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diff --git a/old/53797-0.txt b/old/53797-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index df388f4..0000000 --- a/old/53797-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5466 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dyer's Guide, by Thomas Packer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Dyer's Guide - -Author: Thomas Packer - -Release Date: December 23, 2016 [EBook #53797] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DYER'S GUIDE *** - - - - -Produced by Deaurider, Chris Pinfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's Note. - -Apparent typographical errors have been corrected. The use of hyphens has -been rationalised. - -Italics are indicated by _underscores_. Small capitals have been -replaced by full capitals. - - - - - THE DYER'S GUIDE. - EPITOME OF COLOURS. - - -_Colours obtained by_ SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S _method of decomposing the rays -of light, the least refrangible being placed first, the most refrangible -last._ See p. 18. - - [Illustration: - RED. ORANGE. YELLOW. GREEN. - BLUE. INDIGO. VIOLET.] - - - THE DYER'S COLOURS AND THEIR CHIEF COMPOUNDS. - SIMPLE COLOURS. - - BLUE, YELLOW, RED, BLACK[1]. - RED _includes_ CRIMSON, SCARLET, MAROON, PINK, &c. - - - COMPOUND COLOURS. - - GREEN is made with BLUE and YELLOW. - - ORANGE with RED and YELLOW. - - PURPLE ⎫ - VIOLET ⎬ with BLUE and RED. - LILAC ⎭ - - GREYS with BLACK, BLUE, and RED. - - ⎧ BLUE, YELLOW, and BLACK; - OLIVES with ⎨ or - ⎩ BLUE, YELLOW and RED. - - -[1] BLACK according to the theory of Newton, denotes the _absence_, and -WHITE the _presence_ of all colours. - - - - - THE - DYER'S GUIDE; - - BEING A - _COMPENDIUM OF THE ART OF DYEING_ - LINEN, COTTON, SILK, WOOL, MUSLIN, DRESSES, - FURNITURE, &c. &c. - - WITH THE METHOD OF - SCOURING WOOL, BLEACHING COTTON, &c. - - AND - DIRECTIONS FOR UNGUMMING SILK, AND FOR WHITENING - AND SULPHURING SILK AND WOOL. - - AND ALSO - _AN INTRODUCTORY EPITOME OF THE LEADING FACTS IN CHEMISTRY, - AS CONNECTED WITH THE ART OF DYEING._ - - - BY THOMAS PACKER, - DYER AND PRACTICAL CHEMIST. - - - "Cet arte est un des plus utiles et des plus merveilleux qu'on - connoisse." - CHAPTAL. - - "There is no art which depends so much on chemistry as dyeing." - GARNETT. - - - _SECOND EDITION_, - CORRECTED AND MATERIALLY IMPROVED. - - LONDON: - PRINTED FOR SHERWOOD, GILBERT, AND PIPER, - PATERNOSTER-ROW. - - 1830. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -To insist on the utility of the present Manual is, assuredly, -superfluous. The favourable reception of the first edition, sometime -since out of print, has stimulated the author to revise the work -throughout, and to render it more deserving the public approbation. The -_Appendix_ to the first edition now forms a part of the _Introductory -Chapter_, to which it naturally belongs; to the whole have been added -such improvements as the present advanced state of knowledge, and -particularly chemical knowledge, has rendered absolutely necessary; and -which the _practical dyer_ will find of considerable importance and much -utility. - -The following _letter_ from the late SIR HUMPHRY DAVY, the first chemist -of the age, appeared in the Preface to the first edition; it is here -again reprinted as some proof of the sufficiency of that learned man's -judgment, at least concerning the chemical theory of the art of dyeing. - - - _No. 16, Berkeley Square_, - _June 18, 1823_. - - SIR, - -I am very much obliged to you for your liberal communication on a subject -of my Lectures: I will attend to the information you are so good as to -give me in the next Edition. - - I am Sir, - Your obliged and obedient servant, - H. DAVY. - - MR. T. PACKER, - _Stamford Street, Black-Friars Road_. - -The author has only to add, that an Index is now appended to the work, by -which every article may be most readily and conveniently found. - - _London, Nov. 1829._ - - - ERRATUM. - Page 22, line 3, for _proximate_ read _ultimate_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY. - - PAGE - - On the different branches of dyeing—On the drugs used in - dyeing—On vegetable and animal substances—On substantive and - adjective colours, and mordants—And on the leading facts of - chemical science as connected with the art of dyeing—On the - calico printer's mordant for yellow and red, and on compound - colours—On bleaching—On the theory of fast and fugitive - colours—On dye-houses and water—Miscellaneous observations 1 - - -CHAPTER II. - -ON DYEING COTTON. - - To dye cotton a Saxon or chemic blue—Sulphate of Indigo—Saxon or - chemic green—To set a cold indigo vat—Another Indigo vat—To dye - cotton a fast green with the cold indigo vat and weld—Another - cold blue vat for linen and cotton—solution of indigo for - penciling printed muslin, &c.—To dye cotton a fast buff—To dye - cotton pink 47 - - -CHAPTER III. - -ON DYEING SILK. - - To alum silk—The blue vat of indigo for silk—Another blue vat - for silk—To dye silk violet, royal purple, &c.—To dye silk - lilac—Another process for lilac—Another process for dyeing - muslin, &c. lilac—To dye silk a violet or purple with logwood—To - dye silk violet with Brazil wood and logwood—To dye silk violet - or purple with Brazil wood and archil 63 - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ON SCOURING AND DYEING WOOL. - - On the action of alum and tartar upon wool—A pastil or woad vat - for blue—To prepare the indigo mentioned in the preceding - directions—Rules to judge of the state of the vat—Indications - when a vat has had too much or too little lime—To work a vat - which is in proper order—On the putrefaction of the woad - vat—Methods of dyeing blues—To dye wool with lac-dye, scarlet, - or crimson—To dye worsted yarn a crimson—A preparation of archil - to finish the crimson—on dyeing wool scarlet—To dye wool - maroon—To dye wool yellow—To dye wool brown or of a fawn - colour—To dye wool purple, &c.—To dye wool green—A chemic vat - for green woollen—A chemic vat for blue woollen—To dye wool - orange, gold colour, &c.—To dye wool black—Another process for - black without a blue ground—To dye wool a grey—Mixture of black - or grey with red and blue—On browns, fawns, greys, &c.—On the - yellow of Quercitron bark—On a full bright yellow from the same - bark—Bancroft's murio-sulphate of tin—To dye wool buff—To dye - wool peach—To set an indigo vat for worsted, serge, &c. 70 - - -CHAPTER V. - -ON DYEING SILK AND COTTON BLACK. - - To dye silk black for velvets—To dye silk black _London - process_—On dyeing cotton black at _Rouen_—To dye cotton black, - _London process_—For dyeing black, particularly cotton velvets, - at _Manchester_—On dyeing silk and cotton black with a blue - ground—Another iron liquor—To dye cotton black by using the - preceding solution—to dye cotton violet—To dye cotton red—To - dye cotton an Adrianople or Turkey red—Miscellaneous observations - relative to Adrianople red 105 - - -CHAPTER VI. - -ON DYEING COTTON AND SILK. - - To dye skein cotton yellow—On dyeing and re-dyeing cotton - furniture yellow—to dye cotton skein a duck's wing green and - olive—Of browns, maroons, coffee colours, &c.—Observations on - silk—On ungumming and boiling silk—Whitening—Sulphuring—On - aluming silk—Skein silk for yellow—Preparation of annatto for - aurora or orange, moidore, gold colour, and chamois—To dye silk - aurora or orange—To dye moidore—Process for orange—To dye silk - poppy or coquelicot—A cheaper poppy with annatto and Brazil - wood—On dyeing, silk a fine crimson—Composition for dyeing silks - scarlet or crimson with cochineal—Another process for - crimson—Another process for crimson by Brazil wood—Of fine - violet—Observations on crimson and scarlet upon silk—On dyeing - silk green—On olives—On dyeing silk grey—Nut grey—Black - greys—Iron greys—On dyeing silk of a Prussian blue - colour—Chromate of lead for yellow on silk or cotton—Conclusion 123 - -Index 153 - - - - -THE DYER'S GUIDE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY. - -_On the different branches of dyeing—On the drugs used in dyeing—On -vegetable and animal substances—On substantive and adjective colours and -mordants, and on the leading facts of chemical science, as connected with -the art of dyeing—On the Calico-Printers' mordant for yellow and red, -and on compound colours—On bleaching—On the theory of fast and fugitive -colours—On dye-houses and water—Miscellaneous observations._ - - -The trade of a Dyer is, in this country, subdivided into several distinct -branches. Thus we have _woollen dyers_, who are occupied solely in the -colours obtained from _cochineal_, such as _scarlet_, _crimson_, -_orange_, _buff_, _&c._; likewise _purple_, or _royal purple_, obtained -from _cochineal_ and _indigo_. They are called, also, _grain dyers_, from -the circumstance of the colouring material, cochineal, being in small -grains[2]. Yet it ought to be observed, that the term _dyed in grain_ is -applied by the public generally in a very different sense, namely, to -those cloths the raw material of which is dyed previously to being spun -into thread, or at least before woven into cloth; and hence such dyes are -usually more permanent than those which are dyed after the materials are -woven into cloth. This class of dyers generally dye cloth in the piece, -or a number of pieces of cloth tacked together, and worked over a winch -in a suitable copper. - -There are dyers who likewise dye worsted and woollen yarn of those grain -colours, but they are generally a distinct branch. The yarn is dyed in -hanks, upon sticks; and, when in the copper, the hanks are changed end -for end, so that they may be kept even; such changing being performed -five or six times to each turning in. - -There are also silk dyers who are grain dyers. These dye in the skein, -chiefly for new goods. Some silk, and some mixed silk and worsted goods, -are dyed in the piece. - -In _dyeing cotton_, the _Adrianople_ or _Turkey Red_ is, in many cases, a -branch of itself, and comes the nearest to what may be called grain or -scarlet dyeing upon cotton, because cochineal cannot be applied to cotton -to any advantage; yet cotton is occasionally dyed with this material. - -In woollen another branch consists of the _woad dyers_. These often -superintend the black dye on woollen cloth, as well as the blue from woad -and indigo. There is the same distinction among _worsted yarn dyers_, -they having likewise to do slates, greys, &c. Nearly the same may be said -of the _silk skein dyers_. - -In many places, particularly in the country, browns, drabs, -stone-colours, &c. constitute a branch in woollen. The same colours form -also a branch in calico and muslin; but _black_, in calico and muslin, is -a distinct branch. - -The dyers (whether in London or provincial towns) who keep shops, and -take in garments, furniture, &c. to be dyed, are termed by the trade -_Rag-dyers_. - -There are a few dyers in the metropolis who dye _black_ on woollen, silk, -cotton, &c. for the dye-shops, many of these putting all their black out -to be dyed. - -There are one or two dyers famous for dyeing silk stockings _black_; -these constitute a particular branch. Dyeing bombasins black is also -another branch. - -The following constitute also particular branches: _black hats,—hats of -fancy colours,—fur,—chip and straw,—feathers,—leather, Morocco and -Spanish, and kid leather for shoes and gloves_. Many other branches of -the dye-trade might be enumerated, but more detail does not appear -necessary. - -Concerning all these different branches, one general observation will -suffice; namely, that those who are concerned in them have, for the most -part, obtained, their knowledge of the art of dyeing, not from theories -adapted to explain the different processes, but from practice in that -branch in which they are occupied. They usually, therefore, perform those -processes which they have been shewn and told, without any inquiry into -the causes which produce the results. There are, it is admitted, -exceptions to this, men of general information and knowledge being -occasionally found in the various branches of dyeing, but they are so -few, that it may be questioned, when compared with the great body -employed in the art, whether they amount to one in a thousand. This is -not, however, to be attributed to any indifference in such persons to -acquire a correct knowledge of the art, but is chiefly owing to a -deficiency of the ready means of acquiring such information; which -information it is the design of the present Treatise to supply; there not -being, as far as the present writer knows, any such work, at a moderate -price, to be obtained in the English language. - -It is true many of the _Cyclopædias_ furnish us with much useful -information on the subject of dyeing: one of these, JENNINGS'S _Family -Cyclopædia_, may be particularly mentioned as containing such; but it is -scattered about in these dictionaries in various ways, at once -troublesome and unpleasant to obtain. Dr. BANCROFT'S work on the -philosophy of _Permanent Colours_, in two octavo volumes, will also -supply much valuable information; so also will the edition, some time -since published, of BERTHOLLET'S _Elements of the art of Dyeing_, with -the addition of valuable _Notes_ by Dr. URE. Dr. URE'S _Chemical -Dictionary_ is also very useful to the dyer, us well as many detached -papers in several of our English publications. A _Treatise on Printing -and Dyeing Silks, &c._ lately published by H. M'KERNAN, is also valuable, -and should be consulted by the curious in this art. But all these works -are expensive, and such as few dyers will be disposed to obtain; hence -the necessity of the present Manual, the author of which has not -servilely followed the directions or recommendations of any previous -writer; but from his own practice, a practice of more than thirty years, -has laid down such rules as he knows to be at once practical and -efficient. At the same time he thinks it right to state, that he has not -only consulted all the works mentioned above, but also _Hellot, Macquer, -&c._ adopting all that appeared essential in these, and giving such -additions as accord with the present improved state of chemistry and -dyeing; and, as far as was possible, in the limits prescribed for this -work, so that it may be within the reach of every dyer in the kingdom, as -well as every journeyman and apprentice in all the various branches of -this truly extensive and mysterious art, as carried on in London, -Norwich, Yorkshire, Gloucestershire, and various other parts of the -British dominions. - -The author has, in treating of the various matters to be dyed, adopted -nearly the same arrangement as that which appears in the _Title_, taking -_Cotton_ first, in consequence of its having the least affinity for -dyeing bodies. He has taken _Silk_ next, which has a greater affinity for -many dyes, and, when dyed, yields colours more permanent than cotton. - -_Wool_ he has not placed entirely last, although many of the colours -which it receives from the dyer are complex. The _black dyeing_ of -_cotton_ and _silk_ is placed after the processes of black for wool, as -likewise the _Turkey red_, _&c._ these being naturally difficult to -perform. - -_White_ and _black_ have been considered colours by dyers, and with -propriety, black forming a part of slate, grey, &c. White is seldom pure; -in proportion to its clearness and purity will the colours be with which -it is dyed. - -In regard to _black dye_, and particularly _cotton black dye_, the author -does not know any simple and concise theory, consistent with chemical -principles. He flatters himself, however, that from his extensive -experience, his observations are founded on interesting facts. Cotton, -for instance, will take fast blues from the cold indigo vat; this vat, -with the combination of iron, and in a heat no greater than the hand can -bear, will easily produce all shades of grey, slate, &c. Many of these -colours may be done by logwood instead of the blue vat, and in the same -heat of the dye bath; so cotton likewise, whether in pieces or skeins, -may be dyed brown, fawn, drab, &c. in consequence of the great affinity -which cotton has for acetate and sulphate of iron. - -With respect to _black_, it should be also observed, that few substances -are known which yield _by themselves_ a good black. The juice of the -_cashew nut_ communicates, however, a black colour, which resists not -only washing, but even boiling with soap and alkaline leys. It is used -for marking linen. The _Toxicodendron_ yields a juice which produces -nearly the same effect. Some other vegetables also produce black dyes, -but all of them in such small quantities as not to be available for the -purposes of art; nor do they, besides, produce blacks equal to those -formed in the dye-house. - -_Blue_, _red_, and _yellow_ are admitted to be three distinct colours. In -many of the _browns_, red and yellow are combined naturally in the drugs -from which they are produced, and so they are in logwood. Blue, red, and -yellow, are developed by _iron_, whether in the state of an acetate or -sulphate. - -It may be useful, before we proceed any farther in noticing the theories -of dyeing, to give a brief description of the - - -_Drugs Applicable to Dyeing._ - -ALUM, or _potash-sulphate of alumina_, is a concrete salt, composed of -alumina or clay, potash, and sulphuric acid. It is found native in some -places; but the greatest part of the alum of commerce is prepared by a -peculiar management of schistose pyritic clays, usually denominated _alum -ores_. Alum is made at Civita Vecchia, in Italy, and also at many other -places on the continent; at Hurlett near Glasgow, at Whitby in Yorkshire, -&c. Its form and appearance are both too well known to need being -described. Its chemical composition is as follows: sulphate of alumina, -36.70; sulphate of potash, 18.88; and water, 44.42—together 100. The -alum called in commerce _Roch alum_, said to be obtained from Roccha, in -Syria, is in smaller crystals than common alum, and has a reddish hue, -but does not appear to be essentially different from the common alum. -Common alum requires sixteen parts of water, at a temperature of 60°. to -dissolve one of it; but there is another kind not generally made or -known, containing _soda_ instead of potash, and hence with propriety -named _soda-sulphate of alumina_, which is soluble in less than its own -weight of water, and which, on this account, may become valuable in some -processes of dyeing.—URE. - -ACETATE OF ALUMINA is prepared in large quantities for the calico -printers, by decomposing alum with acetate of lead, or more economically -with aqueous acetate of lime, having a specific gravity of about 1.050, a -gallon of which, equivalent to nearly half a pound avoirdupoise of dry -acetic acid, is employed for every 2½ lbs. of alum. A sulphate of lime -is formed by complex affinity which precipitates, and an acetate of -alumina floats.—URE. - -ARCHIL, ARCHILLA, ROCELLA, ORSEILLE, or LITMUS, is said to be a whitish -lichen growing upon rocks in the Canary and Cape Verd islands, which -yields a rich purple tincture, fugitive, but extremely beautiful. It is -brought to this country as it is gathered; it is prepared here for the -dyer, by grinding it between stones, so as thoroughly to bruise but not -to reduce it into powder; it is moistened occasionally with a strong -spirit of urine, or urine itself, mixed with quicklime; in a few days it -acquires a purplish red, and at length a blue colour; in the first state -it is called _archil_, in the latter _lacmus_ or _litmus_. The dyers -rarely employ this drug by itself, on account of its dearness and the -perishableness of its beauty. Its chief use is to give a bloom to other -colours, as pinks, &c. - -CUDBEAR is also manufactured in this country from archil, and is in -repute for dyeing various shades, from pink and crimson to a mazarine -blue; it is said these colours are very permanent. - -ARGOL, or TARTAR, is a crystalline substance deposited in wine casks -during the fermentation of the wine, from the juice of the grape, in -which it exists in considerable abundance. It is an impure _supertartate -of potash_; that is, potash combined with a superabundant quantity of -_tartaric acid_. Algol is found in commerce of two colours, _white_ and -_red_. _Cream of tartar_ is the same substance freed from colouring and -other extraneous matter. - -BLOOD. See ADRIANOPLE RED. - -BRAN acts in some peculiar way on colouring matter, but scarcely on the -mordants. It seems to loosen and remove the colouring matter; as also to -alter its hue in some cases, an effect obvious in the bran pinks.—URE. - -CHLORINE. See OXYMURIATIC ACID. - -COCHINEAL is the female insect of the _coccus cacti_ found on the _cactus -coccinellifer_ and _cactus opuntia_, _Prickly pear_ or _Indian fig_, -natives of South America, the West Indies, and other tropical regions. -The female of the insect is the true cochineal; in her full sized, -pregnant, and torpid state, she bears so small a proportion to her former -or creeping state, that her antennæ, legs and proboscis are scarcely -discernible; her whole appearance is that of a whitish berry, and so it -was formerly regarded. This insect is found in a wild state in Mexico, -Georgia, South Carolina, and some of the West India Islands, feeding on -several species of the _cactus_; but in some of the Spanish settlements, -as well as in Mexico, the insect is domesticated, and fed on the cactus -coccinellifer, which is cultivated for the purpose, on which it attains a -much larger size than in its wild state. Cochineal is also obtained from -the East Indies; but East Indian cochineal has not yet attained the -quality of that produced in the West Indies and America. Its use, as a -colour for dyeing many shades of red, &c. is great and important. - -COPPER is also used in dyeing, in the state of a _sulphate_ or _blue -copperas_, a _nitrate_, and also as an _acetate_. See VERDIGRIS. - -The GALL or BILE of ANIMALS consists of a saponaceous bitter, yellowish -fluid, secreted by the liver, and found in the sac usually called the -gall-bladder. It is sometimes preferred to soap for cleansing cloths by -the dyer and the scourer. - -GALLS are excrescences produced on the _quercus infectoria_, a species of -oak growing throughout Asia Minor. The gall grows on the shoots of the -young boughs, and is produced by an insect, the _cynips quercusfolii_; -this insect punctures the tender shoot with its sting and deposits its -egg in the puncture; the egg is soon hatched, and the irritation of the -maggot feeding on the plant produces the wen or gall-nut. When the nuts -are gathered before the worm within changes to a fly, and not yet having -eaten its way out, they are of a dusky green colour, and are called in -commerce _blue_ galls, and are by far the best. Those collected after the -fly has eaten its way out have a hole in each, are of a whitish yellow -colour, considerably lighter than the blue-galls, and of an inferior -quality: they are brought to this country chiefly from Aleppo. They are -used in large quantities in the arts, principally for dyeing, and making -ink. They contain a large quantity of _Tannin_ and _Gallic acid_. - -INDIGO is a well known deep blue substance, obtained from the _Indigofera -tinctoria_ or Indigo bearing plant, a native of the East Indies, which is -propagated by seed and will thrive in most tropical climates; hence we -have good indigo from South America, the East Indies, Carolina, &c. The -chief criterion of the goodness of indigo is, if, when cut with a knife, -it exhibits a reddish copper-like appearance; where this shade is not, or -only very slight, the indigo is of inferior value. It is prepared by -macerating the leaves in water, whence is obtained the blue feculence or -indigo. Indigo is insoluble in water, but soluble in sulphuric acid, -hence a solution of it in this acid, forming a _sulphate of indigo_, is -well known in the art of dyeing. - -The best indigo is that called _Flora_, which floats in water, all the -other kinds sink in that fluid. - -The constituent parts of indigo are Carbon, 73.22, Nitrogen 11.26, Oxygen -12.60, and Hydrogen, 2.92, = 100. - -When indigo is digested in concentrated sulphuric acid, it is converted -into a peculiar blue substance, commonly called _sulphate of indigo_; -this colouring matter has been, however, lately named CERULIN, by MR. W. -CRUM, who has made many experiments on it; (see notes to _Bertholet_, -vol. ii. p. 357. et seq.) he observes that _cerulin_ dissolves more -abundantly in sulphuric acid than water; but this does not prove the -formation of a compound entitled to be called sulphate of indigo; that, -such a solution differs in no respect from that of resins in acids or in -alcohol. Another substance has been also obtained from indigo by MR. -CRUM, of a purple colour, which he calls _Phenicin_; it dissolves both in -water and alcohol. - -IRON rarely in its metallic state enters into the manipulations of -dyeing, but its _sulphate_, _muriate_, _acetate_, &c. as well as its -_oxides_ contribute largely to the dyer's art. - -SULPHATE OF IRON, or _green copperas_, as it is commonly called, is too -well known to need description; it is in green crystals of different -sizes, and is used for various purposes in dyeing, &c. - -PERACETATE OF IRON, or ACETATE OF IRON, forms a reddish-brown -uncrystallizable solution, much used by the calico printers, and is -prepared by keeping iron turnings or pieces of old iron for six months -immersed in redistilled pyrolignous acid. It may be also prepared in a -more expeditious way by boiling filings of iron with the acid. - -LAC DYE and LAC LAKE are two articles now regularly imported from the -East Indies, and employed for dyeing scarlet. They both appear to be the -colouring matter of seed-lac, obtained from it in India by a process not -generally known. Both these articles are in lumps or cakes of a -dark-reddish or blackish colour. - -MURIATIC ACID, or _spirit of salt_, as it was formerly called, is -obtained from common salt or muriate of soda, by distillation with -sulphuric acid. When this acid is pure it is perfectly colourless, but it -generally has a yellow hue arising from a little iron. It gives out, at -all temperatures, a large quantity of a fuming suffocating gas of a -peculiar smell. Its usual specific gravity is about 1.160. For the basis -of this acid see OXYMURIATIC ACID. - -NITRIC ACID is composed of oxygen and nitrogen: it is usually obtained -from _nitre_, (the chemical name of which is _nitrate of potash_,) by -distilling three parts of it with two of sulphuric acid. When pure, -nitric acid is a colourless, extremely sour, and corrosive liquor. Its -specific gravity is 1.42; it always contains more or less water, which -modifies its specific gravity. It is usually coloured with nitrous acid -gas. It forms a variety of compounds with numerous other bodies. _Aqua -fortis_ is this acid diluted more or less with water; when strong it is -called _double_, when weak _single aqua fortis_. For NITROGEN, _see -forwards_. - -NITRO-MURIATIC ACID, or AQUA REGIA, is a mixture of nitric and muriatic -acids. It is usually made by dissolving sal ammoniac or common salt in -nitric acid. When the former is employed the usual proportion is one of -the salt to four of the acid; but equal parts will be necessary to -dissolve _platinum_. _Aqua regia_ is the only menstruum which will -dissolve gold. - -ORPIMENT, REALGAR, or SULPHURET of ARSENIC has been lately applied to the -purposes of dyeing a yellow colour. Sulphur may be combined with arsenic -in different proportions. Realgar is red, and occurs native in Germany -and Switzerland; it is also produced by art. Orpiment is commonly -produced by art and is of a yellowish colour; native orpiment is also -occasionally found; it is of a bright lemon colour. - -OXYMURIATIC ACID, or as it is now more correctly termed CHLORINE, from -its yellowish green colour, is an elastic gaseous fluid of a pungent -disagreeable smell, and highly injurious to animal life, even when -largely diluted with atmospheric air. Mixed with hydrogen, and exposed to -light, they combine and produce a sour compound called _muriatic acid_ -gas; this gas is greedily absorbed by water, which takes up 480 times its -bulk, and has its specific gravity increased from 1 to 1.210. Thus -dissolved in water it forms the _liquid muriatic acid_ mentioned in a -preceding article. - -Chlorine forms combination, besides, with several other bodies; many of -its combinations are termed _oxymuriates_, or more properly, _chlorides_: -some of these are extremely useful in bleaching, dyeing, &c. The -_muriatic acid_ appears to be the only acid of any consequence into which -oxygen does not enter. - -OXIDE is the combination of oxygen with some base, without being in the -state of acid; it is most commonly applied to the combination of oxygen -with metals; most of the different rusts of metals are oxides. As oxygen -combines with the metals and other bodies in different proportions, its -combinations are distinguished by different prefixes, thus: _protoxide_ -denotes an oxide containing the least quantity of oxygen: _deutoxide_ the -next larger quantity; _tritoxide_ the next; and _peroxide_ the largest -possible quantity of oxygen in the compound when it is not acid. For -OXYGEN _see forwards_. - -POT-ASHES and PEARL-ASHES (one of the fixed alkalies) are both impure -_carbonates of potash_ obtained from the ashes of innumerable vegetables, -over which water is poured which dissolves the salts, and by evaporating -the water leaving the salt, a dry powdery white mass is obtained. The -chief difference between pot-ashes and pearl-ashes consists in the -superior whiteness of the latter, and in the former being of a more dirty -colour, and more caustic than the latter; hence it is not so highly -saturated with carbonic acid. For many purposes in the arts such caustic -potash is to be preferred. - -QUERCITRON, or AMERICAN-BARK is obtained from the _quercus nigra_ or -black oak, a native of North America. It is used for dyeing yellow, and -was brought into notice by DR. BANCROFT, who obtained the exclusive -privilege of using it as a dye by an Act of Parliament, passed in the -25th year of the reign of George III. - -SAFFLOWER, _bastard-saffron_ or _carthamus_, is obtained from one or two -plants, species of the _carthamus_ genus, natives of the South of Europe -and the Mediterranean coasts. This dyeing material consists of two -colouring substances, a yellow and a red. The former is of little value, -the latter which is soluble in alkalies forms, by precipitation with -acids, a beautiful red pigment sometimes used for silk dyeing, but more -commonly in the preparation of _rouge_. - -SODA, called sometimes mineral alkali, is another of the fixed alkalies; -it forms the basis of common salt, that being a muriate of soda; soda, -under the name of _barilla_, is used in making soaps, and also in dyeing. - -SULPHUR, or BRIMSTONE, is scarcely used for dyeing in its crude state, -but when combined with oxygen forming _sulphuric acid_, as well as when -that acid is combined with various bases, as _iron_, _alumina_, &c. it -becomes of great importance in this art; see SULPHURIC ACID. - -SULPHATE OF IRON, see IRON above. - -SULPHURIC ACID was for many years, and still is called by the vulgar, -_oil of vitriol_, because it was formerly obtained from green vitriol or -sulphate of iron, but the more simple and ingenious processes of modern -chemistry have superseded the old methods; sulphuric acid is now obtained -by burning sulphur with a certain portion of saltpetre in large leaden -cisterns. The acid fumes sink into the water placed at the bottom of the -cistern, the water being afterwards boiled away: the acid is afterwards -purified by retorts, placed in a sand heat. The specific gravity of good -sulphuric acid should be 1.85. - -SUMACH is the production of the _rhus coriaria_, a shrub which grows -naturally in Syria, Palestine, Spain, and Portugal. It is cultivated in -the two last countries with great care. Its shoots are cut down every -year quite to the root, and after being dried are reduced to powder, and -thus prepared for the purposes of dyeing, &c. Sumach bears a great -resemblance, as an astringent, to galls. Sumach alone gives a brown and a -fawn colour, but cotton stuffs impregnated with acetate of alumina take a -durable yellow from it. - -TARTAR, see ARGOL. - -TIN, dissolved in nitric or muriatic acid, forms solutions of great -importance in many processes of dyeing, particularly scarlet. These -solutions are called respectively _nitrate_ and _muriate of tin_. - -TURMERIC is a root obtained from a plant growing both in the East and -West Indies. The root is used chiefly for dyeing yellow; but it is a -fugacious colour. - -VERDIGRIS is a crude _acetate of copper_, obtained by exposing copper -plates to the husks, &c. of grapes, which containing considerable acetic -acid, the acid combines with the surface of the copper plates, forming a -blueish green rust, which is scraped off, and forms the verdigris of -commerce. A still more complete acetate of copper is obtained in -_distilled verdigris_, which is in elegant green crystals. The best -verdigris is made in France; some is now also made in this country. - -WELD, sometimes called improperly WOULDS, _dyer's-weed_, or _Reseda -luteola_, is a plant found wild, in this country, but cultivated for the -purposes of the dyer; it is much used for yellows. - -WOAD, or PASTEL, is obtained from a plant growing in various parts of -Europe and also in this country; it is the _Isatis tinctoria_, and is -cultivated with care for the dyeing matter which it affords, and which is -obtained from the leaves of the plant, collected and prepared in a -particular manner. Woad gives a full-bodied and fast blue to wool, yet -not very bright, so that it is usually mixed with indigo[3]. - -Besides the preceding substances we may mention that _annatto_ is used -for dyeing several colours; _kermes_, _madder_, and _Brazil wood_ for -_reds_; _logwood_ for _purple_ and _black_; _peach-wood_ for _maroon_, -&c.; _fustic_, _dyer's-broom_, _saw-wort_, _French-berries_, &c. for -_yellow_; _walnut-root_, and the outside _green shell of the nuts_ for -_browns_. We may also mention _prussiate of potash_, _acetate of lead_, -commonly called _sugar of lead_, and _oxide of manganese_, as occasional -articles used for various purposes by the dyer. Several other substances -are also used in dyeing, which we cannot enumerate; some are mentioned in -the subsequent pages. We may, however, name _cam-wood_, _bar-wood_, -_redsanders_, and _myrobolans_. We ought also to observe that how -desirable soever it may be to have all _woods_ for dyeing, in powder, in -order to obtain the greatest quantity of colouring matter from them by -decoction or otherwise, yet, as in a _powdered_ state they are much more -likely to be adulterated than in _chips_, it is most advisable to -purchase them in this last state; _logwood_ in particular ought never to -be purchased in powder. - - -_On the Component Parts of Vegetable and Animal substances._ - -In order more correctly to understand the theory and practice of dyeing, -it is essential that the pupil should become acquainted with the nature -of the substances upon which and with which he must necessarily operate. -We shall not enter into the theories of _light_ and of _colours_, as -propounded by Sir Isaac Newton, as well as many illustrious chemists, who -have already done so much for the art of dyeing, but shall simply refer -to such writers as URE, BANCROFT, BERTHOLLET, BRANDE, &c. from whom may -be learnt what is of most importance to be known concerning this curious -subject. - -We may just add, however, in regard to _light_, that Sir Isaac Newton -proved it consists of rays differing from each other in their relative -refrangibilities. By causing light to pass through a hole in a -window-shutter into a darkened room, and receiving that light on a glass -prism, the rays, in passing through the prism, not only became -_refracted_, that is, thrown out, of the rectilinear direction, but also -_separated_ into seven distinct colours, namely, _red_, _orange_, -_yellow_, _green_, _blue_, _indigo_, and _violet_. The red being the -least refracted and violet the most. If these prismatic, or _primary_ -colours, as they are usually called, be divided into 360 equal parts, the -red rays will occupy 45 of these parts, the orange 27, the yellow 48, the -green 60, the blue 60, the indigo 40, and the violet 80, and, what is -very remarkable, these colours, when mixed in the proportions here set -down, produce _white_. This may be readily proved by mixing seven powders -of the colours and quantity mentioned, or by painting a wheel with the -same proportions of the different colours and making it revolve rapidly. -But it should be noted, that, in either case, the _white_ will not be so -pure and delicate, as that produced by the mixture of the rays of light. -Upon these phenomena is founded the Newtonian theory of colours. Thus -green bodies reflect the green rays and absorb the others. All the rays -are reflected by white bodies, and absorbed by those which are black. - -It is, notwithstanding, highly necessary that the learner should know -that portion of _modern chemistry_ which will lead him to the best -secrets of his art, and hence assure him of that which was only before -conjecture. And it cannot be sufficiently impressed upon him, that if our -theory be not true, we work from wrong _data_; we may, it is true, -approach the truth; be right in some things and wrong in others, and our -uncertainty and mistakes will be accordingly; yet the most complete dyer -must be he, who with extensive practice combines a knowledge of the true -principles of his art, to which modern chemistry is, doubtless, the key. - -It is scarcely necessary to insist further on the importance of a -knowledge of the constituent parts of vegetable and animal bodies, as -well as those inorganic substances with which chemistry has so largely to -deal; but it will be seen, in the course of our subsequent observations, -what difficulty there is in _dyeing cotton_ of a red colour, similar to -that produced by cochineal on _wool_; how, in dyeing _cotton yarn_ an -_Adrianople red_, the intestinal liquor of the sheep, and the dung and -the blood of the same animal are used, and have been found so important -by the dyers of Asia; hence the colour is called the _Adrianople_ or -_Turkey red_. - -It is found by experience, and particularly in hot climates, that -substances containing _ammonia_ (volatile alkali) quite developed, have -the property of raising and rendering more intense the red colours. It -has been found, too, that the bones of animals retain the colour of -_madder_ very strongly, when they have been given that colouring -material; and the vivacity of the colour has been attributed in such -cases, it is presumed with truth, to the ammonia which the bones contain. - -There are, therefore, in regard to _vegetables_ in particular, some -things, the nature and properties of which it is absolutely necessary -that the dyer should understand: for want of a knowledge of one of them, -it is a fact that losses are very often sustained to a serious amount. It -may seem surprising, but the author has not seen in any writer on dyeing -or chemistry, a proper method of working the pastil or _woad vat_; nor -how to renew and work it down, again and again, with an assurance that it -will be neither decomposed nor spoiled; and which, for want of a proper -knowledge, it has often been. We shall therefore endeavour to give some -directions by which those fatal and expensive disasters may be avoided. - -Although, at first sight, it seems easy to distinguish the three kingdoms -of nature from each other, yet there is such an imperceptible transition -from one to the other, that it will be difficult to give such a -definition as shall embrace all the individuals of each, and, at the same -time, exclude those of the other kingdoms. On examination, indeed, we do -find that there is in fact no natural distinction of this kind; and that -there is scarcely a function common to vegetables and minerals which some -of the animal tribe do not enjoy, and _vice versâ_. Yet it must, however, -be noted, that most animals have the power of voluntary loco-motion, and -are thus rendered peculiarly different from all other bodies which we -find upon or in the earth. - -The substances constituting _vegetable_ differ from those constituting -_mineral_ bodies, in their being of a more complex kind; and though -vegetables are extremely susceptible of decomposition in various ways, -not one can be, by any art, synthetically produced. Yet, although what -are called by chemists the _proximate constituents of vegetables_ are -numerous, such are _water_, _starch_, _sugar_, _gum_, _gluten_, _wax_, -_oil_, _camphor_, _resins_, _colouring matter_, _extractive matter_, -_several acids_, &c. &c. all of which are capable of being decomposed, -the _ultimate constituents of vegetables_ are very few; the chief are -_carbon_, _hydrogen_, and _oxygen_; some afford _nitrogen_; in some are -traces of _sulphur_, _potassa_, _lime_, _soda_, _magnesia_, _silica_, -&c.; in nearly all vegetables are traces of _iron_; in many _manganese_. - -As the _proximate principles_ of vegetables are chiefly carbon, hydrogen, -and oxygen, it will be useful to inquire how vegetables obtain these -materials. Water, which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, is a ready -source whence both its constituents may be obtained; and it is concluded -that it is decomposed in the glands of vegetables, assisted by solar -light, and becomes fixed in them in the state of _oil_, _extract_, -_mucilage_, &c. The greatest part, however, of vegetables consists of -_carbon_, or, to make ourselves more intelligible, _pure charcoal_; the -carbon, notwithstanding its solidity in the shape of charcoal, most -readily combines with oxygen, and hence it forms, as carbonic acid, a -small portion of atmospheric air, from which source the carbon of plants -is in part at least derived. Another source from which plants derive -their carbon is the earth, and decaying vegetable matters; the dung of -animals supplies also some of the constituents of vegetables. Indeed, in -the application of dung and other matters, so as to promote the healthy -and vigorous growth of vegetables, does the science of agriculture -chiefly consist. It appears, however, that nourishment is received -principally, if not entirely, by plants in a liquid or gaseous form. It -should be noticed too, that few, if any, healthy vegetables will grow any -where except in _light_, a powerful stimulant at all times, not only to -plants but to animals; such are its effects, that many _dyes_ in cloth -are materially altered, nay, sometimes destroyed by it. - -_Animal substances_ thus differ from vegetables: they afford a -considerable quantity of _ammonia_, (which is, it is now known, a -compound body consisting of _hydrogen_ and _nitrogen_), and very fetid -products, either by the action of fire, or by the putrid fermentation. -They also putrify more readily and speedily than vegetables, and give out -a very disagreeable smell. They also contain a considerable quantity of -_nitrogen_, the presence of which constitutes the most striking -peculiarity of animal compared with vegetable bodies; but as some -vegetables contain nitrogen, so there are certain animal principles into -the composition of which nitrogen does not enter. The chief _ultimate -principles_ then of animal matter are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and -nitrogen; but _phosphorus_ and _sulphur_ are also often contained in it. -_Lime_ also exists in animal bones and shells in considerable quantity, -usually, however, in combination with the _phosphoric_ and the _carbonic -acid_. The chief _proximate principles_ of animal matter are _blood_, -_albumen_, _gelatine_, _colouring matter_, _milk_, _bile_, _lymph_, -_urine_, _skin_, _muscle_, _horn_, _hair_, _fat_, _cerebral substance_, -_shell_, and _bone_, &c. - -The differences between vegetable and animal bodies appear to depend upon -animal matter containing _nitrogen_ in much greater abundance than it is -found in vegetables; and hence the decomposition of animal matter by -destructive distillation is characterized by the presence of _ammonia_, -which is formed by the union of the hydrogen with the nitrogen; and it is -sometimes so abundantly generated as to be the leading product: thus when -_horns_, _hoofs_, or _bones_ are distilled by themselves, a quantity of -solid carbonate of ammonia and of the same substance combined with a -fœtid oil, and dissolved in water, are obtained. Hence the preparations -called _salt_ and _spirit of hartshorn_ and _animal oil_. - -The principal animal fluids are _blood_, _milk_, and _bile_. The blood, -soon after it is taken from the living animal, separates into two parts, -one called the _crassamentum_, which is _red_, and the other _serum_, -which is a fluid, and of a pale straw-colour; the crassamentum is a more -firm and consistent mass than the serum, by which it is usually, when -cool, surrounded. _Milk_ consists of _serum_ or _whey_, _butter_, which -while floating on the milk is called _cream_, and _curd_ or _cheese_, -which has the leading properties of coagulated albumen. The _bile_, as -has been before stated, is a saponaceous fluid consisting chiefly of -_albumen_, _soda_, a _bitter resin_, _water_, and some other saline -matter. _Fat_, in the dead animal, is merely animal oil in a concrete or -hardened state. - -The principal animal solids besides _bone_, are _albumen_, _gelatine_, -and _fibrin_. These substances, in certain states of concretion and -combination, form all the solids of animals, and are separable from each -other by easy analysis. - -By whatever means we deprive animal substances of their nitrogen, we -reduce them to a state similar to that of vegetables. The muscular fibre, -or _flesh_ as it is usually called, when excluded from the air, but -particularly if in contact with water, parts with its nitrogen, and is -converted into a substance resembling spermaceti, which in its analysis -agrees with vegetable expressed oil. - -When vegetables and animals are deprived of life, their various parts, -and especially their fluids, sooner or later, spontaneously assume -processes which terminate in their total decomposition. The earlier -stages which lead to their decomposition are termed _fermentation_. Of -this there are three kinds; the first, or _vinous fermentation_, takes -place in vegetable juices which contain a considerable quantity of sugar, -such are the juices of the _grape_ forming _wine_, of the _apple_ forming -_cyder_, &c. In this fermentation a considerable quantity of carbonic -acid gas is disengaged; this gas is very destructive to animal life, no -one can live for a minute in it. If, after the vinous fermentation is -completed, the liquor be exposed for some time to atmospheric air, -another fermentation takes place, oxygen is absorbed, and the liquor -becomes _vinegar_, hence called the _acetous fermentation_. The _putrid -fermentation_ generally takes place in animal bodies very soon after -death, so that neither of the other processes, certainly not the vinous, -the acetous rarely, becomes a condition of animal matter. - -The chief product of the vinous fermentation is an intoxicating, -colourless, volatile, and highly inflammable liquor called _alcohol_; in -common language _rectified spirits of wine_. It may be obtained by -distillation from wine, cyder, perry, brandy, &c. &c.; and from whatever -liquor it be obtained, when freed from extraneous matter, it is in every -case the same. Alcohol consists of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. Its -usual specific gravity is 825, water being 1000. - -After vegetables have passed through these fermenting processes, the -decomposition continuing, unless checked by extraneous means, the -remainder of their constituents become separated, many of them being -volatilized in the form of gas, and nothing remains but a black or brown -residuum called mould, consisting of carbon, some salts, a little oil, -and extractive matter. - -In the decomposition of animal substances, we perceive the union of -hydrogen and nitrogen forming _ammonia_; the combination of carbon with -oxygen produces carbonic acid; and nitric acid arises from the union -oxygen and nitrogen. A quantity of hydrogen is also extricated in the -form of gas, carrying off with it sulphur and phosphorus, which produce -together the disagreeable smell arising from animal putrefaction. Nothing -now remains but a portion of carbon mixed with phosphate of soda and -phosphate of lime. - -Hence we see that, by the processes of fermentation, complex bodies are -converted into more simple substances, and that nature restores, in the -new combinations, the principles which she had borrowed from the -atmosphere for the formation of both animals and vegetables; and that she -accomplishes a perpetual circle of ever-changing being, at once -demonstrating the fecundity of her resources, and the grandeur and -simplicity of her operations. - - -_On substantive and adjective colours, and the mordants, &c. used in -dyeing; and on the leading facts of chemical science as connected with -this art._ - -The substances commonly dyed are either _animal_, as _wool_, _silk_, -_hair_, _leather_, and skins of all kinds; or _vegetable_, as _cotton_, -_flax_, _hemp_, _&c._ Great differences exist between the affinities for -colouring matter possessed by these substances, so that a process which -perfectly succeeds in dyeing wool may fail when applied to cotton. Wool -has generally the strongest affinity for colour; silk and other animal -substances come next; cotton next, and hemp and flax last. - -Of the numerous known dyes, few can be applied to either animal or -vegetable fibre without some preparation beyond that of cleansing the -stuff, and immersing it in the dyeing liquor. When colours can be fixed -on cloth without any previous preparation, they are called _substantive_ -colours, such is _indigo_; when they cannot be so fixed, but require to -be saturated with some preparation, such as acetate of alumina, or a -metallic oxide, &c. they are called _adjective_ colours; of this kind are -madder, cochineal, &c. The substances with which cloths are impregnated, -previously to being dyed, are called _mordants_, because they are -supposed to bite or lay hold of the colour which is applied. - -The chief difference between vegetable and animal substances is, that -animal (as for instance wool) contains a small portion of carbon, and a -large quantity of hydrogen and nitrogen; while vegetables contain a very -large proportion of carbon, less hydrogen, and, in general, no nitrogen. - -It is the interest of every dyer to acquire as much information as -possible concerning the nature of alum, iron, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, -the alkalies, acids, &c. in order to prevent or obviate the consequences -of an incorrect application of these agents in the various departments of -his art, and also to apply them with the greatest success. We shall, -therefore, enter a little into the nature and combinations of some of -these bodies, and state some of the leading facts with which the modern -discoveries in chemistry have made us acquainted. - -_Carbon_, or charcoal, is considered an elementary body, because, as yet, -no means have been found adequate to decompose it; it forms the skeleton -of vegetables or their woody fibre. - -We must now direct the attention of the reader to _oxygen gas_, the -discovery of which was made by Dr. Priestley in the year 1774, and by him -called _dephlogisticated air_; the most important discovery that was, -perhaps, ever made in chemistry. When a metal is exposed to atmospheric -air, at almost every temperature, it loses its metallic lustre, and -acquires the form and appearance of an earthy substance. If this change -be produced in a given quantity of air, the _oxidation_ can only be -carried on to a certain degree; and on examining the air which remains, -we shall find that it has lost the whole of its oxygen, and that nothing -remains but nitrogen gas. What was formerly called the _calcination_ of -metals is nothing but the process of their union with oxygen, which is -now therefore properly called their _oxidation_. - -If charcoal be mixed with the metallic oxide, and a suitable heat be -applied to the mixture, it will unite with the oxygen and form carbonic -acid, which will fly off in the form of gas, while the metal will assume -its metallic form. From this we learn that _oxygen_ is a part of -atmospheric air, and that _nitrogen_ constitutes another portion of the -same air. _Ammonia_ is a combination of nitrogen and hydrogen. -_Combustion_, or the burning of any combustible body, cannot take place, -at least under ordinary circumstances, without the presence of oxygen. -_Nitrogen gas_, (called by its discoverers _azotic gas_), constitutes -about three fourths of atmospheric air; the other fourth consists of -oxygen, besides a small fraction of carbonic acid gas. Oxygen decomposes -and destroys all fugitive colours. Oxygen is, besides, the basis of -almost all the acids, and hence is one of the most universal agents in -nature. - -_Hydrogen_, formerly called _inflammable air_, was discovered by Mr. -Cavendish in 1767; it is called hydrogen, because it is one of the -component parts of water; or, more properly, it is the base of water. It -is obtained in the most pure state from the decomposition of water by -means of metals, thus: pass one hundred parts of water through a red hot -iron tube, a gun barrel for instance, fifteen parts of hydrogen gas will -be produced, while the inside of the tube will be found converted into an -oxide, and to have gained eighty five parts in weight. - -Again, when eighty five parts of oxygen gas are burned with fifteen of -hydrogen gas, both gases vanish, and one hundred parts of water are the -result. Hydrogen gas, when in a pure state, is about fifteen times -lighter than atmospheric air; hence its use for inflating balloons. -Hydrogen, if inhaled, destroys animal life; combined with _nitrogen_, it -forms ammonia, or the _volatile alkali_, as we have before stated. - -We have mentioned the _fixed alkalies_ in a preceding section. We may add -here, that by the discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy, in the year 1807, the -base of caustic, or pure _potash_, is now known to consist of a light, -white metallic substance, to which the name of _potassium_ has been -given; it is of the consistence of soft wax; at a freezing temperature it -is hard, brittle, and solid; when thrown upon water it instantly takes -fire, hydrogen gas escapes, and an _oxide of potassium_, or caustic -pot-ash, is produced. The potash and pearl-ash of the shops we must not -forget, are combinations of _carbonic acid_ and pot-ash, hence they -effervesce with all the acids; but caustic pot-ash, containing no -carbonic acid, combines with any of the acids without effervescence. - -The SODA, as obtained from barilla, is a carbonate of soda; pure soda, or -caustic soda, was, till the discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy, supposed to -be, as well as potash, a simple substance. It is now, however, known to -consist of a metallic substance of the colour of lead, but, nevertheless, -lighter than water; upon which, when thrown, it produces, like potassium, -violent action, yet does not, in general, like potassium, inflame. It is -called _sodium_; pure soda consists therefore of sodium and oxygen, hence -it is an _oxide of sodium_. These discoveries of the composition of the -fixed alkalies are of infinite importance in the arts. The alkalies -contain some very striking properties: - -_Their taste is acrid, burning and urinous. They generally change the -blue colours of vegetable infusions green. When mixed with silex or -flint, by exposure to great heat they form glass, and they render oils -miscible with water, and hence combine with them forming soaps. They -effervesce_ (_when combined with carbonic acid_,) with many other acids, -and form neutral salts with all the acids. The _volatile alkali_ or -_ammonia_, on exposure to air, flies entirely away. Pot-ash, either in -its caustic state, or in that of a carbonate, absorbs moisture from the -air, and liquifies. While soda, on the contrary, and many of its -combinations, effloresce in the air; they, nevertheless, effervesce, and -combine with the acids in a similar way to pot-ash. - -We have mentioned how pot-ash is obtained in a preceding section. Soda is -commonly procured from the ashes of marine plants; the _barilla_ of -commerce is obtained, it is said, in Spain, chiefly from many species of -the _salsola_, or salt-wort. Barilla is an impure subcarbonate of soda, -it is used largely in the manufacture of soap. - -We now proceed to notice the nature of _acids_. - -_They excite a particular sensation on the palate, which we call sour. -They change the blue colour of vegetables red._ All of them, except the -carbonic acid, effervesce with the _volatile_ as well as the _fixed -alkalies when in the state of carbonates, as they are most commonly found -in commerce_. Oxygen is the principle of almost all acids; their -difference depends upon the base combined with the oxygen: thus oxygen -combined with carbon or pure charcoal, forms _carbonic acid_; with -nitrogen the _nitric acid_; with sulphur the _sulphuric acid_, _&c._ _&c._ - -_Gas_ is a term implying the same as _air_; but as the term air, when -used, is liable to be misunderstood for the air of the atmosphere, which -is, as we have seen, a compound body, the term gas is more appropriately -applied to all elastic fluids of a specific kind. Thus we say _carbonic -acid gas_, _oxygenous gas_. The difference between carbonic acid and -carbonic acid gas, and oxygen and oxygenous gas, consists in the latter -being combined with _heat_ only, and in the state of air, while in the -former they are fixed in some body, as in carbonate of pot-ash and oxide -of lead, in both which cases the carbonic acid exists in a fixed state, -or combined with the pot-ash, and the oxygen is in a fixed state, or -combined with the lead. - -We may now treat of _carbonic acid gas_, which is thus produced, as well -as in many other ways: when charcoal is burned in oxygen gas, exactly -sufficient for its combustion, both the charcoal and oxygen disappear, -and an elastic fluid is found in the vessel, which is equal in weight to -both. This air or gas is carbonic acid gas; it combines with lime, the -alkalies, and pure or burnt magnesia: it constitutes a considerable -portion of the weight of chalk, limestone and marble, as is readily seen -by comparing these bodies before and after their conversion into -quicklime. It is frequently combined with hydrogen. The gas with which -the streets are now lighted is chiefly carburetted hydrogen. - -Carbonic acid gas has the following properties. It extinguishes flame, -and, like nitrogen and hydrogen, kills animals immersed in it. It is -heavier than common air, and may therefore be poured out of one vessel -into another like water. Cider, wine, beer and other fermented liquors -owe their briskness to the carbonic acid which they contain; soda-water -also owes its briskness entirely to the quantity of carbonic acid gas -which it contains, a small quantity of heat being sufficient to give the -acid the gaseous state. - -_Sulphur_ has been mentioned before; it is well known to be a very -combustible substance; it is found in great quantities throughout nature; -the sulphur of commerce comes either from Italy or Sicily; or from the -isle of Anglesea, where it is obtained from the smelting of sulphuret of -copper; the best, however, comes from Sicily. It is, sometimes, found -pure; but often combined with some of the metals, forming _sulphurets_. -It is also frequently obtained by the decomposition of animal and -vegetable substances; it is sometimes found combined with hydrogen (hence -called sulphuretted hydrogen), in the human stomach, more frequently in -the intestines. Sulphur combined with a small dose of oxygen, forms a -volatile suffocating acid, called the _sulphureous acid_; with a large -dose it forms _sulphuric acid_, or oil of vitriol. - -For the _nitric_ and _muriatic acids_, see a preceding section. We may, -however, mention here, that nitric acid has the peculiar property of -staining the _scarf skin_ of the human body a dull yellow, of such -permanence, that it can scarcely, by any means, be destroyed, it usually -remaining till the skin wears or peels off. - -The principal vegetable acids are the _tartaric_ and the _acetic_. The -tartaric acid exists in superabundance in tartar, and particularly in -cream of tartar, which is nothing more than a purified tartar. See -_argol_ in a preceding section. - -The _acetic acid_ constitutes the vinegar both common and distilled; it -is found in a very concentrated state in the shops, under the name of -_aromatic vinegar_. It is also now obtained in large quantities, and of -great strength from _wood_ by distillation, or burning, in vessels, -adapted for the purpose, hence called the _pyrolignous_ acid, but -essentially the acetic acid. This last is now used by Calico-Printers to -make acetate of iron. See a preceding section. - -_Alumina_, or earth of alumina, sometimes called _argil_, is soft to the -touch, adheres to the tongue, and hardens in the fire, contracting its -dimensions: it constitutes the greatest part of clays. With sulphuric -acid and pot-ash, it forms the common alum of the shops. Alum dissolves -in about sixteen times its weight of cold water. For _acetate of alum_ -see _alum_ in a preceding section. - -Agriculturists and agricultural chemists know that _alumina_ constitutes -three eighths or more of a fruitful soil; some vegetables, likewise, -contain this earth in their composition. _Iron_ is also a component part -of many soils, particularly those in which a _red_ colour is predominant; -hence it is, probably, a component part of all drugs used for browns, -fawns, and blacks. It will be seen what affinity cotton has for _iron_ in -the dye of _buff_[4] upon cotton; and it seems reasonable to conclude -that this metal not only produces the black, grey, and brown hues, but, -with lime, forms a component part of the drugs themselves which give the -brown dyes. It may be here also mentioned, that the _red_ colour of the -blood has been by many chemists supposed to arise from the iron which it -contains; MR. BRANDE, however, does not, from his own experiments, -conclude this to be the fact. The blood of animals is, nevertheless, -occasionally used for dyeing, as will be seen under _Adrianople red_. See -KIRWAN _on Manures_, _&c._ and DAVY'S _Agricultural Chemistry_. - -From the acids or oxygen combined with alkalies, earths, or metals, -almost innumerable mordants, as we have seen, are formed; and upon the -correct and proper application of these to the cloth or other matters to -be dyed, depends the goodness and permanence of the colours. The dyer -cannot, therefore, be too scrupulously attentive to this portion of his -art. - -In dyeing the student ought also to remember, that the material to be -dyed combines intimately, in numerous instances, with alumina or other -mordants; in the case of alumina it, in some instances, takes up from one -twelfth to one fourth of its weight of alum, leaving the alum bath nearly -tasteless. So also will rich extract of American bark, or even weld, when -the proportion of weld is in weight more than two to one of the wool, -form a triple compound with the cloth and alum, of permanent duration. - -All these preliminaries the author considers of the first importance to -be understood, and he has, therefore, mentioned them again and again. For -so doing he is sure that he shall be excused in the dye-house, although -not perhaps by the critics, whose candour he nevertheless respectfully -solicits. - -We now proceed to the _application of mordants_. In regard to muslins and -calicoes, the alum is to be mixed with gum and carried to the piece, as -will be described below in the _Calico-Printers' mordant_, and then -immersed in the dye-bath: it thus receives the base or mordant. If the -base be alum and the dye-bath madder, then, where the block strikes the -pattern with the alumine base, the colour will come out _red_; the other -parts will clean and bleach white. If alum and iron form the base, the -colour will be purple; if iron alone be applied, and galls, sumach, -logwood, &c. are the component parts of the dye-bath, then it will be -_black_. - - -_The Calico-Printers' mordant or base of alum for yellow and red goods, -either for printing or dyeing; and on compound colours._ - -Take one gallon of soft and pure water, of a heat of 150°, three pounds -of common alum, one pound and a half of sugar (acetate) of lead; mix -these together, and let them stand for two or three days, so that they -may incorporate, often stirring them during that interval; then add two -ounces of pearl-ash, and the same quantity of clean powdered chalk or -whiting. After a time the clear liquor, now become _an acetate of alum_, -must be drawn off. When used, it is thickened either with paste, flour, -or gum arabic, or senegal; four pounds of either of the gums to each -gallon of liquor[5]. A block or a press similar to a copper-plate press -for paper, but much larger, and having the copper plates in proportion, -is employed to spread the acetate of alum from a utensil called a sieve, -which is, however, not porous, while a boy or girl called a _Teerer_, -works it smooth; when smooth on the sieve, the printer applies his block, -and charges it with the acetate of alum; the block thus charged, is -correctly put on the cotton cloth, which is laid upon a blanket spread -upon a table; it is then struck with a mallet once or twice, by which, or -by the pressure of the rolling-press, if copper-plate, the acetate of -alum is driven into the pores of the cloth. The cloth thus prepared, is -hung up in a hot stove, and dried by a high degree of heat. The goods are -now ready, if for _red_, for the _madder_; and if for _yellow_, for the -_weld_ copper. Sometimes, however, lately, the colour is previously -prepared, and applied at once in more instances than are prudent. To the -above mordant, _M'Kernan_ adds three ounces of _sulphate of copper_, -omitting the potash; and he adds, "When the colour is wanting on the -scarlet cast, omit the sulphate of copper." - -Wool readily takes the alum at a boiling heat; _common alum_ is in many -instances proper for wool; and in others, where it might be improper, it -is corrected by the use of argol or cream of tartar. - -_Yellow_ and _red_ produce _orange_; _red_ and _blue_, _purple_; but upon -_cotton_, a scarlet, purple, or crimson cannot be produced in any way -equal to those colours in wool or silk. _Yellow_ and _blue_ form the -_green_. - - -_On Bleaching Linen, Cotton, &c._ - -We cannot enter with much minuteness into this part of the subject, more -especially as the _art of bleaching_ is usually a separate one from that -of _dyeing_. Yet as in fact the arts of _dyeing_ and of _bleaching_ -depend in a great degree on the same principles, some notice of -bleaching, in a treatise on dyeing, seems absolutely necessary. - -Linen, cotton, and other cloths, were for ages deprived of their colour, -in other words, bleached, rendered white, by a tedious process. Thus, the -article to be bleached being boiled in a solution of pot-ash, was washed, -and then spread on the grass in a field, watered occasionally, and, thus -exposed to the atmosphere for two or three months, became white. This -method is, however, in part, if not now entirely, dispensed with. M. -Berthollet, an ingenious French chemist, to whose valuable work on dyeing -we have before alluded, employed what was then called _oxygenated -muriatic acid_, now _chlorine_, to perform in a few days what before took -months to accomplish. His method was as follows. To six pints of powdered -oxide of manganese he added sixteen of muriate of soda, (common salt) and -twelve of concentrated sulphuric acid diluted with an equal quantity of -water. These were placed in a leaden retort and distilled: the product -was _oxygenated muriatic acid_, or _chlorine_, which being conducted to a -vessel containing the material to be dyed, produced the same effects as -the former tedious process, and bleached as much, in two or three days, -as was before done in two or three months. This process has been since -much further improved by the use of a combination of chlorine with lime, -called _chloride_, or _oxymuriate of lime_. This article is at present -used in almost all the bleaching grounds in the United Kingdom. It -appears, therefore, that upon the use of the agent, _chlorine_, does the -expedition and whiteness of modern bleaching principally depend. Yet it -ought, nevertheless, to be stated, that although, in the hands of -scientific and judicious persons, chlorine is one of the most powerful -agents in bleaching that ever was discovered, still, in the hands of -bungling and avaricious persons, it may contribute greatly to the -destruction of the cloth; and therefore, even now, a demand is -occasionally heard for the old method of bleaching. - -These processes constitute the art of the bleacher; the dyer has seldom -any thing to do with them except in piece-goods or rough cambric, which -he has sometimes to dye black as they come from the bleacher's in a state -which they call _once boucked_; and sometimes he has them just as they -come from the weaver; in which case, if for black, they need not be -bleached white, but should be boiled in pot-ash, to take out the grease, -&c. - - -_On the theory relative to fast and fugitive colours._ - -Many attempts have been made by chemical philosophers to account for the -permanence or want of permanence of various colours, when imparted to -cloths and other bodies as a dye. Among these, HELLOT, D'APLIGNY, and -others of the old, and BERTHOLLET, BANCROFT, HENRY, and others of the -modern school, may be mentioned. - -The power of resisting vegetable acids, alkalies, and soap, and, above -all, the action of air and light, constitutes the durability of a colour. -But this property has a very unequal standard, according to the nature of -the colour and the species of the stuff. - -There is no obscurity in the action of water, alkalies, acids, and soap: -for a solution is effected by means of these agents, or a small portion -of acid or alkali unites to the combination, which forms the colour. But -this is not the case with the action of light and air. Till lately, -however, it was not known in what this action consisted. - -Of the two principles which compose atmospheric air, it is only the -_oxygen_ gas which acts on the colouring particles. It combines with -them, and thus impairs their colour or makes them fade. But its action is -soon chiefly exerted on the hydrogen which enters into their composition, -and it thereby forms water. This effect may be compared to a feeble -combustion. Hence the carbon, which enters into the composition of the -colouring particles, becomes predominant, and the colour usually passes -to yellow, dun, or brown, or other appearances. - -Light promotes this decomposition of the colouring particles, which -frequently takes place only with its concurrence, and thus it contributes -to the destruction of the colour. Heat also favours the same result, but -less efficaciously so, unless it have a certain intensity. - -It is concluded, therefore, that colours are more or less fixed in the -air, according to the greater or less tendency which the colouring -particles have to undergo this change[6]. Hence the utility of _mordants_ -in rendering _fugitive_ colours _fast_. - - -_To prove the colours of Dyed Stuffs, &c._ - -The natural proofs of a dye's being effectual, are exposure to the air, -to the sun, or to rain. If the colour be not changed by such exposure -after twelve or fourteen days, it may be considered as fixed. These -proofs are not, however, adapted to every colour: for some resist the -action of air, light, and rain, yet are nevertheless injured by certain -acids. There are also colours which do not resist the natural proofs and -yet remain unchanged by acids. - -Colours may be arranged in this respect in three classes: the first class -is tried with _alum_, the second with _soap_, the third with _tartar_. -For the proof with _alum_, half an ounce of this salt must be dissolved -in a pint of water in an earthen pipkin, and into this liquor is to be -put half a quarter of an ounce of the dyed thread or stuff, the whole -being boiled about five minutes; it is then to be washed clean with -water. Thus are tried _crimson_, _scarlet_, _flesh-colour_, _violet_, -_ponceau_, _peach-blossom_, different shades of _blue_, and other colours -bordering on these. - -The next proof consists in boiling a quarter of an ounce of _soap_ in a -pint of water, with half a quarter of an ounce of the dyed stuff or -thread for five minutes. With this proof all sorts of _yellow_, _green_, -_madder-red_, _cinnamon_, and similar colours are to be tried. - -The proof with _tartar_ consists in boiling one ounce of that salt, -previously powdered very fine, with a quarter of an ounce of dyed thread -or stuff, in a pint of water for five minutes. This proof is used for all -colours bordering upon _fallow_, or _hair-brown_.—_Journal of Science_, -vol. xxii. 219. - -But notwithstanding these general rules may be given for _dye-tests_, yet -so many are the niceties in this art, that, after all, nothing but long -practice combined with scientific knowledge, will enable the dyer to -become in this respect, a complete and successful artist. - - -_On dye-houses and the water proper for dyeing._ - -The _dye-house_ should be as spacious as possible, according to the -quantity of work intended to be done in it; it should be also as near as -possible to a clear running stream. The floor should be a mixture of lime -and cement, and sufficiently inclining, so that water, the old contents -of the vats, &c. &c. may run off freely when thrown down. - -A dyer cannot be too particular in regard to the _water_ which he uses. -Some pump, well, and other spring waters, contain _iron_; this is -injurious to many colours, while for black, brown, slates, and grey, it -is very advantageous. It has been supposed that some dyers succeed in -dyeing even the very same colour in a superior manner, in consequence of -the peculiar purity or other properties of the water which they use. - -To discover whether water contains iron or not, a little tincture of -galls or prussiate of potash must be dropped into it; if a purple or blue -tinge be produced in the water, we may be assured that it does contain -iron. - -For dyeing delicate colours, the water, which ought to be chosen for such -purpose the purest and best, should be heated with bran in a bag, when -much of the contents of the water inimical to dyeing will rise to the top -in the form of a scum, and should be taken off just before the water -boils. Instead of bran, a little alum will answer the same purpose when -it is not inimical to the colour intended to be dyed. - -The boiling point of water is at the degree of 212° of _Fahrenheit's -thermometer_; the freezing point is at 32° of the same instrument; blood -heat is at 98°. - - -_Miscellaneous observations._ - -The limits and price of this manual preclude the possibility of our -giving plates to explain some of the machinery and utensils which are now -employed in dyeing. To inform a _dyer_ what kind of coppers, casks, and -vats are necessary, would seem to be superfluous; and the pupil may soon -acquire such knowledge in the dye-house. Should a dyer find it his -interest to undertake a branch of his art of which he has not any -previous knowledge, he had better engage a man who understands it; if, -however, he thinks himself competent to manage it, but is unacquainted -with the best modern utensils appropriated to that particular branch, he -had better get a dyer's labourer who has been used to it; a man of -sufficient intelligence may be found with due encouragement to perform -this part. It may just be added, that _Ure's Berthollet_ and Mr. -_M'Kernan's_ work, both contain numerous explanatory _plates_ of the -utensils and machinery which are described and recommended in those works. - -All solutions and decoctions of _Brazil wood_, _logwood_, _fustic_, _&c_. -should always be prepared in the same quantity and proportion, and one -measure be invariably set apart for each. This observation is meant more -particularly to apply to drugs in stock, always kept in a state of -preparation ready for any process or work which may occur. The drugs just -named may be kept in a prepared state; but _weld boiled_ will not keep, -nor will some others which are mentioned in the body of the work. - -_Weld_, as it will not keep, should be used thus: a copper in proportion -to the size of the work should always be used; and as weld will bear -boiling and re-boiling, it can be boiled by the half bundle or more -according as it may be wanted, whether you work little or much. If you -are exact and near in your estimate, practice will soon render you -perfect in any branch. It should be observed too, that to _dye to -pattern_ cannot be the result of a receipt, without a great latitude be -left for the judgment. - -The most difficult part of dyeing is that of _light drabs_, _stone -drabs_, _&c_. - -Nothing but _practice_ will qualify you for this and all pattern dyeing: -the way, and the only good way to obtain practice, is to work with all -possible regularity. In the dyeing of fancy cloths in the clothing -districts of Yorkshire, Gloucestershire, and other fine cloth -manufactories, the _manufacturers_ who dye their own cloths, as well as -_dyers_ of the greatest eminence, always number, measure, weigh, and time -all the component parts of their various processes of dyeing. Such in -fact ought to be the universal practice; and then a person of ordinary -abilities may soon be able to perfect his processes and obtain the best -results. - -Hence, however, it is very necessary that the dyer should have a -competent knowledge of chemistry and drugs, that he may be able to judge -of the goodness of the articles which he uses, and of the numerous and -extraordinary combinations into which they enter. To _chemistry_, in -particular, every able and scientific dyer must be largely indebted; for -this reason it is that we have endeavoured, in this _introductory -chapter_, to sketch some of the most important facts in this universal -and interesting science. - -In possession of these qualifications, and working upon the above plan, -the dyer can never be far from the desired result in all his processes. -His deviations, if any, will be few, as from his knowledge, he will soon -perceive the first approach of any incorrectness, and be able to adjust -it generally without much inconvenience. - -The _chemical terms_ now introduced into treatises on dyeing are chiefly -taken from the Greek language, and are used in such a manner as to -convey, by their etymology, an idea of the nature of the substances to -which they are applied. _Oxygen_ implies the producer of acid: -_hydrogen_, the producer of _water_; _nitrogen_, the producer of _nitre_, -&c. The term _gas_ has been explained above. _Caloric_ is a term used by -chemists for heat; but caloric is used in a more extensive signification -than the term heat, thus: although a gas might possess no sensible heat, -yet being in a gaseous state, it is assumed to contain a certain portion -of caloric which keeps it in its gaseous state; the same observation will -apply to liquids whether aqueous, oleous, or metallic. - -_All the measures mentioned in this work unless otherwise described, are -those usually called in this country_ WINE MEASURE, _and not those which -have been introduced by a late act of parliament_, _called_ IMPERIAL -MEASURES. - -[2] Cochineal was at first supposed to be a _grain_, which name it still -retains by way of eminence among dyers. URE. - -[3] For the cultivation of Woad in England, see Parish's paper in vol. -xii. of the Bath Society's Report, or Tilloch's Mag. vol. xxxviii. - -[4] What are called _iron moulds_ in cotton, linen, &c. are, it is well -known, nothing but the marks of a _buff_ colour, usually left by ink and -other matters which contain iron: acids, of course, dissolve, and -discharge these buff colours; the _oxalic acid_ does so without -decomposing the cloth. - -[5] "_Acetate of Alumina_ is now most frequently made for the -Calico-Printers by dissolving alum in a solution of crude acetate of -lime, (pyrolignite); a gallon of the acetate, of specific gravity, 1.050 -or 1.060, being used with two pounds and three-quarters of alum. A -sulphate of lime is formed, which precipitates, while an acetate of -alumina mixed with some alum floats above. The acetate of alumina -employed as a mordant for chintz, is still commonly made by the mutual -decomposition of alum and acetate of lead."—_Ure's Berthollet_, vol. ii. -p. 331. - -[6] Berthollet. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ON DYEING COTTON. - -_To dye cotton a Saxon or chemic blue—Sulphate of indigo—Saxon or -chemic green—To set a cold indigo vat—Another indigo vat—To dye cotton -a fast green with the cold indigo vat and weld—Another cold blue vat for -linen and cotton—Solution of indigo for penciling printed muslin, -&c.—To dye cotton a fast buff—To dye cotton pink._ - - -We refer the reader to the preceding chapter for many observations -relative to _cotton_, with which, in order to understand correctly the -best method of dyeing this material, it is necessary that he should -become acquainted: indeed, the whole of that chapter ought to be well -studied by every one desirous of becoming an expert dyer. - - -_To dye cotton of a Saxon or chemic blue._ - -This is performed with the _sulphate of indigo_ thus:—put into a brown -stone glazed earthen pot four pounds of good sulphuric acid, add to it -twelve ounces of good indigo finely powdered, stirring the mixture very -quickly and frequently: break the lumps, if it should get lumpy before it -is thoroughly mixed, with a glass rod, or with a stick, the bark of which -has been taken off: if for wool or silk, the solution will be fit for use -in forty-eight hours, but if for cotton it will not be fit for use till -the acid is neutralized by an _alkali_. Some persons, however, use -_whiting_, but this precipitates and wastes the indigo; others use -magnesia, but this is expensive: some, again, use pure or caustic potash -prepared thus—take American pot or pearl-ash about seven pounds, put -some of it into a brown stone glazed jar, or rather an open pan; upon the -ashes put some quicklime recently burnt, and then alternately ashes and -lime, slacking the lime with water as it is put on the ashes; let the -whole stand together for about two hours: provide now another brown stone -earthen vessel with a hole in the bottom, of larger dimensions than the -other, put into this a piece of coarse linen to prevent the lime, the -impurities, or any foreign body from running through the hole, then upon -the bottom put some of the previously mixed lime and ashes, well -incorporated, and placed gently upon the linen so as to be sure of its -keeping its place and letting the liquor pass through clear. As the -mixture is put in add some water occasionally, so as to keep it just -covered, and leave room at the top for the swelling of the materials, as -the lime especially will increase in bulk. Water must fill the whole, and -cover the lime, &c. which will be known by the bubbles ceasing to rise. -When it has stood twelve or fourteen hours, water being occasionally -added as it is absorbed, some may be drawn out. - -To determine whether the carbonic acid has entirely quitted the potash, -(and for which purpose the quicklime, having a greater affinity with the -carbonic acid than potash has, is specifically applied,) take some of the -fluid in a wine glass and drop a drop of sulphuric acid into it; if the -carbonic acid has entirely combined with the lime, the sulphuric acid -will enter the fluid in the glass quietly, and without any other -appearance than so much water; if you still doubt add more drops of the -sulphuric acid successively. If the carbonic acid has not entirely left -the potash when the sulphuric acid is dropped into the liquor, an -effervescence or fermentation will be seen in it. Whenever this is the -case the liquor must be returned to the mixture for a longer time, and, -if necessary, more lime be added. - -When the liquor or ley is fit for use, all of it is to be drawn off, and -more water may be added and remain on the ingredients till it is wanted. -It is best to keep it close from the air, because as the air contains a -certain portion of carbonic acid, the liquor would in time absorb it, and -the ley, instead of containing caustic potash, would become a solution of -carbonate of potash, and consequently not answer the end designed. - -To know when the _alkali_ of the mixture is exhausted, take a piece of -paper stained with the juice of the blue flowers of violets, or the -blossom of the mallow, which is thus prepared—pound the blossoms in a -glass mortar with a glass pestle, and squeeze the juice into a tea-cup, -then, with a small hair pencil, cover a sheet of white paper with the -juice, and dry it for use. All acids will turn it _red_, and all alkalies -will turn it _green_; and, therefore, as long as any of the alkali -remains in the liquor, the paper thus prepared will, when immersed in it, -be stained green. - -The comparative strength of such solutions may also be ascertained thus: -take a wine-glass full of the liquor, drop into it a few drops of -sulphuric acid, stirring it with a glass rod or clean bit of -tobacco-pipe, and then apply a bit of test paper; if it appear green more -acid must be added and stirred again; apply the test paper a second time, -if it be still stained green, a few drops more of the acid must be added, -and thus continue till the colour of the paper is neither altered to -green nor red: the liquor will then be neither acid nor alkaline, but -contain a neutral salt consisting of a combination of the acid and the -alkali. By adding, however, a few more drops of the acid, this last will -be found predominant, and the test paper, being immersed in the liquor, -will be stained red. - -By treating different leys in this manner, and counting the number of -drops necessary to neutralize each, the strongest ley will always be -found that which requires the greatest quantity of acid for the purpose. - -Alkaline leys are also to be judged of by their weight compared with that -of water; a wine pint of water usually weighs about sixteen ounces -avoirdupoise; all alkaline leys are _heavier than water_, and the heavier -they are the more alkali they necessarily contain. A wine pint of some of -them will weigh more than seventeen ounces. - -To return to the dyeing of cotton a chemic blue: (to which a knowledge of -these chemical processes, as well as of other processes in our work, is -essentially necessary,) take some of the blue liquid prepared with indigo -and sulphuric acid, as before directed, and put it into a vessel large -enough to hold two or three times as much as is intended to be put in, in -order that there may be room to stir it; add some of the potash, or -alkaline liquor, by degrees till, after several trials, the mixture -ceases to be sour; or, if you do not like to taste it, take a small slip -of cotton or muslin and dip it in, after having wetted it out in warm -water. If the acid be neutralized the cotton will be sound, if not it -will be tender _when dried_: if the acid predominates much the cotton -will be as rotten as tinder; when the cotton is perfectly strong and -sound after being dried, the liquid is in a proper state to dye both -cotton and muslin. - -The goods to be dyed must first be wetted out and wrung, then work them -in the flat tub with water, with a little of this blue added, and well -stirred in proportion to the shade wanted. From half a pint to a pint of -the liquid blue is sufficient for two pieces of twenty-four or -twenty-eight yards each, if not of a very full pattern. - -Blue, when dyed, should be dried in a cool stove, and if book-muslins, -framed; furniture should be stiffened, glazed, or calendered. - -The preceding are essentially the same directions for preparing and -dyeing with the _chemic blue_ which were given in the first edition of -this work, and which we see no reason to alter. As, however, for _silk_ -in particular, another method has been given in the late work of Mr. -M'KERNAN, we give his processes below. - - -_Sulphate of Indigo._ - -"Take one pound of the best flora indigo in very fine powder, put this -into a stone-ware or lead vessel, then add gradually three pounds of the -best sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.800; mix well and stir often, and -in twenty-four hours the indigo will be dissolved. Adding three ounces of -sulphur to the acid, and heating it to 180°; then, when cooled to 100°, -pouring the acid off the sediment, and then adding to it the indigo, is -considered the best way of opening or dissolving the indigo. When the -indigo and acid have been mixed twenty-four hours, add three pints of -boiling water; stir often; when cold it will be fit for use." - - -_To neutralize the sulphate of indigo._ - -"Take six pounds of alum and dissolve it in two gallons of water at 120°, -when dissolved add, by degrees, five pounds of pearl-ashes until the acid -of the alum is neutralized and the alumine formed, then put the whole on -a piece of calico that has been hooked in a square frame, or tied over a -vessel; when the liquor has run off then add one gallon of boiling water -on the alumine and stir it up well. When the water has gone through the -calico; the alumine is fit for use. Then add a part of this alumine to -some of the sulphate of indigo until the acid is neutralized." - - -_Saxon or chemic_ GREEN. - -The same blue vat will do for _green_; but it is best to make another by -putting only eight ounces of indigo instead of twelve to four pounds of -sulphuric acid. If the preparation has been made two or three months it -is the better, having been often stirred before it was neutralized with -the alkali. - -Prepare a strong decoction[7] of old fustic, which should always be ready -at hand as a store, keeping plenty according to the work to be done, -including cotton, silk, and worsted goods. - -Mix some of the chemic blue with the decoction of fustic in the following -manner: put into a tub six pails of soft clear water, to which add a pint -of the neutralized blue; and six pails of the decoction of fustic; stir -all well together. Some dyers add a little weak alum liquor till it just -tastes before they put in the blue; it should be but little, otherwise it -will precipitate the fustic. This mixture should stand two hours to -settle. - -The muslin or calico, say two pieces of twenty-four yards each, should, -with the usual precautions, be passed through a strong decoction of old -fustic or turmeric as hot as the hand will bear. They are then to be -taken out and submitted to a quantity of the green mixture above, -described, in proportion to the fulness of the green required. When -finished, whether for the calenderer or glazer, they should be dried in a -moderately warm stove. - -These two colours are very fugitive, especially upon _cotton goods_; but -sometimes the customer will not go to the price of the fast green or -blue, hereafter to be described. - - -_To set a cold indigo vat for cotton, &c._ - -Put three pounds of slacked lime, sifted, into six quarts or more of -boiling water; stir the mixture well for some time, and after it has -settled, draw off the clear liquid, to which add three pounds of sulphate -of iron, stirring it well till all is dissolved; let it settle till the -next day; have ready a deal cask, because one made of oak would blacken -and otherwise injure the dye, in consequence of the affinity between the -tannin, &c. of the oak and the sulphuric acid. Put into the cask -seventy-five gallons of water, to which add the mixture of lime and -sulphate of iron; take now three pounds of indigo, well ground and ready -at hand, dissolved in three pints of strong solution of potash, such as -was directed to be prepared for neutralizing the chemic blue. Put this -solution of indigo and potash into the tub with the water, lime, &c.; -after it is well stirred, and left to settle, it produces a deal of -froth; but the liquor takes a fine green colour, which turns to blue when -exposed to the air. - -_Soda_ may be used instead of potash, if treated the same way. Soda, it -may be observed, forms the usual ley of the soap manufacturer; and -answers for _soap_ much better than potash, because its combinations do -not usually absorb moisture from the air: potash, and several of its -combinations, do so. - - -_Another indigo vat._ - -Take five hundred quarts of water; indigo seven or right pounds. The -boiler must be iron. - -Boil the indigo with sixteen pounds of a liquor made with potash and -eight pounds of lime. After the lime and potash have been in contact, as -in all these instances they should be, from twelve to twenty-four hours, -to take away the carbonic acid from the potash, the clear liquor of this -mixture is what must be used. The indigo must be previously powdered, and -ground extremely fine in water before it is put into the alkaline liquor. -The mixture must now be added to the five hundred quarts of water, and -the whole boiled till the indigo rises to the surface like cream, and -till, in striking the bottom of the boiler with a stick, it is found to -contain no solid substance. - -While the indigo is boiling, another eight pounds of lime must be slacked -in about twenty quarts of warm water; dissolve in this lime-water sixteen -pounds of sulphate of iron. The vat being half filled with water, the -solution of lime and sulphate of iron is to be put into it; the indigo -solution is now also to be added. The vat, being thus filled to within -about three or four inches of the edge, must be stirred two or three -times a day till it is fit for dyeing, which it will be in about -forty-eight hours, and sometimes sooner, according to the temperature of -the air, by which the completion of the process is more or less -accelerated. - -When the strength of the vat is exhausted, it must be, of course, -replenished. If the liquor becomes black, it wants sulphate of iron; if -yellow, lime is required. When the indigo is far spent, more must be -added in the same manner as at first. - -In this vat, as respects the blue dye, if it be for muslin, calico, &c., -the form should be square, about two yards long, one yard to one and a -half wide, and from seven to eight feet deep; the pieces of cloth are to -be hooked into a frame. - -Where much work is done, it will be necessary to have two or three such -vats, in order that they may be worked in succession: by stirring them -some hours previously to working, the weaker will do for the lighter -shades, the stronger for the fuller colours. If the vat is in proper -order, the goods always come out green, and turn blue in the air. This -should be ascertained by small patterns previously to working the whole. -When any goods are dyed in these vats, if not full enough at one dip, -they may be left a certain time, and then be dipped again, once or more, -as they appear to require it. - -When they are blue enough, and fully aired, they must be taken from the -hooks, and well washed off in two or three fresh clean waters, or at a -wash wheel in a clear running stream. When perfectly clean, they are -ready for the calenderer or glazer. - - -_To dye cotton a_ FAST GREEN, _with the cold indigo vat and weld._ - -After dyeing muslin blue in the blue vat, weld must be boiled in the same -manner as for fast yellow. The quantity of weld to be used, must be -according to the fulness of the blue ground, and of what shade the green -is to be; a proportion of alum must also be used. The goods, after being -worked in the same manner by the selvage, must be washed off, and -stiffened, if for the glazer, but not if for dress, but be framed by the -muslin dresser. - - -_Another cold_ BLUE _vat for linen and cotton._ - -The indigo is to be powdered, and put into warm water with sulphate of -iron, in quantity twice the weight of the indigo, to which is also to be -added, the same weight of fresh-burnt lime. The water should be only -sufficient to mix it thick at first; keep it stirred; and, as it becomes -dissolved and green under the surface, increase the water, often stirring -and trying the mixture, by putting in a pattern between the stirrings, at -some hours distance, between each pattern, and increasing the water: in -twenty-four hours it will be fit for use. - - -_Solution of indigo for penciling printed muslin, &c._ - -To twenty-five gallons of water, add sixteen pounds of indigo, and thirty -pounds of carbonate of potash; when mixed, and placed over the fire, as -soon as the mixture begins to boil, add quicklime, by a little at a time, -to render the alkali caustic; then twelve pounds of red orpiment, and -boil till it will give a yellow colour to transparent glass. - -This form is from _Haussman_. Were the author to make this solution of -indigo, he would first make the alkali caustic with lime, and then put -the clear liquor to the other materials. - -Mr. _M'Kernan_ gives another form for _pencil blue_ with indigo: the -principal differences between which and the above, consist in adding -equal parts of brown sugar and _gum senegal_ to it, which, in regard to -the addition of the gum, is, we presume, a great improvement. - -Dr. URE (_Notes to Berthollet_, vol. ii. page 437.) gives a similar form -from _Vitalis_, for _topical_ or _pencil blue_; but he adds, it was much -used formerly. Another blue, of less permanence but more brilliance, is -now preferred; it is made thus:— - -Into an earthen pot four ounces of finely ground and sifted Prussian blue -are to be put. Over this must be slowly poured, stirring all the while, -sufficient muriatic acid to bring it to the consistence of syrup. The -mixture is to be stirred every hour for a day, and afterwards thickened -with from four to eight pots (of two _litres_ each; a litre _French_ -contains about two wine pints;) of gum-water, according to the shade -wanted. - - -_To dye cotton a_ FAST BUFF. - -Take a brown stone pan or pipkin, glazed. It must not be the common -glazed wares, because these are glazed with _lead_, and the acids will -dissolve the lead; if, therefore, such are used, the lead being -dissolved, will be mixed with the dyeing materials, and sometimes totally -spoil the dye. Stone-ware, if used with care, will bear the fire: such -ware is usually glazed with muriate of soda or common salt. - -Having a proper vessel capable of holding from two quarts to a gallon, -fill it half-full of strong _nitric acid_, to which add, in small -quantities at a time, either _old horse-shoe nails_ from the farrier, -they being the purest iron, or the _cuttings of tin-plate_ from the -tin-man's, for this is also very pure iron, although covered with tin; -but the small portion of tin in the iron is not inimical to the dye. Be -careful not to put too much in at a time, nor to stoop near to it while -the solution is going on, as the red fumes arising are very noxious; and -if the iron be added in large quantity, so much effervescence would be -produced, that a considerable part of the liquor would be thrown over the -top of the vessel. - -When this solution is prepared in haste the air is greatly contaminated, -and therefore it is best to prepare it long before it is wanted, and -slowly, by dropping hourly small quantities of the iron into the acid, -and then little if any perceptible fumes will arise. Continue this -process till, by stirring with a glass rod or tobacco-pipe, you find the -iron dissolves more slowly: by keeping a little iron at the bottom, and -occasionally adding the acid, you may always have this preparation at -hand. - -It is to be used thus:—having a copper of hot water ready, put a part of -it to some cold in a flat tub till the mixture is as hot as the hand will -bear; then, according to the paleness or fulness of your pattern, add -some of the solution of iron, and mix it well by stirring: begin with -about half a pint for two pieces of twenty-four yards each: it is best to -add a smaller quantity than is necessary first, as you can make another -addition as you please, but, if you add the solution in excess, to -diminish it is by no means so easy. Now, having ready a flat tub with -water of as hot a temperature as the hand will bear, put into it a clear -solution of pearl-ash, and have also ready another tub of clear cold -water to wash off in; then pass the pieces (always taking care to have -them well wetted out in one of the tubs of hot water before either the -solution of iron or pearl-ash is put into either of them) through the -solution of iron six or seven times, edging them over by the selvage to -keep them even; next, folding them first even upon a board, wring them -out, wash them off and pass them through the solution of pearl-ash; -lastly, wash them off again in fresh and clean water: a permanent and -bright buff will be found, and as good a colour as can be dyed upon -cotton. - -We here see what an affinity iron and cotton have for each other when the -iron is combined with an acid and the combination in a liquid state. -Although the colour is not so beautiful in every instance, yet, be the -acid which dissolves the iron what it may, cotton imbibes the iron from -it. - -What is left of the solutions of iron and the pearl-ash may each be kept -in a separate _deal_ tub for use. - - -_To dye cotton_ PINK. - -Take _safflower_ in proportion to its goodness and the quantity of work -to be dyed; put it into pure and clear water; tread it in the water till -the water becomes fully charged with a kind of extractive yellow colour. -It is best to put the safflower into a strong linen bag or sack; a sack -containing sixty pounds will take a man two days to wash it clean: if -done in a clear running stream the yellow colour will of course run away; -if you have a small quantity in a tub it must be let out at a plughole, -which every flat tub should have. _The safflower must be worked or trod -till all the yellow colour is got out of it, or the_ pink _to be obtained -from it afterwards will not be bright._ - -When the safflower is thoroughly washed, take it out of the bag and put -it into a deal tub or trough, and add to it _pearl-ash_ in the proportion -of six pounds to one hundred pounds of the safflower, which should be -weighed before it is wetted. Let the potash be well dissolved in water; -pour part of the clear solution off, and mix it thoroughly with the -safflower; after having stood for some time strain the liquor through a -cloth or sieve into another deal trough. The whole solution of pearl-ash -should not be put in at once, but at different times. If there should be -reason to believe that the safflower will yield more colouring matter by -a farther addition of the solution of pearl-ash, such additional solution -may be made. The water for the solution and the solution to the safflower -should both be applied cold. Carbonate or mild potash is better than the -caustic. By putting the solution of pearl-ash on the safflower at -different times it will be readily seen when the fluid passes through the -cloth or sieve free from colour. - -The colour is of a cherry hue, and is resinous, therefore the water -dissolves but little of it; the carbonate of potash is added to dissolve -this resin. - -To overcome the influence of the pearl-ash, which tinges the red of a -yellow colour, some cream of tartar must be finely powdered and dissolved -in boiling water, and added to the liquor when it is nearly cold. In the -South of France lemon juice is used. - -The colour, being thus raised by the cream of tartar, is now to be mixed -with cold water in proportion to the fulness of the pattern desired, and -the cloth must be worked six or seven times in it, as in other colours. - -What is left of the colour must be taken up with some skein cotton, and -dried; this may be added to water upon another occasion by saturating the -acid with a solution of pearl-ash, which will abstract the dye from the -cotton. - -The solution of tartar will again redden the colour from the yellow of -the pearl-ash; this must be done if any remain, for it will not keep in a -fluid state. - -We shall not here describe any other process with cotton till we have -treated of wool and silk. - -For dyeing cotton _black_, and some other colours, see the chapters V. -and VI. - - -[7] The difference between _decoction_ and _infusion_ should be always -carefully observed: a _decoction_ is made by _boiling_ the ingredient or -ingredients in any liquor; an _infusion_ is that in which the ingredients -are put but _not boiled_. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ON DYEING SILK. - -_To alum silk—The blue vat of indigo for silk—Another blue vat for -silk—To dye silk violet, royal purple, &c.—To dye silk lilac—Another -process for lilac—Another process for dyeing muslin, &c. lilac—To dye -silk a violet or purple with logwood—To dye silk violet with Brazil wood -and logwood—To dye silk violet or purple with Brazil wood and archil._ - - -_To alum silk._ - -Forty or fifty pounds of alum being dissolved in a copper of hot water, -the solution is to be poured into a tub containing forty or fifty pails -of cold water; during the mixing of the solution of alum with the water -it should be well stirred lest the cold water should crystallize the alum -and spot the silk; when, however, this happens, dipping silk in warm -water will dissolve the alum. The silk should be alumed cold, for, if -hot, the lustre of the silk will be injured. Alum is used for certain -reds and yellows but not for blue. See also chapter VI. - -When silk is deprived of its gum so as to acquire the greatest possible -degree of whiteness, it is still necessary to have different shades of -white, some yellow, some blue, and others reddish; these are known under -five denominations, namely, _China white_, _India white_, _thread or milk -white_, _silver and azure white_. All these whites, although differing -from each other by _very slight shades_, are nevertheless apparent, -especially when compared with each other, which will be seen in the -processes of dyeing silk. - -For _ungumming and boiling, whitening and sulphuring silk_, see chapter -VI. - -We have described _M'Kernan's_ method of preparing and neutralizing -sulphate of indigo in pages 51 and 52, to which the reader will be kind -enough to refer: the following _blue vat_ is from _Macquer_. - - -_The_ BLUE _vat of indigo for silk._ - -This should be so contrived that heat may be applied to it, which it now -mostly is, by steam, as well for woollen woad vats as for indigo vats. -For silk, take eight pounds of the finest indigo and six pounds of the -best pearl-ash, and from three to four ounces of madder for every pound -of ash, besides eight pounds of bran for the whole, washed in several -waters to take the flour out. When washed, and the water squeezed out, -the bran is to be put at the bottom of the vat; the pearl-ash and the -madder being mixed by bruising them roughly together, are now to be -boiled a quarter of an hour in a copper containing two-thirds of the vat; -the fire being damped, the liquor is then suffered to rest. Two or three -days previous to this the indigo is to be steeped in a bucket of warm -water, and washed well, the water being changed once or more. Some dyers -begin by boiling the indigo in a ley made with one pound of pearl-ash and -two buckets of water; they afterwards pound it in a mortar quite wet, -and, when it becomes like paste, fill the mortar with the liquor before -boiled, and still hot, stirring it for some time. It is then suffered to -stand a few moments, and then the clear is poured off into a separate -boiler or into the vat. The same quantity of the mixture is then poured -upon the indigo remaining in the mortar and mixed as before; again the -clear is poured off into the boiler, and the operation is repeated till -the whole of the indigo is dissolved in the liquor. The whole of the -liquor in the boiler is now to be gradually poured into the vat on the -bran at the bottom, adding afterwards the remainder of the composition, -grounds and all. - -After stirring and raking for some time, the mixture is left to cool till -it will bear the hand in it, when a little heat is added to keep it in -this state, and so continued till it begins to turn green, which is -easily known by trying it with a little silk. When the green begins to -appear it should be stirred with the rake, then suffered to stand till -the brown and coppery scum which rises upon the surface shews that the -vat is come to; or, in other words, the preparation of this part of the -process is complete. But as it is necessary to be very certain of this, -the scum should be well examined; and if, when blown aside, a fresh scum -is immediately formed it is as it ought to be. In this state it is to -remain for three or four hours, when a new composition is thus made:— - -Put as much water as is requisite to fill the vat into a copper, boiling -it with two pounds of pearl-ashes and four ounces of madder as at first. -This new liquor is to be poured into the vat, raked and mixed, and being -left to stand for four hours it is then ready for dyeing. - -When a vat or vats are set for _green_, double the quantity of madder -must be added. (See Chap. VI.) - -The size of the vat for the above quantity of indigo, should be about -five feet deep, two feet or two feet and a half in diameter at the top, -and one foot and a half or two feet in diameter at the bottom: the form -of an inverted frustum of a cone; or of a sugar loaf inverted, with the -pointed top cut off. - -In order to produce different shades of blue, the silk intended for the -darkest, should be first dipped in the fresh vat and so on to the -lightest; as the vat weakens the silk should be kept in longer, till the -vat, being exhausted, serves only for the lightest shades. When it begins -not only to be weak but dull, it is then necessary to feed the vat with -the following composition: - -Take of the decoction of pearl-ash with indigo one pound; of madder, two -ounces; and a handful of washed bran; boil them together for a quarter of -an hour, either in water or a portion of the same vat if yet sufficiently -full to afford it; after this mixture is added, it should be well raked -and suffered to rest two or three hours, more or less, before the dyeing -is resumed. - -For the finest blues, however, a fresh vat is the best; and if only pale -blues are required, a vat set on purpose with less indigo will answer -better than a strong vat which has been weakened, because though weak it -will give more vivid colours. - - -_Another_ BLUE _vat for silk._ - -Take fifty pounds of good indigo in fine powder; fifty pounds of fresh -slacked stone lime; one hundred pounds of sulphate of iron; and five -pounds or more of pearl-ashes. Stir often for three or four days till -there is a fine copper-colour scum on the top of the liquor in the vat. -The vat is of course to be set with water in the usual way. - -The substance of this form is from _M'Kernan_; we cannot, however, avoid -thinking, that his directions for this vat are very vague. - - -_To dye silk a_ VIOLET, ROYAL PURPLE, &c. - -Boil archil with water in a copper; the quantity of archil according to -the colour required must be from two to four times the weight of the -silk. When the archil has boiled about ten minutes the fire must be -damped, the archil left to subside, and the clear liquor put into a -vessel of a convenient size, in which the silk is to be immersed and -worked with care. - -You must have a small corresponding pattern that you intend for purple, -which at times you must put into the blue vat to regulate the depth of -the archil ground, as the purple is a compound colour, arising from the -blue of the indigo and the red of the archil. When the red of the archil -is deep enough, you must wash it off and put it into the blue vat with -proper precaution. The fulness of the archil ground and the depth of the -blue, must be regulated according to the patterns which are to be matched. - - -_To dye silk_ LILAC. - -_Lilac_ is and should be a bright light shade of violet or purple; to -give it the blue requires great management. The vats being generally too -strong, it is best to mix a little of the new rich vat with some -pearl-ash in clean cold water, and so prepare a liquor on purpose, by -which the lilacs may be blued or reddened at pleasure. When this liquor -is first mixed it becomes of a green colour; the silks therefore should -not be dipped till the liquor begins to lose its green colour and -inclines to blue. Pearl-ash added to this liquor helps to blue the -archil, because the effect of the alkali upon red is to render it violet. - - -_Another process for_ LILAC. - -Consists in simply using the _chemical blue_ with archil according to the -shade required. - - -_Another process for dyeing muslin, &c._ LILAC. - -This is accomplished by mixing the neutralized chemic blue for cotton -with the pink dye of safflower, according to the shade required. - - -_To dye silk a_ VIOLET _or_ PURPLE _with Logwood._ - -The silk should be alumed and washed. The logwood should be boiled in -large quantities like fustic, as as directed for green; but it should not -be kept longer than two or three weeks; it is far better used cold than -hot. - - -_To dye silk_ VIOLET _with Brazil wood and Logwood._ - -The silk must be alumed and cooled as usual; it is then to be alumed and -dyed in a liquor made of Brazil wood of the common heat, then in the cold -logwood liquor, and lastly, a solution of pearl-ash must be added to the -liquor in which the silk is last dyed. It is afterwards to be washed and -dried; but for some shades it is best to have fresh liquor, particularly -for the warm Brazil, the cold logwood, and the solution of pearl-ash: in -this case the quantity of each may be much better regulated. - - -_To dye silk_ VIOLET _or_ PURPLE _with Brazil wood and Archil._ - -The silk when alumed is to be dyed in the decoction of Brazil wood -according to the shade required; it is then to be washed and dyed in -archil: and it is afterwards washed a second time. After this it is -dipped in the blue vat, and wrung and dried with the same accuracy used -in greens and blues. - -For dyeing silk _black_ and some other colours, see Chapters V. and VI. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ON SCOURING AND DYEING WOOL. - -_On the action of alum and tartar upon wool—A pastil or woad vat for -blue—To prepare the indigo mentioned in the preceding directions—Rules -to judge of the state of the vat—Indications when a vat has had too much -or too little lime—To work a vat which is in proper order—On the -putrefaction of the woad vat—Methods of dyeing blues—To dye wool, with -lac-dye, scarlet, or crimson—To dye worsted yarn a crimson—A -preparation of archil to finish the crimson—On dyeing wool scarlet—To -dye wool maroon—To dye wool yellow—To dye wool brown or of a fawn -colour—To dye wool purple, &c.—To dye wool green—A chemic vat for -green woollen—A chemic vat for blue woollen—To dye wool orange, gold -colour, &c.—To dye wool black—another process for black without a blue -ground—To dye wool grey—Mixture of black or grey with red and blue—On -browns, fawns, greys, &c.—On the yellow of quercitron bark—On a full -bright yellow from the same bark—Bancroft's murio-sulphate of tin—To -dye wool buff—To dye wool peach—To set an Indigo vat for worsted, -serge, &c._ - - -Wool is usually scoured for being dyed with stale urine, the staler the -better: it is used in the proportion of one part to three parts of water, -full as hot as the hands can bear when the wool is worked about in the -fluid.—If the wool be in the fleece, what is called its natural yolk, -and which is said to preserve the wool from the moth, is of a greasy -nature, and is scoured out by the volatile alkali in the urine. If the -wool be in the state of spun yarn it has gallipoli, or rape oil, in its -thread, the spinner, or rather the comber, using it to render the wool -more flexible, &c. It is absolutely necessary that wool, (as indeed every -other material to be dyed) should be made very clean and white, if any -brilliant or bright colour is to be imparted to it. For this reason it is -that the wool is passed two, three, and in some instances even four times -through fresh scouring liquors; in the last, and sometimes in that which -precedes the last, soap is used in the proportion of from seven to -fourteen pounds, and in some instances to twenty one pounds or more, to, -a pack of two hundred and forty pounds of wool, according as it is fine -or coarse: for superfine colours more than common is used. Worsted -requires less than coarse yarn, having less grease and dirt in it. - -It ought, however, to be known, that _boiling_ wool _for a long time_ in -any alkaline liquors, or a liquor made of soap, tends greatly to the -decomposition of the cloth; indeed long boiling in any strong alkaline -ley converts wool into a kind of soap, and, hence, it is easy to see why -such processes injure wool or cloths made with it. - -The preceding observations apply to the alkalies in a _caustic_ state, or -in the state of _carbonate_, not when they are neutralized by powerful -acids: for wool, when fit to receive the dyes, and if it is designed to -be dyed _yellow_, should boil two hours with one-twelfth or one-tenth of -its weight, of sulphate of alum (common alum) observing proper -precautions, and the use of a sufficient quantity of prepared weld plant -boiled, &c.: or of quercitron bark, as will be shown in the processes of -the different yellows. If it were yarn, and the threads cut in two, it -would be found dyed throughout, and of a body and richness in proportion -to the correct application of the various ingredients, and with due -regard to time, weight, measure, &c. - -In the process just mentioned, we may observe, that the quantity of alum -and of the weld plant used will be found very considerable: from one -twelfth to a fourth of alum, and, according to the French method, four or -five times more weld than the quantity of the wool. - -When a process of dyeing has been scientifically conducted, the wool will -take so much of the alum that the bath will hardly taste of it; and -afterwards take the colour of the dye bath out of it; so that the -remaining liquor put into a glass will be nearly like water. - - -_The action of alum and tartar upon wool._ - -From the experiments of Dr. URE, (_Notes to Berthollet_, vol. ii. p. -323.) it appears that alum has the property of increasing the solubility -of cream of tartar; that as, in using alum and tartar, the wool is -impregnated with alum and a large quantity of tartaric acid, these two -salts should never be employed together, except when the colour is -susceptible of being heightened and rendered brighter by acids, as is the -case with cochineal, madder, and kermes. On the contrary, alum should -never be employed for wools intended to be dyed with woad, or Brazil -wood, the colour of which is easily destroyed or altered by acids. - -To conclude these preliminary observations, wool has a strong and -powerful affinity for _all_ dyeing materials; and, therefore, the -processes for dyeing wool are, in general, by no means so complicated as -those for dyeing _cotton_, _silk, &c._; although some colours, even to -these, are readily, and without a complication of processes, imparted. - - -_A pastil, or woad vat for_ BLUE. - -Take, upon as small a scale as can conveniently be tried, a copper -vessel, which will contain about twelve gallons, two thirds full of soft -water, and one ounce of madder. Fix this small copper in a larger copper -of water, so that the heat may be applied to keep the liquor in the -smaller copper at a proper temperature; it will be then, in fact, a -_water bath_. - -Having kindled the fire in the afternoon, put in a good handful of bran -and five pounds of woad; at five o'clock in the evening let it be well -stirred and covered over, the liquor being about blood-warm; let the same -heat be continued as nearly as possible, at least so as not to be lower -than _summer heat_ by the thermometer, nor higher than _fever heat_ by -the same instrument. The vat must again be well stirred at seven, at -nine, at twelve at night, at two in the morning, and at four. - -_Hellot_, describing this process, observes, that "the woad then working, -some air bubbles began to rise pretty large, but few in number, and of a -very faint colour; it had then two ounces of lime added, and was stirred; -this was four o'clock in the morning; at five a pattern was put in, and -at six it was taken out and the vat stirred. This pattern had received -some colour. At seven o'clock another pattern was put in, and at eight it -was stirred again. The second pattern was tolerably bright. An ounce of -_prepared indigo_, (see p. 75.) was then added; at nine o'clock another -pattern was put in; at ten it was stirred again, taking the pattern out, -and putting in an ounce of lime because it began to smell sweetish; at -eleven another pattern; at twelve at noon it was stirred again. This -process was continued till five o'clock in the evening; then were added -three ounces of prepared indigo; at six another pattern was tried, and at -seven it was stirred again; the last pattern came out of a very good -green, and became a bright blue. One ounce of lime was added to sustain -it till nine o'clock the next morning; patterns were put in from time to -time: the last was very beautiful. The vat was then filled up with water -and a small quantity of bran and stirred; after which patterns were tried -every hour till five o'clock in the evening, when, being in a proper -state, it was immediately worked. Some lime was then added to preserve -it; it was stirred and left to another opportunity to reheat." - - -_To prepare the indigo mentioned in the preceding directions._ - -Boil, in a gallon of water, for three quarters of an hour, two ounces of -pot-ash, three quarters of an ounce of madder, and one ounce of bran; -then let the whole settle for half an hour. After all is settled and -taken out of the boiler, and put into another copper with four ounces of -indigo finely powdered, the liquor should be kept stirred, and very hot, -but not be boiled. At intervals some lixivium of lime should be put into -it, and that being cold will keep the liquor from boiling, and render the -pot-ash more active. - -As soon as the indigo is dissolved and properly diluted, damp the fire -and cover over the solution; after it is settled put in a pattern, which, -when taken out, will turn blue on being exposed to the air; if it does -not, more clear lixivium must be added. Of this solution of indigo such -proportions are to be added to the woad vat as are directed in the -preceding process. - - -_Rules to judge of the state of the woad vat._ - -The vat is ready for working, and to dye blue, when the sediment at the -bottom, on being taken out of the vat changes to a fine brown-green. When -the froth which rises in great bubbles on the surface is of a fine -Prussian-blue, and when the pattern which has been steeped an hour, comes -out of a dark grass-green, and changes in the air to a blue; when the -liquor is clear and reddish, and the drops which stick to the rake are -brown; when the sediment changes colour on being taken out of the liquor, -and becomes brown on exposure to the open air: when the liquor is neither -harsh nor greasy to the feel, and neither smells of lime nor of ley, the -vat is known to be in a proper state for working. - - -_Indications when a vat has had too much or too little lime._ - -These extremes ought to be carefully avoided. When the lime is deficient, -or a pattern comes out of a dirty grey, and the sediment does not change -its colour, there is scarcely any effervescence on the vat; the liquor -smells only of lime, or of the lixivium of lime. - - -_To remedy the deficiency of lime._ - -If the vat be not too far gone, after the addition of a little bran, -madder, and some woad, then try the patterns from hour to hour; thus you -will be enabled to judge. - -A _deficiency_ of lime is evident when there is no effervescence on the -liquor; and when, by dashing about the surface of the liquor, it makes a -hissing noise, and by the bursting of a number of small air bubbles, -which as soon as they are formed break, and appear tarnished, and are not -large, nor of a fine colour; the liquor too has an offensive smell, like -rotten eggs; it is harsh and dry to the feel, and the sediment, as has -been before observed, does not change colour when taken out of the liquor. - -Sometimes such a condition of the vat is absolutely irremediable; but -when not gone too far, sprinkle some lime into the liquor, and stir it. -If you can thus remedy the defect, and bring the liquor to smell of lime, -and to feel soft, cover the vat, and let it stand. If, at the expiration -of an hour and a half, the effervescence begin, you may put in a pattern; -in an hour afterwards, it may be taken out, and regulate your process by -the degree of green which the pattern has imbibed; but, in general, when -vats are thus out of order, they are not so soon recovered. - - -_To work a vat which is in proper order._ - -The vat being in a proper state, the cross suspended, and thirty ells of -cloth ready, or scoured wool in proportion, designed for black, by dyeing -it of a blue grey; and having passed and repassed the cloth through the -liquor for a full half-hour, it is to be wound round the winch, and -thrown off into the barrow, and aired by the listings to change the green -to blue. After this, a second piece may be dyed by the same process. - -Having made this overture, or _first stirring_, as it is also called, the -vat must be stirred afresh, adding lime; but not so much as to destroy -the proper smell and feel. If the vat be in a good state, on the first -day, it may be stirred three or four times; but it must not be -overworked, particularly on the second day. - -_Concerning the colours to be obtained to the best possible advantage -from a fresh vat on the first day_,—the first is for _black_, the next -for _royal blue_, and the third a _brown green_. On the _second_ day, -_violet_, _purple_, and _Turkey blues_ in the last stirring. On the -_third_ day, if the liquor be too much diminished, it must be filled up -with hot water. At the end of the week _light blues_ may be done, and on -Saturday night add rather more lime, to preserve the vat till Monday -morning. On Monday morning add more indigo, and stir the paste; keep the -vat liquor at a proper distance from the top. Cover it for two hours; -then put in a pattern, and in an hour take it out; add lime according to -the green shade of the pattern, and in an hour or two, if your vat has -not suffered, you may begin working it afresh. - -To keep the cloth, &c. from the sediment, there is always let down into -the vat, before the work is begun, an iron circle, with cords fastened -from the circumference to the centre. - - -_On the putrefaction of the woad vat._ - -Whatever be the cause, most certain it is, that the woad vat, even when -prepared in the most careful and scientific manner, is soon disposed, _if -not used_, to go into the putrid fermentation; of this we may be -satisfied, when it smells like rotten eggs, as stated above. - -The loss of a woad vat to dyers is extremely serious, both from the -quantity of woad, as well as of indigo, which it contains: these articles -being always expensive. The woad vat being worked by heat directly -applied from an open fire, (the old method of heating it,) was much more -liable to be lost than if it remained cold, or was worked _continually_, -as it usually now is in _London_; added to which, the more equable -application of heat by _steam_, there is not now the danger which there -was in cessation, at uncertain times, and in uncertain states of the vat, -as to richness or poorness of woad or of indigo. - -But a dyer in the _country_, whose business is barely sufficient to keep -a vat going, will find more difficulty in this respect. If, therefore, he -does a small batch of work on Monday, but has not half worked down his -vat, and has no prospect for two or three days of doing any more work, he -may possibly try to keep it with lime for a day or two: he may do so, and -in the issue, in some instances, _too much lime_ is the consequence. We -consider, however, that when the vat can be worked daily, and replenished -as it is worked down, as is the case in London, with care and attention, -there is no danger of the loss of a woad vat: in London, such an accident -now seldom happens. The author is, notwithstanding, persuaded that all -the art of man cannot always keep a vat from the state of having either -too much or too little lime, _when heated but seldom_, under a short -course of work: for when a vat is in order, it is like a ripe vegetable; -you must gather it, or it passes the time of its perfection; it may even -be rotten ripe. We say, therefore, WORK THE VAT: withdraw from it, upon -your cloth, its colour, which, as soon as you expose it to the -atmosphere, will combine with its oxygen,—the oxygen with the carbon of -the indigo and the woad. If you play with it too long, the putrid -fermentation will begin, and the vat will be spoiled. The smell of rotten -eggs always proclaims the approach of the mischief. - -No one, therefore, should attempt to have a woad vat or vats, unless he -can keep them nearly always at work. When worked down in a moderate time, -and replenished with lime, woad, indigo, &c., working out and -replenishing in, there can be no danger. On the other hand, in proportion -as the vat is out of condition, although partially recovered, it must -always be with more or less loss. - - -_Methods of dyeing_ BLUES. - -Whether the goods be cloth, or skeins of yarn, they must, in all cases, -be first wetted out and wrung, and then put into the vat, worked in it, -taken out and aired, that they may turn from green to blue; and, if -necessary, they must be put in again. - -There is no difficulty in dyeing _dark blues_, by repeated dippings; but -if _light blues_ be dyed in vats which are nearly exhausted, they will -not be bright. - -Blue vats, upon a large scale, are now mostly heated by steam; they are -then, with little trouble, always in a state for working, without the -necessity of re-heating. They are very convenient for light colours, even -after they become very weak. In some instances, in order to dye light -colours to the best advantage, it would be advisable to set a vat on -purpose, which should be strong in woad and weak in indigo; because the -colour would be given more slowly, and the light colour obtained from -them with much more facility. - - -_To dye wool with lac-dye,_ SCARLET _and_ CRIMSON. - -We have mentioned _lac-lake_ and _lac-dye_ in page 12. Lac-lake is of -very uncertain quality, having many heterogeneous substances mixed with -it. _Lac-dye_ is very superior to lac-lake. Lac-dye is much used for -dyeing woollen yarn scarlet and crimson, for carpets and hearthrugs. It -is used with a peculiar spirit, which may be purchased of the -dry-salters. Some think that this colouring material is nearly equal to -cochineal; the author has, however, never seen any thing dyed with it -equal to the colour obtained from cochineal, although it affords, -nevertheless, a good scarlet. - -Lac-dye is used by being powdered and put into a stone pan, (the quantity -must be in proportion to what is likely to be used), with a portion of -the above-named _lac-spirit_ sufficient to make it about as fluid as -treacle; it must be stirred with a glass-rod or a tobacco-pipe. Some use -alum and tartar as a preparation, and some not. After putting the mixture -of lac-lake and spirit in the copper with a proper quantity of water, add -the goods and work them at a boiling heat. For _scarlet_ add quercitron -bark, for crimson, _archil_. - -Lac-dye may be, however, prepared for dyeing, by submitting it, in -_powder_, in a leaden vessel, to the action of sulphuric acid, in the -proportion of not more than one part to two of the dye; and after the -lac-dye is dissolved, the acid may be neutralized by carbonate of soda. -With suitable mordants to the cloth or yarn, the colour may be then -applied. Other processes for the employment of this dye are also adopted, -but we have no room to detail them. (See _Ure's Notes on Berthollet_.) - - -_To dye worsted yarn a_ CRIMSON. - -Proportion of wool, one pound; of _alum_, two ounces and a half; of -_white tartar_ in powder, one ounce and a half. Having the water properly -cleared by bran, let the alum and tartar be boiled in it; when it begins -to boil, stir the mixture well, and put in the worsted, which boil in the -liquor for two hours; then prepare a fresh liquor for the _cochineal_, -one ounce of which, in powder, is to be used for every pound of wool; -when it begins to boil, stir it well, put in the worsted, and boil it -till the liquor in the vessel is free from colour, it having parted with -the colouring matter of the cochineal, which should now all be upon the -worsted. If a series of shades be required, less quantities of cochineal, -alum, and tartar, must be used; the lightest shade is dyed first. - - -_The preparation of archil to finish the_ CRIMSON. - -Put as much archil as the goods may require, and according to the -deepness or lightness of the shades of the crimson required, into a -copper of water of a suitable size, and boil it, (the best canary archil -will bear boiling); damp the fire, let the archil settle, and then have a -fresh liquor for the goods to be put in, to receive a proportion of -archil according to the pattern desired to be matched. Begin with the -lightest and end with the deepest, reserving the remains of the archil -liquor, if it be not all spent, for common compound colours of such -shades as it will be advantageous to use it in. (_See the next article._) - - -_On dyeing wool_ SCARLET. - -Scarlet owes its beauty to a solution of tin in muriatic acid. For this -purpose some use muriate of ammonia, commonly called sal-ammoniac, others -use common salt. It is of little consequence whether common salt or -sal-ammoniac be used: different preparations are employed by different -persons. The author has found the following to answer every expectation. - -Melt an ounce of grain tin in an iron ladle, till an oxide is formed on -the surface; then pour it from a height or distance into cold water. Pour -the water from it, and it is fit for use, being then called _feathered -tin_. Put this tin into a glass vessel or stone jar, and add to it eight -ounces of nitric acid, eight ounces of water, half an ounce of -sal-ammoniac, and two drachms of nitrate of potash. This preparation is -better if made some time before it is used; it is a compound of nitrate -and muriate of tin. - -Should any one prefer a pure _muriate of tin_, the method of making it -will be found in the last chapter, in _observations on crimson and -scarlet upon silk_. - -Into a copper of cleared boiling water, the heat being reduced, and -having the worsted wetted out ready; for every pound of which (dry) put -two ounces of _cream of tartar_ or _white tartar_ in powder, and one -drachm and a half of _cochineal_ in powder. When the liquor is ready to -boil, add two ounces and a half of the first-mentioned solution of tin, -which immediately changes the colour; stir it well: as soon as the liquor -boils put in the worsted, and boil it till the colour of the cochineal is -taken up by it. The worsted must now be taken out, when it will be of a -flesh-colour, the water in the copper having lost its colouring matter. -To finish the worsted, another quantity of clean water is made warm, into -which six drachms and a half of cochineal are to be put; just before it -boils, two ounces of the same solution of tin are to be poured in, the -liquor undergoing a similar change as before. The worsted is again put -in, and boiled till it has imbibed the colour; it is then taken out, -wrung, and rinsed in clean water, when the scarlet is in perfection. - -_One ounce_ of cochineal to a _pound_ of wool, will impart a colour -sufficiently deep, if managed according to the method above described, no -colour being left in the remaining liquor. - -For many _shades of scarlet_ it will be, however, necessary, and, in a -fresh liquor, to add either a certain portion of _turmeric_ or _young -fustic_, to give the scarlet that fiery red which some scarlets have. If -not in an entire fresh liquor, a part of the old liquor must be taken out -before the yellow is added. - -When it is wished to dye a regular series of scarlet shades in worsted, -half the quantity or less, for some of the lightest, will be sufficient -of the solution of tin, the tartar, the cochineal, &c. The worsted should -be separated into divisions corresponding with the shades required; the -lightest is of course to be done first: if any deficiency be in the -shade, it may have another dip. This deficiency is easily perceived, and -a very little practice will enable the operator to assort them perfectly. - -_It should be noted, that the vessel most proper to dye scarlet in ought -to be made of block tin; such as are used by the scarlet dyers for the -East India Company._ - -When woollen cloth is to be dyed scarlet, to every hundred pounds of -cloth put six pounds of tartar and eighteen pounds of the solution of tin -at first; the same quantity in the completion; and in each operation, six -pounds and a quarter of cochineal. - -For the accommodation of those who would make small experiments, one -ounce of cream of tartar, six ounces of solution of tin, and one ounce of -cochineal, may be used for every pound of worsted or cloth, putting -two-thirds of the solution of tin and the tartar, and a quarter of the -cochineal, into the preparation, and the remainder to the completion. - -_Observe_, that although we have given processes for dyeing woollen cloth -crimson as well as scarlet, yet _crimson_ may be obtained in another way: -for alum, the salts in general with an earthy base, and the fixed and -volatile alkalies, possess the property of changing the colour of scarlet -into crimson, the natural colour of the cochineal. The cloth which is -dyed scarlet has only to be boiled, therefore, for about an hour, in a -solution, more or less charged with alum, according as a deeper or -lighter crimson is wanted. When a piece of scarlet has any defects, it is -set apart for crimson. Soap and potash will also produce crimson from -scarlet, but not of so bright a colour as from alum. Hence also we learn -the necessity, in, at any time, working _scarlet_ cloth, to avoid boiling -it with soap or pot-ash, &c. if we desire the scarlet to remain. - - -_To dye wool_ MAROON. - -The worsted or yarn must be boiled for an hour or two in one twelfth its -weight of alum and the same quantity of white argol. It is best, when -there is a large quantity of yarn, to do this on the preceding day: if -your copper hold a pack of two hundred and forty pounds, it will be cold -enough to handle after remaining with the fire out during the night. - -When the skeins, &c. are taken out and arranged upon poles or sticks, -have a fresh water ready in the copper, into which put about thirty -pounds of chipped peach-wood, and when it has boiled half an hour, pour -in some water to cool it down, and add fifteen pounds of crop madder; -work the yarn in this liquor rather under a boiling heat. When it is full -enough, for some shades you must add archil. As the whole pack is dyed at -four or five turnings in, some of the parcels may be varied in the hues -instead of confining them all to one shade. The various turnings will -take the greater part of the day to perform. When you choose to have as -many shades as there are turnings in, you divide the drugs into different -portions for different periods of the time, to be used according to the -patterns required. The most economical method of using the drugs being to -follow the patterns one after the other: practice will teach the operator -to do this most advantageously. - -More madder than peach-wood gives a lively red; more peach-wood than -madder gives a bright maroon red, bordering on crimson, but more so -without any madder; with the addition of archil it gives a crimson, but -by no means to be compared with the crimson of cochineal. Urine with the -archil renders a less quantity of archil necessary. - - -_To dye wool_ YELLOW. - -The proportion of _alum_ used by dyers in these processes varies from -one-fourth down to one-twelfth, of _tartar_ one-sixteenth is used, for -every pound of cloth. _Equal parts_ of alum and tartar are used for -_worsted_ and _yarn_, each of which (alum and tartar) is only from -one-twelfth to one-tenth of the weight of the material to be dyed. - -The shades of yellow are _straw_ yellow, _pale_ yellow, _lemon_ yellow, -and _full_ yellow. - -In order that the cloth should be properly impregnated with the mordants -of alum and tartar, according to what is allotted to the shade, whether -light or full, it should be boiled in the preparation at least one hour; -two hours for a full yellow; then a fresh liquor is to be made to receive -the weld, which must be previously boiled: for a full yellow four or five -pounds of weld will be required to one pound of cloth or worsted; for the -lighter shades less of course: but a sufficient quantity only of weld -should be used, and this should be boiled and re-boiled, as it will keep -but a very little time after boiling. If you have a gradation of shades -you will save drugs and expense by dyeing the fullest shades first, and -the lightest last; but by this method the lightest will not be so bright -as if they were done first, and the liquor renewed with fresh boiled -weld, and so on to the fullest shade. At last you must have for the goods -a preparation weak or strong according to the light or full colour of -which they are to be. The last dyeing, whether of cloth or yarn, will -assuredly take all the colour out of the liquor of any consequence. - -While expense is not an object, it is best, not only for yellows, but for -all other colours, to have the preparation and the dye proportioned to -the shade, the colour done at once, and the remaining liquor thrown away; -but as the price usually paid for dyeing will not enable the dyer so to -do, he commonly dyes his shades in succession, as above, and with the -utmost economy. - - -_To dye wool_ BROWN, _or of a_ FAWN COLOUR. - -These shades are extremely various, and are dyed without any preparation -with alder-bark, red sanders, sumach, galls, madder, &c. and under a -boiling heat, although it is occasionally necessary to boil some of the -ingredients together previous to the dyeing: for instance, red sanders -will give its colour out best when boiled with galls, alder-bark, sumach, -&c. Cam-wood, bar-wood, walnut rinds, roots, &c. are used in some of -these shades, the varieties of which are almost infinite. Practice is -required in this branch of dyeing equal to or beyond any other. - - -_To dye wool_ PURPLE, _&c._ - -Pass the goods through _archil_, next through the _blue vat_, with the -usual precautions, then through hot water. For some shades they should be -alumed, and then dyed with cochineal for the crimson part of the purple. -_Blue_ and _crimson_ make purple, violet, &c. according to the patterns -required. - - -_To dye wool_ GREEN. - -The shades of this colour are very numerous, as _yellow_ green, _pale_ -green, _bright_ green, _grass_ green, _laurel_ green, _olive_ green, -_sea_ green, _parrot_ green, _cabbage_ green, _duck's-wing_ green, &c. - -The goods must first have a blue ground from the woad vat, light or full -according to the pattern, they are afterwards to be prepared with alum -and tartar, weak or strong according to the lightness or fulness of the -pattern, and are afterwards dyed in weld liquor. Many of the shades of -green are more readily done by dyeing the wool first yellow with old -fustic, with a preparation of alum and tartar, and using the chemic blue -vat made with sulphuric acid and indigo. See page 47. - - -_A chemic vat for_ GREEN WOOLLEN. - -Prepare in the manner described for cotton (page 52.), eight ounces of -indigo and four pounds of sulphuric acid. This preparation need not, -however, be neutralized for wool as described for cotton. In some -instances the preparation is to be for the yellow of fustic one-twelfth -of alum, the same quantity of tartar, and in some cases one-twelfth of -alum only. - - -_A chemic vat for_ BLUE WOOLLEN. - -This is to be made the same as for green; it need not be neutralized as -for cotton. For _blue_, however, _twelve_ ounces of indigo are necessary -to four pounds of sulphuric acid. In dyeing the heat must be much under -boiling, or the using of a high heat would give the blue a green tinge. -This blue colour is very bright, yet not fast, but no preparation is of -any advantage to either its fastness or brightness. Some put alum and -tartar, and some use one, and some the other, to prevent a green cast: -if, however, the wool be fine, white, and worked _much below_ the boiling -point of heat, it will not turn green although neither be used. - - -_To dye wool_ ORANGE, GOLD COLOUR, _&c._ - -The processes of crimson, scarlet, and of yellow united produce the -various shades of these colours, _leaving archil out_. See _buff, peach, -&c. on wool_. - - -_To dye wool_ BLACK. - -Black includes a prodigious number of shades, beginning from the lightest -grey or pearl colour to the most intense shade of black. On account of -these shades it is classed by dyers among their chief or primitive -colours[8]; for the greater number of browns, of whatsoever shade they -be, are finished in the same dye as would dye white wool a grey more or -less dark. This operation is called _browning_. The best superfine black -should have a full ground of _mazarine blue_ previously to being finished -black. - -A great quantity of cloth and other articles have, however, no indigo -ground, but a ground of logwood, or of logwood and alder-bark, or of -logwood and old fustic, or of logwood, alder-bark, and old fustic, all -boiled together, and sometimes they are boiled in a decoction of oak -saw-dust. - -Indigo for the ground is the richest drug, in carbon, that is or can be -used; logwood is next to it: too much logwood, however, whether indigo be -used with it or not, gives the black a foxy hue; alder-bark and old -fustic modify this effect, and are used in small quantities for this -purpose, because the dye from these, as well as that from oak saw-dust, -will produce a soot or dead black. - -A _jet_ black is required full and rich, therefore old fustic and oak -saw-dust are only used to modify the richness of the ground as it regards -the blue, whether of indigo or of logwood; for logwood especially, -without these, if overcome with sumach and sulphate of iron only, would -be foxy, purplish, or have a reddish cast. - -So many different grounds being used for blacks, and every dyer thinking -his own the best, is the occasion of such a great variety of hues, even -of black, being found in the market. It is, therefore, thought -unnecessary to describe the various methods of dyeing black which are -pursued by different dyers, and which would be, in fact, impossible. But -the author has done what is of much greater importance to the student, -who, after a little practice, let him have a pattern of black to dye, -will know how to do it, let who may have dyed it. - -Even a blue-ground is, according to some, dyed afterwards in a decoction -of logwood and galls, or logwood and sumach, and two pounds of verdigris -for a hundred pounds of cloth. Thus, ten pounds of logwood and ten of -galls, are to form the decoction, and are boiled previously for twelve -hours. One third of it with the verdigris is used first, and then the -cloth, after boiling in it for two hours, is aired; it is then passed -through one third more of the decoction of logwood and galls, having -previously had eight pounds of sulphate of iron dissolved in it, and the -scum arising from the solution taken off. The goods are to be worked in -this one hour at a boiling heat, then aired again by turning them about -on a stone floor. The remainder of the decoction of logwood and galls is -then added, with fifteen or twenty pounds of sumach; boil it some time, -and then add five pounds of sulphate of iron; scum it, and let the liquor -cool down, then put the goods in, and work them at a boiling heat an hour -or two, taking them out once or twice, at least, in the time, to air and -cool; they are then to be well washed, and passed through a decoction of -weld liquor, to soften the black, which will be very fine. This process -is chiefly from _Hellot_; but the quantity of sulphate of iron is more by -three pounds than he directs. - -When the cloth is blue, it is usually boiled two hours in a decoction of -galls, then washed and aired, when sulphate of iron and logwood are added -to the liquor, and the goods worked in it for two hours, and then washed. - -The above have been the processes in practice for a century past in -France, where the galls were not so dear as they now are in England: -sumach is here, therefore, now most commonly used as a substitute for -galls. - - -_Another process for_ BLACK _without a blue ground._ - -To dye one hundred weight of cloth, take thirty pounds of chipped -logwood, half a bushel of alder-bark, and six pounds of sumach, and boil -them together in a proper quantity of water for half an hour; then cool -the decoction down with cold water, enter the cloth, turning it on the -winch; bring it to a boil, having the sumach in a bag; boil and keep the -cloth turning for one hour and a half: this is the ground. Have now ready -fourteen pounds of sulphate of iron dissolved in water, which is to be -laded into the copper by one man, while another turns the cloth for an -hour at a boiling heat; it is then to be taken out, cooled, and aired, -returned to the copper, and boiled gently for two hours, and then cooled -again. - -While the cloth is cooling, six pounds of logwood, ten pounds of -alder-bark, two pounds of argol, ten of soda, or common pot-ashes, and -three pounds of sulphate of iron, are to be added to the liquor in the -copper, and boiled one hour, when the goods must be turned and worked one -hour; and, lastly, taken out and aired. This black is said to be of the -hue of a raven's feather. _This process is from_ HEIGH. - -The _argol_ is professed to be put in to counteract the sulphuric acid of -the sulphate of iron; the _alkali_ is said to cause the logwood to retain -its natural violet colour: and if too great a quantity of logwood be not -used, the result would be as above stated. But the author presumes that -such a black would not be at this time much esteemed. We object to the -introduction of so much, indeed of any alkali or argol, as the time -employed in performing the process is wasted. Alkali is good, however, -where a chemic green is to be dyed black. - -Wool will take up whatever the copper contains necessary to dye black; -but, for the beauty of the colour and the durability of the cloth, it is -best to let it have most of its ground of vegetable colour before it has -the sulphate of iron, which blackens that ground, with sumach instead of -galls; and even in some instances, dyeing some goods without the sumach. - -Were the author, however, to direct the dyeing of black cloth, such as -should be of the best kind, he would have _an indigo ground with logwood -and alder-bark, without old fustic or oak saw-dust; and to finish the -cloth he would use sumach, sulphate of iron, and a small quantity of -verdigris. He would give it the blue ground first; then the logwood, -alder-bark, and verdigris; and then finish it with sumach and sulphate of -iron._ - -If the blue ground were omitted, he should dye the cloth twice, giving it -more of logwood and alder-bark, but verdigris the same; and finish it -with sumach and sulphate of iron. Nevertheless, when we dye to a pattern, -the pattern must be our guide. - -Different goods will require different quantities of drugs. Logwood -should be about one-fourth of the weight of the goods; the sulphate of -iron about one-fifth of the logwood; alder-bark, when used, about the -same quantity as sulphate of iron; but for some yarns this bark is not -used, nor is it necessary; and where fustic or oak saw-dust is used, -there is the less necessity for using alder-bark. The sumach must be -about the same quantity as sulphate of iron. Remember that carbon is -generally considered as that which makes the richness of a dye. That it -is the iron in the sulphate of iron, combined with the tannin and gallic -acid which are assumed to be in the sumach and logwood, that produces the -blackness of the dye; but this _theory_ is questionable. See _below_. - -The way to ascertain when the quantities of drugs are most appropriate -for producing the desired effect is as follows:— - -First, ground with different quantities of drugs, from three to five or -seven patterns, and use from one third to one fifth of sulphate of iron -and sumach to the grounding; afterwards finish with the remainder of the -sulphate of iron and sumach: the fuller the ground the richer will be the -black, if the logwood be not in excess, and the quantities be used as -thus stated. - -We ought also to state here (from _Berthollet_, vol. ii. p. 4.) that -commonly more simple processes than any of those above described are -employed for black. Thus the blue cloth is simply turned through a bath -of gallnuts, when it is boiled for two hours. It is next passed through a -bath of logwood and sulphate of iron for two hours without boiling, after -which it is washed and fulled. - -A black may also be dyed _without a blue ground_ with walnut rinds or the -roots of the walnut tree; in this case the cloth receives a dun ground -from the walnut husks or roots, and is afterwards made black in the -manner above described, with logwood and sulphate of iron. - -The blacks, however, _without_ the blue ground are only given in general -to inferior cloths. - -The _colouring principle of logwood_ is called _hematin_; it is -crystalline, of a rosy-white, and, viewed through a lens, very brilliant; -its taste is slightly astringent, bitter and acrid; exposed to the action -of fire in a retort it affords all the products of animal substances, and -also a small quantity of ammonia, which proves that it contains nitrogen. -It dissolves easily in boiling water; on adding some acid very gradually, -it changes to yellow and then red. Potash and ammonia give the solution -of hematin a purple red; if a great excess of these alkalies be added, -the colour becomes violet-blue, then brown-red, and finally yellow-brown. -In this state it is decomposed and cannot be recovered by any acids. -Protoxide of lead, protoxide of tin, hydrate of tritoxide of iron, -hydrate of copper, oxide of zinc and its hydrate, flowers of antimony and -oxide of bismuth combine with hematin and give it a blue colour, with the -loss of the violet shade. See _notes_ to _Ure's Berthollet_, vol. ii. p. -420. See the explanation of _protoxide_, &c. under OXIDE in Chapter I. - -The above facts concerning logwood may, by the ingenious dyer, be applied -on many occasions with great success. - - -_To dye wool_ GREY. - -All greys, from the darkest to the lightest, are composed of black in -varying proportions. They are of great use in dyeing, not only for their -own colours, but also when applied to other colours, which operation is -called _saddening_ or _darkening_. - -Some greys have a woad ground of blue, then of logwood, sumach or -sulphate of iron, of which decoctions of the three last, for expedition, -should be in readiness when wanted. When a succession of light shades, in -particular, is required, in some instances the chemic blue is used: when -we treat of the mixture of black, or rather grey with red and blue, the -utility of grey will be seen. - - -_Mixture of_ BLACK _or_ GREY _with_ RED _and_ BLUE. - -These produce an infinite number of all shades of grey as _sage_ grey, -_slate_ and _lead colour_, and others still darker. - - -_On_ BROWNS, FAWNS, OLIVES, _&c._ - -_Browns_ and _Fawns_ owe, in all probability, their colour to the _iron_ -which their dyes contain. Iron is so universally diffused throughout -nature, that it, very likely, enters into the composition of many other -colours; it exists in blood, in water, and in innumerable vegetable and -animal substances, as well as in earths and many minerals. Hence we ought -not to be surprised that _blue_, _red_, and _fawn_ produce _olives_ from -the darkest to the lightest; as well as _slate_ and _lavender_ when the -shade is very light. - -_Fawn_ and _yellow_ produce the _feuille-morte_ or _dead-leaf_. - -_Fawn_ and _red_ produce _cinnamon_, _tobacco_, _chestnut_, _&c._ - -_Fawn_ and _black_ produce _coffee_, _maroon_, _&c._ - -_Blue_, _yellow_, and _black_ produce all the _dark greens_, even to -black. - -_Blue_, _fawn_, and _black_ produce _dark olives_ and _greenish greys_. -_Red_, _yellow_, and _fawn_ produce _orange_, _gold colour_, -_withered-leaf_, _carnation_, _burnt cinnamon_ and _tobacco_ colours of -all kinds. - -_Yellows_, _fawn_, and _black_ produce _hair colour_, _nut-brown_, _&c._ - -This enumeration is meant only to give a general idea of the ingredients -proper for the production of shades composed of several colours. - -Where red forms a component part of the colour wanted, the goods must -have a preparation of alum and argol, strong or weak, according to the -fulness or weakness of the red which forms a part of the compound dye, -such as the half or quarter of the quantity which is required for a full -colour of red; the same as to yellow, and, in proportion, when red and -yellow are joined. - - -_On the_ YELLOW _of the Quercitron or American bark._ - -The quercitron bark is said to yield from eight to ten times more colour -than weld, and about four times more than old fustic; this was, however, -Dr. Bancroft's account, who had a strong interest in this dyeing drug, as -stated in the first chapter. He also asserts, that one pound of bark with -muriate of tin, will dye forty pounds of woollen a bright golden yellow, -which afterwards becomes a beautiful and durable scarlet, with a fourth -part less cochineal than is usually employed on other occasions for such -a colour. But Bancroft did not succeed in doing away the old method of -saving tartar and cochineal. - -His fullest _yellow_ upon cloth, the author has, however, often tried and -found it rich and golden; the process is as follows: - -Cloth one hundred pounds; bark in powder, and in a bag, ten pounds; -muriate of tin, or _murio-sulphate of tin_, (_for which see forward_,) -ten pounds. The bark in the bag must be first immersed in the proper -sized vessel for six or eight minutes; then add the solution of tin and -stir it well for two or three minutes, when the cloth must be put in, and -kept in motion by two or three men working over the winch from end to -end; then proceed to boil; and, in _fifteen minutes_ boiling, the highest -yellow is produced; a longer time would turn the yellow brown. - -When a very bright yellow, approaching less to orange, is wanted, seven -or eight pounds of solution of tin, five pounds of alum, and ten pounds -of bark, will do for a hundred pounds of cloth. In this process, boil the -bark first in a bag for a few minutes, then add the solution of tin and -the alum, and the cloth afterwards, as before directed; less body -requires less quantities of course. - - -_For a full_ BRIGHT YELLOW _delicately inclining to a greenish tinge._ - -Use eight pounds of quercitron bark, to six of muriate of tin, six pounds -of alum, and four pounds of white tartar, for cloth as before. The alum -and tartar render the yellow more delicate, and give it more of the lemon -or greenish tinge; where this is wanted in the greatest perfection -proceed as follows: - -Take ten pounds of bark, ten of muriate of tin, or murio-sulphate of tin, -ten of alum, and ten of tartar. For cloth three or four times the -quantity of the preceding processes may be taken, namely three or four -hundred pounds. - -In this process the bark must be boiled fifteen minutes in water only, -and then the other ingredients be added and mixed in the liquor by -stirring. The cloth is next to be put into it, _the liquor being first -cooled a little_; it is then immediately to be turned briskly on the -winch till the colour is sufficiently raised. - -When a variety of shades are wanted, in working the bark, (contrary to -the processes for many other colours) the higher shades should, in this -colour, be dyed first, and the weaker afterwards. When about two-thirds -of the quantity of the cloth have been dyed, it will be generally found -that the liquor, by continuing to extract colouring matter from the bark, -has acquired an over proportion, and wants a small quantity of muriate of -tin, of alum, and of tartar, perhaps a pound of each, to enable the bark -at last, as well as at first, to give the same delicate, pale and -greenish tinge. A surer way, however, is to boil the bark in a small -quantity of water, separately, for six or eight minutes; and then to add -to it the solution of tin, alum, and tartar, and boil them with the bark -together for fifteen minutes, and then damp the fire; then have the cloth -in a proper sized vessel, supplied with boiling water, and the cloth -moving on the winch; after it has gone a few turns round, and is -thoroughly wetted out (which it should be before, and now again) lest any -part should be dry, add the supplies of the yellow liquor above -described, by little and little as they may be wanted: in this way -expectation is surpassed by the beauty produced. - - -_Bancroft's murio-sulphate of tin_ - -is made thus:—Take of muriatic acid, three pounds; of feathered tin, as -described in the process of _dyeing wool scarlet_, fourteen ounces; to -the tin add gradually the muriatic acid; afterwards, with due and great -precaution, by degrees, in the course of a day or two, two pounds of -sulphuric acid. Care must be taken that the vessel in which this -operation is conducted, be of _stone ware_ or of _glass_. These acids -being mixed with the tin, should be left to saturate themselves with it, -which they will do in time, without artificial heat; but the dissolution -of the tin will be rapidly promoted by a sand heat. This murio-sulphuric -solution of tin, thus made, will be perfectly transparent and colourless, -and will probably remain so for years, without suffering any -precipitation of the metal. - - -_To dye wool_ BUFF. - -This is done with the most economy after scarlet, and, in such case, -requiring very little addition (in some cases none) of cochineal. The -wool, having an alum preparation, it may be requisite to add some fresh -prepared decoction of young fustic or weld. _See the next article._ - - -_To dye wool_ PEACH. - -This process is the same as the last; that is, after scarlet; but the -wool is not to be alumed: in some cases, a little tartar and cochineal is -added. - -_Observe_, that the cochineal and tartar being added, the previous -preparation must be according to the fulness or faintness of the shade -wanted, whether of _buff_, _peach_, or _flesh_, all of which require, -essentially, the same process. By such means, a pattern of any shade, -compounded of red and yellow, from scarlet to the weakest buff and flesh, -may be produced. - - -_To set an indigo vat for worsted, serge, &c._ - -The vat being five feet high, and two feet in diameter at top, you may -use for it from two to six pounds of indigo, according as you set it -light or full. - -Boil two pounds of potash, two ounces of madder, and a handful of bran, -in fifteen gallons of clear soft water, for half an hour. - -The indigo must be powdered; after which it must be levigated in a -peculiar circular cast-iron mill, having a contrivance for two large -round stones, or cast iron balls, which are kept in a perpetual circular -motion while the indigo is ground. Water it, and put it into the mill, -and as the balls run round, the indigo in the water is reduced to a fine -flowery paste. There are mills more convenient than these, but, perhaps, -none more simple for a small concern. - -When the indigo is thus prepared, boil it in the copper with the grounds -of the madder and the potash, which fell to the bottom; it is all, then, -to be put into the vat at the same time with the indigo; the whole is to -be stirred, the vat covered, and heat applied to make it more than blood -warm, and to keep it so. The vat should be stirred twice, slightly, both -the second and third day, the heat remaining the same; when a brassy -scum, divided and interrupted in many places, begins to appear on the -surface. On the fourth day, the heat being continued, the scum becomes -more perfect and less broken, the froth which rises, upon stirring, is -more blue, and the vat a deep green. - -When it becomes green in this manner, it is an indication that it must be -filled; to do which, boil half an ounce of madder, and one pound of -potash, in five gallons of water; put in this liquor, and stir it; if it -produce much froth, stir it again, and the next day it will be fit for -working; which, however, will be sufficiently known by the quantity of -froth, and by the brassy and scaly crust on the surface of the liquor, on -blowing or stirring which, the liquor beneath is green, although the -surface appears brown or blue. - -When the vat has worked about forty or fifty pounds of serge or worsted, -it may be necessary to replenish it with one pound of potash, half an -ounce of madder, and a handful of bran; these being boiled a quarter of -an hour, are added to the vat. - -When this vat wants replenishing with indigo, which may be known by the -liquor being no longer green, but brown, blue, or almost black, -two-thirds of it must be put into a copper; when ready to boil, the scum -on the top must be taken off by a sieve, after which it should be -suffered to boil, with the addition of two handfuls of bran, a quarter of -a pound of madder, and two pounds of potash; soon after it has boiled, it -is to be put into the vat with one pound of indigo, prepared as before; -the vat being again stirred, and covered, the heat always remaining -between blood and fever heat. - -When an indigo vat has been several times re-heated, it should be emptied -out entirely, and set anew, because the colour becomes dull. _The -preceding process is from Hellot._ - -[8] It is necessary that the student should not confound the terms -_primitive_ colours here with the _prismatic_ or _primary_ colours, for -the discovery of which we are indebted to Sir Isaac Newton. See _the -Introductory Chapter_. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -ON DYEING SILK AND COTTON BLACK, &c. - -_To dye silk black for velvets—To dye silk black, London process—On -dyeing cotton black at Rouen—To dye cotton black, London process—For -dyeing black, particularly cotton velvets, at Manchester—On dyeing silk -and cotton black, with a blue ground—Another iron liquor—To dye cotton -black, by using the preceding solution—To dye cotton violet—To dye -cotton red—To dye cotton an Adrianople or Turkey red—Miscellaneous -observations relative to Adrianople red._ - - -Some of the more simple and less difficult processes of dyeing both -_cotton_ and _silk_, are described in the preceding chapters; we shall -now describe those, not only for black, but for some other colours, which -require more care and attention. _For ungumming and boiling silk, &c. see -Chap. VI._ - -Silk has a strong affinity for galls, and advantage is sometimes taken of -this: for silk, being a valuable article, is often galled to excess, -merely to increase its weight. - -Cotton has a strong affinity for iron, and iron has the same for _gallic -acid_, wherever it may be found; therefore, in sumach, alder-bark, &c., -iron unites with the acid, whenever both are connected by the medium of -water. _Tannin_, doubtless, has also some share in such dyeing processes, -although what does not even now appear to be well understood. - -Black, MACQUER observes, is rather difficult to be dyed upon silk; or, at -least, there is reason to think so, from the numberless experiments which -have been found necessary to the attainment of a good black, as well as -from the multitude of heterogeneous ingredients which Macquer admitted -into the composition of his various processes for this dye, some of which -consisted of arsenic, corrosive sublimate, litharge, antimony, plumbago, -and about ten other ingredients! we shall not, therefore, detail such -preposterous mixtures; one, however, we may just put down by way of -showing what the art was in Macquer's time. - -Take twenty quarts of strong vinegar, one pound of black nut galls -pounded, and five pounds of iron filings; these ingredients are to be -mixed in one vessel. - - -_To dye skein silk_ BLACK _for velvets, Genoa process, (from Macquer.)_ - -The silk should be ungummed by boiling it four hours with a quarter of -its weight of white soap, and afterwards to be well cleared from the soap. - -Take, for every hundred pounds of silk, twenty pounds of galls in powder, -and boiled one hour; two pounds of sulphate of iron; twelve pounds of -iron filings; and twenty pounds of gum arabic or senegal. - -This process is very simple: here are the gallic acid and tannin of the -galls, and the iron of the sulphate and the filings. But we must proceed -to a more modern process. - - -_To dye silk_ BLACK, _the London process._ - -Take of wove silk, _twilled sarsenet_, one hundred and fifty yards. Boil, -for three hours, of alder bark one bushel and a half; of logwood fourteen -pounds; and of iron filings one pound. Then let the fire be damped; -dissolve four ounces of sulphate of copper in water; wet out the silk in -hot water; after which put the solution of sulphate of copper into the -liquor and stir it only; then put the silk into the copper, and work it -from end to end four times; after which take it out in the air; now put -it in again and work it as before; take it out again and let it be aired -on the floor, opening it from time to time till it is cold; repeat the -same thing twice more, in all _four times_. This is termed four wets. -While the last wet is cooling and airing, dissolve and put into the -copper three pounds of sulphate of iron, and then give the silk two more -wets, which make the number of wets six. The drugs are now left to boil -as much as they will during the night, being left so to do, because in a -large business, this part of the process would close the day's work. - -The next morning give the silk four or five wets more, and leave it in -the copper all the following night, observing when it is left in, and -always when it is worked in, that the heat, must be considerably under -the boiling point, and the silk kept covered by the liquor: for _if any -part be exposed to the air it will be marked_. - - -_On dyeing cotton_ BLACK _at Rouen, (from D'Apligny.)_ - -Take one hundred quarts of sour wine, bad vinegar, or small beer; put to -either of these twenty-five pounds of old iron hoops rusted by the air or -dew; twelve pounds of rye meal or coarse bran; put the whole into a -copper and heat it rather more than blood warm. In the summer it would do -exposed to the sun and air with a porous cloth over it, to let in the -air, but keep out dirt, &c.; the older this solution is the better; but -it should be at least _two months old_. - -Cotton skeins are galled by being worked in a solution of galls; alumed -and then dyed in weld liquor; this in the result is yellow; they are then -passed through a decoction of logwood, and after that of sulphate of -iron, a quarter of a pound to every pound of cotton; they are then dyed -in madder, half a pound to every pound of cotton. - -We cannot recommend this process, although we give it, as much better -methods are now known. - - -_To dye cotton_ BLACK—_the London process_—_used by various calico -printers in the suburbs._ - -Cotton cambric piece-goods are passed through a blotching machine to -receive a mordant of acetate of iron, and galled slightly; sumach is used -instead when galls are dear; the cotton is then passed through logwood, -or logwood and fustic, and then through sumach; so that it is possible -thus to give them the mordant sufficiently in proportion to the iron -liquor at first; proceed as in dyeing afterwards, at a heat approaching -boiling or even boiling. You may now proceed by adding first the galling -or sumach slightly; afterwards the logwood, &c.; and then the remainder -of the galling or sumach may be used to finish it; and thus dye the goods -black by the quickest possible process. - -It should be observed respecting the last process and the process which -precedes it, that in dyeing black alum is inimical to the colour. -Therefore D'Apligny's is not now esteemed. Alum for black is as improper, -as it is proper and essential for red and yellow. - -In regard to giving the acetate of iron for black at once, as the second, -or _London_ process directs, it may be done by having the proportions -full; by _full_ is meant that the mordant should be full enough; then, -after the slight galling, as directed in giving the logwood and alder -bark decoction, or logwood and fustic, be sure to have that decoction -strong enough. This might be called the ground; and the most perfect -judgment might be formed of it by having a part of a piece, or one piece -of a batch dried in the stove: for, according to the fullness of the -ground, so will the black be rich and perfect or otherwise. - -The alder bark and fustic are used only to prevent the hue of the logwood -from being predominant. If the ground be a full and rich brown, the -second full galling or sumaching will bring it to a full and rich black; -but, if the ground be poor, these processes will cut or destroy the -ground, and the black will be foxy, nasty, and poor; and not only so, but -the material dyed will soon wear rotten, because having an over-dose of -iron, the iron will tend to decompose the cotton. Therefore the following -process is most esteemed. - - -_For dyeing_ BLACK _(particularly cotton velvets) at Manchester._ - -In a large dye-house where much business is done, a great many wine-pipes -or other large tubs, or any substitutes are arranged in an appropriate -place. Into these are put old iron hoops, rusted in the air, and cut into -short pieces; a layer of the iron pieces and a layer of the alder bark, -again a layer of iron and a layer of the bark, and so on in succession -from the bottom to the top. When the pipes are all thus filled, water is -poured into them till they are filled up; they remain in this state for -six weeks or two months according to the season, whether summer or winter. - -The same process will do for any other cotton goods as well as velvets, -such as calicoes, cambric, and jaconot muslins, cotton in the skein, &c. - -In some cases there are persons who pass the goods through the _liquor_ -of the aforesaid black vat. The colour of this liquor when it is fit for -use is purplish, particularly after being once used and returned to the -vat again, which it always is. Others begin by passing the goods through -a decoction of logwood and sumach, then through sulphate of iron, then -wash off through logwood only; then through sulphate of iron; always -washing off from this last; the goods are then dried, and this is called -the _first time of saddening_. - -They are next passed through logwood, then through sulphate of iron, then -washed off, then again through logwood, then sulphate of iron, and then -washed off; and then dried. This is called the _second time of saddening_. - -Supposing the goods to consist of a hundred or a thousand pieces, after -drying the second time they are brought in lots to the foreman for -examination, and assorted into lots one, two, and three. All that is fit -for lot one is full enough and has ground enough, and is of a rich -full-bodied brown, ready for galling or _sumaching_: sumach being the -substitute for galls, this process is termed in the dye-house, _macing_. -Lot two is not full enough, and must pass through logwood, then sulphate -of iron, and then be washed off. Lot three is still more deficient; this -must be passed through logwood and the sulphate of iron twice and then -washed off, and both lots two and three dried again. - -Lot one is now to be sumached for the _first_ time: that is, passed -through a decoction of sumach, then through sulphate of iron, and then -washed off: if the decoction of sumach be kept up strong after all of -them are once sumached, they may be dried. Lots two and three, when they -are dry, are also to be sumached the same as lot one, and dried. - -As soon as any of them are dry they are ready to be sumached the _second_ -time by passing them through the decoction as before; but instead of -sulphate of iron, some of the alder bark and _iron liquor_ are used; or -as we shall term it, the _liquor of the black vat_. They are then to be -washed off and dried. If the black liquor and the sumaching be powerful, -some of the goods will be finished when dry. Such are examined by the -foreman; those which are not finished must go through the last process -again. The finished goods are well and repeatedly washed off in fresh -clear soft water two or three times and then dried. - -The _cambric muslins_ are sent to be calendered to imitate silk sarsenets. - -_Book-muslins_ must be sent to the muslin dressers, except where, in some -cases, they sarsenet and dry their own goods. - -By the above method the ground is secured, and so is the black, and also -the strength of the goods. - - -_On dyeing silk and cotton_ BLACK _with a blue ground._ - -It is remarkable, that although an indigo ground for wool enriches the -black, yet for silk and cotton it is not generally considered necessary. -Latterly, however, we believe the dyers of black on cotton do first give -it an indigo ground before the black is given. This is, nevertheless, not -a new method, for D'Apligny describes the process in his Art of Dyeing, -_for linen and cotton yarns_; these are first dyed sky-blue in the vat, -then wrung out and set to dry. They are galled in the proportion of one -part galls to four of yarn, being left twenty-four hours in the gall -liquor, wrung out anew, and set to dry: about ten pints of iron liquor to -every pound of yarn are then poured into a tub, in this the yarn is -turned on sticks, and worked with the hand for a quarter of an hour, it -is then wrung out and aired. This operation is twice repeated, adding -each time a new dose of the iron liquor; the yarn is aired once more, -then wrung out, well washed, and dried. To complete the dyeing of the -yarn a weight of alder-bark equal to that of the yarn is boiled with a -sufficient quantity of water for an hour; to this is added one half of -the bath which has served for the galling and sumach. The whole is boiled -for two hours. When cold the yarn is put in and worked, aired -occasionally, and then left in the bath for twenty-four hours, when it is -wrung out and dried. To complete it, it is steeped and worked in the -residue of a bath of weld, to which a little logwood is added; it is then -taken out, wrung, and immediately passed through a tub of warm water, -into which one part of olive oil to sixteen of yarn has been poured. It -is finally wrung out and dried. See URE'S _Berthollet_, vol. ii. page 18. - - -_Another iron liquor; pyrolignite or acetate of iron._ - -Although we have described an _iron liquor_ in a preceding section, it -may be useful to give the following process for another here. Fill a -cast-iron boiler with pyrolignous acid, add to it old iron well oxidized, -and boil. The solution of the oxide will take place rapidly. When the -iron grows clean, and the solution black as ink, throw the whole into a -cask, to be employed as occasion shall require. - - -_To dye cotton_ BLACK, _by using the preceding solution._ - -Prepare the cotton as usual, by giving it a blue ground; gall it, and -pass it through a bath of the solution of pyrolignite of iron diluted -with lukewarm water. Renew the gallings and the passings through the bath -of pyrolignite of iron till a deep and brilliant black is obtained. -Finish by passing the cotton through olive oil thus: throw on some -lukewarm water a little olive oil, pass the cotton through it; the cotton -absorbs the oil, but it must be worked a long time in the bath to diffuse -the oil equally. Dry in the shade. The cotton is now a perfect and very -durable black. - -Every time the bath of pyrolignite is used, what remains must be thrown -away; the old baths are never added to the cask. - -The application of oil, which heightens the black, and imparts softness -to the stuffs, is given to such articles as cotton velvet by means of -brushes, which are slightly imbued with it. _Berthollet._ - -We may add here, that an iron liquor called _tar-iron liquor_, prepared -from the acid obtained from tar, (the acetic acid we presume) is now well -known in commerce, but we have not room, nor does it appear necessary, to -describe the method of making it; it is much used in preparing mordants -for black and other colours by the dyers and printers of silk. This iron -liquor may be obtained of Blake, North Street, Back Church Lane, St. -George's in the East, London. See _M'Kernan_. - - -_To dye cotton_ VIOLET. - -Pass the skeins through the black vat and dry them, then pass them -through a decoction of galls and dry them again, then through a decoction -of logwood, then of alum and verdigris, washed off, and dried. - -Or thus: by the black vat liquor, that is, the liquor of old iron and -alder bark in some cases. Let the vat liquor be prepared from the iron -hoops, vinegar, rye, or coarse bran, described in page 108. By this -liquor it is easy to procure all the violet shades from the pansy flower -up to the lilac and violet. - -The goods must be first blue-vatted and dried, then galled and dried, -then passed through the iron liquor, then maddered, then washed off, and -dried; the liquor must always be kept much below a boiling heat, as this -heat makes the colour obtained from madder brown: whatever drugs require -boiling must be prepared by a decoction previously made. - -For some shades sulphate of copper is used; for others verdigris, -saltpetre, and alum. - -To dye to the pattern the preparations should be always of one given -strength, and all solutions of mordants the same. The time of working the -goods in the dye must be regulated by the fulness or lightness of the -pattern; and the quantities of the various drugs, &c. used much or little -accordingly, reserving patterns of processes, with the particulars of -such processes noted down. In proportion to the number of these upon -record, and with strict attention to the subject, a good pattern dyer is -formed. Time and practice are, however, absolutely necessary, with a -delight in the business: for without a pleasure in dyeing no one can -become a good or an eminent dyer. In many of the branches of this art -there are, it is true, labour and pains in abundance; but there is also a -portion, and that not a small one, of pleasure in others, which will -counterbalance the care, anxiety, labour, and fatigue inseparable from -this useful and important occupation, and which so strikingly exhibits -the science and ingenuity of man. - - -_To dye cotton_ RED. - -If the cotton skein has not been cleansed since it was spun it must be -cleansed by being boiled in a solution of potash, one ounce of which, if -good, to a pail of water may be enough, or more than enough. The cotton -must be put into bags when boiled, then washed off and passed through -clean water, scoured with a little sulphuric acid, and then washed off -again; then galled, washed off, and dried. The galls should be white -galls: for twenty pounds of cotton five pounds of bruised galls are -boiled in about one hundred and twenty quarts of water for two hours. - -After galling, the cotton must be alumed: four ounces of Roche alum for -every pound of cotton. When alumed it must be washed off and dried. - -The cotton is now to be dyed in a copper containing six pounds and a -quarter of best crop madder, with a sufficiency of water. The heat is -kept under that of boiling for three quarters of an hour. After being -aired, washed, &c. it is put in, worked, and boiled for twelve or fifteen -minutes. Some dye it again two days after, because the longer to a -certain degree between aluming, dyeing, and drying, and between one -dyeing and another, the better. The second time of dyeing eight ounces of -madder are used for every pound of cotton. Some dyers gall it twice, and -consequently dry it as often, then dye it at once in the madder, having a -proportion accordingly. This is a red full-bodied colour. - - -_To dye cotton an_ ADRIANOPLE _or_ TURKEY RED. - -For one hundred pounds of unbleached cotton, take the following articles -and pursue the described processes. - -Lixivium No. 1. Dissolve one hundred and fifty pounds of alicant soda, -(barilla) in three hundred quarts of river water. There must be no more -water than enough to dissolve the salt. An egg must float on it or it -will not be strong enough. - -Lixivium No. 2. One hundred and fifty pounds of fresh wood ashes, and -three hundred quarts of water. - -Lixivium No. 3. Seventy-five pounds of quicklime, and three hundred -quarts of water. - -The cotton is to be boiled three hours in a liquor composed of equal -parts of each of the above solutions, taken from them when clear and in a -settled state. The liquor must be replenished occasionally, so that it -shall always cover the cotton during the whole time it is boiling; after -which it must be taken out, washed, and dried in the air. - -Into one hundred and thirty quarts of a mixture consisting of equal parts -of the above three lixiviums, put twenty five pounds of sheep's dung and -part of the intestinal liquor, previously well mixed by means of a wooden -pestle, and the whole strained through a hair sieve. Then twelve pounds -and a half of good olive oil is poured into the mixture, when it -instantly forms a soapy liquor. - -Into this liquor the cotton should be worked hank by hank, often stirring -it; the cotton, after all the hanks have been worked separately first, is -then left in the liquor for twelve hours; it is then taken out, lightly -wrung and dried. The liquor is put by for brightening. This process is -repeated three times during the working; and by the time the solution is -all worked four hundred quarts might be used, but that will not injure -the clear of it from being applied in brightening; and it must be -reserved for that purpose. - -When the cotton has been three times dipped in this soapy water, and -three times dyed, the same process is repeated, except that the sheep's -dung is left out; the liquor is also preserved for brightening. The -cotton, having gone through these processes, should be as white as if it -had been bleached. - -When dry it is to be galled, using a quarter of a pound of galls to every -pound of cotton; after this it is dried, then take six ounces of alum for -the first aluming; it is then to be dried again, and to hang three or -four days in the air, and then, when dry, to be alumed again; four ounces -of alum, and four of the lixivium may be added to the last alum water. - -The madder used for this red is called _lizary_, which furnishes a dye -incomparably finer than that produced by any other madder. Of lizary -madder, therefore, take two pounds for every pound of cotton, and twenty -pounds of liquid sheep's blood well mixed with the water in the copper -before the madder is put in. The butcher should stir the blood to prevent -its coagulating; the copper should be carefully skimmed; the madder -should not boil, but be brought during the process from blood-heat to -within a few degrees of the boiling point: if it boil at last, as some -prefer it, it should only be for a few minutes. - -In order to brighten the colour, the cotton is dipped in a lixivium of -fresh wood ashes, and five pounds of _white_ soap: yellow or mottled soap -is improper. When the cotton has been well worked in this liquor, it is, -with the liquor itself, put into a copper sufficiently large to hold it -with some addition of water, and made to boil over a slow fire, for -three, four, or more hours. The liquor must be covered with coarse white -linen cloths, to keep as much steam in as possible. - -Some of the skeins of cotton must be taken out from time to time, and -washed perfectly; when the red is judged perfect and sufficiently bright, -the fire is withdrawn. - -If instead of the wood-ash lixivium and soap, the two reserved liquors -and soap are used, the red will be much brighter than the finest -Adrianople carnation. - - -_Miscellaneous observations relative to_ ADRIANOPLE RED. - -In regard to the above processes, we may observe, that those given for -Adrianople red in _Ure's Berthollet_, are more numerous, being regularly -numbered to the _seventeenth_, or last operation called _brightening_. -After a careful attention to those processes we see no reason to alter -our own, yet we nevertheless advise the dyer to become acquainted with -what is stated in that work, many details being there given for which we -have not room, particularly for making _different shades_ of the colour. -We add, however the following from vol. ii. p. 140. - -"Cotton dyed red, may, moreover, be made to pass through all the shades, -down to the palest orange, thus: pure nitric acid is diluted with -two-fifths of water; chips of tin are oxidized in it till the liquor -grows opal; the solution is employed at different strengths; the colour -varies according to the concentration of the solution: when it is strong, -shades are obtained which have some relation to those of scarlet. - -"In general, when brilliant colours are desired, we must not charge them -too much with oil; we must give feeble leys long repeated, charge little -with alum, employ the best madders, and, at last, brighten powerfully -without sparing soap." - -We have directed _good_ olive oil; but M. VITALIS directs fat oil, -(_gallipoli_) to be used in the processes for dyeing Adrianople red, and -Berthollet says, it must not be a _fine oil_, but one containing a strong -portion of the extractive principle. - -A factory for dyeing this red was first established in this country in -1790, by M. PAPILLON, who obtained a premium from the Commissioners and -Trustees for Manufactures in Scotland, for communicating the details of -it on condition it should not be divulged for a term of years, during -which _M. Papillon_ was to have the sole use of his secret. This term -being expired the process was published. See vol. xviii. of _Tilloch's -Magazine_. - -M. VITALIS, (in his work on Dyeing published in 1823) has given, at -length, the _mode of dyeing Turkey red at Rouen_. It differs in many -particulars from Berthollet and others. We learn from him that two -systems for imparting this colour are in use at Rouen. The first is -called the _grey course_ from the cotton being subjected to the maddering -immediately after it has received the oily preparations, and the mordants -of galls and alum which give it a _grey_ colour. The _yellow course_, is -so called from the cotton, after having received a first time the oily -preparations, as well as the mordants of galls and alum, _not_ being -exposed to the maddering till it has passed a second time through the -same preparations, and the same mordants which give it _a yellow_ colour. -This second manner of working the Turkey red is called, in the dye-house, -_remounting on the galls_. Dr. URE, in a note to Berthollet, vol. ii. p. -378, has detailed these two courses, and made, besides many valuable -observations on them, and the dyeing of Adrianople red generally, for -which we must refer to the work, as our limits prevent the possibility of -any further notice of them here, except to add, that a _process for -dyeing cotton of a smoke red_; and another for _dyeing cotton a cherry -red_, is well deserving the attention of the dyer. - -In regard to the _blood_ used in dyeing Adrianople red, Dr. Ure decidedly -affirms, that "_it adds no colouring matter to the madder in the dyeing -operation_;" in this he is countenanced by the observations of Chaptal, -see Berthollet, vol. ii. p. 141. "To the use of blood in the madder -copper," says Dr. Ure, "I attribute nothing, as from the rancid and -putrid state in which I have seen it used, were it not for the prejudice -of the operator, it might be safely dispensed with." A very eminent -calico manufacturer, whom Dr. Ure consulted, assured him, that in the -Turkey red process the only essential mordants were oil and alumina; and -that bright and fast reds, equal to any produced by the complicated -processes of sheep's dung, galls and blood may be obtained without those -articles. - -We make no comments on these observations, but leave them to the good -sense and intelligence of the dyer: they deserve the utmost attention. - -_Linen yarn_ takes a colour almost as brilliant as that of cotton, but it -must be passed through a double number of oils and leys. The latter must -even be very strong, otherwise the oil flows out at the surface. The -greatest attention must be bestowed on the scouring out first: for the -yarn mingles and entangles by the heat to such a degree, that it -sometimes can be neither dipped nor unravelled. - -It should be mentioned that the large dyers of Adrianople red, now obtain -their soda for lixivium No. 1, by using common salt in solution, to which -is added a solution of pearl-ashes. On boiling these together a muriate -of potash is formed, which is taken out of the liquor with a skimmer; a -_carbonate of soda_ remains dissolved in the liquor, and is, of course, -applied to the same purpose as, and at a much cheaper rate than, the -Alicant soda. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -ON DYEING COTTON AND SILK. - -_To dye skein cotton yellow—On dyeing and re-dyeing cotton furniture -yellow—To dye cotton skein a duck's wing green and olive—Of browns, -maroons, coffee colours, &c.—Observations on silk—On ungumming and -boiling silk—Whitening—Sulphuring—On aluming silk—Skein silk for -yellow—Preparation of annatto, for aurora, orange, moidore, gold colour, -and chamois—To dye silk aurora or orange—To dye moidore—Process for -orange—To dye silk poppy or coquelicot—A cheaper poppy with annatto and -Brazil wood—On dyeing silk a fine crimson—Composition for dyeing silk -scarlet or crimson, with cochineal—Another process for crimson—Crimson by -Brazil wood—Of fine violet—Observations on crimson and scarlet upon -silk—On dyeing silk green—On olives—On dyeing silk grey—Nut-Grey—Black -greys—Iron greys—On dyeing silk of a Prussian blue colour—Chromate of -lead for yellow on silk or cotton—Conclusion._ - - -We have in several preceding chapters treated of both _cotton_ and -_silk_; we shall here treat of certain processes and colours relative to -both these substances, which are most conveniently arranged in this -chapter. - -The simpler processes for _cotton_ will be found in the _second_ chapter, -the more complex in the _fifth_; the simpler processes for _silk_ are -given in the _third_ chapter, the more complex in the _fifth_; the -remaining processes for both in the present chapter, will conclude the -work. - - -_To dye skein cotton_ YELLOW. - -The same operations as those in the first common red dye are to be used -here; to one pound of cotton four ounces of roche alum, and from one to -four pounds of weld. - -When dyed the cotton is to be worked in hot, but not boiling, liquor, -consisting of four ounces of sulphate of copper to every pound of cotton; -it is then to be boiled for three hours in a solution containing four -ounces of soap to every pound of cotton. - -When a dark or _jonquil colour_ is wanted, no alum is used; of weld take -two pounds and a half, very little verdigris, or a little alum in its -stead, but nothing else. For brightening, however, boiling in a solution -of soap is in all cases necessary. - - -_On dyeing and re-dyeing cotton furniture_ YELLOW. - -If the furniture, such as rough or finished cotton or cambric, intended -for yellow linings for bed or window curtains, be in a perfectly bleached -state, which is now generally the case, according to the number of the -pieces, so must the size of the copper be to boil the weld in for the -yellow dye. A small copper holding four or five pails would do for three -pieces of twenty eight yards each. The weld may be purchased by the half -bundle, the bundle, or the load. Half a bundle would be enough for the -above quantity of cotton, if a moderate yellow is wanted. The weld must -be increased or decreased according as the pattern approaches a straw, a -canary, a lemon, or towards a gold colour or orange. - -The weld must be boiled about twenty minutes, the liquor then strained -off into a proper tub, and the weld boiled again. While the boilings are -going on, three tubs, being wine pipes cut in two, must be got ready and -made particularly clean, being also previously seasoned for the work. One -is to receive the boiled weld with some cold water to regulate it to the -heat which the hand will bear; the other is for water, and as much alum -liquor as will colour it and make it taste strong; and the third is to -contain clear water to wash the furniture off. - -Whatever yellow is in _fashion_ (or indeed any fashionable colour,) has -commonly a _fashionable name_. But if the dyer can, by his experience, -proportion his drugs to the weakest, and from that to the strongest -shade, let the name be what it may, after he has a set of patterns of his -own dyeing, he will see, upon the first sight of any colour, how to set -about it. - -In the present instance let the pattern be a moderately pale colour of -yellow; then put all the first boiling of the weld in the first tub, and -cool down as above directed. Two or three persons should then work the -pieces quick from end to end by the selvages, that they may be even, two -may do this; one of whom must be an expeditious hand to work them and -keep them even. When they have been edged over six or seven times, they -are to be folded out upon a board laid over the tub, and wrung as dry as -possible by two persons. When they are all out, they are passed in the -same manner through the tub of alum, and, after six or seven turns, they -are to be taken out of the alum liquor, wrung as before, and then washed -off. - -By this time the second weld liquor will be boiled; some of the first -must be thrown away, and the second weld liquor added in its place. The -goods are then passed through as before, and wrung out; the alum liquor -being strengthened, they are passed through it, wrung out as before, and -then washed off: the water in the wash tub having been changed. - -In some instances verdigris is used instead of alum; and in other cases -it is used in addition to the alum. For some shades old fustic is used -instead of weld, and sulphate of copper instead of verdigris. - -The alum solution, and the sulphate of copper, and the verdigris, or -acetate of copper should be always ready. It is necessary to have a tub -for each, in size proportioned to the work to be done; but larger for the -alum than for the other two. - -Sulphate of iron is also used in some dark greys, browns, slates, and in -all blacks; this will require a tub as large or larger than that for alum. - -When the yellows are dyed and wrung as dry as possible, they should be -taken into a close room or stove to dry, particularly in _London_, -because of the smoke, especially in winter. A German, or other stove, -should be placed in the room, the size of which, as well as the number of -the stoves, must be regulated by the quantity of the work. When the goods -are dry they must be sent to the callenderers, if directed to be -callendered; but the general and better way is to stiffen them with -starch after they are dyed, and before they are dry; and when dry they -should be sent to the glazers, instead of the callenderers, except when -both branches are carried on by the same person. - -When furniture, originally yellow, has become faded, it may be re-dyed -thus: In this case it should be dyed rather of a fuller shade than the -original. A large flat tub, such as described above, is to be filled -three parts full of water, to which sufficient sulphuric acid must be -added to make it taste strongly sour. After being well stirred, the -pieces are to be put in, and worked in this sour liquor; and the yellow -dye in consequence is stripped off. If the acid liquor be not strong -enough more acid must be added, with the precaution of well mixing it -with the water, and the goods must be passed through the liquor again: by -these means the yellow is discharged. They are then to be taken out on a -board upon the tub and wrung by two persons; then to be washed off and -wrung, washed and wrung again, when they are fit to be dyed. - -It is still to be remembered that any faded or worn out colour, or that -goods more or less decayed, seldom become so bright as the colour which a -new piece of goods receives from the same dye. - -Some cloths for re-dyeing require the application of oxymuriate or -chloride of lime to discharge their colours, particularly when madder or -galls, &c. form the constituent parts of the dye. In this case if a -_bleacher_ be near it might be best to let him perform the process with -the oxymuriate of lime; not only from the pernicious nature, but also -from the expense of it, which, unless the business be upon a large scale, -will not pay the dyer for his trouble. - -However, if the dyer thinks proper to perform this operation, then the -oxymuriate of lime or bleacher's ashes, &c. may be obtained at the dry -salters and dissolved in a cask, and the clear liquor used in proportion -to the quantity of goods, the colour of which is intended to be -discharged, which, when done, should be washed off in two waters at least -before they are dyed. - - -_To dye cotton skein a_ DUCK'S WING GREEN _and_ OLIVE. - -This is performed by a blue ground, next galling, dipping in the black -vat, then in the weld dye, then in verdigris, remembering to wash off -previously to performing each process. - -_Olive_ is to be performed with weld or old fustic, verdigris, and Brazil -wood. - - -_Of_ BROWNS, MAROONS, COFFEE-COLOURS, _&c._ - -It would answer little purpose to enlarge this treatise with a detail of -all the possible methods of producing the various shades of these several -colours, the whole consisting in the use of galls, verdigris, sulphate of -copper, weld, and madder. - -By welding a stuff previously maddered for _red_ you may produce a _gold_ -colour; and by dipping the same red in a blue vat you obtain a _plum_ -colour. - - -_Observations on_ SILK. - -Silk, as it is obtained from the cocoons of the worm, is generally of an -orange or yellow colour, more or less dark; in the South of France it is -generally very dark: its natural shade is unfavourable to almost all -other colours. It is also imbued with a kind of varnish or gum, which -makes it stiff and hard; this stiffness is improper in the fabrication of -most silk stuff, it is therefore _ungummed_, as it is called, by the -following processes. - - -_On ungumming and boiling silk._ - -_Observe_, that throughout the following processes for silk _white_ soap -is directed to be used; and, generally speaking, we believe it will be -found the best, more especially for the more delicate operations. Yet -_Mr. M'Kernan_, in his process for ungumming silk, directs yellow soap -and soft soap in equal parts, and of the same weight as the silk to be -used: he adds, however, that different sorts of silk require more or less -soap; the best rule he finds, nevertheless, is _the same weight of soap -as of silk_: and he says also, that yellow soap and soft soap of the best -quality he finds the best for this purpose. - -The silk is divided into hanks, each hank is tied with a string, several -of these are tied together (a handful of them) by putting a piece of -string through each separate skein, and tying the piece of string in a -long tie to slip easily when they are wanted to be untied. - -A liquor is prepared of thirty pounds of _white_ soap to a hundred pounds -of silk; the soap is cut into small pieces and boiled in water, when it -is dissolved the fire is damped. - -While the liquor is preparing the skeins of silk are put on rods; as soon -as the soap liquor becomes a little below boiling heat (for it should not -boil, as boiling would tangle the silk) the silk is to be put into it in -an oblong copper, being nearly full; it is to remain in the liquor till -its gummy matter has left it, which will be seen by its whiteness and -flexibility. It is then turned end for end on the rods, that the part -above the liquor may undergo the same operation. As soon as this is -accomplished the silk is taken out of the copper, the hanks which were -first turned being soonest done. - -The hanks are now to be taken from the rods to the peg, disentangled, and -nine or ten of them put on one cord, this cord passing through the string -that tied each hank. When the whole is corded it is put into pockets of -coarse strong white linen fifteen inches wide and five feet long, closed -at each end and on one side; when the silk is put in, the pocket is sewed -all along the other side with packthread, and fastened with a knot; four -pockets will hold the whole hundred pounds. - -The pockets being thus ready another liquor is prepared like the first. -When ready, and the boiling checked with cold water, the pockets are put -in and boiled well for a quarter of an hour, checking with cold water in -order to prevent its boiling over; it is necessary also to turn the bags -about often with a pole, or rather let two persons have a pole each for -this purpose. This operation is called boiling. - -In addition to the processes of boiling with soap, as above directed, -_Mr. M'Kernan_ recommends that the silk should be winched through a -copper of water at the heat of 160°, having two pounds of soda (barilla) -dissolved in it, then winch or wash in water, and wring and dry. - -In the boiling of silks for common colours twenty pounds of soap will do -for a hundred weight of silk; but, as in this case, the silk is not -ungummed, it should boil for three hours and a half, adding water to -supply the evaporation. - -The silks intended for the greatest degree of white, either to remain -white, or for the fabrication of white stuff, are boiled twice in soap -and water; those that are to be dyed of different colours are boiled but -once, and with a smaller quantity of soap, because the little remaining -redness is by no means prejudicial to many colours. Different quantities -of soap are, however, necessary for different colours. - -Silk designed for blue, iron grey, brimstone, or any other colour -requiring a very white ground, should be done according to the preceding -process, and have thirty pounds of soap. - -When the silk is boiled it is taken out of the copper by two men with -poles, and placed in a clean barrow; they are then taken to a long -shallow trough, from which the water may run away, the pockets are -opened, and the silks examined; such as have yellow or lemon colour spots -remaining are boiled again for some time, till the spots are removed. -After unpocketing, the whole is dressed on the pegs. - -Silk loses from twenty-five to twenty-eight per cent. of its weight in -ungumming and whitening. The bags of silk should never be suffered to lie -long together before they are emptied after being boiled, as their doing -so would make the silk hard. - -_White_ silk, as before observed, is distinguished into five principal -shades, namely, _China white_, _India white_, _thread_ or _milk white_, -_silver white_, and _azure white_. - -The three first are prepared and boiled as has already been shewn. Silver -and azure white in the preparation or ungumming thus: take fine powdered -indigo, put it into water boiling hot, when settled the liquor is called -_azure_. - -_To azure the silk_ it is taken from the ungumming copper after it is -dressed and put into a trough of water; after it is worked, drained, and -again dressed, it is ready for the - - -_Whitening_. - -Put into a copper with thirty pails of water half a pound of soap; when -it boils, and the soap dissolved, add for _China white_ a little -_prepared annatto_, (of which hereafter.) The silk, being on rods, is now -to be put into the copper and kept turning end for end without -intermission till the shade is uniform. For _India white_ a little azure -is added, to give the blue shade: for _thread white_ and others a little -azure is also to be added. - -_Observe_, the liquor should be very hot, but not boiling; the turnings -five times repeated, by which the shade is made even. When finished it is -taken out, wrung, Spread on poles to dry, and that part of it required -for _sulphuring_ must be put upon rods or slight poles. - - -_Sulphuring._ - -The hanks, being upon poles seven or eight feet from the ground, in an -appropriate room, one pound and a half or two pounds of roll brimstone -will sulphur a hundred weight of silk. - -Put the brimstone, coarsely powdered, into an earthen pipkin with a -little charcoal or small coal at bottom. Light one of the bits with a -candle, which will kindle all the rest. - -The room should be close, the chimney, if any, being closed up; the -sulphur should burn under the silk all night. The next morning the -windows should be opened to let out the smoke and admit the air, which, -in summer, will be sufficient to dry the silk; but in winter, as soon as -the sulphurous fumes are dissipated, the windows must be shut and a fire -kindled in the stove or stoves to dry the silk. - -_Observe_, if the room for sulphuring does not admit of openings -sufficient for the dissipation of the sulphuric fumes, the work-people -will be in danger of suffocation. - -When the sulphur is consumed it leaves a black crust which will light the -future sulphur like spirit of wine. - -If, in dressing, the silk sticks together, it is not sufficiently dry. - -Silk, which has been sulphured, has a rustling, which, for some things, -is esteemed; but this would not do for silk to be watered. If silk, which -has been sulphured is to be dyed, it must, for many colours, be -unsulphured. - -Silks for lace, gauze, &c. are neither boiled nor ungummed; silks which -are naturally the whitest are the best for those articles. It is -sufficient to dip the silks in warm water, and wring them; then sulphur -them, afterwards azure them, again wring them, sulphur them a second -time, or soak them in soap and water, those for whitening hot enough to -bear the hand, adding azure, if necessary, and turning and re-turning the -silk in this liquor. - -The fine silk of _Nankin_ requires no whitening. - - -_On aluming silk._ - -We have treated of this before at the commencement of the third chapter, -but a few more observations may be useful. - -The silk being first well washed and beetled, and the hanks tied loose so -that every thread may take alike, should be turned and re-turned in the -alum liquor and worked, cooled in it, at intervals, from morning till -night, afterwards taken out, beetled, and rinsed. - -The above proportion of alum will do for a hundred and fifty pounds of -silk, before you need replenish it; when this is necessary add -twenty-five pounds more of alum, as at first directed in Chapter III., -and so continue to replenish it till it gets a bad smell. When this is -the case you may dip for browns, maroons, &c.; and afterwards throw the -liquor away; the trough is then to be rinsed for a fresh liquor. - -Remember always to alum _cold_ or you will spoil the lustre of the silk. - - -_Skein silk for_ YELLOW. - -This is to be boiled with about twenty pounds of soap for every hundred -pounds of silk. When boiled it is to be washed and alumed, and again -washed, dressed, and put on the rod, seven or eight ounces to a rod, and -then dipped and re-turned in the yellow liquor, in the proportion of two -pounds of weld to one pound of silk. - -The liquor is not to be hotter than the hand can bear while the silk is -in it. The silk, when in the vessel for dyeing, should cause the liquor -to float within two inches of the edge. The silk must be taken out and -the liquor strengthened, if the pattern is to be very full; when full -enough, one pound of pearl-ash for every twenty pounds of silk must be -dissolved in some warm water; about a quarter of this liquor is put into -the dye bath: take the silk out while you put in the liquor, stir the -mixture well. Put in the silk and work it, turning and re-turning it as -at first. After seven or eight re-turns, one of the hanks is to be taken -out, wrung, and tried at the peg, and, if sufficiently full and bright, -all is well; if not enough so, some more pearl-ash liquor must be added, -and the silk worked as before, till the shade required is obtained. - -For _jonquil_ it may be necessary to add some annatto when you put in the -pearl-ash. - -To make the light shades, such as _canary_ or _lemon_, perfectly white, -they must be boiled with thirty pounds of soap to a hundred of silk; and -if these be not _azured_ to be dyed, they must have a little of the blue -vat, and a little of the weld liquor in water, (the whole mixture being -as hot, but no hotter than the hand will bear,) and the silk ready on -rods, must be quickly worked through and out. For deeper lemons the same -process must be used as for the fuller yellows; only less weld, and -twenty pounds of soap will do for a hundred pounds of silk in whitening -it. - -The blue of the vat is only used for such articles as are to have a green -cast, and that extremely light; the aluming also should be in a weaker -alum liquor: for light lemons it should be prepared in a separate liquor. - - -_Preparation of annatto for_ AURORA, ORANGE, MOIDORE, GOLD COLOUR _and_ -CHAMOIS. - -You must have a colander proportioned to the size of the copper in which -you boil the annatto. To every pound of annatto put from twelve ounces to -one pound of pearl-ashes, which last dissolve in water, and add the -solution, by degrees, to the solution of annatto as it boils and -dissolves, for which purpose the annatto must be suspended in the -colander over the copper by a flat stick about six inches broad, run -through a flat handle on each side of the colander, by which means the -colander is kept sunk in the water with the annatto in it, till it is all -dissolved, except some little foreign matters. The holes in the colander -should be moderately small. - -Dissolved in this manner the annatto, if kept clean, will keep as long as -you please. - - -_To dye silk_ AURORA _or_ ORANGE. - -These require but twenty pounds of soap for boiling white. To dye -_aurora_ the silk must be prepared the same as for yellow. - -Annatto _prepared_ (as directed in the last article) and settled, is then -put into a copper of hot water, in quantity according to the shade -required; having mixed it well, the liquor being as hot as the hand will -bear, put the silk into it; when one hank is tried, as in the yellow, if -it be not full enough, the liquor must be strengthened till the colour is -brought to the shade required. When finished the whole must be washed -twice and beetled. The _aurora_ serves as a ground for _moidore_. - - -_To dye_ MOIDORE. - -As fustic and logwood are to form part of this dye upon the annatto -ground, the silk must be alumed, then washed from the alum, in order that -the superflux of the alum may not render the dye uneven. A fresh liquor -is then prepared, rather hot, to which must be added a little of the -decoction of logwood, and of the decoction of young fustic. The silk is -re-turned in this liquor, but if apparently too red, you may put in a -very little of solution of sulphate of iron, which will make it -sufficiently yellow. - -When the silk is dyed with the gum, in the raw state, the annatto must be -used nearly cold, or the elasticity of the silk will be destroyed. - - -_Process for_ ORANGE. - -After dyeing aurora with annatto, it is necessary to redden the annatto -ground with vinegar, alum or lemon juice. - -For the brightest oranges, and up to scarlets and poppy, &c. silk should -have an annatto ground three or four shades under that of aurora. There -is no occasion for alum when the silk has been grounded and washed off. -If for _orange_ a liquor which has been used for poppy will be -sufficiently strong to finish it, or for light cherry, rose, &c. For -_flesh_, the lightest of these colours is so delicate that a little of -the soap water used for boiling should be added to the liquor, to prevent -the silk from taking the colour too quickly or unevenly. - -Liquors having safflower or weld in their composition, require to be -immediately worked, as by keeping they lose their colour, that is, the -safflower and its compounds, and are entirely spoiled. They are also -always used _cold_, as the safflower cannot bear heat. - -The _safflower_ preparation has been before described in Chapter II. -where the process of _cotton pink_ is performed by its solution. - - -_To dye silk_ POPPY, called by the French _coquelicot_. - -When the silk has received the annatto ground three shades less than for -aurora, the safflower preparation must be ready, and turned by the -solution of tartar as before described; the silk must also be well washed -from the annatto ground; that the alkali used with the annatto may not -counteract the tartar of the safflower, a bath of which must be prepared -as strong as possible, through which the silk must be worked six or seven -times: for a full poppy it is necessary to pass the silk through four or -five such liquors. Poppy is the deepest colour which can be done with the -safflower. It has been before observed, that the liquors from the poppy, -if used directly, will serve for orange, cherry, flesh, &c. - -Archil, as described for crimson, with cochineal for wools as before -described, is to be used on some occasions. In other cases some patterns -have no ground of annatto. - - -_A cheaper_ POPPY _with annatto and Brazil wood._ - -The silk is to be grounded with annatto as before; when well washed off -it must be alumed and washed off again; then passed through the decoction -of Brazil wood, washed off again, again passed through a fresh decoction -of Brazil wood; and every time that goods are passed through the dye, as -has been before stated, they must be worked from end to end of the -skeins, from five to seven times, to have them even, and to give them a -full opportunity of combining with the colouring materials of the dye. - -These repetitions must of course be in number proportionate to the -slightness or intensity of the colour wanted. With the Brazil decoction -it is necessary to mix well a little soap liquor, about five quarts to -thirty pounds of silk. This keeps the alum used to receive the Brazil -decoction not only from producing a stiffness, but, on the contrary, -preserves the silk soft and pliant. - -The above poppy serves for a ground for _brown red_ colours, by the -addition of logwood. A decoction of logwood, Brazil wood, and old fustic, -as has been before observed, should always be kept ready boiled. - - -_On dyeing silk a_ FINE CRIMSON. - -Silk intended for the crimson of cochineal should have only twenty pounds -of soap to one hundred pounds of silk, and no azure, because the natural -yellow of the silk which remains is favourable to the intended colour. - -The silk is to be strongly alumed and left in the alum from seven to -eight hours, then washed and twice beetled at the river. _Remember_ how -the alum is to be worked, as to the manual part. - -While this is doing, a liquor is to be thus got ready: take of blue and -white galls from one to two ounces to each pound of silk, let them be -well powdered and sifted; of fine cochineal, also well powdered and -sifted, from two to three ounces, for every pound of silk; put these -articles into pure soft water, and in a _boiler made of grain-tin_, (and -not in what is commonly called tin, which is iron covered with tin, and -which would utterly spoil the dye.) Neither would copper or brass suit as -well as grain-tin. This has been observed before, (page 84.) in the -article _on dyeing wool scarlet_. It ought, nevertheless, to be stated, -that such tin boilers are difficult to be made of a certain size, and -being liable, besides, to be melted without great care. Many dyers -therefore, still use _copper_ boilers. When the cochineal and galls have -boiled you add to the liquor for every pound of cochineal, about one -ounce of solution of tin, which is called _composition_, and is made in -the following manner: - - -_Composition for dyeing silk_ SCARLET _or_ CRIMSON _with cochineal_. - -Take one pound of nitric acid, two ounces of muriate of ammonia, six -ounces of fine tin, prepared as mentioned under _dyeing wool scarlet_, -water twelve ounces. - -The muriate of ammonia, the prepared tin, and the water, are put into a -stone jar, to which the nitric acid, is added, and the whole left to -dissolve. - -This composition contains much more tin and sal-ammoniac than is used for -the scarlet of cochineal upon wool; it is, however, absolutely necessary. - -An ounce of this composition, for every pound of silk, is to be added to -the galls and cochineal when boiling. The boiler is then cooled down a -little, the fire-door thrown open, the silk put in and worked from five -to seven times, when the silk will have become pretty even as far as it -is dyed. The copper is now again to be brought to boil; it should -continue boiling, and the silk kept turning, for two hours; the fire is -then taken from under the copper, and the silk is immersed entirely and -left all night, or for seven or eight hours at least; it thus takes a -full half shade. In the morning it is washed, twice beetled, wrung as -usual, and hung up to dry. - -The least tincture of sulphate of iron in the water saddens the crimsons, -takes off their yellow, and gives the violet cast; but if too much of the -yellow is carried off, it may be restored by fustic. Nothing but sulphate -of iron will sadden grain scarlets, logwood being quite useless for this -purpose; sulphate of iron darkens greatly with galls. _Macquer_. - - -_Another process for_ CRIMSON. - -When the silk is boiling in the soap-liquor, add one ounce of annatto, -for every pound of silk, working it through the colander as directed, -(page 136.) but without the composition or tartar: in some shades, -however, both composition and tartar are admitted. The solution applied -to cochineal with worsted has a considerable effect, changing it from a -crimson, its natural colour, to a very bright fire colour; but it -produces only a crimson when applied to silk; it gives, however, this -colour a very beautiful tint; for, uniting with the tartar, it increases -the effect without impoverishing the colour, and saving the annatto -ground. _Macquer_. - - -CRIMSON _by Brazil wood_. - -The silk should be first alumed, and then passed through a strong -decoction of Brazil wood, half a pail to a pound of silk, which is to be -worked, and put through an additional and strengthened dye of Brazil -wood, and then washed off: if in _hard_ water this will generally crimson -the Brazil wood sufficiently; but if in soft water a little pearl-ash -must be added; about one pound of the clear solution of pearl-ash, or -rather the clear solution of a pound of pearl-ash, as one pound of water -will not, we believe, dissolve a pound of pearl-ash: this is enough for -forty pounds of silk. - -_The decoction of Brazil wood_ is prepared thus: one hundred and fifty -pounds of Brazil wood chips are put into a copper which holds about sixty -buckets of water; the copper is then filled with water and boiled for -three hours, the waste by evaporation being occasionally supplied. The -fire is now damped, the clear liquor drawn off, the copper filled again, -and again boiled for three hours more. This process is repeated four -times in all, when the dye of the wood will be fully extracted. - -_Logwood_ and _old fustic_ are treated in the same manner, but only two -boilings are required for these. - -In regard to crimson generally, see forward, _observations on dyeing silk -crimson and scarlet_, and also some _observations_ on the _dyeing of wool -scarlet_, page 85. - - -_Of fine_ VIOLET. - -For this colour the common boiling is enough, the silk is alumed the same -as for fine scarlet, washed and twice beetled. Thus prepared, two ounces -of cochineal are given to it, with the same precaution as usual, but no -composition nor tartar. Being worked moderately warm, in working it must -be expeditiously turned; after a quarter of an hour the liquor should be -brought to boil, when the turning need not be so expeditious, but it -should, nevertheless, be continued for two hours. After being washed the -silk is dipped in the vat, more or less strong, according to the shade -required. - -Washing and drying are done in the same manner as for blues and greens, -and in general for all colours _dipped_ in the vat, namely, a small -quantity at a time, in order that the silk may be kept open to the air, -and that the greening of the vat may pass correctly and equally to blue. -For some shades archil forms a part of this dye. For other _violets on -silk_ see Chapter III. - - -_Observations on_ CRIMSON _and_ SCARLET _upon silk_. - -Crimson upon silk is produced at Norwich, London, and many other places, -by using a much larger quantity of cochineal than that which is directed -by Macquer: for in some cases, as much as a guinea a pound, has, it is -said, been paid for dyeing silk crimson at Norwich. Archil has been used, -likewise, in crimson, and the time of boiling is not so long. In some -shades a little of the composition and tartar may be admitted, but in a -small degree. It should be stated, however, that _scarlet upon silk_, is -often done by annatto and safflower. - -_Observe_, that although we have given the preceding processes for -crimson and scarlet, yet many others might be mentioned. What has been -said in regard to _dyeing scarlet on woollen_, (page 85.) should also be -carefully attended to, particularly relative to the conversion of scarlet -into crimson by alum, soap, and the alkalies. And though we have given -directions for the preparation of a _nitro-muriate of tin_, yet pure - - -_Muriate of tin_ - -is now very often used for dyeing silk red. MR. M'KERNAN, gives us the -following process for preparing it: - -Take of fine muriatic acid, of the specific gravity of 1.120, two quarts; -add by degrees, one ounce at a time, of feathered tin, for twenty-four -hours. Put the vessel in a sand heat and bring it gently to boil, -observing to add more tin as that in the acid becomes dissolved. There -should be some tin left undissolved when the liquor is cold, thus -indicating that the acid is perfectly neutralized by the tin. Bottle for -use. - - -_On dyeing silk_ GREEN. - -This colour is composed of _blue_ and _yellow_. It is with difficulty -produced on silk, because the blue vat is liable to spot and give a party -colour, an inconvenience to which green is more liable than blue, and -more perceptible. The boiling of silk for greens is the same as for -common colours. - -The silk being alumed as usual rather strongly, is washed off and divided -on the sticks into small hanks of about four or five ounces, that it may -be equally and easily managed in the working, from the yellow to green, -in the blueing from the blue vat. - -Weld is then boiled as stated in the article concerning _yellow_; when -boiled, a liquor of it is prepared strong enough to give a lemon ground; -the silk is then turned with all the expedition, care, and caution -possible, that it may be even. When it appears full enough, some of the -threads are to be separated and dipped in the vat, to determine this. If -not full enough, more of the weld liquor must be added to the dye bath, -and the silk returned and tried again, and so on; when the colour is -right, the silk is washed off and beetled. It is then wrung and formed -into hanks, and dipped skein by skein in the blue vat, the same as the -blue and the purple should be; it must be wrung with equal care and -dispatch. - -This green is a kind of _sea-green_, of which there are upwards of twenty -shades. The lighter shades, when taken out of the vat, are not washed but -the silk must be worked in the hands by clapping it between them, and -then be carefully opened and aired. A few threads are then washed, or -rinsed; if the colour be right the whole is washed. - -For the dark shades, when the weld is exhausted a little logwood is added -to the liquor; in some cases, old fustic, in some annatto. - -For _very dark-wing_ or _bottle-green_ shades, a little sulphate of iron -is required. - - -OLIVES. - -Proceed in aluming, &c. the same as for other colours; the weld liquor -being stronger, some logwood must be added. When the weld and logwood are -exhausted a very small quantity of each must be added, which green the -liquor, when the silk being passed through, a _greenish olive_ is -produced. - -A _reddish olive_ requires fustic, instead of logwood and pearl-ash, both -of these being omitted. - -Fustic gives a colour commonly called _drab-olive_ upon cloth, because -generally made to match with olive, this is commonly redder than the -preceding. - - -_On dyeing silk_ GREY. - -All the _greys_, namely, _nut-greys_, _thorn-greys_, _black_ and -_iron-greys_, and others of the same hue, black-grey excepted, are -produced without aluming. The silk being washed from the soap and drained -on the peg, a liquor is made of fustic, archil, logwood and sulphate of -iron: fustic gives the ground, archil the red, logwood darkens, and the -sulphate of iron softens all these colours, turns them grey, and, at the -same time, serves instead of alum as a mordant. - -As there is an infinite variety of greys, without any positive names, -produced by the same methods, it would be endless to enter into details, -which would prolong this treatise to little purpose. - -For _reddish-grey_ the archil should predominate; for those more grey, -the logwood; and for those rather greenish, the fustic. - -Care should be taken not to use the logwood too much, as with the -sulphate of iron it darkens more than most drugs: therefore the black -vat, made either with alder-bark, or the other preparation mentioned in -dyeing cotton, is preferable to the sulphate of iron. - - -NUT-GREY. - -The fustic decoction, archil, and a little logwood are put into water -moderately hot, the silk is then returned, and when the liquor is -exhausted, the silk is taken out, and to soften the colour the solution -of sulphate of iron, or the black vat, is used. The silk is then returned -once more, and if the colour does not appear sufficiently even, some red -spots still remaining, it may be concluded that it requires a little more -sulphate of iron. - -_Observe_ that, as sulphate of iron is the general base of all greys, if -this be deficient in quantity, the colour is apt to change in dyeing, and -to become rough and uneven. - -To know whether the colour be sufficiently softened, it should be -examined, and if it wet easily, after having been wrung on the peg, it -wants sulphate of iron. On the contrary, if it wets with a little -difficulty, the colour is sufficiently softened. - -Too much sulphate of iron stiffens the silk considerably, making it -harsh, and even depriving it of a part of its lustre; to remedy this it -must be extra washed and wrung at the peg; this process carries off the -sulphate of iron. - - -BLACK-GREYS. - -These are alumed and welded as for yellow, and, when the liquor is -exhausted, part of it is thrown away, and some logwood is added; when the -logwood is exhausted, sulphate of iron is added, sufficient to blacken -the colour, the silk is then washed, wrung, and finished in the usual way. - - -IRON-GREY. - -For iron-grey it is necessary to boil the same as for blues: this colour -is much more beautiful when laid on a very white ground. - -By having the drugs made into decoctions before-hand, greys either in -woollen, silk, or cotton, may be dyed at a heat not much above what the -hand will bear; and in a rotation of shades from light to dark, and -varied, blue, red, yellow, brown, &c. with ease and with pleasure; so -may, likewise, many stone-drabs, and other light brown drabs, as the -mixture of yellow, fawn, and black, produces nut-browns, &c. - - -_On dyeing silk of a_ PRUSSIAN-BLUE COLOUR. - -The application of colours derived from the mineral kingdom to dyeing is -one of the most striking modern improvements in our art. MR. RAYMOND -received from the French government in 1801, eight thousand francs, (more -than three hundred pounds sterling,) as a reward for communicating to the -public his process for dyeing silk of a uniform fast and bright -_Prussian-blue colour_ by the application of that well known pigment. His -process is as follows. - -He first converts, by a gentle calcination, sulphate of iron into a red -sulphate of iron: this he dissolves in sixteen times its weight of warm -water and filters. The silk, prepared as for indigo dye, is put into the -solution of iron, and left there for a shorter or longer time, according -to the shade of blue that is wanted; it is then taken out and wrung very -dry over a pole placed above the vat. It is then thoroughly cleansed by -being twice beetled, plunging and agitating it each time in running -water. Dissolve in pure water heated to 167°, and put into a deal vat, -one ounce of _ferroprussiate_ of _potash_, for every twelve ounces of -silk to be dyed. When the prussiate is dissolved add one part, or even -rather more, of muriatic acid, stirring the mixture well. When the liquor -has acquired a greenish colour, and about 144° of heat, the silk must be -immediately plunged into it and stirred about for some minutes. The silk -having received the dye in an equal manner, it is taken out of the vat, -well wrung on a pole above the vat, and then taken to the stream to -receive two or three beetlings, and be plunged and agitated in the water, -in order that it may be entirely freed from any portion of the prussiate -of iron not truly combined with it. - -Lastly, the silk being well washed in the stream, and thoroughly wrung, -is to be placed loosely on the poles, as in the preceding operations; -after which it must be well agitated in a large vessel three-fourths -filled with cold water, to which must be added, for a hundred pounds of -silk, two pounds of water of ammonia. The blue colour immediately becomes -many shades deeper, of a much richer and brighter tint, and at the same -time is fixed more perfectly in the silks. This change is effected in a -few minutes. The silk must then be wrung by the hand and rinsed in the -running water without beating. After this, it is dried on the poles in -the same manner as other dyed silks. It need not be left on the poles -more than twenty-four hours: but, nevertheless, this colour so far from -fading in the drying, as is the case with many colours, is improved by it. - -The solution of a little soap added cold to the ammonia bath, improves -it, giving also softness to the silk, and rendering it more easy to -separate. The soap should be uniformly dissolved. - -For the substance of the above process, we are indebted to Dr. URE'S -_notes on Berthollet_, vol. ii. p. 422. The _prussiate of potash_ is now -to be obtained as a regular article of trade from the dry-salters in this -country. - -_Woollen cloth_ takes also the above dye, but it must be left longer than -silk in the iron mordant. - - -_Chromate of lead for_ YELLOW _on_ SILK _and_ COTTON. - -_Chromate of lead_, as a pigment has been for some time in use; _M. -Lassaigne_, in 1820, made public a process for dyeing cloth with this -article, which has since become pretty common in this country. - -Immerse hanks of scoured silk for a quarter of an hour in a weak solution -of _acetate of lead_ at the ordinary temperature; take them out and wash -them in a great deal of water: then dip them into a weak solution of -_chromate of potash_. They immediately take a fine yellow colour; at the -end of ten minutes the effect is complete. From this colour being -decomposed in part by soap and water, it is chiefly applicable to silks. -But by applying, however, a mordant of acetate or nitrate of lead, and -passing the goods through bichromate of potash, a very beautiful and -sufficiently fast yellow is now given to _cotton goods_ in this country. - - -_Conclusion._ - -We cannot conclude our work without observing, that from the researches -continually going on in _botany_ and other branches of natural history, -and, more especially, from those in _chemistry_, there can be no doubt -that discoveries, which will materially improve the art of dyeing, must, -from time to time, be made. Some of these, not yet generally known, in -the hands of a few persons, have already been found useful; but -individual interest is, of course, a great enemy to their being made -public. Others, although public, are, as yet, of too doubtful a utility -to be noticed here. - -If we have not given forms for the employment of some articles in use by -certain dyers, such as _kermes_ for _reds_; _French Berries, (rhamnus -infectorius,)_ the _Canada golden rod (solidago Canadensis,)_ the -_Barberry (Berberis vulgaris,)_ and the _French marygold, (Tagetes -patula,)_ for _yellows_, &c. &c.; it is not to be concluded that such are -not good in their kind, and might not be used occasionally with -advantage. But as our object has been to give the _best_ methods of -dyeing the various colours, it would be impossible to notice many others -in a manual of this kind, and in the limits within which we are -necessarily confined. To mention those substances recently introduced -into dyeing, the utility of which is not confirmed by extensive practice, -would be injudicious, and tend to lead the young dyer astray; those, -however, who have leisure and inclination, and are, besides, able to run -the risk of the failure of new processes, may, and no doubt will, make -experiments with them by which our art must be eventually served and -improved. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Acetate of alumina, 8, 36 - copper, 16 - lead, 17 - - Acid, the acetic, 33 - carbonic, 32 - Gallic, 10 - muriatic, 12 - nitric, ib. - nitro-muriatic, 13 - pyrolignous, 33 - sulphuric, 15 - Tartaric, 33 - - Acids, what, 31 - - Adjective colours, 27 - - Adrianople red, 117 - - Albumen, 24 - - Alcohol, what, and how obtained, 25 - - Alkali, volatile, 23, 30 - - Alkalies, the fixed, 14, 30 - - Alum, common, 7 - roche, ib. - - Alumina, ib. - acetate of, 8 - - American bark, 15 - - Ammonia, 23 - carbonate of, ib. - - Animal substances, analysis of, 18 - oil, 24 - - Annatto, preparation of, 136 - - Aqua fortis, 13 - regia, ib. - - Archil, 8 - - Argol, ib. - - Aurora, to dye silk, 137 - - Azotic gas, 29 - - - Bancroft's dyeing, 4 - - Bancroft's murio-sulphate of tin, 101 - - Barilla, 15 - - Bastard saffron, ib. - - Berthollet's dyeing, 4 - - Bile, 10 - - Black on silk, 106, 107, 108 - to dye, on cotton, Rouen process, 108 - London process, ib. - - Black, to dye, on cotton velvets at Manchester, 110 - silk and cotton with a blue ground, 112 - another for cotton, 114 - on wool, 90, 93 - - Bleaching, 37 - - Blood used in dyeing, 119 - its constituents, 24 - - Blue, 111 - to dye, on cotton, 47 - silk, 64 - wool, 73, 80 - linen and cotton, 57 - chemic, 47 - copperas or vitriol, 10 - - Bran, 9 - - Brimstone, 15 - - Brown, to dye wool, 97 - cotton, 128 - - Buff, to dye cotton a fast, 58 - wool, 101 - - - Calcination, 28 - - Calico printers' mordant, 36 - - Carbon, or charcoal, 28 - - Carbonic acid, 32 - - Carbonate of ammonia, 23 - potash, 14 - soda, 31 - - Carthamus, 15 - - Cerulin, 11 - - Chemic blue, 47 - green, 52 - - Chemical terms, 45 - - Chemistry, leading facts in, 26 - - Chlorine, 9, 13 - - Chloride of lime, 38 - - Cochineal, 9 - - Colours, on fast and fugitive, 39 - for dyeing, 6 - Sir I. Newton's primary, 18 - to prove, 41 - - Composition for dyeing silk scarlet, 141 - - Combustion, 28 - - Copper, 10 - - Copper, acetate of, 10 - sulphate of, ib. - - Coquelicot, to dye silk, 138 - - Cotton, on dyeing, 47, 104, 123 - to dye chemic or Saxon blue, 47 - black, 108, 110, 114 - green, 52 - a fast green, 56 - buff, 58 - green with indigo and weld, 56 - pink, 60 - violet, 115 - duck's-wing green or olive, 128 - brown, maroon, &c., ib. - red, 116, 117 - yellow by chromate of lead, 151 - skein, to dye, yellow, 124 - furniture, to dye, yellow, ib. - the same to re-dye, 127 - - Cream of Tartar, 9 - - Crimson, to dye, by archil on wool, 80 - lac dye on wool, ib. - worsted yarn, 81 - on silk, 140 - - Cudbear, 8 - - - Decoction, what, 53 - - Distilled verdigris, 17 - - Drugs used in dyeing, 7 - - Dye-houses, 42 - - Dyer, the trade of a, 1 - - Dyers of Adrianople red, 2 - black, 3 - grain, 1 - silk, skein, 3 - rag, ib. - woad, 2 - woollen, 1 - worsted yarn, 3 - weed, 17 - - - Fawn, to dye wool, 88 - - Feathered tin, 83 - - Fermentation, the vinous, 25 - acetous, ib. - - Fermentation, the putrid, 25 - - Fibrin, 24 - - - Gall of animals, 10 - - Galls, ib. - - Gallic acid, ib. - - Gas, what, 31 - - Gelatine, 24 - - Gold colour, to dye wool, 90 - - Green, to dye the chemic, on cotton, 52 - cotton a fast, 56 - wool, 89 - woollen, ib. - cotton duck's-wing, 128 - silk, 145 - vitriol, or copperas, 12 - - Grey, to dye wool, 96 - on silk, 147 - - - Hematin, 96 - - Hydrogen, 29 - carburetted, 32 - sulphuretted, 33 - - - Indigo, 10 - prepared, 75 - sulphate of, 11, 51 - neutralization of, 52 - - Indigo, solution of, for penciling muslin, 57 - vats, 54, 102 - - Inflammable air, 29 - - Iron, 12 - acetate, ib. - liquor, 112 - muriate, 12 - oxide, ib. - sulphate, ib. - - Iron-moulds, 34 - - - Jennings's Cyclopædia, 4 - - - Lac dye, 12 - - Lake, ib. - how used for scarlet, 80 - - Light, decomposition of, 18 - - Lime, 23 - - Linen, to dye, scarlet, 122 - blue, 57 - - Litmus, or lacmus, 8 - - Lilac, to dye silk, 68 - muslin, ib. - - Logwood, 96 - - - M'Kernan on dyeing silk, 4 - - Maroon, to dye wool, 85 - cotton, 128 - - Moidore, to dye silk, 137 - - Mordant, what, 27 - the calico printers', for yellow and red, 36 - - Muriate of soda, 12 - tin, 144 - - Murio-sulphate of tin, 101 - - Muriatic acid, 12 - gas, 14 - - Muslin, to dye, lilac, 68 - - - Nitre, 12 - - Nitric acid, ib. - - Nitro-muriatic acid, 13 - - Nitrogen, 23 - gas, 29 - - - Oil of vitriol, 15 - - Orange, to dye wool, 90 - silk, 137 - - Orpiment, 13 - - Oxides, what, 14 - - Oxidation, 28 - - Oxygen, ib. - - Oxymuriatic acid, 13 - - Oxymuriate of lime, 38 - - - Pastel, 17 - vat, 73 - - Peach, to dye wool, 101 - - Pearl-ash, 14 - - Phenicin, 11 - - Pink, to dye cotton, 60 - - Poppy, to dye silk, 138 - - Potash, 14 - - Potassium, 29 - - Prickly pear, 9 - - Proximate constituents of animals, 23 - vegetables, 21 - - Purple, to dye silk, 67 - wool, 88 - - Pyrolignous acid, 33 - - - Quercitron bark, 15 - - - Realgar, 13 - - Red, to dye cotton, 116 - - Red, to dye cotton, Adrianople or Turkey, 117 - - - Safflower, 15 - - Salt, common, 12 - - Saddening, what, 111 - - Scarlet, to dye, with lac dye, 80 - silk, 141 - wool, 82 - on linen, 122 - - Silk, on dyeing, 62, 105, 123 - ungumming and boiling, 129 - whitening, 132 - aluming, 63, 134 - to dye blue, 64, 67 - violet, royal purple, &c., 67 - lilac, 68 - another process for the same, ib. - violet and purple, ib. - another process for the same, 69 - another process for the same, ib. - purple, ib. - aurora, orange, and moidore gold colour and chamois, 136 - black, 105, 106, 107, 112 - orange or aurora, 137 - moidore, ib. - orange, 138 - poppy or coquelicot, ib. - a cheap poppy, 139 - a fine crimson or scarlet, 140 - another process for the same, 142 - a fine violet, 143 - green, 145 - olive, 146 - grey, 147 - with Prussian blue, 149 - yellow, by chromate of lead, 151 - - Silk skein, to dye, yellow, 135 - - Soap, 31 - - Soda, 15 - - Sodium, 30 - - Spirit of salts, 12 - wine, 25 - - Spirit of hartshorn, 24 - - Substantive colours, 27 - - Sulphate of alum and potash, 7 - copper, 10 - indigo, 51 - to neutralize, 52 - iron, 12 - - Sulphur, 15, 32 - - Sulphuret of arsenic, 13 - - Sulphuric acid, 15 - - Sumach, 16 - - - Tannin, 10 - - Tar-iron liquor, 114 - - Tartar, 8 - - Tin, 16 - muriate of, 144 - murio-sulphate of, 101 - nitro-muriate of, 83 - - Turkey red, 117 - - Turmeric, 16 - - - Ultimate constituents of animals, 23 - vegetables, 21 - - Ure's Berthollet, 4 - Chemical Dictionary, 4 - - Utensils, on the, used in dyeing, 43 - - - Vat, the blue indigo, for silk, 64 - another for the same, 67 - cold indigo, for cotton, 54 - blue, for linen and cotton, 57 - indigo, for worsted and serge, 102 - - Vegetable substances, analysis of, 18 - - Verdigris, common, 16 - distilled, ib. - - Violet, to dye cotton, 115 - a fine, on silk, 143 - - - Water proper for dyeing, 42 - - Weld, 17, 41 - to dye cotton green with, and indigo, 56 - wool green with, and woad, 89 - - White, the numerous shades of, in silk, 132 - - Whitening silk, process for, ib. - - Woad, 17 - vat, rules to judge of, 75 - how to work, 77 - errors in, how to remove, 76 - on the putrefaction of the, 78 - - Wool, on scouring and dyeing, 70 - the action of tartar and alum on, 72 - to dye, orange, gold colour, &c., 90 - black, 90, 93, 94 - blue, by the woad vat, 73 - blue, several methods, 80, 89 - scarlet and crimson, 80, 81, 82 - maroon, 85 - yellow, 87, 99 - brown and fawn colour, 88 - purple, ib. - green, 89 - black, 90 - another process, 93 - greys, 96 - brown, fawn, and many other colours, 97 - - Wool, to dye, buff, 101 - peach, ib. - - Woollen, a chemic vat for green, 89 - blue, ib. - - Worsted yarn, to dye, a crimson, 81 - and serge, indigo vat for, 102 - - - Yellow from Quercitron bark, 98 - chromate of lead, 151 - weld, 87, 125 - on, wool, 87 - cotton, 124, 151 - silk, 135, 151 - - -THE END. - - -Printed by R. 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