
+
+
+_Spinning_
+
+Mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning, in which
+undercutting is not permissible.
+
+[Illustration: SPUN METAL
+
+No. 152.]
+
+
+_Repoussé_
+
+They are also possible in Repoussé work, but are soft in character, and
+lack the precision that marks the mechanical production.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ARCHITECTURAL PROPORTIONS
+
+
+_Introduction_
+
+In architectural drawing concise draughtsmanship is essential, the
+profiles of mouldings in particular should be well defined.
+
+Architectural designs, which should always be drawn to scale, are
+expressed geometrically, that is in plan, elevation and section. The
+actual effect is therefore a matter of conjecture only to be grasped by
+those familiar with the arbitrary form of expression. Perspectives are
+generally made with a view to depicting the appearance to the
+uninitiated, but are practically useless as working drawings.
+
+The student is advised to take advantage of every opportunity of
+studying existing examples in museums and elsewhere. This study should
+not be confined to geometric drawings, but these should be supplemented
+by sketches and careful observation. Attention should also be paid to
+the profiles of mouldings.
+
+A practice should be made also of making freehand sketches of the
+various features, indicating broadly the effects of light and shade.
+
+The study of architectural proportions should be methodical, and the
+general divisions given here might advantageously be committed to
+memory. When this is accomplished attention may be devoted to individual
+features.
+
+
+_System of Proportion_
+
+It is customary, when any of the orders of Architecture are employed, to
+adopt a system of proportions which has been evolved from the best
+traditions of the past, and is generally accepted as the most
+satisfactory.
+
+Naturally these proportions are subject to modification to suit special
+conditions or personal treatment. According to the academic method, the
+diameter of the column is divided into two parts, which are called
+Modules, and each of these is again subdivided into thirty divisions
+called parts. This gives a scale by means of which all dimensions of
+height and projection are obtained. Since the diameter of the column
+forms the standard of measurement, the proportions of the relative parts
+are constant and in no way influenced by the size of the structure.
+
+This method, although very complete, is--owing to its multiplicity of
+dimensions--somewhat laborious in practice, and the method here proposed
+in its stead, though not claimed to be exact, will yet be found to be
+sufficiently accurate for ordinary requirements.
+
+It is proposed to deal here with the orders commonly employed in
+Renaissance architecture. These were based by the early exponents of the
+style on Roman examples. The Doric selected is that of Vignola, and is a
+refined version of the order used in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.
+The Ionic closely resembles the Roman Ionic order in the same building.
+The Corinthian is the Roman example from the Pantheon.
+
+
+_The Order_
+
+An Order consists of a vertical column and a horizontal entablature,
+while in some instances the column rests on a pedestal.
+
+It is desirable before dealing with proportions to enumerate the various
+parts of which an order is composed.
+
+The column consists of a shaft, base and capital.
+
+The shaft is circular on plan and invariably tapered.
+
+The base is composed of mouldings, which are circular on plan, and a
+rectangular block or plinth.
+
+The capital is circular on plan, and in the Doric and Corinthian orders
+is divided from the shaft by a necking moulding. The capital is
+surmounted by a feature known as the abacus, which is rectangular on
+plan, but varies in detail in the different orders.
+
+Columns may be isolated or engaged, that is, built into walls so that
+they form projections from the surface.
+
+[Illustration: No. 153. Doric Order with Pedestal.]
+
+The pilaster is always engaged, and is rectangular on plan, but
+otherwise it has the same general features and proportions as the
+column.
+
+The entablature is the superstructure supported by the columns. It
+consists of an architrave, which is the lowest part, a frieze, the
+intermediate part, and a series of projecting mouldings known as the
+cornice.
+
+The pedestal, which occasionally forms a support for the columns,
+consists of a plinth, die and capping. The lower part or plinth is
+separated from the die by mouldings, and the capping is a projecting
+course of mouldings forming a simple cornice.
+
+To sum up a simple classification, which may be termed the triology of
+the orders, will be found to assist the memory.
+
+The Orders commonly employed are three--the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.
+(There are two others which are less used, and are really derived from
+the other three: they are the Tuscan, which is a form of debased Doric,
+and the Composite, which is made up of the Ionic and Corinthian).
+
+The Order may be divided into three parts:
+
+                   Pedestal, Column and Entablature.
+
+These may again be sub-divided.
+
+The Pedestal into Plinth, Die and Capping.
+
+The Column into Base, Shaft and Capital.
+
+The Entablature into Architrave, Frieze and Cornice.
+
+The method of arriving at the proportions of the order is as follows. In
+this division the pedestal is not taken into account, but is reserved
+for later consideration.
+
+
+_Doric Order_
+
+Divide the total height into five equal parts. Then the upper fifth will
+give the height of the entablature and an eighth of the remaining
+four-fifths the diameter of the column. From this it will be seen that
+the column is eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters. In
+using the term diameter it must be understood that it is always the
+lower diameter of the column that is referred to.
+
+[Illustration: No. 154. General Proportions of the Orders.]
+
+The capital is half a diameter high exclusive of the necking moulding,
+and the base also is half a diameter. In all the orders the column is
+tapered; the upper diameter is in each case five-sixths of the lower or
+major diameter. The taper is not in a straight line, but a slight
+curve, which is known as entasis. It is obtained by drawing the lower
+third of the shaft vertical and from these lines springing a curve to
+the upper diameter, which may readily be done by slightly altering the
+angle of the pencil in ruling them.
+
+The entablature is divided as follows: the architrave is half a
+diameter, the frieze and cornice each three-quarters of a diameter.
+
+
+_Ionic Order_
+
+The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
+will be the entablature, and one ninth of the remainder the diameter of
+the column, hence the column will be nine diameters high.
+
+The capital is half a diameter high; the base also is half a diameter.
+
+The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts, three of
+these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the
+frieze and the remaining four that of the cornice.
+
+
+_Corinthian Order_
+
+The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
+is the height of the entablature. A tenth of the remainder will be the
+diameter of the column.
+
+The capital is one diameter and one-sixth in height exclusive of the
+necking moulding, and the base is half a diameter high, exclusive of the
+top fillet.
+
+The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic, and
+the mouldings, although more elaborate, are similar in character. The
+architrave and frieze are each three-tenths of the height and the
+cornice four-tenths.
+
+It will be seen from the foregoing that the diameters of the three
+orders are respectively one-eighth, one-ninth and one-tenth the heights
+of the columns, and that the entablature is, in the Doric, two diameters
+high or one fourth the height of the column; in the Corinthian also two
+diameters or one-fifth the height of the column. The Ionic is
+intermediate between the two.
+
+
+_Doric Entablatures_
+
+The Doric cornice is three-quarters of a diameter in height and one
+diameter in projection from the face of the frieze, which should always
+be in vertical alignment with the architrave.
+
+It is convenient to divide the cornice height into three. The upper
+third consists of a crowning cavetto moulding, supported by a cyma
+reversa, under which is a facia or corona, in turn supported by a dentil
+course. The lower third should be taken as the centre of the dentil
+course, and if the height from the top of the cavetto to the underside
+of the corona be bisected, the point of bisection should fall in the
+centre of the intervening reversa.
+
+
+_Mutules_
+
+In orthodox examples of the order the underside or soffit of the corona
+is decorated with a series of sunk panels. Those immediately over the
+triglyphs of the frieze are occupied by rows of conical drops. A
+variation of this and a treatment frequently employed is a series of
+brackets known as mutules. They consist of a facia and a reversa, which
+is carried round the upper edge to support the corona. When mutules are
+used the dentil course is omitted.
+
+[Illustration: No. 155. Doric Entablature, Vignola.]
+
+The dentils are rectilinear blocks on a flat projecting band, and they
+are supported by a cyma reversa moulding. A fillet beneath this moulding
+completes the cornice. The reversa is about the same height as the
+fillet, and the dentil course is about twice this height, but owing to
+the soffit of the corona sloping slightly upward and inwards the full
+height of the dentil facia is not apparent when drawn in elevation.
+
+[Illustration: No. 156. Doric Entablature, with Mutules.]
+
+Above the dentil facia is a small cavetto moulding and a fillet. These
+are directly beneath the corona, and are carried round to form the
+panels on its soffit.
+
+The Doric frieze is three-quarters of a diameter high. It is divided
+into panels technically known as metopes, by projecting features half a
+diameter in width which are called triglyphs.
+
+The metopes should be square, and one of the triglyphs is always placed
+immediately over each column, having the same central axis, hence the
+spacing of the columns apart is regulated by the triglyphs and metopes.
+Examples of various spacings of columns will be given later.
+
+The frieze is bounded above and below by rectilinear projecting bands or
+fillets; that at the top breaks round or follows the projection of the
+triglyphs.
+
+The triglyphs are so named because they are channelled vertically with
+grooves or glyphs, V shaped in section, with intervening spaces or
+inter-glyphs. The width of the triglyph should be divided into twelve
+parts--then the half glyphs which are placed at the angles will each be
+one of these parts, and the remaining two glyphs and three inter-glyphs
+are each two of them. The glyphs terminate at the base on the fillet
+band, but at the top are cut off a little below the upper fillet,
+invariably in a straight line, thus forming a triangular heading with
+the apex of the triangle sloping backwards and downwards in conformity
+with the V shaped section of the glyphs.
+
+Under the lower fillet band, and immediately below the triglyph, is a
+small fillet and six pendant drops of conical form known as guttae.
+
+[Illustration: No. 157. Ionic Entablature.]
+
+The architrave is half a diameter high, inclusive of the fillet band,
+which is roughly a sixth of this height. The small fillet and guttae are
+together equal in height to the fillet band.
+
+It may be taken as an invariable rule that whatever order is used, the
+face of the architrave must be in vertical alignment with the upper part
+of the shaft of the column.
+
+
+_Ionic Entablature_
+
+The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts; three of
+these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the
+frieze, and the remaining four that of the cornice.
+
+To find the projection of the cornice a line should be drawn at an angle
+of 45 degrees from the top of the frieze, and the profiles of the
+mouldings composing the cornice will fall within this line.
+
+The lowest member is a small reversa moulding, with a fillet supporting
+a dentil course, above which is an ovolo; these occupy half the height
+of the cornice. The remaining half is composed of the facia, surmounted
+by a reversa and the crowning cyma moulding, rather more than half of
+the height being allotted to these two.
+
+The frieze of the Ionic order has no characteristic detail as the Doric,
+and may be plain or decorated according to conditions, and should be in
+vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave. In some of
+the later Renaissance examples the profile of the Ionic frieze is a
+segmental curve of about a third of a circle.
+
+The architrave is usually formed of three facias, which may be either
+vertical or slightly inclined.
+
+[Illustration: No. 158. Corinthian Entablature.]
+
+A fifth of the total height is taken for the upper moulding, which is a
+reversa with its accompanying fillet.
+
+A point bisecting the underside of the fillet and bottom of architrave
+will give the line of the lower edge of the top facia. The other two
+facias should be taken in a decreasing ratio, the lower being the
+shorter.
+
+
+_Corinthian Entablature_
+
+The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic. The
+total height is divided into ten. Three of these parts form the
+architrave, three the frieze and four the cornice.
+
+An angle of 45 degrees set off from the top of the frieze will determine
+the general contour and projection of the cornice.
+
+The cornice is more complex than in the other styles, but a division of
+eleven will help to determine, three being the height to underside of
+bead moulding and seven that of the main facia. The lowest moulding of
+the cornice is a cyma reversa supporting a dentil course with a bead
+moulding above it. Above the bead there is an ovolo, which forms the bed
+of a series of brackets known as modillions. The height of the
+modillions is about one-fifth including the reversa moulding, which,
+besides completing the modillions, is carried round between them as a
+support for the upper facia.
+
+The modillions have a profile of ogee form. They are about a sixth of a
+diameter in width and project about twice their width, and are so spaced
+as to leave squares between them on the soffit or underside of the
+corona. The frieze, which may or may not be decorated, is in vertical
+alignment with the lowest member of the architrave.
+
+The architrave is made up of three facias with intervening mouldings. If
+the height be divided into two, the upper half is devoted to the first
+facia and reversa moulding, which latter occupies rather more than
+one-third; the remaining half is taken up by the other two facias in a
+diminishing ratio.
+
+
+_The Column--The Shaft_
+
+The general proportions of the column have already been given. The shaft
+is invariably tapered for two-thirds of its height, the lower third
+being cylindrical, and the taper terminates at the necking moulding. In
+all three orders the difference between the upper and lower diameters is
+the same, that is, the upper is five-sixths of the lower, but although
+the amount of taper is numerically the same, the different ratios of the
+diameters to the heights produce naturally very different results.
+
+The shaft of the Doric column may be plain or channelled with vertical
+grooves called flutes. There are twenty of these flutes round the
+circumference. On plan they are shallow, and may be formed of arcs of a
+third of a circle. The curves meet without intervening fillets. The
+flutes are finished off in segmental curves at the top and bottom,
+leaving a small plain space below the necking and above the base.
+
+The Ionic and Corinthian columns may have plain or decorated shafts. If
+decorated they have twenty-four flutes round the circumference. These
+are semi-circular on plan, and are spaced with fillets between them.
+
+
+_The Capital_
+
+The Capital is the culminating feature of the column in which horizontal
+lines predominate in æsthetic contrast to the vertical lines of the
+shaft. In all the orders there is some form of crowning block or
+moulding known as the abacus.[A]
+
+ [A] Though the proportions given are approximately accurate for
+ general division, it will be found necessary in detailing to adopt a
+ more intimate system of measurement. In the following diagrams the
+ diameter is divided into 36 parts, which are expressed in figures,
+ giving heights, etc., of the various features.
+
+
+_Doric Capital_
+
+The Doric abacus consists of a rectangular slab, square on plan, which
+in detail consists of a fillet and reversa moulding surmounting a facia.
+Its extreme width is one and a half times the upper diameter. The square
+abacus is supported by an ovolo, which is circular on plan, and is
+connected with the necking by three small fillets.
+
+[Illustration: No. 159. Doric Capital.]
+
+The capital is half a diameter in height, exclusive of the mouldings
+between the necking and the shaft, and the upper part to the underside
+of the ovolo occupies rather more than half.
+
+[Illustration: No. 160. Ionic Capital.]
+
+The necking is a vertical extension of the upper diameter of the column,
+and is separated from the shaft by a boldly projecting moulding, which
+in height should be about equal to the three small fillets below the
+ovolo. The moulding consists of a torus and a fillet, and a cavetto
+curve is carried from the underside of the fillet and dies into the line
+of the shaft of the column.
+
+Sometimes the ovolo is decorated with its characteristic egg and tongue
+detail, and occasionally the reversa of the abacus is also enriched.
+The necking is sometimes ornamented with four rosettes, which are placed
+centrally under the square faces of the abacus.
+
+
+_Ionic Capital_
+
+The Ionic capital is half a diameter high, and is readily distinguished
+by its bolster-like form with voluted ends. This bolster is rectangular
+on plan, and measures laterally rather more than one and a half
+diameters, while from back to front it is slightly less than a diameter.
+
+The shaft terminates in a cavetto curve, and is surmounted by a fillet,
+a small torus and an ovolo moulding, which is invariably decorated with
+egg and tongue detail. These mouldings all conform to the circular plan
+of the shaft. On the ovolo rests the voluted bolster.
+
+The abacus, which is square on plan, consists of a reversa moulding and
+fillet.
+
+From the top of the abacus to the base of the ovolo the height is about
+a third of a diameter, and one-fourth of this height will give the
+height of the abacus.
+
+The centre or eye of the volute can readily be found by dropping a
+perpendicular from the lower edge of the reversa to intersect the
+horizontal line defining the base of the ovolo. This point of
+intersection is the required centre.
+
+
+_To Draw the Volute_
+
+From this as centre and one part as radius describe a circle. Within
+this circle draw a square, having for a diagonal the diameter of the
+circle. Bisect the sides of the square and draw the diameters by joining
+the points of bi-section. Divide these diameters of the square into six
+and these points will be the centres for the segments of circles which
+form the volute. Vertical and horizontal lines drawn from the centres
+will define the extent of each segment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 161. Ionic Capital, with angular volutes.]
+
+For small scale drawings the volutes are drawn free-hand, but for larger
+working drawings it is necessary to use some method such as that given
+here.
+
+The angle formed by the meeting of the ovolo and the volute is masked by
+a detail of anthemion form.
+
+The ends of the bolster between the volutes consist of concave or ogee
+curves, which are symmetrically arranged from a centre line; moulded
+ridges or conventional leaf detail decorate the centre.
+
+The form of the Ionic capital, while suitable for a façade, requires
+some modification if it is to be carried round the side of a building,
+owing to the great dissimilarity in the front and side views. In this
+case the end volute of the capital at the angle of the building is
+projected forward at an angle of 45 degrees, and the side is then
+treated in the same way as the front.
+
+In late Renaissance buildings this difficulty was overcome by making all
+the volutes project at angles of 45 degrees, so that the four faces of
+the capital were uniform. This entails the bolster being dispensed with,
+and the volutes, no longer connected laterally, spring directly from the
+top of the ovolo moulding, and the space between the springing lines is
+occupied by a husk.
+
+[Illustration: No. 162. Ionic Capital. Detail of Angular Volute.]
+
+As the volutes make equal angles they conform more or less to a square
+plan. The plan of the abacus is composed of four concave curves with
+small straight intervals at the meeting angles. The general proportions
+for this form of capital are the same as for the bolster type.
+
+
+_Corinthian Capital_
+
+The Corinthian capital differs widely from those of the preceding orders
+in proportion and detail.
+
+Its general form may be described as a bell, which is circular on plan.
+It springs from the upper extremity of the shaft, from which it is
+separated by a necking moulding.
+
+Under the abacus it terminates in a fillet.
+
+The bell is one diameter high. The height of the abacus is one-sixth of
+a diameter in addition; on plan the abacus falls within a square, having
+four concave faces with short straight lines at the angles. The distance
+across the diagonal is two diameters. The bell is clothed with leaves of
+acanthus type, which are arranged in two tiers of eight leaves each.
+Between the upper leaves are eight stems with husks and branching
+scrolls, which terminate in volutes at the angles and centres.
+
+The necking moulding consists of a small torus and fillet.
+
+Although the arrangement of the principal features of the Corinthian
+capital is horizontal, yet owing to the channelling of the leaves and
+the firmly springing scrolls the vertical direction appears to
+predominate.
+
+This verticality emphasises the function of the capital as a supporting
+feature, and is æsthetically satisfactory, being in harmony with the
+flutings of the shaft.
+
+[Illustration: No. 163. Corinthian Capital.]
+
+The effect produced by the capitals of the other two orders is
+horizontal, and suggests the idea of binding. They are equally
+satisfactory as giving contrast of direction.
+
+[Illustration: No. 164. Corinthian Capital.
+
+Detail giving divisions of height, and profiles.]
+
+
+_The Base_
+
+In all the orders a square plinth is the lowest member of the base of
+the column. On this plinth rests a series of mouldings which follow the
+circular plan of the shaft. The shaft invariably terminates in a
+fillet, the diameter of which exceeds that of the column, and on to
+which the line of the shaft is carried by means of a curve.
+
+[Illustration: No. 165. Doric Base.]
+
+
+_Doric Base_
+
+The Doric base is extremely simple. It consists of the square plinth on
+which rests a torus moulding surmounted by a smaller moulding of the
+same section and a fillet above.
+
+The width of the plinth is one and a third the diameter of the column,
+and its height a quarter diameter or half the total height of the base.
+The other half is made up of the large torus, the small torus and
+fillet. The torus moulding should be bold in projection, practically
+semi-circular and at the fullest part of its curvature in vertical
+alignment with the centres of the horizontal faces of the plinth block.
+The small torus and fillet are about equal in height.
+
+
+_Ionic Base_
+
+[Illustration: No. 166. Ionic Base.]
+
+The Ionic base differs from the Doric in the introduction of a hollow or
+scotia moulding between the two torus mouldings. Æsthetically it may be
+considered more satisfactory in that the strong shadow obtained by the
+use of the scotia produces an effect of binding which adds to the
+impression of strength. The type is technically known as the Attic base.
+
+The total width is one and a third diameter.
+
+The height of half a diameter may be divided into three. One of these
+divisions will give the height of the plinth, one the large torus and
+the fillet above it, and the other the scotia and small torus with the
+fillets above and below. The fillets either side of the upper torus may
+be in the same vertical alignment.
+
+[Illustration: No. 167. Corinthian Base.]
+
+The smallest diameter of the base, which will be in the hollow of the
+scotia, should exceed the diameter of the shaft, or an effect of
+weakness will be imparted.
+
+As in the Doric base a curve of a quarter circle connects the shaft with
+the upper fillet.
+
+
+_Corinthian Base_
+
+The orthodox base of the Corinthian order is similar to that of the
+Ionic, with an additional scotia and small torus with its accompanying
+fillets.
+
+The width of the plinth is one and a third diameter.
+
+The height of half a diameter does not include the top fillet. The
+proportions may be approximated by dividing the height into four. One of
+these parts will be the height of the plinth, another that of the large
+torus and its fillet, the third--the upper edge of fillet of top scotia,
+and the fourth that of the upper scotia and torus with the intervening
+fillet. Vertically the uppermost fillet is in alignment with that of the
+upper scotia, and the extremity of the upper torus with the small bead
+mouldings dividing this from the lower scotia.
+
+Although this is the orthodox Corinthian base, it is not used as
+frequently as the Ionic type, but when the order is on a large scale the
+more elaborate version is justified.
+
+
+_The Arch_
+
+When the arch is used in conjunction with the column it is supported on
+pilasters which are attached to the columns. The columns and pilasters
+thus form piers.
+
+In the Doric order the columns are placed five diameters apart from
+centre to centre, in the Ionic five and a quarter, and in the Corinthian
+five and a half.
+
+The necking moulding of the capital is generally carried through above
+the arch, the outer line of which is struck so as to nearly touch the
+underside.
+
+The projection of the pilasters which carry the arch is half a diameter
+from the outer lines of the column, and is measured on the same level as
+the springing point of the arch.
+
+The centre from which the arch is struck is sometimes in the same
+horizontal line as the springing points, but more frequently a little
+above the line and thereby a rather better effect is produced.
+
+The arch-band or archivolt is the same width as the pilaster supporting
+it, and a series of mouldings known as the impost is placed at the top
+of the pilaster. The base of the pilaster consists of a plain plinth of
+slight projection equal in height to the base of the column.
+
+From the spacing of the columns and the proportions here given it will
+be seen that the height and width of the aperture made by the arch and
+pilasters are arrived at automatically, but if measured, the height will
+be found to be about twice the width and the top of the impost about
+two-thirds the height of the column. These proportions may be accepted
+as giving satisfactory results under ordinary conditions.
+
+As a general rule, in all the orders the impost is half a diameter high,
+and so is the same as the projection of the pilaster and the width of
+the archivolt.
+
+This rule is not always adhered to, however, but in any case the width
+of the archivolt should never be more than one-eighth or less than
+one-tenth of the diameter of the arch, and should always be the same as
+the width of the pilaster.
+
+
+_Doric Impost_
+
+The mouldings of the Doric Impost are as follows:
+
+At the top there is a fillet and a bold ovolo, below which there is a
+bead-moulding or small torus with fillet and two facias. The lower
+facia, which is of slight projection is one-fourth of the total height.
+The upper facia and fillet are half the remainder.
+
+[Illustration: No. 168. Detail of Archivolts and Imposts.]
+
+
+_Archivolt_
+
+The archivolt mouldings are in the Doric order, the same as those of the
+impost.
+
+
+_Ionic Impost_
+
+The total height of half a diameter may be divided into two, and the
+upper half sub-divided into three. Then the upper division will be the
+height of the top fillet and a reversa moulding; the second the height
+of a facia and the third an ovolo and small torus.
+
+The lower half of the impost consists of two facias, the upper of which
+is broader than the lower.
+
+
+_Ionic Archivolt_
+
+The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
+bold reversa moulding which occupies rather less than a fourth of the
+total width, and two facias of unequal widths. The width of the inner
+facia is nearly one-third more than that of the reversa moulding.
+
+
+_Corinthian Impost_
+
+The Corinthian impost differs from those of the other two orders in
+having a necking and necking moulding in place of the two unequal
+facias.
+
+The total height should be divided into two, and the upper half divided
+into four. Then the top fillet and reversa moulding will be one of these
+divisions, the facia two, and the supporting ovolo will occupy the
+remaining one.
+
+The lower half of the impost consists of a small torus and fillet
+beneath the ovolo, the necking, and the torus and fillet which form the
+necking moulding.
+
+
+_Corinthian Archivolt_
+
+The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
+reversa and three unequal facias.
+
+If the total width is divided into two, the point of bisection will be
+the centre of a small reversa moulding between the two outer facias. The
+outer reversa and the inner facia are each about one-sixth of the total
+width and the small reversa is about two-thirds of the inner facia.
+
+
+_The Keystone_
+
+A projecting block, or keystone, is sometimes used at the centre of the
+arch. The face width of its lowest edge should not be less than the
+width of the archivolt. Its height is not often less than one and a half
+times or more than twice this width.
+
+It may be decorated in various ways, and is frequently in the shape of a
+console. This form is especially suitable when the keystone comes in
+contact with the architrave of the entablature, in which case it is
+capped with a moulded abacus.
+
+
+_The Pedestal_
+
+The height of the pedestal is a fourth that of the column and
+entablature together, though this proportion may be varied to suit
+different conditions. For instance, when the pedestal forms part of the
+structure of a balcony or balustrading the height must be modified to
+suit the special requirements of the position.
+
+The pedestal is composed of plinth, die and capping.
+
+The width of the die is the same as the plinth of the base of the column
+above it, that is, one and one-third diameter. The projection of the
+capping, which is the same for all three orders is obtained by drawing a
+line at an angle of 30 degrees with the vertical from the top of the
+die.
+
+The width of the plinth corresponds to the projection of the capping,
+and is determined by dropping perpendiculars from the top fillet.
+
+The height of the mouldings between the die and plinth is determined by
+a line drawn from the bottom of the die at an angle of 45 degrees to
+intersect the vertical face of the plinth. The angle is the same for all
+the orders.
+
+
+_Doric Pedestal_
+
+In the Doric order the height of the capping is one-third diameter. The
+face of the die is square, and this determines the height of the plinth.
+
+[Illustration: No. 169. Detail of Pedestals.]
+
+The capping mouldings consist of a fillet, facia, ovolo, fillet and
+cavetto. The facia is carried to the underside of the fillet in a curve,
+and its height is half the total height of the capping. The facia is
+supported by the ovolo, and a fillet and cavetto complete the capping.
+
+The height of the course of mouldings at the top of the plinth should be
+divided into three, then the upper third will contain a cavetto moulding
+and fillet, and the remaining two-thirds an ogee and final fillet.
+
+
+_Ionic Pedestal_
+
+In the Ionic pedestal the plinth with its mouldings should occupy
+one-third the height and the capping one-fifth the remainder.
+
+The mouldings are similar to those of the Doric pedestal, but a little
+more elaborate. In the capping a reversa is used under the top fillet
+and a small torus or bead is placed between the ovolo and the cavetto.
+In the mouldings of the plinth a similar bead is introduced above the
+ogee moulding.
+
+
+_Corinthian Pedestal_
+
+The same general divisions as the Ionic will give the proportions of the
+Corinthian pedestal, the difference being that of the scale and the
+detail of the mouldings.
+
+The capping may be divided into two. The top half consists of a fillet,
+reversa and facia, and the lower half a supporting cyma recta, a bead
+and a cavetto curve. The plinth mouldings are the same as those of the
+Ionic pedestal with the addition of a torus beneath the ogee. The height
+of this torus is one-fourth the total height and is about equal to that
+of the cavetto and bead together.
+
+When the pedestal is employed the arch becomes proportionately larger.
+In the Doric order the columns are then spaced seven and a half
+diameters apart; in the Ionic seven and three quarters, and in the
+Corinthian eight diameters centre to centre.
+
+The archivolt, the radius of which is determined by the above spacing,
+is supported as before by an impost and pilaster. The base of the
+pilaster consists of a slightly projecting block equal in height to the
+plinth block of the pedestal.
+
+The height of the arch varies slightly, inasmuch as the inner curve may
+be about a diameter from the architrave, but in the Corinthian order
+should not fall below the level of the necking moulding of the capital.
+
+
+_The Baluster_
+
+As already stated, the pedestal may be used as a part of a balustrading
+associated with balusters, and must conform to the proportions
+necessitated by the conditions. The usual height for balustradings,
+whether to steps, balconies, or before windows, is three feet two
+inches, though in special cases it may be slightly more.
+
+The baluster is a species of small column. Its usual form is bulbous or
+vase-shaped, and it is furnished with a capital and base. A series of
+balusters is technically known as a balustrade.
+
+The balusters are raised on a plinth, which corresponds to the plinth of
+the pedestal, and surmounted by a rail of horizontal mouldings, which
+correspond to the capping of the pedestal; hence the baluster is of the
+same height as the die.
+
+The height of the baluster should be divided into five, then one-fifth
+will be the height of the base, and the capital exclusive of the necking
+will be another fifth. The extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft is
+one-third the total height of the baluster, and the diameter of the
+necking and the top of the shaft is about one-sixth. The capital has a
+square abacus slightly less in width than the plinth of the base. Below
+the abacus is
+
+[Illustration: No. 170. Detail of Balusters.]
+
+an ovolo and fillet, which are circular on plan. The necking is
+separated from the shaft by a small torus and fillet. The base has for
+its lowest member a square plinth, which occupies rather less than half
+the height and is equal in width to the extreme diameter of the bulbous
+shaft. Above the plinth is a scotia and a necking moulding, which are
+circular on plan.
+
+
+_Spacing of Balusters_
+
+The balusters should be spaced with not more than half their diameters
+or less than a third between their bases, except when employed on the
+rake of steps, when they may be slightly closer.
+
+
+_Balustrading_
+
+In a balustrading an unequal number of balusters should always be used,
+and not less than five in one group exclusive of the half balusters
+which are attached to the flanking or dividing dies. Seven and nine form
+very satisfactory groups, but if more than nine are necessary for the
+space to be filled, intermediate dies must be interposed, and these may
+vary from two-thirds to three-quarters the width of the principal dies.
+
+In some cases, when a large number of balusters are to be grouped, the
+dies are flanked by half dies, which are less in projection than the
+dies themselves.
+
+Balustrades are sometimes used above the cornice of a building, and
+their height should not be more than four-fifths or less than two-thirds
+the height of the entablature. This height would be exclusive of the
+plinth on which the balusters are raised. The height of the plinth is
+determined by the height of the building, and the projection of the
+cornice, as its purpose is to raise the balusters so that they may be
+seen from the ordinary point of view. The principal dies may be placed
+over columns or pilasters and should be equal in width to the upper
+diameters of these, though flanking half dies may be used in addition to
+avoid an appearance of thinness. The plinth and capping mouldings always
+follow the plan of the principal dies, and are carried in unbroken lines
+across each interval.
+
+When the height of the balustrade does not conform to the orthodox
+proportions the method of determining the relative proportions is as
+follows:--The height is divided into seven parts; of these one part
+gives the height of the capping, four the baluster and two the plinth.
+
+The mouldings in character and detail are the same as those of the
+pedestal, and should be in harmony with the order used.
+
+When balustrading forms part of a stair, the height on landings should
+be three feet two inches. On the rake two feet ten inches from the step
+at a line vertical with the face of the riser. The plinth is invariably
+used as a string enclosing the ends of the steps and following the rake
+or angle in a straight line, and carried to the levels by means of
+curving ramps.
+
+In interior work the bulbous shafts of balusters are often decorated
+with carved detail, and the mouldings also may be enriched.
+
+
+_Use of Columns_
+
+Columns were originally used in the porticos and courts of temples and
+other buildings, and sometimes to form supports for vaulted roofs.
+Wherever employed their function was directly structural, but this was
+not the case at the time of the Renaissance. The requirements demanded
+by widely different social conditions led to their being used more as
+decorative than structural features.
+
+The use of engaged columns and pilasters in a façade can be justified to
+some extent. Although such columns and pilasters may not be absolutely
+essential for support, yet they act as buttresses and add to the
+strength of the structure with a certain economy of material. Also they
+are æsthetically satisfactory in their effect of light and shade.
+
+
+_Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades_
+
+The disposition of columns either in a façade or a colonnade is
+controlled by proportions which have been found to be desirable or are
+necessitated by special features of the order itself. The latter is the
+case with the Doric order, the spacing being determined by the trigylphs
+and metopes. If the triglyphs are placed centrally over the columns or
+pilasters the spacing of these apart will be two and a half diameters
+centre to centre, three and three-quarters, or five diameters, with two,
+three or four metopes respectively between them in the frieze. With the
+wider spacing of five diameters it is usual to employ coupled columns to
+add to the appearance of strength. As the triglyphs are one and a
+quarter diameters apart centre to centre, the coupled columns are
+brought very close together, entailing a slight modification of the
+bases. Since the ordinary projection of the plinth of a sixth of a
+diameter beyond the line of the shaft is not possible between the two
+columns, the plinth-blocks are united, and the torus moulding made
+slightly less in projection.
+
+[Illustration: No. 171. Spacing of Columns.]
+
+The capitals being less in width are not affected, a small interval is
+left between the crowning reversa mouldings.
+
+In the Ionic order the columns are spaced three and a quarter, three and
+three-quarters and four and a quarter diameters centre to centre. The
+coupled columns used with the wide spacing are one and a half diameters
+centre to centre or half a diameter apart at the lower extremity of the
+shafts.
+
+The Corinthian spacing is slightly wider, three and a half diameters,
+four diameters, or with coupled columns four and a half diameters centre
+to centre. The coupled columns are placed as in the Ionic order one and
+a half diameters centre to centre.
+
+It is desirable that attention should be given to the vertical alignment
+of the principal features. Dentils and modillions and indeed all
+strongly marked features should centre with the columns, and be equally
+spaced in the intervals.
+
+
+_Orders Above Orders_
+
+Occasionally in façades orders are used above one another. The Colosseum
+is an antique Roman example of this, and it was a treatment often
+adopted by the architects of the early Renaissance. It is desirable that
+the simpler order should be the lower one. Ionic may be used over Doric,
+or Corinthian over Ionic.
+
+It is obvious that the central axes of the columns or pilasters of each
+order used should be in vertical alignment, not only when seen from the
+front, but in the case of detached columns, from the side view also.
+
+When engaged columns or pilasters are employed, the upper tier may be
+set back slightly from the face of the lower order which supports it; an
+example of this is to be found in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.
+
+The proportions of the upper order are obtained by making the lower
+diameter of the upper tier of columns or pilasters equal to the upper
+diameter of those
+
+[Illustration: No. 172. Order above Order.]
+
+of the supporting order, and an effect of continuous tapering is
+produced.
+
+It is usual to place above the entablature of the lower order a plinth
+on which the bases of the upper columns rest. The height of the plinth
+is regulated by the point of view, as its purpose is to display the
+bases of the imposed order above the projecting cornice. Generally this
+height will be about half a diameter.
+
+In many historical examples the upper columns are placed on pedestals,
+but this treatment, although useful when a balcony is desired, is not to
+be recommended as the extra width and projection which the use of the
+pedestal entails, gives an appearance of undue weight to be borne by the
+supporting columns. If balconies are necessary they may terminate with
+their own pedestals, which can be kept clear of the columns and should
+not exceed them in projection.
+
+
+_The Pilaster_
+
+It may be as well to deal here with the treatment of pilasters, which
+may be defined as columns in bas-relief. Their projection may vary from
+one-half to about one-sixth their face width, though in antique examples
+it is sometimes much less than this. In the pilasters of the Pantheon at
+Rome it is one-tenth.
+
+The projection is, however, partly determined by the order with which
+the pilaster is used, as an appearance of mutilation might easily be
+produced in the capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric
+capital, being composed of moulded profiles, is not in any way affected
+by the amount of projection. Nor does the Ionic capital suffer when the
+volutes are in one plane except when used on an angle. But if the later
+Renaissance type with the volutes arranged at angles of 45 degrees is
+employed, the projection of the pilaster must not be less than half its
+upper diameter, so that the volute on the return face may be complete.
+
+The Corinthian capital would be affected in the same way, and should
+also be not less than half a diameter in projection in order to obtain a
+satisfactory result.
+
+The pilaster is usually tapered, and when associated with columns and
+supporting the same entablature it is essential to preserve universal
+alignment in the upper extremities and the architrave, but when used by
+itself the pilaster is often not tapered. At the angle of buildings,
+where both faces are displayed, it is an invariable rule that pilasters
+should be straight.
+
+The details of capitals and bases are the same as those of the columns.
+When fluting is employed an odd number of channels should be used,
+usually seven on the front face.
+
+[Illustration: No. 173. Doric Order. Treatment of coupled Column and
+Pilaster.]
+
+
+_Arcades_
+
+Arcades, as already suggested, may be composed of a series of arches,
+supported on pilasters which flank the columns. The backs of the piers
+thus formed may be treated with pilasters, which can be repeated on the
+opposite wall, with the architrave frieze and cornice above.
+
+There are several alternative treatments for the ceilings of arcades.
+They may be flat and panelled by beams carried across in a line with the
+pilasters and with a cornice moulding carried round the sides of the
+beams.
+
+[Illustration: No. 174. Doric Arcading.]
+
+The interior can also be vaulted by means of archivolts springing from
+the line of the imposts. The archivolts should be supported by pilasters
+at the back of the piers and on the opposite wall, and a cornice may be
+carried round between the vaults. Cross vaulting also may be employed,
+and in this case the entablature is no longer necessary.
+
+The proportions already given determine the width of piers when an order
+is used, but when an order is not used some further general rules for
+proportions are necessary.
+
+The height of the opening formed by arches, which may spring from
+piers--with or without an impost--should be about twice the width. The
+supporting piers should not be less than a third or more than
+two-thirds the width of the aperture. In any form of arcading, piers
+must be employed at the angles, and these should be wider than the
+intermediate ones by a half, a third, or a fourth.
+
+[Illustration: No. 175. Doric Arch, with pedestal.]
+
+
+_Subsidiary Order_
+
+A secondary or subsidiary order is sometimes used in an arcading. The
+height of the arch should then be twice its width, and the height of the
+small order two-thirds the height of the column of the principal order.
+
+This height of two-thirds the column should be sub-divided into nine
+parts, of which eight will give the height of the column and the
+remaining one that of the entablature. The entablature consists of
+architrave and cornice, the frieze being omitted, and a division into
+five will give the relative proportions. Two-fifths may be taken as the
+height of the architrave and three that of the cornice.
+
+[Illustration: No. 176. Employment of the Subsidiary Order.]
+
+Pilasters are used with the columns of the subsidiary order with a space
+of half a diameter between them and the columns.
+
+[Illustration: No. 177. Subsidiary Order. Division of Entablature.]
+
+The archivolt should be equal in width to the upper diameter of the
+column, and the width of the lower edge of the keystone should also be
+of the same dimension.
+
+The subsidiary order may be the same as the principal order, but more
+often the Ionic is used in conjunction with the Doric, or the Corinthian
+with the Ionic.
+
+As regards the treatment of the bases, the horizontal alignment must be
+maintained. It is obvious that if the height of the base of the large
+column is adopted for the subsidiary one it will be very much out of
+proportion. This can be obviated by carrying through the plinth of the
+larger column to form a step on which the base of the smaller rests, and
+always the top line of the smaller bases should agree with that of the
+larger.
+
+
+_Superimposed Orders_
+
+When arcades are used one above the other, the lower order is usually
+mounted on a plinth, and the upper furnished with a pedestal. The height
+of the pedestal is determined by the balustrading or balcony, the height
+of which is governed by its use.
+
+If the Doric is taken as the lower order the centres of the columns are
+six and a quarter diameters apart, which gives a frieze of five metopes
+with intervening triglyphs. The plinth on which the order stands is
+three-quarters of a diameter high. The pilaster supporting the archivolt
+projects half a diameter, and the height of the arch is determined by
+the impost, which is two-thirds the height of the column inclusive of
+the plinth. The base of the pilaster may be moulded, but the top line
+should coincide with the top of the plinth.
+
+Above the Doric an Ionic order might be placed, and the die and plinth
+of the superimposed order should be kept as narrow as possible so as to
+reduce the impression of weight. The pilasters carrying the arch rest on
+the plinth of the pedestal, and the plinth mouldings are carried round
+the bases. The plinth and rail of the balustrading should not project
+but be kept between the pilasters.
+
+The centres of the arches of both tiers are in a line with the tops of
+the imposts, and the outer edges of the archivolts may nearly reach the
+lower lines of the architraves.
+
+When the Ionic is used as the lower order it may be surmounted by the
+Corinthian. The distance between the centres of the lower columns should
+then be six and a half diameters. The other proportions can be obtained
+in the same way as the preceding.
+
+If a subsidiary order is employed the columns of the principal order are
+placed further apart. In the case of the Doric the distance is seven and
+a half diameters, and the other orders are increased in proportion.
+
+
+_Rustication_
+
+The joints of the material used must necessarily be considered, and when
+plain piers or plain wall surfaces occur the joints may readily be
+accentuated and so turned to decorative account. The edges of the stones
+forming the separate courses may be chamfered or moulded. The joints may
+also be worked so as to form a square recess.
+
+[Illustration: No. 178. Rustication.]
+
+The surface of the stone is sometimes roughly tooled or frosted, or
+worked in an arbitrary pattern, which is termed “vermiculated.” This
+treatment probably gave rise to the word rustication.
+
+When rusticated work is used with an order the height of each course of
+stone should not be less than half a diameter, and when square recessed
+joints are used they can be one-eighth or one-tenth the height of the
+course.
+
+Occasionally only the horizontal courses are thus marked, and this has
+been objected to as producing a boarded appearance, though undoubtedly
+the horizontal effect is at times agreeably in contrast to the vertical
+features. A much more usual treatment in Renaissance examples was to
+emphasise the vertical joints also.
+
+The length of each stone should be from one and a half to three times
+the height.
+
+Rustication may be used in the formation of the arch, which frequently
+has at its springing line a slightly projecting course, in which the
+vertical joints are not emphasised.
+
+[Illustration: No. 179. Rusticated Arcade.]
+
+Rustication is also used in columns, either square on plan or conforming
+to the plan of the column.
+
+Its most legitimate employment is in basements and to emphasise the
+angles of buildings.
+
+
+_Basement_
+
+A basement is really a continuous pedestal on which an order rests. It
+necessarily varies in height according to conditions, thus if its
+purpose is merely to raise the ground floor it may be no more than three
+to six feet high, but if it is required to form a storey, it should not
+exceed the height of the order employed or be less than one half.
+
+The joints of the work in basements are generally accentuated by some
+form of rustication, and the heights of the horizontal courses should
+not be less than half a diameter of the column of the order above.
+
+When a high basement is used it is sometimes crowned with a cornice, or
+more frequently with a slightly projecting facia technically known as a
+plat-band. In either case, the height should be equal to that of the
+courses exclusive of moulded edges or chamfers. Also a plinth is placed
+at the base of the same height as the plat-band or a little more. When a
+cornice is used the plinth should be moulded and may then exceed the
+height of the courses.
+
+
+_Attic_
+
+An attic storey is sometimes used instead of a second order, and this
+may vary from one-third to one-tenth the height of the order beneath it.
+
+The attic may be quite plain, but it often has breakings or projections
+on its face corresponding to the vertical features of the supporting
+order.
+
+It usually forms a storey in a building, and then is of necessity
+pierced with windows.
+
+In architectural design the character and requirements of the building
+must, of course, be the first consideration, but the basement may
+constitute the ground floor, the height occupied by the order may
+contain two stories and the attic may be an upper floor.
+
+When an order is not employed the divisions and proportions already
+stated may still be applied, the heights and widths should govern each
+other as would be the case if the façade were divided into bays by
+columns or pilasters.
+
+In the absence of the order a cornice is substituted for the
+entablature, and this, according to different authorities, may be from
+one-twelfth to one-sixteenth the total height from the ground, but
+one-fourteenth or one-fifteenth will be found a safe mean.
+
+
+_The Pediment_
+
+The pediment in its original and orthodox employment was a gable
+conforming to the pitch of the roof. It is framed with mouldings, and
+the enclosed space is technically known as the tympanum.
+
+[Illustration: No. 180. Cornice where order is not employed.]
+
+The use made of the pediment by the architects of the Renaissance was
+not always justified in the strictest sense. It was often used to vary
+the sky line, and to form door and window heads. Although the latter use
+can be to some extent justified in exterior work, a similar employment
+in interiors may be open to question.
+
+The sloping lines of the pediment are not always straight, sometimes
+they are in the form of a curve composed of a segment of a circle. The
+triangular and curved forms are often used alternately in a row of
+windows with good effect.
+
+The lines of the pediment mouldings are not always continuous; sometimes
+the sloping or the horizontal lines or both are broken. This is a
+treatment that cannot readily be justified as the pediment is a feature
+that implies shelter.
+
+Sometimes ogee curves take the place of the straight sloping lines, and
+these terminate towards the centre, with scroll ends, leaving an
+interval between them.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF PEDIMENT
+
+No. 181.]
+
+The mouldings of the pediment are the same as those of the cornice, the
+crowning moulding of which is carried round and omitted in the
+horizontal course forming the base of the pediment.
+
+Beneath the cyma the mouldings of the cornice are repeated in their
+proper order, detailing at the lower angles on the top of the horizontal
+cornice, which terminates with the fillet above the facia.
+
+When dentils and modillions are introduced in the cornice they are
+invariably repeated in the mouldings of the pediment.
+
+The tympanum or face of the pediment should be in vertical alignment
+with the face of the frieze. When this space is small it is best left
+plain, but on a large scale the tympanum affords a very suitable
+position in which to place sculpture.
+
+The height of the pediment varies according to the width. Thus where the
+base is short, as in door and window heads, it will be comparatively
+higher than when used in a façade. The height may vary from a fourth to
+a fifth of the width of the base.
+
+
+_Doors_
+
+Obviously door openings should be of sufficient size to admit the free
+passage of a tall person. The minimum height for ordinary doors in
+domestic buildings should be six feet nine inches, and the width two
+feet nine inches. For entrance doors under similar conditions the width
+may be three feet six, but when it is more than this the door should be
+in two halves.
+
+[Illustration: No. 182. General proportions of doors and windows.]
+
+The size of doors should be proportioned to the building, and should be
+designed to meet probable requirements, thus in public buildings door
+openings should not be less than six feet wide.
+
+Generally a satisfactory proportion may be obtained by making the height
+twice the width, and the framing architrave one-sixth the width of the
+opening.
+
+If a frieze and cornice are carried over the door the height inclusive
+of architrave should be half the width of the opening.
+
+[Illustration: No. 183. Door Treatment.
+
+     A. Architrave with simple pilasters and consoles.
+
+     B. Ionic order rusticated, with pediment.
+
+     C. Doric order with pediment.
+
+     D. Doric order rusticated.
+]
+
+In addition to the framing architrave narrow pilasters bearing consoles
+supporting the cornice are sometimes used. The total width of architrave
+and pilaster may be about one-third the width, and the entire
+entablature one-third the height of the opening.
+
+The mouldings and decorations used should be in harmony with the general
+structure and in character with the order if one is used.
+
+Occasionally columns or pilasters are introduced, with or without the
+arch, but the same general proportions apply, the aperture being two
+squares.
+
+When doors are placed under arches the top line of the entablature
+should agree with that of the impost.
+
+When a pediment is used, the height should be one-fourth the width of
+the base.
+
+
+_Windows_
+
+The general proportions and treatments of doors apply also to windows,
+and if doors and windows are placed in the same line the heads of the
+openings should be in horizontal alignment. If this is not possible the
+top of the cornice may agree with the inner line of the window openings.
+
+Windows terminate below in a sill, or sometimes in a balcony, and as a
+general rule those on the same level should be similar in treatment, but
+an alternation such as already suggested with curved and straight lined
+pediments is quite satisfactory.
+
+The frieze and consoles of doors and windows are often decorated with
+relief ornament.
+
+When a façade is divided by columns or pilasters the bays are pierced
+with windows ranged above each
+
+[Illustration: No. 184. Windows.
+
+     A. Rusticated Architrave.
+
+     B. Rusticated Ionic Columns.
+
+     C. & D. Rustication with Horizontal and Vertical Joints Defined.
+]
+
+other, the heights varying with the different floors. Those on the first
+storey are usually of full height, and those above less in height and
+simpler in treatment. The width of apertures should be the same for the
+different levels, except in the case of basements, where they may be
+narrower.
+
+When an order is not employed in a façade variety may be obtained by
+grouping the windows; or three-light windows may be introduced. The
+centre light, which may be treated with an arched head, should be twice
+the width of the side lights.
+
+[Illustration: No. 185. Three-Light Window.]
+
+The number of windows in a façade should be odd, so that there may be a
+centre one, and the end windows of a range should be kept well clear of
+the angles of the building.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+DIVISION OF SURFACE
+
+
+In interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be
+divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form
+of the framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval;
+and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails
+or ribs, while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings.
+
+
+_Wall Treatment_
+
+In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with
+architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily
+employed.
+
+In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of
+pilasters--the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to
+the conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of
+pilasters in exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces
+between them are occupied by panels or other features.
+
+Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted
+on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the
+form of a Dado or surbase.
+
+In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice
+forms a bed moulding for the ceiling.
+
+Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in
+
+[Illustration: No. 186. Wall Division.
+
+     A. & B. Pilaster Treatment.
+
+     C. & D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.
+]
+
+some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the
+case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel.
+
+[Illustration: No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo,
+Florence. M. Angelo.]
+
+In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the
+division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both
+vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may
+be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide.
+
+
+_Ceilings_
+
+When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some
+relation to the general construction, though in the past this rule has
+not always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very
+desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden
+or plaster mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated.
+When mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be
+maintained between the framing ribs and the panels.
+
+[Illustration: No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo,
+Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.]
+
+The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs
+geometrically arranged with pateræ in between and fleur-de-lys details
+on the outer angles where the ribs met.
+
+[Illustration: No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Plan
+of general arrangement.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.]
+
+
+_Jacobean_
+
+In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands
+projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These
+bands were disposed in various ways--sometimes intersecting at right
+angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming
+geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines.
+
+If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is
+obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account.
+
+
+_Carolean and Georgian_
+
+In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the
+ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or
+oval in form--the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes
+the angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably
+left plain.
+
+
+_Adam Ceilings_
+
+[Illustration: No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall, Westmorland.]
+
+The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or
+circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons--an
+arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended
+
+[Illustration: No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.]
+
+as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated
+with the characteristic fan detail.
+
+[Illustration: No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.]
+
+
+_Vaults and Domes_
+
+In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal
+or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size
+towards the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more
+properly speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further
+the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as
+circles, unless the diameter be relatively small.
+
+[Illustration: No. 194. Adam Ceiling.]
+
+
+_The Cove_
+
+In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is
+technically known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of
+the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be
+decorated.
+
+When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be
+obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are
+themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make
+a break in the frieze or cove.
+
+It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in
+interior decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use
+it may be urged that, though considerations of actual weight and
+structure are not involved, yet the appearance of support has to be
+maintained, and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should
+realise the effect of stability.
+
+
+_The Frieze_
+
+[Illustration: No. 198. Festoon Frieze. Continuous treatment with
+vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, Tivoli]
+
+In considering the decoration of the various parts, the two principal
+questions to be asked are--what is the purpose? and, what is the
+attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be said to be to bind, and the
+attitude of the Frieze is certainly a horizontal one--therefore the
+usual continuous treatment is justified. This is not the only way in
+which the Frieze can be treated, however, for the continuous horizontal
+treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the Doric
+order. The employment of Festoons with intermediate
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Photo]
+
+No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice, Sansovino.
+
+[Alinari
+]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Photo]
+
+No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal division, resulting in
+panels. Villa Madama, Rome.
+
+[Alinari
+]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Photo]
+
+No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial division.
+
+[Alinari
+]
+
+pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the
+vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle
+is involved in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be
+in alignment with adjacent and dominant details.
+
+[Illustration: No. 199. Frieze. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome.
+Horizontal direction suggested by Gryffons, with vertical contrast by
+Candelabra.]
+
+All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as much
+interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary
+repetition.
+
+
+_Borders_
+
+Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the
+spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably
+uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations,
+where some license is permissible).
+
+As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be
+simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions.
+
+The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When
+on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines
+spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which
+case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the
+length, while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles.
+This treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines
+between those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and
+these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple
+forms.
+
+[Illustration: No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 201. Interlacing Borders.]
+
+The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which
+traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and
+then returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is
+an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is
+alternately dispensed with.
+
+
+_Geometric Elements_
+
+The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character.
+The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various
+angles, or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a
+combination of straight lines and curves.
+
+
+_The Undulate Line_
+
+[Illustration: No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric Curves.]
+
+Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered
+patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and
+dark masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting
+straight lines. When segmental curves are employed either the chequered
+or interlacing effect may be obtained. Such patterns are essentially
+geometric and mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested
+by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from
+either side of the border. This effect may be used with purely
+artificial detail, such as arises naturally from the spaces left, or
+with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident that the curve of
+the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres
+from which the arcs are struck.
+
+[Illustration: No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate Borders.]
+
+A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will
+be obtained by basing the stem upon
+
+[Illustration: No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 205. 14th Century Textile composed of Undulate
+Borders arranged obliquely.]
+
+a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The
+latter device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only
+the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded.
+
+[Illustration: No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century, composed of
+Borders.]
+
+Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details
+symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional
+flowers or rosettes to break the monotony.
+
+
+_Repetition and Alternation_
+
+Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal
+character, and should consist of the repetition of units with no
+interest beyond that imparted by alternation.
+
+The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to
+be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor
+of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit
+can be designed.
+
+
+_Treatment of Angles_
+
+[Illustration: No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border.
+
+A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal]
+
+The meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special
+treatment, and in those positions the detail should be compact and
+stronger in appearance than the general pattern. The simplest expedient
+is some form of patera or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should
+always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border. The only
+forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles,
+are the undulating stem, the wave, and its square form the key or
+labyrinth; but even with these the proportion of width to height at
+times needs modification. If a common divisor is not possible, the
+difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal
+and letting the two sides meet in the centre of the border, so that any
+slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable.
+
+
+_Pilaster Treatment_
+
+As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its
+treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural
+requirements, and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis
+and vertical in direction.
+
+When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be
+unequal in number--seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be
+further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only
+one-third of the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of
+husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the
+pilaster. In either case the general rule must be observed that the
+cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height.
+
+
+_Panelled Pilasters_
+
+Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about
+half the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably
+in pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the
+centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped
+panel. Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and
+this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this
+purpose the undulate stem should never be employed. Such detail requires
+a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster,
+but for the rest, it may consist of the same unit repeated, or of two
+alternating units.
+
+In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was
+customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and
+labels.
+
+
+_Capitals and Bases_
+
+The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other
+decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a
+modified Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster
+has plain or decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the
+pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a
+composite form in which the Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure
+together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be
+used. The Ionic type would also be suitable; when the base of the
+pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus
+may be bound with cross ribbons.
+
+[Illustration: No. 208. Pilaster Treatment. French Renaissance.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 209. Treatment of Pilaster Capital, with Vertical
+Emphasis.]
+
+
+_Treatment of Panels_
+
+Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and
+therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be
+considered--that is to say, the only question is, as to whether the
+surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane. In the
+decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane, since it is not desirable
+to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate diagonally or
+diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a ceiling,
+details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should
+grow towards the centre of the ceiling.
+
+[Illustration: No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth from Angle.]
+
+When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any
+height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule;
+but if the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it
+should remain vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform
+to the width.
+
+The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude,
+should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate
+terminals. If the enclosing border were removed the detail should, by
+its general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole
+surface may not be occupied.
+
+Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the
+panel--certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration
+than on adornment in more subordinate positions.
+
+The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do
+so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be
+carefully considered.
+
+[Illustration: No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central Feature based on
+Circle.]
+
+Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced
+one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the
+position of the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of
+panels; greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed
+designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs.
+
+
+_Juxtaposition_
+
+When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the
+other, they may exert influence on one another. For example, vertical
+features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent
+panel even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels
+are one above the other, central features should be avoided and the
+interest should be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the
+effect will be spotty and lacking in repose.
+
+[Illustration: No. 212. Panels in Juxtaposition.]
+
+As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their
+treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to
+which the more structural features must submit, there is open to them
+
+[Illustration: No. 213. Design for Panel based on Treatment of Celery.
+By C. A. Sheehan, Bristol.]
+
+a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first
+place, the panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the
+requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on
+in mural decoration. If not treated pictorially, ornament of a
+traditional character, or designs derived more directly from natural
+forms can be made use of. In either case the ornament must complete
+itself within the given area.
+
+
+_The Growth Line_
+
+[Illustration: No. 214. Analysis of Composing Lines of Panel.]
+
+In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used,
+but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for
+the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected
+growth. The disposition of leaves and other elements must also be
+characteristic, and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near
+enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such
+forms as branches or leaves approach or cross, they should always do so
+at decided angles; their points or extremities should never be directly
+opposed to other details or to margins. The main growth should be
+clearly discernible, and the direction of the stem lines evident even
+when clothed with foliage.
+
+
+_Grouping and Massing_
+
+It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that
+the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a
+design. In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped
+and massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious
+whole. Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in
+keeping with the general environment.
+
+Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail,
+because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail
+equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is
+obvious that the result will again be uniform--the only difference being
+that a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not
+undesirable in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel.
+
+
+_Division of Area_
+
+The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent
+should be guided by the scale. One expedient in panel designing is to
+draw within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other
+shape, a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to
+that which is to be less conspicuous.
+
+[Illustration: No. 215. Phases of Elaboration of Simple Shape.]
+
+Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses, but the grouping of
+these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders
+a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of
+adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling
+growth lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament.
+
+[Illustration: No. 216. Byzantine Panel. Composition based on Circles.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 217. Romanesque Lunette Panel. Composition based on
+Circular Shapes.]
+
+
+_Human and Animal Life_
+
+Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is
+employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to
+composition, inasmuch that they
+
+[Illustration: No. 218. Figure Composition. Recognition of Framing
+Lines.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 219. Figure Composition. Spandril Treatment.]
+
+must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the
+boundaries or framing lines.
+
+The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely
+conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted
+into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not
+possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the
+consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if
+consistency has to be observed.
+
+The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in
+particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings
+or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the
+memorial of Mr. Dick.
+
+
+_Forms in the Round_
+
+Forms in the round--such that can be seen from any point of view--need
+special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the
+surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of
+varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical
+lines, any one of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite,
+would appear straight, whereas those approaching the profiles would
+appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature.
+
+[Illustration: No. 220. Effect of Perspective of Vertical Division.]
+
+Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according
+to the profile curvature, and in decoration, for bodies that are
+bulbous in form, the foreshortening and its effect on details must be
+taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion.
+
+
+_Supports and Balusters_
+
+Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for
+furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and
+balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts,
+and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously
+suggested. Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in
+wood, these forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case
+may be further decorated by carved work. In supports, the general
+tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to
+enhance the structural suggestion.
+
+[Illustration: No. 221. Jacobean Baluster, Carved Wood, showing Vertical
+and Horizontal Contrast.]
+
+
+_Standards_
+
+In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the
+element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a
+greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in
+interior fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate
+but will convey the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards
+the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable, but when the
+standard is small the base can be circular, square or polygonal. The
+commonest form is a shaft, which is frequently tapered. This is
+supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base. At
+the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind. These different
+parts are held together by appropriate mouldings.
+
+The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size,
+should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with
+occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must
+also vary according to material.
+
+[Illustration: No. 222. Cast Iron Lamp Standard.]
+
+
+_Proportion_
+
+Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind
+of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and
+diameter. Obvious repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided.
+The profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting
+harmony or contrast--the curves either approaching one another in a
+flexible line or being deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used
+at intervals to mark the various stages.
+
+[Illustration: No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration.
+
+A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast.
+
+B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.]
+
+Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight
+lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may
+take other forms--they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the
+diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When
+unity of line is desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily
+into each other, even if broken at intervals by mouldings. In
+contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order
+to avoid indecision of form.
+
+
+_Positions for Decoration_
+
+The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by
+mouldings. The nature and direction of the decoration will be
+determined by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of
+the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid
+distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform
+curvature.
+
+If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of
+flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the
+vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an
+oblique direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or
+twining round the shape.
+
+[Illustration: No. 224. Stretch Out and Segments of the Cylinder.]
+
+In the vertical panel treatment, as in mouldings, the sectional or
+profile curve may be used to determine the general framing lines, with
+contrasting details between the panels. In order to give variety it may
+be desirable to combine two treatments--for instance, the horizontal
+band may be contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves.
+
+
+_Working Drawings_
+
+For a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in
+perspective. All the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel
+lines. It is obvious that except for profiles and general height,
+further details must be given for a working drawing.
+
+
+_The Segment or Stretch Out_
+
+[Illustration: No. 225. Stretch Out of the Cone.]
+
+In designing for forms in the round it is necessary to detail the
+ornament on a segment or a stretching-out of the area. This is easily
+done in the case of a cylinder of which the height is evident, and the
+extreme width and circumference easily obtainable. If the object is not
+in existence for direct measurement the width can be determined from the
+diameter as expressed in the drawing. As this diameter is about
+one-third of the circumference a parallelogram three times the width of
+the diameter will provide, in the flat, the complete area on which
+detail has to be drawn.
+
+Should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone--that is,
+with straight inclined sides and a circular plan, the procedure must
+necessarily be different. In this case the lines of the sides should be
+extended till they intersect. This intersection forms a centre from
+which arcs may be struck coinciding with the lines of top and base. The
+greatest diameter should be set off on each side of the elevation on the
+larger radius and the points joined up with the centres from which the
+arcs were struck. The result is a fan-shaped figure bounded by these
+outer lines and the two arcs. This figure gives the entire area of the
+surface of the truncated cone.
+
+In either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on, the
+surfaces can be sub-divided. For instance, if the decoration consists of
+a unit repeated three or six times round the form, it will not be
+necessary to reproduce the whole area, provided always that the profiles
+are straight or tapered.
+
+[Illustration: No. 226. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-sixth of
+Vase.]
+
+As the diameter is about one-third of the circumference the elevational
+drawing of the cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a diameter
+gives one-sixth.
+
+In the truncated cone shape the widths are similarly determined, but it
+will be found that the height, when measured on the centre line, is less
+than the lengths of the profile lines which constitute the actual
+height.
+
+When the profiles are curved, the procedure is more complicated. As in
+the case of the cone shape, there is naturally some discrepancy between
+the height of the elevation and the profile, the actual dimension of
+which is affected by perspective (as also in plan curvature).
+
+To obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured
+vertically with some flexible material, such as thin lead wire, which
+will readily embrace the curvature.
+
+If a division of a third or a sixth is required the diameter or half
+diameter can be taken, but the segment of the area should be set off on
+a fresh centre line quite independent of the elevational drawing.
+
+In order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be
+divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in
+curvature, and these can be lettered or numbered for identification. The
+distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on
+the new centre line, and then these can be used for drawing the
+parallels through.
+
+The various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines on
+the elevation. Lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give
+the required segment or area on the flat.
+
+[Illustration: No. 227. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-fifth of
+Vase.]
+
+If other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required,
+it will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the
+division can be obtained. Assuming that the elevation has been
+vertically divided as before, and the plan to be circular, a circle
+should be struck which is to represent the largest diameter and its
+circumference divided into the required number of parts. Lines are then
+drawn through to the centre. On the same centre other circles are
+struck with radii equal to the remaining horizontals, and each
+identified with the corresponding number or letter. The heights are
+obtained as before, and the diameters of the variations in the curvature
+can be ascertained by measuring round each of the plan curves in
+succession.
+
+In the case of the plan being other than circular, the same rules apply,
+but the different plans would have to be drawn in each individual
+example.
+
+Owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes, it is undesirable
+to employ the human figure, unless in bold relief, and then only on
+straight or slightly curved profiles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT
+
+
+The term Convention is applied to decoration in which there is distinct
+evidence of artistic restraint, which may be purely æsthetic or due to
+technical conditions.
+
+
+_Outline Drawing_
+
+The rendering of any form in outline is probably the simplest form of
+convention, which is generally accepted through tradition as
+representation. Though the objects so depicted really depend on light,
+shade, and local colour for their appearance.
+
+Such outline drawings may be in other respects realistic, but a further
+degree of convention is the desirable elimination of perspective where
+it is unsuitable to the effect desired. For instance, in silhouette,
+profile renderings only are intelligible, and in delicate bas-relief
+modelling any foreshortening should be avoided if confusing to the
+effect.
+
+In direct personal work, such as drawing or painting, when craft
+conditions other than that of the medium employed are not involved,
+convention is purely a matter of discretion and consideration of the
+nature and object of the work; but it is essential in design when the
+material and method of production have to be considered. In painting the
+artist may employ the full resources of his palette and be as realistic
+in his effect as is in his power, but if the purpose be mural
+decoration restraint is at once imposed.
+
+
+_Undesirable Realism_
+
+Under certain conditions realism would be out of place, and any attempt
+at illusion would fail to convince. The one time fashion of painting
+ceilings with sprawling deities of either sex, which cannot be seen
+without a painful crick in the neck, or worse still to suggest sky with
+floating amorini, occasionally framed by marble balustrading in
+wonderful perspective is deplorable.
+
+Such decoration, if it can be so termed, is not only stagey but is
+foredoomed to failure in effect, as the ordinary interior lighting is
+not adequate. Furthermore, it displays a lack of appreciation of
+fitness, and that the purpose of a ceiling is to convey a sense of
+shelter.
+
+Realism, though desirable in portraiture, either of individuals, places
+or events, is not necessarily of the greatest interest except to those
+concerned. In mural decoration realism should give place to convention,
+and the whole considered as a design with regard to balance of form and
+colour, and recognition of the surface to which the decoration is
+applied.
+
+The first attempts at decoration were the direct results of material and
+the manner of working, in which there was no attempt at representation.
+This was succeeded when the early artists attained more skill by a phase
+of realism, later still with acquired culture there was a deliberate
+return to convention.
+
+The dignified conception of the Egyptian rendering of the Lion, though
+thoroughly conventional, reveals technical skill and anatomical
+knowledge of a high order; also appreciation for desirable treatment,
+and may be contrasted favourably with those by Sir Edwin Landseer round
+the pedestal of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square, in which realism
+is not subordinated to the decorative and symbolic conditions.
+
+
+_Craft Restrictions_
+
+When any craft process is involved the design is only a means to the
+end, and convention is then imposed by the technical conditions of the
+craft in question. The designer has to keep these conditions in view,
+the desirable object being to make the greatest economic use of the
+process compatible with a good result. It would be a waste of both time
+and energy to depict effects that could not be realised.
+
+In woven or printed fabrics it is impossible to produce natural effects;
+even if that were possible the inevitable repetition of the unit would
+be not merely unnatural but a gross absurdity. The great bulk of the
+public do not understand convention, hence the popularity of textiles
+and wall-papers in which the designs consist of flowers treated (however
+inconsistently) in natural aspect as far as possible; in particular the
+Rose which, like the poor, is ever with us.
+
+Traditional ornament at its best has generally been conventional, the
+various details of foliage being æsthetic creations, with at times,
+perhaps, some suggestion derived from natural types. The scroll in the
+form of volutes as employed in the Ionic capital may have been suggested
+by the fossil known as the Ammonite
+
+[Illustration: No. 228. Filagree Jewellery.
+
+     A. Hook for Jacket in Silver. Swedish, Mid. 18th Century.
+
+     B. Pendant Cross. Gold set with Garnets. Modern Italian.
+
+     C. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern French.
+
+     D. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
+
+     E. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
+
+     F. Pendant. Northern Portuguese. 17th or early 18th Century.
+
+     G. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
+
+     H. Pendant. Gold. As worn by peasants in Etruria.
+]
+
+shell, so called because it resembles the ram’s horn of Jupiter Ammon.
+Its traditional employment in conjunction with the undulate stem, is
+certainly far from any natural suggestion in the way of growth, while
+the variety known as the evolute scroll is distinctly artificial.
+
+
+_Materialistic Influence_
+
+It is probable that it had its origin in the facility with which wire
+could be bent, and in early jewellery such scroll forms are conspicuous.
+
+A reasonable conjecture is that the similar forms in early repoussé
+work, such as that of the gold ornaments found at Enkomi, Cyprus and the
+painted decoration of the Greek vases, were inspired by the treatment
+which was the outcome of the use of metal in the form of thin wire.
+Similar details occur in Peruvian and New Guinea work, which is
+certainly coincidental as it is difficult to imagine these people having
+any communication with the Old World.
+
+Scandinavian and Keltic art was to a certain extent influenced by
+Eastern tradition through the medium of the Phœnician merchant
+adventurers; but no such conjecture is feasible in the Maori incised
+work and tattooing in which similar details occur.
+
+The scrolling line alone may be used, generally in decoration of small
+scale, as in the Greek vases. In this form it frequently occurs in
+pottery, either incised or painted, and in filagree jewellery. Wrought
+iron partakes largely of the scrolling character, but this, as in
+filagree, is the direct result of the material employed.
+
+Scandinavian and Keltic ornament consisted mainly
+
+[Illustration: No. 229. The Evolute Scroll.
+
+     A. Pottery (painted) Archaic Greek.
+
+     B. Pottery (painted) Cyprus, 800 B.C.
+
+     C. D. F. Gold Ornaments from Tombs at Enkomi, Cyprus.
+
+     E. Pottery (painted) Ancient Mexico.
+
+     G. Early Greek Stone Carving. Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos,
+     Boeotia.
+
+     H. Assyrian Stone Carving. Sacred Hom or Palm.
+]
+
+[Illustration: No. 230. The Evolute Scroll in Savage Art.
+
+     A. B. C. Spatula Handles, Carved Wood, New Guinea.
+
+     D. Detail on Paddle, Carved Wood, New Guinea.
+
+     E. Maori Chief’s Staff Handle, Carved Wood.
+
+     F. Detail from Tattooed Maori Head.
+
+     G. Engraved Bamboo, Borneo.
+
+     H. Carved Wood Detail, New Guinea.
+]
+
+of a series of scrolling forms, as also did much of the ornament of the
+illuminated Gothic work and mural decoration. The desire for variety and
+mass lead eventually to the employment of diverse elements, arising in
+many instances from different treatment of existing details; thus,
+during the Renaissance, the side view of a poppy-like flower suggested
+and became a profile mask, and the husk leaf was frequently elaborated
+into the form of a dolphin.
+
+[Illustration: No. 231. Scroll & Anthemion Ornament from Greek Vase
+Paintings.]
+
+
+_Early Renderings_
+
+The evolute scroll which plays so conspicuous a part in Greek art, was
+employed at earlier periods by the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and the
+widespread appreciation and use of this form of detail is plainly
+indicative that it was not disseminated from any one centre.
+
+In the early employment of these curved forms there is no evidence of
+natural suggestion, but later, leaves and floral details were added
+conveying the idea of growth. In Egyptian and Assyrian art certain
+natural types occur, such as the Lotus, Papyrus and the Palm, but these
+were utterly denaturalised, all realism being eliminated.
+
+These conventions, though incidentally decorative, were invested with
+symbolic meaning with which their employment was concerned rather than
+with the imitation of natural form.
+
+
+_The Anthemion_
+
+[Illustration: No. 232. Greek Anthemion. Relief Treatment.]
+
+The Anthemion alone or in conjunction with the scroll or evolute line,
+appears in a painted form in the Greek vase decoration. Examination of
+these will reveal evidence of brush-work, the separate details being the
+result of direct flexion. In sculptured form it appears in the Antefixe,
+also as a cresting or finial to the stele heads, the separate radial
+features being channelled with sunken grooves or with ridges in relief.
+
+[Illustration: No. 233. Greek Scroll from Choragic Monument of
+Lysikrates, Athens. Carved Stone.]
+
+It is conceivable that the attenuated effect of the mere scrolling line
+suggested the desirability of the occasional mass and variety that would
+be obtained by employing leaves.
+
+
+_Greek Sculptured Ornament_
+
+[Illustration: No. 234. Wrought Iron Scroll. Detail of Hinge, Notre
+Dame, Paris. Early French Gothic.]
+
+Greek sculptural ornament is comparatively devoid of natural suggestion,
+the branching scrolls with sheath leaves being æsthetic rather than
+imitative. The leaves employed bear little resemblance to those of the
+later Roman period, and consist generally of a succession of radial
+grooves with undulating or prickly edges, and are obviously adapted from
+the anthemion detail.
+
+In the scrolls employed on the Choragic monument at Athens the desire
+was evidently play of line and silhouette.
+
+The flexible and open form, though possible in bent metal or in painted
+work, is unsuitable to carving in stone. Adequate support being
+essential, the scrolls had to be united by the leaves, which were
+necessarily massed in form and decorated by channellings or grooves to
+give further detail and interest.
+
+A development of the leaf treatment was the division into lobes, each
+lobe being channelled with a group of radial grooves ending in
+serrations. The lobes were divided by holes, or, as they are generally
+termed, eyes, more or less circular in shape, and these were connected
+with the base of the leaf by pipes or Tines in relief, conforming with
+the general radial distribution.
+
+
+_Acanthus Leaf_
+
+[Illustration: No. 235. Acanthus Leaf. Composed of groups of Anthemions.
+Brush-work.]
+
+Leaves of this type are known as Acanthus, and it is a tradition that
+the leaf in its original employment was derived from a natural source.
+The anthemion, too, is often mis-called the honeysuckle owing to the
+supposed resemblance; but it is much more probable that both were purely
+artistic creations developing as previously suggested from the painted
+anthemion details. Elaboration and relief expression were the natural
+outcome of material, and desire for surface interest. The honeysuckle
+origin is completely confuted by comparison of the Greek anthemion with
+the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, by which it was evidently inspired.
+
+In Greek ornament such flowers as occur are mostly of the rosette type,
+quite conventional in character, though in the painted decoration such
+natural forms as the ivy and vine are evident; but these were always
+conventional in treatment and symbolic in interest.
+
+[Illustration: No. 236. Acanthus Scroll. Brush-work.]
+
+The Greeks were not creative in art either in their architecture or
+ornament, and were evidently indebted to the earlier culture of
+Mesopotamia for many of their details. As they based the anthemion on
+the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, so they borrowed the Ionic capital
+from Persia and the Corinthian variety had its prototype in the Egyptian
+Papyrus capital. Even their architecture was no advance in principle on
+that which previously existed.
+
+Their treatment, however, was extremely artistic, and they invested all
+their work with great refinement and delicacy of detail. At a later
+period under subjugation the Roman art development was practically in
+the hands of Greek designers and craftsmen, and acquired great freedom
+of expression marked by exquisite workmanship in the Græco-Roman period.
+
+
+_Roman Development_
+
+The details and treatment of ornament developed rapidly in the Roman
+period, in the variety and forms of the elements employed. The principal
+exponents were Greek, but the original austere character of expression
+underwent considerable modification.
+
+
+_The Scroll_
+
+In Roman art the scroll, which constituted the chief decoration of the
+friezes and panels, was greatly developed and rendered with more freedom
+and variety of treatment; assuming the form of a growing or climbing
+stem, bearing flowers and clothed with leaves. A treatment which is
+fairly consistent with such types as the Vine and other climbing growths
+in nature.
+
+The undulating stem with branching scrolls is prominent, both in friezes
+and panels; the character of the foliage became more varied, the stiff
+and formal acanthus leaf being only used in the capitals of columns and
+in structural features.
+
+The version employed in more decorative positions
+
+[Illustration:
+
+     Photo]
+
+No. 237. Detail of Roman Frieze, in Carved Stone.
+
+[E. Richter.
+]
+
+exhibited greater freedom in form, attitude and section. Natural types
+for the sake of variety were used, generally in subordinated positions,
+and there is occasional evidence of the influence of these in the
+treatment of the acanthus detail.
+
+
+_Græco-Roman_
+
+The development of art during this period cannot be attributed to native
+talent, the Romans being content to borrow their art as they did their
+religion. It was rather due to the opulence of the times, though the
+practical character of the race resulted in a great advance in
+architecture.
+
+The later Roman, generally termed Græco-Roman, varied from the more
+robust treatment and reverted somewhat to the earlier Greek manner;
+tending to delicacy and refinement, but retaining the variety of
+character and detail.
+
+
+_Byzantine_
+
+The State recognition of Christianity had a great influence on art in
+that there was a return to symbolism. Various pagan elements associated
+with the earlier decoration that were unsuitable to the feeling of the
+time were eliminated. Eastern influence is evident, in not only the
+architecture but in the treatment which is known as Byzantine, of the
+foliage, which resembles that of the archaic Greek, the leaves being
+more stiffly lobed, and severely channelled with V-shaped grooves, in
+place of the subtle modelling of those of the Roman period.
+
+The stem or growth line is comparatively absent, and the prevalence of
+the circle as a shape or in the arrangement of details is evident.
+Decoration displays more regard to profile than to variety of relief,
+which was practically uniform.
+
+[Illustration: No. 238. Gothic Spandril. Carved Stone. Geometric basis
+obvious in central circle uniting angular shape with minor circular
+forms occupying angles.]
+
+The Byzantine influence is evident in the succeeding Romanesque.
+
+
+_Romanesque_
+
+Early Gothic detail, the closely curled foliage of which is suggestive
+of lobes though without serrations, is reminiscent of debased Roman
+tradition, evident also in the general shape and disposition of leaves
+in the capitals of columns. The floral ornament of the Middle or
+Decorated period, though freely adapted from natural types, shows traces
+at times of the earlier tradition in the treatment of lobed and serrated
+leaves.
+
+
+_Italian Renaissance_
+
+The Italian Renaissance was not merely a revival of Classic architecture
+adapted to more modern conditions, but was in its earlier stages a frank
+reproduction of the Roman ornament in design and rendering. In later
+development in Italy and other parts of Europe it acquired local
+character differing materially from the original. Fresh elements were
+adopted and details originally significant were introduced for purely
+decorative reasons.
+
+[Illustration: No. 239. Early Pointed Gothic Stone Carving. Ely
+Cathedral.]
+
+
+_The Husk Leaf_
+
+A feature of the foliated scroll is the Husk Leaf, either Acanthus, that
+is--lobed and serrated, or compounded of water leaves with smooth and
+undulating edges somewhat similar to the hart’s tongue fern.
+
+The Husk either grows tangentially from the stem which it sometimes
+envelopes in the sheath form, or has at its base a floral-like feature
+known as the Bract; this, however, was seldom employed in Greek
+ornament, a boss-like annulet being more general. The Husk is largely
+employed to mask or cover branching, and either, as previously stated,
+grows tangentially from the stem, or takes a bulbous form with a broad
+and rounded base when it appears to be threaded on, rather than
+articulated to, the stem.
+
+
+_The Rosette_
+
+[Illustration: No. 240. Italian Renaissance Scroll, shewing Acanthus
+husks with bracts, sheath leaves and floral terminals.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 241. Types of Rosettes.]
+
+Such flowers as were employed in the earlier ornament displayed little
+regard to nature, being mostly of the rosette form with petals radiating
+from the centre; as a rule these were composed of simple leaf-shaped
+petals in one, two or more tiers arranged concentrically; in this form
+of rosette the petals are symmetrical in shape. The number of petals is
+a matter of scale and taste, but an unequal number will invariably be
+found more interesting. Arrangements of five or seven in preference to
+four, six and eight. Frequently the spaces between the outer tier are
+occupied by narrow leaves suggestive of the sepals in natural flowers,
+and these serve the double purpose of giving variety and preserving the
+circular shape.
+
+Further variety can be imparted by the arrangements of the petals on a
+revolving instead of a straight axis, either consistently in one
+direction or symmetrically disposed from a centre in a palmate form.
+
+The Rosette in ornament is useful as a pause point, giving repose, but
+where it is desirable to continue the flow of line, other floral forms
+can be employed, such as the tulip or the lily, which are displayed to
+the best advantage in profile or perspective.
+
+In conventional ornament the flower petals should be in contrast to the
+leaves employed on the scrolling stem.
+
+The Pistil in nature is reflected in the various sprouting forms which
+emerge from the conventional flowers of the Renaissance, and at times
+develop into further stem growth. On æsthetic grounds this may be
+excused in cases where flow of line is of greater importance than
+consistency. The Pistil takes many forms, being frequently composed of a
+series of diminutive husks. Flower buds of similar husk form occur, the
+petals being similar to those of the flowers employed.
+
+
+_Tendrils_
+
+Tendrils serve a useful purpose in giving unity to the design, for which
+there is ample suggestion in such natural growths as the Vine, Pea, etc.
+Too often in traditional ornament they are employed to merely occupy
+obviously awkward spaces. In Roman ornament flowers articulated on
+tendril-like stems were often used apparently to occupy the
+spandril-like spaces resulting from the branching scrolls.
+
+[Illustration: No. 242. Ornamental Treatment of Tendril from Roman
+Frieze.]
+
+
+_Nature Influence_
+
+During the Roman development greater variety was introduced in the
+treatment of leaves and flowers which in many instances display evidence
+of natural suggestion. The main stems are sometimes twisted, a
+characteristic of some strongly growing natural types, but this was only
+a variant of the earlier treatment of decorating the scrolling stem with
+channels or hollow flutes.
+
+Birds and animals were also used in antique ornament--grotesque
+combinations of foliage with human and animal forms, and such symbolic
+monsters as the Gryphon and the Sphinx, were employed with little regard
+to the original significance. Other symbolic elements, such as wreaths,
+garlands, festoons, altars, tripods, and urns were also introduced
+merely for their decorative value and to afford variety.
+
+
+_Symbolic Employment_
+
+The modern mind is naturally out of sympathy with forms that have no
+direct appeal, but it should be considered that these elements were
+originally not merely the expression of the art of the period, but were
+also invested in many instances with symbolic meaning. The Roman citizen
+saw nothing incongruous in decorating a triumphal arch with the chaplet
+of the victor and trophies of arms.
+
+The later misuse of symbolic elements can only be defended on æsthetic
+grounds, and is probably undesirable. Without these there is still left
+sufficient material for beautiful effects. Dull slavish reproduction is
+not only without interest, but displays lack of inventiveness. It is
+possible in good hands to utilise the past tradition so as to appeal to
+modern appreciation.
+
+
+_Consistency in Growth_
+
+However arbitrary traditional ornament may appear, there is consistency
+in the best examples, which display in many details some general
+observance of the principle of natural growth. There may be no attempt
+to exploit any known type, the creation being purely artificial; still
+the association of stem, leaves and flowers is suggestive of natural
+growth.
+
+The arrangement is generally progressive, as in nature a plant develops
+outwards and onwards from the root, and the orthodox scroll ornament may
+be considered as a stem of undulate form (constituting the growth line)
+with branches, elaborated with leaves and flowers which are arranged
+successively.
+
+
+_Branching_
+
+In traditional ornament the most general form of branching is
+tangential, the scrolls and leaves emerging radially from the main
+stem, with slight divergence; but in nature many varieties of branching
+may be observed and applied with advantage in design.
+
+[Illustration: No. 243. Types of Branching. A. Tangential. B.
+Acute-angular. C. Right-angular.]
+
+Generally natural branching may be classified into Tangential, typical
+of grass growth and water-plants; Acute and Right-angular. The latter is
+sometimes usefully employed in ornament, as it conveys a sense of
+strength and vigour, though as a concession to the rhythmic flow of line
+it should follow for a short distance the curve of the main stem.
+
+[Illustration: No. 244. Formal Opposite Branching suitable for Vertical
+Borders & Pilasters.]
+
+Independent of the angle, branches may occur opposite, that is, grow
+simultaneously each side of the stem, Alternate, or spirally round the
+stem. The distances between the branches may be equal, or, as in some
+instances, in alternate long and short distances. The opposite
+arrangement of branches is most suitable where rigidity of effect is
+required, but the alternate branching is susceptible of greater freedom
+and license.
+
+The stem, as it throws out each branch, may gradually diminish in
+diameter, each branch being less than the parent stem; the length of
+each successive branch may also diminish and the leaves on these be
+subordinate in size to those of the main stem.
+
+[Illustration: No. 245. Branch and Scroll Terminations.]
+
+
+_Leaves_
+
+The detail of these smaller leaves may be less complex as they approach
+the terminals, a characteristic in natural growth where the necessary
+energy to produce the flowers results in restricted development of the
+leaves on the flower stalk.
+
+Equally consistent from the nature point of view is the employment of
+the large husk leaves which generally cover the points of branch
+emergence. As already stated, these are not articulated, but either
+spring tangentially from or are threaded on the main stem in contrast to
+the smaller leaves, which are often provided with individual stems.
+Occasionally the scroll terminals are not furnished with flowers but
+develop into sprays of small leaves radially disposed.
+
+
+_The Start_
+
+An essential condition in panel ornament is the Start or commencement,
+which should at least be consistent. The natural root is not in every
+case sufficient, though at times it may be employed with effect.
+
+The start point of the growth line or lines varies in position according
+to attitude. In panels in a horizontal plane, the start is frequently
+central and the traditional treatment is usually some form of rosette
+from which the other details radiate.
+
+In some positions, particularly pilaster panels, the ornament is
+suspended, which is consistently rendered by the employment of knobs and
+ribbons. Ribbons are not only logical, but interesting on account of the
+variety afforded and are also of service in giving unity to a
+composition. Extremely amenable to harmonious arrangement and
+susceptible of great variation, the ribbon can be twisted, folded or
+arranged in groups of pleatings, the ends being occasionally scrolled or
+split.
+
+The start mostly in evidence in ornament is that known as the Cup or
+Nest, which is composed of leaves arranged somewhat in the form of a
+tulip, with generally an inverted cup leaf below. It is composed of
+leaves either of the Acanthus or water type, but for the sake of variety
+one of these may appear in the upper part of the cup and the contrasting
+form in the lower. The proportion between the two parts as to height and
+width should also be varied, and when the cup leaf is used in pilaster
+panels it generally occupies the whole width of the base.
+
+[Illustration: No. 246. The Nest or Cup-leaf Start.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 247. Italian Renaissance Foliated Figure Start.]
+
+Such artificial objects as vases and baskets form fairly consistent base
+starts for floral detail, others as Altars and Tripods are not quite so
+logical, though useful in conveying a sense of support. Shields and
+Labels, generally employed centrally in wide panels where the ornament
+is displayed laterally, are effective in the contrast they afford to the
+floral details.
+
+[Illustration: No. 248. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
+Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.]
+
+The employment of half figures as starts cannot be defended; the
+illogical association of life, either human or animal, with foliage as
+employed by the designers of the later Italian Renaissance, is too
+incongruous to be excused on æsthetic grounds. Such were due to change
+in taste and desire for variety, and probably were suggested by the much
+earlier employment of compound animal forms as furniture supports.
+
+[Illustration: No. 249. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
+Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.]
+
+The Acanthus leaf prominent in Renaissance detail, was at first
+deliberately reproduced from Roman examples, and its architectural
+employment as in the capitals of the Corinthian order, has survived to
+modern times as the most suitable rendering for such structural
+features. In more decorative positions marked changes are evident in the
+later phases, the Cinque Cento renderings being perhaps the high water
+mark of the Italian designer. In these the lobes were angular in general
+outline, with beautifully balanced minor lobations and the surface
+contours delicate and subtle in modelling.
+
+
+_Renaissance Influence_
+
+The early examples of Italian Renaissance in France and England are
+generally pure in style, being in most instances of Italian design and
+execution. Later work by native exploiters in emulation of the style is
+invariably quite different, until the new style was better understood
+and assimilated; eventuating in versions that were distinctive and
+local.
+
+[Illustration: No. 250. Early French Renaissance Carving. Francis I.]
+
+In the early French Renaissance the acanthus leaf was generally
+displayed in profile, the lobe being elliptic and pointed in shape, with
+clearly defined minor divisions; the sectional form was comparatively
+simple. Similar treatment, without the precision and grace of line
+characterised the Jacobean work in England; the relief work of which,
+being rather in the category of flat carving, consisting mainly of
+incised lines and grooves by which leaf form was expressed in profile or
+silhouette. These were invariably archaic and crude, though in view of
+the direct and simple execution not without individuality and interest.
+
+
+_Jacobean._
+
+A characteristic feature of the Jacobean style is the ornamental
+interlacing strapwork, with foliated or
+
+[Illustration: No. 251. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.
+
+A. Greek. B. Roman. C. Byzantine. D. Romanesque. E. Decorated Gothic. F.
+G. Italian Renaissance. H. French Renaissance, Period of Francis I.]
+
+scrolling ends. This doubtless was in emulation of the French work of
+the period of Henry II, when strapping composed of straight and curved
+lines entered largely into ornamental detail. In the period of Louis
+XIII
+
+[Illustration: No. 252. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.
+
+I. French, Louis XIV. J. English, Grinling Gibbons. K. French, Louis XV.
+L. English, Adam. M. French, Louis XVI. N. Louis XVI (Salombier). O.
+English, Late 18th Century.]
+
+shield and cartouche shapes were much in vogue, on account probably of
+their mass value and the contrast afforded with the subordinate detail,
+which developed into the foliated strap frame of the Louis XIV style.
+
+The details of this latter period were expressed in bold relief, the
+decorated areas being well filled, in contrast to the earlier Italian
+style in which the background frequently predominated over the ornament.
+The sectioning or modelling of the leaves, which by this time were
+typically French, was elaborate but well considered as to harmonious
+play of line. Shell forms were employed and were effective, both as mass
+shapes and for the radial elaboration of their surfaces.
+
+In conjunction with artificial details, natural foliage was employed in
+the form of wreaths and festoons, composed of leaves and appropriate
+flowers; the conventional stem was little used, the foliated strap being
+more often evident.
+
+
+_Régence_
+
+The immediate successor of the style of the Grand Monarch was the phase
+known as Régence, in which the strap frame was moulded in section, and
+the whole detail became much lighter, resulting in more open or plain
+spaces.
+
+In the period of Louis XV restraint was thrown overboard, panels and
+enclosed areas were framed with mouldings irresponsible in curvature,
+and without regard to structural conditions. The growth line
+disappeared, the leafage and other details being arbitrarily disposed on
+the framing mouldings, which were generally in flattened and elongated
+curves opposed to each other in flexured lines. In comparison with the
+preceding Louis XIV style the ornament is thin and liney in character,
+the leaf, still of the acanthus type, is greatly modified both in form
+and detail, the ends of the lobes being curled and twisted spirally.
+
+
+_Rococo_
+
+In minor floral details natural types were employed, also such
+artificial features as canopies or hammercloths; rock and shell forms,
+and stalactite details suggestive of icicles are comprised in the later
+phase to which the term Rococo is applied.
+
+
+_Louis XVI_
+
+As a natural revulsion from the license of this period in the succeeding
+Louis XVI style there was a distinct reversion. The curved framings were
+abandoned and panels and other areas were enclosed by mouldings with
+regard both to structural and materialistic conditions. Great refinement
+is evident, not only in the mouldings but in the details throughout.
+
+In contrast to those of the Louis XIV period, panels were occupied
+rather than filled, the dominant details being placed at the upper and
+lower extremities and connected by vertical features either centrally or
+at the sides, steadily arranged as to alignment both horizontal and
+vertical. Familiar details thus employed are such amorous emblems as
+quivers, torches, trophies of musical instruments and bouquets and
+festoons of natural flowers.
+
+The artificial leaf reverted somewhat to the earlier Italian type, and
+was mostly displayed in profile with the lobes and serrations carefully
+composed. The detail though comparatively low in relief, was boldly
+modelled, and the direction and emphasis of the lobes and veinings of
+the leaves considered with regard to the composing lines.
+
+
+_Grinling Gibbons School of Carving_
+
+In England the work of the school of Grinling Gibbons was productive of
+a phase of ornamental expression distinctive for its artistry and
+technical skill. Conventional details were combined with natural forms
+of all kinds, the conspicuous arrangement being interlacing scrolls, and
+festoons and pendant swags.
+
+In the artificial leaf, with its boldly grooved surface and accentuated
+lobes, the evidence of the tool is manifest throughout.
+
+The tradition established by the Grinling Gibbons school had a lasting
+effect upon the native carving, which endured throughout the Georgian
+period, though largely influenced in detail by French taste--Rococo in
+particular.
+
+
+_Adam Style_
+
+The designs of the brothers Adam, which were in vogue in the reign of
+George III, though peculiarly individual and distinctive, were based
+upon the study of Græco-Roman details. In the Adam style the ornament is
+delicate in relief, and mostly displayed in profile. Panels and enclosed
+spaces are occupied, the decorative elements being carefully disposed
+with regard to balance and stability, with large areas of plain
+surface.
+
+The characteristic and prevailing details are the fan and delicate
+festoons of leaves or husks, at times of beads.
+
+The anthemion is much used on friezes and borders, and compound animal
+forms, such as the Sphinx, were borrowed from the antique, the same
+source doubtless inspiring the employment of vases, altars, and tripods.
+
+Medallions occur occupied by figures after the manner of the Greek
+vases. In some instances these were in pottery, the work of Wedgwood.
+
+The general structural form was architectural, the mouldings slight in
+projection and refined in their profiles being decorated by orthodox
+enrichments.
+
+The foliage is mostly artificial in character, the leaf lobes in those
+of the acanthus type being orderly in arrangement with regard to profile
+and radial display, with comparatively little modelling.
+
+
+_Empire_
+
+A similar revival of the Antique succeeded the Revolution in France, in
+the Empire style, which, more literal in reproduction than the Adam
+work, is characterised with, at times, undesirable severity and
+precision of detail, particularly in the treatment of the human figure.
+
+
+_System of the Acanthus Leaf_
+
+The system of the acanthus leaf is based entirely on radiation, the
+tines and veinings being arranged in consistently diverging directions
+from a common base or start-point. Whether the whole leaf be displayed
+or merely the half leaf used, the shape should be bounded by general
+lines controlling the lobes and their serrations--the mass shape forming
+a satisfactory silhouette.
+
+The length of the lobes should be relative to the breadth of the leaf,
+the maximum length agreeing with the maximum width, and the others in
+proportion.
+
+The edges or outlines of serrations and lobes should also be controlled
+by radial lines from the base.
+
+[Illustration: No. 253. Construction of the Acanthus Leaf.]
+
+In turn-overs and curling or twisting lobes the silhouette shape and
+composing line must be considered.
+
+The apex of leaf terminates with a central lobe balanced by side lobes
+repeated throughout. In treatment these may be displayed clear of each
+other, or they may overlap, but care must be taken to avoid confusion in
+effect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+TREATMENT IN DESIGN
+
+
+Appreciation of design by the individual is largely a matter of
+temperament, though it may be due to some extent to acquired knowledge.
+Generally, few are conscious of any guiding principle, and selection in
+their case is mostly the result of fashion or custom. To others certain
+colours and forms have an appeal, though they may be quite unconscious
+of, or unable to explain the attraction other than it suits their taste.
+
+In the last few years it has been recognised that colour may be employed
+beneficially in curative treatment, but the normal healthy individual is
+often indifferent to environment other than that of material
+gratification.
+
+When any artistic work creates pleasurable emotion, it is purely a
+matter of cause and effect. To design successfully involves some
+understanding of the causes or factors which constitute the appeal.
+
+
+_Natural Attraction_
+
+The attraction of colour and form is undoubtedly universal, and may be
+generally understood, though there are delicate degrees of proportion
+and association in both that may only be appreciated by the cultivated
+eye. Early essays in drawing generally exhibit an undesirable redundancy
+in curves, and in many instances the student is slow to realise that
+those that approximate to the elliptic form are proportionately of more
+interest than those obviously composed of segments of circles.
+Undoubtedly this subtlety of line is one of the predominant factors in
+appreciation of form.
+
+A factor in pattern that is largely responsible for the charm is the
+presence of small detail in juxtaposition with larger forms. This is
+entailed in instances by technical conditions, such, for instance, as in
+some tapestries where inhabited pattern is essential to the process of
+production.
+
+
+_Decorative Materials_
+
+Some materials are employed partly for their decorative effect, such as
+naturally figured woods and certain varieties of stone; and design
+mainly consists of judicious selection, use and treatment. Oak and
+walnut being woods extremely suitable for structural work and furniture
+have always been in request when obtainable.
+
+Polishing is to some extent a preservative, but work in oak or walnut,
+especially when carved, should be kept comparatively dull, otherwise
+confusion between the relief and the natural figuring would result. In
+mahogany or satinwood, where the chief interest exists in the figuring
+and colour, carving is undesirable and the best effects are obtained by
+high polish. It may be urged that in the Chippendale period the work was
+invariably carved, but the detail was always in very low relief, and the
+finishing dark in colour, in which the figuring was subdued. Mahogany in
+its more general employment owes its chief beauty to the development of
+figuring and colour.
+
+Certain marbles are used for their decorative effect, and the natural
+colour and figuring developed by polish. Statuary marble that is
+sometimes employed, is more suitable for carved details, and appears at
+its best when unpolished, though in this state it is extremely subject
+to discolouration owing to its absorbent nature.
+
+Granite, so popular in our cemeteries, is often polished, when the
+natural figuring is unpleasantly aggressive. An extremely hard stone and
+laborious to work, it is not suitable for carving, and is best left
+roughly tooled or frosted, when the natural chrystaline formation
+appears to the best advantage.
+
+
+_Justification of Treatment_
+
+The softer woods used in interior structural work are generally painted,
+partly as a preservative and largely because they do not possess any
+figuring of particular interest.
+
+Graining in imitation of more precious woods is often condemned as
+inartistic, but it may be urged in extenuation that it is the most
+economic treatment, as it helps to minimise the effect of wear and
+incidental damage.
+
+The use of pattern wall-papers and floor coverings can be justified on
+the same grounds, as in those with plain surfaces any disfigurement is
+readily seen. Wallpaper, however, is quite a legitimate form of
+decoration and not necessarily imitative, though to some extent it is
+reminiscent of the early custom of employing tapestries as wall
+coverings. A more durable and artistic treatment of interiors is that of
+the wainscotting of the Georgian period, but the initial cost is
+proportionately great, though probably when maintenance is taken into
+consideration it would be cheaper in the long run. Apart from the
+question of cost, the modern tendency is favourable to change of effect
+and environment, due partly to the facility afforded by the comparative
+cheapness of wall-paper, but even more to the prevalent short tenancies.
+
+
+_Undesirable Imitation_
+
+Many excellent designs are produced in wall-papers, though there is a
+tendency at times to reproduce textural effects which can only be
+justified on æsthetic grounds. Those of the frankly imitative kind
+cannot be condoned. It is still possible to have the hall and stairs
+papered and varnished to resemble slabs of precious marble, or patterns
+in mosaic, which were undreamt of in Byzantine times; and the orthodox
+design for the bathroom is still that of tiles with the joints neatly
+printed. Similar imitation is also apparent in linoleum, when the
+pattern simulates the appearance of either wood parquet or mosaic, or
+even worse--that of a Turkey or Axminster carpet.
+
+There is an element of priggishness in such cheap art in which, as
+though ashamed of poverty of material, there is an assumption of
+something better; and it is lamentable that there is not merely a market
+for these shams and imitations but curiously enough they also find
+appreciation.
+
+There are phases of work where simulation may to some extent be
+justified, for instance, silver is sometimes gilt. For this there is the
+excuse that silver, although a beautiful metal, is subject to oxidation
+and requires constant attention to keep bright. Gilding acts as a
+preservative, and is therefore justified in certain forms of silver
+work, which it is not convenient to clean in the ordinary way.
+
+
+_Technical Considerations_
+
+It has already been suggested that Design is not merely a question of
+idea and draughtsmanship, but is also dependent upon materialistic
+conditions, which, in practical work, must be understood and properly
+considered.
+
+Whether the intended design be for some form of flat pattern, such as
+weaving, etc., or for any particular craft expression, it is essential
+that the limitations of the process and material involved be clearly
+kept in view, and that suitable elements for expression be chosen.
+
+Convention, to a large extent, exists in the adaptation of forms,
+natural or otherwise, to the exigencies of production, a proper
+understanding of which will not only tend to economy in cost, but also
+to more effective results, if full advantage be taken of the craft or
+mechanical conditions, which should always be foreseen in design.
+
+
+_Methods of Expression_
+
+Methods of expression vary, according to position and material, and may
+be Flat--either silhouette, or with appearance of relief, or in actual
+relief.
+
+[Illustration: No. 254. A. B. C. Flat Treatment, Silhouette important.
+D. Relief Treatment of C.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 255. A. Flat Treatment. B. Relief of Husk Leaf.]
+
+Contrast exists always, thus in the Flat with or without outline the
+contrast is in Light and Dark, whether colour is involved or not.
+
+In Relief the contrast is in Light and Shade. Contrast exists also in
+both treatments in lines straight and curved--in the variety of the
+latter, in lines with mass forms, and in dominant forms with smaller
+detail.
+
+In the treatment of Flat Ornament the most important considerations are
+play of line and silhouette, and forms should be displayed in
+interesting profile; perspective and foreshortening being eliminated
+whenever they would result in distorted or inharmonious shapes.
+
+In Relief treatment the designer is concerned with the effect of Light
+and Shade in harmonious arrangement of mass and line.
+
+Perspective and foreshortening are permissible to some extent, but are
+largely dependent upon the work, greater license being allowable in high
+than in low relief.
+
+
+_Treatment of Leaves_
+
+In Flat ornament, leaves are invariably in profile, but in Relief
+expression they may be folded, that is, wrapped round the stem. Greater
+freedom is possible in the turn-overs.
+
+Relief ornament should recognise ground by details being occasionally
+displayed in lower relief.
+
+Whether expressed in Flat or Relief, the composing lines should always
+be emphatic, and their direction traceable through the details, floral
+or otherwise.
+
+
+_Surface Interest_
+
+In addition to the foregoing, a further consideration is that of
+interest of surface, which may consist of contrast in textures of rough
+surface with smooth, of patterning on form, veining and striation of
+leaves and flowers, and of the employment of trellis or imbricated
+pattern. The latter in conjunction with other details, occur in the
+decorative work of the later French Renaissance.
+
+
+_Painted Decoration_
+
+The technical means of obtaining the interest of surfaces is, of course,
+incidental to the process involved. If the decoration be the result of
+painting, the design is free and untrammelled by any other than purely
+æsthetic conditions. Such, for instance, as the desirable recognition of
+surface, and the pattern sense suggested by recurrence, if a decorative
+rather than a pictorial effect is desired.
+
+When the decorations consist of ornament, wholly or partly, they are
+occasionally rendered in a conventional manner, based upon the
+appearance of Relief, as in the Pompeian wall decorations and the
+painted work of the Italian Renaissance. There is ample precedent for
+this treatment in traditional painted decoration, but deliberate
+attempts at realistic effects are not only undesirable but to be
+deplored.
+
+The interest in Painted Decoration, apart from colour, design or
+subject, would be that of the individual manifestation of the designer
+and painter.
+
+
+_Stencilled Work_
+
+Stencilled decoration is a compromise between painting and mechanical
+printing, and is restricted by the unit. The repetition of this is
+practically mechanical, though considerable license is possible in the
+treatment of colour, which has to be personally applied and is therefore
+amenable to controlled variation.
+
+[Illustration: No. 256. Inhabited Details from Woven Fabrics. Interest
+imparted by patterning on forms.]
+
+The design in stencilled work is not limited to one unit, and is not
+subject to hard and fast rules, the plates being of a size convenient to
+handle. Alternate units, or a series can be employed, the interest,
+apart from colour and subject consisting mainly of contrast in detail,
+and in the individualism expressed.
+
+
+_Mechanical Production, Printed and Woven_
+
+In textiles, where such mechanical processes as printing and weaving are
+involved, the design is restricted to the unit, the repetition of which
+is infallible both as to form and colour.
+
+Apart from colour, the surface interest consists of suggested or actual
+contrasts of texture, the result of veining and striating leaves and
+flowers or of patterning forms or backgrounds with smaller details.
+
+
+_Needlework_
+
+Needlework, being a personal performance, has no such mechanical
+restriction; the design can, and should be, complete within the area,
+and the expression perfectly free. Beside Design and Colour, the surface
+interest is that of contrast in the different textures resulting from
+the various stitches, and the employment of darning, knots, laid-work,
+etc.
+
+
+_Appliqué_
+
+In Appliqué work, interest is imparted by the mass effects enriched by
+embroidery, the large shapes entailing detail of the inhabited variety
+to keep them from puckering. In all needlework the effect is due to some
+extent to light and shade, particularly in Appliqué, where a corded edge
+is employed.
+
+[Illustration: No. 257. Needlework, contrasting effect of various
+stitches.
+
+(Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 258. Needlework Appliqué. Interest due to contrast of
+material, effect of relief imparted by corded edges, and to embroidery
+on applied details. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 259. Lace. Surface interest due to contrast of
+various fillings. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+
+_Lace_
+
+In Lace, the interest consists solely of textural contrast, not only in
+the treatment of the various details, but in the patterning of intervals
+due to the necessary fillings. Design may be complete, or a repeated
+unit, according to the purpose and variety of lace.
+
+
+_Wood Inlay_
+
+[Illustration: No. 260. Wood Inlay. Geometric arrangement.]
+
+Design for Inlays in Wood-work may be free in expression, or a unit, at
+discretion. The latter variety frequently takes the form of lines spaced
+with regard to good proportion, forming borders, chequers and geometric
+shapes of various kinds. Floral or other forms simple in character and
+profile may be used, the design being expressed in silhouette.
+
+[Illustration: No. 261. Wood Inlay.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 262. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette depending on
+natural colour.]
+
+
+_Intarsia_
+
+In the Intarsia detail of the Italian Renaissance, the inlaid forms were
+elaborated by surface markings and graduated effects were obtained by
+means of hot sand; but the natural contrast in the varied colour and
+fibres of the material employed probably form the more legitimate
+interest in all inlaid work.
+
+[Illustration: No. 263. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette.]
+
+
+_Veneer, Marquetry_
+
+In Veneer work and in Marquetry, where the work is quartered and
+juxtaposed, the interest consists in the patterning of the figured
+woods, particularly when these are arranged to form reciprocal shapes.
+
+
+_Boule Work_
+
+The interest of Buhl or Boule work, an inlay of metal employed in the
+French Renaissance in the decoration of furniture, often in conjunction
+with tortoiseshell, is that of contrast of texture.
+
+[Illustration: No. 264. Italian Intarsia. Forms elaborated by incised
+lines.]
+
+In the design, profile or silhouette is the primary consideration, being
+used:
+
+1.  As a form of framing,
+2.  In angles or centres on table-tops,
+3.  In panels in furniture:
+
+[Illustration: No. 265. Louis XV Cabinet with Ormolu Mounts.
+
+Marquetry, veneer quartered and inlaid with floral detail. (Photo: V & A
+Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 266. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.]
+
+The design can invariably be complete within the area. Coloured grounds
+are employed as well as tortoiseshell.
+
+
+_Mosaic_
+
+Mosaic designs may be complete in themselves or be the result of
+repetition, according to attitude and purpose, and with regard to
+variety and colour, only restricted by æsthetic considerations.
+
+[Illustration: No. 267. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.]
+
+Owing to technical limitations, modelling can only be broadly suggested;
+therefore forms should be generally in silhouette except when on a large
+scale.
+
+When employed on walls and vaults, gold is frequently used in the
+backgrounds. This not only serves to define detail, but affords contrast
+to the general surface, the inevitable joints in the tessaræ adding also
+to the interest.
+
+
+_Byzantine Use of Marble_
+
+Associated with Mosaic decoration in the Byzantine Period was the
+employment of marble in shafts of columns and for lining walls by
+banding or slabbing, frequently quartered, so as to display the markings
+in reciprocal forms. Such marbles were chosen for figuring and colour,
+the former in its variety being an important factor in the surface
+interest.
+
+Similar employment of slabs occurs in the treatment of floors, where
+contrast in colour is the chief consideration. It is sometimes
+associated with Mosaic of small tesseræ, also in marble, whereas that
+used on walls and in vaults was frequently of glass.
+
+The foregoing is a broad summary of ornamental expression in the Flat,
+with the exception of Book Decoration.
+
+
+_Book Decoration_
+
+In Black and White, which is chiefly employed, the designs may be in
+tone or line with suggestion of rotundity or relief; or line
+decoratively employed, according to subject, or purely decorative.
+
+The same applies to renderings in colour. Designs for covers are
+controlled by the processes involved, whether printed, stamped or
+tooled.
+
+[Illustration: No. 268. Mosaic Borders.
+
+A. From Carthage.
+
+B. & C. Withington, Gloucester.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 269. Mosaic Border, Roman.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 270. Roman Mosaic. Woodchester, Gloucester.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 271. Roman Mosaic. Treatment in Light and Shade
+suggestive of relief. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 272. Tooled Bookbinding in Leather. Repetition due to
+tools or stamps. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 273. Modelled Plaster, shewing relatively large
+ground area. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 274. Wood Carving. Grinling Gibbons. Attention
+devoted to detail with elimination of ground. (Photo: V & A Museum).]
+
+[Illustration: No. 275. Wood Carving. French, Louis XIV. (Photo: V & A
+Museum).]
+
+
+_Bindings_
+
+In the two latter the ornament should be in profile or silhouette. In
+tooled bindings, repetition of unit or motif is essential, the design
+being the direct result of available tools.
+
+In such bindings further interest may be imparted by gilding either the
+detail or by introducing gold as powdering on shapes or backgrounds, or
+by the so-called inlaying of other colours.
+
+
+_Relief--Economic Result of Method_
+
+In Relief ornament, design and character should be the result of
+technical expression. If considered from an economic point of view, the
+tendency would naturally be to obtain the maximum effect with the
+minimum of labour; and this would invariably result, when the decoration
+is built up or applied to an existing ground as in modelled work, in
+slight occupation, with comparatively large intervals.
+
+In carving, where the original surface forms the highest relief, and has
+to be cut back to form the ground, the result would be reversed, the
+individual worker being more attracted to the treatment of detail than
+to clearing away uninteresting spaces. Carving, whether in wood or
+stone, is employed in various decorative positions, and except in the
+enrichment of friezes or mouldings--when the repeating unit is
+desirable--the design should be complete in itself.
+
+
+_Desirable Treatment in Carving_
+
+The treatment should evidence the direct employment of the tool, any
+attempt to efface or soften will result in loss of character and
+suggest the plastic effect incidental to modelling.
+
+For convenience, and possibly in the absence of more desirable examples,
+students are often allowed in their early attempts at carving to
+reproduce casts of plastic origin. This is undoubtedly pernicious, as
+the model is probably unsuitable, and the student is thereby biassed.
+Examples should be selected in which the characteristic treatment is
+sufficiently evident if a true and thorough appreciation of the craft is
+to be instilled.
+
+[Illustration: No. 276. Simple Jacobean Wood Carving. Direct gouge
+work.]
+
+In the design--which may occupy or fill the shape and can be
+symmetrically arranged on a central axis, or balanced--the effect is due
+mainly to Light and Shade. Further interest may be imparted by the
+sectional form or modelling of the details, groovings, striations or
+other textural suggestions.
+
+
+_Backgrounds_
+
+The employment of punched grounds in carved work is to be deprecated as
+mechanical in effect. Sufficient interest is obtainable by the process
+of cutting back, in the perfect levelling of which the carver need not
+be too concerned. Suspiciously uniform grounds are suggestive of work
+fret-sawed and applied.
+
+[Illustration: No. 277. Wood Carving. English. Late Elizabethan or Early
+Jacobean.]
+
+When carving in wood is in very high relief, it is occasionally, as in
+the Grinling Gibbons work, built up. This may not be a matter of great
+objection if properly attached, and the grain of fibre matched, but is,
+however, better avoided.
+
+
+_Reproduction Processes_
+
+Modelled ornament is generally employed in reproduction processes, such
+as moulding of Terra-cotta, plaster, etc. The design can be free in
+expression, or a unit of repetition according to requirement.
+
+The detail which is applied to an existing surface is invariably more
+open, with a resulting display in the background.
+
+The surface interest consists of contrasts in texture, the result of
+veining, striating and patterning forms. The relief is not, as in carved
+work, controlled by an original surface, but, being built up, is
+susceptible to greater variation. Mouldings may be broken by lapping and
+overlapping details, and though in some traditional work similar
+treatment occurs in wood-carving, it must be remembered that such
+details are too suggestive of, and more proper to, plastic renderings.
+
+In economic moulded work undercutting of details should be avoided as
+this is only possible in piece or elastic moulds. In wood-carving,
+however, there is no restriction.
+
+
+_Metal Repoussé_
+
+Freedom and variety in detail are possible in Metal Repoussé, but as the
+light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface,
+the design which is plastic in character incidental to method of
+working, should have regard for silhouette or profile display, and not
+be dependent upon surface modelling. The principal factor in effect is
+Light, both direct and reflected. Surface interest is the result of
+imparting by chasing various textures in striations or matt.
+
+[Illustration: No. 278. Wood Carving from Fontainbleau. Early French
+Renaissance.]
+
+Excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool,
+leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height, and imparting
+texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast.
+
+[Illustration: No. 279. Economic Wood Carving.]
+
+The method of working is simple, entailing manipulation from the face of
+the metal only, and the detail is left in slight relief by the ground
+being set back in the texturing. This treatment is only suitable where
+the ornamented area is enclosed. When the design is freely displayed on
+a ground without enclosing lines, it should appear in relief, the result
+of raising from the back; and texturing should be employed only on the
+details in contrast to the smooth ground. As in all applied work, the
+economic result is slight occupation.
+
+[Illustration: No. 280. Oak Box decorated with flat carving. Icelandic.
+18th Century.]
+
+
+_Metal, Cast_
+
+Cast metal is produced in sand moulds, a model or pattern being employed
+of which the casting is a reproduction. The
+
+[Illustration: No. 281. Repoussé Work.
+
+A. Pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different
+textures of ground.
+
+B. Pattern raised from back, and defined and enriched by tracing and
+matt tools on face, affording textural contrast with plain ground.
+
+(Photo of A. V & A Museum).]
+
+pattern may be originally modelled or carved, and this determines the
+character of the metal result, though it is a matter of indifference
+when the necessary finishing is by turning or filing.
+
+Castings in iron are left as they leave the mould, but in bronze, except
+in Cire Perdu casting, the surface has to be entirely worked down. In
+common work, however, this is accomplished by means of small files or
+riffles and by chasing the more elaborate details.
+
+[Illustration: No. 282. Wrought Iron, simple form enriched by use of
+punches.]
+
+
+_Character of Cast Work_
+
+[Illustration: No. 283. Gondola Prow. Wrought Iron, comparative flat
+surface enriched by chiselled work.]
+
+As a matter of opinion it is consistent that the
+
+[Illustration: No. 284. Surface Interest in Metal.
+
+A. Blade of State Battle-axe, damascened with silver, Indian.
+
+B. Blade of Khyber Knife, engraved, Indian.
+
+C. Hilt of Tulwar, damascened with gold, Indian.
+
+D. Vase, Bidri Ware, pewter inlaid with silver, Indian.
+
+E. Scabbard End, gold inlay, Indian.
+
+F. Ornament on Gauntled Sword, damascened with gold, Indian.]
+
+character of cast work should be plastic, and if the original pattern is
+the result of carving, care should be taken to impart the desired
+feeling, the pattern being merely a means to the end.
+
+Much depends upon the final finish; if this is to be bright, surface
+modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest
+resulting from contrast of textures. It, however, becomes of
+proportionate importance as the work is dull or toned, and therefore is
+subject to the ordinary conditions of Light and Shade.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM
+
+
+Traditional ornament is replete with forms and details that were
+originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment this
+was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their æsthetic
+value.
+
+Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in
+the Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory,
+sacrifice and religious observance.
+
+
+_Early Symbolic Ornament_
+
+It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural
+types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus,
+which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were
+therefore esteemed.
+
+These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line,
+are symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the
+periodical inundation of the Nile.
+
+The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the
+Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which
+undoubtedly influenced the later ornament.
+
+The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it
+was the symbol of Resolution overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief
+was that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed.
+
+Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times,
+implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the
+general community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is
+to be deplored.
+
+A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however is
+fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which
+represents the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the
+operation of venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the
+respective bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to
+blood-letting, the other for final bindings.
+
+
+_Customs_
+
+The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a
+survival--the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of
+a truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery--the
+latter of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that
+one can stand unprotected.
+
+The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards
+the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient
+times, if a stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it
+denoted a declaration of war; but if carried with the point behind, he
+came in friendship and peace.
+
+There are opportunities where the decorative element could be such as
+to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the
+decadence of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest,
+because it has no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated.
+
+
+_Origin of Mythology_
+
+Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom
+the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light
+and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to
+how they affected his personal comfort.
+
+The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more
+modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and
+Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression.
+
+
+_Nature Myths_
+
+Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of
+natural phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural.
+Inducing a belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in
+future existence. With this belief these aspects were eventually
+invested with personality.
+
+An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting
+for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to Gæa
+(Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light
+and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos
+revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance.
+
+A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest god Tani, who
+effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the
+Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree
+upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches.
+
+
+_Light and Darkness_
+
+Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting. The
+Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all his
+children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the
+Grave), which three Time cannot consume.
+
+An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except
+Zeus, for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and
+promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted.
+
+On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the
+stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being
+that of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being
+the sunrise.
+
+
+_Melanesian Myth_
+
+An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and
+his brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and
+setting forth in search, was successful in his quest. On his return he
+told his brothers to sit quite still, and when they felt something in
+their eyes to take no notice but keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep.
+When Night had lasted long enough, Qat took a slab of red obsidian and
+cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A tradition reminiscent of the
+“dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery, though the slab of red
+obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its suggestion.
+
+
+_Darkness as a Devouring Monster_
+
+In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant
+influence or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun,
+_e.g._, the Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by
+Apollo, and in Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by
+darkness.
+
+Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according to
+tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts
+and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn.
+
+
+_Season Myths_
+
+In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears
+some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god
+was killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of
+Odin, everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was
+forbidden to injure Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was
+made into an arrow and shot at random. It effected his death, but by
+general request of the gods, he was restored to life.
+
+Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the
+end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the
+tradition of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her
+mother, Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of
+Orpheus and Eurydice.
+
+
+_Sun Myths_
+
+Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and
+Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and
+transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the
+Sun, or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation.
+
+Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the
+North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over
+hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing
+the morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the
+Heavens, where she became the Morning Star.
+
+Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who
+for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which
+traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his
+daily course.
+
+
+_Belief in Natural Phenomena_
+
+It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and
+conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena,
+indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day.
+Thus we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and
+intelligence. We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the
+Sea treacherous, the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also
+customary to speak of the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of
+the sea and the “mouth” of a river or a cave.
+
+Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,”
+“howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile”
+or the sky “threatens.”
+
+These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and
+consciousness--a belief originally simple, but later becoming more
+complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in
+assigning different deities to the various elements.
+
+
+_Greek and Roman Deities_
+
+In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and six
+goddesses.
+
+_Greek._                _Gods._                _Roman._
+
+Zeus.             The air or the           Jupiter.
+                      living one (king)
+
+Apōllon.       Sun God.             Apollo.
+
+Ares.            War                 Mars.
+
+Hermes.              Messenger.           Mercury.
+
+Poseidon.            Sea God.             Neptune.
+
+Hephaistos.          Smith.               Vulcan.
+
+
+                    _Goddesses._
+
+Hera.               Queen.                 Juno.
+
+Demeter.            Tillage.               Ceres.
+
+Artemis.            Moon-Hunting.       Diana.
+
+Athenē.       Wisdom.                Minerva.
+
+Aphrodite.          Love and Beauty.       Venus.
+
+Hestĭa.       Home life.             Vesta.
+
+These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as
+follows:
+
+Dionȳsus.  The God of Wine.         Bacchus.
+
+Eros.            The love lad.            Cupid.
+
+Plutōn.    God of the Inferno.      Pluto.
+
+Kronos.            Time.                  Saturn.
+
+
+_Scandinavian Mythology_
+
+In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or first
+created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold,
+nourished by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he
+slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet,
+from whom was formed the race of Frost Giants.
+
+Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the
+Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the
+Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks;
+the brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a
+wall of defence against the Giants.
+
+As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the
+Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god
+dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly
+hills between the Earth and the Rainbow.
+
+The other gods or Asa were:
+
+Thor.           God of Thunder and War.
+
+Tyr.                Wisdom.
+
+Baldur.             Sun.
+
+Bragi.              Eloquence.
+
+Vidar.              Silence.
+
+Hodar.           The Blind.
+
+Harnod.        The Messenger
+                (divine intelligence)
+
+Odur.
+
+Loki.          God of Mischief.
+
+All these were sons of Odin--the youngest being Vale. The mansion of
+Odin was Gladsheim--that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was
+Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.”
+
+The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits
+of warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted
+nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death.
+
+Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like
+Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow.
+
+The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and
+Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash
+tree Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one
+to the Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a
+fountain of wonderful virtue.
+
+In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four
+stags; lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent Nithhöggr, while the
+squirrel Ratatösker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife
+between the serpent and the eagle at the top.
+
+
+_Rising and Setting Symbolised_
+
+The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised
+the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the
+setting.
+
+Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye
+at the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the
+setting sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was
+dedicated, symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with
+two horns on a stem rising from her head.
+
+The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of
+the Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the
+death of Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis.
+
+Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon
+is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the
+Latmian Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth.
+
+
+_Winds Personified_
+
+That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to
+imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo
+or Boreas, son of Astræus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind,
+and lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were
+Notus, (South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), Argestës (North-East),
+Volturnus (South-East), and Aferventus (South-West).
+
+The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition
+of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away
+till only her voice remained.
+
+
+_Predestination_
+
+To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes
+would be attributed to the wrath of some deity, even though there was
+no personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief
+in predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of
+Orestes and Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return
+of Ulysses from Troy.
+
+
+_The Fates_
+
+The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were
+arbitrarily controlled by the Parcæ or Fates, of which there were
+three--Clotho, who held the distaff--Lachesis, who spun the thread of
+life and Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was
+ended.
+
+Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the
+distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread
+between life and death.
+
+The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The
+former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an
+atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came
+near. Their names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm)
+indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind.
+Equally arbitrary were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there
+were likewise three, their names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood),
+Alectro (implacable), and Megæra (disputatious).
+
+
+_Propitiation and Sacrifice_
+
+Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the
+natural outcome, and the various traditions are probably records of
+actual occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous
+conditions.
+
+In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story
+of Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having
+offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the
+most beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next
+twelve months. This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was
+deferred till she reached womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet
+arrived at Aulis on its way to Troy. Calchas declared this would be
+wind-bound as long as the vow remained unfulfilled, but Artemis
+interposed at the last moment by spiriting Iphigenia away from the altar
+and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead.
+
+A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea
+monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was
+Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and
+on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the
+country and to appease the offended deity.
+
+Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by
+Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition
+of Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he
+encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of
+Troy. The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed,
+and in consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer.
+
+
+_Early Burial Customs_
+
+The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future
+existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have
+souls.
+
+It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not
+only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or
+slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their
+ministrations in the future life.
+
+
+_Taboo_
+
+The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the
+belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the
+present day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which
+means “consecrated” or “set apart.”
+
+It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty,
+whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the
+supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed.
+
+
+_Roman Lares_
+
+The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares were
+the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors.
+They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in
+the Lararium or shrine.
+
+There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of
+streets and roads.
+
+This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of
+sacrifice in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom
+modified in later times to the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the
+present day in burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the
+foundation-stone in public buildings.
+
+
+_Typical Legend_
+
+Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are
+reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated
+traditions of demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some
+difficult problem in design or construction for the solution of which
+the architect or builder enters into the usual compact with the evil
+one, the terms being that the latter party to the contract shall take
+possession of the first living being that enters into or crosses the
+structure.
+
+Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other animal
+being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every
+instance greater than his vanity.
+
+Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also
+anticipated and symbolised the Atonement.
+
+With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun
+and Moon, as it announced the hours.
+
+The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius.
+Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should
+be sacrificed.
+
+
+_Early Spiritual Belief_
+
+Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when
+the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to
+impress the primitive imagination and suggest the duality of
+being--physical and spiritual.
+
+In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the
+soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to
+wake the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be
+unable to return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and
+come is evidenced in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and
+other forms of tombs.
+
+
+_Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics_
+
+Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of
+trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by
+devils which would be released by making a hole in the head. This
+treatment was apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive
+instruments and ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could
+hardly have been a pleasant experience.
+
+The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life through
+the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a superstition that
+it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death
+occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.
+
+Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death
+chamber.
+
+
+_Prohibition_
+
+A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act
+or question.
+
+The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife
+of Orpheus, who, killed on her wedding night, was redeemed on condition
+that Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world.
+Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and
+Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.
+
+The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by
+Aëdonius, King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty.
+Orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled;
+therefore he lost her a second time.
+
+The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine
+beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar
+in idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and
+devotion.
+
+As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche
+and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and
+origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in
+abandonment.
+
+A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was
+condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards.
+She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to visit
+her on that day.
+
+Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and
+saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and
+wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.
+
+
+_Belief in Magical Qualities._
+
+The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual
+world, but also extended to inanimate objects which were sometimes
+invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus
+and Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was
+possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer
+with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility
+conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of
+Iceland.
+
+
+_The Shirt of Nessus_
+
+More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of
+misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition,
+Nessus the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by
+Hercules for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to
+Dejanira, assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love
+her exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on
+wearing it was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove
+the garment, he immolated himself on a funeral pyre.
+
+Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by
+Queen Morgan la Fay.
+
+
+_Swords_
+
+Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the
+belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the
+sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its
+origin in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later
+improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural
+origin; _e.g._, the sword of Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung
+or Gram (literally “grief”).
+
+The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the
+Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother
+smith, cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the
+cut was so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he
+attempted to move, when he fell in two pieces.
+
+Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later
+development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered
+the wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing
+the sheath, though he retained the sword.
+
+
+_Invulnerability_
+
+Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired.
+In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his
+mother Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he
+received his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.
+
+Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that
+sprang from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa
+with the Promethean unguent.
+
+Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by
+bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden
+leaf had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his
+death, being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.
+
+This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment of defensive
+armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be
+unprotected.
+
+
+_Belief in Numbers_
+
+Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic
+significance, _e.g._, “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of
+Beginning, Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of
+Trinity is Triad, and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.
+
+That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the
+Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to
+be under the rule of three gods--Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and
+Pluto (Hades). The first has three thunderbolts--Neptune, the Trident,
+and Pluto, Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.
+
+Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and
+Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were
+Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.
+
+
+_Muses_
+
+The Muses were three times three as follows:
+
+Calliope.              Epic Poetry.
+
+Clio.                  History.
+
+Melpomene.             Tragedy.
+
+Euterpe.               Lyric Poetry.
+
+Urania.                Astronomy.
+
+Terpsichore.           Dancing.
+
+Polyhegmnia.           Religious service.
+
+Erato.                 Erotic Poetry--Geometry.
+
+Thalia.                Comedy.
+
+The world is compounded of three elements--Earth, Water and Air.
+
+Man also is three--Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of
+Nature--Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.
+
+There are three Christian Graces--Faith, Hope and Charity, and three
+enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.
+
+The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World--the Winds--the
+Gospels--the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.
+
+“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.
+
+“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of
+Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages
+in the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the
+sleepers of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the
+world.
+
+
+_Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc._
+
+Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the
+Deities.
+
+The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress
+and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the
+Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter;
+the Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was
+given to the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic
+games had a wreath of wild olive--of green parsley in the Nemean games,
+and of dried parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.
+
+The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated the spirit of
+prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and
+poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.
+
+The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace,
+an olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating
+a peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art
+is generally borne by the martyr--indicating victory over Death. The
+Lily--which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of
+Eve as she went forth from Paradise--is the emblem of Chastity,
+Innocence and Purity and is associated with representations of the
+Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten Lily, which it was customary to plant on
+graves, was once white, the tradition being that Persephone, daughter of
+Demeter, delighted to wander about the flowering meads of Sicily. One
+springtime she tripped over the meadows, wreathed her head with wild
+lilies and, throwing herself on the leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of
+the infernal regions, fell in love with her and carried her to the
+nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow.
+
+In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and
+represents original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the
+Pomegranate (generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the
+symbol of the future life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are
+symbols of Christ, and the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.
+
+The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion--the leaf
+symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords
+or whips; the column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails;
+the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx,
+the nimbus. The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and
+the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.
+
+
+_Sacred Animals_
+
+Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and
+crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag
+to Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to
+Isis; the eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the
+Lares; the horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to
+Minerva; the bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and
+the lion to Vulcan.
+
+The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of
+the Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead,
+and so remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it
+receives life.
+
+
+_Evangelist Symbols_
+
+Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his
+gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.
+
+Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a
+descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a
+man.
+
+Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle--the former
+because his gospel opens with the priests sacrificing in the Temple,
+and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the
+divinity of the Logos.
+
+In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on
+fountains. The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual
+inundations of the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.
+
+
+_The Serpent_
+
+The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety, and,
+considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the
+symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that
+Æsculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.
+
+In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the
+Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery
+dragon, raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.
+
+
+_The Dragon_
+
+The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and
+Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the
+source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief
+thereby slew a dragon.
+
+The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the
+Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also
+a poetic allusion to flood or inundation.
+
+The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion
+to the power of the sun drying up the overflow, as also the deliverance
+of the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille
+(waterspout) which lived in the Seine.
+
+
+_Poetic License in Tradition_
+
+In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable
+occurrences have been handed down--in many cases completely
+transformed--by reason of this poetic license; _e.g._, the legend of
+Marsyas the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest
+of skill and being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.
+
+The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was
+one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that
+goddess, still discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the
+respective superiority of the instruments--the Dorian mode in the
+worship of Apollo employing the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in
+the worship of Cebele the flute, the reeds of which grew on the banks of
+the river Marsyas.
+
+Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos,
+King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos.
+All but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were
+punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly
+in sieves from a deep well.
+
+The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the
+Argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The
+soil of Argos, being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.
+
+The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in the tradition of
+Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen
+fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog--both slain by
+Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who
+reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two
+tribes.
+
+Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred
+lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains--a Greek myth based on the
+peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the
+Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to
+two ships which acted as supporters.
+
+A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to
+have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited
+the wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to
+defray the cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.
+
+
+_Animals in Christian Art_
+
+The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on monuments at
+the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and at the
+feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog appears on
+the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the
+standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.
+
+Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:
+
+The Ant.               Prudence.
+ “  Ape.               Malice, lust and cunning.
+ “  Ass.               Sobriety.
+ “  Asp.               Christ, or Christian Faith.
+ “  Bee.                 Industry.
+ “  Camel.               Submission.
+ “  Cock.                Vigilance.
+ “  Fox.                 Fraud and cunning.
+ “  Hog.                 Impurity.
+ “  Lamb.                Innocence.
+ “  Leopard.             Sin.
+ “  Ox.                  Pride.
+
+ “  Dragon, Serpent,  }  Satan and his crew.
+ “  Swine.            }
+
+ “  Lamb.             }
+ “  Pelican.          } Symbols of Christ.
+ “  Unicorn.          }
+
+The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus,
+appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted
+carrying a banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from
+its breast caught in a chalice.
+
+The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement. It
+is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of
+its breast.
+
+The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred
+years, is the symbol of the Resurrection.
+
+The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.
+
+The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and
+Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life
+with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is
+occasionally suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in
+general shape.
+
+
+_Association of Human and Animal Qualities_
+
+Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull
+and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the
+association of qualities--animal and human; and probably had their
+origin in an early belief in Totemism.
+
+
+_Totemism_
+
+Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain
+animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and
+appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the
+belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous,
+resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer.
+
+
+_Cannibalism_
+
+The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part
+of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.
+
+The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage
+or mentality.
+
+The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for
+protection or menace.
+
+The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies
+alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.
+
+Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as hovering,
+the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element denotes
+Intelligence, and bird claws--Ferocity.
+
+
+_The Sphinx_
+
+The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position,
+is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally
+female) and symbolises Intelligence and Power.
+
+The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented
+in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different
+meaning, that of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the
+tradition of the Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her
+destruction was accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that
+had resulted fatally for his predecessors.
+
+
+_Assyrian Winged Monsters_
+
+The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is
+symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the
+wings suggesting mobility or ever-present.
+
+The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle
+head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but
+alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the
+pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the
+ears.
+
+The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a
+lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth
+flames. From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.
+
+The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the
+head being the crater, the goat representing the mountain slopes, and
+the snake tail the morass at the foot.
+
+The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and serpent
+tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the
+mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of
+a lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted
+issuing from the mouth.
+
+
+_Pegasus_
+
+Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the Chimeræ,
+also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of poetic
+inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with the
+chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins
+and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.
+
+
+_The Harpy_
+
+In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts
+employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head,
+with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and
+ferocity, and was the personification of sudden events.
+
+
+_Sirens_
+
+Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers)
+of whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They
+symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure
+their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing. Failing to
+entrance Ulysses, they were doomed to destroy themselves.
+
+The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower
+limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion
+to their musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing
+harps or lutes.
+
+The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which
+capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower
+extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean.
+The Dolphin has the same significance.
+
+
+_Pan_
+
+A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a
+man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity
+displayed in creation and pervading all things.
+
+Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were
+under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.
+
+
+_The Nymphs_
+
+To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the forest
+trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin
+with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of
+such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.
+
+
+_Centaur_
+
+The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was an
+embodiment of the Thessalonian horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the
+Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the
+Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when
+entertained as guests.
+
+
+_The Circle_
+
+The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic
+meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that
+of Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its
+employment as the crown, orb and nimbus.
+
+In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two
+asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the
+power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the
+Assyrian version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string
+substituted for the asps.
+
+The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and Authority,
+not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated in
+pagan times.
+
+It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an
+indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of
+the three persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre,
+and sometimes is triangular in form.
+
+The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but
+not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or
+less ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is
+sometimes used to envelop the whole figure.
+
+
+_Symbols of the Trinity_
+
+Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as
+emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.
+
+The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning
+nor end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.
+
+The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone
+or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift
+this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is
+preserved in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the
+tests of strength.
+
+
+_The Wand a Symbol of Authority_
+
+Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre,
+mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a
+form which is still retained in the official mace.
+
+The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open
+hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to
+reward or punish.
+
+
+_The Hand_
+
+The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome--two
+joined hands signifying concord.
+
+Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented
+by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending
+from the fingers in token of divine Grace.
+
+The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of
+violence, and is so expressed on the shield of Ulster. An allusion to
+the tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land
+in Ireland, and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung
+it ashore.
+
+The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is
+represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in
+harmonious accord.
+
+
+_The Caduceus_
+
+The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the
+Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek
+mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or
+Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents
+quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which
+the serpents twined in peaceful amity.
+
+The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with
+wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is
+employed as an emblem of commerce.
+
+
+_Thyrsus_
+
+A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes
+different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with
+ivy leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears
+in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion
+to the Greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine)
+with the new wine to make it keep.
+
+It has also been attributed to a strategy of war, when Bacchus made a
+successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with
+branches, as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone
+being suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities
+took place at night.
+
+
+_The Trident_
+
+The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also
+variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use,
+are sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.
+
+
+_The Cross_
+
+Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it
+was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for
+ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred
+symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it
+symbolised the four cardinal points.
+
+Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was
+sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life
+generally.
+
+There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross
+with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice
+extends equally over the four quarters of the world.
+
+The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm,
+sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith,
+Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all
+Christian virtues.
+
+The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two transverse arms, when
+it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops
+at Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.
+
+The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter
+X, and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.
+
+The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T--frequently used in Byzantine
+representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent
+was uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the
+sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.
+
+The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the
+triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes
+the form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed
+in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.
+
+In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple
+form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more
+suggestive of voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical
+suffering belongs to a later period.
+
+It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St.
+Peter’s being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his
+execution.
+
+
+_The Pastoral Staff_
+
+The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the
+Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a
+curving head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both
+being indicative of authority.
+
+
+_Symbols of Martyrdom_
+
+Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as
+indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of
+Triumph over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of
+violent death, or by other implements of execution. These are
+represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint, as
+attributes and as a means of identification.
+
+As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and
+Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as
+the crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear,
+lantern, thirty pieces of silver, etc.
+
+
+_Symbolism of Gems, etc._
+
+In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic
+meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond--Invulnerable
+Faith, the Sardonyx--Power, the Sapphire--Hope, Gold represents Power or
+Glory, and Silver--Purity.
+
+Black represents Grief or Death, Blue--Hope and Divine Contemplation,
+pale blue--Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene conscience,
+Green--Faith, Gladness, pale green--Baptism, Grey--Tribulation,
+Purple--Justice or Royalty, Red--Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet--Fervour,
+and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet--Penitence, and
+White--Purity, Temperance and Innocence.
+
+Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a
+mere shell of the immortal soul. They are also used to indicate a
+pilgrim, by whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or
+form of spoon.
+
+Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and
+Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as
+ascending, the significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An
+earlier signification in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.
+
+
+_Masks_
+
+Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable to
+the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.
+
+The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē,
+was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the
+three Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of
+Athenē. As a punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the
+aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed
+to stone. A fate to which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her
+reflection in the burnished shield of Perseus.
+
+The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival,
+was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise
+that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired.
+The horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably
+accompanies the representations of Ceres.
+
+
+_Symbols of Time_
+
+Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter
+implement, though generally accepted is more strictly the emblem of
+Death, which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe
+the sickle would be more appropriate.
+
+
+_Secular Symbols_
+
+Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and
+crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations.
+
+The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the
+various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and
+other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the
+Bird of Wisdom.
+
+Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a
+winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by
+bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements,
+sheaves of corn and fruit.
+
+
+_Trophies_
+
+Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a
+decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the
+weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of
+victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions.
+
+Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration
+to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which was emulated
+in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs.
+
+
+_Heraldry_
+
+Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised
+chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period
+of complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way
+difficult.
+
+Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed
+later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the
+display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in
+chimney-pieces, is quite justified as indicative of ownership. Such
+details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass
+effect and variety.
+
+
+_Heraldry in Design_
+
+A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion
+gate at Mycenæ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and
+Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The
+shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the
+strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French
+Renaissance.
+
+It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers,
+especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to
+which there could be little objection if the employment of such details
+were justified by conditions.
+
+
+_Symbolism in Modern Art_
+
+Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of
+incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and
+to invest modern art--wherever possible--with meaning.
+
+
+_Present Apathy_
+
+In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the
+past, as is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally
+appreciated, but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to
+æsthetic environment; regarding art vaguely as the production and
+display of pictures and sculpture.
+
+The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the
+mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of
+domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is
+the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated.
+
+The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do
+more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any
+progress must necessarily be very slow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+WAYS AND MEANS
+
+
+Through the medium of sight, interest and emotion are excited by phases
+of colour and form, varying in individuals according to temperament. The
+artistic perception and appreciation of these are invariably due to
+natural faculty, though much may be acquired by intelligent study.
+
+
+_Perception_
+
+In most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the
+eye. Though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are
+essential, these can be acquired by practice. Perception, is of
+paramount importance, and it may be assumed that the artist’s vision is
+more sensitive to appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the
+layman.
+
+The interest of the average individual in art is generally that of
+subject and sentiment. This is probably a more natural and logical
+attitude than that of the artist, to whom--as a craftsman--the interest
+is often merely that of technique. These possibly represent the two
+extremes; the cultured individual is capable of appreciation of the
+ideal without consideration of schools and isms.
+
+Many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined
+knowledge than from the actual visual aspect--are apt to take forms for
+granted, to assume, for example, that an object is round when it is
+really subtilely polygonal. Theoretically a curve has no existence,
+being really a combination of straight lines varying in length and
+direction. Many beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a
+form as a right angle, and until their vision and judgment is trained,
+it is improbable that they can successfully render more subtile
+combinations. It is the business of the teacher to train the vision so
+that the perceptive faculties are developed, and instil in the mind of
+the student that art is only concerned with appearance. Any fact not
+visually apparent should be ignored.
+
+
+_Accepted Conventions_
+
+The whole subject is complicated by convention; thus for convenience,
+forms are drawn in outline, but these drawings are not representations,
+and are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and
+tradition. Drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the
+surface by a line or lines, and can only define at most two dimensions.
+When shade and shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid
+in the suggestion of the third dimension. Though these tend to a more
+lucid explanation, the work remains a convention if colour and
+atmosphere are rendered in monochrome.
+
+It is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent. That
+this to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright
+colour to the child and the savage. Subtle quantities and combinations
+are only appreciated by comparatively few, the faculty for colour being
+extremely rare.
+
+
+_Influence of Fashion_
+
+The average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue
+or fashion, though it is the polite custom to concede that the average
+woman is naturally endowed with taste. This is delicate ground, but the
+awful and impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume
+certainly do not justify the courtesy. There are superstitions in colour
+selection evidently the result of tradition, such, for instance, as red
+and yellow being suitable for a sallow complexion. The actual effect of
+these colours being to excite the complementaries, is hardly favourable
+to the misguided wearer.
+
+The average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially
+concerned. Not that he necessarily possesses more taste, but because he
+is observant of custom, and moreover, has generally an instinctive
+dislike to anything pronounced. At times, however, the women-folk take
+the initiative, and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are
+the selection of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex.
+
+In domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided
+by fashion, and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a
+lining for walls, it is probably adopted. But the choice, however it may
+be influenced, is made possibly without thought of the furniture and
+upholstery that is associated.
+
+
+_Harmonious Consistency_
+
+The colour scheme should be determined by aspect and by the use of the
+particular apartment. A sunny room should be treated differently to one
+with a north-east aspect, in which an appearance of warmth is
+desirable. Furniture, too, must be considered, reds being an unsuitable
+setting for oak as a rule, while mahogany is best associated with
+delicate greens and greys.
+
+It is a reasonable assumption that the training of the student should
+result in greater discrimination, and when the exercise consists of
+representing, it is a matter of careful approximation of colours and
+values. In original design the harmonious effect depends on the
+individual, who, in early attempts in colour, jumps at it, being
+unconscious of any guiding principle.
+
+
+_Natural Suggestion_
+
+It would seem that the wealth of colour combination in the various
+natural aspects apparent to all, would surely influence selection; that
+it generally fails to do so is testimony to lack of observation. Nature
+left alone never makes mistakes, and the colouring in flowers, land,
+sky, and water, the plumage of birds and other natural phenomena, is
+always harmonious if seen in original environment. When the balance and
+correct association is disturbed it is due to human interference, as is
+evident too often in the work of the landscape gardener and
+horticulturist.
+
+
+_Colour Scheme_
+
+In decoration the scheme may consist of tints or tones of any one
+colour, and the contrast is merely that of tone; in other words, of
+lighter and darker phases. This method of colouring, which is quite
+suitable in some instances, is fairly safe, as the latitude for error is
+greatly reduced, but certainly is not courageous.
+
+The problem arises, when the scheme involves the use of more than one
+colour, and the successful effect depends on judicious association and
+balance. The simple rule is never to display two only of the primary
+colours in juxtaposition, the presence of the third being essential to
+harmonious and satisfactory effect.
+
+This, as a principle, forms the basis of much of the Moresque
+decoration, in which the details were picked out in blue and red of
+positive hues, and separated or outlined with gold.
+
+More consideration is required when positive or pure colour is not in
+request, and the proportions of juxtaposed tints have to be relative. As
+any tint departs from the full strength of its particular category, so
+those associated should be proportionately remote.
+
+Respective quantities may vary and one colour occupy relatively a small
+part of the surface, when to preserve the balance it may be stronger in
+hue than others occupying adjacent and larger areas. For such
+contingencies it is impossible to give exact formulæ, as the pigments
+employed are not always constant. In the case of manufacturers of mixed
+paints, it is customary to issue samples of colours for the year or
+season, and they cannot guarantee repeating exactly any colour or tint
+in subsequent mixing. The same applies where coloured papers and
+textiles are concerned; therefore judgment based on principle and
+experience can be the only guide.
+
+The Primary colours are Red, Yellow and Blue; admixture of any two of
+these result in the Secondary colours which form the complementaries of
+the Primaries not involved. Thus blue and yellow combined result in
+green, which is the complementary of red, the complementary of yellow
+being purple, and that of blue, orange.
+
+Intensity of hue of any colour employed may vary considerably, and this
+variation should be proportional in other tints associated. Part of the
+charm of colour often depends on its complexity, in natural aspects due
+to atmosphere and varied phases of light. Pure colours should at times
+be avoided, that is, in the sense in which they are obtainable as
+pigments.
+
+
+_Early Training_
+
+Students should have attained some considerable facility in drawing
+before taking the study of design seriously, though probably part of the
+early training has dealt with extremely elementary forms leading in that
+direction. Undoubtedly, too, many enter on this phase of study without
+adequate preparation, having little appreciation of the underlying
+geometric construction, not only in design but in all form.
+
+This, on investigation, can always be found, and either the general mass
+or sub-divisions identified with some simple geometric shape enclosing
+the more intimate details. Correct approximation and placing are
+essential to the accuracy and success of the drawing. Too often through
+lack of training the tendency is to draw detail right away, without the
+necessary preliminary of determining the mass shapes.
+
+
+_Nature Study_
+
+The study of natural form is of paramount importance to prospective
+designers. Subjects should be selected as season or opportunity permit,
+not merely from plant and floral growth, but any form available, animate
+or inanimate that is suggestive of pattern or susceptible of ornamental
+treatment.
+
+Students in their early attempts in design invariably find convention a
+stumbling-block, and in making their studies from nature cannot at first
+grasp the idea that selection should be exercised, and that only those
+phases which are favourable to decorative results should be recorded.
+Design is not concerned with facts or exact portraiture so much as
+pattern, and only those features and attitudes that are suitable should
+be dealt with. To perpetuate the ugly and unsuitable is waste of both
+time and energy.
+
+
+_Aspect and Attitude_
+
+In too many instances the first aspect of the subject of study is
+recorded, even without any regard to natural attitude. It may be a spray
+of blossom taken by the student from the parent tree or shrub, which is
+fixed up in any position that comes handy. For this there is no excuse;
+the spray should not only be placed consistently, but to the best
+advantage, the object being to record aspects that are suggestive of
+decorative development.
+
+In design it is conditional that each individual detail should be
+primarily effective as a silhouette, surface interest being of secondary
+consideration.
+
+Any leaf or flower that does not conform should be so arranged as to
+satisfactorily comply with this condition, and this can easily be
+achieved by slightly shifting the point of view, as it is generally due
+to extreme foreshortening, or perspective that is confusing in
+appearance.
+
+[Illustration: No. 285. Natural Aspect of Various Leaves.
+
+Those in outline unsuitable without adaptation for ornament. The
+silhouette versions shew natural aspects that readily lend to decorative
+purposes.]
+
+Points of study to be noted are the stem growth, junctions and angles of
+branching and articulation of leaves, the difference in development of
+leaves on main stem and those on flower stalk, and phases of the
+flowers. The drawing should be explanatory as far as possible, and any
+detail not quite clear should be expressed in separate lucid diagrams.
+When readily accessible, a series of studies should be made of the same
+plant or growth at differing stages, so as to form a record of the life
+history and development.
+
+Care should be exercised to arrange the study with its explanatory
+details on the paper so as to satisfactorily occupy the area, not
+necessarily symmetrically, but with a view to desirable balance. Those
+with a natural faculty for design will probably do this instinctively,
+but the observance is important in developing the sense of arrangement.
+
+
+_Treatment_
+
+The drawings, which should be carefully detailed as to form, and
+intimate detail--in fact diagrammatic--can be in pencil or ink outline,
+light and shade is generally unimportant, though it may be lightly
+suggested.
+
+With regard to colour, except in examples of special suggestion, little
+time need be wasted in still life renderings, though suggestive colour
+schemes may well be noted, but the drawing should at least be lightly
+tinted, this serving the double purpose of fixing the pencil lines, and
+defining the silhouette shapes.
+
+These studies should form material for designs, not at first ambitious,
+but dealing with single leaves or flowers, and deriving from them
+details suitable to some form of decorative expression. These can be
+expressed in flat colour, with or without outline, or further ornamented
+by treatments suggestive of veining or striation. The blotching of some
+leaves during autumnal changes or any natural markings can often be
+turned to decorative account.
+
+
+_Drawings for Reproduction_
+
+Designs in some instances are in the form of perspective sketches, when
+it is desirable to convey an idea of their final appearance, but as a
+rule they are expressed as working drawings. This is imperative when the
+final production is the result of some mechanical production, as in book
+decoration and advertisement either black and white or in colour.
+Drawings for these are generally made larger and reduced to the required
+size by photography, and the blocks for printing made from the
+photograph.
+
+There is no fixed rule as to size of drawing or reduction, but if the
+designs are drawn for one-third reduction there will be no material
+alteration in values when produced. But as the reduction is increased
+there is a proportionate risk in alteration of values. It is desirable
+to bear the proposed reduction in mind and to work more boldly or with
+thicker lines, otherwise the final effect may be thin and weak. In pen
+drawing, the lines should be clear and distinct whatever their
+thickness.
+
+For designs in black and white, hot-pressed paper, Bristol board or
+smooth card are most suitable. The ink should be waterproof, as, if
+necessary, corrections with Chinese white can be more neatly made. Fine
+pens, except for very minute work, are not desirable, a Gillott’s
+ladies’ fine writing nib yielding as fine a line as is ordinarily
+required. For some classes of work a brush will be found more suitable,
+but care should be taken that all lines--whether thick or thin--are
+equally black.
+
+Designs in colour for illustration or advertisement, which are to be
+reproduced by lithography or the three-colour process, can be on card or
+Whatman paper. The colours employed being transparent or opaque,
+whichever is more suitable to working and effect. Larger designs for
+advertisement, such as posters, are usually painted in tempera or opaque
+colour, and these should be applied as far as possible edge to edge,
+overpainting being avoided.
+
+
+_Opaque Colour_
+
+Care should be taken in mixing the colour to the required tint or shade.
+This requires some experience, as when white forms part of the mixture,
+the effect when dry is always lighter and colder than when the paint is
+in the fluid state; therefore allowance for this should be made. Opaque
+and tempera colours are not used so fluid as ordinary transparent water
+colours, and if applied too thin will fail to cover the surface solidly,
+or dry blotchy. Cartridge paper is not only good enough but more
+suitable for opaque colour than papers of better quality. Not merely is
+there no advantage in these, but the texture is an unnecessary
+embarrassment; moreover cartridge paper can be obtained in continuous
+form of good width.
+
+
+_Enlarging and Reducing_
+
+When drawings are enlarged or reduced, the linear dimensions and not
+those of the area are implied; thus one half means one half of both
+width and height--really one-fourth of the area. It is obvious that half
+the area would be a different proportion, and it is the proportion that
+is concerned.
+
+[Illustration: No. 286. Diagonal Method of Enlarging or Reducing. Solid
+line shews given size.]
+
+Divisional measurement is rendered unnecessary by the diagonal method of
+proportion. Given a rectangular shape, which has to be reduced or
+enlarged, a diagonal line should be drawn, and prolonged if the latter,
+through opposite angles. A line parallel to either the vertical or
+horizontal can be drawn and returned at a right angle where it
+intersects the diagonal, and regardless of any dimensions, this will
+ensure the exact proportion of the original rectangle.
+
+It is obvious that such designs as the foregoing should be complete, and
+both in drawing and colour a perfect anticipation of the painted result,
+owing nothing of their effect to mechanical reproduction.
+
+
+_Textiles_
+
+In designs for printed and woven fabrics, though the process of
+production varies, it is still necessary that the drawing be complete in
+the technical indications. Otherwise the reproduced version may suffer,
+or at least not fulfil the intention of the designer, and it follows
+that the drawings should be concise in every detail, even to the colour
+effect desired.
+
+The drawings are usually to the full size in most printed fabrics. The
+design is not reproduced by any mechanical process, the blocks or
+rollers used in printing being cut by hand from a transferred tracing
+made from the original. Hence the importance of exactitude in joining
+and dimensions.
+
+In some instances the whole of the pattern is cut in relief in the wood,
+but in others, lines are the result of narrow strips of ribbon-like
+brass embedded in the surface of the block or roller. These have their
+influence on the design, as in the former method of production the lines
+can vary in thickness and can be invested with greater interest than the
+employment of the wire can give. The metal results in a hard line of
+unvarying thinness.
+
+Drawings for printed and woven fabrics are usually in opaque colour, and
+each tint employed should display a defined edge, graduated effects
+being only technically possible by means of tapering lines or stipple.
+Each distinct colour or tint involves separate printing; therefore as it
+is economically desirable to attain the best effect with the minimum
+cost, the utmost should be made of the colours employed.
+
+
+_Wallpapers_
+
+Wallpapers as a rule are printed in opaque colour, but in textiles, when
+the colour is transparent, more elaborate effects are possible by
+overprinting or super-imposing one colour on another. In woven fabrics
+similar effects can be obtained by judicious manipulation of the
+shuttles, but in all cases it should be borne in mind that a working
+drawing is necessary in which the details are clearly indicative of the
+final result.
+
+Designs that have to be realised by some form of handicraft require the
+same care and concise regard to detail, though the drawings need not be
+so complete as to appearance, and may be to scale or drawn full size
+according to condition.
+
+
+_Architectural Drawings_
+
+Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, that of eight feet to one
+inch being general, with working drawings to a scale of half an inch to
+the foot accompanied by full-size details and profiles of mouldings. The
+drawings are geometric, that is in plan, elevation, and section,
+expressed in line and generally tinted. On plans and sections arbitrary
+colours are employed to indicate material, for instance, red denotes
+brick, purple-grey, stone, warm grey, cement, Prussian blue, iron or
+steel, and burnt sienna or Vandyke brown, wood.
+
+These drawings convey little idea of the intended effect to the lay
+mind, and it is customary to suggest the eventual appearance by
+perspective views, but for practical reasons they constitute the most
+convenient form from which dimensions can be taken for working purposes.
+
+
+_Structural Design_
+
+In all structural design similar drawings are necessary, although sketch
+designs in perspective may be made to suggest effect, working drawings
+are imperative to the execution of the work. These, when reduced to the
+essential conditions of rendering, with explanatory details and
+sections, assume a very different aspect to the original sketch.
+
+The success of the completed work depends upon skilful detailing, which
+must be thoroughly explicit to be of real value.
+
+For convenience such working drawings are generally made on detail
+paper, which is usually obtainable in rolls sixty inches wide by
+twenty-five or fifty yards. This is sufficiently transparent to be
+employed for tracings, a great convenience when copies are in request,
+and is a good surface for pen, pencil or chalk, though somewhat thin for
+colour.
+
+Designs can be sketched in charcoal, and the desired lines drawn in ink.
+When dry the charcoal lines can be obliterated by rubbing with a leather
+or soft cloth, by which the charcoal is distributed, forming a tone over
+the whole surface. This is easily removable by india-rubber, and
+excellent relief effects can be obtained by judiciously taking out
+lights and strengthening shadows, though to avoid any possible
+misunderstanding it is usual to also indicate the relief by sections
+drawn through the details.
+
+
+_Lucid Arrangement_
+
+In geometric and working drawings when plans and sections are incidental
+to lucid explanation, these latter should appear relatively; that is,
+the plan should be in alignment with the elevation, etc. Statements and
+directions as to procedure are often necessary, and these, placed with
+judgment and in good lettering, are valuable in balancing the drawing.
+Not that this has any effect on the work, but because it has a good
+influence on the designer.
+
+Possibly the story of Giotto and the circle that figured in the early
+school primers is responsible for the very general impression that the
+use of mechanical instruments is inartistic. Another characteristic of
+the young beginner is a total disregard for anything in the nature of
+exact dimension.
+
+No useful purpose is served, and much valuable time is wasted, in
+attempts to accomplish freehand, forms that may be perfectly achieved by
+proper implements. Familiarity with the use of these will be found of
+great assistance in all design in which geometric construction, apparent
+or not, plays so large a part.
+
+Of this the average beginner has little conception, and though Geometry
+has been a subject of their early training, they seldom have any clear
+idea as to its employment in design. Except in few instances, they are
+unpractised in the use of geometrical instruments, and at times
+oblivious that these serve any practical purpose.
+
+
+_Mathematical Equipment_
+
+In design, where accuracy is of paramount importance, a reasonable
+equipment is imperative. Drawing boards vary in size, but for most
+ordinary work the antiquarian will suffice; the best type being that
+commonly used in engineering and architectural offices, with battens for
+adjustment and invariably a steel guide for the T square.
+
+Large T squares are more reliable on account of the wider head, the
+better sort being in mahogany with bevelled ebony edge. When accuracy is
+essential, the T square should only be employed for horizontal lines,
+those in a vertical direction being attained by the use of the set
+square, when the right angle can be assured by contact of the base of
+the latter on the edge of the T square.
+
+Set squares indispensable for ordinary work are those of the angles of
+45 degrees and 60 degrees. They should be large, about twelve inch, and
+in celluloid, which, being translucent, tends to greater accuracy.
+
+Bevelled set squares, usually in mahogany with ebony edge, are desirable
+when the ruling pen is used, and should be placed with the bevelled side
+to the surface of drawing as a precaution against blotting through the
+ink running off the edge from the pen. For the same reason the edge of
+the T square should be slightly tilted, so as not to be in contact with
+the drawing when ruling lines with the pen.
+
+The mathematical instruments in common request are dividers,
+indispensable in scale drawing. For delicate work spring dividers with
+needle points ensure greater accuracy. The bow or pencil compass, large
+with extending bar, and small; with spring bows, for minute work. For
+very large circles the beam compass is employed, consisting of a wood
+bar with two sliding clamps fitted respectively with point, and either
+pencil or pen which can be adjusted to the required radius.
+
+For ink drawings the bow or pen compass is employed for circular curves;
+spring bows for extremely small details, medium for general purposes.
+The large compass in the ordinary set is provided with both pen and
+pencil joints, which can be adjusted as required.
+
+
+_Use of the Ruling Pen_
+
+For straight lines the ruling pen should be employed. In this implement,
+the nibs, as in the pen compasses are provided with a screw, by means of
+which the pen can be adjusted to form thick or thin lines as required.
+Care should be taken in the adjustment; for the thinnest line the points
+should only be in contact. If screwed too tightly the nibs may be bent
+and would have to be re-set.
+
+There is a limit to the thickness of line in individual ruling pens,
+which are made in varying sizes for fine or bold work. Bow and ruling
+pens should never be filled to the full capacity, as they are then
+liable to flood and blot the work. It is better also to charge the pen
+with the filler, which is usually provided with the ordinary liquid ink,
+or a brush; otherwise blotting may result. If the pen is filled by
+dipping, the nibs should be wiped dry on each occasion on the external
+faces.
+
+In use the ruling pen should be held as vertical as possible, with the
+nibs perfectly parallel to the edge of T or set square, any divergence
+from the vertical might result in a curve instead of the straight line
+required. If the nibs are at an angle with the ruling edge, the ink will
+not flow freely, and there is also a tendency to cut the surface.
+
+
+_Proportional Compass_
+
+Another instrument of great use, though not so commonly in request, is
+the proportional compass, by means of which drawings are enlarged or
+reduced. It consists of two shanks furnished with points at each end,
+the shanks being slotted out centrally to form a slide. The adjustment
+is accomplished by a set screw which also forms a pivot, which, set at
+any of the marked divisions, assures the given proportion.
+
+
+_Tracings_
+
+Tracing paper is largely in request, not only as a means of repeating
+details and units by transferring, but when copies of a drawing are
+required. It can be obtained in rolls varying in width, forty inch being
+generally useful, and in different surfaces, rough and smooth, the
+former being good for pencil work--the smooth being more suitable for
+ink tracings.
+
+When tracings of a more durable character are required they are made on
+linen, which for this purpose has a highly glazed surface on which the
+ink will not always run equally. This can be rectified by lightly
+rubbing the surface with French chalk and by adding a little ox gall to
+the ink. The latter is a useful agent in counteracting any greasiness of
+surface and is often necessary in colour work.
+
+
+_Conclusion_
+
+The stimulus of competition is always healthy, and the necessity to
+attract has resulted generally in raising the standard, notably in forms
+of advertisement. The designer has not only to keep pace with modern
+conditions, but in some phases of work has also to anticipate future
+demand.
+
+Students are too often infected with the phase of the moment, or by the
+work of some distinguished exponent. This is quite natural, and to some
+extent such emulation may be condoned, but if it becomes an obsession it
+is fatal to the development of individualism. It is desirable, indeed
+commendable, for students to be interested in contemporaneous work; but
+they should realise that personality will never be achieved by
+imitation, though emulation and experiment are legitimate methods of
+training.
+
+Art training is largely in that of technique, consisting chiefly of the
+handling of the tools and mediums involved. It is obvious that when this
+technique is successfully acquired it implies a high standard of
+craftsmanship. This is essential, but personality is of greater
+importance and its development depends upon the individual. Some who
+have nothing personal to express may be capable of attaining great
+facility in various mediums, but stop at the imitative, and though this
+may be lucrative, no great artistic distinction is possible.
+
+If personality is latent it will develop quite unconsciously, and the
+endeavour of the student should be to see, understand and express the
+subject of study or idea with sincerity, regardless of any current phase
+however interesting. In this way only can be attained the personal
+attitude and expression that really constitutes the interest in all
+forms of art.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acanthus Foliage, 38, 263
+
+    “    Leaf (Greek) 264
+
+    “     “   (Roman) 266
+
+    “     “ (Byzantine) 267
+  Romanesque, 268
+  Gothic, 268
+  Italian Renaissance, 279
+  French Renaissance, 280
+  Jacobean, 280
+  Louis XIV, 283
+  Louis XV, 284
+  Louis XVI, 284
+  Grinling Gibbons, 285
+  Adam, 286
+  System of the, 286
+
+Adam, Robert, 123
+
+Alberti, Leo Battista, 76
+
+Ancient Pottery, 8
+
+Animals in Art, 331, 334
+
+   “        “   Compound, 336
+
+Angelo, M., 79
+
+Anthemion, The, 262
+
+Anthemius, 45
+
+Apathy, Public, 8
+
+Appliqué, 296
+
+Appreciation of Design, 288
+
+Architecture, Egyptian, 22
+  Chaldean, 25
+  Greek, 28
+  Roman, 35
+  Byzantine, 43
+  Romanesque, 49
+  Gothic, 59
+  Renaissance, Italian, 75
+       “       Florentine, 76
+       “       Roman, 78
+       “       Venetian, 80
+       “       French, 85
+       “       in England, 88
+       “       Elizabethan, 91
+       “       Jacobean, 93
+       “       English, 102
+       “       Louis XIII, 103
+       “       Louis XIV, 106
+       “       Louis XV, 110
+       “       Later English, 113
+
+Architectural Drawing, 158, 363
+
+Architectural Features, Abacus, The, 173, 175, 178
+  Arch, 20
+    “   Pointed, 58
+    “   Decorated, 64
+    “   Perpendicular, 68
+    “   184
+  Arcades, 200
+    “      Vaulted, 201
+  Architrave, 161, 164, 169, 172, 211
+  Archivolt, The, 186, 187
+  Attic, The, 208
+  Baluster, The, 191
+  Balustrading, 193
+  Battlement, The, 66
+  Base, The Doric, 181
+    “   The Ionic, 182
+    “   The Corinthian, 183
+  Basement, The, 207
+  Buttress, The, 59
+  Capital, The Doric, 173
+    “      The Ionic, 175
+    “      The Corinthian, 178
+  Clerestory, The, 51, 67
+  Column, The, 172
+    “     Employment of, 194
+    “     Disposition and Spacing of, 195
+  Corinthian Order, The, 163
+  Cornice, 161, 164, 169, 171, 209
+  Doric Order, The, 161
+  Doors, 211
+  Entablature, The Doric, 164
+       “       The Ionic, 169
+       “       The Corinthian, 171
+  Frieze, The, 161, 164, 167, 169, 171, 213, 226
+  Impost, The Doric, 185
+    “     The Ionic, 186
+    “     The Corinthian, 187
+  Ionic Order, The, 163
+  Keystone, The, 187
+  Lintel, The, 19
+  Mouldings, 61, 64, 68, 97, 107
+      “      Profiles, 138
+      “      Purpose of, 139
+      “      Decoration of, 143
+      “      Employment of 147
+  Mutule, The, 164
+  Order, The, 160
+    “    The Doric, 161
+    “    The Ionic, 163
+    “    The Corinthian, 163
+  Pedestal, The, 188
+  Pedestal, The Doric, 189
+      “     The Ionic, 190
+      “     The Corinthian, 190
+  Pediment, The, 209
+  Piers, 60, 184, 200, 205
+  Pilaster, The, 160, 199, 235
+  Plynth, The, 161, 181, 183, 184, 188, 190, 191, 193, 204, 208
+  Rustication, 205
+  Subsidiary Order, The, 202
+  Superimposed Orders, 197, 204
+  System of Proportion, 159
+  Triforium, The, 53, 60, 67
+  Vault, The, 20, 36, 53
+    “    Treatment of, 224
+  Vaulting, Fan, 68
+  Volute, The, 175
+  Windows, 60, 213
+    “      Plate Tracery, 61
+    “      Tracery of, 63, 64
+
+Art, Interest in, 1
+  Definition of, 5
+  As an Appeal, 5
+  Ethical Side of, 14
+  Desire for Novelty in, 15
+  Egyptian, 23
+  Chaldean, 25
+  Greek, 33
+  Roman, 38
+  Græco-Roman, 40
+  Byzantine, 45
+
+Artistic Phases of Expression, 10
+
+Aureole, The, 340
+
+
+Baluster, The, 153, 191, 246
+
+Bank of Ireland, 136
+
+Base, The Doric, 181
+
+Base, The Ionic, 182
+
+  “   The Corinthian, 183
+
+Basement, The, 207
+
+Battlement, The, 66
+
+Bazzi Gian Antonio (Sodoma), 83
+
+Berain, Claude, 106
+
+  “     Jean, 106
+
+Bernini, 80
+
+Book Decoration, 300
+
+Borders, 227
+
+   “     Treatment, 233
+
+Boule, André Charles, 106, 109
+
+  “    Work, 298
+
+Bramante, 78
+
+Branching, Types of, 273
+
+Brunelleschi, 76
+
+Buttress, The, 59
+
+Byzantine, Art, 45
+
+
+Caduceus, The, 342.
+
+Cannibalism, 336
+
+Capital, The, 22, 50
+
+Capital, Doric, 173
+  Ionic, 175
+  Corinthian, 178
+
+Carved Work, 301
+  Design for, 302
+
+Ceilings, Jacobean, 97
+  Louis XIII, 105
+  Louis XIV, 108
+  Louis XV, 112
+  Treatment of, 218
+
+Centaur, The, 339
+
+Chaldean Art, 25
+
+Chambers, Sir William, 136
+
+Chambord, Chateau de, 86
+
+Champleve Enamel, 47
+
+Chenonceaux, sur Loire, 86
+
+Chimney-piece, Jacobean, 94
+
+Chippendale, 121
+
+Choragic Monument, 32
+
+Christian Art, Early, 46
+
+Circle, Symbolic meaning of, 340
+
+Cipriani, 126
+
+Clerestory, The, 51, 67
+
+Colour, Symbolism of, 345
+  Use of, 353
+  Opaque, 360
+
+Column, The, 172
+  Employment of, 194
+  Disposition and Spacing of, 195
+
+Commercial Production, 6
+  Intercourse, 12
+
+Convention, 292
+  Accepted, 351
+
+Cornucopia, The, 346
+
+Corinthian, Order, 163
+  Entablature, 171
+  Capital, 178
+  Base, 184
+  Pedestal, 190
+  Impost, 187
+
+Craft Restriction, 256
+
+Cressent, Charles, 111
+
+Cross, The, 343
+
+Crozier, The, 344
+
+Crux Ansata, 343
+
+Customs, Survival of, 311
+  Early Burial, 322
+
+
+Dance, George, 136
+
+Decorative, Materials, 289
+
+Deities, Egyptian, 318
+
+Deities, Greek and Roman, 316
+  Scandinavian, 317
+  Pan, 339
+
+Delorme, Philibert, 87
+
+Dentils, 146
+
+Design, Mental vision in, 1
+  Inspired, 2
+  Process and material in, 2, 8
+  Considerations in, 3
+  Public demand, 3
+  Training in, 4
+  Influence in, 4, 8, 12, 18
+  Architectural influence in, 14
+  Appreciation of, 288
+  Structural, 363
+
+Domes, Byzantine, 43
+  Treatment of, 224
+
+Domestic Conditions, 54, 72, 74
+
+Donatello, 76
+
+Doors, Jacobean, 96
+  Proportions and Treatment, 211
+
+Doric Order, 28, 161
+  Entablature, 164
+  Capital, 173
+  Base, 181
+  Pedestal, 189
+  Impost, 185
+
+
+Ecole de Médécine, 132
+
+Echo, 319
+
+Egyptian Art, 22
+
+Enamel, Byzantine, 47
+
+Endymion, 319
+
+Enlarging Drawings, 360
+
+Equipment, Mathematical, 365
+
+Eurydice, 324
+
+Evangelists, 331
+
+Evolute Scroll, The, 234, 261
+
+
+Farnese Palace, 79
+
+Fates, 318, 320
+
+Figure Composition, 244
+
+Filagree Jewellery, 258
+
+Flowers, in Ornament 270
+
+Fontainebleau, Palace of, 86
+
+Forms in the round, 245
+
+Four Courts, Dublin, 136
+
+French Renaissance, 85
+  Louis XIII, 103
+  Louis XIV, 106
+  Régence, 111
+  Louis XV, 110
+  Louis XVI, 127
+  Empire, 135
+
+Frieze, The, 226, 266
+
+Furniture, Egyptian, 24
+  Chaldean, 27
+  Greek, 32
+  Roman, 39
+  Middle Age, 54
+  Decorated Gothic, 66, 73
+  Italian Renaissance, 84
+  English Renaissance, 92
+  Jacobean, 98
+  Louis XIII, 105
+  Louis XIV, 108
+  Louis XV, 113
+  English (Dutch Influence) 118
+  Queen Anne, 120
+  Chippendale, 121
+  Lacquered, 113, 126
+  Painted, 126
+  Sheraton, 127
+  Louis XVI, 133
+  Empire, 135
+
+
+Gallo, Antonio San, 79
+
+Gallo, Giuliano di San, 79
+
+Gandon, James, 136
+
+Gems, Symbolism of, 345
+
+Gibbons, Grinling, 114, 137, 285
+
+Gibbs, James, 115
+
+Giocondo, 79
+
+Giotto, 83
+
+Gondouin, Jacques, 132
+
+Gouthière, 133
+
+Graces, Christian, 329
+
+Græco-Roman Art, 40
+
+Greek Art, 28
+
+Grimani Palace, 80
+
+Growth, Consistency in, 273
+
+
+Half Figures in Ornament, 278
+
+Halo, The, 340
+
+Hamadryads, 339
+
+Hampton Court Palace, 114
+
+Hand, Symbolism of the, 341
+
+Harpy, The, 320, 338
+
+Hawksmoor, Nicholas, 115
+
+Hepplewhite, 126
+
+Heraldry, 348
+
+Holbein, 89
+
+Holkham, Norfolk, 121
+
+Holt, Thomas, 91
+
+Horse Guards, Whitehall, 121
+
+Husk Leaf, The, 269
+
+
+Impost, Doric, 185
+  Ionic, 186
+  Corinthian, 187
+
+Impressionism, Early, 10
+
+Influence of Material, 8, 258
+  Political, 12, 17, 71
+  Religious, 12, 17
+  Commercial, 12, 17, 71
+  Civic, 70
+  Of the Crusades, 56
+  Of Fashion, 352
+
+Inspiration, Belief in,  2
+
+Intarsia, 297
+
+Interior treatment, Græco-Roman, 39
+  Romanesque Church, 51
+  Domestic, Tudor, 73
+  Italian Renaissance, 83
+  Jacobean, 94
+  Louis XIII, 104
+  Louis XIV, 107
+  Louis, XV, 112
+  Wren Period, 116
+  Georgian, 121
+  Adam, 126
+  Louis, XVI, 133
+  Walls, 216
+  Ceilings, 218, 221, 222
+  Vaults and Domes, 224
+
+Ionic Order, Greek, 32
+  Renaissance, 159
+  Proportions of, 163
+  Entablature, 169
+  Capital, 175
+  Base, 182
+  Pedestal, 190
+  Impost, 186
+
+Italian Renaissance, 75, 78, 80
+
+
+Jewellery, Filagree, 258
+
+Jones, Inigo, 81, 102, 137
+
+
+Kauffman, Angelica, 126
+
+Kent, William,  121
+
+
+Lace, 297
+
+Lacquered Furniture, 113, 126
+
+Lares, Roman, 322
+
+Leaves, Employment of, 275
+  Treatment of, 293
+
+Lebrun, 106
+
+Legend, 323, 333
+
+Lepautre, 106
+
+Limitations, Human, 1
+
+Lintel, The, 19
+
+Louvre, 80, 86
+
+
+Maderno, Carlo, 79
+
+Madrid, Chateau de, 86
+
+Magical Qualities, Belief in, 325
+
+Mainwaring, 123
+
+Majano, Benedetto da, 77
+
+Mansart, Jules Hardouin, 106
+
+Mansion House, London, 136
+
+Marble, Byzantine use of, 47, 300
+
+Marquetry, 298
+
+Marot, Daniel, 106, 109
+
+Martyrdom, Symbols of, 345
+
+Masks, 346
+
+Mathematical Equipment, 365
+
+Material in Design, 258
+
+Mayhew, 123
+
+Medusa, 346
+
+Metal Work, Bronze, 42
+  Byzantine, 47
+  Repoussé, 304
+  Cast, 306
+  Mounts in Furniture, 108, 135
+
+Methods of Expression, 292
+
+Micheli, San, 80
+
+Modelling, 301, 304
+
+Mosaics, Byzantine, 47, 299
+
+Mouldings, Attitude of, 148
+  Bolection, 152
+  Decorated Gothic, 64
+  Decoration of, 143
+  Drawn Metal, 155
+  Employment of, 147
+  Jacobean, 97
+  Pointed Gothic, 61
+  Plaster, 153
+  Pottery, 154
+  Profiles of, 138
+  Purpose of, 139
+  Repoussé, 157
+  Rolled Metal, 155
+  Spun Metal, 157
+  Turned Wood, 153
+  Wood Panel, 149
+
+Muses, 328
+
+Mythology, Origin of, 312
+  Scandinavian, 317
+
+Myths, Nature, 312
+  Season, 314
+  Sun, 315
+
+
+Nature, Myths, 312
+  Study, 355
+
+Natural Attraction, 288
+
+Natural Suggestion, 353
+  Phenomena, Belief in, 315
+
+Needlework, 296
+
+Newgate Prison, 136
+
+Nimbus, The, 340
+
+Noon, 318
+
+Numbers, Belief in, 328
+
+
+Oppenord, Giles Marie, 111
+
+Order, 160
+
+Order, Doric, 161
+  Ionic, 163
+  Corinthian, 163
+
+Originality, 1
+
+Ornament, Roman, 39
+  Byzantine, 45
+  Romanesque, 50
+  Pointed Gothic, 63
+  Decorated Gothic, 65
+  Perpendicular Gothic, 69
+  French Renaissance, 88
+  English        “    88, 91
+  Later English  “    118
+  Louis XVI, 134
+  Empire, 135
+
+Outline, Drawing, 254
+
+
+Painted Decoration, Roman, 39
+  Renaissance, 82, 294
+
+Painted Furniture, 126
+
+Palazzo, Pitti, 77
+  Strozzi, 77
+
+Palladio, 78, 81
+
+Pan, 339
+
+Panels, Treatment of, 236
+  Juxtaposition, 238
+  The Composing Lines, 241
+  Grouping and Massing, 242
+  Division of, 242
+
+Pantheon, Rome, 36
+
+Passion, Symbols of the, 345
+
+Pastoral Staff, 344
+
+Parthenon, 30
+
+Perugino, 83
+
+Peruzzi, Baldazzare, 79
+
+Pineau, Nicholas, 111
+
+Piers, Gothic, 60
+
+Pinturrichio, 83
+
+Potters, Elementary, 9
+
+Pottery, Ancient, 8
+  Greek, 34
+
+Predestination, 319
+
+Prehistoric Workers, 9
+
+Personal Production, 10
+
+Primitive Essays, 8
+  Requirements, 11
+
+Prohibition, 324
+
+Propitiation, 320
+
+
+Raffaelle, 79
+
+Realism, 255
+
+Régence, 111
+
+Relief Work, Treatment of, 293, 301
+
+Reproduction Processes, 304
+  Drawing for, 359
+
+Riesener, 133
+
+Rococo, 111
+
+Romano Giulio, 83
+
+Rosette, The, 270
+
+
+Sacred Trees and Flowers, 329
+
+Sacrifice, 321
+
+Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti) 80
+
+Sarto, Andrea del, 86
+
+Scamozzi, Vincenzo, 81
+
+Sceptre, The, 341
+
+Scroll, The, 266
+
+Season Myths, 314
+
+Secular Symbols, 347
+
+Serlio, 78, 87
+
+Shells, Symbolism of, 345
+
+Sheraton, 127
+
+Sirens, The, 338
+
+Social Conditions, Early, 11
+
+Sodoma (Gian Antonio Bazzi) 83
+
+Somerset House, 136
+
+Soufflet, 110
+
+Spires, Pointed Gothic, 64
+  Decorated Gothic, 66
+  Classic, 116
+
+Spiritual Belief, Early, 323
+
+St. Geneviéve (Pantheon) 110
+  George, Bloomsbury, 115
+  Mark, Library of, 81
+  Martin in the Fields, 115
+  Mary le Strand, 115
+  Mary, Woolnoth, 115
+  Paul, Covent Garden, 103
+  Peter’s, Rome, 78
+  Stephen’s, Walbrook, 116
+
+Standards, 246
+
+Starts in Ornament, 276
+
+Stencilled Work, 295
+
+Strapwork, 87
+
+Structural Design, 363
+
+Style, 16
+  Phases in, 18
+     “    “  Gothic, 60
+
+Sun Myths, 315
+  Signs, 340
+
+Supports, 246
+
+Surface Interest, 294
+
+Symbols of the Evangelists, 331
+
+Symbolic Ornament, 310
+
+
+Taboo, 322
+
+Taste, 6
+
+Tatti, 80
+
+Technical Considerations, 292
+
+Tendrils, 271
+
+Textiles, Printed and Woven, 296, 361
+
+Thorpe, Thomas, 91
+
+Thyrsus, The, 342
+
+Time, Symbols of, 346
+
+Torches, 346
+
+Torrigiano, 89
+
+Totemism, 336
+
+Tracery, 61
+  Pointed, 63, 64, 68
+
+Tracings, 368
+
+Trident, The, 343
+
+Triforium, 53, 60, 67
+
+Trinity College, Cambridge, 116
+
+Trinity, Symbols of the, 341
+
+Triton, 339
+
+Trophies, 347
+
+Tuileries, The, 87
+
+
+Udine, Giovanni da, 83
+
+Undulate, Line or Stem, 230, 266
+
+
+Vaga, Pierino del, 83
+
+Vase, Greek, 29, 258
+  Forms and Decoration, 248
+
+Vase, Stretch out and Segments, 250
+
+Vault, The, 20, 36, 53
+  Treatment of, 224
+
+Vaulting, Fan, 68
+
+Veneer, 298
+
+Venetian, Renaissance, 80
+
+Versailles, Palace of, 106
+
+Vesica Piscis, The, 340
+
+Vignola, 78, 80, 87, 159
+
+Vinci, Leonardo da, 86
+
+Volute, The, 175
+
+
+Wallpaper, 290, 362
+
+Whitehall, Banqueting House, 103
+
+Windows, Glazing of, 47, 67
+  Pointed Gothic, 61
+  Decorated Gothic, 64
+  Perpendicular Gothic, 68
+  Domestic, 73, 74
+  Jacobean, 98
+  Treatment of, 213
+
+Winds Personified, 319
+
+Wood, Inlay, 297
+  Treatment of, 289
+
+Wren, Sir Christopher, 81, 114, 137
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Design and Tradition, by Amor Fenn
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Design and Tradition, by Amor Fenn
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Design and Tradition
+
+Author: Amor Fenn
+
+Release Date: December 31, 2016 [EBook #53850]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DESIGN AND TRADITION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images available at The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""
+style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%;
+padding:1%;">
+<tr><td>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#CONTENTS">Contents.</a></p>
+<p class="c"><a href="#INDEX">Index.</a>:
+<a href="#A">A</a>,
+<a href="#B">B</a>,
+<a href="#C">C</a>,
+<a href="#D">D</a>,
+<a href="#E">E</a>,
+<a href="#F">F</a>,
+<a href="#G">G</a>,
+<a href="#H">H</a>,
+<a href="#I-i">I</a>,
+<a href="#J">J</a>,
+<a href="#K">K</a>,
+<a href="#L">L</a>,
+<a href="#M">M</a>,
+<a href="#N">N</a>,
+<a href="#O">O</a>,
+<a href="#P">P</a>,
+<a href="#R">R</a>,
+<a href="#S">S</a>,
+<a href="#T">T</a>,
+<a href="#U">U</a>,
+<a href="#V-i">V</a>,
+<a href="#W">W</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a><br /> <span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers]
+clicking on the image will bring up a larger version.)</span></p>
+
+<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="320" height="500" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="c">DESIGN AND TRADITION</p>
+
+<p class="c">“They are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only Beauty.”&mdash;<i>Oscar
+Wilde.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;">
+<a href="images/ill_004_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_004_sml.jpg" width="377" height="522" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. Rickards,
+F.R.I.B.A.</p>
+
+<p>This drawing is remarkable as an anticipation of eventual appearance.
+Thoroughly impressionistic in treatment, all irrelevant detail is
+omitted.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<div class="bboxx">
+<div class="bboxx">
+<p class="c">
+UNIVERSAL ART SERIES<br />
+EDITED BY FREDERICK MARRIOTT</p>
+</div></div></div>
+<div class="bbox">
+<div class="bboxx">
+<div class="bboxx">
+<h1>DESIGN AND<br />
+TRADITION</h1>
+
+<div class="cntrblk"><div class="cntrblk2">
+A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE<br />
+PRINCIPLES AND HISTORIC<br />
+DEVELOPMENT &nbsp;OF &nbsp;ARCHI-<br />TECTURE
+AND THE APPLIED<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5.2em;">ARTS</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<p class="cb">BY<br />
+AMOR FENN<br />
+<br />
+<img src="images/colophon.png"
+width="150"
+alt="colophon"
+/><br />
+<br />
+LONDON<br />
+CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD.<br />
+1920<br />
+</p></div></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="c"><img src="images/colophon2.png"
+width="75"
+alt="colophon"
+/>
+<br />
+THE WESTMINSTER PRESS<br />
+HARROW ROAD<br />
+LONDON<br />
+</p>
+
+<h2><a name="AUTHORS_PREFACE" id="AUTHORS_PREFACE"></a>AUTHOR’S PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T may be urged with some reasonable basis of truth that much of the
+modern art work fails to attain the level of that of the past. It must
+be conceded, however, that demand and appreciation is more general and
+widely diffused. As social conditions have developed, interest in
+environment has been stimulated. Improved processes resulting in more
+economic production have rendered possible an indulgence by those of
+moderate means, attainable only at earlier periods by the wealthier
+class.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of this more general appreciation the professional services
+of the artist are necessarily in greater request, thus affording a
+sphere of work not only lucrative but temperamentally attractive.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time the facilities available to the prospective artist
+are considerably greater than at any previous period. In every district
+and important centre, there are schools specialising in the Arts and
+Crafts, giving opportunities for training at fees that are purely
+nominal. Most of these deal with the various phases of artistic
+expression on logical and sound lines, but the knowledge and experience
+essential to a successful artistic career is invariably acquired in
+professional work to which the art school training is preparatory.</p>
+
+<p>To those specialising in design, the study of Historic Style is of
+paramount importance. Intelligent investigation will show that in all
+the varying phases, the underlying factors are much the same, and
+appreciation of these will be found invaluable in personal work.</p>
+
+<p>Necessarily brief, this book has been prompted by the memory of early
+bewilderment and difficulties, when a guiding hand would have saved much
+valuable time and mis-directed energy.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable amount of the available space is devoted to Architectural
+features, with the conviction that a knowledge of these will be found
+helpful in the formation of methods, logical and constructive.</p>
+
+<p>Attention is directed to the frontispiece, a typical example of the
+extraordinary genius of E. A. Rickards, F.R.I.B.A., the original of
+which is in the possession of Philip Connard, A.R.A., to whom
+indebtedness for its use is acknowledged.</p>
+
+<p>The author’s thanks are also due to Miss Dora Bard and Mr. C. E. Bernard
+for the reproduction of drawings made by them during their tenure in
+successive years of the “Travelling Studentship” of the Society of
+British Decorators.</p>
+
+<p>For the use of the following photographs the author desires to make
+acknowledgment to the Authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+South Kensington, as holders of the Crown copyright:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td valign="top" rowspan="5">Nos.</td> <td>257.<br />
+258.<br />
+259.<br />
+265.<br />
+271.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; </td>
+<td>272.<br />
+273.<br />
+274.<br />
+275.<br />
+281<small>A</small>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""
+style="margin:auto auto;max-width:80%;">
+<tr><td><small>CHAPTER</small></td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp">
+<td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c">
+<a href="#CHAPTER_I">I</a></td>
+<td>Introductory</td>
+<td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Human Limitations, p. 1&mdash;Inspiration&mdash;Process and
+Material, p. <a href="#page_002">2</a>&mdash;Early Training, p. <a href="#page_004">4</a>&mdash;Art and Existence,
+p. <a href="#page_005">5</a>&mdash;Natural Taste&mdash;Commercial Production,
+p. <a href="#page_006">6</a>&mdash;“Ornaments,” p. <a href="#page_007">7</a>&mdash;Modern Development&mdash;Public
+Apathy, p. <a href="#page_008">8</a>&mdash;Elementary Pattern, p. <a href="#page_009">9</a>&mdash;Early
+Impressionism&mdash;Personal Production, p. <a href="#page_010">10</a>&mdash;Early
+Social Conditions, p. <a href="#page_011">11</a>&mdash;Influence&mdash;Commercial Intercourse,
+p. <a href="#page_012">12</a>&mdash;Effect on Design, p. <a href="#page_013">13</a>&mdash;Ethical side
+of Art, p. <a href="#page_014">14</a>&mdash;Desire for Novelty, p. <a href="#page_015">15</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II</a> </td><td>Historic Review</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_016">16</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Style, p. <a href="#page_016">16</a>&mdash;Intercommunication&mdash;Climate and
+Material, p. <a href="#page_017">17</a>&mdash;Phases in Style, p. <a href="#page_018">18</a>&mdash;The Lintel,
+p. <a href="#page_019">19</a>&mdash;The Arch, p. <a href="#page_020">20</a>&mdash;Egyptian Art, p. <a href="#page_022">22</a>&mdash;Chaldean
+Art, p. <a href="#page_025">25</a>&mdash;Greek Art, p. <a href="#page_028">28</a>&mdash;Roman Art, p.
+<a href="#page_035">35</a>&mdash;Vaulting, p. <a href="#page_036">36</a>&mdash;Greek Influence, p. <a href="#page_037">37</a>&mdash;Roman
+Development of Ornament, p. <a href="#page_038">38</a>&mdash;Græco-Roman
+Painted Decoration, p. <a href="#page_039">39</a>&mdash;Byzantine Dome, p. <a href="#page_043">43</a>&mdash;Early
+Christian Art, p. <a href="#page_046">46</a>&mdash;Byzantine Metal Work,
+and Enamel, p. <a href="#page_047">47</a>&mdash;Roman Influence Abroad&mdash;Romanesque
+Style, p. <a href="#page_049">49</a>&mdash;Church Development, p.
+<a href="#page_050">50</a>&mdash;Dark Ages, p. <a href="#page_053">53</a>&mdash;Crusades, p. <a href="#page_056">56</a>&mdash;Origin of
+the Pointed Arch, p. <a href="#page_058">58</a>&mdash;Gothic Style, p. <a href="#page_059">59</a>&mdash;Phases
+of Gothic&mdash;Early Pointed, p. <a href="#page_060">60</a>&mdash;Decorated Gothic,
+p. <a href="#page_064">64</a>&mdash;Perpendicular Gothic&mdash;Glass Windows, p. <a href="#page_067">67</a>&mdash;Civic
+Influences, p. <a href="#page_070">70</a>&mdash;Effect of Commerce&mdash;Classic
+Tradition in Italy, p. <a href="#page_071">71</a>&mdash;Foreign Influence
+in England&mdash;The Dwelling House, p. <a href="#page_072">72</a>&mdash;The Reformation,
+p. <a href="#page_074">74</a>&mdash;The Renaissance, p. <a href="#page_075">75</a>&mdash;Early Florentine
+Exponents, p. <a href="#page_076">76</a>&mdash;Rome, p. <a href="#page_078">78</a>&mdash;Venice, p.
+<a href="#page_080">80</a>&mdash;Venetian Influence, p. <a href="#page_081">81</a>&mdash;Painted Decoration,
+p. <a href="#page_082">82</a>&mdash;Græco-Roman Influence, p. <a href="#page_083">83</a>&mdash;Early French
+Renaissance, p. <a href="#page_085">85</a>&mdash;Native Exploitation, p. <a href="#page_087">87</a>&mdash;English
+Renaissance, p. <a href="#page_088">88</a>&mdash;Italians in England, p.
+<a href="#page_089">89</a>&mdash;Study of Classic Style&mdash;Thomas Thorpe, p. <a href="#page_091">91</a>&mdash;Flemish
+Influence, p. <a href="#page_092">92</a>&mdash;Jacobean Work, p. <a href="#page_093">93</a>&mdash;Development
+in Dwellings, p. <a href="#page_098">98</a>&mdash;Evolution of
+Professional Designer, p. <a href="#page_101">101</a>&mdash;Inigo Jones, p. <a href="#page_102">102</a>&mdash;Louis
+XIII, p. <a href="#page_103">103</a>&mdash;Louis XIV, p. <a href="#page_106">106</a>&mdash;“Boule”
+Work&mdash;Mirrors, p. <a href="#page_109">109</a>&mdash;Louis XV, p. <a href="#page_110">110</a>&mdash;Régence&mdash;Rococo,
+p. <a href="#page_111">111</a>&mdash;Lacquer “Vernis Martin”&mdash;Later
+English Renaissance, p. <a href="#page_113">113</a>&mdash;Sir Christopher
+Wren, p. <a href="#page_114">114</a>&mdash;Classic Treatment of the Spire, p. <a href="#page_116">116</a>&mdash;Dutch
+and French Influences, p. <a href="#page_118">118</a>&mdash;Queen Anne
+Period&mdash;Early Georgian, p. <a href="#page_120">120</a>&mdash;Furniture Design,
+Chippendale, p. <a href="#page_121">121</a>&mdash;Mayhew&mdash;Robert Adam, p.
+<a href="#page_123">123</a>&mdash;Hepplewhite, p. <a href="#page_126">126</a>&mdash;Sheraton&mdash;Louis XVI,
+p. <a href="#page_127">127</a>&mdash;Riesener and Gouthière, p. <a href="#page_133">133</a>&mdash;Empire&mdash;Empire
+in England&mdash;Later English Architecture,
+p. <a href="#page_135">135</a>&mdash;French Influence on Europe, p. <a href="#page_136">136</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III </a></td><td>  Mouldings</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Purpose&mdash;The Fillet&mdash;Sheltering Mouldings&mdash;The
+Cavetto, p. <a href="#page_139">139</a>&mdash;Cyma Recta&mdash;Bracketing Mouldings&mdash;The
+Ovolo, p. <a href="#page_140">140</a>&mdash;Cyma Reversa&mdash;Binding
+Mouldings, p. <a href="#page_141">141</a>&mdash;The Torus&mdash;The Scotia&mdash;The
+Facia, p. <a href="#page_142">142</a>&mdash;Decoration of Mouldings, p. <a href="#page_143">143</a>&mdash;Orthodox
+Details&mdash;Angle Leaf, p. <a href="#page_145">145</a>&mdash;Dentils, p.
+<a href="#page_146">146</a>&mdash;Employment of Mouldings, p. <a href="#page_147">147</a>&mdash;Attitude,
+p. <a href="#page_148">148</a>&mdash;Panel Mouldings&mdash;Woodwork, p. <a href="#page_149">149</a>&mdash;Applied
+Mouldings, p. <a href="#page_151">151</a>&mdash;Bolection Moulding, p.
+<a href="#page_152">152</a>&mdash;Mouldings in Plaster Work&mdash;Wood Turning,
+p. <a href="#page_153">153</a>&mdash;Metal Turning&mdash;Pottery, p. <a href="#page_154">154</a>&mdash;Mechanically
+produced Metal Mouldings&mdash;Wrought Iron, p.
+<a href="#page_155">155</a>&mdash;Silver Work, p. <a href="#page_156">156</a>&mdash;Sheet Metal, Spinning,
+and Repoussé, p. <a href="#page_157">157</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV</a></td><td> Architectural Proportions</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Introduction, p. <a href="#page_158">158</a>&mdash;System of Proportion, p. <a href="#page_159">159</a>&mdash;The
+Order, p. <a href="#page_160">160</a>&mdash;Doric Order, p. <a href="#page_161">161</a>&mdash;Ionic
+Order&mdash;Corinthian Order, p. <a href="#page_163">163</a>&mdash;Doric Entablatures&mdash;Mutules,
+p. <a href="#page_164">164</a>&mdash;Ionic Entablature, p. <a href="#page_169">169</a>&mdash;Corinthian
+Entablature, p. <a href="#page_171">171</a>&mdash;The Column, p. <a href="#page_172">172</a>&mdash;The
+Capital&mdash;Doric Capital, p. <a href="#page_173">173</a>&mdash;Ionic Capital&mdash;Ionic
+Volute, p. <a href="#page_175">175</a>&mdash;Corinthian Capital, p. <a href="#page_178">178</a>&mdash;The
+Base, p. <a href="#page_180">180</a>&mdash;Doric Base, p. <a href="#page_181">181</a>&mdash;Ionic Base,
+p. <a href="#page_182">182</a>&mdash;Corinthian Base&mdash;The Arch, p. <a href="#page_184">184</a>&mdash;Doric
+Impost, p. <a href="#page_185">185</a>&mdash;Doric Archivolt&mdash;Ionic Impost,
+p. <a href="#page_186">186</a>&mdash;Ionic Archivolt&mdash;Corinthian Impost&mdash;Corinthian
+Archivolt&mdash;The Keystone, p. <a href="#page_187">187</a>&mdash;The Pedestal,
+p. <a href="#page_188">188</a>&mdash;Doric Pedestal, p. <a href="#page_189">189</a>&mdash;Ionic Pedestal&mdash;Corinthian
+Pedestal, p. <a href="#page_190">190</a>&mdash;The Baluster, p. <a href="#page_191">191</a>&mdash;Spacing
+of Balusters&mdash;Balustrading, p. <a href="#page_193">193</a>&mdash;Use of
+Columns, p. <a href="#page_194">194</a>&mdash;Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades,
+p. <a href="#page_195">195</a>&mdash;Orders above Orders, p. <a href="#page_197">197</a>&mdash;The
+Pilaster, p. <a href="#page_199">199</a>&mdash;Arcades, p. <a href="#page_200">200</a>&mdash;The Subsidiary
+Order, p. <a href="#page_202">202</a>&mdash;Treatment of Superimposed Orders,
+p. <a href="#page_204">204</a>&mdash;Rustication, p. <a href="#page_205">205</a>&mdash;The Basement, p. <a href="#page_207">207</a>&mdash;The
+Attic, p. <a href="#page_208">208</a>&mdash;The Pediment, p. <a href="#page_209">209</a>&mdash;Doors, p.
+<a href="#page_211">211</a>&mdash;Windows, p. <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V</a></td><td>  Division of Surface</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Wall Treatment, p. <a href="#page_216">216</a>&mdash;Ceilings, p. <a href="#page_218">218</a>&mdash;Jacobean&mdash;Carolean
+and Georgian, p. <a href="#page_221">221</a>&mdash;Adam Ceilings,
+p. <a href="#page_222">222</a>&mdash;Vaults and Domes, p. <a href="#page_224">224</a>&mdash;The Cove, p.
+<a href="#page_225">225</a>&mdash;The Frieze, p. <a href="#page_226">226</a>&mdash;Borders, p. <a href="#page_227">227</a>&mdash;Geometric
+Elements&mdash;The Undulate Line, p. <a href="#page_230">230</a>&mdash;Repetition
+and Alternation, p. <a href="#page_233">233</a>&mdash;Treatment of Angles, p.
+<a href="#page_234">234</a>&mdash;Pilaster Treatment&mdash;Panelled Pilasters, p. <a href="#page_235">235</a>&mdash;Capitals
+and Bases&mdash;Treatment of Panels, p. <a href="#page_236">236</a>&mdash;Juxtaposition,
+p. <a href="#page_238">238</a>&mdash;The Growth Line in Composition,
+p. <a href="#page_241">241</a>&mdash;Grouping and Massing of Detail&mdash;Division
+of Area, p. <a href="#page_242">242</a>&mdash;Human and Animal Life
+in Composition, p. <a href="#page_244">244</a>&mdash;Forms in the Round, p. <a href="#page_245">245</a>
+Supports and Balusters&mdash;Standards, p. <a href="#page_246">246</a>&mdash;Proportion,
+p. <a href="#page_247">247</a>&mdash;Vase Forms and Treatment, p. <a href="#page_248">248</a>&mdash;Working
+Drawings, p. <a href="#page_249">249</a>&mdash;The Segment or Stretch
+out, p. <a href="#page_250">250</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI</a></td><td>  Development of Conventional Ornament</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_254">254</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Outline Drawing, p. <a href="#page_254">254</a>&mdash;Undesirable Realism, p.
+<a href="#page_255">255</a>&mdash;Craft Restrictions, p. <a href="#page_256">256</a>&mdash;Materialistic Influence,
+p. <a href="#page_258">258</a>&mdash;Early Renderings, p. <a href="#page_261">261</a>&mdash;The Anthemion,
+p. <a href="#page_262">262</a>&mdash;Greek Sculptured Ornament, p. <a href="#page_263">263</a>&mdash;The
+Acanthus Leaf, p. <a href="#page_264">264</a>&mdash;Roman Development&mdash;The
+Scroll, p. <a href="#page_266">266</a>&mdash;Græco-Roman&mdash;Byzantine,
+p. <a href="#page_267">267</a>&mdash;Romanesque&mdash;Gothic&mdash;Italian Renaissance,
+p. <a href="#page_268">268</a>&mdash;The Husk Leaf, p. <a href="#page_269">269</a>&mdash;The Rosette,
+p. <a href="#page_270">270</a>&mdash;Tendrils, p. <a href="#page_271">271</a>&mdash;Nature Influence&mdash;Inconsistent
+employment of Symbolic Elements, p.
+<a href="#page_272">272</a>&mdash;Consistency in Growth&mdash;Branching, p. <a href="#page_273">273</a>&mdash;Treatment
+and Employment of Leaves, p. <a href="#page_275">275</a>&mdash;The
+start in Ornament, p. <a href="#page_276">276</a>&mdash;Italian Renaissance
+Influence&mdash;Jacobean, p. <a href="#page_280">280</a>&mdash;French Renaissance&mdash;Henry
+II, p. <a href="#page_281">281</a>&mdash;Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Régence&mdash;Louis
+XV, p. <a href="#page_283">283</a>&mdash;Rococo&mdash;Louis XVI, p. <a href="#page_284">284</a>&mdash;Grinling
+Gibbons School of Carving&mdash;Adam Style, p. <a href="#page_285">285</a>&mdash;Empire&mdash;System
+of the Acanthus Leaf, p. <a href="#page_286">286</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII</a></td><td>  Treatment in Design</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Natural Attraction, p. <a href="#page_288">288</a>&mdash;Decorative Materials,
+p. <a href="#page_289">289</a>&mdash;Justification of Treatment, p. <a href="#page_290">290</a>&mdash;Undesirable
+Imitation, p. <a href="#page_291">291</a>&mdash;Technical Considerations&mdash;Methods
+of Expression, p. <a href="#page_292">292</a>&mdash;Treatment of Leaves,
+p. <a href="#page_293">293</a>&mdash;Surface Interest&mdash;Painted Decoration, p.
+<a href="#page_294">294</a>&mdash;Stencilled Work, p. <a href="#page_295">295</a>&mdash;Mechanical Production&mdash;Printed
+and Woven Fabrics&mdash;Needlework&mdash;Appliqué,
+p. <a href="#page_296">296</a>&mdash;Lace-Wood Inlay&mdash;Intarsia, p.
+<a href="#page_297">297</a>&mdash;Veneer&mdash;Marquetry&mdash;“Boule” Work, p. <a href="#page_298">298</a>&mdash;Mosaic,
+p. <a href="#page_299">299</a>&mdash;Byzantine use of Marble&mdash;Book
+Decoration, p. <a href="#page_300">300</a>&mdash;Bindings&mdash;Relief Work&mdash;Economic
+Result of Method&mdash;Desirable Treatment in
+Carving, p. <a href="#page_301">301</a>&mdash;Backgrounds, p. <a href="#page_303">303</a>&mdash;Reproduction
+Processes&mdash;Metal Repoussé, p. <a href="#page_304">304</a>&mdash;Cast Metal,
+p. <a href="#page_306">306</a>&mdash;Character of Cast Work, p. <a href="#page_307">307</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII</a></td><td> Mythology and Symbolism</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Early Symbolic Ornament, p. <a href="#page_310">310</a>&mdash;Customs, p. <a href="#page_311">311</a>&mdash;Origin
+of Mythology&mdash;Nature Myths, p. <a href="#page_312">312</a>&mdash;Light
+and Darkness&mdash;Melanesian Legend, p. <a href="#page_313">313</a>&mdash;Darkness
+as a Devouring Monster&mdash;Season Myths, p. <a href="#page_314">314</a>&mdash;Sun
+Myths&mdash;Belief in Natural Phenomena, p. <a href="#page_315">315</a>&mdash;Greek
+and Roman Deities, p. <a href="#page_316">316</a>&mdash;Scandinavian
+Mythology, p. <a href="#page_317">317</a>&mdash;Rising and Setting Symbolised,
+p. <a href="#page_318">318</a>&mdash;Winds Personified&mdash;Predestination, p. <a href="#page_319">319</a>&mdash;The
+Fates&mdash;Propitiation and Sacrifice, p. <a href="#page_320">320</a>&mdash;Early
+Burial Customs&mdash;Taboo&mdash;Roman Lares, p.
+<a href="#page_322">322</a>&mdash;Mediæval Legend&mdash;Early Spiritual Belief, p. <a href="#page_323">323</a>&mdash;Prehistoric
+Treatment of Epileptics&mdash;Prohibition,
+p. <a href="#page_324">324</a>&mdash;Belief in Magical Qualities, p. <a href="#page_325">325</a>&mdash;The
+Shirt of Nessus&mdash;Swords, p. <a href="#page_326">326</a>&mdash;Invulnerability,
+p. <a href="#page_327">327</a>&mdash;Belief in Numbers&mdash;The Muses, p. <a href="#page_328">328</a>&mdash;Sacred
+Trees and Flowers, p. <a href="#page_329">329</a>&mdash;Sacred Animals&mdash;Evangelist
+Symbols, p. <a href="#page_331">331</a>&mdash;The Serpent&mdash;The
+Dragon, p. <a href="#page_332">332</a>&mdash;Poetic License in Tradition, p. <a href="#page_333">333</a>&mdash;Animals
+in Christian Art, p. <a href="#page_334">334</a>&mdash;Association of
+Human and Animal Qualities&mdash;Totemism&mdash;Cannibalism,
+p. <a href="#page_336">336</a>&mdash;The Sphinx&mdash;Assyrian Winged Monsters,
+p. <a href="#page_337">337</a>&mdash;Pegasus&mdash;The Harpy&mdash;Sirens, p. <a href="#page_338">338</a>&mdash;Pan&mdash;The
+Nymphs&mdash;The Centaur, p. <a href="#page_339">339</a>&mdash;Symbolism
+of the Circle, p. <a href="#page_340">340</a>&mdash;Symbols of the Trinity&mdash;The
+Wand, a Symbol of Authority&mdash;The Hand,
+p. <a href="#page_341">341</a>&mdash;The Caduceus&mdash;The Thyrsus, p. <a href="#page_342">342</a>&mdash;The
+Trident&mdash;The Cross, p. <a href="#page_343">343</a>&mdash;The Pastoral Staff, p.
+<a href="#page_344">344</a>&mdash;Symbols of Martyrdom&mdash;Symbolism of Gems
+and Colours, p. <a href="#page_345">345</a>&mdash;Masks&mdash;Symbols of Time, p.
+<a href="#page_346">346</a>&mdash;Secular Symbols&mdash;Trophies, p. <a href="#page_347">347</a>&mdash;Heraldry&mdash;Interest
+and Meaning in Modern Art, p. <a href="#page_348">348</a>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="chapp"><td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="c"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX </a></td><td> Ways and Means</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_350">350</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Perception, p. <a href="#page_350">350</a>&mdash;Accepted Conventions, p. <a href="#page_351">351</a>&mdash;Influence
+of Fashion&mdash;Harmonious Consistency,
+p. <a href="#page_352">352</a>&mdash;Natural Suggestion&mdash;Colour Scheme, p.
+<a href="#page_353">353</a>&mdash;Early Training&mdash;Nature Study, p. <a href="#page_355">355</a>&mdash;Aspect
+and Attitude, p. <a href="#page_356">356</a>&mdash;Treatment of Studies, p. <a href="#page_358">358</a>&mdash;Drawings
+for Reproduction, p. <a href="#page_359">359</a>&mdash;Opaque
+Colour&mdash;Method of Enlarging or Reducing Drawings,
+p. <a href="#page_360">360</a>&mdash;Textile Designs, p. <a href="#page_361">361</a>&mdash;Wall Papers, p.
+<a href="#page_362">362</a>&mdash;Architectural Drawings&mdash;Structural Design, p.
+<a href="#page_363">363</a>&mdash;Lucid Arrangement of Details, p. <a href="#page_364">364</a>&mdash;Mathematical
+Equipment, p. <a href="#page_365">365</a>&mdash;Use of the Ruling Pen&mdash;Proportional
+Compasses, p. <a href="#page_367">367</a>&mdash;Tracings&mdash;Conclusion,
+p. <a href="#page_368">368</a>.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td>Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by <span class="smcap">E. A. Rickards</span>, F.R.I.B.A.</td>
+
+<td colspan="2"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>ARCHITECTURE, HISTORIC</th>
+<td class="rt">No.</td>
+<td class="rt">Page</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Egyptian Temple, Section and Plan of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_10">10</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_023">23</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Temple, Entrance Façade</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_11">11</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Capital from Philæ</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_12">12</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_024">24</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Persian Capitals from Persepolis</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_16">16</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_027">27</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Greek Doric Temple, The Parthenon</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_21">21</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_030">30</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Ionic, The Erectheum</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_22">22</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_031">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Corinthian, The Choragic Monument</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_23">23</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Vase paintings of Doric and Ionic Orders</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_19">19</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">House about 100 <small>A.D.</small> Bas-relief in British Museum</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_20">20</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Roman, The Pantheon, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_26">26</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_036">36</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Coliseum, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_27">27</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_037">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Arch of Titus, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_28">28</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_038">38</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Byzantine St. Vitali Ravenna, Section and Plan</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_35">35</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_044">44</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Capitals </td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_36">36</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Interior, Ravenna</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_39">39</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Romanesque Capitals</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_42">42</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Tower</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_43">43</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Plan, Cathedral at Worms</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_44">44</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_051">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Bay of Cathedral at Worms</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_45">45</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Window, St. Alban’s Abbey</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_46">46</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Church Interior with Triforium</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_47">47</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Doorway, Kilpeck Church</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_49">49</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_054">54</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Gothic Buttresses</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_53">53</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_058">58</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Pier</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_54">54</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Bay of Church</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_55">55</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Lancet Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_56">56</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Windows, Plate Tracery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_57">57</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Arch Mouldings</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_58">58</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_59">59</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Tracery Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_60">60</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Early Pointed Spire</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_61">61</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Tracery Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_62">62</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_63">63</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_065">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Arch Mouldings</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_64">64</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_065">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_65">65</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_66">66</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Decorated, Spire</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_67">67</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Perpendicular, Bay of Church showing Development of Clerestory</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_68">67</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_067">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Perpendicular, Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_69">69</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_068">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Perpendicular, Fan Vaulting</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_70">70</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_069">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Perpendicular, Tower</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_71">71</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_069">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Domestic Tudor, Window</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_75">75</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_074">74</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Renaissance, Italian, Strozzi Palace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_76">76</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_076">76</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, Pandolfini Palace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_77">77</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_077">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, St. Peter’s, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_78">78</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_079">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, Farnese Palace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_79">79</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, Vendramini Palace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_80">80</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_081">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, Library of St. Mark</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_81">81</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English, Banqueting House, Whitehall</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_105">105</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XIII. Luxembourg</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_106">106</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XIII. Barocco Detail, Ste. Marie, Nevers</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_107">107</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XIV. Louvre</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_109">109</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XV. Pantheon</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_112">112</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English, St. Paul’s Cathedral</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_118">118</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English, Spire, St. Mary le Strand</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_119">119</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_5">5</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tomb of Beni Hassan</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_17">17</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_028">28</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tomb at Kyanea-Jaghu</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_18">18</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_028">28</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Arch, The Principle of the</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_6">6</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_020">20</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Balusters, Details of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_170">170</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Cornice, Treatment where Order is not employed</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_180">180</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Doors, General Proportion of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_182">182</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Treatment of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_183">183</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Frieze, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_198">198</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Frieze, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_199">199</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Gothic Vault, Section of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_7">7</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_020">20</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Vaulting</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_9">9</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Cross Vaulting</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_48">48</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_053">53</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Lintel, The</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_4">4</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Lintel, The, Joggled Joints</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_8">8</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_021">21</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Orders, General Proportions of the</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_154">154</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Order, The Doric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_153">153</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Entablature, Vignola</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_155">155</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Entablature, Mutular</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_156">156</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Order, The Doric Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_159">159</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Base</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_165">165</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Pedestal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_169">169</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Archivolt</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Impost</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Arcading</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_174">174</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Arcading with Pedestal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_175">175</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Doric Column and Pilaster</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_173">173</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_200">200</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Entablature</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_157">157</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_160">160</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Capital (Angular Volutes)</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_161">161</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_176">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic, Detail of Angular Volute</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_162">162</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Base</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_166">166</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Pedestal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_169">169</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Archivolt</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Ionic Impost</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Entablature</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_158">158</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_163">163</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_164">164</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Base</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_167">167</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Pedestal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_169">169</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Archivolt</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Corinthian Impost</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_168">168</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Superimposed</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_172">172</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Subsidiary</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_176">176</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Subsidiary, Detail of Entablature</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_180">180</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Pediment, The</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_181">181</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Pilaster The, Capital</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_209">209</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_236">236</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The, French Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_208">208</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_236">236</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Rustication, Types of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_178">178</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">In Arcades</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_179">179</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_207">207</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Spacing of Columns</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_171">171</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Windows</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_184">184</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_214">214</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Three-Light</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_185">185</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>DECORATIVE FEATURES</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Acanthus Leaf, Brush Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_235">235</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_264">264</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Development</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_251">251</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_281">281</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Development</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_252">252</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_282">282</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Construction of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_253">253</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_287">287</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Anthemion, Greek, Relief Treatment</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_232">232</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_262">262</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Greek, Vase Painting</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_231">231</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Border, The Geometric, Key or Labyrinth</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_200">200</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_228">228</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Border, The Geometric, Interlacing</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_201">201</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Scroll</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_204">204</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Evolute Scroll</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_207">207</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Vertebrate</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_244">244</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Branching, Types of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_243">243</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Inlay, Wood, Geometric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_260">260</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Wood Borders</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_261">261</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Wood Panel</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_262">262</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Wood Panel</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_263">263</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Wood, Italian Intarsia</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_264">264</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Metal “Boule” Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_266">266</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Metal “Boule” Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_267">267</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Inlaid Floor, Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_188">188</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Lace</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_259">259</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Marquetry</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_265">265</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Mosaic Work, Spandril, Byzantine</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_40">40</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Borders</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_268">268</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Border, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_269">269</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Border, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_270">270</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Panel, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_271">271</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Needlework</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_257">257</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Appliqué</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_258">258</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Relief Ornament, Prehistoric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_2">2</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Greek Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_218">218</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Roman Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_237">237</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Roman Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_29">29</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Byzantine Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_37">37</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Byzantine Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_38">38</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_047">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Byzantine Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_216">216</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Romanesque Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_217">217</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Gothic Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_238">238</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_268">268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Gothic Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_239">239</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Gothic Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_219">219</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, Italian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_248">248</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_278">278</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, Italian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_249">249</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_279">279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, French</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_88">88</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_086">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, French</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_250">250</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Renaissance, French</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_90">90</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_088">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean Gouge Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_276">276</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_277">277</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_95">95</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Louis XIV. Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_275">275</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_274">274</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Relief Ornament, French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_113">113</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_279">279</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_212">212</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_211">211</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Part of Ceiling</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_210">210</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_133">133</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Icelandic Wood Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_280">280</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English 18th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_273">273</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English, Modern</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_213">213</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_240">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Analysis of Composing Lines</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_214">214</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Rosettes, Types of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_241">241</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Scroll, The, Greek Stone Carving</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_233">233</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_262">262</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">The Evolute, Archaic</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_229">229</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">The Evolute, Savage Art</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_230">230</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_260">260</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Scroll, The, Wrought Iron</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_234">234</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_263">263</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Brush Work</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_236">236</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">As a Growth Line</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_202">202</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_240">240</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Start, The, Nest or Cup Leaf</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_246">246</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_277">277</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Half Figure</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_247">247</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_277">277</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tendril, Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_242">242</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_272">272</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Terminals, Branch and Scroll</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_245">245</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_275">275</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Textiles, 14th Century Woven Fabric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_3">3</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_013">13</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">14th Century Woven Fabric</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_51">51</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_056">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Sicilian Tapestry</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_52">52</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_057">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">14th Century Tapestry</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_205">205</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Turkish Brocade</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_203">203</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_231">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Brocade</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_206">206</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Details of Inhabited Pattern</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_256">256</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_295">295</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Tooled Book Binding</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_272">272</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>FURNITURE</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Egyptian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_13">13</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_025">25</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Egyptian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_14">14</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_026">26</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Assyrian Seat</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_15">15</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_027">27</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Greek</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_24">24</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_033">33</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Roman Couch</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_30">30</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Roman Sella or Seat</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_31">31</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Romanesque Chair</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_50">50</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_055">55</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Gothic Chair</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_72">72</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_070">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Gothic Bedstead</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_73">73</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_071">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_86">86</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_084">84</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_87">87</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_085">85</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_92">92</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_91">91</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_088">88</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_99">99</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_100">100</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_099">99</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_101">101</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_102">102</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 17th Century. Baluster</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_221">221</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_246">246</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Louis XIII</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_108">108</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Louis XIV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_111">111</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Louis XV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_265">265</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English late 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_116">116</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English late 17th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_117">117</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Dutch and Queen Anne Chairs</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_121">121</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">English 18th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_122">122</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_132">132</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>INTERIOR FEATURES</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Ceilings, Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_187">187</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_218">218</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian, General Plan</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_189">189</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance, Painted,</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_83">83</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance, Painted,</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_85">85</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Tudor</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_190">190</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_221">221</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_191">191</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_192">192</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_223">223</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Carolean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_193">193</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Robert Adam</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_194">194</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Chimney Pieces, Gothic 13th Century</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_74">74</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_071">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_93">93</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_89">89</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_96">96</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_095">95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Domes and Vaults, Italian Renaissance:</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">St. Peter’s, Rome</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_197">197</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Villa Madama</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_196">196</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">Ducal Palace, Venice</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_195">195</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Doors, Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_97">97</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_096">96</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Jacobean</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_98">98</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_278">278</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance, Louis XV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_114">114</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_120">120</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance, Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_130">130</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Frieze, The Jacobean, Carved Wood</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_94">94</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_093">93</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">French, Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_131">131</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Interior Decoration, Græco-Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_32">32</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_040">40</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Interior Decoration, Wall Division</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_186">186</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd">Italian Renaissance</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_84">84</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Renaissance, Louis XIV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_110">110</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English “Adam”</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_123">123</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">English “Adam”</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_124">124</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_126">126</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_127">127</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_128">128</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="indd">French Louis XVI</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_129">129</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>METAL WORK</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Græco-Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_33">33</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_041">41</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Græco-Roman</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_34">34</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_042">42</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Byzantine Tradition</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_41">41</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_048">48</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_282">282</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron, Venetian</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_283">283</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Repoussé</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_103">103</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Repoussé</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_281">281</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Cast</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_104">104</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Cast, Louis XV</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_115">115</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Sheffield Plate</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_125">125</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Filagree Jewellery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_228">228</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Cast Iron (Modern)</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_222">222</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_247">247</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Surface Decoration of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_284">284</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_308">308</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>METHOD</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Of Enlarging and Reducing Drawings</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_286">286</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_361">361</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>MOULDINGS</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Profiles of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_134">134</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Enrichment of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_135">135</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Detail of the Dentil</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_136">136</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Aspect of</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_137">137</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Stone, Panel Effect</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_138">138</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wood Panels</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_139">139</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wood Panels, Applied</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_140">140</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wood Panels, Applied</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_141">141</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">The Bolection</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_142">142</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Table Top</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_143">143</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Turned Wood</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_144">144</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Pottery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_145">145</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Pottery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_146">146</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Rolled Metal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_147">147</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Drawn Metal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_148">148</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron, Swaged</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_149">149</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron, Built up</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_150">150</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Wrought Iron, Built up</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_151">151</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Spun Metal</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_152">152</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>VASE FORMS</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Primitive Pottery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_1">1</a></td><td class="rt">(Plate)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Greek Pottery</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_25">25</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_034">34</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Greek Pottery, Painted Details</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_19">19</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Effect of Perspective</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_220">220</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_245">245</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Segments of Contoured Surfaces</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_226">226</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Segments of Contoured Surfaces</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_227">227</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_252">252</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Stretch-out of the Cylinder</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_224">224</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_249">249</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Stretch-out of the Cone</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_225">225</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="indd1">Types of Vase Decoration</td><td class="rt"><a href="#ill_223">223</a></td><td class="rt"><a href="#page_248">248</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a>{1}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /><br />
+INTRODUCTORY</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the
+creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that
+the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of
+elements common to all than with invention pure and simple.</p>
+
+<h3>Human Limitations</h3>
+
+<p>To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or
+acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not
+traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for
+instance, the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of
+human and bird form, and is in no sense an original creation.</p>
+
+<p>The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the
+reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real
+interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of
+personality, in other words, the individual point of view of the artist;
+which is more or less interesting, as it is more or less personal in
+idea and expression.</p>
+
+<p>In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be
+carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible
+source.</p>
+
+<p>Design is distinct from any phase of realistic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a>{2}</span> expression inasmuch as
+the subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally
+visualised.</p>
+
+<h3>“<i>Inspiration</i>”</h3>
+
+<p>Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration,
+but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident
+than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to
+the individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought
+may be accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible
+for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem.</p>
+
+<p>It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of
+inspiration with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in
+the belief that it “does not feel like it.”</p>
+
+<p>The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a
+logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and
+conditions, and of evolving some desirable solution.</p>
+
+<p>Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires
+a facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a
+fallacy, as though many designs are for convenience expressed through
+this medium, any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the
+technical details of the final method of production, to be a practical
+design.</p>
+
+<h3>Process and Material</h3>
+
+<p>Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and
+process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this
+technical knowledge it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a>{3}</span> impossible to take full advantage of the
+method of production either in the direction of economy or effect.</p>
+
+<p>Other considerations are utilitarian and æsthetic, the former having
+regard to purpose, the latter to appearance.</p>
+
+<p>That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common
+enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian,
+but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the æsthetic point
+of view.</p>
+
+<p>An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed
+by popular or individual demand.</p>
+
+<p>Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to
+work to prescribed conditions.</p>
+
+<p>This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer
+who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more
+restricted.</p>
+
+<p>It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or
+historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony
+with existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite
+possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive.</p>
+
+<p>Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public
+demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far
+as possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of
+their best. Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall
+not be done would undoubtedly result in failure.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman
+well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that
+he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a>{4}</span> and, in
+addition, the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Training</h3>
+
+<p>The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is
+understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary
+student, the answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly
+students can be directed through a course of training that will enable
+them to produce at least work that is good, though it may not be
+personally distinctive.</p>
+
+<p>An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of
+traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe
+traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it
+may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much
+farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural
+faculty.</p>
+
+<p>Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look
+after itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the
+training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim.</p>
+
+<p>Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great
+responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study.</p>
+
+<p>The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are
+apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative.</p>
+
+<p>Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent
+beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in
+failing to develop the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a>{5}</span> personality, which is the sole interest, and is
+the teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications
+reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which
+end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and
+possessed of method.</p>
+
+<p>Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been
+suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has
+little knowledge of Art, and still less of design.</p>
+
+<h3>Art and Existence</h3>
+
+<p>That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be
+possible&mdash;if not very interesting&mdash;if regulated only by considerations
+of utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the
+gratification of merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state
+Art becomes one of the mind’s necessities.</p>
+
+<p>The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,”
+and that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.”</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art
+is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.”</p>
+
+<p>Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in
+that which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory
+and music.</p>
+
+<p>The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and
+Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these
+possible to the public at large except in the most general sense?<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a>{6}</span></p>
+
+<p>What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the
+furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the
+actual field for artistic expression.</p>
+
+<p>It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is
+sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic
+exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large.</p>
+
+<h3>“<i>Natural Taste</i>”</h3>
+
+<p>There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas
+the individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary
+affairs of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic
+selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment.</p>
+
+<p>It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be
+good or bad.</p>
+
+<p>Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it
+is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge
+which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate.</p>
+
+<h3>Commercial Production</h3>
+
+<p>It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result
+of commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the
+public is restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be
+urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes
+it his business to study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s
+standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as
+this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a>{7}</span> is improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised.</p>
+
+<p>The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of
+the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and
+purpose, or perception based on artistic education.</p>
+
+<h3>“<i>Ornaments</i>”</h3>
+
+<p>This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in
+any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to
+the class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no
+possible utility and intended solely for display.</p>
+
+<p>It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the
+display of old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance,
+may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils, strictly
+utilitarian, were incidentally made beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>Modern furniture frequently offends&mdash;being too often constructed with
+less regard to utility than to external effect.</p>
+
+<p>The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the
+actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the
+perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the
+modern house&mdash;the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed,
+as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent
+the reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease
+may have much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to
+move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent
+on frequent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a>{8}</span> change of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture
+and other personal belongings.</p>
+
+<h3>Modern Development</h3>
+
+<p>The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting
+in the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the
+large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a
+change in domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at
+hotels and restaurants.</p>
+
+<p>This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less
+interest in personal possession and environment; still further fostered
+by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in
+frequent change of style and locality.</p>
+
+<h3>Public Apathy</h3>
+
+<p>Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly
+appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art
+appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal
+indulgence; still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer
+if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and
+requirements.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect
+implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account.</p>
+
+<p>It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery
+found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which,
+notwithstanding all endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state,
+sensitive to scratches and other damage. This difficulty may have
+suggested<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a>{9}</span> intentionally covering the surface with such scratches, etc.,
+more or less arranged, thus making a virtue of necessity.</p>
+
+<h3>Elementary Pattern</h3>
+
+<p>Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or
+incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or
+herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result
+of pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in
+plastering as trowel point.</p>
+
+<p>Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some
+form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative
+of any known form; and it is not till a much later period that any
+indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type.</p>
+
+<p>Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings
+singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily
+be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds.</p>
+
+<p>The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament
+was presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would
+readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute.</p>
+
+<p>Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is
+indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers
+of clay.</p>
+
+<p>There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for
+expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the
+marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may
+well be considered the first impressionists.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a>{10}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Early Impressionism</h3>
+
+<p>They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful
+distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of
+characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form,
+and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and
+working condition is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast
+with the earlier ornament, which is not in any way imitative of, or
+traceable to, any natural suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally
+three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such
+as directly arise from the process and material involved.</p>
+
+<p>The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the
+third&mdash;conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural
+suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of
+cultured appreciation of process and æsthetic considerations.</p>
+
+<h3>Personal Production</h3>
+
+<p>It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally
+produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or
+weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves
+more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being
+compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in
+course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported
+by his craft.</p>
+
+<p>Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a>{11}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_1" id="ill_1"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_031_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_031_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="2">No. 1.</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top" style="text-align:left;"><td>A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall.<br />
+B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, Oxon.<br />
+C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.<br />
+D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds, Bronze Age.<br /></td><td>
+E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.<br />
+F. Early English puzzle jug.<br />
+G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset.<br />
+H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze Age, Ireland.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_2" id="ill_2"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<a href="images/ill_032_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_032_sml.jpg" width="268" height="449" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p>
+No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.8em;">C.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;" &nbsp; &nbsp;  Etching on Bone.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill,
+would be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the
+professional worker and artist.</p>
+
+<p>To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early
+social conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying
+in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and
+herds; such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory.</p>
+
+<p>The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for
+storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and
+doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment.</p>
+
+<p>Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop
+agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would
+entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the
+fortress or castle for the protection of the town, and the more
+substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture.</p>
+
+<p>With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and the
+simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Social Conditions</h3>
+
+<p>The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent
+upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on
+the various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of
+officials for effective collection and distribution.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>{12}</span> Social
+distinctions would be drawn between the various classes, governing,
+administrative, military, and non-combatant; the latter would furnish
+the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen,
+agriculturists and traders.</p>
+
+<p>In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility,
+priestly and legal classes.</p>
+
+<h3>Influence</h3>
+
+<p>Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later
+was subjected to various influences&mdash;Political, Religious, and
+Commercial.</p>
+
+<p>Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or
+interchange would result, or by conquest.</p>
+
+<p>Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste
+on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that
+of the Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman
+influence after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths.</p>
+
+<p>The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and
+Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier
+example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III in <small>A.D.</small> 726
+in response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the
+Byzantine art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine
+district.</p>
+
+<h3>Commercial Intercourse.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_3" id="ill_3"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 204px;">
+<a href="images/ill_035_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_035_sml.jpg" width="204" height="284" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the
+arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary
+to study<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a>{13}</span> market conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were
+therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste, thereby resulting
+in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source.</p>
+
+<p>Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian weavers, who, contrary to their
+local traditions, introduced heraldry into the patterns of their
+fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders.</p>
+
+<p>The Phœnicians were the early merchant adventurers, and traded in
+work of Tyrian and Sidonian production with remote parts of Europe,
+taking back local produce in exchange. Later on, through the medium of
+the Hanseatic league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron fire-backs
+from Sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations;
+of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement
+were considered and embodied.</p>
+
+<h3>Effect on Design</h3>
+
+<p>Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Art<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a>{14}</span> production was
+further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker.</p>
+
+<p>When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was
+invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing
+emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged
+as a professional.</p>
+
+<p>In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of
+architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the
+architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance.</p>
+
+<p>Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was
+taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many
+instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical
+side of the craft.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer
+of the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of
+constructive detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen
+that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so
+much of this work is still in existence.</p>
+
+<h3>Ethical Side of Art</h3>
+
+<p>Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare,
+for instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of
+meaning and insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the
+license of the Rococo.</p>
+
+<p>Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was
+originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of,
+with resultant loss of character and interest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a>{15}</span></p>
+
+<p>The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely
+for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the
+experience and point of view of past exploiters.</p>
+
+<h3>Desire for Novelty</h3>
+
+<p>The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old
+worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition
+a little further if possible.</p>
+
+<p>Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old
+friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it
+may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others,
+and whether it is worth doing.</p>
+
+<p>“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic
+considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time;
+but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new
+phases, have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the
+forgotten. In the meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes
+progressing, now and then retrogressing, but at all times unbroken.</p>
+
+<p>History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities
+and conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic
+development.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a>{16}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /><br />
+HISTORIC REVIEW</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">S</span>OME of the factors in the evolution of Art have already been briefly
+suggested, but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing
+acquaintance, at least, with the various phases of historic developments
+is essential. The scope of the present work obviously renders it
+impossible to deal with the subject in detail, but libraries are
+accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of
+any influence other than that of material and process, and this has
+continued in some of the crafts to the present time; but those more
+closely allied to building, particularly those associated with furniture
+and decoration, eventually became subject to the architectural phase or
+style of the period, which dominated form and detail.</p>
+
+<h3>Style.</h3>
+
+<p>Style may be described as manner of expression, either individual or
+local, and for convenience is defined by nationality and period. It is
+usual to speak of Greek, Roman, Gothic, etc., of such a century; in the
+case of the Renaissance, it is customary to particularise the variants,
+as Italian, French, English, etc., also with the period or century.</p>
+
+<p>The development of style, intimately involved as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a>{17}</span> is in the social,
+religious and political history of nations, must ever be powerful in its
+interest and far-reaching in its appeal.</p>
+
+<p>The first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility, but in
+succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something
+more than this. And so with the progress of a race we can trace the
+progress of its decorative art.</p>
+
+<h3>Inter-Communication</h3>
+
+<p>Then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community
+inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact&mdash;either through
+conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations. Naturally
+the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest
+qualities, æsthetic and practical, and these qualities advance with the
+development of society and with progress in mechanical skill. As a
+result of conquest the civilisation of either conqueror or conquered
+must become the dominant influence, and the possible fusion and
+interchange of ideas may modify style to a considerable extent.</p>
+
+<h3>Climate and Material</h3>
+
+<p>Locality has always been a determining factor, particularly in
+architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised, and
+in most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions; for
+instance, where wood abounds we find it successfully employed.</p>
+
+<p>Climate is also largely responsible for architectural form. In the
+North, owing to heavy snows, the roofs are high-pitched. The early
+Egyptian buildings were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a>{18}</span> of mud and wattle, the readiest material to
+hand, and form ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless
+district. It is interesting to note that the character of these
+structures was imparted to their later work in stone. This was used in
+the most important buildings, and was readily obtainable from the Nubian
+quarries and transported down the Nile on rafts.</p>
+
+<h3>Phases in Style</h3>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made in
+styles, yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional, and
+which are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence. The
+phases of a transitional period can usually be defined; at first the new
+style is slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker
+exploiting it. This is followed by its being used in conjunction with
+the native construction, and lastly, the native interpretation of the
+foreign style is possibly grafted on to older forms.</p>
+
+<p>It should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate
+change in style, but that there are phases which can be described as
+typical, connected by periods of gradual change or transition; due,
+doubtless, to individual expression of taste, either on the part of
+exponent or patron, or as previously suggested, by influences political,
+religious or commercial.</p>
+
+<p>Careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was
+due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment, which in its
+turn became redundant in character and detail. Apart from the artistic
+point of view, these changes are interesting as reflective of the
+character of the times.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a>{19}</span></p>
+
+<p>From the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to
+be appreciated, the Lintel and the Arch. The Lintel, which is the
+earlier, may be described as a large stone style, and consists of the
+bridging of apertures by means of horizontal slabs, supported by
+vertical columns or piers. This is a method of construction with
+distinct limitations, as it was impossible to bridge large areas or
+spaces without frequent support.</p>
+
+<h3>The Lintel</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_4" id="ill_4"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 94px;">
+<a href="images/ill_041a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_041a_sml.jpg" width="94" height="126" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 4. The Lintel.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The joints of the Lintel necessarily occur over the centres of the
+supporting columns, and the space between was controlled by the size of
+the obtainable material and the imposed weight it could bear; the result
+being, as in the great hall at Karnak, a forest of closely spaced
+columns. It was not until the principle of the Arch was developed into
+vaulting that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor
+spaces were possible.</p>
+
+<p>Lintel construction was employed in the Egyptian, Chaldean and Greek
+styles.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch, as a constructive form, did not appear until a later period,
+and possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and
+stones of small size.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_5" id="ill_5"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;">
+<a href="images/ill_041b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_041b_sml.jpg" width="129" height="119" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 5. Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia. Vault form, but not
+vault construction.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Form or shape is not involved, as it is quite possible to so shape the
+Lintel as to give the appearance <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a>{20}</span>of the Arch by cutting the underside
+to the required curve. In the early Greek architecture examples have
+been found of both Arch and vault appearance, but these are the result
+of horizontal courses, successively projecting; that is, built in the
+form of inverted steps, the underside being cut to the arch curve, and
+is a form of construction restricted to bridging relatively small areas.</p>
+
+<h3>The Arch</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_6" id="ill_6"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<a href="images/ill_042a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_042a_sml.jpg" width="210" height="77" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B. Arch appearance, result of
+cutting away.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principle of the Arch depends upon the separate pieces of material
+being formed to a wedge shape, the joints corresponding to radial lines
+drawn through the centre from which the Arch curve is struck.</p>
+
+<p>The weak part of the Lintel is the centre of the span which may have a
+tendency to give way under pressure, but the wedged construction of the
+Arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the imposed weight.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast with the Lintel, material of small size could be employed,
+not only stone, but brick being used in Arch construction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_7" id="ill_7"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;">
+<a href="images/ill_042b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_042b_sml.jpg" width="191" height="229" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 7. Section of Gothic Vault showing courses of stone
+and centering.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Lintel, in relatively small spans, is sometimes composed of separate
+small stones, shaped to fit each other in the form of Joggled joints.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a>{21}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_8" id="ill_8"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_043a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_043a_sml.jpg" width="282" height="151" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 8.</p>
+
+<p>A. Lintel in one piece.</p>
+
+<p>B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_9" id="ill_9"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 227px;">
+<a href="images/ill_043b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_043b_sml.jpg" width="227" height="362" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming
+framework of structure.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The outward and manifest appearance suggests to the lay observer a
+striking divergence in the style known as Gothic from the Roman manner
+of building; but the main difference is in proportion and treatment of
+detail, the underlying principle being much the same. The use of the
+Arch and vaulting was common to both, but in the Gothic development
+greater strength was obtained, with even greater economy of material.
+The archivolts and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a>{22}</span> intersecting ribs of vaults, with their supports,
+literally formed the bones of the building, constituting a framework to
+which the bays of walls and roofing were only a matter of filling in.</p>
+
+<p>In the words of Mr. C. H. Moore, in his work on “Development and
+Character of Gothic Architecture”&mdash;“the Gothic style developed into a
+system where stability depends not upon any inert massiveness except in
+the outermost abutments, but upon a logical adjustment of active parts
+whose opposing forces produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system
+of balanced thrusts, as opposed to the former system of inert
+stability.”</p>
+
+<h3>Egyptian</h3>
+
+<p>The Egyptian buildings, in common with those of Palestine, were
+frequently of mud, strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven, evidence
+of which is apparent in later incised decoration. Buildings were also of
+sun-baked bricks, those of an important character being faced with
+stone; the exteriors of these latter were simple and severe, the walls
+being slightly tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice, with
+gateways and entrances of massive form.</p>
+
+<p>The internal effect was of mystery, doubtless due to the comparative
+absence of light, and to the many columns necessary to carry the
+roofings. The columns which were mostly employed in the interiors, were
+squat and stunted in proportion, being from four to seven diameters in
+height, with capitals of the Lotus, Papyrus or Hathor variety. Mouldings
+were of the simplest character and sparsely used, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a>{23}</span> decoration
+included renderings of the Lotus and Papyrus plants, either painted or
+incised in stone with the addition of colour.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_10" id="ill_10"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/ill_045_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_045_sml.jpg" width="288" height="280" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan of Egyptian
+Temple.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental, while
+the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for
+symbolic expression, rather than by more æsthetic considerations.</p>
+
+<p>In Egyptian Art ornament is subordinated to the architecture, and the
+employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic
+character, added considerably to the decorative effect. In the wall
+pictures the figures were depicted in silhouette, in conventional
+attitudes, the head and limbs being displayed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a>{24}</span> in severe profile, while
+the torso is represented in full front view. The methods of expression
+were painting, or incised in outline on stone, invariably filled in with
+colour, the effect in both being of flatness, with little suggestion of
+modelling or rotundity, the various features being defined by local
+colour.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_11" id="ill_11"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_046a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_046a_sml.jpg" width="279" height="137" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian Temple.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though much of the Egyptian work was in the round, and evident of great
+sculptural ability and appreciation of form, yet generally their
+decorative work may be described as a colour style, rather than one in
+which light and shade were important factors.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_12" id="ill_12"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 134px;">
+<a href="images/ill_046b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_046b_sml.jpg" width="134" height="165" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 12. Egyptian Capital from Philae.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With regard to the domestic life, the examples of furniture in the
+British Museum convey some idea, and these bear a remarkable similarity
+to forms with which we are familiar at the present day, both in detail
+and construction, which is simple and direct, with mortise and tenon
+joints. Turning was frequently employed, and, in the decoration of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a>{25}</span>
+furniture, inlays of ivory, ebony and glass, the Egyptians being expert
+workers in both glass and enamels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_13" id="ill_13"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;">
+<a href="images/ill_047_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_047_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p class="c">No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+A.  Stand Inlaid.<br />
+B.  Ebony seat inlaid with ivory.<br />
+C.  Folding stool.<br />
+D.  Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory.<br />
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea
+of the furniture, which is often depicted as gilded.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman. Sometimes the couch
+took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end, and the
+legs and feet carved to complete the effect.</p>
+
+<h3>Chaldean</h3>
+
+<p>Chaldean art in character had much in common with that of Egypt, the
+difference being more that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a>{26}</span> expression than in idea, probably due to
+intercourse and mutual influence. The buildings, which were mostly in
+brick, often faced with a form of terra-cotta, stamped with relief or
+ornament, were pyramidal in general form, raised on terraces forming a
+succession of platforms, approached by steps or inclined planes. Columns
+were employed, but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes
+culminating in the Persian renderings at Persepolis.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_14" id="ill_14"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_048_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_048_sml.jpg" width="282" height="199" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p class="c">
+No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+A.  Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400.<br />
+B.              at Thebes.<br />
+</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Compound animal and human forms, analagous to the Egyptian sphinx, were
+employed, such as the winged lion and bull with human heads, generally
+to flank the gateways. Wall pictures in low relief formed part of the
+interior decoration, these being arranged in successive rows and
+representing historic episodes were, like the Egyptian decoration,
+probably coloured. A prominent detail in the decoration is that of the
+date palm which, symbolical in meaning, was the prototype<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a>{27}</span> of the Greek
+anthemion; the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form
+of the evolute scroll.</p>
+
+<p>Our conclusions regarding Assyrian woodwork are drawn from the
+sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the Assyrians
+faced their brick structures internally and externally. The examples in
+the British Museum are about 888 <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p>Furniture, such as tables, thrones and couches, was evidently made of
+wood, and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_15" id="ill_15"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 107px;">
+<a href="images/ill_049a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_049a_sml.jpg" width="107" height="94" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 15. Assyrian Seat.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the monuments of Khorsabad representations have been discovered of
+chairs, supported by animals and human figures. The intention in the use
+of figures was probably to depict prisoners taken in war.</p>
+
+<p>Chairs, thrones, stools and tables were square in shape. The ends of the
+rails and legs were carved, and the ornamentation employed for these and
+similar positions included the heads of lions, bulls and rams, the
+sacred palm and pine cone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_16" id="ill_16"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;">
+<a href="images/ill_049b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_049b_sml.jpg" width="138" height="239" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 16. Capitals from Persepolis.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The seats of chairs and thrones were much higher than is now customary,
+and necessitated the use of foot-stools. In some cases both chairs and
+tables were made to fold on a central pivot.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases metal was used either for part or for the complete
+structure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a>{28}</span></p>
+
+<p>Exact chronology is a matter of surmise, but at an early period, about
+4000 <small>B.C.</small>, in the valley of the Nile and in Mesopotamia, civilization
+had attained a very high level, extremely favourable to the development
+of architecture and the artistic crafts.</p>
+
+<p>The early Greeks, as a result of the peculiar formation of their coast
+line, like the later Scandinavians, were adventurers on the sea,
+piratical and trading, and were thus brought into communication with,
+and influenced by, the arts of Egypt and Chaldea.</p>
+
+<h3>Greek</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_17" id="ill_17"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 159px;">
+<a href="images/ill_050a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_050a_sml.jpg" width="159" height="138" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 17. Early Treatment of Doric Order. Tomb of Beni
+Hassan.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though, in their architecture, the Greeks progressed no further than the
+Lintel, yet they must be credited with the development of the system of
+the orders, which formed the basis of subsequent styles.</p>
+
+<p>The two prominent orders were the Doric and the Ionic; the former has
+its prototype in the tomb of Beni Hasan, the date of which is 1740 <small>B.C.</small>,
+while the latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of the
+capital, from Assyrian and Persian originals.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_18" id="ill_18"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:163px;">
+<a href="images/ill_050b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_050b_sml.jpg" width="163" height="205" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 18. Early anticipation of Ionic Order. Tomb at
+Kyanea-Jaghu.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capital of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a>{29}</span> Corinthian order may be considered to be a
+development of the Egyptian Papyrus form, the earliest features of both
+consisting of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like detail.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_19" id="ill_19"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_051a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_051a_sml.jpg" width="295" height="185" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 19. Greek Vase Paintings. A. Doric columns. B. Wall
+fountain. C. Ionic columns with pediment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Characteristic Greek details, such as the Anthemion and wave scroll, are
+traceable to the same sources.</p>
+
+<p>Their architectural work, which was monumental in character, was mostly
+manifested in the temples, the domestic buildings being relatively
+unimportant.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_20" id="ill_20"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;">
+<a href="images/ill_051b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_051b_sml.jpg" width="191" height="106" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 20. Greek house about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British
+Museum, Bacchus visiting Icarius.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some idea as to these may be gathered from the vase paintings in the
+British Museum, on which they appear simple in form, mostly Doric in
+character, and probably of wood construction, the metopes in the frieze
+being open spaces for purpose of interior lighting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a>{30}</span></p>
+
+<p>Though the Greeks invested many of their creations with Epic and
+Symbolic meaning, much of their ornament was purely æsthetic.</p>
+
+<p>The sculptured metopes of the Parthenon, representing the conflict
+between the Lapithae and the Centaurs, are an example of the Epic
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The Sphinx, borrowed from Egyptian art, was, however, invested with a
+different meaning, and is an example of the Symbolic class, which formed
+so large a part in Greek art.</p>
+
+<p>Greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of
+mouldings, and the exterior columnar effect. The mouldings in the Ionic
+and Corinthian phases were enriched with carved details, probably
+developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_21" id="ill_21"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<a href="images/ill_052_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_052_sml.jpg" width="372" height="287" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 21. Front elevation and plan of Parthenon, Athens</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a>{31}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_22" id="ill_22"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;">
+<a href="images/ill_053_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_053_sml.jpg" width="385" height="327" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 22. Greek Ionic Erectheum, Athens.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Doric style was presumably so decorated, with painted details on the
+ovolo and abacus of the capital, and the corona and other members of the
+cornice.</p>
+
+<p>Colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes, mostly blue and
+red, resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas; the
+colour decoration forming horizontal bands.</p>
+
+<p>One important development, due to climatic conditions, was the pitched
+roof, which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form
+(literally gables), which were framed by the upper members of the
+entablature.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a>{32}</span></p>
+
+<p>This feature, technically known as the Pediment, was in buildings of
+importance invariably filled by sculpture, Mythological or Epic in
+subject, designed to occupy the shape.</p>
+
+<p>The styles mostly employed were the Doric and Ionic, and these were
+exploited contemporaneously, the Parthenon, 430 <small>B.C.</small>, representing the
+culmination of the former.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Corinthian style&mdash;comparatively little used by the Greeks, though
+much employed and developed later&mdash;the Choragic monument at Athens, 330
+<small>B.C.</small>, is the most complete example, though the leaf capital was
+anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier Tower of the Winds.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest representations of Greek furniture are to be found in the
+Syrian Room at the British Museum. These are the chairs dated about 6
+<small>B.C.</small>, in which the antique figures are seated. The backs are
+perpendicular, and the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the
+legs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_23" id="ill_23"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;">
+<a href="images/ill_054_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_054_sml.jpg" width="144" height="355" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 23. Greek Corinthian, Choragic Monument, Athens.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa. It was used for sleeping
+and resting. Chairs and stools were sometimes made of metal, and were
+often of a folding type.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a>{33}</span></p>
+
+<p>Tables were constructed in various shapes&mdash;sometimes the supports were
+fashioned as heads and legs of lions and leopards, and sometimes as
+sphinxes with lifted wings. In common with other pieces of furniture,
+they were made in wood, metal and marble.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_24" id="ill_24"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<a href="images/ill_055_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_055_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 24. Greek Furniture.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left;" class="nind">
+A.   Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan.<br />
+B.     <span class="ditto">“</span>       <span class="ditto">“</span>    Vase painting.<br />
+C.   Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C.<br />
+D.   Chair from Hydria.<br />
+E.   Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C<br />
+F.   Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The vase rooms of the British Museum provide considerable matter for
+study with regard to the details of Greek furniture, couches especially
+are frequently depicted.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks were expert workers in cast bronze, as is evidenced, not only
+by their statuary, but in many utensils of domestic life, notably the
+oil lamps, which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a>{34}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_25" id="ill_25"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;">
+<a href="images/ill_056_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_056_sml.jpg" width="390" height="528" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 25. Greek Pottery.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left;" class="nind">
+A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C.<br />
+B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C.<br />
+C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white.<br />
+D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C.<br />
+E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a>{35}</span></p>
+
+<p>Soon after the sack of Corinth in 140 <small>B.C.</small>, Greece became a Roman
+province, and the Greek art workers eventually found more encouragement
+from Roman patronage than in local requirement.</p>
+
+<p>They therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded,
+thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their
+conquerors.</p>
+
+<h3>Roman</h3>
+
+<p>Originally there were no special native characteristics by which Roman
+work could be distinguished, as the Romans absorbed various influences
+from the races that they conquered. Their conquests extended East and
+West, and from these widely differing outside influences the Roman style
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans, who by temperament, were great soldiers, organisers and
+engineers, rather than artistic, in their early essays in architecture
+were influenced by Etruscan work.</p>
+
+<p>Etruria (now Tuscany) is presumed to have been a Greek colony, and the
+local style, a form of debased Doric, was adopted by the first Tarquin
+(who was of Etruscan origin) and introduced to Rome about 610 <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p>With the growth of the Roman Empire, and its consequent wealth and
+development of luxury, great impetus was given to building and the arts
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>The orders based on the Greek originals were developed in detail and
+proportion, particularly in the latter respect. Whereas in the Greek
+Doric the height of the column varied from about four, to six and a half
+diameters, the Roman version became more slender, being about eight
+diameters in height.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a>{36}</span></p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian order, perhaps, underwent the greatest change, a change
+that has practically remained unaltered to the present day.</p>
+
+<h3>Vaulting</h3>
+
+<p>The most significant development in building was the Arch and subsequent
+vaulting, by means of which extensive covered areas were rendered
+possible. The Pantheon at Rome is covered with a hemispherical vault or
+dome 139 feet in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_26" id="ill_26"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/ill_058_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_058_sml.jpg" width="287" height="210" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 26. Section and interior elevation of Pantheon,
+Rome.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dome, which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal
+ribs, resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons, or coffers, is
+really a casting in cement; and in principle is identical with the
+present method of building, in which concrete or cement forms a
+considerable part in construction.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from other reasons, the Arch was necessitated by small material,
+which, in the case of the Lintel, could not be employed without the
+device of joggelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a>{37}</span> joints. In the absence of suitable material to
+cover spans, it became necessary to devise some means to the desired
+result. This was achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of
+material cut to the necessary wedge form.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the
+Cloaca Maxima, to aqueducts, bridges, and viaducts, from which its firm
+construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to
+buildings of many storeys.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_27" id="ill_27"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a href="images/ill_059_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_059_sml.jpg" width="270" height="188" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 27. Coliseum, Rome. Section and part elevation
+showing arch and vault construction.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Greek Influence</h3>
+
+<p>Apart from the early employment and development of the Arch, the Romans
+were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources, and also
+were indebted to the Greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry, art,
+even to religion, whose gods they invested with different names.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding, the Roman development in architecture was undoubtedly
+dignified and grand in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a>{38}</span> manner, particularly in their treatment of the
+Corinthian order.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to detail, much of the delicacy and refinement of the Greek
+character was lost, yet this was compensated by greater variety and
+freedom of treatment, especially in the development of the Acanthus type
+of foliage.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_28" id="ill_28"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_060_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_060_sml.jpg" width="279" height="268" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 28. Arch of Titus, Rome.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Development of Ornament</h3>
+
+<p>Decoration was more generally used, pilaster and other panels being
+occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines, mostly composed of
+undulate stems, with scrolling branches, clothed with conventional
+leaves and flowers.</p>
+
+<p>There was also a tendency to employ occasionally<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a>{39}</span> natural types in
+foliage, and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human
+and animal form, which, though originally significant, were used for
+their æsthetic value.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman domestic life was materially different from the Greek, and
+while they had their Temples, they also had their palaces, public halls
+and baths, besides the amphitheatre and the circus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_29" id="ill_29"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 203px;">
+<a href="images/ill_061a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_061a_sml.jpg" width="203" height="303" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 29. Typical Roman Ornament.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii have thrown considerable light on
+the domestic life of the Romans&mdash;their dwellings, decorations and
+furniture.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_30" id="ill_30"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_31" id="ill_31"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_061b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_061b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 30. Roman couch.
+Sepulchral urn,
+ British Museum.
+
+<span style="margin-left:3em;">No. 31. Roman Sella.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Græco-Roman Painted Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>In the luxurious life of the Romans colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a>{40}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_32" id="ill_32"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_062_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_062_sml.jpg" width="362" height="420" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 32. Graeco-Roman Hall in house of Sallust, Pompeii.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">decoration played a conspicuous part, as is evidenced in the painted
+work of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this, which is generally known as
+the Græco-Roman period, the interiors were decorated with paintings, the
+general scheme being based on an architectural setting, the wall areas
+being divided into bays by slender columns, sometimes by pilaster
+panels, with plinth, or dado,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a>{41}</span> frieze, and cornice, the prevailing
+colours being red, buff and black.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_33" id="ill_33"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<a href="images/ill_063_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_063_sml.jpg" width="268" height="366" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p>No. 33.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings,
+through which distant vistas could be seen. The bays or spaces between
+the apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel
+pictures with frames; generally the supports were united by festoons or
+scrolling detail, the whole expressed by painting in colour without
+actual relief.</p>
+
+<p>The use of glass for glazing windows was employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a>{42}</span> in the later period;
+that the Romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the
+examples in the National collections.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_34" id="ill_34"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<a href="images/ill_064_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_064_sml.jpg" width="250" height="364" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p>No. 34.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary, which
+were boat shape in form, sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended
+from branching stems or supported on tripod standards. These were
+invariably in cast bronze, though terra-cotta was also used, but in
+either material were extremely beautiful in form and detail.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a>{43}</span></p>
+
+<p>In any attempt to review the past, it is difficult to visualise the
+actual life at the back of the pageantry, with which we are naturally
+prone to be obsessed, in history as written; but the exhibits of the
+various domestic appliances of the Roman period at the British Museum
+are of considerable interest, and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to
+bring the individual to a closer understanding of the times and people.</p>
+
+<p>At Byzantium or Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire,
+a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the
+characteristics of East and West; and it was marked particularly by a
+grafting of earlier Greek detail on to simplified Roman forms.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment in 330 <small>A.D.</small> of Byzantium or Constantinople as the
+Eastern capital of the Roman Empire and the recognition by the state of
+Christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the
+associated crafts. Prior to this the early Christians had been compelled
+to hold their meetings secretly, and when this was no longer necessary
+they at first utilised for their public worship the existing Basilicas
+or public halls. Later on churches were built, the plan being arranged
+in the form of a Greek cross (<i>e.g.</i>, with equal arms), surmounted by a
+central dome.</p>
+
+<h3>Domes</h3>
+
+<p>The dome was supported on four piers, united by arches, and the change
+in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the
+inner angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the
+imposed circle. These vaultings spreading from the angles are
+technically known as Pendentives. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a>{44}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_35" id="ill_35"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 292px;">
+<a href="images/ill_066_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_066_sml.jpg" width="292" height="521" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 35. Byzantine. Section and plan of St. Vitali,
+Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a>{45}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_36" id="ill_36"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<a href="images/ill_067_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_067_sml.jpg" width="363" height="468" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 36. Byzantine Capitals from Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">four arms of the cross constituting transepts, nave and chancel were
+also surmounted by either complete or semi-domes.</p>
+
+<p>The Byzantine dome differs from the Roman type in matters of detail,
+thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with
+resulting coffers as in that of the Pantheon. In this latter the
+lighting of the interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye,
+but in some Byzantine examples, notably St. Sophia (built for Justinian
+by Anthemius) the lighting is the result of windows ranged round the
+base, constituting what is known as the ariel type of dome.</p>
+
+<p>The dome of St. Sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the
+Pantheon, being only one-sixth of the diameter in height, the diameter
+being 106 ft. 7½ ins.</p>
+
+<p>The architectural features generally were considerably modified,
+particularly with regard to mouldings, which were almost eliminated. The
+entablature was also at times dispensed with, and arches springing
+direct from the capitals of supporting columns were general; a feature
+which is characteristic of the later Romanesque. The capitals became
+simple in form, being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes, in
+which the abacus is considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded.</p>
+
+<p>The carved details reveal simplicity of execution, being merely cut back
+from the surface, the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to
+the plastic feeling of the Roman work. Though the leaves employed were
+of the acanthus type, they were quite devoid of modelling, being merely
+channelled with V-shaped<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a>{46}</span> grooves; the eyes between the lobes being
+round and suggestive of the use of the drill, the execution being a
+reversion to the archaic Greek.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_37" id="ill_37"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a href="images/ill_070_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_070_sml.jpg" width="349" height="171" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 37. Byzantine Panels. St. Appollinare, Nuovo,
+Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Early Christian Art</h3>
+
+<p>A notable feature in the Byzantine detail is the prevalence of the
+circle, frequently grouped in three, four and five, with the respective
+significance of the Trinity, the Evangelists and the Cross, or Five
+Wounds. The grotesques of the Pagan detail are conspicuously absent,
+giving place to forms more in keeping with the new religion, such, for
+instance, as the cross and the vine.</p>
+
+<p>It is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured Roman was
+taken very seriously, but incidental to the religious observances were
+certain rites and symbolic forms, with which the Christians were
+familiar, and the early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy
+to invest some of these with a new meaning. During the period of
+intolerance and persecution, signs and symbols grew in importance as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a>{47}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_39" id="ill_39"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a href="images/ill_071_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_071_sml.jpg" width="350" height="245" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 39. Byzantine Interior, Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_40" id="ill_40"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;">
+<a href="images/ill_072_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_072_sml.jpg" width="379" height="494" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 40. 5th Century Mosaic Work in the Baptistery at
+Ravenna.</p>
+
+<p>From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">means of secret communication; and in the later period when secrecy was
+no longer necessary, these became a corporate part of the ornament and
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_38" id="ill_38"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<a href="images/ill_073_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_073_sml.jpg" width="274" height="65" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 38. Byzantine Panel from the sarcophagus of St.
+Theodore. St. Appollinare in Classe, Ravenna.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In contrast to the Roman ornament, in which the effect depended mostly
+on light and shade, the Byzantine was a colour style, and it became
+customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs
+quartered and placed reciprocally, so that the figurings formed
+symmetrical patterns. Mosaic work, either of marble or glass,
+constituted the decoration in such suitable positions as the floors,
+spandrils, lunettes and domes, gold being largely employed in the
+backgrounds. Windows, at times large in area, were glazed as in Roman
+times with cast slabs of glass, set in metal frames, usually bronze; and
+thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were also used for glazing
+purposes.</p>
+
+<h3>Metal Work and Enamel</h3>
+
+<p>The Byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal,
+decorated in repoussé and with wire filigree; the metal work was
+invariably set with jewels and precious stones, in conjunction with
+champleve enamel, the whole being gilt.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of the Iconoclastic movement, and the decree of Pope Leo III
+in 726 <small>A.D.</small>, the art workers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a>{48}</span> deprived of local patronage and compelled
+to pursue their crafts elsewhere, migrated to the Rhine district, where
+for some centuries the Byzantine traditions were preserved and largely
+influenced Western art, particularly with regard to the working in metal
+and enamels. The attraction of the centre of the Eastern Empire for
+northern adventurers had its effect in the introduction of the Byzantine
+style into the detail of the different phases of the Romanesque.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_41" id="ill_41"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_074_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_074_sml.jpg" width="280" height="213" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 41. Champleve enamel Byzantine tradition.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local
+craftsmen and modified according to local conditions, with the result
+that both in expression and in execution, the style tended to become
+more and more crude, until the original forms and details were almost
+entirely lost. But in spite of changes the classic feeling never
+completely died out.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a>{49}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Roman Influence Abroad</h3>
+
+<p>Under the Roman system, in colonizing, their architecture, customs and
+laws were imposed on the conquered population. When later, under stress
+of events, the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn,
+these left behind them universal traces of their occupation and
+influence. The inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on
+their own resources, were immediately menaced by invasions, which had
+been hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation, and for some
+protracted period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict, under which
+the arts naturally suffered. Eventually, from the chaos emerged a native
+manner of building, which, though rude and coarse in execution, was
+based on the Roman tradition.</p>
+
+<h3>Romanesque Style</h3>
+
+<p>The transition thus brought about is known for convenience as
+Romanesque. Its most typical exponents were possibly the Scandinavians,
+whose Christianised descendants, the Normans, preserved the same
+tradition. The work of the Saxons in England, although stimulated by the
+same influences, was much cruder in execution.</p>
+
+<p>This period was not remarkable for great artistic development, and
+luxury in any form was practically non-existent.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding local character, the prevailing features are similar, in
+that the round arch is employed, supported by columns or piers, from
+which the arches spring direct, the entablature being eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>The columns are squat in proportion, and surmounted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a>{50}</span> by capitals of
+truncated cone or cushion shape, the abacus being deep and square in
+plan.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings were little used, and the archivolts were formed in a series
+of recessed bands, either plain or decorated. Distinct from the
+Byzantine style, the Romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of
+light and shade.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_42" id="ill_42"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 181px;">
+<a href="images/ill_076a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_076a_sml.jpg" width="181" height="116" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 42. Romanesque Capitals from Cloister, St. Guillem du
+Desert, Herault. Reminiscent of Roman Corinthian.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Details were carved, and rude in execution, preserving to some extent
+the Byzantine feeling, the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem,
+with scroll branches, clothed with leafage, simply channelled or
+grooved, but less spikey in form.</p>
+
+<h3>Church Development</h3>
+
+<p>Of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most
+interesting examples of development. The usual plan consisted of an
+oblong nave with side aisles half its width and height.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_43" id="ill_43"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;">
+<a href="images/ill_076b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_076b_sml.jpg" width="166" height="323" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 43. Romanesque Tower, Thaon, Normandy.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the end of the nave, projecting transepts separated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a>{51}</span> it from the
+chancel (which is generally raised in level), continuing the line of
+nave, the whole taking the shape of the Latin cross in contrast to the
+Byzantine plan; the chancel end facing East, the nave West, and the
+transepts respectively North and South.</p>
+
+<p>A feature of this period is the Apse, a semi-circular extension of the
+choir or chancel; when the side aisles were extended to the latter they
+formed what is known as an ambulatory, or passage way, round the choir,
+within which was the altar, and the stalls for monks and clergy.</p>
+
+<p>The Narthex or atrium, of the basilicas, utilised by the early
+Christians for their public worship (to which were admitted those
+outside the community) was abandoned, its place being taken by the West
+entrance or porch, enclosed between two towers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_44" id="ill_44"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;">
+<a href="images/ill_077_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_077_sml.jpg" width="130" height="355" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 44. Romanesque plan of Cathedral, Worms.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The upper walls of the nave were carried on arches supported by columns,
+which constituted the division of the side aisles; these latter being
+formed by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer walls, the
+vaulting being roofed over.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of the nave was pierced by windows, small and
+comparatively narrow, with semi-circular heads forming the Clerestory.
+Similar windows in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a>{52}</span> some instances occur in the aisles, the jambs of
+these windows being bevelled both inside and out for the freer admission
+of light.</p>
+
+<p>The nave was roofed in with timber, but as the result of frequent
+destruction by fire, the roof was eventually vaulted; in early examples
+by the barrel or tunnel vault, but later this developed into
+cross-vaulting, which was also introduced into the side aisles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_45" id="ill_45"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;">
+<a href="images/ill_078a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_078a_sml.jpg" width="161" height="223" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 45. Romanesque, bay of interior, Worms Cathedral.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_47" id="ill_47"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 189px;">
+<a href="images/ill_078b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_078b_sml.jpg" width="189" height="309" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 47. Romanesque Church interior with Triforium.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_46" id="ill_46"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;">
+<a href="images/ill_078c_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_078c_sml.jpg" width="115" height="122" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 46. Romanesque Window, St. Alban’s Abbey.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the early churches of this period the walls of the nave were unbroken
+except for the upper windows. With the development of vaulting, the
+space above the aisle<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a>{53}</span> vaults and the covering roof was used as a
+gallery known as the Triforium. This was not lighted from without, and
+was a distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque and early Gothic
+styles.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave entailed supports
+for the arch bands or vaulting ribs, which were carried on pilasters or
+half columns, dividing the interior façade into bays.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_48" id="ill_48"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/ill_079_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_079_sml.jpg" width="188" height="246" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 48. Construction of intersecting vaults.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Dark Ages</h3>
+
+<p>The unsettled condition of Europe, both before and after the final
+subjugation of the Roman Empire by Charlemagne in 774 <small>A.D.</small>, was
+necessarily detrimental to artistic progress, and the period to the
+fifteenth century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the
+arts and culture in general.</p>
+
+<p>Such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests,
+and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the
+people were kept in ignorance and subjection.</p>
+
+<p>Building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches, the
+domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier
+periods, though Eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by
+the alien adventurers to the Byzantine courts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a>{54}</span></p>
+
+<p>This was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people
+indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment, to whom, however,
+personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous
+attire.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_49" id="ill_49"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;">
+<a href="images/ill_080_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_080_sml.jpg" width="265" height="347" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 49. Romanesque, south door Kilpeck Church,
+Herefordshire.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme. The dwellings of the
+well-to-do in England, similarly to those of the Scandinavians,
+consisted principally of a barn-like hall. The centre of the hall was
+occupied by a long table, and at one end raised on a platform or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a>{55}</span> dais
+another table was placed in the opposite direction. At the latter sat
+the most important members of the household, while the lower part was
+reserved for retainers and servants. Heavy chairs and settles were used
+at the upper table, and benches or forms at the lower.</p>
+
+<p>Walls, when covered at all, were adorned with hangings, but then only at
+the dais end of the hall. Fireplaces in the modern sense were not known.
+The fire was built on the floor, and the smoke allowed to escape as best
+it might.</p>
+
+<p>Arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining.
+Beds were provided only for persons of distinction, and were placed in
+recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters. They were,
+in fact, little more than wooden boxes, with sacks of straw to serve as
+mattresses.</p>
+
+<p>Later, bedsteads were used of massive construction, which on occasions
+of journeying were placed on wheels, forming a sort of coach or carriage
+ironically termed whirlicots, in which the aged and infirm were
+transported.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_50" id="ill_50"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;">
+<a href="images/ill_081_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_081_sml.jpg" width="172" height="178" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 50. Chair of Dagobert, French 7th century, bronze.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For some time after the Norman Conquest the unsettled state of the
+country rendered it necessary that household effects and valuables
+should be few in number and of such a nature <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a>{56}</span>as to be easily
+transportable. Thus chests in which belongings could be stored came into
+general use. They were simple in construction, and without carving, but
+were strengthened and decorated by hinges and scroll strappings in iron.
+Such chests served a double purpose, as they could be used as tables and
+seats.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_51" id="ill_51"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 211px;">
+<a href="images/ill_082_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_082_sml.jpg" width="211" height="295" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 51. 14th Century Textile Sicilian tradition.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For convenience of transport, chairs and stools were made with
+projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so as to be easily taken
+apart.</p>
+
+<h3>Crusades</h3>
+
+<p>That the Crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of
+Eastern art, is evidenced by the celebrated cup of Eden Hall, on the
+safe preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners,
+according to the couplet:</p>
+
+<p>
+“If that cup either break or fall,<br />
+Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.”<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>This cup is of Saracenic origin, and is of glass, painted in enamels,
+similar in character to the mosque lamps in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Tapestries of Sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the
+medium of the Crusades, and led<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a>{57}</span> to the employment of painted wall
+decoration, evidently in imitation, even in some instances to indicating
+the folds of the material.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_52" id="ill_52"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;">
+<a href="images/ill_083_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_083_sml.jpg" width="242" height="337" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 52. Sicilian Textile.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A precept exists in the twentieth year of the reign of Henry III
+directing “that the King’s great chamber at Westminster be painted a
+good green colour like a curtain,” and “that the King’s little wardrobe
+should also be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain.”</p>
+
+<p>This was undoubtedly suggested by the custom abroad of draping the walls
+with tapestries, though carpets were unknown. Probably the first time
+these were seen in England was in the apartments in the Temple occupied
+by the suite of the infant Don Sancho, archbishop elect of Toledo, who
+with Don Garcias Madinez, officiated as <i>avant-courriers</i> to Eleanor of
+Castile in the autumn of 1255.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a>{58}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Pointed Arch</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_53" id="ill_53"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<a href="images/ill_084_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_084_sml.jpg" width="289" height="433" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 53. Types of Buttress.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The origin of the pointed Arch, which is the chief characteristic of the
+Gothic style, is much disputed, but there is ample evidence that the new
+departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe
+soon after the First Crusade. It is reasonable<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a>{59}</span> to assume that this
+particular form was suggested by examples in Syria, where arches
+elliptic and even ogival in shape were employed.</p>
+
+<p>Though not common in Roman work, the pointed Arch was employed in the
+Aqueduct built to supply Constantinople with water, completed under
+Valens, 364-378 <small>A.D.</small>, by which it is probable that the Saracenic work
+was inspired.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the origin, the innovation was found to be economic, and more
+sound in construction than the older prevailing method. It was also more
+flexible in design, as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned
+with arches equal in height, which is not possible with the
+semi-circular form, except by the expedient of stepping.</p>
+
+<p>Further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the
+outer walls, as well as at the angles of the building.</p>
+
+<h3>Gothic Style</h3>
+
+<p>In France, England and Germany the Gothic style superseded the
+Romanesque with varying phases of transition, and with local development
+of character. In Spain the Moors had established a system of
+architecture thoroughly Eastern that was but little affected by the
+Gothic style, the influence of which is apparent in the later Spanish
+rendering of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy the Gothic attained but slight development in comparison with
+more northern and western treatments, at least from a structural point
+of view. The Italian phase known as Lombardic is conspicuous for the
+evidence of Eastern and Byzantine traditions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a>{60}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Phases of Gothic</h3>
+
+<p>The phases and dates of the Gothic style in England are as follow, and
+lasted well into the sixteenth century, with periods of transition:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_54" id="ill_54"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;">
+<a href="images/ill_086_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_086_sml.jpg" width="161" height="370" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 54. Early pointed Gothic Pier, elevation and plan.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In church architecture the general plan and essential features of the
+Romanesque style were preserved; but there was a complete change in the
+details, as well as a general lightening of the whole structure.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts,
+which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs, these shafts being
+bound together at bases and capitals.</p>
+
+<p>The Triforium was retained, the openings being arched and similar in
+detail to the windows.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Pointed</h3>
+
+<p>In the early variety of the Pointed Gothic the arches<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>{61}</span> were acutely
+pointed, technically known as “lancet,” but later became more
+equilateral. The windows were narrow in proportion, and were single, or
+in groups.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_55" id="ill_55"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 198px;">
+<a href="images/ill_087_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_087_sml.jpg" width="198" height="439" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 55. Early pointed bay with Triforium. Window of Aisle
+is of later date.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Later they were divided into compartments, and the triangular head
+filled in with stonework, pierced with simple geometrical openings,
+known as plate tracery, thus forming a transition between the simple
+open lancet and the intersecting ribs, which constituted the true
+tracery of the later periods.</p>
+
+<p>Commonly shafts of circular section, with caps and bases, were employed
+in the windows, both internally and externally.</p>
+
+<p>Roofs were high pitched, and the ceilings vaulted, the vaulting ribs
+being moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings were rich in effect, being composed of a succession of hollows
+or flutings, contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a>{62}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_56" id="ill_56"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
+<a href="images/ill_088a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_088a_sml.jpg" width="378" height="186" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 56. Early Lancet Windows. A. Canterbury Cathedral. B.
+Lincoln Cathedral. C. Salisbury Cathedral.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_57" id="ill_57"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/ill_088b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_088b_sml.jpg" width="288" height="137" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 57. Early pointed Gothic Windows. Plate tracery.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts, sometimes in leaf-like
+forms in the bases and in the mouldings, also in the crockets, and
+finials of the gables, and pinnacles of the buttresses.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_58" id="ill_58"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 213px;">
+<a href="images/ill_088c_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_088c_sml.jpg" width="213" height="121" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 58. Early pointed Arch Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ornament was extremely conventional, that on capitals, crockets and
+other free positions consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a>{63}</span> crisply curling trefoil or
+cinquefoil groups of lobes having little resemblance to natural type.</p>
+
+<p>The later windows became more elaborate in the tracery, which was
+essentially geometric, and further elaborated by cusping. Triforium
+arches and canopy heads being similar in design.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_59" id="ill_59"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<a href="images/ill_089a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_089a_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 59. Early pointed Gothic Capital.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_60" id="ill_60"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_089b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_089b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 60. Pointed Gothic tracery Windows. A. Ely Cathedral.
+B. Meophan Church, Kent.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The central tower, which was common in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a>{64}</span> Romanesque, developed into
+the spire, which was carried to a great height; the lower part
+occasionally pierced with openings for purpose of interior lighting,
+forming the lantern.</p>
+
+<h3>Decorated Gothic</h3>
+
+<p>The principal characteristics of the Decorated period are the form of
+the Arch, the elimination of detached shafts and the enlarged clerestory
+with increased lighting area.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch, when used structurally, was still of the simple pointed form,
+but in small windows, niches and canopies, the shape at the head became
+ogival and the tracery displays considerable license as compared with
+that of the preceding phase.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_61" id="ill_61"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="images/ill_090a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_090a_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 61. Early pointed Gothic Spire, Warmington.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_62" id="ill_62"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_090b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_090b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 62. Decorated Gothic Windows. A. Merton College,
+Oxford. B. Cathedral, Oxford.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mouldings were shallower as contrasted with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a>{65}</span> undercut hollows of the
+earlier period; in many instances the arch mouldings were merely a
+continuation of those of the supporting piers, which took the place of
+the earlier detached shafts.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest innovation occurs in the foliage, in which natural
+suggestion is evident, adapted with considerable freedom, and skilful in
+execution.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_63" id="ill_63"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+<a href="images/ill_091a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_091a_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 63. Decorated Gothic Carving, Chancel screen,
+Southwell Minster.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the preceding style the foliage of the capitals invariably sprung
+from the necking, in simple firm curves, revealing the underlying
+bell-shape. In the Decorated period the foliage generally wreaths round
+the structural form, the detail being frequently deeply pierced and cut
+away at the back till it was almost detached, giving an extremely rich
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>Diaper detail of pateræ, or foliage arranged in squares, occurs in the
+spandrils between arches.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_64" id="ill_64"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="images/ill_091b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_091b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 64. Decorated Gothic Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a>{66}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_65" id="ill_65"></a></p>
+<p><a name="ill_66" id="ill_66"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 354px;">
+<a href="images/ill_092a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_092a_sml.jpg" width="354" height="176" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>Nos. 65 &amp; 66. Decorated Gothic Capitals, leaves deeply
+undercut and wreathed round bell.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A distinct feature of this period and of the succeeding Perpendicular
+style, is the battlement, which was used in all suitable positions
+either as a parapet or as a cresting. The Decorated variety differs from
+the later, in that the moulded edges only appear horizontally, whereas
+in the Perpendicular period the moulded edge is continuous, being
+carried round the angles of the battlement.</p>
+
+<p>Externally the spire gave place to the tower with culminating lantern.</p>
+
+<p>During the period of the style known as Decorated Gothic, furniture was
+framed and panelled, and the details closely resembled those used in
+architectural decoration in stone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_67" id="ill_67"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 72px;">
+<a href="images/ill_092b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_092b_sml.jpg" width="72" height="285" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 67. Decorated Gothic Spire, Whittlesea.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general effect of Decorated is a tendency to horizontal banding, in
+contrast to the vertical effect of the earlier period, to which
+eventually the later Perpendicular reverted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a>{67}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Perpendicular Gothic</h3>
+
+<p>In the succeeding phase the Triforium which had gradually become less
+important, entirely disappeared and the clerestory windows enlarged, to
+the extent that this part of the structure became merely a frame for the
+increased glass areas.</p>
+
+<p>It will be apparent from the foregoing that whereas in the early
+churches of the Romanesque period the interior effect was mysterious
+owing to inadequate openings for light, the later and growing tendency
+was to increase the lighting capacity by enlarging the windows of the
+clerestory.</p>
+
+<h3>Glass Windows</h3>
+
+<p>Doubtless the development in the size of windows was due to some extent
+to the growing use of glass, which, though rare, was employed during the
+later Romanesque through Byzantine tradition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_68" id="ill_68"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;">
+<a href="images/ill_093_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_093_sml.jpg" width="100" height="271" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 68. Perpendicular Gothic Bay shewing development of
+Clerestory.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These early windows were geometric in design, consisting of medallions,
+oval, circular or quatrefoil in shape, containing figure subjects set in
+a diapered background, the whole being executed in small pieces of
+coloured glass united by lead framings.</p>
+
+<p>While the windows were single openings, this form of glazing necessarily
+restricted the size, though more adequate lighting was achieved by
+grouping two or more windows together.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a>{68}</span></p>
+
+<p>With the development of tracery the technical difficulties were to some
+extent overcome; a window divided into comparatively small compartments
+could be more easily glazed than single openings of large size; thus
+glazed windows of greater dimensions were rendered possible.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_69" id="ill_69"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 193px;">
+<a href="images/ill_094_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_094_sml.jpg" width="193" height="296" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 69. Perpendicular Gothic Windows.</p>
+
+<p>A. Aylsham Church, Norfolk.</p>
+
+<p>B. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Decorated windows the lower lights were devoted to the subject,
+which in many instances was carried through the area, regardless of the
+dividing bars or mullions. In the Perpendicular each light or opening
+had usually its own subject or figure, surmounted by canopies, the upper
+spaces formed by intersection of the tracery bars were occupied by
+various details suitable to the different shapes.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch of the Perpendicular style is materially different, being
+composed of elliptic curves struck from four centres.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings became even more shallow in section, and the tracery less
+florid than formerly, though extremely rich in appearance when used in
+the profusion that developed in the fan vaulting of this period.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a>{69}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_70" id="ill_70"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_095_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_095_sml.jpg" width="282" height="435" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 70. Perpendicular Gothic Fan Vaulting. St. Mary,
+Aldermary.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The foliation reverted to a more conventional character, and became
+lifeless and monotonous in comparison with the Decorated work.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be assumed that examples in every instance will be found
+complete in any of these phases;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a>{70}</span> on the contrary, the various styles
+are to be found side by side in the same building, the result of later
+additions or rebuilding.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_71" id="ill_71"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 132px;">
+<a href="images/ill_096a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_096a_sml.jpg" width="132" height="361" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 71. Perpendicular Gothic Tower, All Saints, Derby.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Painted decoration and sculpture were also employed during the various
+periods; wood-work where necessary was used, and in detail was in
+harmony with the architectural character of the period.</p>
+
+<h3>Civic Influences</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_72" id="ill_72"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;">
+<a href="images/ill_096b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_096b_sml.jpg" width="164" height="261" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 72. Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey, 13th
+century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The feudal period was not favourable to the development of domestic
+conditions, though considerable advance had been made by the fourteenth
+century, chiefly by the Italian states and in the principal cities. The
+importance of the latter is evidenced particularly in the City of
+London, with its merchant class and civic authorities, who, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a>{71}</span> reason
+of their wealth, attained potential political influence, the prevailing
+contentious conditions necessitating the continual raising of large sums
+of money.</p>
+
+<p>Such conditions were favourable to the merchants, who, acting as
+bankers, supplied the means, and thus a class was established and
+apparently lived in profusion and some pretention to sumptuous
+environment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_73" id="ill_73"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;">
+<a href="images/ill_097a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_097a_sml.jpg" width="145" height="189" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 73. Bedstead and Cradle from M.S. in Bodleian
+Library, 14th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Effect of Commerce</h3>
+
+<p>Similar conditions to those in England prevailed on the Continent with
+certain local variations. A big stride was made with the development of
+commerce, mainly through the agency of Venetian and Flemish merchants.
+The effect of increasing opulence as signalised by the appearance in the
+home of such comfort and refinement as had formerly been possible only
+for princes and great nobles.</p>
+
+<p>Among the luxuries imported were Oriental silks, carpets and pottery.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_74" id="ill_74"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;">
+<a href="images/ill_097b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_097b_sml.jpg" width="164" height="210" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 74. Fireplace, 13th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Italy</h3>
+
+<p>Whereas, throughout Europe generally, the Gothic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a>{72}</span> character in furniture
+and woodwork developed on similar lines, in Italy alone its appeal to
+the national sympathies was not strong enough for it to become
+thoroughly assimilated, and there the Byzantine style persisted.</p>
+
+<p>The woods most in use were oak and chestnut. In Italy walnut and cypress
+were used&mdash;the latter being considered especially valuable for chests.</p>
+
+<p>Early examples of Italian chests are decorated with closely spaced
+incised ornament, filled in with colour.</p>
+
+<p>The Venetians derived from Persia and India a form of marquetry or inlay
+of ivory, metal and various woods, generally geometric in design. The
+wood used was stained in order to vary the colour.</p>
+
+<h3>Foreign Influence in England</h3>
+
+<p>Through the policy of seeking foreign princesses as brides for the
+English kings, foreign influences crept in, and had a marked effect on
+the development of style. Moreover, increasing commercial intercourse
+with the Continent paved the way for the introduction of the new ideas
+of the Renaissance then beginning to dawn in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Wars of the Roses checked progress in many ways, but this was but
+the more rapid when peace was restored with the advent of Henry VII.</p>
+
+<h3>The House</h3>
+
+<p>There was a great change in the character of the dwelling-house, which
+though still built on defensive lines, was also arranged with a view to
+domestic comfort and convenience. The commonest form of plan<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a>{73}</span> was that
+in which the buildings were grouped round a central court and surrounded
+by a moat. These buildings consisted of hall, parlour, kitchen and
+domestic offices. The hall itself was lofty, had an open-timbered roof,
+and was usually lighted from both sides. One end of the hall was
+invariably screened off, and as the screen did not reach to the roof the
+musicians’ gallery was placed above it. The fireplace was set in one of
+the side walls. The windows, as a rule, had few lights, and these had
+pointed and cusped heads. The upper rooms were accessible by staircases.</p>
+
+<p>A not uncommon feature on the upper floor was the long gallery, which
+generally traversed the whole length of the building immediately under
+the roof.</p>
+
+<p>The rooms were panelled most often to about two-thirds the height of the
+wall, while the remaining third was of plaster.</p>
+
+<p>The ceiling also was of plaster, which was moulded into intersecting
+ribs arranged geometrically, sometimes with stalactite pendants at the
+intersections.</p>
+
+<p>Fireplaces were made of stone, and chimney-pieces sometimes of wood.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture was beginning to assume some of its modern forms, as shown by
+the chairs, which were railed, and copied from Italian models.</p>
+
+<p>Buffets or sideboards with closed cupboards were in use. Table legs were
+carved or turned, and connected by stretchers.</p>
+
+<p>Windows were now glazed with leaded panes, and when made to open were of
+the casement type, with iron frames which were hinged and furnished with
+turnbuckle fastenings.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a>{74}</span></p>
+
+<p>Doors seldom had locks, but usually shut with latches of wrought iron.
+The hinges also were of wrought iron, and though simple in form were
+often quite ornamental.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VII and his successor were responsible for various country
+residences, an example which was followed by the nobility.</p>
+
+<p>During the latter monarch’s reign it became the fashion to arrange the
+plan of the mansion in the form of the letter H; that is, in two
+parallel wings connected at a right angle. In the reign of Elizabeth
+this was modified into a plan resembling the letter E, otherwise a
+façade, with wings bent at right angles, with a central projection
+forming the main entrance.</p>
+
+<p>In the domestic Tudor style the Arch was in vogue for window openings,
+etc., but much flattened in form.</p>
+
+<p>The windows were divided into a number of lights, by vertical mullions,
+with arch headings, occasionally cusped. If of tall proportions, they
+were further divided by horizontal bars or transoms, and were glazed
+with small panes of glass set in lead frames, arranged in some cases to
+open in iron casements.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_75" id="ill_75"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 186px;">
+<a href="images/ill_100_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_100_sml.jpg" width="186" height="212" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 75. Tudor Window with leaded lights.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Reformation</h3>
+
+<p>An important factor in the development of this period was the
+Reformation, with the resultant liberty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a>{75}</span> of thought. Before this,
+architecture and the associated arts were entirely dominated by the
+Church, at the sacrifice of the individuality of the artist and
+craftsman, who after this emancipation were enabled to exploit their
+work untrammelled by clerical restriction.</p>
+
+<p>In some respects this was not productive of the best results, as it
+removed the various co-ordinated branches of work from the restraint of
+architectural dominance, with some loss to the unities. It also opened
+the way to the professional designer as distinct from the craftsman (who
+hitherto had been responsible for his share of the work) resulting in
+occasional loss of character.</p>
+
+<h3>Renaissance</h3>
+
+<p>The Renaissance, which had its origin it Italy, was the next factor in
+the evolution of architecture and the arts. As early as 1422 there were
+indications of the coming change, though the medieval system of
+construction was still adhered to.</p>
+
+<p>Impetus was given to this revival by the taking of Constantinople by the
+Turks in 1453 <small>A.D.</small>, resulting in the dispersion of the Greek scholars,
+who found refuge in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic, essentially a Northern style, scarcely affected Italy, where
+Byzantine tradition persisted until the Revival of Learning in the
+latter half of the fifteenth century brought a fresh impulse into all
+branches of Art and Literature.</p>
+
+<p>An awakened interest in classical remains was an integral part of the
+vitality with which the great change<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a>{76}</span> known in its culmination as the
+Renaissance was imbued; and the commercial prosperity of the times was
+favourable to its encouragement and development.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Exponents</h3>
+
+<p>An active agent in this revival was Brunelleschi, a native of Florence,
+who in company with Donatello, visited Rome to study the remains of
+classical antiquity. His principal successor, Leo Battista Alberti,
+contributed largely to the new style. Ultimately the Roman Orders and
+their details were appropriated and adapted to local requirements.</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent artists of the day turned their attention to the
+designing and making of wood-work, and the decoration of rooms.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_76" id="ill_76"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 356px;">
+<a href="images/ill_102_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_102_sml.jpg" width="356" height="258" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 76. Strozzi Palace, Florence.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a>{77}</span></p>
+
+<p>The earlier work is severely architectural in character, being closely
+based on the antique, with all the usual features of columns, pilasters,
+cornices and pediments.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest achievement of the architects of the Renaissance was
+perhaps their adaptation of the antique Roman style to the modified
+needs of secular buildings, of which the Palazzo Pitti at Florence by
+Brunelleschi is an early and notable example. This creating a form of
+architecture which perhaps reached its noblest expression in the Palazzo
+Strozzi, begun in 1489 <small>A.D.</small> by Benedetto da Majano.</p>
+
+<p>As previously suggested, climate and local material are essential agents
+in the formation of style, and from Tuscany stone of large size was
+easily obtainable.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_77" id="ill_77"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/ill_103_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_103_sml.jpg" width="267" height="140" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 77. Pandolfini Palace, Florence.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The contentious conditions existing in many of the Italian cities,
+entailing necessity for defence, must also be taken into account, and in
+connection with the foregoing were responsible for the massive and
+fortress-like construction of the principal dwellings of this period.</p>
+
+<p>In the best examples of these, though columns and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a>{78}</span> pilasters were not
+employed in the façade, the stories are proportioned as if the orders
+were used. The crowning cornice, however, is proportioned to the whole,
+varying in height between one fourteenth to one fifteenth.</p>
+
+<p>From Florence the movement spread to Rome and other cities, but Venetian
+Renaissance indicates undoubted evidence of Lombardic influence.</p>
+
+<p>Until the end of the fifteenth century the period was one of experiment,
+but from 1500 to about 1560 the style may be said to have attained a
+phase distinct and local.</p>
+
+<p>At first the various features, structural and decorative, were frank
+reproductions from the antique, which were studied and measured, and
+from which systems of proportion were deduced by various exponents,
+among whom the names of Vignola, Palladio and Serlio are conspicuous.</p>
+
+<h3>Rome</h3>
+
+<p>The Roman version of the Renaissance, as distinct from that of Florence,
+was less massive, Rome being comparatively free from insurrectionary
+troubles. Columns and pilasters were used to divide the façade into
+bays, or in the inner courts, which were frequently arcaded, and the
+principal entrance became a prominent feature.</p>
+
+<p>The founder of the Roman school was Bramante, born in 1444 <small>A.D.</small>,
+originally a painter, who was responsible for the original design of St.
+Peter’s, at the instigation of Pope Julius II.</p>
+
+<p>The partly executed work was found to be too weak<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a>{79}</span> to bear the
+superstructure, and Bramante in the meanwhile dying, Raffaelle, Giocondo
+and Giuliano di San Gallo, and afterwards Baldazzare Peruzzi and Antonio
+San Gallo were engaged on the edifice.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_78" id="ill_78"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_105_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_105_sml.jpg" width="361" height="326" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 78. St. Peter’s, Rome.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Finally Michael Angelo was entrusted with the sole conduct, and St.
+Peter’s in its present form must be credited to him, with the exception
+of the nave, which was added by Carlo Maderno.</p>
+
+<p>Of the secular buildings, the Farnese Palace, the work of San Gallo, is
+typical of the Roman adaptation of the antique architecture to the
+altered conditions.</p>
+
+<p>To the above list of architects of the Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a>{80}</span> Renaissance may be added
+the names of Sansovino, Vignola and Bernini, the last-named being the
+author of designs for the Louvre at Paris.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_79" id="ill_79"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_106_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_106_sml.jpg" width="361" height="179" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 79. Farnese Palace, Rome.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Venice</h3>
+
+<p>The Venetian States, since the twelfth century, had been growing in
+power, and the Republic’s rise in importance was favourable to the arts,
+particularly to architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Local influence is evident in the comparatively restricted ground areas,
+entailing the maximum accommodation possible.</p>
+
+<p>The Venetian school is distinguished by the profuse use of columns and
+arcading; also for the employment of circular-headed windows, frequently
+subdivided by tracery of smaller arched and circular forms, and by
+general lightness of effect.</p>
+
+<p>The founder of the Venetian school was San Micheli, born in 1484 <small>A.D.</small>,
+who spent many years studying the ancient Roman monuments, and who was
+responsible for the Grimani Palace.</p>
+
+<p>Jacopo Tatti, a Florentine, more usually known as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a>{81}</span> Sansovino, though
+mentioned in the Roman group of architects, was however more associated
+with Venice, his adopted city.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_80" id="ill_80"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;">
+<a href="images/ill_107_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_107_sml.jpg" width="271" height="239" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 80. Vendramini Palace, Venice.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Prominent among his works is the Library of St. Mark, which consists of
+two orders, an upper of the Ionic, supported by an arcade in which the
+Doric is employed, the whole surmounted by a balustrade with statues on
+the piers.</p>
+
+<h3>Venetian Influence</h3>
+
+<p>In the Venetian school must be included the name of Andrea Palladio, who
+possibly had a greater influence on the architecture of the time than
+any of his contemporaries; an influence that may be traced in the work
+of Inigo Jones, and in that of Sir Christopher Wren and his immediate
+school.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a>{82}</span>Vincenzo Scamozzi, who died in 1616 <small>A.D.</small>, like Palladio and others, was
+influenced by the antique, and was perhaps the last architect of the
+Venetian school to attain celebrity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_81" id="ill_81"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<a href="images/ill_108_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_108_sml.jpg" width="274" height="324" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 81. Library of St. Mark by Sansovino, Venice.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Painted Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>A conspicuous feature of the Italian Renaissance was the development of
+painted decoration, which had in Italy succeeded the Byzantine mosaic.</p>
+
+<p>As in this method of decoration, mouldings in relief were ineffective,
+and were replaced by decorative bands or borders, so in the succeeding
+painted work similar framings were adopted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a>{83}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_82" id="ill_82"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/ill_109_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_109_sml.jpg" width="176" height="520" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 82. Painted Decoration. Palazzo Publico, Sienna, from
+a drawing by C. E. Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_83" id="ill_83"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 354px;">
+<a href="images/ill_110_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_110_sml.jpg" width="354" height="242" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 83. Painted Ceiling in the Castello San Angelo, Rome,
+by Giulio Romano, from a drawing by Miss Dora Bard, Goldsmiths’ College
+School of Art.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_84" id="ill_84"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;">
+<a href="images/ill_111a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_111a_sml.jpg" width="352" height="252" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the Villa
+Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence, from a drawing by C. E.
+Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.</p><p>No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the Villa
+Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence, from a drawing by C. E.
+Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_85" id="ill_85"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 348px;">
+<a href="images/ill_111b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_111b_sml.jpg" width="348" height="188" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 85. Ceiling-Painting from the Castello San Angelo,
+Rome, reminiscent of Graeco-Roman work, from a drawing by C. E. Bernard,
+Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mosaics were in vogue in Italy to the twelfth century, when painted
+decoration came into favour, and notable in the exploitation of this
+latter phase was the school of Giotto in the early part of the
+fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Vaultings and spandrils were covered with painted subjects, strongly
+framed by ornamental borders, which served to strengthen the sense of
+construction in reinforcing the dividing ribs.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of the Renaissance, these divisional bands became more
+architectural in treatment, and large areas, such as ceilings, were
+subdivided, the sub-divisions being based on a logical sense of
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>The name of Pinturrichio is associated with the Renaissance, among his
+works being the decorations of the Appartamenti Borgia in the Vatican,
+the Choir in Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, and in Santa Maria Maggiore
+at Spello; contemporaneous was Perugino; another celebrated name is that
+of Gian Antonio Bazzi of Sienna, generally known as Sodoma.</p>
+
+<h3>Græco-Roman Influence</h3>
+
+<p>Later exploiters of painted decoration, Raffaelle at the Vatican, Giulio
+Romano, Pierino del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine, were evidently
+influenced by the then recent discovery of late Græco-Roman decorations
+in the remains of the Baths of Titus.</p>
+
+<p>The same influence is found also in minor details&mdash;in the decoration of
+rooms and in the various pieces of furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Walls were panelled, sometimes enriched with carving, with inlaid
+patterns in intarsia, or with inlay of different woods in imitation of
+marble mosaic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a>{84}</span> Hangings of Genoese velvet or stamped and gilded leather
+were often used.</p>
+
+<p>Chairs were at first simple in form, having straight backs and legs,
+with broad, elaborately carved rails at the head of the back and between
+the front legs.</p>
+
+<p>Chests or cassone, called also marriage coffers, because it was
+customary to give them as wedding presents, generally took the form of
+the sarcophagus, supported on claw feet. In many instances they were
+decorated with gilt gesso, or were covered with exuberant carving.</p>
+
+<p>With the development of inlay, which degenerated into picture making,
+some later examples show attempts at perspectives, in which arches,
+doors, balustrades and paved floors were depicted. Cabinets were
+invariably raised on open supports and furnished with doors enclosing
+compartments and sets of drawers, the fronts of which were frequently
+decorated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_86" id="ill_86"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 215px;">
+<a href="images/ill_114_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_114_sml.jpg" width="215" height="145" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 86. Venetian Table.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tables were inlaid, carved and gilded. The prevailing form was a
+rectangular top, sometimes of marble, with wide, richly carved supports
+consisting of human and animal forms at either end; these were connected
+by a central stretcher at the base, from which sprang a series of arched
+forms reaching to the underside of the top.</p>
+
+<p>Walnut was commonly employed for constructive purposes, and ebony and
+many other woods were used<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a>{85}</span> both for veneers and inlay, as also were
+such materials as ivory, tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl.</p>
+
+<p>It is not easy to form an idea of the furniture in ordinary use, as the
+examples which survive and which can generally be seen in museums are
+misleading, being typical rather of that belonging to the nobility and
+wealthy classes.</p>
+
+<p>Probably owing to the rougher usage to which it was subjected, and
+possibly also to its being but little esteemed by its owners, and
+consequently no effort being made to preserve it, the domestic furniture
+of the middle classes seems to have disappeared.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_87" id="ill_87"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;">
+<a href="images/ill_115_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_115_sml.jpg" width="163" height="357" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 87. Carved Walnut Chair. Italian, 16th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Early French Renaissance</h3>
+
+<p>France had been brought into contact with the new architecture through
+the Italian wars under Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I.</p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristic of the early French Renaissance is that the
+details of the new school were imposed on structures which were Gothic
+in general form.</p>
+
+<p>Italian architects were employed by Francis I, and although in the many
+important buildings erected for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a>{86}</span> him he preferred native workmen,
+Italians were retained to furnish designs and lead the new style.
+Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea del Sarto were both employed in the
+decoration of Fontainebleau.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_88" id="ill_88"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/ill_116_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_116_sml.jpg" width="283" height="368" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 88. Wood Panelling. Early French Renaissance.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fontainebleau, Chateau de Chambord, Chenonceaux sur Loire, Chateau de
+Madrid and the commencement of the Louvre were all due to Francis I, and
+the Italian influence was strengthened by the marriage of Henry II with
+Catharine di Medici.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a>{87}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_89" id="ill_89"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 354px;">
+<a href="images/ill_117_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_117_sml.jpg" width="354" height="329" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 89. Stone Chimney-piece, Fontainbleau, Henry II
+Salon.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Native Exploitation</h3>
+
+<p>Under the influence of Vignola and Serlio, the Italian style became more
+popular, and finally extinguished the lingering Gothic tradition; and
+eventually the assimilated style became local, the first prominent
+native exploiter being Philibert Delorme, the architect of the
+Tuileries, for Queen Catharine of Medicis.</p>
+
+<p>Strapwork was a pronounced feature of this period, carved panels being
+subdivided by framings of straight and curved forms interlaced with
+cornucopæ and scroll work. Scrolling straps with I shaped incisions were
+also used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a>{88}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_90" id="ill_90"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;">
+<a href="images/ill_118a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_118a_sml.jpg" width="120" height="225" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 90. Wood Panel. Early French Renaissance.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Masks are of frequent occurrence, and sometimes form scroll centres.</p>
+
+<p>Medallions were often employed, and were occupied by profile heads, and
+surrounded by foliated wreaths.</p>
+
+<p>Pilasters were narrow, and had sunk and moulded panels, lozenge shaped
+in the centre.</p>
+
+<p>In England great impetus was given to building, consequent on the
+suppression of the religious houses during the reign of Henry VIII, and
+mansions were erected in various parts of the country with some
+pretension to both external effect and domestic comfort, not merely by
+the nobility, but also by the wealthy merchant class.</p>
+
+<h3>English Renaissance</h3>
+
+<p>From the rise of the Italian Renaissance a century elapsed before the
+new style began to affect English work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_91" id="ill_91"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;">
+<a href="images/ill_118b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_118b_sml.jpg" width="169" height="246" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 91. French Chair. Period Henry II.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Italy classic tradition had never died, and consequently Gothic
+gained no real hold there, the best examples of Italian Gothic being
+inferior to those of France and England. In the early days<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a>{89}</span> of the
+Revival of Learning, when interest in architecture was at its height,
+Italians set out to emulate the style of building and decoration which
+prevailed in ancient Rome. Gradually the same spirit spread to other
+parts of Europe. Students were attracted to the birth-place of the
+Revival, and workers and designers from Italy were eagerly welcomed by
+her neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally enough each country interpreted the new style in a different
+way, and as it reached England chiefly through France and the
+Netherlands, the French and Flemish interpretations in turn influenced
+the development of the English style.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_92" id="ill_92"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;">
+<a href="images/ill_119_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_119_sml.jpg" width="178" height="279" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 92. Walnut Chair upholstered in Appliqué. Italian,
+about 1600.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Italians in England</h3>
+
+<p>Before either French or Flemish influence had been felt, however, there
+were Italian workers settled in England carrying out designs purely
+Italian in character. The earliest example is the tomb of Henry VII in
+Westminster Abbey, by Torrigiano. Many tombs and monuments were made
+entirely by Italians. Holbein, who was employed by Henry VIII, was
+distinctly a Renaissance painter and designer and encouraged the new
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>As the style became more widely disseminated it lost<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a>{90}</span> much of its
+original purity, and classical details were used in conjunction with
+Gothic forms and methods of construction, due, doubtless, to the
+apparent difficulty with which the native workers grasped the essentials
+of the new style; indeed, there is more intermixing of styles in England
+than in any other part of Europe with the exception of Flanders.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_93" id="ill_93"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a href="images/ill_120_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_120_sml.jpg" width="278" height="374" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 93. Stone Chimney-piece. Sala Borgia, Rome. 16th
+Century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The purely Italian phase was followed by a rendering which was largely
+borrowed from French work,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a>{91}</span> and this in turn was supplanted by the
+influence of the Flemish interpretation. The delicately modelled
+foliage, dolphins, candelabra, vases and cherubs, so characteristic of
+Italian and French work, were replaced by such typically Flemish details
+as interlacing strapwork with curved and scrolled ends, frequently
+cartouche-like in form, festoons of fruit and foliage, and terminal
+figures used as pilasters.</p>
+
+<h3>Study of Classic Style</h3>
+
+<p>In the late Jacobean and succeeding phases the classic manner was more
+thoroughly understood, and a more scholarly handling was the result,
+until the culmination was reached in the work of Inigo Jones and Wren.</p>
+
+<p>The Elizabethan phase indicates an imperfectly understood, and in many
+instances meaningless, employment and adaptation of Italian forms to the
+requirements of the times.</p>
+
+<p>A notable example if this is the central feature of the Public Schools
+at Oxford, the work of Thomas Holt, a native of York, in which the
+orders appear ranged one above the other.</p>
+
+<h3>Thomas Thorpe</h3>
+
+<p>The most prominent name associated with the architecture of the period
+is Thomas Thorpe, who was concerned in many of the principal edifices
+erected during the reign of Elizabeth and of her successor, James I.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of woodwork consisted of architectural façades,
+and the orders and pediments were utilised wherever possible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a>{92}</span></p>
+
+<p>Doorways and chimney-pieces offered the principal opportunities for
+display in interior work.</p>
+
+<p>Panelling was retained for the large halls and most of the rooms. The
+walls were frequently divided into bays by means of pilasters and
+surmounted by friezes and cornices more or less determined by
+traditional forms.</p>
+
+<h3>Flemish Influence</h3>
+
+<p>The style degenerated in the same reign into a coarser rendering, and
+was followed by a period of strong Flemish influence. There is, in fact,
+such a marked similarity between the later Elizabethan and Flemish
+furniture and wood-work that it is not easy to distinguish the
+nationality of examples of this period. In cases where figure sculpture
+is employed, however, it is not difficult to decide, as a considerably
+higher standard was attained by the Flemish school of figure carvers
+than is found in English work.</p>
+
+<p>Tapered pilaster-like supports, surmounted by half figures or Ionic
+caps, were often employed in the framing of doors and chimney-pieces,
+and sometimes on furniture. Table supports and newels of stairs
+increased in size. The heavy acorn-shaped baluster is a feature. Inlay
+came into use for panelling as well as for furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Synchronously with the changes in detail, there was a more classical
+tendency displayed in moulded features such as strings and cornices.</p>
+
+<p>In the early seventeenth century the scale of the details of Flemish
+work increased. Diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on square ones;
+turned<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a>{93}</span> work was split and the two halves applied; drop ornaments were
+used below tables and from the centres of panels under arches&mdash;all these
+being additions to the general structure.</p>
+
+<h3>Jacobean</h3>
+
+<p>English work developed in much the same way as Flemish, probably owing
+to the commerce in wood-work between England and Flanders at this time.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier work, where the orders were employed, there was some
+regard to proportion and detail, probably direct translation of Italian
+designs, but in the later Jacobean work there was considerable
+falling-off, presumably due to native exploitation and experiment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_94" id="ill_94"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_123_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_123_sml.jpg" width="280" height="204" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 94. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Architectural feeling was prominent in the treatment of interiors, which
+were invariably panelled as in the earlier period. The characteristic
+“linen fold”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a>{94}</span> variety of the late Tudor giving place to plain panelling,
+framed by stiles and rails closely spaced.</p>
+
+<p>Walls were occasionally divided into bays by means of pilasters, often
+supported on pedestals.</p>
+
+<p>The panels in the later development were invariably plain, but a
+decorated frieze, carved in relief, was carried round immediately under
+the cornice. Coats of arms at intervals sometimes supplied the
+decoration. The carved frieze gave place to a simple form of patterning,
+which was produced by sinking the ground to practically one level and
+leaving the ornament which had little or no modelling, flush with the
+face of the panel. This led to fretting out the pattern and applying it
+to the surface. The idea of planting ornament evidently spread, and may
+be seen in such obviously applied details as studs and half-balusters.</p>
+
+<p>A typical room of the period would be treated with plain panelling,
+perhaps divided into bays by pilasters, and all elaboration was confined
+to the doorways and chimney-piece.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_95" id="ill_95"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 127px;">
+<a href="images/ill_124_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_124_sml.jpg" width="127" height="356" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 95. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace of Bromley-by-Bow.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chimney-piece might be in wood, stone or marble, and while there
+were many varieties of treatment, the designs readily fall under one
+general type. Columns or pilasters flanked the opening,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a>{95}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_96" id="ill_96"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_125_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_125_sml.jpg" width="361" height="406" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 96. Jacobean Chimney-piece. Palace of
+Bromley-by-Bow.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">carrying an entablature consisting of architrave frieze and cornice, the
+latter forming a shelf. Above this there was a similar arrangement, but
+on a smaller scale and with finer proportions. The space between the
+columns above the shelf was usually filled with carving, which sometimes
+took the form of armorial bearings. In many<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a>{96}</span> examples the upper part is
+divided into two panels, which were generally filled with carved
+ornament such as strapwork or shields charged with heraldic devices.</p>
+
+<p>Where the chimney-piece was of wood, the fireplace opening was
+surrounded by a stone lining, which had moulded splays on the upright
+jambs. In earlier examples the jambs were connected by a flattened arch
+with carved spandrils. In later work a horizontal panel was employed or
+a frieze of carved detail.</p>
+
+<p>The opening itself was wide, and was lined with brick or stone. The
+interior was occupied by a fire-back of cast-iron and a movable grate or
+basket supported on dogs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_97" id="ill_97"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_126_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_126_sml.jpg" width="194" height="392" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 97. Jacobean Door, shewing absense of architrave.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Doors were at first merely a part of the panelling without hanging
+frames, but later they were treated as important features of the rooms.
+They were often framed with columns and pilasters, surmounted by
+entablatures, with or without pediments. Obelisks were sometimes placed
+over the pilasters. The frieze<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a>{97}</span> was fluted or carved. In many cases the
+tympanum of the pediment or even one of the door panels bore the owner’s
+coat of arms.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier phases the mouldings framing the panels were simple in
+form, and worked on the stiles and rails. But later they were applied,
+being wider in display and more elaborate in section. These applied
+mouldings, evidently the result of mechanical appliances, later led to
+extreme license in broken angles and panellings of complicated form.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_98" id="ill_98"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/ill_127_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_127_sml.jpg" width="370" height="313" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 98. Jacobean Doors.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ceilings, and occasionally the frieze, were in plaster, decorated with
+intersecting ribs, or bands dividing the surface into compartments
+geometric in shape, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a>{98}</span> further enriched with stamped or modelled
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p>Windows were relatively small as to individual openings, large lighting
+areas being obtained by grouping a number of these side by side, and
+also in tiers, the dividing bars or mullions being either in wood or
+stone.</p>
+
+<p>Glazing took the form of small pieces of glass united by lead frames,
+commonly arranged in trellis form, resulting in diamond-shaped pieces.
+Occasionally painted or coloured glass was used, generally in heraldic
+devices in the upper portions of the windows.</p>
+
+<p>The windows themselves were frequently deeply embayed.</p>
+
+<h3>Development in Dwellings</h3>
+
+<p>The growing appreciation of domestic comfort, evident in the general
+arrangement of the buildings of this period, is also apparent in the
+furniture, which from this time approximates somewhat to the modern
+forms, though still crude, and leaving much to be desired in the way of
+personal comfort.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_99" id="ill_99"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 199px;">
+<a href="images/ill_128_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_128_sml.jpg" width="199" height="171" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 99. Oak Table, English. 17th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tables, which had hitherto been mere portable boards laid on trestles,
+or, if fixed, were on heavy legs with rails below, developed into more
+useful forms. These were the draw-inge table which could be extended by
+drawing out two flaps worked on runners from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a>{99}</span> beneath the normal top,
+and the gate-leg table, which in principle resembled the modern folding
+type. Large tables were formed by putting a number of gate-leg tables
+together, and when not so in use they could be placed in different parts
+of the room.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_100" id="ill_100"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
+<a href="images/ill_129_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_129_sml.jpg" width="381" height="276" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 100. English Chairs, early 17th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Legs and the under rails of chairs and tables were turned in the lathe,
+and the carved details were invariably simple and direct in execution,
+similar in character to much of the work in the early French
+Renaissance, in contrast to the Italian carving, which was in high
+relief and plastic in character.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of examples in our national collection of this period are
+of Court furniture, and cannot be taken as typical of what was in common
+use. The over-ornamented Italian work compares unfavourably with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a>{100}</span> the
+English Jacobean furniture, in which utility is obvious and the
+decoration subordinate and to the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Oak was chiefly employed in England, but in Italy, and later in France,
+walnut was much used.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_101" id="ill_101"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 195px;">
+<a href="images/ill_130a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_130a_sml.jpg" width="195" height="343" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 101. English Chair, middle of 17th century,
+influenced by Italian design.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Panelling was prevalent for interiors in the Italian and French
+Renaissance. In Italy, where the art of weaving had been preserved at
+Lucca, and other places, tapestry was also frequently employed as wall
+hangings, also as coverings for upholstered work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_102" id="ill_102"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;">
+<a href="images/ill_130b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_130b_sml.jpg" width="174" height="279" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 102. Oak Chair, English, 17th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Compared with the earlier period, this was a time of luxury and display,
+favourable to the arts generally.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a>{101}</span></p>
+
+<p>Painting, freed from the restrictions of the church, broke away from the
+Byzantine traditions, and revelling in realism, lost to some extent its
+decorative character.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_103" id="ill_103"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_131_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_131_sml.jpg" width="276" height="323" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 103.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Evolution of Professional Designer</h3>
+
+<p>Under patronage, the individual artist and craftsman was allowed to
+develop on his own lines, and no longer worked under the dominance of
+the architect. Demand, owing to growing appreciation of artistic
+production, eventuated in the evolution of the professional designer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a>{102}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Inigo Jones</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_104" id="ill_104"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;">
+<a href="images/ill_132_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_132_sml.jpg" width="290" height="281" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 104.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the Renaissance had come to stay, the manner of its
+interpretation in England by the native workers was very far removed
+from the Italian school which had supplied the first impulse, until the
+advent of Inigo Jones in the reign of James I. This artist, who had
+visited Italy and studied principally the architecture of Palladio and
+his school, was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works. Under his influence
+proportions and details were used, which conformed more nearly to
+classic types.</p>
+
+<p>Born about 1572 <small>A.D.</small>, he studied in Italy, where he became acquainted
+with the work of Palladio, and was a follower of the Venetian school.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a>{103}</span></p>
+
+<p>Dying in 1652, he left a tradition which would have had a more immediate
+effect but for the internecine troubles of the later period of his life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_105" id="ill_105"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<a href="images/ill_133_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_133_sml.jpg" width="284" height="175" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 105. Banqueting House, Whitehall. Inigo Jones.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A typical example of his work in London is the Banqueting House in
+Whitehall, the only part built of the projected palace for James I, now
+used as a museum by the United Service Institution. Also the Church of
+St. Paul, Covent Garden.</p>
+
+<h3>Louis XIII</h3>
+
+<p>By the time of Louis XIII the principles of the Renaissance had become
+thoroughly assimilated in France, and a native school of architecture
+had arisen of marked distinction. France from then onward took the
+initiative, though strongly influenced by the Venetian school.</p>
+
+<p>The orders were used consistently as to proportion and detail, but in
+the decoration considerable development in character is manifest.</p>
+
+<p>The general construction and details developed on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a>{104}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_106" id="ill_106"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_134_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_134_sml.jpg" width="362" height="473" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 106. Louis XIII. Luxembourg Pavilion Entrance, by
+Salamon de Brose, 1615-24.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">more architectural lines, and shew a better appreciation of the Italian
+originals. Pilasters were used to divide the wall surfaces, these and
+the entablatures<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a>{105}</span> closely following in detail the classic types. Panels
+were much wider than in the preceding style, generally occupying the
+whole space between the pilasters. The usual arrangement for these
+panels was to have them in two tiers&mdash;the shallow ones confined to the
+lower portions of walls and those of deeper proportions above.
+Fireplaces and doors were surrounded by boldly moulded architraves, and
+surmounted by panels occupied by carved details of scroll-work and
+foliage.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_107" id="ill_107"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_135a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_135a_sml.jpg" width="192" height="208" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 107. Ste. Marie, Nevers. Louis XIII. Example of
+Barocco (Flemish influence).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_108" id="ill_108"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;">
+<a href="images/ill_135b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_135b_sml.jpg" width="161" height="219" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 108. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIII.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ceilings were modelled in stucco and sub-divided into compartments,
+which were richly moulded, and in some cases decorated with paintings.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Louis XIII, chairs were made more comfortable by
+being upholstered in velvet, tapestry or needlework, instead of being
+smothered with carving. The frames were covered by velvet or other
+material, leaving only<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a>{106}</span> the legs and arms visible, and these were but
+slightly carved.</p>
+
+<h3>Louis XIV</h3>
+
+<p>In France the Renaissance reached its highest degree of splendour in the
+reign of Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_109" id="ill_109"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_136_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_136_sml.jpg" width="279" height="173" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 109. Louis XIV. Louvre, Paris, by Perrault.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The palace of Versailles, designed by Jules Hardouin Mansart, was
+completed, and French designers were many and famous. Amongst the most
+prominent were Lebrun, who was responsible for much of the interior work
+at Versailles, Jean and Claude Berain, Lepautre, Daniel Marot and André
+Charles Boule, the inventor of the particular class of inlay which bears
+his name.</p>
+
+<p>The style of Louis XIV is characteristic of its time. Love of display
+was manifested in every direction, but nowhere did it give rise to
+greater magnificence than in furniture and decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of architectural features, with a close approximation to
+accepted proportions, had been the keynote of the preceding style, but
+the work of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a>{107}</span> period broke away from all tradition. As a departure
+it was quite original, and constituted a phase in the development of the
+Renaissance that was purely and typically French, and this particularly
+in its massiveness and grandeur.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_110" id="ill_110"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<a href="images/ill_137_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_137_sml.jpg" width="357" height="402" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 110. The King’s Bedchamber, Versailles. Louis XIV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Panelling became more varied in proportion, and heavily framed with
+mouldings of the Bolection type.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a>{108}</span> Glass was also used in panels as at
+Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, where the windows on one side of the
+gallery are repeated in form by mirrors in reciprocal positions.</p>
+
+<p>Important rooms were panelled and divided by pilasters, surmounted by
+entablatures. The Corinthian order was the one most frequently used.</p>
+
+<p>Panel mouldings were heavily and richly carved. Curved sections and
+facias were fluted, or carved with guilloche or leaf detail. Figures and
+<i>amorini</i>, heavy festoons, wreaths, cartouches and shields were among
+the decorative motifs. Strapwork, a survival of the preceding styles,
+was moulded and clothed with foliage of the acanthus variety.</p>
+
+<p>Ceilings were modelled in stucco and were divided into bold geometrical
+compartments by strongly moulded ribs. The compartments were sometimes
+occupied by paintings. In some cases the cornice was not taken up to the
+height of the ceiling, but the ceiling line was continued in form of a
+curve to meet the top of the cornice, forming what is known as a cove.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_111" id="ill_111"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 163px;">
+<a href="images/ill_138_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_138_sml.jpg" width="163" height="249" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 111. Upholstered Chair. Louis XIV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Chairs were massive, the frames were carved and gilt, and the seats and
+backs upholstered in tapestry. In the latter part of the reign of Louis
+XIV metal was used in the construction of furniture in the form of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>{109}</span>
+mounts&mdash;as framing and protecting pieces to angles, and was gilt by the
+mercury process. The introduction of veneer probably led to this use of
+metal.</p>
+
+<h3>"Boule” Work</h3>
+
+<p>A method of decorating furniture with inlays of brass or tin and
+tortoiseshell originated by André Charles Boule, came into vogue. The
+sheets of metal and shell were placed together and cut simultaneously,
+with the result that the patterns produced were interchangeable&mdash;thus
+the metal pattern could be fitted with a tortoiseshell background and
+vice versa. There was a tendency for this style of work to become more
+ornate and showy, and later, instead of the transparent shell being used
+in its natural colour, either vermilion or gold leaf was placed
+underneath.</p>
+
+<h3>Mirrors</h3>
+
+<p>Mirrors, in the sixteenth century, had been imported from Italy, and
+those of considerable size were first made in Venice.</p>
+
+<p>Later glass manufactories were established in England&mdash;near
+Battersea&mdash;and in France, where larger mirrors and plates of glass were
+produced than hitherto.</p>
+
+<p>Rooms lined with mirrors became popular, in some cases even the ceiling
+being made of glass.</p>
+
+<p>Console tables, which were frequently gilt, were often placed under the
+large wall mirrors.</p>
+
+<p>Hanging bands of material were employed to drape the heads of windows
+and the tops of bedsteads. Beds were important pieces of furniture, and
+had elaborately<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a>{110}</span> carved head and foot boards. The overhanging Tester was
+also ornamented, and besides the valances already mentioned, was
+surmounted by groups of plumes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_112" id="ill_112"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_140_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_140_sml.jpg" width="362" height="373" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 112. Pantheon, Paris. Soufflet. Louis XV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Louis XV</h3>
+
+<p>Little advance was made in architecture during the reign of Louis XV, to
+which period belongs the Pantheon at Paris, originally the Church of St.
+Geneviéve, the work of Soufflet, born in 1713.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a>{111}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Régence</h3>
+
+<p>The style passed through two stages. The earlier, known as the
+Régence&mdash;the principal exponents of which were Charles Cressent, Gilles
+Marie Oppenord, and Nicholas Pineau&mdash;is distinguished by a certain
+reserve and moderation which were entirely abandoned in the later Rococo
+period.</p>
+
+<h3>Rococo</h3>
+
+<p>The term “Rococo” is derived from a French word meaning rockwork, and is
+applied to the style in which rock and shell forms are used as details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_113" id="ill_113"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;">
+<a href="images/ill_141_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_141_sml.jpg" width="199" height="241" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 113. Detail of Wood-carving, Regency Period.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ornament became extravagant and meaningless, and was wrongly used to
+serve the purpose of construction, the actual constructive elements
+being at times completely ignored. It cannot be denied, however, that
+powerful draughtsmanship and inventiveness were displayed, but without
+the consideration of practical execution, which is essential to all good
+design.</p>
+
+<p>Evidently the artist or designer dominated the craftsman, who, however,
+grappled with difficulties in an admirable manner, often achieving
+results which would appear from the constructional point of view almost
+impossible of attainment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a>{112}</span></p>
+
+<p>The work of the latter part of the period expresses the enervated and
+frivolous spirit of the time.</p>
+
+<p>Walls were panelled and often divided by pilasters, which, however, lost
+all structural significance.</p>
+
+<p>Cornices and friezes were dispensed with, the frieze being replaced by a
+cove curving into the ceiling.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings were broken at angles and intersections into curves, scrolls
+and foliage.</p>
+
+<p>Carved details of the curiously twisted leafage peculiar to the style
+were employed wherever possible.</p>
+
+<p>Painted panels were fashionable, and were used particularly over
+doorheads. They were surrounded or framed by curved and enriched
+mouldings.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_114" id="ill_114"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 168px;">
+<a href="images/ill_142_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_142_sml.jpg" width="168" height="354" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 114. Carved Wood Door. Louis XV.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Interiors of this later period were invariably painted white, and partly
+gilt, the wall panels decorated with tapestry or paintings with which
+are associated the names of Bouchier, Watteau, and Fragonard.</p>
+
+<p>Ceilings were also painted, wall mirrors were employed and furniture (at
+this period at times extremely costly) was veneered and decorated with
+metal mounts in gilt ormolu.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a>{113}</span></p>
+
+<p>Chair and table legs were of the cabriole type.</p>
+
+<p>Bureaux fronts were swelled into curves both horizontally and
+vertically.</p>
+
+<p>Veneer and marqueterie were much used.</p>
+
+<p>Chased and gilt brass was employed to protect angles, as feet, handles,
+escutcheons and other ornamental details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_115" id="ill_115"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;">
+<a href="images/ill_143a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_143a_sml.jpg" width="195" height="286" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 115.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_116" id="ill_116"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 162px;">
+<a href="images/ill_143b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_143b_sml.jpg" width="162" height="375" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 116. Chair with cane back English, later half 17th
+century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Lacquer “Vernis Martin"</h3>
+
+<p>Furniture was also decorated in imitation of Chinese lacquer. The
+principal worker in it was Robert Martin, who introduced a varnish of
+fine transparent quality.</p>
+
+<h3>Later English Renaissances</h3>
+
+<p>Artistic progress was hindered in England by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a>{114}</span> disturbed conditions
+at the time of the Civil War, and in consequence little change in style
+took place in this and the Commonwealth period.</p>
+
+<p>With the Restoration came the influence of the French Court, and foreign
+furniture was imported, thus giving fresh models for the English
+workers.</p>
+
+<p>One result of the Great Fire in 1666 was that a great impetus was given
+to architecture and to the crafts associated with it, and the influence
+of Wren and Grinling Gibbons produced a school of most efficient carvers
+and craftsmen.</p>
+
+<h3>Sir Christopher Wren</h3>
+
+<p>Wren was a worthy successor to Inigo Jones, and the general destruction
+wrought by the fire in the city gave him a fine field for his activity.
+He was employed not only to rebuild the churches, eighty-nine of which
+had been burnt, but also many of the city halls; and was commissioned by
+William and Mary to build the state-rooms at Hampton Court Palace.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_117" id="ill_117"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;">
+<a href="images/ill_144_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_144_sml.jpg" width="171" height="315" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 117. English Chair, period of Charles II.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The style of Wren, which, like that of Inigo Jones, was based rather
+upon the Venetian school, was perpetuated and found individual exponents
+in the works<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>{115}</span> of his pupils and immediate successors. Among whom may be
+mentioned James Gibbs (1720 to 1754), architect of St. Martin’s in the
+Fields (1726) and St. Mary le Strand, and Nicholas Hawksmoor, who was
+responsible for the churches of St. George’s, Bloomsbury, and St. Mary,
+Woolnoth, the latter commenced in 1716 was finished in 1718.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_118" id="ill_118"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/ill_145_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_145_sml.jpg" width="364" height="423" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 118. St. Paul’s Cathedral. Wren.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a>{116}</span></p>
+
+<p>Notable among Wren’s churches is that of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, in the
+City of London; of his secular work an example may be cited in the
+library of Trinity College, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<h3>Classic Spires</h3>
+
+<p>A characteristic of the period in the churches of Wren and his school is
+the spire, which, though tapering like the Gothic variety, is invested
+with features quite Renaissance in form, arranged in successive tiers.</p>
+
+<p>The architecture of the period is in excellent proportion, and all the
+details of mouldings, capitals, etc., were executed in a masterly
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>Panelling was still employed, mostly in oak, and was now carried up to
+the ceiling. The panels were very wide, frequently bevelled at the
+edges&mdash;the stiles and rails forming the framings being much wider than
+hitherto. The framing mouldings were sometimes carved.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_119" id="ill_119"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 126px;">
+<a href="images/ill_146_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_146_sml.jpg" width="126" height="369" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 119. Spire of St. Mary le Strand.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Doorways and chimneypieces were surrounded by well-designed architraves,
+with carved mouldings, and were surmounted by pediments, above which it
+was not unusual to have carved festoons and pendants of fruit and
+foliage.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>{117}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_120" id="ill_120"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;">
+<a href="images/ill_147_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_147_sml.jpg" width="352" height="556" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 120. English Interior Wood-work. Late 17th and early
+18th century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>{118}</span></p>
+
+<p>Pilasters were decorated with cherubs’ heads used as caps, and pendant
+drops of the usual type.</p>
+
+<p>Carving was profusely used, the details consisted mainly of interlacing
+scrollwork of acanthus-like foliage, heavy fruit and flower festoons and
+drops, trophies and cherubs’ heads. The relief was high, the work
+occasionally being detached, and the manner of execution was sharp and
+crisp, implying no hesitation on the part of the carver.</p>
+
+<p>The high relief necessitated building up thicknesses of wood, and formed
+a great contrast to the earlier work in which the ground was slightly
+set back, leaving the original panel face as the highest part of the
+pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The woods commonly used were oak for wainscotting and cedar for doors.
+Where it was intended that the woodwork should be painted or gilt it was
+made in deal. Some of the carving was in oak, but the favorite material
+was limewood, and pear; cedar or lime was used when small fine detail
+was required. Elm was employed for various articles such as dressers:
+ash, beech, birch, poplar, sycamore, English and Italian walnut were
+also used.</p>
+
+<h3>Dutch and French Influences</h3>
+
+<p>With William III and his Dutch court the influence of the Netherlands
+became once more apparent. It was coloured by the French style of the
+Louis XIV period, probably through an immigration of French workmen
+after the Edict of Nantes in 1685. This influence can be traced in some
+of the furniture at Hampton Court, particularly in the carved and gilt
+tables of French design and English workmanship.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a>{119}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_121" id="ill_121"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;">
+<a href="images/ill_149_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_149_sml.jpg" width="392" height="546" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 121. A. Walnut Chair, period of Queen Anne. B. Dutch
+Chair, 17th century. C. Inlaid Chair, period of Queen Anne. D. Carved
+Chair, period of Queen Anne.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a>{120}</span></p>
+
+<p>The chairs and settees of the period have shaped backs, generally with
+delicately carved central vertical panels of vase-like form; and
+cabriole legs with a carved shell ornament on the knee.</p>
+
+<p>Bureaux and corner cupboards were introduced. They were decorated with
+marqueterie or with inlay of boxwood or holly on a walnut ground.</p>
+
+<h3>Queen Anne Period</h3>
+
+<p>Flemish or Dutch influence prevailed during the period known as Queen
+Anne.</p>
+
+<p>The typical Queen Anne chair in common with all the furniture of the
+period was made of walnut. The seat was wide, the front legs cabriole
+shaped, ending, as a rule, in club or claw-and-ball feet. The back was
+high and curved at the top, and this was connected centrally with the
+seat by a long vase or fiddle-shaped splat. Carving was not much used,
+but the splat was sometimes ornamented with floral and other designs in
+marqueterie after the Dutch fashion.</p>
+
+<p>During this period an appreciation for Oriental china and lacquer work
+had an important effect on furniture and decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The later fashion of inlay and marquetry work of Sheraton was perhaps as
+much the outcome of the Dutch practice of this form of decoration, as it
+was due to the discovery of the possibilities of mahogany as a suitable
+wood for furniture.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Georgian</h3>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century in England was the age of the connoisseur and
+dilettante, and the struggling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>{121}</span> professional, literary or artistic, had
+little opportunity except by the favour of a patron. As for instance,
+Lord Burlington, who is reported to have practised architecture in
+conjunction with his <i>protégé</i> Kent.</p>
+
+<p>William Kent, born in 1685, died 1748, a painter as well as an
+architect, was responsible for many designs, among which may be
+mentioned the Horse Guards in Whitehall, and Holkham in Norfolk for the
+Earl of Leicester.</p>
+
+<p>Georgian work shows more evidence of French influence, but is invariably
+stiff and heavy in feeling.</p>
+
+<p>In panelling rooms a surbase or dado was employed. The bolection
+moulding was universally used round panels.</p>
+
+<p>Doorways and chimneypieces were made up of architraves, surmounted by
+pediments, and were formal in design and detail. The Greek key was often
+most unsatisfactorily used in their decoration.</p>
+
+<h3>Chippendale</h3>
+
+<p>Among others, Chippendale’s name is associated with the furniture of
+this period, and his book of designs, published about the middle of the
+eighteenth century, contained, besides furniture, suggestions for the
+complete decoration of rooms. Chippendale was undoubtedly influenced by
+the Louis XV style, and at one period he attempted to exploit Chinese
+forms and details.</p>
+
+<p>The chairs designed by him were based on the earlier Queen Anne type,
+but the vase-shaped back was replaced by pierced and carved interlacing
+bands and ribbons. For a time the cabriole leg was retained, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a>{122}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_122" id="ill_122"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/ill_152_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_152_sml.jpg" width="369" height="473" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">No. 122.</td><td align="left">A. Transitional Chair, 18th century.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">B. Mahogany<span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Sheraton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">C. &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="ditto">“</span>&nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Chippendale.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">D. Walnut &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Hepplewhite.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a>{123}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">later examples have straight square legs. The chairs were fitted with
+loose upholstered seats covered with morocco leather.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture was generally in mahogany, which had been introduced a little
+earlier from the West Indies, and had become popular on account of the
+colour and figure developed by polishing. Mahogany lends itself to fine
+mouldings and detail, and this was evidently appreciated, as relief
+decoration on furniture in this wood received a more restrained
+treatment, while plain surfaces were made more extensive.</p>
+
+<h3>Mayhew</h3>
+
+<p>Contemporary workers were Mainwaring and Mayhew. Mayhew was responsible
+for a form of fretwork decoration which is often ascribed to
+Chippendale.</p>
+
+<h3>Adam Style</h3>
+
+<p>Prominent among his contemporaries, more perhaps for his influence on
+interior decoration, was Robert Adam, who died at the age of ninety-four
+in 1792.</p>
+
+<p>A student of the later antique Roman work, and inspired by the remains
+of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro, he evolved a style which bears his
+name, that was personal and distinctive. A style that had many
+followers, and which largely influenced the work of Sheraton.</p>
+
+<p>Simple as to structural form, and delicate in detail, it carried on the
+tradition of the later Graeco-Roman work on which it was founded,
+avoiding absolute reproduction.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a>{124}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_123" id="ill_123"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;">
+<a href="images/ill_154_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_154_sml.jpg" width="327" height="554" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 123. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a>{125}</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a>{126}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_124" id="ill_124"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<a href="images/ill_155_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_155_sml.jpg" width="326" height="552" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 124. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Adam influence is evident also in the pottery of this period, and in
+the details of Sheffield plate.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of Robert Adam’s architectural design may be seen in London at
+the Adelphi, which was built as a speculation, in the Admiralty screen
+in Whitehall, and houses in Portland Place, W.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_125" id="ill_125"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;">
+<a href="images/ill_156_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_156_sml.jpg" width="148" height="274" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 125. Adam influence.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Hepplewhite</h3>
+
+<p>Hepplewhite also was designing and manufacturing about this time, and is
+noted principally for his japanned or painted furniture. In this process
+the wood was first coated with a preparation after the manner of Chinese
+or Japanese lacquer, and then decorated with fruit and flowers in gold
+on a background. Subsequently, furniture of this character, instead of
+being japanned, was merely painted white. Hepplewhite’s chair-backs
+differ in form from Chippendale’s, being shield or oval shaped.</p>
+
+<p>Satinwood came into use, and much of the work ascribed to Sheraton was
+made of it.</p>
+
+<p>Painted decoration of a delicate character, the details including
+ribbons, borders and medallions, was applied to table-tops, harpsichord
+cases, chair-backs and other objects. The names of Angelica Kauffmann
+and Cipriani are associated with this form of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Hepplewhite and Sheraton were apparently influenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a>{127}</span> by the work of the
+brothers Adam, which was a distinct departure from the earlier style.
+The cabriole leg was rarely used, its place being taken by gracefully
+tapered forms.</p>
+
+<h3>Sheraton</h3>
+
+<p>Although some of Sheraton’s furniture had painted detail, he more often
+used marqueterie and inlay of fine design.</p>
+
+<p>Panels were treated in marqueterie, with ovals or other simple shapes
+surrounded by narrow bands or lines of contrasting colour.</p>
+
+<p>Sheraton sideboards were usually without backs, and were sometimes
+furnished with brass rails on top.</p>
+
+<p>Bookcases had glass doors with well designed and finely worked sash
+bars.</p>
+
+<p>The general tendency was towards elegance and refinement, and led to
+simplicity of treatment rather than over enrichment.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed this may be taken as the culminating period for the finest
+production of furniture, not only with regard to design and exquisite
+workmanship, but in carefully studied utility. This consideration may be
+seen in the dressing-tables and secretaires, which were full of
+ingenious devices, and secret drawers and contrivances for hiding papers
+and valuables were quite a feature of the work.</p>
+
+<h3>Louis XVI</h3>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the reign of Louis XV there was a distinct change in
+taste, and consequently in style. This was manifested by a return to
+simplicity of line,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a>{128}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_126" id="ill_126"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_158_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_158_sml.jpg" width="361" height="553" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 126. Painted Interior Decoration. Marie Antoinette
+Boudoir. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a>{129}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_127" id="ill_127"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_159_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_159_sml.jpg" width="360" height="490" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 127. Interior Treatment. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a>{130}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_128" id="ill_128"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/ill_160_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_160_sml.jpg" width="365" height="498" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 128. Chimney-piece with Mirror. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a>{131}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_129" id="ill_129"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;">
+<a href="images/ill_161_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_161_sml.jpg" width="355" height="469" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 129. Library with fitted Book-cases. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a>{132}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">a more sparing use of enrichments and greater refinement of detail.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_130" id="ill_130"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;">
+<a href="images/ill_162_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_162_sml.jpg" width="368" height="336" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 130. Door Treatment. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Probably the same influence that inspired Adam was at work in France,
+when the license that marked the Rococo gave place to a more severe and
+restrained expression in the succeeding Louis XVI style, in which the
+curvilinear and plastic forms became once more structural in feeling and
+refined in detail.</p>
+
+<p>Associated with this change was Jacques Gondouin, who died at Paris in
+1818 at the age of eighty-one, whose most celebrated work is the Ecole
+de Médécine.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a>{133}</span> He was also entrusted with the erection of the column in
+the Place Vendôme.</p>
+
+<h3>Riesener and Gouthière</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_131" id="ill_131"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_163a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_163a_sml.jpg" width="192" height="184" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 131. Detail of Cornice. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most familiar names associated with the wood-work at the Louis XVI
+period are Riesener and Gouthière. Riesener is famous for his furniture,
+and Gouthière for the highly finished chased mounts with which this
+furniture was decorated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_132" id="ill_132"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/ill_163b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_163b_sml.jpg" width="239" height="327" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 132. Arm-chair covered with Beauvais Tapestry. Louis
+XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Interior woodwork was generally of oak, painted white. Pilasters were
+used, and were either carved or painted in colours. Mouldings were
+frequently gilt.</p>
+
+<p>Chairs and sofas were, in many instances, painted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a>{134}</span> white and partly
+gilt. They were upholstered in silk or Beauvais tapestry, the designs of
+which were in panel form specially made for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Cabinets, tables and other pieces of furniture were often exquisitely
+inlaid with various woods, tulip, rosewood, pear, holly and ebony were
+the most common, and Sèvres porcelain placques and gilt metal mounts
+were also used to embellish them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_133" id="ill_133"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_164_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_164_sml.jpg" width="192" height="423" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 133. Carved Oak Panel. Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Furniture supports, such as table and chair legs, were straight, tapered
+and fluted, with husks in the hollows of the flutes.</p>
+
+<p>Among the decorative details were torches, quivers and other emblems,
+trophies, musical instruments, bouquets and festoons of flowers, and
+ribbons with peculiarly square and crisp folds. The laurel leaf was much
+used in borders, festoons and wreaths.</p>
+
+<p>The style of the Louis XVI period was more severe than the preceding
+one, and was, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a>{135}</span> fact, a reaction from the flippancy which
+characterised the reign of Louis XV. There was a tendency to return to
+more classic forms, which prepared the way for the still more austere
+Empire phase which was deliberately based on the Roman and Greek styles.</p>
+
+<h3>Empire</h3>
+
+<p>Furniture was made in mahogany, rosewood and ebony, and was decorated
+with brass mounts or with carved ornaments, which were gilded.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture legs and supports were fashioned after Greek and Roman forms,
+human figures and sphinxes being often employed.</p>
+
+<p>Inlay was used of ivory and metal, and this class of work attained a
+very high degree of excellence.</p>
+
+<p>Metal-work was unquestionably good, except that the details were
+somewhat hard in character.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking decorative features were sphinxes, winged figures of
+Liberty, masks, the thyrsus of Bacchus, laurel wreaths and festoons,
+which were all severe in treatment and delicate in execution.</p>
+
+<h3>Empire in England</h3>
+
+<p>The Empire style spread to other parts of Europe, and was closely
+imitated in England, where it was chiefly remarkable for the extreme
+nicety and finish of the metal-work, metal being extensively used for
+the enrichment of furniture, for clocks, vases, candlesticks, inkstands
+and other objects.</p>
+
+<h3>Later English Architecture</h3>
+
+<p>Probably the most important name associated with English architecture
+towards the end of the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a>{136}</span> century is that of Sir William
+Chambers, who died in 1796.</p>
+
+<p>Chambers, who at one time held the position of Surveyor General in the
+Board of Works, was one of those concerned in the establishment of the
+Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. During his professional career he
+executed commissions in various parts of the country, his principal work
+being Somerset House, which was commenced in 1776.</p>
+
+<p>Another name associated with this period is that of George Dance, who
+designed the Mansion House of the City of London, which was built during
+the years 1739-53. Dance died in 1768, and was succeeded by his son, who
+was the architect of Newgate Prison, the site of which is now occupied
+by a modern building.</p>
+
+<p>A pupil of Sir William Chambers, James Gandon, had the distinction of
+carrying off the first gold medal given for architecture by the
+newly-founded Royal Academy of Arts in 1768.</p>
+
+<p>He designed, among other works, the Customs House, the Four Courts, and
+the building which is now the Bank of Ireland, all at Dublin.</p>
+
+<h3>French Influence on Europe</h3>
+
+<p>Throughout this necessarily brief summary it will be noted that
+attention is mainly given to the architectural development in France and
+England. The rest of Europe was similarly affected more or less, both in
+the Gothic period and in the revival known as the Renaissance, in which
+the initiative was taken by France early in the seventeenth century.
+From which period may be dated the decline in Italian taste.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a>{137}</span></p>
+
+<p>French feeling, both as to form and detail, is apparent in not only
+Dutch and Flemish work, but in the more southern parts of Europe,
+particularly the phase known as Rococo.</p>
+
+<p>Even in England, though the architectural traditions of Inigo Jones and
+Sir Christopher Wren became national in character, French feeling is
+evident in much of the decorative work, as in the designs of Chippendale
+and his contemporaries; with the exception of the brilliant period of
+Grinling Gibbons, whose distinctive manner and robust treatment
+survived, and constituted a school of carving typically English and
+unique in its artistry and craftsmanship.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a>{138}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /><br />
+MOULDINGS</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N Architecture the edges of projecting courses are softened into curved
+profiles, sometimes enriched with details, which are technically known
+as mouldings. These are invariably a stumbling-block to the beginner,
+presumably due to want of appreciation of their purpose, which properly
+understood, is indicative of their desirable employment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_134" id="ill_134"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;">
+<a href="images/ill_177a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_177a_sml.jpg" width="179" height="300" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 134. Forms of Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mouldings are an important factor in effect, not only in Architecture,
+but in structural form generally. In flat decoration they have to some
+extent their corollary in borders, the proportionate widths of which are
+governed by similar rules.</p>
+
+<p>Of mouldings with curved profiles there are only six distinct forms,
+though the individual character of these curves is subject to great
+variation in treatment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a>{139}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Purpose</h3>
+
+<p>As suggested, mouldings have a distinct purpose, are, in fact,
+functional features, and may be defined as Sheltering or Crowning,
+Bracketing or Supporting, and Binding.</p>
+
+<p>In any composition where they may be necessary these functions should be
+taken into consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve
+be refined or robust.</p>
+
+<p>In classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the
+other features are defined, and these proportions will be found useful
+in other than purely architectural design.</p>
+
+<h3>The Fillet</h3>
+
+<p>Mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or
+Fillets, the employment of which is universal.</p>
+
+<p>The Fillet in projection is equal to its height, and though strictly
+divisional in its employment, is shown in conjunction with the curved
+profiles to indicate relative proportion.</p>
+
+<h3>Sheltering Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>There are two mouldings of curved profile in each category, the
+Sheltering being the Cavetto and the Cyma Recta.</p>
+
+<h3>The Cavetto</h3>
+
+<p>The Cavetto is the culminating moulding of the Italian Doric cornice,
+and is a concave curve, which may be the result of a quarter circle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a>{140}</span></p>
+
+<p>The Cavetto profile is used in other positions, which would appear to
+challenge the previous statement, but reflection will confirm the
+contention.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, the vertical face of the Frieze in some instances
+terminates with a cavetto curve which, though surmounted by the cornice,
+is yet at the top of the frieze. The upper extremity of the column shaft
+is similarly treated, and, it may be urged, so is the lower, but this,
+though an exception to the rule, is at least an æsthetic necessity.</p>
+
+<p>The projection of the Cavetto is equal to the height of the curve, and
+the crowning Fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total
+height, preferably the latter.</p>
+
+<h3>Cyma Recta</h3>
+
+<p>The other sheltering moulding, the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double
+flexure with upper fillet. Its proper employment is as the crowning
+member of the cornice, though, like the Cavetto, it is employed in other
+positions, notably as a plinth moulding, when it appears in a reversed
+position.</p>
+
+<p>The projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile, the
+height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the
+whole.</p>
+
+<h3>Bracketing Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>The supporting mouldings are the Ovolo and the Cyma Reversa.</p>
+
+<h3>The Ovolo</h3>
+
+<p>The Ovolo is composed of a full convex curve, either a quarter circle or
+slightly elliptic, which in height is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a>{141}</span> equal to projection; and a fillet
+at base one-fifth the total height. Frequently this lower member is in
+the form of a half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet.</p>
+
+<p>As a Bracketing moulding the Ovolo occurs in the capital of the Doric
+column, and in the Ionic and Corinthian cornices under the corona or
+facia, and is employed in other positions, where the sense of support is
+justified.</p>
+
+<h3>Cyma Reversa</h3>
+
+<p>The Cyma Reversa, like the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure, and
+is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height. The
+projection is equal to the height of curved profile.</p>
+
+<p>The Cyma Reversa is employed in the cornice of the Doric order as a
+supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating
+Cavetto. It also occurs in the Capital of the column, where it forms the
+upper member of the abacus. An apparent contradiction of the theory of
+employment, which however is justified by the circumstance that the
+column forms the support for the entablature.</p>
+
+<p>It also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the
+pedestal, and is used in similar positions in the other orders.</p>
+
+<h3>Binding Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>The Binding mouldings, the Torus and the Scotia, appear chiefly on
+columns and pilasters, particularly the Scotia, which is essentially a
+base moulding.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>{142}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Torus</h3>
+
+<p>The Torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle, with upper
+fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height. The projection is
+decided by the curvature, which is based on a semi-circle with centre
+slightly in advance of the vertical line of fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The Torus varies in size according to position. For instance, in the
+base of the Ionic column two are employed, the lower being the larger.
+It is also invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding
+beneath the Capitals; in the small form it is commonly known as a bead
+or astragal.</p>
+
+<p>This employment of the Torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in
+the sense of imparting strength by binding. When used in other positions
+its purpose should be equally evident.</p>
+
+<h3>The Scotia</h3>
+
+<p>The Scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper
+fillet, and is generally used between the upper and lower Torii of the
+base.</p>
+
+<p>The upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of
+curved profile. The extreme projection being merely equal to the height
+of curve and that of the upper fillet about one-half, the fillet being
+about one-fifth the total height.</p>
+
+<h3>The Facia</h3>
+
+<p>The foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles,
+but there is another member, the Facia, that is an important feature in
+composition.</p>
+
+<p>The Facia, which is rectilinear in form with external<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a>{143}</span> face vertical or
+slightly inclined, may be classed with the binding mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to proportion, the height of the Facia should either exceed
+or be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably
+surmounted. The projection being either considerably less or more than
+its height.</p>
+
+<p>When used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face
+is generally recessed, this recess being equal to the height of the top
+fillet of supporting moulding.</p>
+
+<p>Only occasionally the Facia is furnished with an upper fillet (for
+instance, when it occurs immediately below the Cyma Recta) to which it
+is reconciled by a Cavetto curve.</p>
+
+<p>The Facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved
+profile to which it is in valuable contrast.</p>
+
+<h3>Decoration of Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>Mouldings may be plain or decorated, usually by carving, the details
+probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period.</p>
+
+<p>When thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile, and the
+details carved back from the face, leaving the highest parts in the
+original surface. The carving being deeper and more sharply defined in
+the case of mouldings that are in shadow. Such, for example, as the
+Ovolo, and in lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a
+unit, composed on a central axis, in which curves are contrasted with
+vertical features.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a>{144}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_135" id="ill_135"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/ill_174_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_174_sml.jpg" width="364" height="556" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 135.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a>{145}</span></p>
+
+<p>The principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature
+or profile line.</p>
+
+<h3>Orthodox Details</h3>
+
+<p>Thus the orthodox detail of the Ovolo, technically known as the “Egg and
+Tongue,” consists of a framing curve, which is obtained by repeating the
+profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape. The angles between
+the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart.</p>
+
+<p>As previously stated, this moulding is deeply carved, the ovoid being
+bold and well-rounded; the edges of the framing curves (in some
+instances grooved or channelled) being left sharp and precise.</p>
+
+<p>Frequently the “Bead and Reel” enrichment occurs at the base of the
+Ovolo instead of the Fillet, this being the characteristic detail of the
+Bead or Astragal.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of the Cyma Reversa is identical and results in the detail
+known as the “Leaf and Dart”; but the carving is not so deep and the
+relief, in consequence, comparatively slight.</p>
+
+<h3>Angle Leaf</h3>
+
+<p>When mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a
+covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle.</p>
+
+<p>The same principle is applicable to the Cyma Recta and the Cavetto,
+though these mouldings are more often left plain; when decorated the
+relief is comparatively slight.</p>
+
+<p>The Scotia needs no decoration, the cast shadow resulting from its form
+being sufficiently effective.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a>{146}</span></p>
+
+<p>The Torus, though frequently left plain, can be decorated in various
+ways.</p>
+
+<p>The Guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic, but as suggestive of
+its function, the Torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or
+cable. Leaves suggestive of a wreath are used, also a reed band crossed
+at intervals with ribbons, quite in keeping with the suggestion of
+binding.</p>
+
+<p>The Facia is generally plain, but the decoration, if used should,
+following the principle, be rectilinear in character; such as vertical
+flutings, or the key detail, both of which are used.</p>
+
+<h3>Dentils</h3>
+
+<p>Dentils, which form a distinctive feature in cornices, are a series of
+rectilinear blocks, attached to a Facia, and may be placed in the
+category of supporting members.</p>
+
+<p>In their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite
+projection.</p>
+
+<p>In proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three
+quarters their width in height, the intervals between being about half
+the width.</p>
+
+<p>The first Dentil at the angle, lines flush with the return face of
+supporting Facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end
+Dentils. This space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob, acorn-like
+in shape. The heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and
+downwards, or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face. Below the
+Dentils the supporting Facia is displayed to about the height of a
+fillet.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the
+Renaissance in the decoration of mouldings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a>{147}</span> license which is
+permissible providing the general principle be borne in mind. The
+concensus of opinion is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and
+absence of variety. The vertical tendency resulting from the
+bi-symmetrical character of the unit is desirable, and in happy contrast
+to the horizontal direction of the moulding, while it also emphasises
+the sense of structural support.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_136" id="ill_136"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/ill_177_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_177_sml.jpg" width="365" height="187" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DETAIL OF THE DENTIL</p>
+
+<p>No. 136.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The profiles also are amenable to considerable variation, the curves
+being the direct result of Geometry, or Freehand, either treatment being
+a matter of attitude and discretion.</p>
+
+<h3>Employment</h3>
+
+<p>When employed in Architecture the forms and proportions given will be
+found most suitable. In interior decoration and structural work, as in
+furniture, considerable latitude is permissible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a>{148}</span></p>
+
+<p>It must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be
+designed merely for the play of line, but for the effect resulting from
+light and shade. In those close to the eye and in fair light, elliptic
+curves will be more effective than more rounded sections, which are most
+suitable to remote positions.</p>
+
+<p>In composition, mouldings of curved profile should always be separated
+by fillets or occasionally a facia, and the various members associated
+with regard to their functional purpose. Obvious repetition of the same
+dimension is to be avoided, and contrast should exist not only in the
+shapes of profiles, but also in their respective heights.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_137" id="ill_137"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/ill_178_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_178_sml.jpg" width="267" height="233" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO PERSPECTIVE</p>
+
+<p>No. 137.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Attitude</h3>
+
+<p>Attitude must be taken into account, as, for instance, in a cornice
+which is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not
+appear in elevation but in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a>{149}</span> perspective; and not only the respective
+heights will be visible, but also the projections.</p>
+
+<p>When mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other should
+be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment. This is particularly
+necessary when the Ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils, or where it is
+surmounted by Modillions as in the Corinthian cornice.</p>
+
+<p>Panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the
+foregoing sense, though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the
+construction. Regarded as frames, their general purpose may be
+considered as to bind or enclose.</p>
+
+<p>In stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects,
+which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts, possible only
+on a large scale. A comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to
+sink channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area, which is
+left in the original plane. A treatment that is effective and
+comparatively economical.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_138" id="ill_138"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;">
+<a href="images/ill_179_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_179_sml.jpg" width="211" height="112" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>CHANNELLED MOULDING IN STONE</p>
+
+<p>No. 138.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Wood Panelling</h3>
+
+<p>Panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate, but structurally
+necessary, as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some
+method of building up.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, not only panelling, but doors and structural wood-work
+generally are constructed of stiles<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a>{150}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_139" id="ill_139"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<a href="images/ill_180_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_180_sml.jpg" width="310" height="461" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed mouldings on stiles and
+rails.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with framing with simple
+moulded edges.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+
+D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped mouldings on stiles and
+rails.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+
+E. Later Jacobean Panelling.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">
+
+F. Later Jacobean Section of applied mouldings of the Bolection type.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a>{151}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">and rails, forming framings; the spaces enclosed being occupied by the
+panels.</p>
+
+<p>The edges of the stiles and rails are moulded. In the late Gothic and
+Tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed; but later the
+profiles became more distinct in contour.</p>
+
+<p>These early mouldings were narrow and simple in form, arrived at mainly
+by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame.</p>
+
+<h3>Applied Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>Applied mouldings were apparently employed in the Jacobean period, and
+the sections became more elaborate. Worked independently, they were
+frequently higher in relief than the framings. The facility with which
+they could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion
+for complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point
+of view, though effective if not overdone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_140" id="ill_140"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;">
+<a href="images/ill_181_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_181_sml.jpg" width="143" height="342" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 140. Applied Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the composition of such mouldings it is desirable that the sizes and
+contours employed should be contrasting, and that all curved sections be
+divided by fillets.</p>
+
+<p>As the width of the moulding throughout is uniform, it is obvious that
+mitral angles must be perfect bi-sections of the meeting lines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a>{152}</span></p>
+
+<p>With regard to proportion, the width of mouldings may generally be
+one-fourth to one-eighth that of the panel according to desired effect,
+robust or refined.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_141" id="ill_141"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;">
+<a href="images/ill_182a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_182a_sml.jpg" width="284" height="140" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 141. Part of Dresser.</p>
+
+<p>Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Bolection Moulding</h3>
+
+<p>When boldness in appearance is required the type known as the Bolection
+Moulding may be used. This, in its orthodox form, is a species of inner
+frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails, and the panels,
+but was more commonly an applied moulding.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_142" id="ill_142"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 54px;">
+<a href="images/ill_182b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_182b_sml.jpg" width="54" height="123" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 142. Bolection Moulding.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In any case, it is worked independently, and its outer edges lap the
+framing, on which it is in relief, resulting in strong effect of light
+and shade.</p>
+
+<p>Panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the orthodox
+enrichments or variants based on them, but should always be in contrast
+to the panels they enclose.</p>
+
+<p>In furniture, mouldings play an important part, and in many positions
+can be regulated by functional considerations. In horizontal positions,
+such as in tables and sideboards, where personal contact<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a>{153}</span> is possible,
+any moulded edges should be of softly rounded character for obvious
+reasons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_143" id="ill_143"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;">
+<a href="images/ill_183a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_183a_sml.jpg" width="148" height="36" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TABLE TOP MOULDINGS</p>
+
+<p>No. 143.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Plaster</h3>
+
+<p>In plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil.
+When decorated, the former only is possible, and as such work is
+originally modelled, it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic
+nature, such as interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or
+other forms.</p>
+
+<p>Mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut, though this is
+practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_144" id="ill_144"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 197px;">
+<a href="images/ill_183b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_183b_sml.jpg" width="197" height="265" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TURNED WOOD</p>
+
+<p>No. 144.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various
+materials, and to some extent their character is affected by the
+formative process involved.</p>
+
+<h3>Wood-turning</h3>
+
+<p>Thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft, taking
+usually, as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs, the baluster
+form. As a rule there<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a>{154}</span> is little variation between the maximum and
+minimum diameters.</p>
+
+<p>The baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles, with
+intervening fillets, which latter may be fairly sharp, as they are by
+their position protected from damage.</p>
+
+<h3>Metal Turning</h3>
+
+<p>Turning is also employed in metal work, the stems and bodies of Dutch
+candelabra, both standard and hanging, being originally cast as to
+general form and finished in the lathe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_145" id="ill_145"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 166px;">
+<a href="images/ill_184a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_184a_sml.jpg" width="166" height="230" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 145.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning, except that
+the material being much harder, the mouldings can be more sharply
+defined and delicate in detail.</p>
+
+<h3>Pottery</h3>
+
+<p>The throwing of pottery is analagous to turning, but by this method
+little more can be accomplished than thickened edges. The Greek vases
+show some precision of profile, the result of turning on a lathe after
+the vessel had been formed on the wheel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_146" id="ill_146"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;">
+<a href="images/ill_184b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_184b_sml.jpg" width="114" height="163" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 146. Moulded Vase in Terra-cotta.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In moulded pottery more definition is possible than in thrown variety,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a>{155}</span>
+but the profiles are comparatively blunt and never attain the precision
+due to turning.</p>
+
+<h3>Metal Mouldings</h3>
+
+<p>In metal, mouldings may be rolled or drawn. In the first they are formed
+in the solid, but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and
+are therefore hollow and of uniform thickness.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_147" id="ill_147"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/ill_185a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_185a_sml.jpg" width="176" height="193" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>ROLLED METAL MOULDINGS</p>
+
+<p>No. 147.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>By either method mouldings of any required section are obtainable
+provided they are not undercut.</p>
+
+<p>Both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in various sections and sizes
+in iron, brass, bronze, and silver.</p>
+
+<p>Where special sections are required, the cost of the tools necessary for
+their production would have to be taken into account.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_148" id="ill_148"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_185b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_185b_sml.jpg" width="194" height="223" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DRAWN METAL MOULDINGS</p>
+
+<p>No. 148.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Wrought Iron</h3>
+
+<p>Though the employment of rolled or drawn<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a>{156}</span> mouldings is usual in wrought
+iron-work, the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in character.
+Preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or building
+up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material and
+method of working.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_149" id="ill_149"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_150" id="ill_150"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_186a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_186a_sml.jpg" width="355" height="88" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 149. Wrought Iron Swaged Moulding.
+<span style="margin-left:8%;">
+No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_186b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_186b_sml.jpg" width="280" height="248" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Silver-work</h3>
+
+<p>In silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand, the necessary
+draw plates being made by the workman.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_151" id="ill_151"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_186b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_186b_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 151. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a>{157}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Spinning</h3>
+
+<p>Mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning, in which
+undercutting is not permissible.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_152" id="ill_152"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;">
+<a href="images/ill_187_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_187_sml.jpg" width="183" height="132" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>SPUN METAL</p>
+
+<p>No. 152.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Repoussé</h3>
+
+<p>They are also possible in Repoussé work, but are soft in character, and
+lack the precision that marks the mechanical production.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a>{158}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /><br />
+ARCHITECTURAL PROPORTIONS</h2>
+
+<h3>Introduction</h3>
+
+<p>In architectural drawing concise draughtsmanship is essential, the
+profiles of mouldings in particular should be well defined.</p>
+
+<p>Architectural designs, which should always be drawn to scale, are
+expressed geometrically, that is in plan, elevation and section. The
+actual effect is therefore a matter of conjecture only to be grasped by
+those familiar with the arbitrary form of expression. Perspectives are
+generally made with a view to depicting the appearance to the
+uninitiated, but are practically useless as working drawings.</p>
+
+<p>The student is advised to take advantage of every opportunity of
+studying existing examples in museums and elsewhere. This study should
+not be confined to geometric drawings, but these should be supplemented
+by sketches and careful observation. Attention should also be paid to
+the profiles of mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>A practice should be made also of making freehand sketches of the
+various features, indicating broadly the effects of light and shade.</p>
+
+<p>The study of architectural proportions should be methodical, and the
+general divisions given here might advantageously be committed to
+memory. When this is accomplished attention may be devoted to individual
+features.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a>{159}</span></p>
+
+<h3>System of Proportion</h3>
+
+<p>It is customary, when any of the orders of Architecture are employed, to
+adopt a system of proportions which has been evolved from the best
+traditions of the past, and is generally accepted as the most
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally these proportions are subject to modification to suit special
+conditions or personal treatment. According to the academic method, the
+diameter of the column is divided into two parts, which are called
+Modules, and each of these is again subdivided into thirty divisions
+called parts. This gives a scale by means of which all dimensions of
+height and projection are obtained. Since the diameter of the column
+forms the standard of measurement, the proportions of the relative parts
+are constant and in no way influenced by the size of the structure.</p>
+
+<p>This method, although very complete, is&mdash;owing to its multiplicity of
+dimensions&mdash;somewhat laborious in practice, and the method here proposed
+in its stead, though not claimed to be exact, will yet be found to be
+sufficiently accurate for ordinary requirements.</p>
+
+<p>It is proposed to deal here with the orders commonly employed in
+Renaissance architecture. These were based by the early exponents of the
+style on Roman examples. The Doric selected is that of Vignola, and is a
+refined version of the order used in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.
+The Ionic closely resembles the Roman Ionic order in the same building.
+The Corinthian is the Roman example from the Pantheon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a>{160}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Order</h3>
+
+<p>An Order consists of a vertical column and a horizontal entablature,
+while in some instances the column rests on a pedestal.</p>
+
+<p>It is desirable before dealing with proportions to enumerate the various
+parts of which an order is composed.</p>
+
+<p>The column consists of a shaft, base and capital.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft is circular on plan and invariably tapered.</p>
+
+<p>The base is composed of mouldings, which are circular on plan, and a
+rectangular block or plinth.</p>
+
+<p>The capital is circular on plan, and in the Doric and Corinthian orders
+is divided from the shaft by a necking moulding. The capital is
+surmounted by a feature known as the abacus, which is rectangular on
+plan, but varies in detail in the different orders.</p>
+
+<p>Columns may be isolated or engaged, that is, built into walls so that
+they form projections from the surface.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_153" id="ill_153"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 134px;">
+<a href="images/ill_190_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_190_sml.jpg" width="134" height="507" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 153. Doric Order with Pedestal.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pilaster is always engaged, and is rectangular on plan, but
+otherwise it has the same general features and proportions as the
+column.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a>{161}</span></p>
+
+<p>The entablature is the superstructure supported by the columns. It
+consists of an architrave, which is the lowest part, a frieze, the
+intermediate part, and a series of projecting mouldings known as the
+cornice.</p>
+
+<p>The pedestal, which occasionally forms a support for the columns,
+consists of a plinth, die and capping. The lower part or plinth is
+separated from the die by mouldings, and the capping is a projecting
+course of mouldings forming a simple cornice.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up a simple classification, which may be termed the triology of
+the orders, will be found to assist the memory.</p>
+
+<p>The Orders commonly employed are three&mdash;the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.
+(There are two others which are less used, and are really derived from
+the other three: they are the Tuscan, which is a form of debased Doric,
+and the Composite, which is made up of the Ionic and Corinthian).</p>
+
+<p>The Order may be divided into three parts:</p>
+
+<p class="c">
+Pedestal, Column and Entablature.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>These may again be sub-divided.</p>
+
+<p>The Pedestal into Plinth, Die and Capping.</p>
+
+<p>The Column into Base, Shaft and Capital.</p>
+
+<p>The Entablature into Architrave, Frieze and Cornice.</p>
+
+<p>The method of arriving at the proportions of the order is as follows. In
+this division the pedestal is not taken into account, but is reserved
+for later consideration.</p>
+
+<h3>Doric Order</h3>
+
+<p>Divide the total height into five equal parts. Then the upper fifth will
+give the height of the entablature and an eighth of the remaining
+four-fifths the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a>{162}</span> diameter of the column. From this it will be seen that
+the column is eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters. In
+using the term diameter it must be understood that it is always the
+lower diameter of the column that is referred to.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_154" id="ill_154"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;">
+<a href="images/ill_192_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_192_sml.jpg" width="368" height="378" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 154. General Proportions of the Orders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capital is half a diameter high exclusive of the necking moulding,
+and the base also is half a diameter. In all the orders the column is
+tapered; the upper diameter is in each case five-sixths of the lower or
+major<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a>{163}</span> diameter. The taper is not in a straight line, but a slight
+curve, which is known as entasis. It is obtained by drawing the lower
+third of the shaft vertical and from these lines springing a curve to
+the upper diameter, which may readily be done by slightly altering the
+angle of the pencil in ruling them.</p>
+
+<p>The entablature is divided as follows: the architrave is half a
+diameter, the frieze and cornice each three-quarters of a diameter.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Order</h3>
+
+<p>The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
+will be the entablature, and one ninth of the remainder the diameter of
+the column, hence the column will be nine diameters high.</p>
+
+<p>The capital is half a diameter high; the base also is half a diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts, three of
+these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the
+frieze and the remaining four that of the cornice.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Order</h3>
+
+<p>The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
+is the height of the entablature. A tenth of the remainder will be the
+diameter of the column.</p>
+
+<p>The capital is one diameter and one-sixth in height exclusive of the
+necking moulding, and the base is half a diameter high, exclusive of the
+top fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic, and
+the mouldings, although more elaborate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a>{164}</span> are similar in character. The
+architrave and frieze are each three-tenths of the height and the
+cornice four-tenths.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the foregoing that the diameters of the three
+orders are respectively one-eighth, one-ninth and one-tenth the heights
+of the columns, and that the entablature is, in the Doric, two diameters
+high or one fourth the height of the column; in the Corinthian also two
+diameters or one-fifth the height of the column. The Ionic is
+intermediate between the two.</p>
+
+<h3>Doric Entablatures</h3>
+
+<p>The Doric cornice is three-quarters of a diameter in height and one
+diameter in projection from the face of the frieze, which should always
+be in vertical alignment with the architrave.</p>
+
+<p>It is convenient to divide the cornice height into three. The upper
+third consists of a crowning cavetto moulding, supported by a cyma
+reversa, under which is a facia or corona, in turn supported by a dentil
+course. The lower third should be taken as the centre of the dentil
+course, and if the height from the top of the cavetto to the underside
+of the corona be bisected, the point of bisection should fall in the
+centre of the intervening reversa.</p>
+
+<h3>Mutules</h3>
+
+<p>In orthodox examples of the order the underside or soffit of the corona
+is decorated with a series of sunk panels. Those immediately over the
+triglyphs of the frieze are occupied by rows of conical drops. A
+variation of this and a treatment frequently employed is a series of
+brackets known as mutules. They consist of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a>{165}</span> facia and a reversa, which
+is carried round the upper edge to support the corona. When mutules are
+used the dentil course is omitted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_155" id="ill_155"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/ill_195_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_195_sml.jpg" width="364" height="420" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PLAN OF CORNICE<br />
+No. 155. Doric Entablature, Vignola.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dentils are rectilinear blocks on a flat projecting band, and they
+are supported by a cyma reversa moulding. A fillet beneath this moulding
+completes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a>{166}</span> cornice. The reversa is about the same height as the
+fillet, and the dentil course is about twice this height, but owing to
+the soffit of the corona sloping slightly upward and inwards the full
+height of the dentil facia is not apparent when drawn in elevation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_156" id="ill_156"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_196_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_196_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PLAN OF CORNICE<br />
+No. 156. Doric Entablature, with Mutules.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a>{167}</span></p>
+
+<p>Above the dentil facia is a small cavetto moulding and a fillet. These
+are directly beneath the corona, and are carried round to form the
+panels on its soffit.</p>
+
+<p>The Doric frieze is three-quarters of a diameter high. It is divided
+into panels technically known as metopes, by projecting features half a
+diameter in width which are called triglyphs.</p>
+
+<p>The metopes should be square, and one of the triglyphs is always placed
+immediately over each column, having the same central axis, hence the
+spacing of the columns apart is regulated by the triglyphs and metopes.
+Examples of various spacings of columns will be given later.</p>
+
+<p>The frieze is bounded above and below by rectilinear projecting bands or
+fillets; that at the top breaks round or follows the projection of the
+triglyphs.</p>
+
+<p>The triglyphs are so named because they are channelled vertically with
+grooves or glyphs, V shaped in section, with intervening spaces or
+inter-glyphs. The width of the triglyph should be divided into twelve
+parts&mdash;then the half glyphs which are placed at the angles will each be
+one of these parts, and the remaining two glyphs and three inter-glyphs
+are each two of them. The glyphs terminate at the base on the fillet
+band, but at the top are cut off a little below the upper fillet,
+invariably in a straight line, thus forming a triangular heading with
+the apex of the triangle sloping backwards and downwards in conformity
+with the V shaped section of the glyphs.</p>
+
+<p>Under the lower fillet band, and immediately below the triglyph, is a
+small fillet and six pendant drops of conical form known as guttae.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a>{168}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_157" id="ill_157"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;">
+<a href="images/ill_198_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_198_sml.jpg" width="296" height="512" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>PLAN OF CORNICE<br />
+No. 157. Ionic Entablature.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a>{169}</span></p>
+
+<p>The architrave is half a diameter high, inclusive of the fillet band,
+which is roughly a sixth of this height. The small fillet and guttae are
+together equal in height to the fillet band.</p>
+
+<p>It may be taken as an invariable rule that whatever order is used, the
+face of the architrave must be in vertical alignment with the upper part
+of the shaft of the column.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Entablature</h3>
+
+<p>The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts; three of
+these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the
+frieze, and the remaining four that of the cornice.</p>
+
+<p>To find the projection of the cornice a line should be drawn at an angle
+of 45 degrees from the top of the frieze, and the profiles of the
+mouldings composing the cornice will fall within this line.</p>
+
+<p>The lowest member is a small reversa moulding, with a fillet supporting
+a dentil course, above which is an ovolo; these occupy half the height
+of the cornice. The remaining half is composed of the facia, surmounted
+by a reversa and the crowning cyma moulding, rather more than half of
+the height being allotted to these two.</p>
+
+<p>The frieze of the Ionic order has no characteristic detail as the Doric,
+and may be plain or decorated according to conditions, and should be in
+vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave. In some of
+the later Renaissance examples the profile of the Ionic frieze is a
+segmental curve of about a third of a circle.</p>
+
+<p>The architrave is usually formed of three facias, which may be either
+vertical or slightly inclined.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a>{170}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_158" id="ill_158"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a href="images/ill_200_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_200_sml.jpg" width="297" height="534" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 158. Corinthian Entablature.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a>{171}</span></p>
+
+<p>A fifth of the total height is taken for the upper moulding, which is a
+reversa with its accompanying fillet.</p>
+
+<p>A point bisecting the underside of the fillet and bottom of architrave
+will give the line of the lower edge of the top facia. The other two
+facias should be taken in a decreasing ratio, the lower being the
+shorter.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Entablature</h3>
+
+<p>The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic. The
+total height is divided into ten. Three of these parts form the
+architrave, three the frieze and four the cornice.</p>
+
+<p>An angle of 45 degrees set off from the top of the frieze will determine
+the general contour and projection of the cornice.</p>
+
+<p>The cornice is more complex than in the other styles, but a division of
+eleven will help to determine, three being the height to underside of
+bead moulding and seven that of the main facia. The lowest moulding of
+the cornice is a cyma reversa supporting a dentil course with a bead
+moulding above it. Above the bead there is an ovolo, which forms the bed
+of a series of brackets known as modillions. The height of the
+modillions is about one-fifth including the reversa moulding, which,
+besides completing the modillions, is carried round between them as a
+support for the upper facia.</p>
+
+<p>The modillions have a profile of ogee form. They are about a sixth of a
+diameter in width and project about twice their width, and are so spaced
+as to leave squares between them on the soffit or underside of the
+corona. The frieze, which may or may not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a>{172}</span> decorated, is in vertical
+alignment with the lowest member of the architrave.</p>
+
+<p>The architrave is made up of three facias with intervening mouldings. If
+the height be divided into two, the upper half is devoted to the first
+facia and reversa moulding, which latter occupies rather more than
+one-third; the remaining half is taken up by the other two facias in a
+diminishing ratio.</p>
+
+<h3>The Column&mdash;The Shaft</h3>
+
+<p>The general proportions of the column have already been given. The shaft
+is invariably tapered for two-thirds of its height, the lower third
+being cylindrical, and the taper terminates at the necking moulding. In
+all three orders the difference between the upper and lower diameters is
+the same, that is, the upper is five-sixths of the lower, but although
+the amount of taper is numerically the same, the different ratios of the
+diameters to the heights produce naturally very different results.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft of the Doric column may be plain or channelled with vertical
+grooves called flutes. There are twenty of these flutes round the
+circumference. On plan they are shallow, and may be formed of arcs of a
+third of a circle. The curves meet without intervening fillets. The
+flutes are finished off in segmental curves at the top and bottom,
+leaving a small plain space below the necking and above the base.</p>
+
+<p>The Ionic and Corinthian columns may have plain or decorated shafts. If
+decorated they have twenty-four flutes round the circumference. These
+are semi-circular on plan, and are spaced with fillets between them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a>{173}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Capital</h3>
+
+<p>The Capital is the culminating feature of the column in which horizontal
+lines predominate in æsthetic contrast to the vertical lines of the
+shaft. In all the orders there is some form of crowning block or
+moulding known as the abacus.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Though the proportions given are approximately accurate for
+general division, it will be found necessary in detailing to adopt a
+more intimate system of measurement. In the following diagrams the
+diameter is divided into 36 parts, which are expressed in figures,
+giving heights, etc., of the various features.</p></div>
+
+<h3>Doric Capital</h3>
+
+<p>The Doric abacus consists of a rectangular slab, square on plan, which
+in detail consists of a fillet and reversa moulding surmounting a facia.
+Its extreme width is one and a half times the upper diameter. The square
+abacus is supported by an ovolo, which is circular on plan, and is
+connected with the necking by three small fillets.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a>{174}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_159" id="ill_159"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 236px;">
+<a href="images/ill_203_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_203_sml.jpg" width="236" height="429" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 159. Doric Capital.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capital is half a diameter in height, exclusive of the mouldings
+between the necking and the shaft, and the upper part to the underside
+of the ovolo occupies rather more than half.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_160" id="ill_160"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;">
+<a href="images/ill_204_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_204_sml.jpg" width="374" height="327" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 160. Ionic Capital.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The necking is a vertical extension of the upper diameter of the column,
+and is separated from the shaft by a boldly projecting moulding, which
+in height should be about equal to the three small fillets below the
+ovolo. The moulding consists of a torus and a fillet, and a cavetto
+curve is carried from the underside of the fillet and dies into the line
+of the shaft of the column.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the ovolo is decorated with its characteristic egg and tongue
+detail, and occasionally the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>{175}</span> reversa of the abacus is also enriched.
+The necking is sometimes ornamented with four rosettes, which are placed
+centrally under the square faces of the abacus.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Capital</h3>
+
+<p>The Ionic capital is half a diameter high, and is readily distinguished
+by its bolster-like form with voluted ends. This bolster is rectangular
+on plan, and measures laterally rather more than one and a half
+diameters, while from back to front it is slightly less than a diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft terminates in a cavetto curve, and is surmounted by a fillet,
+a small torus and an ovolo moulding, which is invariably decorated with
+egg and tongue detail. These mouldings all conform to the circular plan
+of the shaft. On the ovolo rests the voluted bolster.</p>
+
+<p>The abacus, which is square on plan, consists of a reversa moulding and
+fillet.</p>
+
+<p>From the top of the abacus to the base of the ovolo the height is about
+a third of a diameter, and one-fourth of this height will give the
+height of the abacus.</p>
+
+<p>The centre or eye of the volute can readily be found by dropping a
+perpendicular from the lower edge of the reversa to intersect the
+horizontal line defining the base of the ovolo. This point of
+intersection is the required centre.</p>
+
+<h3>To Draw the Volute</h3>
+
+<p>From this as centre and one part as radius describe a circle. Within
+this circle draw a square, having for a diagonal the diameter of the
+circle. Bisect the sides of the square and draw the diameters by joining
+the points of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a>{176}</span> bi-section. Divide these diameters of the square into six
+and these points will be the centres for the segments of circles which
+form the volute. Vertical and horizontal lines drawn from the centres
+will define the extent of each segment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_161" id="ill_161"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/ill_206_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_206_sml.jpg" width="239" height="425" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 161. Ionic Capital, with angular volutes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For small scale drawings the volutes are drawn free-hand, but for larger
+working drawings it is necessary to use some method such as that given
+here.</p>
+
+<p>The angle formed by the meeting of the ovolo and the volute is masked by
+a detail of anthemion form.</p>
+
+<p>The ends of the bolster between the volutes consist of concave or ogee
+curves, which are symmetrically arranged from a centre line; moulded
+ridges or conventional leaf detail decorate the centre.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the Ionic capital, while suitable for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a>{177}</span> façade, requires
+some modification if it is to be carried round the side of a building,
+owing to the great dissimilarity in the front and side views. In this
+case the end volute of the capital at the angle of the building is
+projected forward at an angle of 45 degrees, and the side is then
+treated in the same way as the front.</p>
+
+<p>In late Renaissance buildings this difficulty was overcome by making all
+the volutes project at angles of 45 degrees, so that the four faces of
+the capital were uniform. This entails the bolster being dispensed with,
+and the volutes, no longer connected laterally, spring directly from the
+top of the ovolo moulding, and the space between the springing lines is
+occupied by a husk.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_162" id="ill_162"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/ill_207_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_207_sml.jpg" width="288" height="289" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 162. Ionic Capital. Detail of Angular Volute.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the volutes make equal angles they conform more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>{178}</span> or less to a square
+plan. The plan of the abacus is composed of four concave curves with
+small straight intervals at the meeting angles. The general proportions
+for this form of capital are the same as for the bolster type.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Capital</h3>
+
+<p>The Corinthian capital differs widely from those of the preceding orders
+in proportion and detail.</p>
+
+<p>Its general form may be described as a bell, which is circular on plan.
+It springs from the upper extremity of the shaft, from which it is
+separated by a necking moulding.</p>
+
+<p>Under the abacus it terminates in a fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The bell is one diameter high. The height of the abacus is one-sixth of
+a diameter in addition; on plan the abacus falls within a square, having
+four concave faces with short straight lines at the angles. The distance
+across the diagonal is two diameters. The bell is clothed with leaves of
+acanthus type, which are arranged in two tiers of eight leaves each.
+Between the upper leaves are eight stems with husks and branching
+scrolls, which terminate in volutes at the angles and centres.</p>
+
+<p>The necking moulding consists of a small torus and fillet.</p>
+
+<p>Although the arrangement of the principal features of the Corinthian
+capital is horizontal, yet owing to the channelling of the leaves and
+the firmly springing scrolls the vertical direction appears to
+predominate.</p>
+
+<p>This verticality emphasises the function of the capital as a supporting
+feature, and is æsthetically satisfactory, being in harmony with the
+flutings of the shaft.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a>{179}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_163" id="ill_163"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_209_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_209_sml.jpg" width="361" height="586" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 163. Corinthian Capital.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a>{180}</span></p>
+
+<p>The effect produced by the capitals of the other two orders is
+horizontal, and suggests the idea of binding. They are equally
+satisfactory as giving contrast of direction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_164" id="ill_164"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 237px;">
+<a href="images/ill_210_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_210_sml.jpg" width="237" height="368" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 164. Corinthian Capital.</p>
+
+<p>Detail giving divisions of height, and profiles.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Base</h3>
+
+<p>In all the orders a square plinth is the lowest member of the base of
+the column. On this plinth rests a series of mouldings which follow the
+circular plan of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a>{181}</span> the shaft. The shaft invariably terminates in a
+fillet, the diameter of which exceeds that of the column, and on to
+which the line of the shaft is carried by means of a curve.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_165" id="ill_165"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/ill_211_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_211_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 165. Doric Base.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Doric Base</h3>
+
+<p>The Doric base is extremely simple. It consists of the square plinth on
+which rests a torus moulding<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a>{182}</span> surmounted by a smaller moulding of the
+same section and a fillet above.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the plinth is one and a third the diameter of the column,
+and its height a quarter diameter or half the total height of the base.
+The other half is made up of the large torus, the small torus and
+fillet. The torus moulding should be bold in projection, practically
+semi-circular and at the fullest part of its curvature in vertical
+alignment with the centres of the horizontal faces of the plinth block.
+The small torus and fillet are about equal in height.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Base</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_166" id="ill_166"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="images/ill_212_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_212_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 166. Ionic Base.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Ionic base differs from the Doric in the introduction of a hollow or
+scotia moulding between the two torus mouldings. Æsthetically it may be
+considered more satisfactory in that the strong shadow obtained by the
+use of the scotia<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>{183}</span> produces an effect of binding which adds to the
+impression of strength. The type is technically known as the Attic base.</p>
+
+<p>The total width is one and a third diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The height of half a diameter may be divided into three. One of these
+divisions will give the height of the plinth, one the large torus and
+the fillet above it, and the other the scotia and small torus with the
+fillets above and below. The fillets either side of the upper torus may
+be in the same vertical alignment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_167" id="ill_167"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 240px;">
+<a href="images/ill_213_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_213_sml.jpg" width="240" height="406" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 167. Corinthian Base.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The smallest diameter of the base, which will be in the hollow of the
+scotia, should exceed the diameter of the shaft, or an effect of
+weakness will be imparted.</p>
+
+<p>As in the Doric base a curve of a quarter circle connects the shaft with
+the upper fillet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a>{184}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Base</h3>
+
+<p>The orthodox base of the Corinthian order is similar to that of the
+Ionic, with an additional scotia and small torus with its accompanying
+fillets.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the plinth is one and a third diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The height of half a diameter does not include the top fillet. The
+proportions may be approximated by dividing the height into four. One of
+these parts will be the height of the plinth, another that of the large
+torus and its fillet, the third&mdash;the upper edge of fillet of top scotia,
+and the fourth that of the upper scotia and torus with the intervening
+fillet. Vertically the uppermost fillet is in alignment with that of the
+upper scotia, and the extremity of the upper torus with the small bead
+mouldings dividing this from the lower scotia.</p>
+
+<p>Although this is the orthodox Corinthian base, it is not used as
+frequently as the Ionic type, but when the order is on a large scale the
+more elaborate version is justified.</p>
+
+<h3>The Arch</h3>
+
+<p>When the arch is used in conjunction with the column it is supported on
+pilasters which are attached to the columns. The columns and pilasters
+thus form piers.</p>
+
+<p>In the Doric order the columns are placed five diameters apart from
+centre to centre, in the Ionic five and a quarter, and in the Corinthian
+five and a half.</p>
+
+<p>The necking moulding of the capital is generally carried through above
+the arch, the outer line of which is struck so as to nearly touch the
+underside.</p>
+
+<p>The projection of the pilasters which carry the arch<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a>{185}</span> is half a diameter
+from the outer lines of the column, and is measured on the same level as
+the springing point of the arch.</p>
+
+<p>The centre from which the arch is struck is sometimes in the same
+horizontal line as the springing points, but more frequently a little
+above the line and thereby a rather better effect is produced.</p>
+
+<p>The arch-band or archivolt is the same width as the pilaster supporting
+it, and a series of mouldings known as the impost is placed at the top
+of the pilaster. The base of the pilaster consists of a plain plinth of
+slight projection equal in height to the base of the column.</p>
+
+<p>From the spacing of the columns and the proportions here given it will
+be seen that the height and width of the aperture made by the arch and
+pilasters are arrived at automatically, but if measured, the height will
+be found to be about twice the width and the top of the impost about
+two-thirds the height of the column. These proportions may be accepted
+as giving satisfactory results under ordinary conditions.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, in all the orders the impost is half a diameter high,
+and so is the same as the projection of the pilaster and the width of
+the archivolt.</p>
+
+<p>This rule is not always adhered to, however, but in any case the width
+of the archivolt should never be more than one-eighth or less than
+one-tenth of the diameter of the arch, and should always be the same as
+the width of the pilaster.</p>
+
+<h3>Doric Impost</h3>
+
+<p>The mouldings of the Doric Impost are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>At the top there is a fillet and a bold ovolo, below<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a>{186}</span> which there is a
+bead-moulding or small torus with fillet and two facias. The lower
+facia, which is of slight projection is one-fourth of the total height.
+The upper facia and fillet are half the remainder.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_168" id="ill_168"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_216_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_216_sml.jpg" width="361" height="248" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 168. Detail of Archivolts and Imposts.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Archivolt</h3>
+
+<p>The archivolt mouldings are in the Doric order, the same as those of the
+impost.</p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Impost</h3>
+
+<p>The total height of half a diameter may be divided into two, and the
+upper half sub-divided into three. Then the upper division will be the
+height of the top fillet and a reversa moulding; the second the height
+of a facia and the third an ovolo and small torus.</p>
+
+<p>The lower half of the impost consists of two facias, the upper of which
+is broader than the lower.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a>{187}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Archivolt</h3>
+
+<p>The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
+bold reversa moulding which occupies rather less than a fourth of the
+total width, and two facias of unequal widths. The width of the inner
+facia is nearly one-third more than that of the reversa moulding.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Impost</h3>
+
+<p>The Corinthian impost differs from those of the other two orders in
+having a necking and necking moulding in place of the two unequal
+facias.</p>
+
+<p>The total height should be divided into two, and the upper half divided
+into four. Then the top fillet and reversa moulding will be one of these
+divisions, the facia two, and the supporting ovolo will occupy the
+remaining one.</p>
+
+<p>The lower half of the impost consists of a small torus and fillet
+beneath the ovolo, the necking, and the torus and fillet which form the
+necking moulding.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Archivolt</h3>
+
+<p>The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
+reversa and three unequal facias.</p>
+
+<p>If the total width is divided into two, the point of bisection will be
+the centre of a small reversa moulding between the two outer facias. The
+outer reversa and the inner facia are each about one-sixth of the total
+width and the small reversa is about two-thirds of the inner facia.</p>
+
+<h3>The Keystone</h3>
+
+<p>A projecting block, or keystone, is sometimes used<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a>{188}</span> at the centre of the
+arch. The face width of its lowest edge should not be less than the
+width of the archivolt. Its height is not often less than one and a half
+times or more than twice this width.</p>
+
+<p>It may be decorated in various ways, and is frequently in the shape of a
+console. This form is especially suitable when the keystone comes in
+contact with the architrave of the entablature, in which case it is
+capped with a moulded abacus.</p>
+
+<h3>The Pedestal</h3>
+
+<p>The height of the pedestal is a fourth that of the column and
+entablature together, though this proportion may be varied to suit
+different conditions. For instance, when the pedestal forms part of the
+structure of a balcony or balustrading the height must be modified to
+suit the special requirements of the position.</p>
+
+<p>The pedestal is composed of plinth, die and capping.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the die is the same as the plinth of the base of the column
+above it, that is, one and one-third diameter. The projection of the
+capping, which is the same for all three orders is obtained by drawing a
+line at an angle of 30 degrees with the vertical from the top of the
+die.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the plinth corresponds to the projection of the capping,
+and is determined by dropping perpendiculars from the top fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the mouldings between the die and plinth is determined by
+a line drawn from the bottom of the die at an angle of 45 degrees to
+intersect the vertical face of the plinth. The angle is the same for all
+the orders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a>{189}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Doric Pedestal</h3>
+
+<p>In the Doric order the height of the capping is one-third diameter. The
+face of the die is square, and this determines the height of the plinth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_169" id="ill_169"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_219_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_219_sml.jpg" width="362" height="308" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 169. Detail of Pedestals.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capping mouldings consist of a fillet, facia, ovolo, fillet and
+cavetto. The facia is carried to the underside of the fillet in a curve,
+and its height is half the total height of the capping. The facia is
+supported by the ovolo, and a fillet and cavetto complete the capping.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the course of mouldings at the top of the plinth should be
+divided into three, then the upper third will contain a cavetto moulding
+and fillet, and the remaining two-thirds an ogee and final fillet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a>{190}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Ionic Pedestal</h3>
+
+<p>In the Ionic pedestal the plinth with its mouldings should occupy
+one-third the height and the capping one-fifth the remainder.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings are similar to those of the Doric pedestal, but a little
+more elaborate. In the capping a reversa is used under the top fillet
+and a small torus or bead is placed between the ovolo and the cavetto.
+In the mouldings of the plinth a similar bead is introduced above the
+ogee moulding.</p>
+
+<h3>Corinthian Pedestal</h3>
+
+<p>The same general divisions as the Ionic will give the proportions of the
+Corinthian pedestal, the difference being that of the scale and the
+detail of the mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>The capping may be divided into two. The top half consists of a fillet,
+reversa and facia, and the lower half a supporting cyma recta, a bead
+and a cavetto curve. The plinth mouldings are the same as those of the
+Ionic pedestal with the addition of a torus beneath the ogee. The height
+of this torus is one-fourth the total height and is about equal to that
+of the cavetto and bead together.</p>
+
+<p>When the pedestal is employed the arch becomes proportionately larger.
+In the Doric order the columns are then spaced seven and a half
+diameters apart; in the Ionic seven and three quarters, and in the
+Corinthian eight diameters centre to centre.</p>
+
+<p>The archivolt, the radius of which is determined by the above spacing,
+is supported as before by an impost and pilaster. The base of the
+pilaster consists of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a>{191}</span> slightly projecting block equal in height to the
+plinth block of the pedestal.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the arch varies slightly, inasmuch as the inner curve may
+be about a diameter from the architrave, but in the Corinthian order
+should not fall below the level of the necking moulding of the capital.</p>
+
+<h3>The Baluster</h3>
+
+<p>As already stated, the pedestal may be used as a part of a balustrading
+associated with balusters, and must conform to the proportions
+necessitated by the conditions. The usual height for balustradings,
+whether to steps, balconies, or before windows, is three feet two
+inches, though in special cases it may be slightly more.</p>
+
+<p>The baluster is a species of small column. Its usual form is bulbous or
+vase-shaped, and it is furnished with a capital and base. A series of
+balusters is technically known as a balustrade.</p>
+
+<p>The balusters are raised on a plinth, which corresponds to the plinth of
+the pedestal, and surmounted by a rail of horizontal mouldings, which
+correspond to the capping of the pedestal; hence the baluster is of the
+same height as the die.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the baluster should be divided into five, then one-fifth
+will be the height of the base, and the capital exclusive of the necking
+will be another fifth. The extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft is
+one-third the total height of the baluster, and the diameter of the
+necking and the top of the shaft is about one-sixth. The capital has a
+square abacus slightly less in width than the plinth of the base. Below
+the abacus is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a>{192}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_170" id="ill_170"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 553px;">
+<a href="images/ill_222_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_222_sml.jpg" width="553" height="378" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 170. Detail of Balusters.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a>{193}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">an ovolo and fillet, which are circular on plan. The necking is
+separated from the shaft by a small torus and fillet. The base has for
+its lowest member a square plinth, which occupies rather less than half
+the height and is equal in width to the extreme diameter of the bulbous
+shaft. Above the plinth is a scotia and a necking moulding, which are
+circular on plan.</p>
+
+<h3>Spacing of Balusters</h3>
+
+<p>The balusters should be spaced with not more than half their diameters
+or less than a third between their bases, except when employed on the
+rake of steps, when they may be slightly closer.</p>
+
+<h3>Balustrading</h3>
+
+<p>In a balustrading an unequal number of balusters should always be used,
+and not less than five in one group exclusive of the half balusters
+which are attached to the flanking or dividing dies. Seven and nine form
+very satisfactory groups, but if more than nine are necessary for the
+space to be filled, intermediate dies must be interposed, and these may
+vary from two-thirds to three-quarters the width of the principal dies.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases, when a large number of balusters are to be grouped, the
+dies are flanked by half dies, which are less in projection than the
+dies themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Balustrades are sometimes used above the cornice of a building, and
+their height should not be more than four-fifths or less than two-thirds
+the height of the entablature. This height would be exclusive of the
+plinth on which the balusters are raised. The height of the plinth is
+determined by the height of the building, and the projection of the
+cornice, as its purpose is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a>{194}</span> to raise the balusters so that they may be
+seen from the ordinary point of view. The principal dies may be placed
+over columns or pilasters and should be equal in width to the upper
+diameters of these, though flanking half dies may be used in addition to
+avoid an appearance of thinness. The plinth and capping mouldings always
+follow the plan of the principal dies, and are carried in unbroken lines
+across each interval.</p>
+
+<p>When the height of the balustrade does not conform to the orthodox
+proportions the method of determining the relative proportions is as
+follows:&mdash;The height is divided into seven parts; of these one part
+gives the height of the capping, four the baluster and two the plinth.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings in character and detail are the same as those of the
+pedestal, and should be in harmony with the order used.</p>
+
+<p>When balustrading forms part of a stair, the height on landings should
+be three feet two inches. On the rake two feet ten inches from the step
+at a line vertical with the face of the riser. The plinth is invariably
+used as a string enclosing the ends of the steps and following the rake
+or angle in a straight line, and carried to the levels by means of
+curving ramps.</p>
+
+<p>In interior work the bulbous shafts of balusters are often decorated
+with carved detail, and the mouldings also may be enriched.</p>
+
+<h3>Use of Columns</h3>
+
+<p>Columns were originally used in the porticos and courts of temples and
+other buildings, and sometimes to form supports for vaulted roofs.
+Wherever employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a>{195}</span> their function was directly structural, but this was
+not the case at the time of the Renaissance. The requirements demanded
+by widely different social conditions led to their being used more as
+decorative than structural features.</p>
+
+<p>The use of engaged columns and pilasters in a façade can be justified to
+some extent. Although such columns and pilasters may not be absolutely
+essential for support, yet they act as buttresses and add to the
+strength of the structure with a certain economy of material. Also they
+are æsthetically satisfactory in their effect of light and shade.</p>
+
+<h3>Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades</h3>
+
+<p>The disposition of columns either in a façade or a colonnade is
+controlled by proportions which have been found to be desirable or are
+necessitated by special features of the order itself. The latter is the
+case with the Doric order, the spacing being determined by the trigylphs
+and metopes. If the triglyphs are placed centrally over the columns or
+pilasters the spacing of these apart will be two and a half diameters
+centre to centre, three and three-quarters, or five diameters, with two,
+three or four metopes respectively between them in the frieze. With the
+wider spacing of five diameters it is usual to employ coupled columns to
+add to the appearance of strength. As the triglyphs are one and a
+quarter diameters apart centre to centre, the coupled columns are
+brought very close together, entailing a slight modification of the
+bases. Since the ordinary projection of the plinth of a sixth of a
+diameter beyond the line of the shaft is not possible<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a>{196}</span> between the two
+columns, the plinth-blocks are united, and the torus moulding made
+slightly less in projection.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_171" id="ill_171"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
+<a href="images/ill_226_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_226_sml.jpg" width="381" height="362" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 171. Spacing of Columns.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capitals being less in width are not affected, a small interval is
+left between the crowning reversa mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>In the Ionic order the columns are spaced three and a quarter, three and
+three-quarters and four and a quarter diameters centre to centre. The
+coupled columns used with the wide spacing are one and a half<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a>{197}</span> diameters
+centre to centre or half a diameter apart at the lower extremity of the
+shafts.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian spacing is slightly wider, three and a half diameters,
+four diameters, or with coupled columns four and a half diameters centre
+to centre. The coupled columns are placed as in the Ionic order one and
+a half diameters centre to centre.</p>
+
+<p>It is desirable that attention should be given to the vertical alignment
+of the principal features. Dentils and modillions and indeed all
+strongly marked features should centre with the columns, and be equally
+spaced in the intervals.</p>
+
+<h3>Orders Above Orders</h3>
+
+<p>Occasionally in façades orders are used above one another. The Colosseum
+is an antique Roman example of this, and it was a treatment often
+adopted by the architects of the early Renaissance. It is desirable that
+the simpler order should be the lower one. Ionic may be used over Doric,
+or Corinthian over Ionic.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the central axes of the columns or pilasters of each
+order used should be in vertical alignment, not only when seen from the
+front, but in the case of detached columns, from the side view also.</p>
+
+<p>When engaged columns or pilasters are employed, the upper tier may be
+set back slightly from the face of the lower order which supports it; an
+example of this is to be found in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The proportions of the upper order are obtained by making the lower
+diameter of the upper tier of columns or pilasters equal to the upper
+diameter of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a>{198}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_172" id="ill_172"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<a href="images/ill_228_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_228_sml.jpg" width="275" height="555" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 172. Order above Order.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a>{199}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">of the supporting order, and an effect of continuous tapering is
+produced.</p>
+
+<p>It is usual to place above the entablature of the lower order a plinth
+on which the bases of the upper columns rest. The height of the plinth
+is regulated by the point of view, as its purpose is to display the
+bases of the imposed order above the projecting cornice. Generally this
+height will be about half a diameter.</p>
+
+<p>In many historical examples the upper columns are placed on pedestals,
+but this treatment, although useful when a balcony is desired, is not to
+be recommended as the extra width and projection which the use of the
+pedestal entails, gives an appearance of undue weight to be borne by the
+supporting columns. If balconies are necessary they may terminate with
+their own pedestals, which can be kept clear of the columns and should
+not exceed them in projection.</p>
+
+<h3>The Pilaster</h3>
+
+<p>It may be as well to deal here with the treatment of pilasters, which
+may be defined as columns in bas-relief. Their projection may vary from
+one-half to about one-sixth their face width, though in antique examples
+it is sometimes much less than this. In the pilasters of the Pantheon at
+Rome it is one-tenth.</p>
+
+<p>The projection is, however, partly determined by the order with which
+the pilaster is used, as an appearance of mutilation might easily be
+produced in the capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric
+capital, being composed of moulded profiles, is not in any way affected
+by the amount of projection. Nor does the Ionic capital suffer when the
+volutes are in one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a>{200}</span> plane except when used on an angle. But if the later
+Renaissance type with the volutes arranged at angles of 45 degrees is
+employed, the projection of the pilaster must not be less than half its
+upper diameter, so that the volute on the return face may be complete.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian capital would be affected in the same way, and should
+also be not less than half a diameter in projection in order to obtain a
+satisfactory result.</p>
+
+<p>The pilaster is usually tapered, and when associated with columns and
+supporting the same entablature it is essential to preserve universal
+alignment in the upper extremities and the architrave, but when used by
+itself the pilaster is often not tapered. At the angle of buildings,
+where both faces are displayed, it is an invariable rule that pilasters
+should be straight.</p>
+
+<p>The details of capitals and bases are the same as those of the columns.
+When fluting is employed an odd number of channels should be used,
+usually seven on the front face.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_173" id="ill_173"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 131px;">
+<a href="images/ill_230_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_230_sml.jpg" width="131" height="343" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 173. Doric Order. Treatment of coupled Column and
+Pilaster.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Arcades</h3>
+
+<p>Arcades, as already suggested, may be composed of a series of arches,
+supported on pilasters which flank the columns. The backs of the piers
+thus formed may<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a>{201}</span> be treated with pilasters, which can be repeated on the
+opposite wall, with the architrave frieze and cornice above.</p>
+
+<p>There are several alternative treatments for the ceilings of arcades.
+They may be flat and panelled by beams carried across in a line with the
+pilasters and with a cornice moulding carried round the sides of the
+beams.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_174" id="ill_174"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;">
+<a href="images/ill_231_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_231_sml.jpg" width="216" height="286" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 174. Doric Arcading.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The interior can also be vaulted by means of archivolts springing from
+the line of the imposts. The archivolts should be supported by pilasters
+at the back of the piers and on the opposite wall, and a cornice may be
+carried round between the vaults. Cross vaulting also may be employed,
+and in this case the entablature is no longer necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The proportions already given determine the width of piers when an order
+is used, but when an order is not used some further general rules for
+proportions are necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the opening formed by arches, which may spring from
+piers&mdash;with or without an impost&mdash;should be about twice the width. The
+supporting piers should not be less than a third or more than
+two-thirds<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a>{202}</span> the width of the aperture. In any form of arcading, piers
+must be employed at the angles, and these should be wider than the
+intermediate ones by a half, a third, or a fourth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_175" id="ill_175"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_232_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_232_sml.jpg" width="279" height="355" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 175. Doric Arch, with pedestal.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Subsidiary Order</h3>
+
+<p>A secondary or subsidiary order is sometimes used in an arcading. The
+height of the arch should then be twice its width, and the height of the
+small order two-thirds the height of the column of the principal order.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a>{203}</span>This height of two-thirds the column should be sub-divided into nine
+parts, of which eight will give the height of the column and the
+remaining one that of the entablature. The entablature consists of
+architrave and cornice, the frieze being omitted, and a division into
+five will give the relative proportions. Two-fifths may be taken as the
+height of the architrave and three that of the cornice.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_176" id="ill_176"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_233_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_233_sml.jpg" width="362" height="374" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 176. Employment of the Subsidiary Order.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pilasters are used with the columns of the subsidiary order with a space
+of half a diameter between them and the columns.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a>{204}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_177" id="ill_177"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_234_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_234_sml.jpg" width="192" height="187" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 177. Subsidiary Order. Division of Entablature.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The archivolt should be equal in width to the upper diameter of the
+column, and the width of the lower edge of the keystone should also be
+of the same dimension.</p>
+
+<p>The subsidiary order may be the same as the principal order, but more
+often the Ionic is used in conjunction with the Doric, or the Corinthian
+with the Ionic.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the treatment of the bases, the horizontal alignment must be
+maintained. It is obvious that if the height of the base of the large
+column is adopted for the subsidiary one it will be very much out of
+proportion. This can be obviated by carrying through the plinth of the
+larger column to form a step on which the base of the smaller rests, and
+always the top line of the smaller bases should agree with that of the
+larger.</p>
+
+<h3>Superimposed Orders</h3>
+
+<p>When arcades are used one above the other, the lower order is usually
+mounted on a plinth, and the upper furnished with a pedestal. The height
+of the pedestal is determined by the balustrading or balcony, the height
+of which is governed by its use.</p>
+
+<p>If the Doric is taken as the lower order the centres of the columns are
+six and a quarter diameters apart, which gives a frieze of five metopes
+with intervening<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a>{205}</span> triglyphs. The plinth on which the order stands is
+three-quarters of a diameter high. The pilaster supporting the archivolt
+projects half a diameter, and the height of the arch is determined by
+the impost, which is two-thirds the height of the column inclusive of
+the plinth. The base of the pilaster may be moulded, but the top line
+should coincide with the top of the plinth.</p>
+
+<p>Above the Doric an Ionic order might be placed, and the die and plinth
+of the superimposed order should be kept as narrow as possible so as to
+reduce the impression of weight. The pilasters carrying the arch rest on
+the plinth of the pedestal, and the plinth mouldings are carried round
+the bases. The plinth and rail of the balustrading should not project
+but be kept between the pilasters.</p>
+
+<p>The centres of the arches of both tiers are in a line with the tops of
+the imposts, and the outer edges of the archivolts may nearly reach the
+lower lines of the architraves.</p>
+
+<p>When the Ionic is used as the lower order it may be surmounted by the
+Corinthian. The distance between the centres of the lower columns should
+then be six and a half diameters. The other proportions can be obtained
+in the same way as the preceding.</p>
+
+<p>If a subsidiary order is employed the columns of the principal order are
+placed further apart. In the case of the Doric the distance is seven and
+a half diameters, and the other orders are increased in proportion.</p>
+
+<h3>Rustication</h3>
+
+<p>The joints of the material used must necessarily be considered, and when
+plain piers or plain wall surfaces<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a>{206}</span> occur the joints may readily be
+accentuated and so turned to decorative account. The edges of the stones
+forming the separate courses may be chamfered or moulded. The joints may
+also be worked so as to form a square recess.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_178" id="ill_178"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_236_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_236_sml.jpg" width="276" height="139" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>TYPES OF RUSTICATION<br />
+No. 178. Rustication.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The surface of the stone is sometimes roughly tooled or frosted, or
+worked in an arbitrary pattern, which is termed “vermiculated.” This
+treatment probably gave rise to the word rustication.</p>
+
+<p>When rusticated work is used with an order the height of each course of
+stone should not be less than half a diameter, and when square recessed
+joints are used they can be one-eighth or one-tenth the height of the
+course.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally only the horizontal courses are thus marked, and this has
+been objected to as producing a boarded appearance, though undoubtedly
+the horizontal effect is at times agreeably in contrast to the vertical
+features. A much more usual treatment in Renaissance examples was to
+emphasise the vertical joints also.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a>{207}</span></p>
+
+<p>The length of each stone should be from one and a half to three times
+the height.</p>
+
+<p>Rustication may be used in the formation of the arch, which frequently
+has at its springing line a slightly projecting course, in which the
+vertical joints are not emphasised.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_179" id="ill_179"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_237_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_237_sml.jpg" width="280" height="184" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 179. Rusticated Arcade.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rustication is also used in columns, either square on plan or conforming
+to the plan of the column.</p>
+
+<p>Its most legitimate employment is in basements and to emphasise the
+angles of buildings.</p>
+
+<h3>Basement</h3>
+
+<p>A basement is really a continuous pedestal on which an order rests. It
+necessarily varies in height according to conditions, thus if its
+purpose is merely to raise the ground floor it may be no more than three
+to six feet high, but if it is required to form a storey, it should not
+exceed the height of the order employed or be less than one half.</p>
+
+<p>The joints of the work in basements are generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a>{208}</span> accentuated by some
+form of rustication, and the heights of the horizontal courses should
+not be less than half a diameter of the column of the order above.</p>
+
+<p>When a high basement is used it is sometimes crowned with a cornice, or
+more frequently with a slightly projecting facia technically known as a
+plat-band. In either case, the height should be equal to that of the
+courses exclusive of moulded edges or chamfers. Also a plinth is placed
+at the base of the same height as the plat-band or a little more. When a
+cornice is used the plinth should be moulded and may then exceed the
+height of the courses.</p>
+
+<h3>Attic</h3>
+
+<p>An attic storey is sometimes used instead of a second order, and this
+may vary from one-third to one-tenth the height of the order beneath it.</p>
+
+<p>The attic may be quite plain, but it often has breakings or projections
+on its face corresponding to the vertical features of the supporting
+order.</p>
+
+<p>It usually forms a storey in a building, and then is of necessity
+pierced with windows.</p>
+
+<p>In architectural design the character and requirements of the building
+must, of course, be the first consideration, but the basement may
+constitute the ground floor, the height occupied by the order may
+contain two stories and the attic may be an upper floor.</p>
+
+<p>When an order is not employed the divisions and proportions already
+stated may still be applied, the heights and widths should govern each
+other as would be the case if the façade were divided into bays by
+columns or pilasters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a>{209}</span></p>
+
+<p>In the absence of the order a cornice is substituted for the
+entablature, and this, according to different authorities, may be from
+one-twelfth to one-sixteenth the total height from the ground, but
+one-fourteenth or one-fifteenth will be found a safe mean.</p>
+
+<h3>The Pediment</h3>
+
+<p>The pediment in its original and orthodox employment was a gable
+conforming to the pitch of the roof. It is framed with mouldings, and
+the enclosed space is technically known as the tympanum.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_180" id="ill_180"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 198px;">
+<a href="images/ill_239_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_239_sml.jpg" width="198" height="200" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 180. Cornice where order is not employed.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The use made of the pediment by the architects of the Renaissance was
+not always justified in the strictest sense. It was often used to vary
+the sky line, and to form door and window heads. Although the latter use
+can be to some extent justified in exterior work, a similar employment
+in interiors may be open to question.</p>
+
+<p>The sloping lines of the pediment are not always straight, sometimes
+they are in the form of a curve composed of a segment of a circle. The
+triangular and curved forms are often used alternately in a row of
+windows with good effect.</p>
+
+<p>The lines of the pediment mouldings are not always continuous; sometimes
+the sloping or the horizontal lines or both are broken. This is a
+treatment that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a>{210}</span> cannot readily be justified as the pediment is a feature
+that implies shelter.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes ogee curves take the place of the straight sloping lines, and
+these terminate towards the centre, with scroll ends, leaving an
+interval between them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_181" id="ill_181"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a href="images/ill_240_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_240_sml.jpg" width="367" height="232" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>DETAIL OF PEDIMENT</p>
+
+<p>No. 181.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mouldings of the pediment are the same as those of the cornice, the
+crowning moulding of which is carried round and omitted in the
+horizontal course forming the base of the pediment.</p>
+
+<p>Beneath the cyma the mouldings of the cornice are repeated in their
+proper order, detailing at the lower angles on the top of the horizontal
+cornice, which terminates with the fillet above the facia.</p>
+
+<p>When dentils and modillions are introduced in the cornice they are
+invariably repeated in the mouldings of the pediment.</p>
+
+<p>The tympanum or face of the pediment should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a>{211}</span> in vertical alignment
+with the face of the frieze. When this space is small it is best left
+plain, but on a large scale the tympanum affords a very suitable
+position in which to place sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The height of the pediment varies according to the width. Thus where the
+base is short, as in door and window heads, it will be comparatively
+higher than when used in a façade. The height may vary from a fourth to
+a fifth of the width of the base.</p>
+
+<h3>Doors</h3>
+
+<p>Obviously door openings should be of sufficient size to admit the free
+passage of a tall person. The minimum height for ordinary doors in
+domestic buildings should be six feet nine inches, and the width two
+feet nine inches. For entrance doors under similar conditions the width
+may be three feet six, but when it is more than this the door should be
+in two halves.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_182" id="ill_182"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;">
+<a href="images/ill_241_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_241_sml.jpg" width="145" height="199" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 182. General proportions of doors and windows.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The size of doors should be proportioned to the building, and should be
+designed to meet probable requirements, thus in public buildings door
+openings should not be less than six feet wide.</p>
+
+<p>Generally a satisfactory proportion may be obtained by making the height
+twice the width, and the framing architrave one-sixth the width of the
+opening.</p>
+
+<p>If a frieze and cornice are carried over the door the height inclusive
+of architrave should be half the width of the opening.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a>{212}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_183" id="ill_183"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
+<a href="images/ill_242_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_242_sml.jpg" width="378" height="553" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 183. Door Treatment.</p>
+
+<p>A. Architrave with simple pilasters and consoles.
+
+B. Ionic order rusticated, with pediment.
+
+C. Doric order with pediment.
+
+D. Doric order rusticated.
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a>{213}</span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the framing architrave narrow pilasters bearing consoles
+supporting the cornice are sometimes used. The total width of architrave
+and pilaster may be about one-third the width, and the entire
+entablature one-third the height of the opening.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings and decorations used should be in harmony with the general
+structure and in character with the order if one is used.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally columns or pilasters are introduced, with or without the
+arch, but the same general proportions apply, the aperture being two
+squares.</p>
+
+<p>When doors are placed under arches the top line of the entablature
+should agree with that of the impost.</p>
+
+<p>When a pediment is used, the height should be one-fourth the width of
+the base.</p>
+
+<h3>Windows</h3>
+
+<p>The general proportions and treatments of doors apply also to windows,
+and if doors and windows are placed in the same line the heads of the
+openings should be in horizontal alignment. If this is not possible the
+top of the cornice may agree with the inner line of the window openings.</p>
+
+<p>Windows terminate below in a sill, or sometimes in a balcony, and as a
+general rule those on the same level should be similar in treatment, but
+an alternation such as already suggested with curved and straight lined
+pediments is quite satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>The frieze and consoles of doors and windows are often decorated with
+relief ornament.</p>
+
+<p>When a façade is divided by columns or pilasters the bays are pierced
+with windows ranged above each<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a>{214}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_184" id="ill_184"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 356px;">
+<a href="images/ill_244_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_244_sml.jpg" width="356" height="548" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 184. Windows.</p>
+<p>A. Rusticated Architrave.
+
+B. Rusticated Ionic Columns.
+
+C. &amp; D. Rustication with Horizontal and Vertical Joints Defined.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a>{215}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">other, the heights varying with the different floors. Those on the first
+storey are usually of full height, and those above less in height and
+simpler in treatment. The width of apertures should be the same for the
+different levels, except in the case of basements, where they may be
+narrower.</p>
+
+<p>When an order is not employed in a façade variety may be obtained by
+grouping the windows; or three-light windows may be introduced. The
+centre light, which may be treated with an arched head, should be twice
+the width of the side lights.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_185" id="ill_185"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;">
+<a href="images/ill_245_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_245_sml.jpg" width="235" height="200" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 185. Three-Light Window.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The number of windows in a façade should be odd, so that there may be a
+centre one, and the end windows of a range should be kept well clear of
+the angles of the building.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a>{216}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /><br />
+DIVISION OF SURFACE</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>N interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be
+divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form
+of the framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval;
+and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails
+or ribs, while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings.</p>
+
+<h3>Wall Treatment</h3>
+
+<p>In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with
+architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of
+pilasters&mdash;the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to
+the conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of
+pilasters in exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces
+between them are occupied by panels or other features.</p>
+
+<p>Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted
+on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the
+form of a Dado or surbase.</p>
+
+<p>In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice
+forms a bed moulding for the ceiling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a>{217}</span>Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_186" id="ill_186"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_247_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_247_sml.jpg" width="360" height="529" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 186. Wall Division.</p>
+<p>A. &amp; B. Pilaster Treatment.</p>
+
+<p>C. &amp; D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a>{218}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the
+case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_187" id="ill_187"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;">
+<a href="images/ill_248_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_248_sml.jpg" width="366" height="320" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo,
+Florence. M. Angelo.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the
+division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both
+vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may
+be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide.</p>
+
+<h3>Ceilings</h3>
+
+<p>When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some
+relation to the general<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a>{219}</span> construction, though in the past this rule has
+not always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very
+desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden
+or plaster mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated.
+When mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be
+maintained between the framing ribs and the panels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_188" id="ill_188"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 359px;">
+<a href="images/ill_249_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_249_sml.jpg" width="359" height="318" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo,
+Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs
+geometrically arranged with pateræ in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a>{220}</span> between and fleur-de-lys details
+on the outer angles where the ribs met.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_189" id="ill_189"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/ill_250_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_250_sml.jpg" width="365" height="462" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Plan
+of general arrangement.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a>{221}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_190" id="ill_190"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_251_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_251_sml.jpg" width="360" height="227" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Jacobean</h3>
+
+<p>In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands
+projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These
+bands were disposed in various ways&mdash;sometimes intersecting at right
+angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming
+geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines.</p>
+
+<p>If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is
+obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account.</p>
+
+<h3>Carolean and Georgian</h3>
+
+<p>In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the
+ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or
+oval in form&mdash;the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes
+the angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably
+left plain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a>{222}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Adam Ceilings</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_191" id="ill_191"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/ill_252_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_252_sml.jpg" width="287" height="451" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall, Westmorland.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or
+circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons&mdash;an
+arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a>{223}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_192" id="ill_192"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_253_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_253_sml.jpg" width="360" height="540" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a>{224}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated
+with the characteristic fan detail.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_193" id="ill_193"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/ill_254_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_254_sml.jpg" width="280" height="315" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Vaults and Domes</h3>
+
+<p>In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal
+or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size
+towards the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more
+properly speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further
+the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as
+circles, unless the diameter be relatively small.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a>{225}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_194" id="ill_194"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a href="images/ill_255_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_255_sml.jpg" width="367" height="456" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 194. Adam Ceiling.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Cove</h3>
+
+<p>In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is
+technically known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of
+the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be
+decorated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a>{226}</span></p>
+
+<p>When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be
+obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are
+themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make
+a break in the frieze or cove.</p>
+
+<p>It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in
+interior decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use
+it may be urged that, though considerations of actual weight and
+structure are not involved, yet the appearance of support has to be
+maintained, and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should
+realise the effect of stability.</p>
+
+<h3>The Frieze</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_198" id="ill_198"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 217px;">
+<a href="images/ill_256_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_256_sml.jpg" width="217" height="170" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 198. Festoon Frieze. Continuous treatment with
+vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, Tivoli</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In considering the decoration of the various parts, the two principal
+questions to be asked are&mdash;what is the purpose? and, what is the
+attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be said to be to bind, and the
+attitude of the Frieze is certainly a horizontal one&mdash;therefore the
+usual continuous treatment is justified. This is not the only way in
+which the Frieze can be treated, however, for the continuous horizontal
+treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the Doric
+order. The employment of Festoons with intermediate<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a>{227}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_195" id="ill_195"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_257a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_257a_sml.jpg" width="361" height="266" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice, Sansovino.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_196" id="ill_196"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_257b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_257b_sml.jpg" width="360" height="282" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+
+<p>No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal division, resulting in
+panels. Villa Madama, Rome.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_197" id="ill_197"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_258_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_258_sml.jpg" width="360" height="279" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial division.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the
+vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle
+is involved in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be
+in alignment with adjacent and dominant details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_199" id="ill_199"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;">
+<a href="images/ill_259_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_259_sml.jpg" width="211" height="106" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 199. Frieze. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome.
+Horizontal direction suggested by Gryffons, with vertical contrast by
+Candelabra.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as much
+interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary
+repetition.</p>
+
+<h3>Borders</h3>
+
+<p>Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the
+spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably
+uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations,
+where some license is permissible).</p>
+
+<p>As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be
+simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions.</p>
+
+<p>The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When
+on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines
+spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which
+case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the
+length, while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles.
+This treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a>{228}</span>
+between those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and
+these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple
+forms.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_200" id="ill_200"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_260_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_260_sml.jpg" width="360" height="497" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a>{229}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_201" id="ill_201"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 351px;">
+<a href="images/ill_261_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_261_sml.jpg" width="351" height="431" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 201. Interlacing Borders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which
+traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and
+then returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is
+an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is
+alternately dispensed with.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a>{230}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Geometric Elements</h3>
+
+<p>The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character.
+The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various
+angles, or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a
+combination of straight lines and curves.</p>
+
+<h3>The Undulate Line</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_202" id="ill_202"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<a href="images/ill_262_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_262_sml.jpg" width="289" height="289" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric Curves.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered
+patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and
+dark masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting
+straight lines. When segmental curves are employed either the chequered
+or interlacing effect may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a>{231}</span> obtained. Such patterns are essentially
+geometric and mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested
+by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from
+either side of the border. This effect may be used with purely
+artificial detail, such as arises naturally from the spaces left, or
+with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident that the curve of
+the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres
+from which the arcs are struck.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_203" id="ill_203"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 285px;">
+<a href="images/ill_263_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_263_sml.jpg" width="285" height="342" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate Borders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will
+be obtained by basing the stem upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a>{232}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_204" id="ill_204"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_264a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_264a_sml.jpg" width="360" height="122" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_205" id="ill_205"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 240px;">
+<a href="images/ill_264b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_264b_sml.jpg" width="240" height="334" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 205. 14th Century Textile composed of Undulate
+Borders arranged obliquely.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a>{233}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The
+latter device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only
+the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_206" id="ill_206"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a href="images/ill_265_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_265_sml.jpg" width="287" height="271" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century, composed of
+Borders.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details
+symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional
+flowers or rosettes to break the monotony.</p>
+
+<h3>Repetition and Alternation</h3>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal
+character, and should consist of the repetition of units with no
+interest beyond that imparted by alternation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a>{234}</span></p>
+
+<p>The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to
+be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor
+of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit
+can be designed.</p>
+
+<h3>Treatment of Angles</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_207" id="ill_207"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 238px;">
+<a href="images/ill_266_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_266_sml.jpg" width="238" height="321" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border.</p>
+
+<p>A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special
+treatment, and in those positions the detail should be compact and
+stronger in appearance than the general pattern. The simplest expedient
+is some form of patera or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should
+always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border. The only
+forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles,
+are the undulating stem, the wave, and its square form the key or
+labyrinth; but even with these the proportion of width to height at
+times needs modification. If a common divisor is not possible, the
+difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal
+and letting<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a>{235}</span> the two sides meet in the centre of the border, so that any
+slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable.</p>
+
+<h3>Pilaster Treatment</h3>
+
+<p>As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its
+treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural
+requirements, and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis
+and vertical in direction.</p>
+
+<p>When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be
+unequal in number&mdash;seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be
+further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only
+one-third of the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of
+husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the
+pilaster. In either case the general rule must be observed that the
+cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height.</p>
+
+<h3>Panelled Pilasters</h3>
+
+<p>Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about
+half the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably
+in pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the
+centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped
+panel. Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and
+this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this
+purpose the undulate stem should never be employed. Such detail requires
+a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster,
+but for the rest, it may<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a>{236}</span> consist of the same unit repeated, or of two
+alternating units.</p>
+
+<p>In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was
+customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and
+labels.</p>
+
+<h3>Capitals and Bases</h3>
+
+<p>The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other
+decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a
+modified Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster
+has plain or decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the
+pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a
+composite form in which the Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure
+together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be
+used. The Ionic type would also be suitable; when the base of the
+pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus
+may be bound with cross ribbons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_208" id="ill_208"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 60px;">
+<a href="images/ill_268a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_268a_sml.jpg" width="60" height="283" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 208. Pilaster Treatment. French Renaissance.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_209" id="ill_209"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;">
+<a href="images/ill_268b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_268b_sml.jpg" width="171" height="186" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 209. Treatment of Pilaster Capital, with Vertical
+Emphasis.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Treatment of Panels</h3>
+
+<p>Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and
+therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be
+considered&mdash;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a>{237}</span>that is to say, the only question is, as to whether the
+surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane. In the
+decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane, since it is not desirable
+to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate diagonally or
+diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a ceiling,
+details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should
+grow towards the centre of the ceiling.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_210" id="ill_210"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_269_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_269_sml.jpg" width="276" height="222" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth from Angle.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any
+height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule;
+but if the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it
+should remain vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform
+to the width.</p>
+
+<p>The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude,
+should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate
+terminals. If<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a>{238}</span> the enclosing border were removed the detail should, by
+its general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole
+surface may not be occupied.</p>
+
+<p>Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the
+panel&mdash;certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration
+than on adornment in more subordinate positions.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do
+so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be
+carefully considered.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_211" id="ill_211"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_270_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_270_sml.jpg" width="282" height="159" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central Feature based on
+Circle.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced
+one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the
+position of the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of
+panels; greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed
+designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs.</p>
+
+<h3>Juxtaposition</h3>
+
+<p>When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the
+other, they may exert influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a>{239}</span> on one another. For example, vertical
+features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent
+panel even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels
+are one above the other, central features should be avoided and the
+interest should be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the
+effect will be spotty and lacking in repose.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_212" id="ill_212"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/ill_271_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_271_sml.jpg" width="239" height="325" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 212. Panels in Juxtaposition.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their
+treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to
+which the more structural features must submit, there is open to them<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a>{240}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_213" id="ill_213"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 285px;">
+<a href="images/ill_272_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_272_sml.jpg" width="285" height="409" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 213. Design for Panel based on Treatment of Celery.
+By C. A. Sheehan, Bristol.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first
+place, the panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the
+requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on
+in mural decoration. If not treated pictorially, ornament of a
+traditional character, or designs derived more directly from natural
+forms can be made use of. In either case<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a>{241}</span> the ornament must complete
+itself within the given area.</p>
+
+<h3>The Growth Line</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_214" id="ill_214"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 291px;">
+<a href="images/ill_273_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_273_sml.jpg" width="291" height="406" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 214. Analysis of Composing Lines of Panel.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used,
+but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for
+the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected
+growth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a>{242}</span> The disposition of leaves and other elements must also be
+characteristic, and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near
+enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such
+forms as branches or leaves approach or cross, they should always do so
+at decided angles; their points or extremities should never be directly
+opposed to other details or to margins. The main growth should be
+clearly discernible, and the direction of the stem lines evident even
+when clothed with foliage.</p>
+
+<h3>Grouping and Massing</h3>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that
+the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a
+design. In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped
+and massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious
+whole. Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in
+keeping with the general environment.</p>
+
+<p>Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail,
+because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail
+equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is
+obvious that the result will again be uniform&mdash;the only difference being
+that a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not
+undesirable in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel.</p>
+
+<h3>Division of Area</h3>
+
+<p>The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent
+should be guided by the scale. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a>{243}</span> expedient in panel designing is to
+draw within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other
+shape, a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to
+that which is to be less conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_215" id="ill_215"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/ill_275_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_275_sml.jpg" width="288" height="446" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 215. Phases of Elaboration of Simple Shape.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a>{244}</span> but the grouping of
+these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders
+a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of
+adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling
+growth lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_216" id="ill_216"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a href="images/ill_276a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_276a_sml.jpg" width="270" height="156" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 216. Byzantine Panel. Composition based on Circles.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_217" id="ill_217"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_276b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_276b_sml.jpg" width="276" height="150" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 217. Romanesque Lunette Panel. Composition based on
+Circular Shapes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Human and Animal Life</h3>
+
+<p>Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is
+employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to
+composition, inasmuch that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a>{245}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_218" id="ill_218"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_277_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_277_sml.jpg" width="360" height="472" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 218. Figure Composition. Recognition of Framing
+Lines.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_219" id="ill_219"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/ill_278_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_278_sml.jpg" width="369" height="492" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 219. Figure Composition. Spandril Treatment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the
+boundaries or framing lines.</p>
+
+<p>The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely
+conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted
+into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not
+possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the
+consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if
+consistency has to be observed.</p>
+
+<p>The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in
+particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings
+or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the
+memorial of Mr. Dick.</p>
+
+<h3>Forms in the Round</h3>
+
+<p>Forms in the round&mdash;such that can be seen from any point of view&mdash;need
+special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the
+surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of
+varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical
+lines, any one of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite,
+would appear straight, whereas those approaching the profiles would
+appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_220" id="ill_220"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;">
+<a href="images/ill_279_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_279_sml.jpg" width="141" height="98" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 220. Effect of Perspective of Vertical Division.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according
+to the profile curvature, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a>{246}</span> decoration, for bodies that are
+bulbous in form, the foreshortening and its effect on details must be
+taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion.</p>
+
+<h3>Supports and Balusters</h3>
+
+<p>Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for
+furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and
+balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts,
+and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously
+suggested. Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in
+wood, these forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case
+may be further decorated by carved work. In supports, the general
+tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to
+enhance the structural suggestion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_221" id="ill_221"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 109px;">
+<a href="images/ill_280_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_280_sml.jpg" width="109" height="288" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 221. Jacobean Baluster, Carved Wood, showing Vertical
+and Horizontal Contrast.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Standards</h3>
+
+<p>In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the
+element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a
+greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in
+interior fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate
+but will convey the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards
+the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable, but when<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a>{247}</span> the
+standard is small the base can be circular, square or polygonal. The
+commonest form is a shaft, which is frequently tapered. This is
+supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base. At
+the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind. These different
+parts are held together by appropriate mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size,
+should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with
+occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must
+also vary according to material.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_222" id="ill_222"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 209px;">
+<a href="images/ill_281_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_281_sml.jpg" width="209" height="475" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 222. Cast Iron Lamp Standard.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Proportion</h3>
+
+<p>Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind
+of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and
+diameter. Obvious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248"></a>{248}</span> repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided.
+The profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting
+harmony or contrast&mdash;the curves either approaching one another in a
+flexible line or being deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used
+at intervals to mark the various stages.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_223" id="ill_223"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;">
+<a href="images/ill_282_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_282_sml.jpg" width="377" height="174" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration.</p>
+
+<p>A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast.</p>
+
+<p>B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight
+lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may
+take other forms&mdash;they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the
+diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When
+unity of line is desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily
+into each other, even if broken at intervals by mouldings. In
+contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order
+to avoid indecision of form.</p>
+
+<h3>Positions for Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by
+mouldings. The nature and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249"></a>{249}</span> direction of the decoration will be
+determined by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of
+the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid
+distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform
+curvature.</p>
+
+<p>If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of
+flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the
+vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an
+oblique direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or
+twining round the shape.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_224" id="ill_224"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_283_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_283_sml.jpg" width="361" height="116" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 224. Stretch Out and Segments of the Cylinder.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the vertical panel treatment, as in mouldings, the sectional or
+profile curve may be used to determine the general framing lines, with
+contrasting details between the panels. In order to give variety it may
+be desirable to combine two treatments&mdash;for instance, the horizontal
+band may be contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves.</p>
+
+<h3>Working Drawings</h3>
+
+<p>For a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in
+perspective. All the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel
+lines. It is obvious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a>{250}</span> that except for profiles and general height,
+further details must be given for a working drawing.</p>
+
+<h3>The Segment or Stretch Out</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_225" id="ill_225"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<a href="images/ill_284_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_284_sml.jpg" width="192" height="208" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 225. Stretch Out of the Cone.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In designing for forms in the round it is necessary to detail the
+ornament on a segment or a stretching-out of the area. This is easily
+done in the case of a cylinder of which the height is evident, and the
+extreme width and circumference easily obtainable. If the object is not
+in existence for direct measurement the width can be determined from the
+diameter as expressed in the drawing. As this diameter is about
+one-third of the circumference a parallelogram three times the width of
+the diameter will provide, in the flat, the complete area on which
+detail has to be drawn.</p>
+
+<p>Should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone&mdash;that is,
+with straight inclined sides and a circular plan, the procedure must
+necessarily be different. In this case the lines of the sides should be
+extended till they intersect. This intersection forms a centre from
+which arcs may be struck coinciding with the lines of top and base. The
+greatest diameter should be set off on each side of the elevation on the
+larger radius and the points joined up with the centres from which the
+arcs were struck. The result is a fan-shaped figure<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a>{251}</span> bounded by these
+outer lines and the two arcs. This figure gives the entire area of the
+surface of the truncated cone.</p>
+
+<p>In either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on, the
+surfaces can be sub-divided. For instance, if the decoration consists of
+a unit repeated three or six times round the form, it will not be
+necessary to reproduce the whole area, provided always that the profiles
+are straight or tapered.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_226" id="ill_226"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 198px;">
+<a href="images/ill_285_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_285_sml.jpg" width="198" height="144" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 226. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-sixth of
+Vase.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the diameter is about one-third of the circumference the elevational
+drawing of the cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a diameter
+gives one-sixth.</p>
+
+<p>In the truncated cone shape the widths are similarly determined, but it
+will be found that the height, when measured on the centre line, is less
+than the lengths of the profile lines which constitute the actual
+height.</p>
+
+<p>When the profiles are curved, the procedure is more complicated. As in
+the case of the cone shape, there is naturally some discrepancy between
+the height of the elevation and the profile, the actual dimension of
+which is affected by perspective (as also in plan curvature).</p>
+
+<p>To obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured
+vertically with some flexible material, such as thin lead wire, which
+will readily embrace the curvature.</p>
+
+<p>If a division of a third or a sixth is required the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a>{252}</span> diameter or half
+diameter can be taken, but the segment of the area should be set off on
+a fresh centre line quite independent of the elevational drawing.</p>
+
+<p>In order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be
+divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in
+curvature, and these can be lettered or numbered for identification. The
+distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on
+the new centre line, and then these can be used for drawing the
+parallels through.</p>
+
+<p>The various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines on
+the elevation. Lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give
+the required segment or area on the flat.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_227" id="ill_227"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<a href="images/ill_286_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_286_sml.jpg" width="210" height="261" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 227. Method of obtaining a Segment of one-fifth of
+Vase.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required,
+it will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the
+division can be obtained. Assuming that the elevation has been
+vertically divided as before, and the plan to be circular, a circle
+should be struck which is to represent the largest diameter and its
+circumference divided into the required number of parts. Lines are then
+drawn through<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a>{253}</span> to the centre. On the same centre other circles are
+struck with radii equal to the remaining horizontals, and each
+identified with the corresponding number or letter. The heights are
+obtained as before, and the diameters of the variations in the curvature
+can be ascertained by measuring round each of the plan curves in
+succession.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the plan being other than circular, the same rules apply,
+but the different plans would have to be drawn in each individual
+example.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes, it is undesirable
+to employ the human figure, unless in bold relief, and then only on
+straight or slightly curved profiles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a>{254}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /><br />
+DEVELOPMENT OF CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HE term Convention is applied to decoration in which there is distinct
+evidence of artistic restraint, which may be purely æsthetic or due to
+technical conditions.</p>
+
+<h3>Outline Drawing</h3>
+
+<p>The rendering of any form in outline is probably the simplest form of
+convention, which is generally accepted through tradition as
+representation. Though the objects so depicted really depend on light,
+shade, and local colour for their appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Such outline drawings may be in other respects realistic, but a further
+degree of convention is the desirable elimination of perspective where
+it is unsuitable to the effect desired. For instance, in silhouette,
+profile renderings only are intelligible, and in delicate bas-relief
+modelling any foreshortening should be avoided if confusing to the
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>In direct personal work, such as drawing or painting, when craft
+conditions other than that of the medium employed are not involved,
+convention is purely a matter of discretion and consideration of the
+nature and object of the work; but it is essential in design when the
+material and method of production have to be considered. In painting the
+artist may employ the full resources of his palette and be as realistic
+in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a>{255}</span> effect as is in his power, but if the purpose be mural
+decoration restraint is at once imposed.</p>
+
+<h3>Undesirable Realism</h3>
+
+<p>Under certain conditions realism would be out of place, and any attempt
+at illusion would fail to convince. The one time fashion of painting
+ceilings with sprawling deities of either sex, which cannot be seen
+without a painful crick in the neck, or worse still to suggest sky with
+floating amorini, occasionally framed by marble balustrading in
+wonderful perspective is deplorable.</p>
+
+<p>Such decoration, if it can be so termed, is not only stagey but is
+foredoomed to failure in effect, as the ordinary interior lighting is
+not adequate. Furthermore, it displays a lack of appreciation of
+fitness, and that the purpose of a ceiling is to convey a sense of
+shelter.</p>
+
+<p>Realism, though desirable in portraiture, either of individuals, places
+or events, is not necessarily of the greatest interest except to those
+concerned. In mural decoration realism should give place to convention,
+and the whole considered as a design with regard to balance of form and
+colour, and recognition of the surface to which the decoration is
+applied.</p>
+
+<p>The first attempts at decoration were the direct results of material and
+the manner of working, in which there was no attempt at representation.
+This was succeeded when the early artists attained more skill by a phase
+of realism, later still with acquired culture there was a deliberate
+return to convention.</p>
+
+<p>The dignified conception of the Egyptian rendering<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a>{256}</span> of the Lion, though
+thoroughly conventional, reveals technical skill and anatomical
+knowledge of a high order; also appreciation for desirable treatment,
+and may be contrasted favourably with those by Sir Edwin Landseer round
+the pedestal of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square, in which realism
+is not subordinated to the decorative and symbolic conditions.</p>
+
+<h3>Craft Restrictions</h3>
+
+<p>When any craft process is involved the design is only a means to the
+end, and convention is then imposed by the technical conditions of the
+craft in question. The designer has to keep these conditions in view,
+the desirable object being to make the greatest economic use of the
+process compatible with a good result. It would be a waste of both time
+and energy to depict effects that could not be realised.</p>
+
+<p>In woven or printed fabrics it is impossible to produce natural effects;
+even if that were possible the inevitable repetition of the unit would
+be not merely unnatural but a gross absurdity. The great bulk of the
+public do not understand convention, hence the popularity of textiles
+and wall-papers in which the designs consist of flowers treated (however
+inconsistently) in natural aspect as far as possible; in particular the
+Rose which, like the poor, is ever with us.</p>
+
+<p>Traditional ornament at its best has generally been conventional, the
+various details of foliage being æsthetic creations, with at times,
+perhaps, some suggestion derived from natural types. The scroll in the
+form of volutes as employed in the Ionic capital may have been suggested
+by the fossil known as the Ammonite<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a>{257}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_228" id="ill_228"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_291_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_291_sml.jpg" width="362" height="511" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 228. Filagree Jewellery.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">A. Hook for Jacket in Silver. Swedish, Mid. 18th Century.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">B. Pendant Cross. Gold set with Garnets. Modern Italian.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">C. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern French.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">D. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">E. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">F. Pendant. Northern Portuguese. 17th or early 18th Century.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">G. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">H. Pendant. Gold. As worn by peasants in Etruria.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a>{258}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">shell, so called because it resembles the ram’s horn of Jupiter Ammon.
+Its traditional employment in conjunction with the undulate stem, is
+certainly far from any natural suggestion in the way of growth, while
+the variety known as the evolute scroll is distinctly artificial.</p>
+
+<h3>Materialistic Influence</h3>
+
+<p>It is probable that it had its origin in the facility with which wire
+could be bent, and in early jewellery such scroll forms are conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>A reasonable conjecture is that the similar forms in early repoussé
+work, such as that of the gold ornaments found at Enkomi, Cyprus and the
+painted decoration of the Greek vases, were inspired by the treatment
+which was the outcome of the use of metal in the form of thin wire.
+Similar details occur in Peruvian and New Guinea work, which is
+certainly coincidental as it is difficult to imagine these people having
+any communication with the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>Scandinavian and Keltic art was to a certain extent influenced by
+Eastern tradition through the medium of the Phœnician merchant
+adventurers; but no such conjecture is feasible in the Maori incised
+work and tattooing in which similar details occur.</p>
+
+<p>The scrolling line alone may be used, generally in decoration of small
+scale, as in the Greek vases. In this form it frequently occurs in
+pottery, either incised or painted, and in filagree jewellery. Wrought
+iron partakes largely of the scrolling character, but this, as in
+filagree, is the direct result of the material employed.</p>
+
+<p>Scandinavian and Keltic ornament consisted mainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a>{259}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_229" id="ill_229"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/ill_293_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_293_sml.jpg" width="370" height="499" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 229. The Evolute Scroll.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">A. Pottery (painted) Archaic Greek.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">B. Pottery (painted) Cyprus, 800 B.C.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">C. D. F. Gold Ornaments from Tombs at Enkomi, Cyprus.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">E. Pottery (painted) Ancient Mexico.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">G. Early Greek Stone Carving. Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos,
+Boeotia.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">H. Assyrian Stone Carving. Sacred Hom or Palm.
+</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a>{260}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_230" id="ill_230"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/ill_294_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_294_sml.jpg" width="370" height="511" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 230. The Evolute Scroll in Savage Art.</p>
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">A. B. C. Spatula Handles, Carved Wood, New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">D. Detail on Paddle, Carved Wood, New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">E. Maori Chief’s Staff Handle, Carved Wood.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">F. Detail from Tattooed Maori Head.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">G. Engraved Bamboo, Borneo.</p>
+
+<p class="hang" style="text-align:left;">H. Carved Wood Detail, New Guinea.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a>{261}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">of a series of scrolling forms, as also did much of the ornament of the
+illuminated Gothic work and mural decoration. The desire for variety and
+mass lead eventually to the employment of diverse elements, arising in
+many instances from different treatment of existing details; thus,
+during the Renaissance, the side view of a poppy-like flower suggested
+and became a profile mask, and the husk leaf was frequently elaborated
+into the form of a dolphin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_231" id="ill_231"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 139px;">
+<a href="images/ill_295_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_295_sml.jpg" width="139" height="189" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 231. Scroll &amp; Anthemion Ornament from Greek Vase
+Paintings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Early Renderings</h3>
+
+<p>The evolute scroll which plays so conspicuous a part in Greek art, was
+employed at earlier periods by the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and the
+widespread appreciation and use of this form of detail is plainly
+indicative that it was not disseminated from any one centre.</p>
+
+<p>In the early employment of these curved forms there is no evidence of
+natural suggestion, but later, leaves and floral details were added
+conveying the idea of growth. In Egyptian and Assyrian art certain
+natural types occur, such as the Lotus, Papyrus and the Palm, but these
+were utterly denaturalised, all realism being eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>These conventions, though incidentally decorative, were invested with
+symbolic meaning with which their employment was concerned rather than
+with the imitation of natural form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a>{262}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Anthemion</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_232" id="ill_232"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 272px;">
+<a href="images/ill_296a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_296a_sml.jpg" width="272" height="120" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 232. Greek Anthemion. Relief Treatment.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Anthemion alone or in conjunction with the scroll or evolute line,
+appears in a painted form in the Greek vase decoration. Examination of
+these will reveal evidence of brush-work, the separate details being the
+result of direct flexion. In sculptured form it appears in the Antefixe,
+also as a cresting or finial to the stele heads, the separate radial
+features being channelled with sunken grooves or with ridges in relief.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_233" id="ill_233"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<a href="images/ill_296b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_296b_sml.jpg" width="274" height="132" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 233. Greek Scroll from Choragic Monument of
+Lysikrates, Athens. Carved Stone.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is conceivable that the attenuated effect of the mere scrolling line
+suggested the desirability of the occasional mass and variety that would
+be obtained by employing leaves.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a>{263}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Greek Sculptured Ornament</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_234" id="ill_234"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;">
+<a href="images/ill_297_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_297_sml.jpg" width="245" height="432" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 234. Wrought Iron Scroll. Detail of Hinge, Notre
+Dame, Paris. Early French Gothic.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Greek sculptural ornament is comparatively devoid of natural suggestion,
+the branching scrolls with sheath leaves being æsthetic rather than
+imitative. The leaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a>{264}</span> employed bear little resemblance to those of the
+later Roman period, and consist generally of a succession of radial
+grooves with undulating or prickly edges, and are obviously adapted from
+the anthemion detail.</p>
+
+<p>In the scrolls employed on the Choragic monument at Athens the desire
+was evidently play of line and silhouette.</p>
+
+<p>The flexible and open form, though possible in bent metal or in painted
+work, is unsuitable to carving in stone. Adequate support being
+essential, the scrolls had to be united by the leaves, which were
+necessarily massed in form and decorated by channellings or grooves to
+give further detail and interest.</p>
+
+<p>A development of the leaf treatment was the division into lobes, each
+lobe being channelled with a group of radial grooves ending in
+serrations. The lobes were divided by holes, or, as they are generally
+termed, eyes, more or less circular in shape, and these were connected
+with the base of the leaf by pipes or Tines in relief, conforming with
+the general radial distribution.</p>
+
+<h3>Acanthus Leaf</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_235" id="ill_235"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 137px;">
+<a href="images/ill_298_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_298_sml.jpg" width="137" height="281" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 235. Acanthus Leaf. Composed of groups of Anthemions.
+Brush-work.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Leaves of this type are known as Acanthus, and it is a tradition that
+the leaf in its original employment was derived from a natural source.
+The anthemion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a>{265}</span> too, is often mis-called the honeysuckle owing to the
+supposed resemblance; but it is much more probable that both were purely
+artistic creations developing as previously suggested from the painted
+anthemion details. Elaboration and relief expression were the natural
+outcome of material, and desire for surface interest. The honeysuckle
+origin is completely confuted by comparison of the Greek anthemion with
+the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, by which it was evidently inspired.</p>
+
+<p>In Greek ornament such flowers as occur are mostly of the rosette type,
+quite conventional in character, though in the painted decoration such
+natural forms as the ivy and vine are evident; but these were always
+conventional in treatment and symbolic in interest.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_236" id="ill_236"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_299_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_299_sml.jpg" width="194" height="207" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 236. Acanthus Scroll. Brush-work.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Greeks were not creative in art either in their architecture or
+ornament, and were evidently indebted to the earlier culture of
+Mesopotamia for many of their details. As they based the anthemion on
+the Assyrian treatment of the Palm, so they borrowed the Ionic capital
+from Persia and the Corinthian variety had its prototype in the Egyptian
+Papyrus capital. Even their architecture was no advance in principle on
+that which previously existed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a>{266}</span></p>
+
+<p>Their treatment, however, was extremely artistic, and they invested all
+their work with great refinement and delicacy of detail. At a later
+period under subjugation the Roman art development was practically in
+the hands of Greek designers and craftsmen, and acquired great freedom
+of expression marked by exquisite workmanship in the Græco-Roman period.</p>
+
+<h3>Roman Development</h3>
+
+<p>The details and treatment of ornament developed rapidly in the Roman
+period, in the variety and forms of the elements employed. The principal
+exponents were Greek, but the original austere character of expression
+underwent considerable modification.</p>
+
+<h3>The Scroll</h3>
+
+<p>In Roman art the scroll, which constituted the chief decoration of the
+friezes and panels, was greatly developed and rendered with more freedom
+and variety of treatment; assuming the form of a growing or climbing
+stem, bearing flowers and clothed with leaves. A treatment which is
+fairly consistent with such types as the Vine and other climbing growths
+in nature.</p>
+
+<p>The undulating stem with branching scrolls is prominent, both in friezes
+and panels; the character of the foliage became more varied, the stiff
+and formal acanthus leaf being only used in the capitals of columns and
+in structural features.</p>
+
+<p>The version employed in more decorative positions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a>{267}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_237" id="ill_237"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_301_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_301_sml.jpg" width="361" height="270" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption">
+<p>No. 237. Detail of Roman Frieze, in Carved Stone.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="nind">exhibited greater freedom in form, attitude and section. Natural types
+for the sake of variety were used, generally in subordinated positions,
+and there is occasional evidence of the influence of these in the
+treatment of the acanthus detail.</p>
+
+<h3>Græco-Roman</h3>
+
+<p>The development of art during this period cannot be attributed to native
+talent, the Romans being content to borrow their art as they did their
+religion. It was rather due to the opulence of the times, though the
+practical character of the race resulted in a great advance in
+architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The later Roman, generally termed Græco-Roman, varied from the more
+robust treatment and reverted somewhat to the earlier Greek manner;
+tending to delicacy and refinement, but retaining the variety of
+character and detail.</p>
+
+<h3>Byzantine</h3>
+
+<p>The State recognition of Christianity had a great influence on art in
+that there was a return to symbolism. Various pagan elements associated
+with the earlier decoration that were unsuitable to the feeling of the
+time were eliminated. Eastern influence is evident, in not only the
+architecture but in the treatment which is known as Byzantine, of the
+foliage, which resembles that of the archaic Greek, the leaves being
+more stiffly lobed, and severely channelled with V-shaped grooves, in
+place of the subtle modelling of those of the Roman period.</p>
+
+<p>The stem or growth line is comparatively absent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a>{268}</span> and the prevalence of
+the circle as a shape or in the arrangement of details is evident.
+Decoration displays more regard to profile than to variety of relief,
+which was practically uniform.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_238" id="ill_238"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/ill_304_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_304_sml.jpg" width="281" height="132" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 238. Gothic Spandril. Carved Stone. Geometric basis
+obvious in central circle uniting angular shape with minor circular
+forms occupying angles.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Byzantine influence is evident in the succeeding Romanesque.</p>
+
+<h3>Romanesque</h3>
+
+<p>Early Gothic detail, the closely curled foliage of which is suggestive
+of lobes though without serrations, is reminiscent of debased Roman
+tradition, evident also in the general shape and disposition of leaves
+in the capitals of columns. The floral ornament of the Middle or
+Decorated period, though freely adapted from natural types, shows traces
+at times of the earlier tradition in the treatment of lobed and serrated
+leaves.</p>
+
+<h3>Italian Renaissance</h3>
+
+<p>The Italian Renaissance was not merely a revival of Classic architecture
+adapted to more modern conditions, but was in its earlier stages a frank
+reproduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a>{269}</span> of the Roman ornament in design and rendering. In later
+development in Italy and other parts of Europe it acquired local
+character differing materially from the original. Fresh elements were
+adopted and details originally significant were introduced for purely
+decorative reasons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_239" id="ill_239"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<a href="images/ill_305_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_305_sml.jpg" width="220" height="283" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 239. Early Pointed Gothic Stone Carving. Ely
+Cathedral.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Husk Leaf</h3>
+
+<p>A feature of the foliated scroll is the Husk Leaf, either Acanthus, that
+is&mdash;lobed and serrated, or compounded of water leaves with smooth and
+undulating edges somewhat similar to the hart’s tongue fern.</p>
+
+<p>The Husk either grows tangentially from the stem which it sometimes
+envelopes in the sheath form, or has at its base a floral-like feature
+known as the Bract; this, however, was seldom employed in Greek
+ornament, a boss-like annulet being more general. The Husk is largely
+employed to mask or cover branching, and either, as previously stated,
+grows tangentially from the stem, or takes a bulbous form with a broad
+and rounded base when it appears to be threaded on, rather than
+articulated to, the stem.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a>{270}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Rosette</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_240" id="ill_240"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a href="images/ill_306a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_306a_sml.jpg" width="270" height="119" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 240. Italian Renaissance Scroll, shewing Acanthus
+husks with bracts, sheath leaves and floral terminals.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_241" id="ill_241"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a href="images/ill_306b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_306b_sml.jpg" width="278" height="179" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 241. Types of Rosettes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such flowers as were employed in the earlier ornament displayed little
+regard to nature, being mostly of the rosette form with petals radiating
+from the centre; as a rule these were composed of simple leaf-shaped
+petals in one, two or more tiers arranged concentrically; in this form
+of rosette the petals are symmetrical in shape. The number of petals is
+a matter of scale and taste, but an unequal number will invariably be
+found more interesting. Arrangements of five or seven in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a>{271}</span> preference to
+four, six and eight. Frequently the spaces between the outer tier are
+occupied by narrow leaves suggestive of the sepals in natural flowers,
+and these serve the double purpose of giving variety and preserving the
+circular shape.</p>
+
+<p>Further variety can be imparted by the arrangements of the petals on a
+revolving instead of a straight axis, either consistently in one
+direction or symmetrically disposed from a centre in a palmate form.</p>
+
+<p>The Rosette in ornament is useful as a pause point, giving repose, but
+where it is desirable to continue the flow of line, other floral forms
+can be employed, such as the tulip or the lily, which are displayed to
+the best advantage in profile or perspective.</p>
+
+<p>In conventional ornament the flower petals should be in contrast to the
+leaves employed on the scrolling stem.</p>
+
+<p>The Pistil in nature is reflected in the various sprouting forms which
+emerge from the conventional flowers of the Renaissance, and at times
+develop into further stem growth. On æsthetic grounds this may be
+excused in cases where flow of line is of greater importance than
+consistency. The Pistil takes many forms, being frequently composed of a
+series of diminutive husks. Flower buds of similar husk form occur, the
+petals being similar to those of the flowers employed.</p>
+
+<h3>Tendrils</h3>
+
+<p>Tendrils serve a useful purpose in giving unity to the design, for which
+there is ample suggestion in such natural growths as the Vine, Pea, etc.
+Too often in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a>{272}</span> traditional ornament they are employed to merely occupy
+obviously awkward spaces. In Roman ornament flowers articulated on
+tendril-like stems were often used apparently to occupy the
+spandril-like spaces resulting from the branching scrolls.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_242" id="ill_242"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 181px;">
+<a href="images/ill_308_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_308_sml.jpg" width="181" height="184" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 242. Ornamental Treatment of Tendril from Roman
+Frieze.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Nature Influence</h3>
+
+<p>During the Roman development greater variety was introduced in the
+treatment of leaves and flowers which in many instances display evidence
+of natural suggestion. The main stems are sometimes twisted, a
+characteristic of some strongly growing natural types, but this was only
+a variant of the earlier treatment of decorating the scrolling stem with
+channels or hollow flutes.</p>
+
+<p>Birds and animals were also used in antique ornament&mdash;grotesque
+combinations of foliage with human and animal forms, and such symbolic
+monsters as the Gryphon and the Sphinx, were employed with little regard
+to the original significance. Other symbolic elements, such as wreaths,
+garlands, festoons, altars, tripods, and urns were also introduced
+merely for their decorative value and to afford variety.</p>
+
+<h3>Symbolic Employment</h3>
+
+<p>The modern mind is naturally out of sympathy with forms that have no
+direct appeal, but it should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a>{273}</span> considered that these elements were
+originally not merely the expression of the art of the period, but were
+also invested in many instances with symbolic meaning. The Roman citizen
+saw nothing incongruous in decorating a triumphal arch with the chaplet
+of the victor and trophies of arms.</p>
+
+<p>The later misuse of symbolic elements can only be defended on æsthetic
+grounds, and is probably undesirable. Without these there is still left
+sufficient material for beautiful effects. Dull slavish reproduction is
+not only without interest, but displays lack of inventiveness. It is
+possible in good hands to utilise the past tradition so as to appeal to
+modern appreciation.</p>
+
+<h3>Consistency in Growth</h3>
+
+<p>However arbitrary traditional ornament may appear, there is consistency
+in the best examples, which display in many details some general
+observance of the principle of natural growth. There may be no attempt
+to exploit any known type, the creation being purely artificial; still
+the association of stem, leaves and flowers is suggestive of natural
+growth.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement is generally progressive, as in nature a plant develops
+outwards and onwards from the root, and the orthodox scroll ornament may
+be considered as a stem of undulate form (constituting the growth line)
+with branches, elaborated with leaves and flowers which are arranged
+successively.</p>
+
+<h3>Branching</h3>
+
+<p>In traditional ornament the most general form of branching is
+tangential, the scrolls and leaves emerging<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a>{274}</span> radially from the main
+stem, with slight divergence; but in nature many varieties of branching
+may be observed and applied with advantage in design.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_243" id="ill_243"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_310a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_310a_sml.jpg" width="279" height="143" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 243. Types of Branching.<br /> A. Tangential. B.
+Acute-angular. C. Right-angular.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Generally natural branching may be classified into Tangential, typical
+of grass growth and water-plants; Acute and Right-angular. The latter is
+sometimes usefully employed in ornament, as it conveys a sense of
+strength and vigour, though as a concession to the rhythmic flow of line
+it should follow for a short distance the curve of the main stem.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_244" id="ill_244"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 199px;">
+<a href="images/ill_310b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_310b_sml.jpg" width="199" height="165" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 244. Formal Opposite Branching suitable for Vertical
+Borders &amp; Pilasters.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Independent of the angle, branches may occur opposite, that is, grow
+simultaneously each side of the stem, Alternate, or spirally round the
+stem. The distances between the branches may be equal, or, as in some
+instances, in alternate long and short distances. The opposite<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a>{275}</span>
+arrangement of branches is most suitable where rigidity of effect is
+required, but the alternate branching is susceptible of greater freedom
+and license.</p>
+
+<p>The stem, as it throws out each branch, may gradually diminish in
+diameter, each branch being less than the parent stem; the length of
+each successive branch may also diminish and the leaves on these be
+subordinate in size to those of the main stem.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_245" id="ill_245"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;">
+<a href="images/ill_311_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_311_sml.jpg" width="249" height="308" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 245. Branch and Scroll Terminations.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Leaves</h3>
+
+<p>The detail of these smaller leaves may be less complex as they approach
+the terminals, a characteristic in natural growth where the necessary
+energy to produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a>{276}</span> the flowers results in restricted development of the
+leaves on the flower stalk.</p>
+
+<p>Equally consistent from the nature point of view is the employment of
+the large husk leaves which generally cover the points of branch
+emergence. As already stated, these are not articulated, but either
+spring tangentially from or are threaded on the main stem in contrast to
+the smaller leaves, which are often provided with individual stems.
+Occasionally the scroll terminals are not furnished with flowers but
+develop into sprays of small leaves radially disposed.</p>
+
+<h3>The Start</h3>
+
+<p>An essential condition in panel ornament is the Start or commencement,
+which should at least be consistent. The natural root is not in every
+case sufficient, though at times it may be employed with effect.</p>
+
+<p>The start point of the growth line or lines varies in position according
+to attitude. In panels in a horizontal plane, the start is frequently
+central and the traditional treatment is usually some form of rosette
+from which the other details radiate.</p>
+
+<p>In some positions, particularly pilaster panels, the ornament is
+suspended, which is consistently rendered by the employment of knobs and
+ribbons. Ribbons are not only logical, but interesting on account of the
+variety afforded and are also of service in giving unity to a
+composition. Extremely amenable to harmonious arrangement and
+susceptible of great variation, the ribbon can be twisted, folded or
+arranged in groups of pleatings, the ends being occasionally scrolled or
+split.</p>
+
+<p>The start mostly in evidence in ornament is that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a>{277}</span> known as the Cup or
+Nest, which is composed of leaves arranged somewhat in the form of a
+tulip, with generally an inverted cup leaf below. It is composed of
+leaves either of the Acanthus or water type, but for the sake of variety
+one of these may appear in the upper part of the cup and the contrasting
+form in the lower. The proportion between the two parts as to height and
+width should also be varied, and when the cup leaf is used in pilaster
+panels it generally occupies the whole width of the base.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_246" id="ill_246"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_313a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_313a_sml.jpg" width="194" height="248" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 246. The Nest or Cup-leaf Start.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_247" id="ill_247"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/ill_313b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_313b_sml.jpg" width="176" height="219" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 247. Italian Renaissance Foliated Figure Start.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such artificial objects as vases and baskets form fairly consistent base
+starts for floral detail, others as Altars and Tripods are not quite so
+logical, though useful in conveying a sense of support. Shields and
+Labels, generally employed centrally in wide panels where the ornament<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a>{278}</span>
+is displayed laterally, are effective in the contrast they afford to the
+floral details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_248" id="ill_248"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;">
+<a href="images/ill_314_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_314_sml.jpg" width="235" height="341" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 248. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
+Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The employment of half figures as starts cannot be defended; the
+illogical association of life, either human or animal, with foliage as
+employed by the designers of the later Italian Renaissance, is too
+incongruous to be excused on æsthetic grounds. Such were due to change
+in taste and desire for variety, and probably were suggested by the much
+earlier employment of compound animal forms as furniture supports.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a>{279}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_249" id="ill_249"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 234px;">
+<a href="images/ill_315_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_315_sml.jpg" width="234" height="348" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 249. Italian Renaissance Panel, Choir Stalls, St.
+Pietro, Perugia. Stefano Martelli, 1535.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Acanthus leaf prominent in Renaissance detail, was at first
+deliberately reproduced from Roman examples, and its architectural
+employment as in the capitals of the Corinthian order, has survived to
+modern times as the most suitable rendering for such structural
+features. In more decorative positions marked changes are evident in the
+later phases, the Cinque Cento renderings being perhaps the high water
+mark of the Italian designer. In these the lobes were angular in general
+outline, with beautifully balanced minor lobations<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280"></a>{280}</span> and the surface
+contours delicate and subtle in modelling.</p>
+
+<h3>Renaissance Influence</h3>
+
+<p>The early examples of Italian Renaissance in France and England are
+generally pure in style, being in most instances of Italian design and
+execution. Later work by native exploiters in emulation of the style is
+invariably quite different, until the new style was better understood
+and assimilated; eventuating in versions that were distinctive and
+local.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_250" id="ill_250"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/ill_316_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_316_sml.jpg" width="369" height="72" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 250. Early French Renaissance Carving. Francis I.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the early French Renaissance the acanthus leaf was generally
+displayed in profile, the lobe being elliptic and pointed in shape, with
+clearly defined minor divisions; the sectional form was comparatively
+simple. Similar treatment, without the precision and grace of line
+characterised the Jacobean work in England; the relief work of which,
+being rather in the category of flat carving, consisting mainly of
+incised lines and grooves by which leaf form was expressed in profile or
+silhouette. These were invariably archaic and crude, though in view of
+the direct and simple execution not without individuality and interest.</p>
+
+<h3>Jacobean.</h3>
+
+<p>A characteristic feature of the Jacobean style is the ornamental
+interlacing strapwork, with foliated or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281"></a>{281}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_251" id="ill_251"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 359px;">
+<a href="images/ill_317_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_317_sml.jpg" width="359" height="444" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 251. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.</p>
+
+<p>A. Greek. B. Roman. C. Byzantine. D. Romanesque. E. Decorated Gothic. F.
+G. Italian Renaissance. H. French Renaissance, Period of Francis I.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">scrolling ends. This doubtless was in emulation of the French work of
+the period of Henry II, when strapping composed of straight and curved
+lines entered largely into ornamental detail. In the period of Louis
+XIII<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282"></a>{282}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_252" id="ill_252"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 359px;">
+<a href="images/ill_318_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_318_sml.jpg" width="359" height="478" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 252. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.</p>
+
+<p>I. French, Louis XIV. J. English, Grinling Gibbons. K. French, Louis XV.
+L. English, Adam. M. French, Louis XVI. N. Louis XVI (Salombier). O.
+English, Late 18th Century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283"></a>{283}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">shield and cartouche shapes were much in vogue, on account probably of
+their mass value and the contrast afforded with the subordinate detail,
+which developed into the foliated strap frame of the Louis XIV style.</p>
+
+<p>The details of this latter period were expressed in bold relief, the
+decorated areas being well filled, in contrast to the earlier Italian
+style in which the background frequently predominated over the ornament.
+The sectioning or modelling of the leaves, which by this time were
+typically French, was elaborate but well considered as to harmonious
+play of line. Shell forms were employed and were effective, both as mass
+shapes and for the radial elaboration of their surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>In conjunction with artificial details, natural foliage was employed in
+the form of wreaths and festoons, composed of leaves and appropriate
+flowers; the conventional stem was little used, the foliated strap being
+more often evident.</p>
+
+<h3>Régence</h3>
+
+<p>The immediate successor of the style of the Grand Monarch was the phase
+known as Régence, in which the strap frame was moulded in section, and
+the whole detail became much lighter, resulting in more open or plain
+spaces.</p>
+
+<p>In the period of Louis XV restraint was thrown overboard, panels and
+enclosed areas were framed with mouldings irresponsible in curvature,
+and without regard to structural conditions. The growth line
+disappeared, the leafage and other details being arbitrarily disposed on
+the framing mouldings, which were generally in flattened and elongated
+curves opposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284"></a>{284}</span> to each other in flexured lines. In comparison with the
+preceding Louis XIV style the ornament is thin and liney in character,
+the leaf, still of the acanthus type, is greatly modified both in form
+and detail, the ends of the lobes being curled and twisted spirally.</p>
+
+<h3>Rococo</h3>
+
+<p>In minor floral details natural types were employed, also such
+artificial features as canopies or hammercloths; rock and shell forms,
+and stalactite details suggestive of icicles are comprised in the later
+phase to which the term Rococo is applied.</p>
+
+<h3>Louis XVI</h3>
+
+<p>As a natural revulsion from the license of this period in the succeeding
+Louis XVI style there was a distinct reversion. The curved framings were
+abandoned and panels and other areas were enclosed by mouldings with
+regard both to structural and materialistic conditions. Great refinement
+is evident, not only in the mouldings but in the details throughout.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast to those of the Louis XIV period, panels were occupied
+rather than filled, the dominant details being placed at the upper and
+lower extremities and connected by vertical features either centrally or
+at the sides, steadily arranged as to alignment both horizontal and
+vertical. Familiar details thus employed are such amorous emblems as
+quivers, torches, trophies of musical instruments and bouquets and
+festoons of natural flowers.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial leaf reverted somewhat to the earlier Italian type, and
+was mostly displayed in profile with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285"></a>{285}</span> the lobes and serrations carefully
+composed. The detail though comparatively low in relief, was boldly
+modelled, and the direction and emphasis of the lobes and veinings of
+the leaves considered with regard to the composing lines.</p>
+
+<h3>Grinling Gibbons School of Carving</h3>
+
+<p>In England the work of the school of Grinling Gibbons was productive of
+a phase of ornamental expression distinctive for its artistry and
+technical skill. Conventional details were combined with natural forms
+of all kinds, the conspicuous arrangement being interlacing scrolls, and
+festoons and pendant swags.</p>
+
+<p>In the artificial leaf, with its boldly grooved surface and accentuated
+lobes, the evidence of the tool is manifest throughout.</p>
+
+<p>The tradition established by the Grinling Gibbons school had a lasting
+effect upon the native carving, which endured throughout the Georgian
+period, though largely influenced in detail by French taste&mdash;Rococo in
+particular.</p>
+
+<h3>Adam Style</h3>
+
+<p>The designs of the brothers Adam, which were in vogue in the reign of
+George III, though peculiarly individual and distinctive, were based
+upon the study of Græco-Roman details. In the Adam style the ornament is
+delicate in relief, and mostly displayed in profile. Panels and enclosed
+spaces are occupied, the decorative elements being carefully disposed
+with regard to balance and stability, with large areas of plain
+surface.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286"></a>{286}</span></p>
+
+<p>The characteristic and prevailing details are the fan and delicate
+festoons of leaves or husks, at times of beads.</p>
+
+<p>The anthemion is much used on friezes and borders, and compound animal
+forms, such as the Sphinx, were borrowed from the antique, the same
+source doubtless inspiring the employment of vases, altars, and tripods.</p>
+
+<p>Medallions occur occupied by figures after the manner of the Greek
+vases. In some instances these were in pottery, the work of Wedgwood.</p>
+
+<p>The general structural form was architectural, the mouldings slight in
+projection and refined in their profiles being decorated by orthodox
+enrichments.</p>
+
+<p>The foliage is mostly artificial in character, the leaf lobes in those
+of the acanthus type being orderly in arrangement with regard to profile
+and radial display, with comparatively little modelling.</p>
+
+<h3>Empire</h3>
+
+<p>A similar revival of the Antique succeeded the Revolution in France, in
+the Empire style, which, more literal in reproduction than the Adam
+work, is characterised with, at times, undesirable severity and
+precision of detail, particularly in the treatment of the human figure.</p>
+
+<h3>System of the Acanthus Leaf</h3>
+
+<p>The system of the acanthus leaf is based entirely on radiation, the
+tines and veinings being arranged in consistently diverging directions
+from a common base or start-point. Whether the whole leaf be displayed
+or merely the half leaf used, the shape should be bounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287"></a>{287}</span> by general
+lines controlling the lobes and their serrations&mdash;the mass shape forming
+a satisfactory silhouette.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the lobes should be relative to the breadth of the leaf,
+the maximum length agreeing with the maximum width, and the others in
+proportion.</p>
+
+<p>The edges or outlines of serrations and lobes should also be controlled
+by radial lines from the base.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_253" id="ill_253"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;">
+<a href="images/ill_323_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_323_sml.jpg" width="225" height="224" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 253. Construction of the Acanthus Leaf.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In turn-overs and curling or twisting lobes the silhouette shape and
+composing line must be considered.</p>
+
+<p>The apex of leaf terminates with a central lobe balanced by side lobes
+repeated throughout. In treatment these may be displayed clear of each
+other, or they may overlap, but care must be taken to avoid confusion in
+effect.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288"></a>{288}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /><br />
+TREATMENT IN DESIGN</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span>PPRECIATION of design by the individual is largely a matter of
+temperament, though it may be due to some extent to acquired knowledge.
+Generally, few are conscious of any guiding principle, and selection in
+their case is mostly the result of fashion or custom. To others certain
+colours and forms have an appeal, though they may be quite unconscious
+of, or unable to explain the attraction other than it suits their taste.</p>
+
+<p>In the last few years it has been recognised that colour may be employed
+beneficially in curative treatment, but the normal healthy individual is
+often indifferent to environment other than that of material
+gratification.</p>
+
+<p>When any artistic work creates pleasurable emotion, it is purely a
+matter of cause and effect. To design successfully involves some
+understanding of the causes or factors which constitute the appeal.</p>
+
+<h3>Natural Attraction</h3>
+
+<p>The attraction of colour and form is undoubtedly universal, and may be
+generally understood, though there are delicate degrees of proportion
+and association in both that may only be appreciated by the cultivated
+eye. Early essays in drawing generally exhibit an undesirable redundancy
+in curves, and in many<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289"></a>{289}</span> instances the student is slow to realise that
+those that approximate to the elliptic form are proportionately of more
+interest than those obviously composed of segments of circles.
+Undoubtedly this subtlety of line is one of the predominant factors in
+appreciation of form.</p>
+
+<p>A factor in pattern that is largely responsible for the charm is the
+presence of small detail in juxtaposition with larger forms. This is
+entailed in instances by technical conditions, such, for instance, as in
+some tapestries where inhabited pattern is essential to the process of
+production.</p>
+
+<h3>Decorative Materials</h3>
+
+<p>Some materials are employed partly for their decorative effect, such as
+naturally figured woods and certain varieties of stone; and design
+mainly consists of judicious selection, use and treatment. Oak and
+walnut being woods extremely suitable for structural work and furniture
+have always been in request when obtainable.</p>
+
+<p>Polishing is to some extent a preservative, but work in oak or walnut,
+especially when carved, should be kept comparatively dull, otherwise
+confusion between the relief and the natural figuring would result. In
+mahogany or satinwood, where the chief interest exists in the figuring
+and colour, carving is undesirable and the best effects are obtained by
+high polish. It may be urged that in the Chippendale period the work was
+invariably carved, but the detail was always in very low relief, and the
+finishing dark in colour, in which the figuring was subdued. Mahogany in
+its more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290"></a>{290}</span> general employment owes its chief beauty to the development of
+figuring and colour.</p>
+
+<p>Certain marbles are used for their decorative effect, and the natural
+colour and figuring developed by polish. Statuary marble that is
+sometimes employed, is more suitable for carved details, and appears at
+its best when unpolished, though in this state it is extremely subject
+to discolouration owing to its absorbent nature.</p>
+
+<p>Granite, so popular in our cemeteries, is often polished, when the
+natural figuring is unpleasantly aggressive. An extremely hard stone and
+laborious to work, it is not suitable for carving, and is best left
+roughly tooled or frosted, when the natural chrystaline formation
+appears to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<h3>Justification of Treatment</h3>
+
+<p>The softer woods used in interior structural work are generally painted,
+partly as a preservative and largely because they do not possess any
+figuring of particular interest.</p>
+
+<p>Graining in imitation of more precious woods is often condemned as
+inartistic, but it may be urged in extenuation that it is the most
+economic treatment, as it helps to minimise the effect of wear and
+incidental damage.</p>
+
+<p>The use of pattern wall-papers and floor coverings can be justified on
+the same grounds, as in those with plain surfaces any disfigurement is
+readily seen. Wallpaper, however, is quite a legitimate form of
+decoration and not necessarily imitative, though to some extent it is
+reminiscent of the early custom of employing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291"></a>{291}</span> tapestries as wall
+coverings. A more durable and artistic treatment of interiors is that of
+the wainscotting of the Georgian period, but the initial cost is
+proportionately great, though probably when maintenance is taken into
+consideration it would be cheaper in the long run. Apart from the
+question of cost, the modern tendency is favourable to change of effect
+and environment, due partly to the facility afforded by the comparative
+cheapness of wall-paper, but even more to the prevalent short tenancies.</p>
+
+<h3>Undesirable Imitation</h3>
+
+<p>Many excellent designs are produced in wall-papers, though there is a
+tendency at times to reproduce textural effects which can only be
+justified on æsthetic grounds. Those of the frankly imitative kind
+cannot be condoned. It is still possible to have the hall and stairs
+papered and varnished to resemble slabs of precious marble, or patterns
+in mosaic, which were undreamt of in Byzantine times; and the orthodox
+design for the bathroom is still that of tiles with the joints neatly
+printed. Similar imitation is also apparent in linoleum, when the
+pattern simulates the appearance of either wood parquet or mosaic, or
+even worse&mdash;that of a Turkey or Axminster carpet.</p>
+
+<p>There is an element of priggishness in such cheap art in which, as
+though ashamed of poverty of material, there is an assumption of
+something better; and it is lamentable that there is not merely a market
+for these shams and imitations but curiously enough they also find
+appreciation.</p>
+
+<p>There are phases of work where simulation may to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292"></a>{292}</span> some extent be
+justified, for instance, silver is sometimes gilt. For this there is the
+excuse that silver, although a beautiful metal, is subject to oxidation
+and requires constant attention to keep bright. Gilding acts as a
+preservative, and is therefore justified in certain forms of silver
+work, which it is not convenient to clean in the ordinary way.</p>
+
+<h3>Technical Considerations</h3>
+
+<p>It has already been suggested that Design is not merely a question of
+idea and draughtsmanship, but is also dependent upon materialistic
+conditions, which, in practical work, must be understood and properly
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the intended design be for some form of flat pattern, such as
+weaving, etc., or for any particular craft expression, it is essential
+that the limitations of the process and material involved be clearly
+kept in view, and that suitable elements for expression be chosen.</p>
+
+<p>Convention, to a large extent, exists in the adaptation of forms,
+natural or otherwise, to the exigencies of production, a proper
+understanding of which will not only tend to economy in cost, but also
+to more effective results, if full advantage be taken of the craft or
+mechanical conditions, which should always be foreseen in design.</p>
+
+<h3>Methods of Expression</h3>
+
+<p>Methods of expression vary, according to position and material, and may
+be Flat&mdash;either silhouette, or with appearance of relief, or in actual
+relief.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293"></a>{293}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_254" id="ill_254"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;">
+<a href="images/ill_329a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_329a_sml.jpg" width="222" height="333" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 254. A. B. C. Flat Treatment, Silhouette important.
+D. Relief Treatment of C.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_255" id="ill_255"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<a href="images/ill_329b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_329b_sml.jpg" width="219" height="330" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 255. A. Flat Treatment. B. Relief of Husk Leaf.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Contrast exists always, thus in the Flat with or without outline the
+contrast is in Light and Dark, whether colour is involved or not.</p>
+
+<p>In Relief the contrast is in Light and Shade. Contrast exists also in
+both treatments in lines straight and curved&mdash;in the variety of the
+latter, in lines with mass forms, and in dominant forms with smaller
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>In the treatment of Flat Ornament the most important considerations are
+play of line and silhouette, and forms should be displayed in
+interesting profile; perspective and foreshortening being eliminated
+whenever they would result in distorted or inharmonious shapes.</p>
+
+<p>In Relief treatment the designer is concerned with the effect of Light
+and Shade in harmonious arrangement of mass and line.</p>
+
+<p>Perspective and foreshortening are permissible to some extent, but are
+largely dependent upon the work, greater license being allowable in high
+than in low relief.</p>
+
+<h3>Treatment of Leaves</h3>
+
+<p>In Flat ornament, leaves are invariably in profile, but in Relief
+expression they may be folded, that is, wrapped round the stem. Greater
+freedom is possible in the turn-overs.</p>
+
+<p>Relief ornament should recognise ground by details being occasionally
+displayed in lower relief.</p>
+
+<p>Whether expressed in Flat or Relief, the composing lines should always
+be emphatic, and their direction traceable through the details, floral
+or otherwise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294"></a>{294}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Surface Interest</h3>
+
+<p>In addition to the foregoing, a further consideration is that of
+interest of surface, which may consist of contrast in textures of rough
+surface with smooth, of patterning on form, veining and striation of
+leaves and flowers, and of the employment of trellis or imbricated
+pattern. The latter in conjunction with other details, occur in the
+decorative work of the later French Renaissance.</p>
+
+<h3>Painted Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>The technical means of obtaining the interest of surfaces is, of course,
+incidental to the process involved. If the decoration be the result of
+painting, the design is free and untrammelled by any other than purely
+æsthetic conditions. Such, for instance, as the desirable recognition of
+surface, and the pattern sense suggested by recurrence, if a decorative
+rather than a pictorial effect is desired.</p>
+
+<p>When the decorations consist of ornament, wholly or partly, they are
+occasionally rendered in a conventional manner, based upon the
+appearance of Relief, as in the Pompeian wall decorations and the
+painted work of the Italian Renaissance. There is ample precedent for
+this treatment in traditional painted decoration, but deliberate
+attempts at realistic effects are not only undesirable but to be
+deplored.</p>
+
+<p>The interest in Painted Decoration, apart from colour, design or
+subject, would be that of the individual manifestation of the designer
+and painter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295"></a>{295}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Stencilled Work</h3>
+
+<p>Stencilled decoration is a compromise between painting and mechanical
+printing, and is restricted by the unit. The repetition of this is
+practically mechanical, though considerable license is possible in the
+treatment of colour, which has to be personally applied and is therefore
+amenable to controlled variation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_256" id="ill_256"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_333_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_333_sml.jpg" width="360" height="388" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 256. Inhabited Details from Woven Fabrics. Interest
+imparted by patterning on forms.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The design in stencilled work is not limited to one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296"></a>{296}</span> unit, and is not
+subject to hard and fast rules, the plates being of a size convenient to
+handle. Alternate units, or a series can be employed, the interest,
+apart from colour and subject consisting mainly of contrast in detail,
+and in the individualism expressed.</p>
+
+<h3>Mechanical Production, Printed and Woven</h3>
+
+<p>In textiles, where such mechanical processes as printing and weaving are
+involved, the design is restricted to the unit, the repetition of which
+is infallible both as to form and colour.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from colour, the surface interest consists of suggested or actual
+contrasts of texture, the result of veining and striating leaves and
+flowers or of patterning forms or backgrounds with smaller details.</p>
+
+<h3>Needlework</h3>
+
+<p>Needlework, being a personal performance, has no such mechanical
+restriction; the design can, and should be, complete within the area,
+and the expression perfectly free. Beside Design and Colour, the surface
+interest is that of contrast in the different textures resulting from
+the various stitches, and the employment of darning, knots, laid-work,
+etc.</p>
+
+<h3>Appliqué</h3>
+
+<p>In Appliqué work, interest is imparted by the mass effects enriched by
+embroidery, the large shapes entailing detail of the inhabited variety
+to keep them from puckering. In all needlework the effect is due to some
+extent to light and shade, particularly in Appliqué, where a corded edge
+is employed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297"></a>{297}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_257" id="ill_257"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 66px;">
+<a href="images/ill_335_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_335_sml.jpg" width="66" height="90" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 257. Needlework, contrasting effect of various
+stitches.</p>
+
+<p>(Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_258" id="ill_258"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a href="images/ill_336_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_336_sml.jpg" width="297" height="495" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 258. Needlework Appliqué. Interest due to contrast of
+material, effect of relief imparted by corded edges, and to embroidery
+on applied details.</p><p> (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_259" id="ill_259"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<a href="images/ill_337_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_337_sml.jpg" width="357" height="454" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 259. Lace. Surface interest due to contrast of
+various fillings. (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Lace</h3>
+
+<p>In Lace, the interest consists solely of textural contrast, not only in
+the treatment of the various details, but in the patterning of intervals
+due to the necessary fillings. Design may be complete, or a repeated
+unit, according to the purpose and variety of lace.</p>
+
+<h3>Wood Inlay</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_260" id="ill_260"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 90px;">
+<a href="images/ill_339a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_339a_sml.jpg" width="90" height="130" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 260. Wood Inlay. Geometric arrangement.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Design for Inlays in Wood-work may be free in expression, or a unit, at
+discretion. The latter variety frequently takes the form of lines spaced
+with regard to good proportion, forming borders, chequers and geometric
+shapes of various kinds. Floral or other forms simple in character and
+profile may be used, the design being expressed in silhouette.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_261" id="ill_261"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/ill_339b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_339b_sml.jpg" width="194" height="98" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 261. Wood Inlay.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_262" id="ill_262"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 116px;">
+<a href="images/ill_339c_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_339c_sml.jpg" width="116" height="276" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 262. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette depending on
+natural colour.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Intarsia</h3>
+
+<p>In the Intarsia detail of the Italian Renaissance, the inlaid forms were
+elaborated by surface markings and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298"></a>{298}</span> graduated effects were obtained by
+means of hot sand; but the natural contrast in the varied colour and
+fibres of the material employed probably form the more legitimate
+interest in all inlaid work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_263" id="ill_263"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 98px;">
+<a href="images/ill_340a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_340a_sml.jpg" width="98" height="191" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 263. Wood Inlay. Simple silhouette.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Veneer, Marquetry</h3>
+
+<p>In Veneer work and in Marquetry, where the work is quartered and
+juxtaposed, the interest consists in the patterning of the figured
+woods, particularly when these are arranged to form reciprocal shapes.</p>
+
+<h3>Boule Work</h3>
+
+<p>The interest of Buhl or Boule work, an inlay of metal employed in the
+French Renaissance in the decoration of furniture, often in conjunction
+with tortoiseshell, is that of contrast of texture.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_264" id="ill_264"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a href="images/ill_340b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_340b_sml.jpg" width="370" height="102" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 264. Italian Intarsia. Forms elaborated by incised
+lines.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the design, profile or silhouette is the primary consideration, being
+used:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1.  As a form of framing,</li>
+<li>2.  In angles or centres on table-tops,</li>
+<li>3.  In panels in furniture:</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><a name="ill_265" id="ill_265"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/ill_341_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_341_sml.jpg" width="267" height="529" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 265. Louis XV Cabinet with Ormolu Mounts.</p>
+
+<p>Marquetry, veneer quartered and inlaid with floral detail. (Photo: V &amp; A
+Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_266" id="ill_266"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/ill_343a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_343a_sml.jpg" width="279" height="194" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 266. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299"></a>{299}</span></p>
+
+<p>The design can invariably be complete within the area. Coloured grounds
+are employed as well as tortoiseshell.</p>
+
+<h3>Mosaic</h3>
+
+<p>Mosaic designs may be complete in themselves or be the result of
+repetition, according to attitude and purpose, and with regard to
+variety and colour, only restricted by æsthetic considerations.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_267" id="ill_267"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 228px;">
+<a href="images/ill_343b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_343b_sml.jpg" width="228" height="247" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 267. Boule Work. Period of Louis XVI.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing to technical limitations, modelling can only be broadly suggested;
+therefore forms should be generally in silhouette except when on a large
+scale.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300"></a>{300}</span></p>
+
+<p>When employed on walls and vaults, gold is frequently used in the
+backgrounds. This not only serves to define detail, but affords contrast
+to the general surface, the inevitable joints in the tessaræ adding also
+to the interest.</p>
+
+<h3>Byzantine Use of Marble</h3>
+
+<p>Associated with Mosaic decoration in the Byzantine Period was the
+employment of marble in shafts of columns and for lining walls by
+banding or slabbing, frequently quartered, so as to display the markings
+in reciprocal forms. Such marbles were chosen for figuring and colour,
+the former in its variety being an important factor in the surface
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>Similar employment of slabs occurs in the treatment of floors, where
+contrast in colour is the chief consideration. It is sometimes
+associated with Mosaic of small tesseræ, also in marble, whereas that
+used on walls and in vaults was frequently of glass.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing is a broad summary of ornamental expression in the Flat,
+with the exception of Book Decoration.</p>
+
+<h3>Book Decoration</h3>
+
+<p>In Black and White, which is chiefly employed, the designs may be in
+tone or line with suggestion of rotundity or relief; or line
+decoratively employed, according to subject, or purely decorative.</p>
+
+<p>The same applies to renderings in colour. Designs for covers are
+controlled by the processes involved, whether printed, stamped or
+tooled.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301"></a>{301}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_268" id="ill_268"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 269px;">
+<a href="images/ill_345_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_345_sml.jpg" width="269" height="373" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 268. Mosaic Borders.</p>
+
+<p>A. From Carthage.
+<span style="margin-left:5%;">B. &amp; C. Withington, Gloucester.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_269" id="ill_269"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;">
+<a href="images/ill_346_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_346_sml.jpg" width="373" height="267" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 269. Mosaic Border, Roman.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_270" id="ill_270"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_347_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_347_sml.jpg" width="360" height="306" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 270. Roman Mosaic. Woodchester, Gloucester.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_271" id="ill_271"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<a href="images/ill_348_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_348_sml.jpg" width="363" height="375" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 271. Roman Mosaic. Treatment in Light and Shade
+suggestive of relief. (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_272" id="ill_272"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<a href="images/ill_349_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_349_sml.jpg" width="266" height="354" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 272. Tooled Bookbinding in Leather.<br /> Repetition due to
+tools or stamps.<br /> (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_273" id="ill_273"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<a href="images/ill_350_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_350_sml.jpg" width="357" height="252" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 273. Modelled Plaster, shewing relatively large
+ground area.<br /> (Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_274" id="ill_274"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;">
+<a href="images/ill_351_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_351_sml.jpg" width="353" height="520" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 274. Wood Carving. Grinling Gibbons.<br /> Attention
+devoted to detail with elimination of ground. <br />(Photo: V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ill_275" id="ill_275"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;">
+<a href="images/ill_352_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_352_sml.jpg" width="222" height="442" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 275. Wood Carving. French, Louis XIV.<br /> (Photo: V &amp; A
+Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Bindings</h3>
+
+<p>In the two latter the ornament should be in profile or silhouette. In
+tooled bindings, repetition of unit or motif is essential, the design
+being the direct result of available tools.</p>
+
+<p>In such bindings further interest may be imparted by gilding either the
+detail or by introducing gold as powdering on shapes or backgrounds, or
+by the so-called inlaying of other colours.</p>
+
+<h3>Relief&mdash;Economic Result of Method</h3>
+
+<p>In Relief ornament, design and character should be the result of
+technical expression. If considered from an economic point of view, the
+tendency would naturally be to obtain the maximum effect with the
+minimum of labour; and this would invariably result, when the decoration
+is built up or applied to an existing ground as in modelled work, in
+slight occupation, with comparatively large intervals.</p>
+
+<p>In carving, where the original surface forms the highest relief, and has
+to be cut back to form the ground, the result would be reversed, the
+individual worker being more attracted to the treatment of detail than
+to clearing away uninteresting spaces. Carving, whether in wood or
+stone, is employed in various decorative positions, and except in the
+enrichment of friezes or mouldings&mdash;when the repeating unit is
+desirable&mdash;the design should be complete in itself.</p>
+
+<h3>Desirable Treatment in Carving</h3>
+
+<p>The treatment should evidence the direct employment of the tool, any
+attempt to efface or soften will<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302"></a>{302}</span> result in loss of character and
+suggest the plastic effect incidental to modelling.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience, and possibly in the absence of more desirable examples,
+students are often allowed in their early attempts at carving to
+reproduce casts of plastic origin. This is undoubtedly pernicious, as
+the model is probably unsuitable, and the student is thereby biassed.
+Examples should be selected in which the characteristic treatment is
+sufficiently evident if a true and thorough appreciation of the craft is
+to be instilled.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_276" id="ill_276"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 215px;">
+<a href="images/ill_354_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_354_sml.jpg" width="215" height="375" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 276. Simple Jacobean Wood Carving. Direct gouge
+work.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the design&mdash;which may occupy or fill the shape and can be
+symmetrically arranged on a central axis, or balanced&mdash;the effect is due
+mainly to Light and Shade. Further interest may be imparted by the
+sectional form or modelling of the details, groovings, striations or
+other textural suggestions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303"></a>{303}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Backgrounds</h3>
+
+<p>The employment of punched grounds in carved work is to be deprecated as
+mechanical in effect. Sufficient interest is obtainable by the process
+of cutting back, in the perfect levelling of which the carver need not
+be too concerned. Suspiciously uniform grounds are suggestive of work
+fret-sawed and applied.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_277" id="ill_277"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;">
+<a href="images/ill_355_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_355_sml.jpg" width="249" height="307" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 277. Wood Carving. English.<br /> Late Elizabethan or Early
+Jacobean.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When carving in wood is in very high relief, it is occasionally, as in
+the Grinling Gibbons work, built up. This may not be a matter of great
+objection if properly attached, and the grain of fibre matched, but is,
+however, better avoided.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304"></a>{304}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Reproduction Processes</h3>
+
+<p>Modelled ornament is generally employed in reproduction processes, such
+as moulding of Terra-cotta, plaster, etc. The design can be free in
+expression, or a unit of repetition according to requirement.</p>
+
+<p>The detail which is applied to an existing surface is invariably more
+open, with a resulting display in the background.</p>
+
+<p>The surface interest consists of contrasts in texture, the result of
+veining, striating and patterning forms. The relief is not, as in carved
+work, controlled by an original surface, but, being built up, is
+susceptible to greater variation. Mouldings may be broken by lapping and
+overlapping details, and though in some traditional work similar
+treatment occurs in wood-carving, it must be remembered that such
+details are too suggestive of, and more proper to, plastic renderings.</p>
+
+<p>In economic moulded work undercutting of details should be avoided as
+this is only possible in piece or elastic moulds. In wood-carving,
+however, there is no restriction.</p>
+
+<h3>Metal Repoussé</h3>
+
+<p>Freedom and variety in detail are possible in Metal Repoussé, but as the
+light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface,
+the design which is plastic in character incidental to method of
+working, should have regard for silhouette or profile display, and not
+be dependent upon surface modelling. The principal factor in effect is
+Light, both direct and reflected. Surface interest is the result of
+imparting by chasing various textures in striations or matt.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305"></a>{305}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_278" id="ill_278"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/ill_357_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_357_sml.jpg" width="281" height="481" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 278. Wood Carving from Fontainbleau. Early French
+Renaissance.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306"></a>{306}</span></p>
+
+<p>Excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool,
+leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height, and imparting
+texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_279" id="ill_279"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/ill_358a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_358a_sml.jpg" width="188" height="220" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 279. Economic Wood Carving.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The method of working is simple, entailing manipulation from the face of
+the metal only, and the detail is left in slight relief by the ground
+being set back in the texturing. This treatment is only suitable where
+the ornamented area is enclosed. When the design is freely displayed on
+a ground without enclosing lines, it should appear in relief, the result
+of raising from the back; and texturing should be employed only on the
+details in contrast to the smooth ground. As in all applied work, the
+economic result is slight occupation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_280" id="ill_280"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 219px;">
+<a href="images/ill_358b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_358b_sml.jpg" width="219" height="137" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 280. Oak Box decorated with flat carving. Icelandic.
+18th Century.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Metal, Cast</h3>
+
+<p>Cast metal is produced in sand moulds, a model or pattern being employed
+of which the casting is a reproduction. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307"></a>{307}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_281" id="ill_281"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 540px;">
+<a href="images/ill_359_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_359_sml.jpg" width="540" height="348" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 281. Repoussé Work.</p>
+
+<p>A. Pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different
+textures of ground.</p>
+
+<p>B. Pattern raised from back, and defined and enriched by tracing and
+matt tools on face, affording textural contrast with plain ground.</p>
+
+<p>(Photo of A. V &amp; A Museum).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">pattern may be originally modelled or carved, and this determines the
+character of the metal result, though it is a matter of indifference
+when the necessary finishing is by turning or filing.</p>
+
+<p>Castings in iron are left as they leave the mould, but in bronze, except
+in Cire Perdu casting, the surface has to be entirely worked down. In
+common work, however, this is accomplished by means of small files or
+riffles and by chasing the more elaborate details.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_282" id="ill_282"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 69px;">
+<a href="images/ill_361a_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_361a_sml.jpg" width="69" height="118" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 282. Wrought Iron, simple form enriched by use of
+punches.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>Character of Cast Work</h3>
+
+<p><a name="ill_283" id="ill_283"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/ill_361b_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_361b_sml.jpg" width="282" height="261" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 283. Gondola Prow. Wrought Iron, comparative flat
+surface enriched by chiselled work.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a matter of opinion it is consistent that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308"></a>{308}</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_284" id="ill_284"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;">
+<a href="images/ill_362_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_362_sml.jpg" width="364" height="516" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 284. Surface Interest in Metal.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">A. Blade of State Battle-axe, damascened with silver, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">B. Blade of Khyber Knife, engraved, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">C. Hilt of Tulwar, damascened with gold, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">D. Vase, Bidri Ware, pewter inlaid with silver, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">E. Scabbard End, gold inlay, Indian.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:left; text-indent:-2%;">F. Ornament on Gauntled Sword, damascened with gold, Indian.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309"></a>{309}</span></p>
+
+<p class="nind">character of cast work should be plastic, and if the original pattern is
+the result of carving, care should be taken to impart the desired
+feeling, the pattern being merely a means to the end.</p>
+
+<p>Much depends upon the final finish; if this is to be bright, surface
+modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest
+resulting from contrast of textures. It, however, becomes of
+proportionate importance as the work is dull or toned, and therefore is
+subject to the ordinary conditions of Light and Shade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310"></a>{310}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /><br />
+MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>RADITIONAL ornament is replete with forms and details that were
+originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment this
+was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their æsthetic
+value.</p>
+
+<p>Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in
+the Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory,
+sacrifice and religious observance.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Symbolic Ornament</h3>
+
+<p>It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural
+types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus,
+which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were
+therefore esteemed.</p>
+
+<p>These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line,
+are symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the
+periodical inundation of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the
+Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which
+undoubtedly influenced the later ornament.</p>
+
+<p>The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it
+was the symbol of Resolution<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311"></a>{311}</span> overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief
+was that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed.</p>
+
+<p>Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times,
+implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the
+general community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is
+to be deplored.</p>
+
+<p>A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however is
+fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which
+represents the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the
+operation of venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the
+respective bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to
+blood-letting, the other for final bindings.</p>
+
+<h3>Customs</h3>
+
+<p>The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a
+survival&mdash;the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of
+a truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery&mdash;the
+latter of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that
+one can stand unprotected.</p>
+
+<p>The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards
+the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient
+times, if a stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it
+denoted a declaration of war; but if carried with the point behind, he
+came in friendship and peace.</p>
+
+<p>There are opportunities where the decorative element<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312"></a>{312}</span> could be such as
+to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the
+decadence of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest,
+because it has no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated.</p>
+
+<h3>Origin of Mythology</h3>
+
+<p>Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom
+the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light
+and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to
+how they affected his personal comfort.</p>
+
+<p>The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more
+modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and
+Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression.</p>
+
+<h3>Nature Myths</h3>
+
+<p>Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of
+natural phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural.
+Inducing a belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in
+future existence. With this belief these aspects were eventually
+invested with personality.</p>
+
+<p>An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting
+for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to Gæa
+(Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light
+and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos
+revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance.</p>
+
+<p>A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313"></a>{313}</span> god Tani, who
+effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the
+Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree
+upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches.</p>
+
+<h3>Light and Darkness</h3>
+
+<p>Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting. The
+Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all his
+children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the
+Grave), which three Time cannot consume.</p>
+
+<p>An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except
+Zeus, for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and
+promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted.</p>
+
+<p>On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the
+stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being
+that of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being
+the sunrise.</p>
+
+<h3>Melanesian Myth</h3>
+
+<p>An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and
+his brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and
+setting forth in search, was successful in his quest. On his return he
+told his brothers to sit quite still, and when they felt something in
+their eyes to take no notice but keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep.
+When Night had lasted long enough, Qat took a slab of red obsidian and
+cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A tradition reminiscent of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314"></a>{314}</span>
+“dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery, though the slab of red
+obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its suggestion.</p>
+
+<h3>Darkness as a Devouring Monster</h3>
+
+<p>In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant
+influence or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun,
+<i>e.g.</i>, the Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by
+Apollo, and in Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by
+darkness.</p>
+
+<p>Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according to
+tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts
+and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn.</p>
+
+<h3>Season Myths</h3>
+
+<p>In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears
+some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god
+was killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of
+Odin, everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was
+forbidden to injure Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was
+made into an arrow and shot at random. It effected his death, but by
+general request of the gods, he was restored to life.</p>
+
+<p>Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the
+end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the
+tradition of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her
+mother, Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of
+Orpheus and Eurydice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315"></a>{315}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Sun Myths</h3>
+
+<p>Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and
+Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and
+transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the
+Sun, or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the
+North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over
+hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing
+the morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the
+Heavens, where she became the Morning Star.</p>
+
+<p>Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who
+for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which
+traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his
+daily course.</p>
+
+<h3>Belief in Natural Phenomena</h3>
+
+<p>It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and
+conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena,
+indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day.
+Thus we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and
+intelligence. We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the
+Sea treacherous, the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also
+customary to speak of the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of
+the sea and the “mouth” of a river or a cave.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316"></a>{316}</span></p>
+
+<p>Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,”
+“howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile”
+or the sky “threatens.”</p>
+
+<p>These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and
+consciousness&mdash;a belief originally simple, but later becoming more
+complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in
+assigning different deities to the various elements.</p>
+
+<h3>Greek and Roman Deities</h3>
+
+<p>In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and six
+goddesses.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td class="c"><i>Greek.</i></td>
+<td class="c"><i>Gods.</i></td>
+<td class="c"><i>Roman.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Zeus.</td><td align="left">The air or the living one (king)</td><td align="left">Jupiter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Apōllon.</td><td align="left">The Sun God.</td><td align="left">Apollo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ares.</td><td align="left">The War God.</td><td align="left">Mars.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hermes.</td><td align="left">The Messenger.</td><td align="left">Mercury.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Poseidon.</td><td align="left">The Sea God.</td><td align="left">Neptune.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hephaistos.</td><td align="left">The Smith.</td><td align="left">Vulcan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c" colspan="3"><i>Goddesses.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hera.</td><td align="left">Queen.</td><td align="left">Juno.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Demeter.</td><td align="left">Tillage.</td><td align="left">Ceres.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Artemis.</td><td align="left">Moon-Hunting.</td><td align="left">Diana.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Athenē.</td><td align="left">Wisdom.</td><td align="left">Minerva.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Aphrodite.</td><td align="left">Love and Beauty.</td><td align="left">Venus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hestĭa.</td><td align="left">Home life.</td><td align="left">Vesta.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as
+follows:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317"></a>{317}</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Dionȳsus.</td><td align="left">The God of Wine.</td><td align="left">Bacchus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Eros.</td><td align="left">The love lad.</td><td align="left">Cupid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Plutōn.</td><td align="left">God of the Inferno.</td><td align="left">Pluto.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kronos.</td><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; Time.</td><td align="left">Saturn.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3>Scandinavian Mythology</h3>
+
+<p>In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or first
+created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold,
+nourished by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he
+slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet,
+from whom was formed the race of Frost Giants.</p>
+
+<p>Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the
+Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the
+Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks;
+the brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a
+wall of defence against the Giants.</p>
+
+<p>As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the
+Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god
+dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly
+hills between the Earth and the Rainbow.</p>
+
+<p>The other gods or Asa were:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Thor.</td><td align="left">God of Thunder and War.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tyr.</td><td align="left">God of Wisdom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Baldur.</td><td align="left">God of Sun.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bragi.</td><td align="left">God of Eloquence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vidar.</td><td align="left">God of Silence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hodar.</td><td align="left">The Blind.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318"></a>{318}</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Harnod.</td><td align="left">The Messenger (divine intelligence)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Odur.</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Loki.</td><td align="left">God of Mischief.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>All these were sons of Odin&mdash;the youngest being Vale. The mansion of
+Odin was Gladsheim&mdash;that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was
+Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.”</p>
+
+<p>The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits
+of warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted
+nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death.</p>
+
+<p>Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like
+Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow.</p>
+
+<p>The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and
+Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash
+tree Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one
+to the Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a
+fountain of wonderful virtue.</p>
+
+<p>In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four
+stags; lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent Nithhöggr, while the
+squirrel Ratatösker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife
+between the serpent and the eagle at the top.</p>
+
+<h3>Rising and Setting Symbolised</h3>
+
+<p>The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised
+the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the
+setting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319"></a>{319}</span></p>
+
+<p>Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye
+at the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the
+setting sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was
+dedicated, symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with
+two horns on a stem rising from her head.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of
+the Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the
+death of Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis.</p>
+
+<p>Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon
+is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the
+Latmian Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth.</p>
+
+<h3>Winds Personified</h3>
+
+<p>That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to
+imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo
+or Boreas, son of Astræus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind,
+and lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were
+Notus, (South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), Argestës (North-East),
+Volturnus (South-East), and Aferventus (South-West).</p>
+
+<p>The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition
+of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away
+till only her voice remained.</p>
+
+<h3>Predestination</h3>
+
+<p>To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes
+would be attributed to the wrath<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320"></a>{320}</span> of some deity, even though there was
+no personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief
+in predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of
+Orestes and Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return
+of Ulysses from Troy.</p>
+
+<h3>The Fates</h3>
+
+<p>The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were
+arbitrarily controlled by the Parcæ or Fates, of which there were
+three&mdash;Clotho, who held the distaff&mdash;Lachesis, who spun the thread of
+life and Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was
+ended.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the
+distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread
+between life and death.</p>
+
+<p>The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The
+former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an
+atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came
+near. Their names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm)
+indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind.
+Equally arbitrary were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there
+were likewise three, their names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood),
+Alectro (implacable), and Megæra (disputatious).</p>
+
+<h3>Propitiation and Sacrifice</h3>
+
+<p>Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the
+natural outcome, and the various traditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321"></a>{321}</span> are probably records of
+actual occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story
+of Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having
+offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the
+most beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next
+twelve months. This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was
+deferred till she reached womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet
+arrived at Aulis on its way to Troy. Calchas declared this would be
+wind-bound as long as the vow remained unfulfilled, but Artemis
+interposed at the last moment by spiriting Iphigenia away from the altar
+and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead.</p>
+
+<p>A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea
+monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was
+Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and
+on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the
+country and to appease the offended deity.</p>
+
+<p>Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by
+Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition
+of Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he
+encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of
+Troy. The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed,
+and in consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322"></a>{322}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Early Burial Customs</h3>
+
+<p>The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future
+existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have
+souls.</p>
+
+<p>It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not
+only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or
+slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their
+ministrations in the future life.</p>
+
+<h3>Taboo</h3>
+
+<p>The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the
+belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the
+present day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which
+means “consecrated” or “set apart.”</p>
+
+<p>It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty,
+whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the
+supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed.</p>
+
+<h3>Roman Lares</h3>
+
+<p>The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares were
+the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors.
+They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in
+the Lararium or shrine.</p>
+
+<p>There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of
+streets and roads.</p>
+
+<p>This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of
+sacrifice in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom
+modified in later times to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323"></a>{323}</span> the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the
+present day in burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the
+foundation-stone in public buildings.</p>
+
+<h3>Typical Legend</h3>
+
+<p>Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are
+reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated
+traditions of demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some
+difficult problem in design or construction for the solution of which
+the architect or builder enters into the usual compact with the evil
+one, the terms being that the latter party to the contract shall take
+possession of the first living being that enters into or crosses the
+structure.</p>
+
+<p>Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other animal
+being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every
+instance greater than his vanity.</p>
+
+<p>Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also
+anticipated and symbolised the Atonement.</p>
+
+<p>With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun
+and Moon, as it announced the hours.</p>
+
+<p>The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius.
+Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should
+be sacrificed.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Spiritual Belief</h3>
+
+<p>Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when
+the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to
+impress the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324"></a>{324}</span> primitive imagination and suggest the duality of
+being&mdash;physical and spiritual.</p>
+
+<p>In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the
+soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to
+wake the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be
+unable to return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and
+come is evidenced in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and
+other forms of tombs.</p>
+
+<h3>Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics</h3>
+
+<p>Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of
+trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by
+devils which would be released by making a hole in the head. This
+treatment was apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive
+instruments and ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could
+hardly have been a pleasant experience.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life through
+the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a superstition that
+it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death
+occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.</p>
+
+<p>Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death
+chamber.</p>
+
+<h3>Prohibition</h3>
+
+<p>A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act
+or question.</p>
+
+<p>The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife
+of Orpheus, who, killed on her<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325"></a>{325}</span> wedding night, was redeemed on condition
+that Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world.
+Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and
+Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.</p>
+
+<p>The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by
+Aëdonius, King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty.
+Orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled;
+therefore he lost her a second time.</p>
+
+<p>The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine
+beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar
+in idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and
+devotion.</p>
+
+<p>As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche
+and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and
+origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in
+abandonment.</p>
+
+<p>A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was
+condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards.
+She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to visit
+her on that day.</p>
+
+<p>Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and
+saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and
+wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.</p>
+
+<h3>Belief in Magical Qualities.</h3>
+
+<p>The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual
+world, but also extended to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326"></a>{326}</span> inanimate objects which were sometimes
+invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus
+and Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was
+possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer
+with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility
+conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of
+Iceland.</p>
+
+<h3>The Shirt of Nessus</h3>
+
+<p>More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of
+misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition,
+Nessus the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by
+Hercules for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to
+Dejanira, assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love
+her exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on
+wearing it was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove
+the garment, he immolated himself on a funeral pyre.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by
+Queen Morgan la Fay.</p>
+
+<h3>Swords</h3>
+
+<p>Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the
+belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the
+sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its
+origin in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later
+improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural
+origin; <i>e.g.</i>, the sword of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327"></a>{327}</span> Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung
+or Gram (literally “grief”).</p>
+
+<p>The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the
+Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother
+smith, cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the
+cut was so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he
+attempted to move, when he fell in two pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later
+development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered
+the wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing
+the sheath, though he retained the sword.</p>
+
+<h3>Invulnerability</h3>
+
+<p>Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired.
+In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his
+mother Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he
+received his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that
+sprang from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa
+with the Promethean unguent.</p>
+
+<p>Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by
+bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden
+leaf had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his
+death, being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.</p>
+
+<p>This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328"></a>{328}</span> of defensive
+armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be
+unprotected.</p>
+
+<h3>Belief in Numbers</h3>
+
+<p>Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic
+significance, <i>e.g.</i>, “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of
+Beginning, Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of
+Trinity is Triad, and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.</p>
+
+<p>That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the
+Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to
+be under the rule of three gods&mdash;Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and
+Pluto (Hades). The first has three thunderbolts&mdash;Neptune, the Trident,
+and Pluto, Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.</p>
+
+<p>Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and
+Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were
+Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.</p>
+
+<h3>Muses</h3>
+
+<p>The Muses were three times three as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Calliope.</td><td align="left">Epic Poetry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Clio.</td><td align="left">History.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Melpomene.</td><td align="left">Tragedy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Euterpe.</td><td align="left">Lyric Poetry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Urania.</td><td align="left">Astronomy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Terpsichore.</td><td align="left">Dancing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Polyhegmnia.</td><td align="left">Religious service.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Erato.</td><td align="left">Erotic Poetry&mdash;Geometry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thalia.</td><td align="left">Comedy.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329"></a>{329}</span></p>
+
+<p>The world is compounded of three elements&mdash;Earth, Water and Air.</p>
+
+<p>Man also is three&mdash;Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of
+Nature&mdash;Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.</p>
+
+<p>There are three Christian Graces&mdash;Faith, Hope and Charity, and three
+enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.</p>
+
+<p>The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World&mdash;the Winds&mdash;the
+Gospels&mdash;the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.</p>
+
+<p>“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of
+Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages
+in the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the
+sleepers of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the
+world.</p>
+
+<h3>Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc.</h3>
+
+<p>Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the
+Deities.</p>
+
+<p>The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress
+and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the
+Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter;
+the Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was
+given to the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic
+games had a wreath of wild olive&mdash;of green parsley in the Nemean games,
+and of dried parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.</p>
+
+<p>The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330"></a>{330}</span> the spirit of
+prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and
+poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.</p>
+
+<p>The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace,
+an olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating
+a peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art
+is generally borne by the martyr&mdash;indicating victory over Death. The
+Lily&mdash;which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of
+Eve as she went forth from Paradise&mdash;is the emblem of Chastity,
+Innocence and Purity and is associated with representations of the
+Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten Lily, which it was customary to plant on
+graves, was once white, the tradition being that Persephone, daughter of
+Demeter, delighted to wander about the flowering meads of Sicily. One
+springtime she tripped over the meadows, wreathed her head with wild
+lilies and, throwing herself on the leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of
+the infernal regions, fell in love with her and carried her to the
+nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow.</p>
+
+<p>In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and
+represents original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the
+Pomegranate (generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the
+symbol of the future life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are
+symbols of Christ, and the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.</p>
+
+<p>The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion&mdash;the leaf
+symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords
+or whips; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331"></a>{331}</span> column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails;
+the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx,
+the nimbus. The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and
+the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.</p>
+
+<h3>Sacred Animals</h3>
+
+<p>Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and
+crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag
+to Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to
+Isis; the eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the
+Lares; the horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to
+Minerva; the bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and
+the lion to Vulcan.</p>
+
+<p>The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of
+the Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead,
+and so remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it
+receives life.</p>
+
+<h3>Evangelist Symbols</h3>
+
+<p>Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his
+gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a
+descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a
+man.</p>
+
+<p>Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle&mdash;the former
+because his gospel opens with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332"></a>{332}</span> the priests sacrificing in the Temple,
+and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the
+divinity of the Logos.</p>
+
+<p>In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on
+fountains. The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual
+inundations of the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.</p>
+
+<h3>The Serpent</h3>
+
+<p>The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety, and,
+considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the
+symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that
+Æsculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the
+Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery
+dragon, raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.</p>
+
+<h3>The Dragon</h3>
+
+<p>The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and
+Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the
+source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief
+thereby slew a dragon.</p>
+
+<p>The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the
+Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also
+a poetic allusion to flood or inundation.</p>
+
+<p>The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion
+to the power of the sun drying up<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333"></a>{333}</span> the overflow, as also the deliverance
+of the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille
+(waterspout) which lived in the Seine.</p>
+
+<h3>Poetic License in Tradition</h3>
+
+<p>In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable
+occurrences have been handed down&mdash;in many cases completely
+transformed&mdash;by reason of this poetic license; <i>e.g.</i>, the legend of
+Marsyas the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest
+of skill and being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.</p>
+
+<p>The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was
+one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that
+goddess, still discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the
+respective superiority of the instruments&mdash;the Dorian mode in the
+worship of Apollo employing the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in
+the worship of Cebele the flute, the reeds of which grew on the banks of
+the river Marsyas.</p>
+
+<p>Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos,
+King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos.
+All but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were
+punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly
+in sieves from a deep well.</p>
+
+<p>The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the
+Argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The
+soil of Argos, being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334"></a>{334}</span> the tradition of
+Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen
+fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog&mdash;both slain by
+Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who
+reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred
+lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains&mdash;a Greek myth based on the
+peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the
+Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to
+two ships which acted as supporters.</p>
+
+<p>A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to
+have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited
+the wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to
+defray the cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.</p>
+
+<h3>Animals in Christian Art</h3>
+
+<p>The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on monuments at
+the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and at the
+feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog appears on
+the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the
+standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.</p>
+
+<p>Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">The</td><td> Ant.</td><td align="left">Prudence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Ape.</td><td align="left">Malice, lust and cunning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Ass.</td><td align="left">Sobriety.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Asp.</td><td align="left">Christ, or Christian Faith.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335"></a>{335}</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Bee.</td><td align="left">Industry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Camel.</td><td align="left">Submission.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Cock.</td><td align="left">Vigilance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Fox.</td><td align="left">Fraud and cunning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Hog.</td><td align="left">Impurity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Lamb.</td><td align="left">Innocence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Leopard.</td><td align="left">Sin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Ox.</td><td align="left">Pride.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Dragon, Serpent, Swine.&nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align="left">Satan and his crew.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Lamb.</td><td valign="middle" rowspan="3" class="bl">-Symbols of Christ.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Pelican.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; ”</td><td align="left">Unicorn.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus,
+appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted
+carrying a banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from
+its breast caught in a chalice.</p>
+
+<p>The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement. It
+is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of
+its breast.</p>
+
+<p>The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred
+years, is the symbol of the Resurrection.</p>
+
+<p>The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and
+Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life
+with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is
+occasionally suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in
+general shape.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336"></a>{336}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Association of Human and Animal Qualities</h3>
+
+<p>Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull
+and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the
+association of qualities&mdash;animal and human; and probably had their
+origin in an early belief in Totemism.</p>
+
+<h3>Totemism</h3>
+
+<p>Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain
+animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and
+appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the
+belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous,
+resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer.</p>
+
+<h3>Cannibalism</h3>
+
+<p>The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part
+of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.</p>
+
+<p>The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage
+or mentality.</p>
+
+<p>The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for
+protection or menace.</p>
+
+<p>The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies
+alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.</p>
+
+<p>Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as hovering,
+the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element denotes
+Intelligence, and bird claws&mdash;Ferocity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337"></a>{337}</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Sphinx</h3>
+
+<p>The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position,
+is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally
+female) and symbolises Intelligence and Power.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented
+in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different
+meaning, that of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the
+tradition of the Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her
+destruction was accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that
+had resulted fatally for his predecessors.</p>
+
+<h3>Assyrian Winged Monsters</h3>
+
+<p>The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is
+symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the
+wings suggesting mobility or ever-present.</p>
+
+<p>The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle
+head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but
+alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the
+pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the
+ears.</p>
+
+<p>The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a
+lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth
+flames. From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.</p>
+
+<p>The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the
+head being the crater, the goat<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338"></a>{338}</span> representing the mountain slopes, and
+the snake tail the morass at the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and serpent
+tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the
+mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of
+a lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted
+issuing from the mouth.</p>
+
+<h3>Pegasus</h3>
+
+<p>Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the Chimeræ,
+also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of poetic
+inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with the
+chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins
+and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.</p>
+
+<h3>The Harpy</h3>
+
+<p>In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts
+employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head,
+with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and
+ferocity, and was the personification of sudden events.</p>
+
+<h3>Sirens</h3>
+
+<p>Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers)
+of whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They
+symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure
+their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339"></a>{339}</span> Failing to
+entrance Ulysses, they were doomed to destroy themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower
+limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion
+to their musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing
+harps or lutes.</p>
+
+<p>The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which
+capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower
+extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean.
+The Dolphin has the same significance.</p>
+
+<h3>Pan</h3>
+
+<p>A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a
+man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity
+displayed in creation and pervading all things.</p>
+
+<p>Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were
+under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.</p>
+
+<h3>The Nymphs</h3>
+
+<p>To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the forest
+trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin
+with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of
+such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.</p>
+
+<h3>Centaur</h3>
+
+<p>The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was an
+embodiment of the Thessalonian<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340"></a>{340}</span> horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the
+Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the
+Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when
+entertained as guests.</p>
+
+<h3>The Circle</h3>
+
+<p>The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic
+meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that
+of Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its
+employment as the crown, orb and nimbus.</p>
+
+<p>In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two
+asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the
+power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the
+Assyrian version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string
+substituted for the asps.</p>
+
+<p>The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and Authority,
+not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated in
+pagan times.</p>
+
+<p>It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an
+indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of
+the three persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre,
+and sometimes is triangular in form.</p>
+
+<p>The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but
+not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or
+less ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is
+sometimes used to envelop the whole figure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341"></a>{341}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Symbols of the Trinity</h3>
+
+<p>Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as
+emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.</p>
+
+<p>The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning
+nor end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.</p>
+
+<p>The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone
+or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift
+this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is
+preserved in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the
+tests of strength.</p>
+
+<h3>The Wand a Symbol of Authority</h3>
+
+<p>Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre,
+mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a
+form which is still retained in the official mace.</p>
+
+<p>The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open
+hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to
+reward or punish.</p>
+
+<h3>The Hand</h3>
+
+<p>The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome&mdash;two
+joined hands signifying concord.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented
+by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending
+from the fingers in token of divine Grace.</p>
+
+<p>The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of
+violence, and is so expressed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342"></a>{342}</span> shield of Ulster. An allusion to
+the tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land
+in Ireland, and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung
+it ashore.</p>
+
+<p>The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is
+represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in
+harmonious accord.</p>
+
+<h3>The Caduceus</h3>
+
+<p>The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the
+Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek
+mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or
+Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents
+quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which
+the serpents twined in peaceful amity.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with
+wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is
+employed as an emblem of commerce.</p>
+
+<h3>Thyrsus</h3>
+
+<p>A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes
+different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with
+ivy leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears
+in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion
+to the Greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine)
+with the new wine to make it keep.</p>
+
+<p>It has also been attributed to a strategy of war,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343"></a>{343}</span> when Bacchus made a
+successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with
+branches, as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone
+being suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities
+took place at night.</p>
+
+<h3>The Trident</h3>
+
+<p>The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also
+variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use,
+are sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.</p>
+
+<h3>The Cross</h3>
+
+<p>Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it
+was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for
+ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred
+symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it
+symbolised the four cardinal points.</p>
+
+<p>Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was
+sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross
+with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice
+extends equally over the four quarters of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm,
+sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith,
+Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all
+Christian virtues.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344"></a>{344}</span> transverse arms, when
+it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops
+at Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.</p>
+
+<p>The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter
+X, and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.</p>
+
+<p>The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T&mdash;frequently used in Byzantine
+representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent
+was uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the
+sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.</p>
+
+<p>The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the
+triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes
+the form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed
+in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.</p>
+
+<p>In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple
+form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more
+suggestive of voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical
+suffering belongs to a later period.</p>
+
+<p>It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St.
+Peter’s being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his
+execution.</p>
+
+<h3>The Pastoral Staff</h3>
+
+<p>The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the
+Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a
+curving head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both
+being indicative of authority.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345"></a>{345}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Symbols of Martyrdom</h3>
+
+<p>Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as
+indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of
+Triumph over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of
+violent death, or by other implements of execution. These are
+represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint, as
+attributes and as a means of identification.</p>
+
+<p>As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and
+Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as
+the crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear,
+lantern, thirty pieces of silver, etc.</p>
+
+<h3>Symbolism of Gems, etc.</h3>
+
+<p>In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic
+meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond&mdash;Invulnerable
+Faith, the Sardonyx&mdash;Power, the Sapphire&mdash;Hope, Gold represents Power or
+Glory, and Silver&mdash;Purity.</p>
+
+<p>Black represents Grief or Death, Blue&mdash;Hope and Divine Contemplation,
+pale blue&mdash;Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene conscience,
+Green&mdash;Faith, Gladness, pale green&mdash;Baptism, Grey&mdash;Tribulation,
+Purple&mdash;Justice or Royalty, Red&mdash;Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet&mdash;Fervour,
+and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet&mdash;Penitence, and
+White&mdash;Purity, Temperance and Innocence.</p>
+
+<p>Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a
+mere shell of the immortal soul. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346"></a>{346}</span> are also used to indicate a
+pilgrim, by whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or
+form of spoon.</p>
+
+<p>Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and
+Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as
+ascending, the significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An
+earlier signification in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.</p>
+
+<h3>Masks</h3>
+
+<p>Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable to
+the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē,
+was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the
+three Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of
+Athenē. As a punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the
+aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed
+to stone. A fate to which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her
+reflection in the burnished shield of Perseus.</p>
+
+<p>The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival,
+was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise
+that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired.
+The horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably
+accompanies the representations of Ceres.</p>
+
+<h3>Symbols of Time</h3>
+
+<p>Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter
+implement, though generally accepted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347"></a>{347}</span> is more strictly the emblem of
+Death, which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe
+the sickle would be more appropriate.</p>
+
+<h3>Secular Symbols</h3>
+
+<p>Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and
+crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations.</p>
+
+<p>The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the
+various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and
+other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the
+Bird of Wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a
+winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by
+bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements,
+sheaves of corn and fruit.</p>
+
+<h3>Trophies</h3>
+
+<p>Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a
+decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the
+weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of
+victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions.</p>
+
+<p>Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration
+to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which was emulated
+in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348"></a>{348}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Heraldry</h3>
+
+<p>Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised
+chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period
+of complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way
+difficult.</p>
+
+<p>Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed
+later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the
+display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in
+chimney-pieces, is quite justified as indicative of ownership. Such
+details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass
+effect and variety.</p>
+
+<h3>Heraldry in Design</h3>
+
+<p>A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion
+gate at Mycenæ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and
+Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The
+shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the
+strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers,
+especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to
+which there could be little objection if the employment of such details
+were justified by conditions.</p>
+
+<h3>Symbolism in Modern Art</h3>
+
+<p>Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of
+incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and
+to invest modern art&mdash;wherever possible&mdash;with meaning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349"></a>{349}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Present Apathy</h3>
+
+<p>In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the
+past, as is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally
+appreciated, but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to
+æsthetic environment; regarding art vaguely as the production and
+display of pictures and sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the
+mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of
+domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is
+the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do
+more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any
+progress must necessarily be very slow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350"></a>{350}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /><br />
+WAYS AND MEANS</h2>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span>HROUGH the medium of sight, interest and emotion are excited by phases
+of colour and form, varying in individuals according to temperament. The
+artistic perception and appreciation of these are invariably due to
+natural faculty, though much may be acquired by intelligent study.</p>
+
+<h3>Perception</h3>
+
+<p>In most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the
+eye. Though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are
+essential, these can be acquired by practice. Perception, is of
+paramount importance, and it may be assumed that the artist’s vision is
+more sensitive to appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the
+layman.</p>
+
+<p>The interest of the average individual in art is generally that of
+subject and sentiment. This is probably a more natural and logical
+attitude than that of the artist, to whom&mdash;as a craftsman&mdash;the interest
+is often merely that of technique. These possibly represent the two
+extremes; the cultured individual is capable of appreciation of the
+ideal without consideration of schools and isms.</p>
+
+<p>Many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined
+knowledge than from the actual visual aspect&mdash;are apt to take forms for
+granted, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351"></a>{351}</span> assume, for example, that an object is round when it is
+really subtilely polygonal. Theoretically a curve has no existence,
+being really a combination of straight lines varying in length and
+direction. Many beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a
+form as a right angle, and until their vision and judgment is trained,
+it is improbable that they can successfully render more subtile
+combinations. It is the business of the teacher to train the vision so
+that the perceptive faculties are developed, and instil in the mind of
+the student that art is only concerned with appearance. Any fact not
+visually apparent should be ignored.</p>
+
+<h3>Accepted Conventions</h3>
+
+<p>The whole subject is complicated by convention; thus for convenience,
+forms are drawn in outline, but these drawings are not representations,
+and are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and
+tradition. Drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the
+surface by a line or lines, and can only define at most two dimensions.
+When shade and shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid
+in the suggestion of the third dimension. Though these tend to a more
+lucid explanation, the work remains a convention if colour and
+atmosphere are rendered in monochrome.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent. That
+this to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright
+colour to the child and the savage. Subtle quantities and combinations
+are only appreciated by comparatively few, the faculty for colour being
+extremely rare.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352"></a>{352}</span></p>
+
+<h3>Influence of Fashion</h3>
+
+<p>The average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue
+or fashion, though it is the polite custom to concede that the average
+woman is naturally endowed with taste. This is delicate ground, but the
+awful and impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume
+certainly do not justify the courtesy. There are superstitions in colour
+selection evidently the result of tradition, such, for instance, as red
+and yellow being suitable for a sallow complexion. The actual effect of
+these colours being to excite the complementaries, is hardly favourable
+to the misguided wearer.</p>
+
+<p>The average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially
+concerned. Not that he necessarily possesses more taste, but because he
+is observant of custom, and moreover, has generally an instinctive
+dislike to anything pronounced. At times, however, the women-folk take
+the initiative, and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are
+the selection of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex.</p>
+
+<p>In domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided
+by fashion, and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a
+lining for walls, it is probably adopted. But the choice, however it may
+be influenced, is made possibly without thought of the furniture and
+upholstery that is associated.</p>
+
+<h3>Harmonious Consistency</h3>
+
+<p>The colour scheme should be determined by aspect and by the use of the
+particular apartment. A sunny room should be treated differently to one
+with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353"></a>{353}</span> north-east aspect, in which an appearance of warmth is
+desirable. Furniture, too, must be considered, reds being an unsuitable
+setting for oak as a rule, while mahogany is best associated with
+delicate greens and greys.</p>
+
+<p>It is a reasonable assumption that the training of the student should
+result in greater discrimination, and when the exercise consists of
+representing, it is a matter of careful approximation of colours and
+values. In original design the harmonious effect depends on the
+individual, who, in early attempts in colour, jumps at it, being
+unconscious of any guiding principle.</p>
+
+<h3>Natural Suggestion</h3>
+
+<p>It would seem that the wealth of colour combination in the various
+natural aspects apparent to all, would surely influence selection; that
+it generally fails to do so is testimony to lack of observation. Nature
+left alone never makes mistakes, and the colouring in flowers, land,
+sky, and water, the plumage of birds and other natural phenomena, is
+always harmonious if seen in original environment. When the balance and
+correct association is disturbed it is due to human interference, as is
+evident too often in the work of the landscape gardener and
+horticulturist.</p>
+
+<h3>Colour Scheme</h3>
+
+<p>In decoration the scheme may consist of tints or tones of any one
+colour, and the contrast is merely that of tone; in other words, of
+lighter and darker phases. This method of colouring, which is quite
+suitable in some instances, is fairly safe, as the latitude for error is
+greatly reduced, but certainly is not courageous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354"></a>{354}</span></p>
+
+<p>The problem arises, when the scheme involves the use of more than one
+colour, and the successful effect depends on judicious association and
+balance. The simple rule is never to display two only of the primary
+colours in juxtaposition, the presence of the third being essential to
+harmonious and satisfactory effect.</p>
+
+<p>This, as a principle, forms the basis of much of the Moresque
+decoration, in which the details were picked out in blue and red of
+positive hues, and separated or outlined with gold.</p>
+
+<p>More consideration is required when positive or pure colour is not in
+request, and the proportions of juxtaposed tints have to be relative. As
+any tint departs from the full strength of its particular category, so
+those associated should be proportionately remote.</p>
+
+<p>Respective quantities may vary and one colour occupy relatively a small
+part of the surface, when to preserve the balance it may be stronger in
+hue than others occupying adjacent and larger areas. For such
+contingencies it is impossible to give exact formulæ, as the pigments
+employed are not always constant. In the case of manufacturers of mixed
+paints, it is customary to issue samples of colours for the year or
+season, and they cannot guarantee repeating exactly any colour or tint
+in subsequent mixing. The same applies where coloured papers and
+textiles are concerned; therefore judgment based on principle and
+experience can be the only guide.</p>
+
+<p>The Primary colours are Red, Yellow and Blue; admixture of any two of
+these result in the Secondary colours which form the complementaries of
+the Primaries not involved. Thus blue and yellow combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355"></a>{355}</span> result in
+green, which is the complementary of red, the complementary of yellow
+being purple, and that of blue, orange.</p>
+
+<p>Intensity of hue of any colour employed may vary considerably, and this
+variation should be proportional in other tints associated. Part of the
+charm of colour often depends on its complexity, in natural aspects due
+to atmosphere and varied phases of light. Pure colours should at times
+be avoided, that is, in the sense in which they are obtainable as
+pigments.</p>
+
+<h3>Early Training</h3>
+
+<p>Students should have attained some considerable facility in drawing
+before taking the study of design seriously, though probably part of the
+early training has dealt with extremely elementary forms leading in that
+direction. Undoubtedly, too, many enter on this phase of study without
+adequate preparation, having little appreciation of the underlying
+geometric construction, not only in design but in all form.</p>
+
+<p>This, on investigation, can always be found, and either the general mass
+or sub-divisions identified with some simple geometric shape enclosing
+the more intimate details. Correct approximation and placing are
+essential to the accuracy and success of the drawing. Too often through
+lack of training the tendency is to draw detail right away, without the
+necessary preliminary of determining the mass shapes.</p>
+
+<h3>Nature Study</h3>
+
+<p>The study of natural form is of paramount importance to prospective
+designers. Subjects should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356"></a>{356}</span> selected as season or opportunity permit,
+not merely from plant and floral growth, but any form available, animate
+or inanimate that is suggestive of pattern or susceptible of ornamental
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Students in their early attempts in design invariably find convention a
+stumbling-block, and in making their studies from nature cannot at first
+grasp the idea that selection should be exercised, and that only those
+phases which are favourable to decorative results should be recorded.
+Design is not concerned with facts or exact portraiture so much as
+pattern, and only those features and attitudes that are suitable should
+be dealt with. To perpetuate the ugly and unsuitable is waste of both
+time and energy.</p>
+
+<h3>Aspect and Attitude</h3>
+
+<p>In too many instances the first aspect of the subject of study is
+recorded, even without any regard to natural attitude. It may be a spray
+of blossom taken by the student from the parent tree or shrub, which is
+fixed up in any position that comes handy. For this there is no excuse;
+the spray should not only be placed consistently, but to the best
+advantage, the object being to record aspects that are suggestive of
+decorative development.</p>
+
+<p>In design it is conditional that each individual detail should be
+primarily effective as a silhouette, surface interest being of secondary
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Any leaf or flower that does not conform should be so arranged as to
+satisfactorily comply with this condition, and this can easily be
+achieved by slightly shifting the point of view, as it is generally due
+to extreme<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357"></a>{357}</span> foreshortening, or perspective that is confusing in
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_285" id="ill_285"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_411_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_411_sml.jpg" width="361" height="415" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 285. Natural Aspect of Various Leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Those in outline unsuitable without adaptation for ornament. The
+silhouette versions shew natural aspects that readily lend to decorative
+purposes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Points of study to be noted are the stem growth, junctions and angles of
+branching and articulation of leaves, the difference in development of
+leaves on main<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358"></a>{358}</span> stem and those on flower stalk, and phases of the
+flowers. The drawing should be explanatory as far as possible, and any
+detail not quite clear should be expressed in separate lucid diagrams.
+When readily accessible, a series of studies should be made of the same
+plant or growth at differing stages, so as to form a record of the life
+history and development.</p>
+
+<p>Care should be exercised to arrange the study with its explanatory
+details on the paper so as to satisfactorily occupy the area, not
+necessarily symmetrically, but with a view to desirable balance. Those
+with a natural faculty for design will probably do this instinctively,
+but the observance is important in developing the sense of arrangement.</p>
+
+<h3>Treatment</h3>
+
+<p>The drawings, which should be carefully detailed as to form, and
+intimate detail&mdash;in fact diagrammatic&mdash;can be in pencil or ink outline,
+light and shade is generally unimportant, though it may be lightly
+suggested.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to colour, except in examples of special suggestion, little
+time need be wasted in still life renderings, though suggestive colour
+schemes may well be noted, but the drawing should at least be lightly
+tinted, this serving the double purpose of fixing the pencil lines, and
+defining the silhouette shapes.</p>
+
+<p>These studies should form material for designs, not at first ambitious,
+but dealing with single leaves or flowers, and deriving from them
+details suitable to some form of decorative expression. These can be
+expressed in flat colour, with or without outline, or further ornamented
+by treatments suggestive of veining<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359"></a>{359}</span> or striation. The blotching of some
+leaves during autumnal changes or any natural markings can often be
+turned to decorative account.</p>
+
+<h3>Drawings for Reproduction</h3>
+
+<p>Designs in some instances are in the form of perspective sketches, when
+it is desirable to convey an idea of their final appearance, but as a
+rule they are expressed as working drawings. This is imperative when the
+final production is the result of some mechanical production, as in book
+decoration and advertisement either black and white or in colour.
+Drawings for these are generally made larger and reduced to the required
+size by photography, and the blocks for printing made from the
+photograph.</p>
+
+<p>There is no fixed rule as to size of drawing or reduction, but if the
+designs are drawn for one-third reduction there will be no material
+alteration in values when produced. But as the reduction is increased
+there is a proportionate risk in alteration of values. It is desirable
+to bear the proposed reduction in mind and to work more boldly or with
+thicker lines, otherwise the final effect may be thin and weak. In pen
+drawing, the lines should be clear and distinct whatever their
+thickness.</p>
+
+<p>For designs in black and white, hot-pressed paper, Bristol board or
+smooth card are most suitable. The ink should be waterproof, as, if
+necessary, corrections with Chinese white can be more neatly made. Fine
+pens, except for very minute work, are not desirable, a Gillott’s
+ladies’ fine writing nib yielding as fine a line as is ordinarily
+required. For some classes of work a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360"></a>{360}</span> brush will be found more suitable,
+but care should be taken that all lines&mdash;whether thick or thin&mdash;are
+equally black.</p>
+
+<p>Designs in colour for illustration or advertisement, which are to be
+reproduced by lithography or the three-colour process, can be on card or
+Whatman paper. The colours employed being transparent or opaque,
+whichever is more suitable to working and effect. Larger designs for
+advertisement, such as posters, are usually painted in tempera or opaque
+colour, and these should be applied as far as possible edge to edge,
+overpainting being avoided.</p>
+
+<h3>Opaque Colour</h3>
+
+<p>Care should be taken in mixing the colour to the required tint or shade.
+This requires some experience, as when white forms part of the mixture,
+the effect when dry is always lighter and colder than when the paint is
+in the fluid state; therefore allowance for this should be made. Opaque
+and tempera colours are not used so fluid as ordinary transparent water
+colours, and if applied too thin will fail to cover the surface solidly,
+or dry blotchy. Cartridge paper is not only good enough but more
+suitable for opaque colour than papers of better quality. Not merely is
+there no advantage in these, but the texture is an unnecessary
+embarrassment; moreover cartridge paper can be obtained in continuous
+form of good width.</p>
+
+<h3>Enlarging and Reducing</h3>
+
+<p>When drawings are enlarged or reduced, the linear dimensions and not
+those of the area are implied; thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361"></a>{361}</span> one half means one half of both
+width and height&mdash;really one-fourth of the area. It is obvious that half
+the area would be a different proportion, and it is the proportion that
+is concerned.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ill_286" id="ill_286"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;">
+<a href="images/ill_415_lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_415_sml.jpg" width="169" height="222" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
+<div class="caption"><p>No. 286. Diagonal Method of Enlarging or Reducing. Solid
+line shews given size.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Divisional measurement is rendered unnecessary by the diagonal method of
+proportion. Given a rectangular shape, which has to be reduced or
+enlarged, a diagonal line should be drawn, and prolonged if the latter,
+through opposite angles. A line parallel to either the vertical or
+horizontal can be drawn and returned at a right angle where it
+intersects the diagonal, and regardless of any dimensions, this will
+ensure the exact proportion of the original rectangle.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that such designs as the foregoing should be complete, and
+both in drawing and colour a perfect anticipation of the painted result,
+owing nothing of their effect to mechanical reproduction.</p>
+
+<h3>Textiles</h3>
+
+<p>In designs for printed and woven fabrics, though the process of
+production varies, it is still necessary that the drawing be complete in
+the technical indications. Otherwise the reproduced version may suffer,
+or at least not fulfil the intention of the designer, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362"></a>{362}</span> it follows
+that the drawings should be concise in every detail, even to the colour
+effect desired.</p>
+
+<p>The drawings are usually to the full size in most printed fabrics. The
+design is not reproduced by any mechanical process, the blocks or
+rollers used in printing being cut by hand from a transferred tracing
+made from the original. Hence the importance of exactitude in joining
+and dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>In some instances the whole of the pattern is cut in relief in the wood,
+but in others, lines are the result of narrow strips of ribbon-like
+brass embedded in the surface of the block or roller. These have their
+influence on the design, as in the former method of production the lines
+can vary in thickness and can be invested with greater interest than the
+employment of the wire can give. The metal results in a hard line of
+unvarying thinness.</p>
+
+<p>Drawings for printed and woven fabrics are usually in opaque colour, and
+each tint employed should display a defined edge, graduated effects
+being only technically possible by means of tapering lines or stipple.
+Each distinct colour or tint involves separate printing; therefore as it
+is economically desirable to attain the best effect with the minimum
+cost, the utmost should be made of the colours employed.</p>
+
+<h3>Wallpapers</h3>
+
+<p>Wallpapers as a rule are printed in opaque colour, but in textiles, when
+the colour is transparent, more elaborate effects are possible by
+overprinting or super-imposing one colour on another. In woven fabrics
+similar effects can be obtained by judicious manipulation<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363"></a>{363}</span> of the
+shuttles, but in all cases it should be borne in mind that a working
+drawing is necessary in which the details are clearly indicative of the
+final result.</p>
+
+<p>Designs that have to be realised by some form of handicraft require the
+same care and concise regard to detail, though the drawings need not be
+so complete as to appearance, and may be to scale or drawn full size
+according to condition.</p>
+
+<h3>Architectural Drawings</h3>
+
+<p>Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, that of eight feet to one
+inch being general, with working drawings to a scale of half an inch to
+the foot accompanied by full-size details and profiles of mouldings. The
+drawings are geometric, that is in plan, elevation, and section,
+expressed in line and generally tinted. On plans and sections arbitrary
+colours are employed to indicate material, for instance, red denotes
+brick, purple-grey, stone, warm grey, cement, Prussian blue, iron or
+steel, and burnt sienna or Vandyke brown, wood.</p>
+
+<p>These drawings convey little idea of the intended effect to the lay
+mind, and it is customary to suggest the eventual appearance by
+perspective views, but for practical reasons they constitute the most
+convenient form from which dimensions can be taken for working purposes.</p>
+
+<h3>Structural Design</h3>
+
+<p>In all structural design similar drawings are necessary, although sketch
+designs in perspective may be made to suggest effect, working drawings
+are imperative<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364"></a>{364}</span> to the execution of the work. These, when reduced to the
+essential conditions of rendering, with explanatory details and
+sections, assume a very different aspect to the original sketch.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the completed work depends upon skilful detailing, which
+must be thoroughly explicit to be of real value.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience such working drawings are generally made on detail
+paper, which is usually obtainable in rolls sixty inches wide by
+twenty-five or fifty yards. This is sufficiently transparent to be
+employed for tracings, a great convenience when copies are in request,
+and is a good surface for pen, pencil or chalk, though somewhat thin for
+colour.</p>
+
+<p>Designs can be sketched in charcoal, and the desired lines drawn in ink.
+When dry the charcoal lines can be obliterated by rubbing with a leather
+or soft cloth, by which the charcoal is distributed, forming a tone over
+the whole surface. This is easily removable by india-rubber, and
+excellent relief effects can be obtained by judiciously taking out
+lights and strengthening shadows, though to avoid any possible
+misunderstanding it is usual to also indicate the relief by sections
+drawn through the details.</p>
+
+<h3>Lucid Arrangement</h3>
+
+<p>In geometric and working drawings when plans and sections are incidental
+to lucid explanation, these latter should appear relatively; that is,
+the plan should be in alignment with the elevation, etc. Statements and
+directions as to procedure are often necessary, and these, placed with
+judgment and in good lettering, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365"></a>{365}</span> valuable in balancing the drawing.
+Not that this has any effect on the work, but because it has a good
+influence on the designer.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the story of Giotto and the circle that figured in the early
+school primers is responsible for the very general impression that the
+use of mechanical instruments is inartistic. Another characteristic of
+the young beginner is a total disregard for anything in the nature of
+exact dimension.</p>
+
+<p>No useful purpose is served, and much valuable time is wasted, in
+attempts to accomplish freehand, forms that may be perfectly achieved by
+proper implements. Familiarity with the use of these will be found of
+great assistance in all design in which geometric construction, apparent
+or not, plays so large a part.</p>
+
+<p>Of this the average beginner has little conception, and though Geometry
+has been a subject of their early training, they seldom have any clear
+idea as to its employment in design. Except in few instances, they are
+unpractised in the use of geometrical instruments, and at times
+oblivious that these serve any practical purpose.</p>
+
+<h3>Mathematical Equipment</h3>
+
+<p>In design, where accuracy is of paramount importance, a reasonable
+equipment is imperative. Drawing boards vary in size, but for most
+ordinary work the antiquarian will suffice; the best type being that
+commonly used in engineering and architectural offices, with battens for
+adjustment and invariably a steel guide for the T square.</p>
+
+<p>Large T squares are more reliable on account of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366"></a>{366}</span> wider head, the
+better sort being in mahogany with bevelled ebony edge. When accuracy is
+essential, the T square should only be employed for horizontal lines,
+those in a vertical direction being attained by the use of the set
+square, when the right angle can be assured by contact of the base of
+the latter on the edge of the T square.</p>
+
+<p>Set squares indispensable for ordinary work are those of the angles of
+45 degrees and 60 degrees. They should be large, about twelve inch, and
+in celluloid, which, being translucent, tends to greater accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Bevelled set squares, usually in mahogany with ebony edge, are desirable
+when the ruling pen is used, and should be placed with the bevelled side
+to the surface of drawing as a precaution against blotting through the
+ink running off the edge from the pen. For the same reason the edge of
+the T square should be slightly tilted, so as not to be in contact with
+the drawing when ruling lines with the pen.</p>
+
+<p>The mathematical instruments in common request are dividers,
+indispensable in scale drawing. For delicate work spring dividers with
+needle points ensure greater accuracy. The bow or pencil compass, large
+with extending bar, and small; with spring bows, for minute work. For
+very large circles the beam compass is employed, consisting of a wood
+bar with two sliding clamps fitted respectively with point, and either
+pencil or pen which can be adjusted to the required radius.</p>
+
+<p>For ink drawings the bow or pen compass is employed for circular curves;
+spring bows for extremely small details, medium for general purposes.
+The large<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367"></a>{367}</span> compass in the ordinary set is provided with both pen and
+pencil joints, which can be adjusted as required.</p>
+
+<h3>Use of the Ruling Pen</h3>
+
+<p>For straight lines the ruling pen should be employed. In this implement,
+the nibs, as in the pen compasses are provided with a screw, by means of
+which the pen can be adjusted to form thick or thin lines as required.
+Care should be taken in the adjustment; for the thinnest line the points
+should only be in contact. If screwed too tightly the nibs may be bent
+and would have to be re-set.</p>
+
+<p>There is a limit to the thickness of line in individual ruling pens,
+which are made in varying sizes for fine or bold work. Bow and ruling
+pens should never be filled to the full capacity, as they are then
+liable to flood and blot the work. It is better also to charge the pen
+with the filler, which is usually provided with the ordinary liquid ink,
+or a brush; otherwise blotting may result. If the pen is filled by
+dipping, the nibs should be wiped dry on each occasion on the external
+faces.</p>
+
+<p>In use the ruling pen should be held as vertical as possible, with the
+nibs perfectly parallel to the edge of T or set square, any divergence
+from the vertical might result in a curve instead of the straight line
+required. If the nibs are at an angle with the ruling edge, the ink will
+not flow freely, and there is also a tendency to cut the surface.</p>
+
+<h3>Proportional Compass</h3>
+
+<p>Another instrument of great use, though not so commonly in request, is
+the proportional compass, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368"></a>{368}</span> means of which drawings are enlarged or
+reduced. It consists of two shanks furnished with points at each end,
+the shanks being slotted out centrally to form a slide. The adjustment
+is accomplished by a set screw which also forms a pivot, which, set at
+any of the marked divisions, assures the given proportion.</p>
+
+<h3>Tracings</h3>
+
+<p>Tracing paper is largely in request, not only as a means of repeating
+details and units by transferring, but when copies of a drawing are
+required. It can be obtained in rolls varying in width, forty inch being
+generally useful, and in different surfaces, rough and smooth, the
+former being good for pencil work&mdash;the smooth being more suitable for
+ink tracings.</p>
+
+<p>When tracings of a more durable character are required they are made on
+linen, which for this purpose has a highly glazed surface on which the
+ink will not always run equally. This can be rectified by lightly
+rubbing the surface with French chalk and by adding a little ox gall to
+the ink. The latter is a useful agent in counteracting any greasiness of
+surface and is often necessary in colour work.</p>
+
+<h3>Conclusion</h3>
+
+<p>The stimulus of competition is always healthy, and the necessity to
+attract has resulted generally in raising the standard, notably in forms
+of advertisement. The designer has not only to keep pace with modern
+conditions, but in some phases of work has also to anticipate future
+demand.</p>
+
+<p>Students are too often infected with the phase of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369"></a>{369}</span> moment, or by the
+work of some distinguished exponent. This is quite natural, and to some
+extent such emulation may be condoned, but if it becomes an obsession it
+is fatal to the development of individualism. It is desirable, indeed
+commendable, for students to be interested in contemporaneous work; but
+they should realise that personality will never be achieved by
+imitation, though emulation and experiment are legitimate methods of
+training.</p>
+
+<p>Art training is largely in that of technique, consisting chiefly of the
+handling of the tools and mediums involved. It is obvious that when this
+technique is successfully acquired it implies a high standard of
+craftsmanship. This is essential, but personality is of greater
+importance and its development depends upon the individual. Some who
+have nothing personal to express may be capable of attaining great
+facility in various mediums, but stop at the imitative, and though this
+may be lucrative, no great artistic distinction is possible.</p>
+
+<p>If personality is latent it will develop quite unconsciously, and the
+endeavour of the student should be to see, understand and express the
+subject of study or idea with sincerity, regardless of any current phase
+however interesting. In this way only can be attained the personal
+attitude and expression that really constitutes the interest in all
+forms of art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370"></a>{370}</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371"></a>{371}</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#A">A</a>,
+<a href="#B">B</a>,
+<a href="#C">C</a>,
+<a href="#D">D</a>,
+<a href="#E">E</a>,
+<a href="#F">F</a>,
+<a href="#G">G</a>,
+<a href="#H">H</a>,
+<a href="#I-i">I</a>,
+<a href="#J">J</a>,
+<a href="#K">K</a>,
+<a href="#L">L</a>,
+<a href="#M">M</a>,
+<a href="#N">N</a>,
+<a href="#O">O</a>,
+<a href="#P">P</a>,
+<a href="#R">R</a>,
+<a href="#S">S</a>,
+<a href="#T">T</a>,
+<a href="#U">U</a>,
+<a href="#V-i">V</a>,
+<a href="#W">W</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="nind">
+<a name="A" id="A"></a><span class="letra2">A</span>canthus Foliage, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; Leaf (Greek) <a href="#page_264">264</a></span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  “&nbsp;  (Roman) <a href="#page_266">266</a></span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  “ (Byzantine) <a href="#page_267">267</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#page_268">268</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gothic, <a href="#page_268">268</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page_279">279</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Renaissance, <a href="#page_280">280</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_280">280</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_283">283</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XV, <a href="#page_284">284</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XVI, <a href="#page_284">284</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grinling Gibbons, <a href="#page_285">285</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adam, <a href="#page_286">286</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">System of the, <a href="#page_286">286</a></span><br />
+
+Adam, Robert, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br />
+
+Alberti, Leo Battista, <a href="#page_076">76</a><br />
+
+Ancient Pottery, <a href="#page_008">8</a><br />
+
+Animals in Art, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; “&nbsp;  Compound, <a href="#page_336">336</a></span><br />
+
+Angelo, M., <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Anthemion, The, <a href="#page_262">262</a><br />
+
+Anthemius, <a href="#page_045">45</a><br />
+
+Apathy, Public, <a href="#page_008">8</a><br />
+
+Appliqué, <a href="#page_296">296</a><br />
+
+Appreciation of Design, <a href="#page_288">288</a><br />
+
+Architecture, Egyptian, <a href="#page_022">22</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaldean, <a href="#page_025">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_028">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_035">35</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_043">43</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#page_049">49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gothic, <a href="#page_059">59</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, Italian, <a href="#page_075">75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Florentine, <a href="#page_076">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Roman, <a href="#page_078">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Venetian, <a href="#page_080">80</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  French, <a href="#page_085">85</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  in England, <a href="#page_088">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Elizabethan, <a href="#page_091">91</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Jacobean, <a href="#page_093">93</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  English, <a href="#page_102">102</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Louis XIII, <a href="#page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Louis XIV, <a href="#page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Louis XV, <a href="#page_110">110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Later English, <a href="#page_113">113</a></span><br />
+
+Architectural Drawing, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br />
+
+Architectural Features, Abacus, The, <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arch, <a href="#page_020">20</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  Pointed, <a href="#page_058">58</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  Decorated, <a href="#page_064">64</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  Perpendicular, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  <a href="#page_184">184</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arcades, <a href="#page_200">200</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Vaulted, <a href="#page_201">201</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Architrave, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archivolt, The, <a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Attic, The, <a href="#page_208">208</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baluster, The, <a href="#page_191">191</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balustrading, <a href="#page_193">193</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Battlement, The, <a href="#page_066">66</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base, The Doric, <a href="#page_181">181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  The Ionic, <a href="#page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Basement, The, <a href="#page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buttress, The, <a href="#page_059">59</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital, The Doric, <a href="#page_173">173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Ionic, <a href="#page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Corinthian, <a href="#page_178">178</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clerestory, The, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Column, The, <a href="#page_172">172</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  Employment of, <a href="#page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  Disposition and Spacing of, <a href="#page_195">195</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian Order, The, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cornice, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doric Order, The, <a href="#page_161">161</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doors, <a href="#page_211">211</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entablature, The Doric, <a href="#page_164">164</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  The Ionic, <a href="#page_169">169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_171">171</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Frieze, The, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Impost, The Doric, <a href="#page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  The Ionic, <a href="#page_186">186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic Order, The, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keystone, The, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lintel, The, <a href="#page_019">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mouldings, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Profiles, <a href="#page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Purpose of, <a href="#page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Decoration of, <a href="#page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Employment of <a href="#page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mutule, The, <a href="#page_164">164</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order, The, <a href="#page_160">160</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; The Doric, <a href="#page_161">161</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; The Ionic, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; The Corinthian, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, The, 188<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372"></a>{372}</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, The Doric, <a href="#page_189">189</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  The Ionic, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pediment, The, <a href="#page_209">209</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Piers, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pilaster, The, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plynth, The, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_183">183</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rustication, <a href="#page_205">205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Subsidiary Order, The, <a href="#page_202">202</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Superimposed Orders, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">System of Proportion, <a href="#page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triforium, The, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vault, The, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; Treatment of, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaulting, Fan, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volute, The, <a href="#page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Windows, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Plate Tracery, <a href="#page_061">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Tracery of, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a></span><br />
+
+Art, Interest in, <a href="#page_001">1</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Definition of, <a href="#page_005">5</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">As an Appeal, <a href="#page_005">5</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ethical Side of, <a href="#page_014">14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Desire for Novelty in, <a href="#page_015">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian, <a href="#page_023">23</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaldean, <a href="#page_025">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_033">33</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_038">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Græco-Roman, <a href="#page_040">40</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_045">45</a></span><br />
+
+Artistic Phases of Expression, <a href="#page_010">10</a><br />
+
+Aureole, The, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="B" id="B"></a><span class="letra2">B</span><span class="smcap">aluster</span>, The, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a><br />
+
+Bank of Ireland, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Base, The Doric, <a href="#page_181">181</a><br />
+
+Base, The Ionic, <a href="#page_182">182</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp;  The Corinthian, <a href="#page_183">183</a></span><br />
+
+Basement, The, <a href="#page_207">207</a><br />
+
+Battlement, The, <a href="#page_066">66</a><br />
+
+Bazzi Gian Antonio (Sodoma), <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Berain, Claude, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  Jean, <a href="#page_106">106</a></span><br />
+
+Bernini, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Book Decoration, <a href="#page_300">300</a><br />
+
+Borders, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp;  Treatment, <a href="#page_233">233</a></span><br />
+
+Boule, André Charles, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; Work, <a href="#page_298">298</a></span><br />
+
+Bramante, <a href="#page_078">78</a><br />
+
+Branching, Types of, <a href="#page_273">273</a><br />
+
+Brunelleschi, <a href="#page_076">76</a><br />
+
+Buttress, The, <a href="#page_059">59</a><br />
+
+Byzantine, Art, <a href="#page_045">45</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="C" id="C"></a><span class="letra2">C</span><span class="smcap">aduceus</span>, The, <a href="#page_342">342</a>.<br />
+
+Cannibalism, <a href="#page_336">336</a><br />
+
+Capital, The, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_050">50</a><br />
+
+Capital, Doric, <a href="#page_173">173</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic, <a href="#page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian, <a href="#page_178">178</a></span><br />
+
+Carved Work, <a href="#page_301">301</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Design for, <a href="#page_302">302</a></span><br />
+
+Ceilings, Jacobean, <a href="#page_097">97</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIII, <a href="#page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XV, <a href="#page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_218">218</a></span><br />
+
+Centaur, The, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br />
+
+Chaldean Art, <a href="#page_025">25</a><br />
+
+Chambers, Sir William, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Chambord, Chateau de, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Champleve Enamel, <a href="#page_047">47</a><br />
+
+Chenonceaux, sur Loire, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Chimney-piece, Jacobean, <a href="#page_094">94</a><br />
+
+Chippendale, <a href="#page_121">121</a><br />
+
+Choragic Monument, <a href="#page_032">32</a><br />
+
+Christian Art, Early, <a href="#page_046">46</a><br />
+
+Circle, Symbolic meaning of, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+Cipriani, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Clerestory, The, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a><br />
+
+Colour, Symbolism of, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Use of, <a href="#page_353">353</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Opaque, <a href="#page_360">360</a></span><br />
+
+Column, The, <a href="#page_172">172</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Employment of, <a href="#page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Disposition and Spacing of, <a href="#page_195">195</a></span><br />
+
+Commercial Production, <a href="#page_006">6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Intercourse, <a href="#page_012">12</a></span><br />
+
+Convention, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Accepted, <a href="#page_351">351</a></span><br />
+
+Cornucopia, The, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Corinthian, Order, <a href="#page_163">163</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entablature, <a href="#page_171">171</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital, <a href="#page_178">178</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base, <a href="#page_184">184</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Impost, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+
+Craft Restriction, <a href="#page_256">256</a><br />
+
+Cressent, Charles, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Cross, The, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br />
+
+Crozier, The, <a href="#page_344">344</a><br />
+
+Crux Ansata, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br />
+
+Customs, Survival of, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early Burial, <a href="#page_322">322</a></span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="D" id="D"></a><span class="letra2">D</span><span class="smcap">ance</span>, George, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Decorative, Materials, <a href="#page_289">289</a><br />
+
+Deities, Egyptian, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br />
+
+Deities, Greek and Roman, <a href="#page_316">316</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scandinavian, <a href="#page_317">317</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pan, 339<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373"></a>{373}</span></span><br />
+
+Delorme, Philibert, <a href="#page_087">87</a><br />
+
+Dentils, <a href="#page_146">146</a><br />
+
+Design, Mental vision in, <a href="#page_001">1</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inspired, <a href="#page_002">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Process and material in, <a href="#page_002">2</a>, <a href="#page_008">8</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Considerations in, <a href="#page_003">3</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Public demand, <a href="#page_003">3</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Training in, <a href="#page_004">4</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Influence in, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Architectural influence in, <a href="#page_014">14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Appreciation of, <a href="#page_288">288</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Structural, <a href="#page_363">363</a></span><br />
+
+Domes, Byzantine, <a href="#page_043">43</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br />
+
+Domestic Conditions, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a><br />
+
+Donatello, <a href="#page_076">76</a><br />
+
+Doors, Jacobean, <a href="#page_096">96</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Proportions and Treatment, <a href="#page_211">211</a></span><br />
+
+Doric Order, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entablature, <a href="#page_164">164</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital, <a href="#page_173">173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base, <a href="#page_181">181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, <a href="#page_189">189</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Impost, <a href="#page_185">185</a></span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="E" id="E"></a><span class="letra2">E</span><span class="smcap">cole</span> de Médécine, <a href="#page_132">132</a><br />
+
+Echo, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br />
+
+Egyptian Art, <a href="#page_022">22</a><br />
+
+Enamel, Byzantine, <a href="#page_047">47</a><br />
+
+Endymion, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br />
+
+Enlarging Drawings, <a href="#page_360">360</a><br />
+
+Equipment, Mathematical, <a href="#page_365">365</a><br />
+
+Eurydice, <a href="#page_324">324</a><br />
+
+Evangelists, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br />
+
+Evolute Scroll, The, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="F" id="F"></a><span class="letra2">F</span><span class="smcap">arnese</span> Palace, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Fates, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br />
+
+Figure Composition, <a href="#page_244">244</a><br />
+
+Filagree Jewellery, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+
+Flowers, in Ornament <a href="#page_270">270</a><br />
+
+Fontainebleau, Palace of, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Forms in the round, <a href="#page_245">245</a><br />
+
+Four Courts, Dublin, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+French Renaissance, <a href="#page_085">85</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIII, <a href="#page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Régence, <a href="#page_111">111</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XV, <a href="#page_110">110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XVI, <a href="#page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Empire, <a href="#page_135">135</a></span><br />
+
+Frieze, The, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a><br />
+
+Furniture, Egyptian, <a href="#page_024">24</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaldean, <a href="#page_027">27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_032">32</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_039">39</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Middle Age, <a href="#page_054">54</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page_084">84</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English Renaissance, <a href="#page_092">92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_098">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIII, <a href="#page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XV, <a href="#page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English (Dutch Influence) <a href="#page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Queen Anne, <a href="#page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chippendale, <a href="#page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lacquered, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Painted, <a href="#page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sheraton, <a href="#page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XVI, <a href="#page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Empire, <a href="#page_135">135</a></span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="G" id="G"></a><span class="letra2">G</span><span class="smcap">allo</span>, Antonio San, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Gallo, Giuliano di San, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Gandon, James, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Gems, Symbolism of, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+
+Gibbons, Grinling, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a><br />
+
+Gibbs, James, <a href="#page_115">115</a><br />
+
+Giocondo, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Giotto, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Gondouin, Jacques, <a href="#page_132">132</a><br />
+
+Gouthière, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br />
+
+Graces, Christian, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br />
+
+Græco-Roman Art, <a href="#page_040">40</a><br />
+
+Greek Art, <a href="#page_028">28</a><br />
+
+Grimani Palace, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Growth, Consistency in, <a href="#page_273">273</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="H" id="H"></a><span class="letra2">H</span><span class="smcap">alf</span> Figures in Ornament, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br />
+
+Halo, The, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+Hamadryads, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br />
+
+Hampton Court Palace, <a href="#page_114">114</a><br />
+
+Hand, Symbolism of the, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br />
+
+Harpy, The, <a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a><br />
+
+Hawksmoor, Nicholas, <a href="#page_115">115</a><br />
+
+Hepplewhite, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Heraldry, <a href="#page_348">348</a><br />
+
+Holbein, <a href="#page_089">89</a><br />
+
+Holkham, Norfolk, <a href="#page_121">121</a><br />
+
+Holt, Thomas, <a href="#page_091">91</a><br />
+
+Horse Guards, Whitehall, <a href="#page_121">121</a><br />
+
+Husk Leaf, The, <a href="#page_269">269</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="I-i" id="I-i"></a><span class="letra2">I</span><span class="smcap">mpost</span>, Doric, <a href="#page_185">185</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic, <a href="#page_186">186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian, <a href="#page_187">187</a></span><br />
+
+Impressionism, Early, <a href="#page_010">10</a><br />
+
+Influence of Material, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Political, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Religious, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Commercial, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civic, 70<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374"></a>{374}</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Of the Crusades, <a href="#page_056">56</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Of Fashion, <a href="#page_352">352</a></span><br />
+
+Inspiration, Belief in,  <a href="#page_002">2</a><br />
+
+Intarsia, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br />
+
+Interior treatment, Græco-Roman, <a href="#page_039">39</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque Church, <a href="#page_051">51</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domestic, Tudor, <a href="#page_073">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page_083">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_094">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIII, <a href="#page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis, XV, <a href="#page_112">112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wren Period, <a href="#page_116">116</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Georgian, <a href="#page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adam, <a href="#page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis, XVI, <a href="#page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Walls, <a href="#page_216">216</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceilings, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaults and Domes, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br />
+
+Ionic Order, Greek, <a href="#page_032">32</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Proportions of, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entablature, <a href="#page_169">169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital, <a href="#page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Base, <a href="#page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pedestal, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Impost, <a href="#page_186">186</a></span><br />
+
+Italian Renaissance, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="J" id="J"></a><span class="letra2">J</span><span class="smcap">ewellery</span>, Filagree, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+
+Jones, Inigo, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="K" id="K"></a><span class="letra2">K</span><span class="smcap">auffman</span>, Angelica, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Kent, William,  <a href="#page_121">121</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="L" id="L"></a><span class="letra2">L</span><span class="smcap">ace</span>, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br />
+
+Lacquered Furniture, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Lares, Roman, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br />
+
+Leaves, Employment of, <a href="#page_275">275</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_293">293</a></span><br />
+
+Lebrun, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+Legend, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a><br />
+
+Lepautre, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+Limitations, Human, <a href="#page_001">1</a><br />
+
+Lintel, The, <a href="#page_019">19</a><br />
+
+Louvre, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="M" id="M"></a><span class="letra2">M</span><span class="smcap">aderno</span>, Carlo, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Madrid, Chateau de, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Magical Qualities, Belief in, <a href="#page_325">325</a><br />
+
+Mainwaring, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br />
+
+Majano, Benedetto da, <a href="#page_077">77</a><br />
+
+Mansart, Jules Hardouin, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+Mansion House, London, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Marble, Byzantine use of, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a><br />
+
+Marquetry, <a href="#page_298">298</a><br />
+
+Marot, Daniel, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a><br />
+
+Martyrdom, Symbols of, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+
+Masks, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Mathematical Equipment, <a href="#page_365">365</a><br />
+
+Material in Design, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+
+Mayhew, <a href="#page_123">123</a><br />
+
+Medusa, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Metal Work, Bronze, <a href="#page_042">42</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_047">47</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Repoussé, <a href="#page_304">304</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cast, <a href="#page_306">306</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mounts in Furniture, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a></span><br />
+
+Methods of Expression, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br />
+
+Micheli, San, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Modelling, <a href="#page_301">301</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a><br />
+
+Mosaics, Byzantine, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a><br />
+
+Mouldings, Attitude of, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolection, <a href="#page_152">152</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_064">64</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decoration of, <a href="#page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drawn Metal, <a href="#page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Employment of, <a href="#page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_097">97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pointed Gothic, <a href="#page_061">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plaster, <a href="#page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pottery, <a href="#page_154">154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Profiles of, <a href="#page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Purpose of, <a href="#page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Repoussé, <a href="#page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rolled Metal, <a href="#page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spun Metal, <a href="#page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turned Wood, <a href="#page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wood Panel, <a href="#page_149">149</a></span><br />
+
+Muses, <a href="#page_328">328</a><br />
+
+Mythology, Origin of, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scandinavian, <a href="#page_317">317</a></span><br />
+
+Myths, Nature, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Season, <a href="#page_314">314</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sun, <a href="#page_315">315</a></span><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="N" id="N"></a><span class="letra2">N</span><span class="smcap">ature</span>, Myths, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Study, <a href="#page_355">355</a></span><br />
+
+Natural Attraction, <a href="#page_288">288</a><br />
+
+Natural Suggestion, <a href="#page_353">353</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phenomena, Belief in, <a href="#page_315">315</a></span><br />
+
+Needlework, <a href="#page_296">296</a><br />
+
+Newgate Prison, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Nimbus, The, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+Noon, <a href="#page_318">318</a><br />
+
+Numbers, Belief in, <a href="#page_328">328</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="O" id="O"></a><span class="letra2">O</span><span class="smcap">ppenord</span>, Giles Marie, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Order, 160<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375"></a>{375}</span><br />
+
+Order, Doric, <a href="#page_161">161</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ionic, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corinthian, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br />
+
+Originality, <a href="#page_001">1</a><br />
+
+Ornament, Roman, <a href="#page_039">39</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_045">45</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#page_050">50</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pointed Gothic, <a href="#page_063">63</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_065">65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Perpendicular Gothic, <a href="#page_069">69</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Renaissance, <a href="#page_088">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; “&nbsp; &nbsp; <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Later English&nbsp; “&nbsp; &nbsp; <a href="#page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XVI, <a href="#page_134">134</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Empire, <a href="#page_135">135</a></span><br />
+
+Outline, Drawing, <a href="#page_254">254</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="P" id="P"></a><span class="letra2">P</span><span class="smcap">ainted</span> Decoration, Roman, <a href="#page_039">39</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a></span><br />
+
+Painted Furniture, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br />
+
+Palazzo, Pitti, <a href="#page_077">77</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Strozzi, <a href="#page_077">77</a></span><br />
+
+Palladio, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a><br />
+
+Pan, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br />
+
+Panels, Treatment of, <a href="#page_236">236</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Juxtaposition, <a href="#page_238">238</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Composing Lines, <a href="#page_241">241</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grouping and Massing, <a href="#page_242">242</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Division of, <a href="#page_242">242</a></span><br />
+
+Pantheon, Rome, <a href="#page_036">36</a><br />
+
+Passion, Symbols of the, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+
+Pastoral Staff, <a href="#page_344">344</a><br />
+
+Parthenon, <a href="#page_030">30</a><br />
+
+Perugino, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Peruzzi, Baldazzare, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Pineau, Nicholas, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Piers, Gothic, <a href="#page_060">60</a><br />
+
+Pinturrichio, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Potters, Elementary, <a href="#page_009">9</a><br />
+
+Pottery, Ancient, <a href="#page_008">8</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_034">34</a></span><br />
+
+Predestination, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br />
+
+Prehistoric Workers, <a href="#page_009">9</a><br />
+
+Personal Production, <a href="#page_010">10</a><br />
+
+Primitive Essays, <a href="#page_008">8</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Requirements, <a href="#page_011">11</a></span><br />
+
+Prohibition, <a href="#page_324">324</a><br />
+
+Propitiation, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="R" id="R"></a><span class="letra2">R</span><span class="smcap">affaelle</span>, <a href="#page_079">79</a><br />
+
+Realism, <a href="#page_255">255</a><br />
+
+Régence, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Relief Work, Treatment of, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a><br />
+
+Reproduction Processes, <a href="#page_304">304</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drawing for, <a href="#page_359">359</a></span><br />
+
+Riesener, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br />
+
+Rococo, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br />
+
+Romano Giulio, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Rosette, The, <a href="#page_270">270</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="S" id="S"></a><span class="letra2">S</span><span class="smcap">acred</span> Trees and Flowers, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br />
+
+Sacrifice, <a href="#page_321">321</a><br />
+
+Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti) <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Sarto, Andrea del, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Scamozzi, Vincenzo, <a href="#page_081">81</a><br />
+
+Sceptre, The, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br />
+
+Scroll, The, <a href="#page_266">266</a><br />
+
+Season Myths, <a href="#page_314">314</a><br />
+
+Secular Symbols, <a href="#page_347">347</a><br />
+
+Serlio, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a><br />
+
+Shells, Symbolism of, <a href="#page_345">345</a><br />
+
+Sheraton, <a href="#page_127">127</a><br />
+
+Sirens, The, <a href="#page_338">338</a><br />
+
+Social Conditions, Early, <a href="#page_011">11</a><br />
+
+Sodoma (Gian Antonio Bazzi) <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Somerset House, <a href="#page_136">136</a><br />
+
+Soufflet, <a href="#page_110">110</a><br />
+
+Spires, Pointed Gothic, <a href="#page_064">64</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_066">66</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Classic, <a href="#page_116">116</a></span><br />
+
+Spiritual Belief, Early, <a href="#page_323">323</a><br />
+
+St. Geneviéve (Pantheon) <a href="#page_110">110</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">George, Bloomsbury, <a href="#page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mark, Library of, <a href="#page_081">81</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martin in the Fields, <a href="#page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mary le Strand, <a href="#page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mary, Woolnoth, <a href="#page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paul, Covent Garden, <a href="#page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peter’s, Rome, <a href="#page_078">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stephen’s, Walbrook, <a href="#page_116">116</a></span><br />
+
+Standards, <a href="#page_246">246</a><br />
+
+Starts in Ornament, <a href="#page_276">276</a><br />
+
+Stencilled Work, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br />
+
+Strapwork, <a href="#page_087">87</a><br />
+
+Structural Design, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br />
+
+Style, <a href="#page_016">16</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phases in, <a href="#page_018">18</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">“&nbsp; &nbsp; “&nbsp; Gothic, <a href="#page_060">60</a></span><br />
+
+Sun Myths, <a href="#page_315">315</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Signs, <a href="#page_340">340</a></span><br />
+
+Supports, <a href="#page_246">246</a><br />
+
+Surface Interest, <a href="#page_294">294</a><br />
+
+Symbols of the Evangelists, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br />
+
+Symbolic Ornament, <a href="#page_310">310</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="T" id="T"></a><span class="letra2">T</span><span class="smcap">aboo</span>, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br />
+
+Taste, <a href="#page_006">6</a><br />
+
+Tatti, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Technical Considerations, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br />
+
+Tendrils, <a href="#page_271">271</a><br />
+
+Textiles, Printed and Woven, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, 361<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376"></a>{376}</span><br />
+
+Thorpe, Thomas, <a href="#page_091">91</a><br />
+
+Thyrsus, The, <a href="#page_342">342</a><br />
+
+Time, Symbols of, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Torches, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br />
+
+Torrigiano, <a href="#page_089">89</a><br />
+
+Totemism, <a href="#page_336">336</a><br />
+
+Tracery, <a href="#page_061">61</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pointed, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span><br />
+
+Tracings, <a href="#page_368">368</a><br />
+
+Trident, The, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br />
+
+Triforium, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a><br />
+
+Trinity College, Cambridge, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br />
+
+Trinity, Symbols of the, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br />
+
+Triton, <a href="#page_339">339</a><br />
+
+Trophies, <a href="#page_347">347</a><br />
+
+Tuileries, The, <a href="#page_087">87</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="U" id="U"></a><span class="letra2">U</span><span class="smcap">dine</span>, Giovanni da, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Undulate, Line or Stem, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="V-i" id="V-i"></a><span class="letra2">V</span><span class="smcap">aga</span>, Pierino del, <a href="#page_083">83</a><br />
+
+Vase, Greek, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Forms and Decoration, <a href="#page_248">248</a></span><br />
+
+Vase, Stretch out and Segments, <a href="#page_250">250</a><br />
+
+Vault, The, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br />
+
+Vaulting, Fan, <a href="#page_068">68</a><br />
+
+Veneer, <a href="#page_298">298</a><br />
+
+Venetian, Renaissance, <a href="#page_080">80</a><br />
+
+Versailles, Palace of, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br />
+
+Vesica Piscis, The, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br />
+
+Vignola, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a><br />
+
+Vinci, Leonardo da, <a href="#page_086">86</a><br />
+
+Volute, The, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br />
+
+<br />
+<a name="W" id="W"></a><span class="letra2">W</span><span class="smcap">allpaper</span>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br />
+
+Whitehall, Banqueting House, <a href="#page_103">103</a><br />
+
+Windows, Glazing of, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pointed Gothic, <a href="#page_061">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated Gothic, <a href="#page_064">64</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Perpendicular Gothic, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domestic, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacobean, <a href="#page_098">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_213">213</a></span><br />
+
+Winds Personified, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br />
+
+Wood, Inlay, <a href="#page_297">297</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treatment of, <a href="#page_289">289</a></span><br />
+
+Wren, Sir Christopher, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Design and Tradition, by Amor Fenn
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