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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Secrets of Earth and Sea, by Sir Ray Lankester.
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<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 53751 ***</div>
<p class="ac noindent p4">SECRETS OF EARTH AND SEA</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="figcenter"><a name="frontis.jpg" id="frontis.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="600" height="384"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1">DIMETRODON GIGAS, AN EXTINCT LIZARD, SEVEN FEET LONG</div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<h1>
SECRETS OF EARTH AND SEA</h1>
<p class="ac noindent p2">BY<br />
<br />
<span class="sc">Sir</span> RAY LANKESTER<br />
K.C.B., F.R.S.</p>
<p class="ac noindent smaller p4">WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
<p class="ac noindent p4">NEW YORK<br />
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
1920</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
</div>
<p class="drop-cap">THE present volume is, like its predecessors, "Science
from an Easy Chair" (Series I and Series II) and
"Diversions of a Naturalist"—mainly a revision and
reprint—with considerable additions—of articles published
in daily or weekly journals. The first chapter appeared
originally in "The Field." The Chapters VI, XX, XXI,
and XXII were published in the "Illustrated London
News," under the title "About a Number of Things." The
rest are some of the articles which, as "Science from an
Easy Chair," I contributed, during seven years, to the
"Daily Telegraph." That, to me very happy, conjunction
was, like so many other happy things, necessarily interrupted
by the Great War.</p>
<p>One result of that terrible cataclysm is that not a few
thoughtful writers have been led to deny the existence of
what they call "Progress," meaning by that word the
development of mankind from a less to a more complete
attainment of moral and physical well-being. The
question raised is obscured by the arbitrary use of the
word "progress," since by it any movement from point
to point—whether advantageous and desirable or the
reverse—is described, as, for instance, in the familiar titles
given by Bunyan to his book "The Pilgrim's Progress"
and by Hogarth to his pictures "The Rake's Progress."
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
Those who to-day despair of man's future limit their
outlook on the past to the conventional history of some
three or four thousand years. The only solid ground
upon which we can base the supposition that mankind
has moved from a less to a more complete attainment
of moral and physical well-being and will continue to
do so, exists in the ascertained facts of the past history
of living things on this Earth, and of man since his
earliest emergence from among the man-like apes made
known to us by his stone-implements and fossilized
bones. That there has been a development from lower,
simpler structure to higher, more complex, more efficient
structure is demonstrable, and so is the proposition that
there has been in the human race a continuous development
in the direction of increased adaptation to the
conditions of social life and an increased control by man
of those natural agencies which he can either favour when
conducive to his prosperity, or on the other hand can
arrest when inimical to it. "The continuous weakening of
selfishness and the continuous strengthening of sympathy"
(to adopt the words of the American philosopher,
Fiske) are, in spite of numerous lapses and outbursts of
savagery, patent features of the long history of mankind.
We have no reason to doubt their continuation, whilst
at the same time we must be prepared for and accept,
without desponding, the ups and the downs, the disasters
as well as the triumphs, which inevitably characterize the
natural process of evolution. One thing, above all others,
we as conscious, reasoning beings can do which must
tend to the further development and security of human
well-being: we can ascertain ever more and more of the
truth, or in other words, "that which is." We can discover
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>
the actual conditions of natural law, under which we exist
and promote the knowledge of that truth among our
fellows. To do that which is right, we must know that
which is true. To act rightly, we must know truly.</p>
<p>We possess, a vast heritage of knowledge handed on
to us in tradition and in writings from our father-man in
the past. But there are yet immense fields of knowledge
to be explored and yet a greater task to be accomplished
in spreading the knowledge which we possess, and in
persuading all men that it is their right and their duty
to acquire it and to enjoy the power and the pleasure
which it gives. All must also help, directly or indirectly,
in the making of new knowledge. Whilst mankind is
still so backward in knowledge and the worship of wisdom,
it is idle to indulge in despair of the future. A chief way
to increased welfare is still open and untrodden.</p>
<p>These are big speculations and problems with which
to preface a small book. But I am content to offer
the small book as a contribution, however restricted, to
the spread of a desire for further knowledge of the things
about which it tells—a possible incitement to serious
study of some one or other among them.</p>
<p class="noindent ar">E. RAY LANKESTER</p>
<p class="noindent"><i>June 2nd, 1920</i></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
</div>
<table id="TOC" summary="CONTENTS">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="c2-1"><span class="x-smaller">CHAP.</span></td>
<td></td>
<td class="c2"><span class="smaller sc">Page</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">I.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><span class="sc">The Earliest Picture in
the World</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">II.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><span class="sc">Portraits of Mammoths
by Men Who Saw Them</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">26</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">III.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><span class="sc">The Art of Prehistoric
Men</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">35</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">IV.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="sc">Vesuvius in Eruption</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">55</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">V.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><span class="sc">Blue Water</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">74</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">VI.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><span class="sc">The Biggest Beast</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">84</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">VII.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><span class="sc">What is meant by
"a Species"?</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">92</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">VIII.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><span class="sc">More about Species</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">100</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">IX.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><span class="sc">Species in the Making</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">108</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">X.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><span class="sc">Some Specific Characters</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">118</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XI.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><span class="sc">Hybrids</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">131</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XII.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><span class="sc">The Cross-breeding
of Races</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">139</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XIII.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><span class="sc">Wheel Animalcules</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">157</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XIV.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><span class="sc">More about Wheel
Animalcules</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">165</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XV.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><span class="sc">Suspended Animation</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">173</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XVI.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><span class="sc">More about Suspended
Animation</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">182</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XVII.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII"><span class="sc">The Swastika</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">191</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XVIII.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII"><span class="sc">The Origin of the
Swastika</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">200</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XIX.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX"><span class="sc">The Tomoye and
the Swastika</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">209</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XX.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX"><span class="sc">Coal</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">217</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XXI.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI"><span class="sc">Boring for Oil</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">223</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">XXII.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII"><span class="sc">The Story of Lime-Juice
and Scurvy</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">229</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1"></td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#INDEX"><span class="sc">Index</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">239</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="EXPLANATION_OF_THE" id="EXPLANATION_OF_THE"></a>EXPLANATION OF THE
FRONTISPIECE</h2>
</div>
<p class="drop-cap">THIS plate shows the restoration of the extinct lizard,
Dimetrodon gigas (Cope), lately made by Mr. Charles
W. Gilmore of the United States National Museum,
by whose kind permission it is here reproduced from the
Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum, vol. 56, 1919.
It is based upon the study of a very fine skeleton
and some hundred bones of allied species, collected by
Mr. Sternberg from "the Permian formation" exposed
in the vicinity of Seymour, Texas, U.S.A. It is selected
for illustration here because its most striking feature—the
high dorsal fin-like crest along the middle of the back
formed by the elongation of the neural spines of the
vertebræ—is a puzzle to the conscientious Darwinian.
Professor Case says of it: "The elongate spines were useless,
so far as I can imagine, and I have been puzzling
over them for several years. It is impossible to conceive
of them as useful either for defence or concealment, or in
any other way than as a great burden to the creatures
(terrestrial non-aquatic animals) that bore them. They
must have been a nuisance in getting through the vegetation,
and a great drain upon the creature's vitality, both
to develop them and keep them in repair." The reader
is referred to pp. 127, 128, where a brief discussion of such
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>
exuberant growths will be found. The excessive growth
of the median fins in the fish Pteraclis allied to the
Dolphin which displays changing floods of surface colour
as it dies—and in the Australian Blenny called Patæcus—both
figured on p. 130—should be compared with that
of the strange crest of the grotesque Dimetrodon.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
</div>
<table id="ILLOS" summary="ILLUSTRATIONS">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="c2-1"></td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#frontis.jpg"><span class="sc">Dimetrodon</span></a></td>
<td class="c2"><span class="smaller sc"><i>Frontispiece</i></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1"><span class="x-smaller">FIGS.</span></td>
<td></td>
<td class="c2"><span class="x-smaller sc">PAGE</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:4em" class="c2-1">1, 2.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_1-2.jpg"><span class="sc">Engraved Cylinder of Red-Deer's
Antler, from the Azilian (Elapho-Tarandian) Horizon of the Cavern of Lortet</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">3.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_03.jpg"><span class="sc"><i>A.</i>
Perforated Harpoon of the Azilian or Red-Deer Period. <i>B.</i> and <i>C.</i>
Imperforate Harpoons or Lance Heads</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">4.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_04.jpg"><span class="sc">Rolled Impression or "Development"
of the Engraving on the Lortet Antler</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">12</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">5.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_05.jpg"><span class="sc">Restoration (or Completion) of the
Engraving on the Lortet Antler</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">13</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">6.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_06.jpg"><span class="sc">Fragment of a Roughly-painted Vase
of the Dipylon Age (<i>circa</i> 800 b.c.) from Tiryns</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">23</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">7.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_07.jpg"><span class="sc">Engraving of a Mammoth drawn upon
a Piece of Mammoth Ivory</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">26</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">8.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_08.jpg"><span class="sc">Outline Engravings of Mammoths on
the Wall of the Cavern known as the "Font de Gaume," near Eyzies (Dordogne)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">32</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">9.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_09.jpg"><span class="sc">Similar Engravings from the Neighbouring
Cave of Combarelles</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">32</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">10.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_10.jpg"><span class="sc"><i>A</i>, Similar Engraving from the
Cave of Combarelles. <i>B</i>, Mammoth enclosed by Plank-like Structure–supposed to be
either a Cage or a Trap</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">11.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_11.jpg"><span class="sc">Horse (Wall Engraving), Cave of
Marsoulas, Haute Garonne</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">43</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">12.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_12.jpg"><span class="sc">Horse (Wall Engraving) Outline in
Black, Cave of Niaux (Ariège)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">43
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">13.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_13.jpg"><span class="sc">Horses: <i>A</i>, Wall Engraving (Cave
of Hornos de la Péna). <i>B</i>, Wall Engraving from Cavern of Combarelles. <i>C</i>,
engraved on reindeer Antler (Mas d'Azil)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">43</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">14.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_14.jpg"><span class="sc">Drawing (of the Actual Size of the
Original) of a Flat Carving in Shoulder-bone of a Horse's Head, showing Twisted
Rope-bridle and Trappings</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">45</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">15.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_15.jpg"><span class="sc">Drawing (of the Actual Size of the
Original) of a fully rounded Carving in Reindeer's Antler of the Head of a Neighing
Horse</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">45</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">16.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_16.jpg"><span class="sc">Reindeer (Engraving on
Schist)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">46</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">17.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_17.jpg"><span class="sc">Rhinoceros in Red Outline</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">46</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">18.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_18.jpg"><span class="sc">Bison from the Roof of the Cavern of
Altamira</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">19.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_19.jpg"><span class="sc">Bison: Wall Engravings</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">20.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_20.jpg"><span class="sc">Bear: Engraved on Stalagmite, from the
Cave of Teyjat near Eyzies</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">21.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_21.jpg"><span class="sc">Bear: Engraved on Stone, Massol
(Ariège)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">22.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_22.jpg"><span class="sc">Wolf: Engraved on Wall of the Cave of
Combarelles</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">23.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_23.jpg"><span class="sc">Wall Engraving of a Cave Lion
(Combarelles)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">24.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_24.jpg"><span class="sc">Goose: Small Engraving on Reindeer
Antler</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">49</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">25.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_25.jpg"><span class="sc">Female Figure carved in Oolitic Limestone
from Willendorf, near Krems, Lower Austria (1908)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">50</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">26.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_26.jpg"><span class="sc">Drawing (of the Actual Size of the
Original) of an Ivory Carving (fully rounded) of a Female Head</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">51</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">27.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_27.jpg"><span class="sc">Seated Figure of a Woman holding a
Bovine Horn in the Right Hand</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">51</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">28.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_28.jpg"><span class="sc">Male Figure represented in the Act of
drawing a Bow or throwing a Spear</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">51
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">29.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_29.jpg"><span class="sc">A Piece of Mammoth Ivory carved with
Spirals and Scrolls from the Cave of Arudy (Hautes Pyrénées)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">54</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">30.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_30.jpg"><span class="sc">Vesuvius as it appeared before the
Eruption of August 24, a.d. 79</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">57</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">31.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_31.jpg"><span class="sc">Five Successive Stages in the Change
of Form of Vesuvius (from Phillips' "Vesuvius," 1869)</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">61</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">32.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_32.jpg"><span class="sc">The Upper-arm Bone or Humerus of the
Great Reptile (Gigantosaurus) of Tendagoroo</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">88</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1"></td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_32a.jpg"><span class="sc">The Gigantic Reptile Diplodocus on
Land</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">91</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">33.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_33.jpg"><span class="sc">The Rudimentary Gill-plume of a
Crayfish from that Part of the Body-wall to which the First Pair of Jaw-legs
(Maxillipedes) is articulated</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">122</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1"></td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_33a.jpg"><span class="sc">Strangely-shaped Fishes</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">130</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">34.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_34.jpg"><span class="sc">Diagram of <i>Rotifer vulgaris</i>–The
Common Wheel Animalcule–One Hundred and Twenty Times as long as the Creature
itself</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">158</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">35.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_35.jpg"><span class="sc">The Rotifer <i>Pedalion
mirum</i>–seen from the Right Side, magnified 180 Diameters</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">161</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">36.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_36.jpg"><span class="sc">The Rotifer <i>Pedalion mirum</i>–seen
from the Ventral Surface</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">161</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">37.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_37.jpg"><span class="sc">The Rotifer <i>Noteus
quadricornis</i>–to show its curious Four-horned Carapace</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">163</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1"></td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_37a.jpg"><span class="sc">The Larval or Young Form of Crustacea
known as "the Nauplius"</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">164</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">37 (<i>bis</i>).</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_37b.jpg"><span class="sc">Three Tube-building
Wheel Animacules</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">169</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1"></td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_37c.jpg"><span class="sc">Young Stages of Growth or Veliger
Larvæ of Marine Snails</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">181</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">38.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_38.jpg"><span class="sc">The Swastika in its simplest Rectangular
Form</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">191
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">39.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_39.jpg"><span class="sc">Three Simple Varieties of the
Swastika</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">192</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">40.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_40.jpg"><span class="sc">Footprint of the Buddha</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">192</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">41.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_41.jpg"><span class="sc">Vase from Cyprus (Mykenæan Age,
<i>circa</i> 1200 b.c.); Painted with Lotus, Bird and Four Swastikas</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">194</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">42.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_42.jpg"><span class="sc">Terra-Cotta Spindle-Whorl marked with
Swastikas</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">194</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">43.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_43.jpg"><span class="sc">Ornament from an Archaic (pre-Hellenic)
Bœotian Vase, showing Several Swastikas, Greek Crosses and Two Serpents</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">195</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">43 (<i>bis</i>).</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_43a.jpg"><span class="sc">Swastikas in Bronze
Repoussé</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">195</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">44.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_44.jpg"><span class="sc">Silver-plated Bronze Horse Gear from
Scandinavia, showing two Swastikas, and below a Complex Elaboration of a
Swastika</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">195</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">45.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_45.jpg"><span class="sc">Anglo-Saxon Urn from Shropham, Norfolk,
Ornamented by Twenty Small Hand-made Swastikas stamped into the Clay</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">195</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">46.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_46.jpg"><span class="sc">Piece of a Ceremonial Bead-worked
Garter, showing Star and Two Swastikas</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">197</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">47.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_47.jpg"><span class="sc">A Stone Slab from the Ancient City of
Mayapan (Yucatan, Central America), on which (Right Side) a Curvilinear Swastika is
carved</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">198</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">48.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_48.jpg"><span class="sc">Diagram to show the Derivation of
the Swastika from a Greek Cross enclosed by a Circle</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">199</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">49.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_49.jpg"><span class="sc">The Greek Key Pattern in <i>A</i>
Rectangular, and <i>B</i> Curvilinear or "Current" Form</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">202</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">50.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_50.jpg"><span class="sc">Diagrams of the
"Triskelion"</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">203</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">51.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_51.jpg"><span class="sc">Four Stages in the Simplification
of a Decorative Design–The Alligator</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">205</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">52.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_52.jpg"><span class="sc">Simplification (grammatizing) of Decorative
Design</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">206</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">53.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_53.jpg"><span class="sc">Spindle-Whorl from Troy (Fourth City),
with Three Swastikas</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">206
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">54.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_54.jpg"><span class="sc">The "Tomoye"–The Japanese Badge of
Triumph</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">209</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">55.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_55.jpg"><span class="sc">Symbols of the History of the Universe
used by the Ancient Chinese Philosopher Chu-Hsi</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">209</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">56.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_56.jpg"><span class="sc">Diagrams to show the possible
Derivation of the Swastika from the Inscription of Two S-like Lines (or "Ogees") within
a Circle so as to divide the Circle into Four Bent Cones</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">209</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">57.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_57.jpg"><span class="sc">Terra-cotta Cone with a Seven-armed
Sun-like Figure</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">211</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">58.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_58.jpg"><span class="sc">Scalloped Shell Disk, from a Mound
near Nashville, Tennessee, showing in the Centre a Tetraskelion with Four Curved
Arms</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">211</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">59.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_59.jpg"><span class="sc">An Altar-stone of Prehistoric
Age</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">213</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="c2-1">60.</td>
<td class="c1"><a href="#i_60.jpg"><span class="sc">Diagrams of Arbeli</span></a></td>
<td class="c2">214</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
<p class="ac noindent xx-larger p4">SECRETS OF
EARTH AND SEA</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">THE EARLIEST PICTURE IN THE WORLD</p>
<p class="drop-cap">IN Figs. 1 and 2 on the next page a cylindrical piece
of the antler of a red deer is represented of half the
natural size. On it are carved by in-sunk lines certain
representations of animals. It was found in the cavern of
Lortet, near Lourdes, in the department of the Hautes
Pyrénées, in the south of France, together with many other
remains of prehistoric man. This cavern was excavated
and all its contents of human origin carefully preserved
by M. Edouard Piette in 1873 and the following years.
Drawings of this and other remarkable carved pieces of
bone and antler, many in the form of harpoon heads, and
of small chipped flint implements, all found in this cave,
were published by him.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> He excavated also several other
caverns with great care, and his collections were bequeathed
by him on his death to the great Museum of
National Archæology at St. Germain, near Paris, where I
have had the advantage of studying them.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_1-2.jpg" id="i_1-2.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_1-2.jpg" width="600" height="332"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 1 and 2.</span>–Engraved cylinder of red-deer's
antler, from the Azilian (Elapho-Tarandian) horizon of the cavern of Lortet. Drawn of a
little more than half the actual size of the specimen.</div>
</div>
<p>The age assigned to this carving is that called by Piette
"Elapho-Tarandian." At this period the reindeer (Tarandus),
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
which previously abounded, is giving place to the
red deer (Elaphus). The layer in which this carving was
found belongs to the latest of
the Palæolithic cave deposits,
and was followed by a warmer
period, in which the red deer
and the modern fauna entirely
replaced the old fauna of the
Glacial period. The deposits
in Pyrenean caves of the
Elapho-Tarandian age are
characterized by an abundance
of large flat harpoons
serrated on both sides. In this
latest horizon of the Reindeer
period the art of engraving
in outline on bone and stone
had attained the highest pitch
of excellence which it reached
in the prehistoric race of
South-West Europe.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_03.jpg" id="i_03.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_03.jpg" width="377" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>–<i>A.</i> Perforated harpoon
of the Azilian or Red-Deer period, made from antler of
red deer, found in quantity in the upper layers of deposit
in the cavern of the Mas d'Azil (Arriège). <i>B</i> and <i>C</i>. Imperforate
harpoons or lance heads made from reindeer antler of the
Magdalenian period (Reindeer epoch). <i>B</i> from Bruniquel Cave
(Tarn-et-Garonne). <i>C</i> from a cavern in the Hautes Pyrénées.
Same size as the objects.</div>
</div>
<p>A very natural tendency
among those who hear from
time to time something of
what is being discovered about
primitive man is to confuse
all the periods and races of
prehistoric man together, and
so picture to themselves one
ideal "primitive man." My
friend Mr. Rudyard Kipling does this, although it would
be no further from a true conception were he to blend
his ancient Britons, his Phenicians, his Romans, his
Saxons, his Normans, and a few Hindoos into one
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
imaginary man and represent him as taking a coloured
photograph of the Druids of Stonehenge on a piece of
Egyptian papyrus. Here is Mr. Kipling's vision of
primitive man:</p>
<div class="poetry-container">
<div class="poetry">
<div class="verse">Once on a glittering icefield, ages and ages ago,</div>
<div class="verse">Ung, a maker of pictures, fashioned an image of snow.</div>
<div class="verse">Later he pictured an aurochs, later he pictured a bear–</div>
<div class="verse">Pictured the sabre-tooth tiger dragging a man to his lair–</div>
<div class="verse">Pictured the mountainous mammoth, hairy, abhorrent, alone–</div>
<div class="verse">Out of the love that he bore them, scribing them clearly on bone,</div>
<div class="verse">Straight on the glittering icefield, by the caves of the lost
Dordogne,</div>
<div class="verse">Ung, a maker of pictures, fell to his scribing on bone.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The fact is that several prehistoric races have succeeded
one another in Western Europe during the immensely
long period—amounting to hundreds of thousands of
years—during which man existed before the dawn of
history. The "lost" or "prehistoric Dordogne" was like
the present historic Dordogne in regard to the fact that
many races and dynasties successively held possession of
it and left their work in its soil and caves.</p>
<p>Passing back through the historic age of iron and the
sub-historic age of bronze, we come to a time, about four
thousand years ago, when there were no men in the west
of Europe who made use of metals at all, although, for a
thousand or two years earlier, men were using bronze and
copper in the East. European races immediately before
the first use of metals made beautiful implements of
stone (chiefly flint), and finished them by grinding and
polishing them. These men are spoken of as Neolithic
men, or men of the Neolithic period. They had herds
and cultivated crops, and they built after a fashion rough
houses in wood and tombs and temples with great slabs of
stone. They made pottery and woven cloth. The animals
and plants of Europe were the same in those late prehistoric
times as they are to-day. The Lake dwellings of
Switzerland belong to this epoch and yield us their remains
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
as evidence. The men had very nearly the same set of
domesticated animals as we have to-day, but they had no
skill in carving outlines of animals. Their only decorative
work consisted of parallel lines, straight or in zigzags or in
circles, graven on the great stone slabs which they erected.</p>
<p>We can trace them back to some seven thousand years
<span class="sc">B.C.</span> and then comes a huge gap—we do not know how
many thousand years—in our evidence as to what was
going on in this part of the world. We find convincing
proof that before this interval the climate was
much colder than it is to-day, and that the land surface
of Europe was in many respects very different from what
it became later. Britain was continuous with the
Continent. There were in that remote period human
tribes spread over the less frigid valleys of Europe. They
had no fields, no herds; they fed on the roasted flesh
of the animals they chased and on the fish they speared,
and on wild fruits and roots. They dwelt chiefly, if not
wholly, in caves, probably also in skin tents, but they
did not build either in wood or in stone. The age
which we thus reach is called the Palæolithic, or
"ancient" Stone age, because men made use of stone,
which they chipped into shape, but, unlike the Neolithic
people, never polished it. We find enormous
numbers of these rough or Palæolithic stone implements
both in caves and in the gravels deposited in the
ancient beds of rivers. They are so abundant as to
prove the existence of a very considerable human population
in the remote ages when they were fashioned and
used. The changes which have taken place and the time
involved since some of these Palæolithic implements were
made and used may be guessed at (but cannot be definitely
calculated) from the fact that the beds of the rivers which
formed the gravel terraces in which they are found in
England were, in many cases, from one to six hundred
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
feet above the level of the present rivers. The land
surface has risen and the rivers have simultaneously
excavated deep and wide valleys leaving terraces of gravel
high up on their sides. These show where the rivers once
flowed. The vastness of the excavation of the valley from
the level of the old river bed 600 ft. up on the sloping
hill-side to its present low-lying bed in the floor of the
valley—gives us some measure of the time which has
elapsed in the process.</p>
<p>No one can tell, at present, the limit in the past of
Palæolithic man. The period of time over which his
existence extended, as indicated by the trimmed flints
undoubtedly made by human workmanship, is a matter of
hundreds of thousands of years. In Western Europe races
came and went, succeeded one another and disappeared,
either migrating or absorbed or more rarely destroyed by
the later invaders. Naturally enough, in the later deposits
of rivers and in the higher layers of earth and limestone
cake which fill many caves to the depth of 30 or 40 ft. we
find the remains of man's workmanship more abundantly
than in the older deposits.</p>
<p>We can broadly distinguish in the Palæolithic epoch
three (perhaps four) periods, separated by the occurrence
of great extensions of the northern or arctic ice cap of
such a volume as to cover North Europe and North
America, and the simultaneous extension of the glaciers
of the mountains of Europe. This period of the alternating
extension and retreat of the great northern glaciers
is known as the Glacial period, or Ice Age. The <i>latest</i>
Palæolithic men are subsequent to it—that is, post-Glacial.
We can distinguish several successive ages of these post-Glacial
Palæolithic men, altogether distinct from and
anterior to the Neolithic men. In the earlier of these
ages many of the great animals of the Glacial period—now
extinct or withdrawn to other regions—still survived
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
in Europe. The mammoth survived, but was fast dying
out in the south and centre of France, and we find its
outline scratched on ivory and on bone by the early post-Glacial
men. The lion still survived in Europe, also the
hyena, the bear and the rhinoceros. The reindeer seems
to have been especially abundant, and to have been
associated with the men of this period. The horse was
very abundant, and was largely eaten by the earlier
post-Glacial people. From the first these men show
extraordinary artistic skill, and have left in their caves
many carvings on ivory, bone and stone. In the
oldest deposits of the post-Glacial age the carvings are
complete all-round sculptures of small size or carvings in
low relief, all of rough primitive workmanship. Larger life-size
sculptures in rock are also found. In later deposits
we find better sculpture and also engraving on flat pieces
of bone and ivory, and also on stone. This art persisted,
and attained its greatest perfection in the latest deposits
of all in which the work of Palæolithic man is found. The
reindeer persisted through this post-Glacial period (hence
often called "the reindeer period") until the gradual
increase of temperature and change of herbage and forest
led to its migration northwards and to the relative
abundance of the red deer. It is to this latest period—the
Elapho-Tarandian of Piette—that the engraved
antler figured here (Figs. 1 and 2) belongs.</p>
<p>At an earlier stage of the post-Glacial period men
hunted the bison and other large game in the north of
Spain and made coloured drawings of them on the roofs
and walls of their caves, drawings which have been copied
and preserved: whilst the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the
cave lion and bear still inhabited south central France
and are pictured on the walls of caves in that region—as
described in Chapter II. Later we lose all trace of
Palæolithic man and his wonderful artistic skill. He
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
seems either to have migrated or to have been absorbed
in the immigrant Neolithic race—a race singularly devoid
of any tendency to artistic sculpture or engraving.</p>
<p>The skeletons and skulls of the men of the Reindeer
period, or post-Glacial Palæolithic men, have been discovered
here and there. They indicate a fine, tall people
with well-shaped skulls and jaws, comparable to the
nobler modern races. It is convenient to call them
Cromagnards, since good skulls of the race have been
described from Cromagnon, in France. There is evidence
(from skulls) that another race (the negroid so called
"Aurignacians") preceded and coexisted to some extent in
Western Europe with them, but we have, at present, no
evidence as to whence or how the Neolithic race or the
Cromagnard race or any of their predecessors came upon
the scene!</p>
<p>When we go farther back and reach the actual Glacial
period we find a very different state of things. The men
who then existed in the caverns are called the Neander
men. They were a short, bandy-legged, long-armed, low-browed
people, great workers of flints. They had the
use of fire, and contended with hyenas and bears and lions
for the occupation of their caverns. In their day—the
day of European glaciation—the mammoth was in full
occupation of the pine forests on the edge of the glaciers.
But the Neander men made no sculptures, or carving, or
engravings. The gap between them and the Cromagnon
men is much greater than that between an Australian
black fellow and an average Englishman; indeed, the
difference is properly expressed by regarding the Neander
man as a distinct species—Homo neanderthalensis.</p>
<p>Passing again farther back over an immense period
of time, we find Europe warm again; the glaciers have
(for a time) gone or retreated far up the mountains but
are found in extension again at a still earlier date. An
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
inter-Glacial set of animals is now found living in a comparatively
warm climate in Western Europe. Another
elephant (Elephas antiquus) is there (not the mammoth),
and another rhinoceros (not the woolly rhinoceros of the
later Glacial period); the hippopotamus flourished then
in Europe and swam in the Thames and Severn, and
there too, at last is the sabre-toothed tiger, which did not
exist at all at a later period! Now was the time when
a man, if he could, might have "scribed" the image of a
sabre-toothed tiger on a piece of bone, but, so far as we
know, he did not and could not. This was ages before
other succeeding men walked "on glittering ice fields,"
and they, in turn, were ages earlier than the artistic
Cromagnards of the Reindeer period.</p>
<p>The presence of men in the warm inter-Glacial times
in Europe is proved by the association of rough but
undisputed flint implements with the inter-Glacial animals
and by the discovery of a most interesting human jaw
(chinless, like that of the Neander men) in what is held
to be a præ-Glacial deposit at Heidelberg. We have very
little knowledge of Glacial and præ-Glacial man except
well characterized flint implements and two skeletons,
some detached limb bones, four or five jaws, and as many
skulls.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> But of post-Glacial Palæolithic man we know
the skeletons of the Cromagnard race, their sepulture,
their decorative necklaces, and their bone and ivory
carvings and engravings, and the coloured rock paintings
and other work of earlier races (the Aurignacians, and
others) belonging to successive epochs or eras, which
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
have been discovered in caves in France, Spain, Belgium,
and Austria. It was long after them that the Neolithic
people appeared.</p>
<p>The preceding remarks will have made it clear that
the engraved antler here figured was carved by a man
who was not really at all primitive, although he lived
probably between twenty and fifty thousand years ago.
It will also have been made clear that hundreds of such
engravings, more or less fragmentary, are known. Some
are very skilful works of art, others of a much inferior
quality. Many, however, show an astonishing familiarity
with the animal drawn and a sureness of drawing which
is not surpassed by the work of modern artists (see
Chapter III). The interest of the particular engraved
antler which I am describing is that it is the only carving
of its age as yet discovered which is more than a drawing
or sculpture of a single animal. It is a "picture" in the
sense of being a composition. It is not, it is true, painted—it
is engraved; but being a composition it is entitled
to be called "the earliest picture in the world." Let
me describe it a little more fully with the help of the
illustrations.</p>
<p>The engraving has been made on a long cylindrical
piece of the red deer's antler. It can hardly be considered
as decorative, since the figures of the animals do
not show as such on the cylindrical surface (Figs. 1 and 2).
Pieces of antler, bone, and ivory carved with spiral scrolls
and circles which are really decorative and effective as
decoration are found in these caves (Fig. 29). But often
such pieces as the present are met with. It has been discovered
by French archæologists that the true intent of
such engravings may be rendered evident by rolling the
cylinder on a plastic substance (soft wax or similar
material), when the drawing is "printed off" or "developed"
as it is termed. A great number of such line
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
engravings have been thus printed off or developed,
and plaster casts made from the flat impressions are
preserved in the museum of St. Germain, the engraved
lines being rendered obvious by letting them fill with
printing ink. They often give us in this way a "printed"
drawing of remarkable accuracy and artistic quality.
The rolled-off print of our specimen is shown in Fig. 4.
The cylinder has been damaged by time, but the print
shows, more or less completely, a vigorous outline drawing
of three red deer, with six salmon-like fish placed
in a decorative way above them and between their legs.
Two lozenge-shaped outlines (above the larger stag) are
held by good authorities to be the signature of the artist.
The group of deer is represented in movement. The
largest stag is on the right; his hindquarters are broken
away by injury to the cylinder. He is commencing to
advance, and turns his head backwards to see what is the
thing which has alarmed him and his companions; at
the same time his mouth is open, and he is "blowing."
The second stag is a younger and smaller animal, and
is retreating more rapidly. The cylinder is damaged so
that, although all the four legs of this second stag are
preserved, the head and neck are gone, though the points
of the antlers are preserved. The same damage has
removed all but the hind legs of the still younger animal
who heads the group. The beauty of the drawing of these
hind legs and the extraordinary impression of graceful,
rapid movement given by their hanging pose, side by
side, is not surpassed, even if it be equalled, by the work
of any modern draughtsman. It is clear that the youngest
and smallest member of the group is, as is natural, the
most timid, and that he has sprung off with a sudden
bound on the occurrence of the alarm from the rear, which
is setting the whole group into motion with increasing
velocity as we pass from right to left.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_04.jpg" id="i_04.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_04.jpg" width="600" height="312"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Rolled impression or
"development" of the engraving on the Lortet antler.</div>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_05.jpg" id="i_05.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_05.jpg" width="600" height="282"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Restoration (or completion)
of the engraving on the Lortet antler, as now (1919) suggested by the writer
(E. R. L.).</div>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
<p>The "printed-off," or "unrolled," or "developed"
picture given in Fig. 3 is an exact reproduction of a copy
of the cast made and preserved in the Museum of
National Antiquities at St. Germain, for which I am
indebted to my friend M. Salomon Reinach, the distinguished
archæologist who is the director of that
museum. It is reproduced here, a little larger than half
the size of the original, as are the representations of the
carved cylinder itself (Figs. 1 and 2). In Fig. 4 we have
my attempt to restore the damaged portions of the
design and to present it as it was when the Palæolithic
man completed it some 20,000 years ago.</p>
<p>I will return to the question of the correctness of this
restoration, but before doing so I wish to mention some
extremely interesting points as to the probable use of the
cylinder of stag's antler and the purpose of the carving
around its axis. In the first place, this and a few other
of the pieces of carving of the post-Glacial period were
certainly the work of highly gifted and practised artists. It
is obvious that this work is far superior both in conception
and execution to the more or less clever, often grotesque,
carvings and paintings made by modern savages or simple
pastoral folk. There is no reason to suppose that the
Cromagnards, or men of the post-Glacial or Reindeer
period of West Europe, differed from modern races in
being universally gifted with artistic capacity. This engraving
of three stags is almost certainly the work of
a man who belonged to a family or guild of picture-makers
who had cultivated such work for centuries and
handed it on from master to apprentice. This design is
probably one which had been perfected by many succeeding
observers and draughtsmen. Its sureness of line and
vivacity of movement are not the outcome of the sudden
inspiration of an untutored savage, but are the result of
the growth, cultivation, and development of artistic perception
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
and the power of artistic execution in successive
generations.</p>
<p>It seems in the highest degree improbable, if not
impossible, that so excellent a drawing as this should
have been cut on the cylindrical piece of antler by an
engraver who never saw the flat or rolled-off impress of
his design. One is driven to the conclusion that he must,
as he worked on the bone, have taken an impress of
the growing picture from time to time, using probably
animal fat and charcoal as an "ink" and printing on to a
piece of prepared skin or on to a birch-bark cloth. How
otherwise could he have made his engraving so truly that
when, ages afterwards, we print it off the cylinder, we are
astonished and delighted by its perfection of design and
execution? If this be once admitted—namely, that the
artist tested and checked his work by printing it off as he
proceeded with it—we gain what appears to me to be the
probable solution of the question which has been largely
debated, "For what were these carved cylinders or rods
used?" Those which are simple cylindrical rods, such as
the present one, must be distinguished from others which
have one or more circular holes bored in them and others
which are curiously bent at an angle. Such specimens
are often carved with small unimportant ornament, not
requiring development or printing. They as well as the
present class have been spoken of as "wands of authority"
and "sceptres"; some are considered to be arrow
straighteners; others have been supposed to be "divining
rods" or "rods of witchcraft"; whilst one of those discovered
by M. Piette (others similar to it are known)
has been regarded as a "lance thrower" or "propulsor"
(such as modern primitive races use), having a notch at
one end upon which the lance to be thrown is made to
rest. The latest suggestion as to these notch-and-hook-bearing
rods, is that they are large crochet hooks
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
used in making nets. It has also been suggested that
some of these carved rods were used as "fasteners" of the
skins used as clothing.</p>
<p>I venture to suggest that the elaborately carved
cylinder which we are considering and others bearing
similar carvings, which only show up when a printing of
them is taken, were used by the men who made them for
this very same "printing" as an end in itself. The picture
could be thus impressed on skins, birch bark, and other
material. This race was thoroughly familiar with the use
of paint formed by mixing grease with charcoal (to produce
black), red ochre (to produce red), yellow ochre (to produce
yellow), and some preparation of limestone or chalk
(to produce white). Coloured pictures representing animals
of the chase, coloured with red, yellow, white, and black
and outlined by engraving, have been discovered on the
rock walls of the caves used by them. Such pictures are
found of relatively early as well as of late date within
the post-Glacial Palæolithic period (see Chapter III). The
rock picture of a single animal is usually from two to five
feet long. People who could make those coloured designs
and who could draw and compose so admirably as the
author of the "Three Red Deer" would have desired to
"roll off" and to possess printings of their favourite representations
of animal life, whilst we must admit that their
skill and ingenuity was assuredly equal to the task of
so printing them. If this carving of the "Three Red
Deer" were never printed it could not have been executed
in the first place, nor seen and admired when completed.
If even only half a dozen or a dozen impressions were
taken from it for ornamenting the skins or other material
used by a chief, or a wizard, or a woman, its production
becomes intelligible. It is true that there is nothing
known as to the use of such printing from a cylinder
among existing primitive people, but it is known in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
very early times (4500 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>), since cylindrical seals
were used by the Babylonians. Elaborately grooved
blocks used for printing on cloth are known from Fiji
and Samoa, and the mere practice of printing on to a
flat surface is common enough among savage races in
regard to the human hand, impressions or prints of which
obtained by the use of a greasy pigment are found upon
rocks or stones. Sometimes prints of the hand or fingers
are taken in clay.</p>
<p>We must not, however, forget that the primary purpose
of savage and primitive mankind in making images or
engravings of animals is that of influencing the animals
by witchcraft or magic, as has been urged by Reinach.
From such magic-working drawings the art of savages has
gradually developed just as religious figures and designs
have been the initial motive of historic European art.</p>
<p>It seems in any case fairly certain that the artist who
engraved our picture of the three deer on to the stag's
antler must have worked from and copied a completed flat
drawing, and probably printed it in some way on to the
prepared antler before engraving its lines thereon and
also checked the work, as he proceeded, by successive
trial printings or "proofs" on to a flat surface. It is
possible though it does not seem very probable, that the
drawing was thus committed to perpetual invisibility on
a cylindrical rod—for the purpose of exercising "magic"
with that rod. It seems to me that the Cromagnard
owner of the rod would have wished to see "what the
picture really looked like," and so would have on some
occasion and more than once have "printed it off" or as
we say "unrolled it."</p>
<p>Leaving that question aside I have a few words
to say as to the present attempted "completion" of
the picture. My difficulty has been in realizing the
suggestion of a free, graceful "bounding" action given by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
the pair of small hind legs which form all that remains of
the smallest of the three deer. I have tried various poses
of the calf indicated by these legs—bucking and jumping,
and with fore legs closely bent to the horizontal or in a
more open position. The fact is there is very little in
existing drawings or photographs which can help us to a
decision of the problem, "How did the prehistoric artist
complete that exquisite little pair of hanging legs?" The
problem is more obscure even than that of the pose of the
arms of the Venus of Melos. One feels sure that the
man who made this carving was an artist who must keep
a certain rhythm and flow in the action and form of the
three successive animals, and it is clear that he was a
wonderful observer of the phases of the limbs in movement.
It is, perhaps, a presumptuous thing to attempt
on such a basis to recall the thought of a man who died
twenty thousand years ago, but I set out to do so with the
belief that there is a necessary figure determined by those
hind legs.</p>
<p>Some years ago, as a step towards a solution of the
problem, I published a "restoration" or "completion" of
this picture in the "Field" (May 13th, 1911), and asked for
criticisms and suggestions from the readers of that journal.
I had no difficulty as to the completion of the biggest
stag by drawing in his haunches and hind-legs, but the
completion of the head and antlers of the smaller stag—and
still more the calling into being of the entire calf as
an inference from his or her suspended hind-feet and hoofs
alone—were not easy tasks. I consulted many authorities
and some instantaneous photographs, but I was not satisfied
with the pose I finally suggested for the calf nor with
the "points" assigned by my draughtsman to the antlers of
the smaller stag. Some interesting suggestions were
made in reply to my appeal by readers of the "Field."
Those which seemed to me of conclusive weight and value
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
were offered by Mr. Walter Winans, who combines the
qualifications of a great observer of big game with those of
a great artist. In the restoration now given in Fig. 5 I have
profited by Mr. Walter Winans' criticism and have been
especially glad to make use of the spirited sketch made by
him for my benefit, and published in the "Field" of 1911, of a
red-deer calf when hopping along with all the feet together, a
movement known as "buck-jumping." "Of course," writes
Mr. Winans, "this is quite different to the bronco-pony's
action when trying to get rid of a rider. In the case of
this kind she does not come down with a jar—but as
she lands bends her knees and hocks simultaneously and
then straightens them, also simultaneously, bounding in
the air with bent back, tail curled tight on back, head
thrown back, and ears forward; she never puts her fore-legs,
either knee or fetlock, beyond her shoulder in this
action." These words of Mr. Winans and his outline
sketch of the buck-jumping calf precisely realize what
the little hanging legs of the rubbed-out calf had been, as
it were, urging my tired brain to recall and visualize. I
am convinced that Mr. Winans' sketch gives the completion
of the picture as drawn by the artist of the Lortet cavern,
and satisfies the demand made by the gracefully suspended
limbs shown in the incompletely preserved original. And
so I have used it in my final restoration here given in Fig. 5.</p>
<p>The following letter by Mr. Winans, giving valuable
comments on the Lortet picture, was published in the
"Field," and will assist others in appreciating its significance:
it enabled me to get the middle stag's antlers
correctly drawn. I have omitted a few lines referring
to defects in the original restoration—now corrected.</p>
<p class="bq"><span class="sc">Sir</span>,—As Sir Ray Lankester asks for criticism of this
wonderful drawing of three deer, perhaps the following
may be of interest. I have known deer all my life, and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
lived amongst them the last twelve years. I agree that
the picture is wonderful—better than anything Landseer
or Rosa Bonheur drew, because these latter were only
artists: one can see by their pictures (full of faults as to
attitudes and actions) that they knew nothing of deer.
For instance, Landseer's stags were much too big in the
body and their heads too small, and even the shape of
their horns was conventional....</p>
<p class="bq">"The Lorthet drawings enable one to know all details
about the three deer (looking at the original mutilated
'development'). First, the deer have 'got the wind' of
an enemy, have come a long way, and are moving
leisurely, the big stag, as usual, bringing up the rear and
taking a last look round before the herd goes out of sight.
The second is the younger stag who generally accompanies
the big stag and acts as his sentinel when he is
sleeping, a stag too small to give the big stag any jealousy
as to his hinds. The third is undoubtedly a calf (Red deer
are 'stags,' 'hinds,' and 'calves,' not 'does' and 'fawns';
the latter terms apply to Fallow deer and Roe-deer).</p>
<p class="bq">"The deer are typical Red deer, not Wapiti, except that
the only tail showing (that of the middle deer) is the short
Wapiti tail, not the longer tail of the Red deer, and the
ears are shorter than those of any existing species of deer.</p>
<p class="bq">"The horns of the big stag are those of typical park Red
deer, exactly like the Warnham Park big stag: brow,
bay, and tray, with a bunch on top, and the horns are
short and straight for their thickness.</p>
<p class="bq">"Now as to the short tail. I am trying, by crossing the
Wapiti, Red deer, and Altai to get back to the original
deer before the various species got separated, and my
'three-cross' deer show these very characteristics, as
follows: Red deer or Warnham horns, short Wapiti tail,
and the rather Roman nose which this 'development'
print shows. The only difference is the short ears. Is it
not possible that, as the artist is able to draw the horns in
perspective and show the anatomy and proportions so
well, that the ears are meant to be drawn fore-shortened?</p>
<p class="bq">"The stag's mouth is open because he is big and fat
and is blowing (not roaring or bellowing). If it was the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
rutting season, when stags roar, the stag would be
tucked up in the belly and have a tuft of hair hanging
under the middle of it. He and the stag in front are
moving in the real action (not the conventional action
Rosa Bonheur and Landseer drew, but what the ancient
Egyptians drew sometimes) of a slow, easy canter....
Now as to the middle stag's horns. I should give
him, bearing in mind he is the small sentry stag, brow,
tray, and three on top—a ten-pointer, the thin points
showing in the original drawing indicating that he had
thin horns—in fact, a three-year old.</p>
<p class="bq">"In a Scotch forest a ten-pointer is a comparatively old
stag, but at Warnham and my place, where the feeding
is good (and in my case there is hand feeding all the
year round), a spike stag gets six points and can almost
be a royal the next year.</p>
<p class="bq">"All this shows that the deer at the time this drawing
was made must have had very good feeding and come
to maturity quickly, like modern park deer. The big
stag would never have allowed a ten-pointer in his herd
if the latter had been an old stag.</p>
<p class="bq">"As to the action of the leading hind. I think she is
a hind-calf by her legs, and is jumping with all four
legs together, the way young deer do when playing, and,
being young, is paying no attention to the danger
behind, but is full of life, like a horse playing about
when he is fresh. One often sees the calves of a herd
playing like this if the herd is moving along steadily....</p>
<p class="bq">"From the position of the hind legs of the little calf
I judge that she is jumping with all four legs together
(the jump from which the expression 'buck jumping'
comes); her tail would be curled up tight over her back
like a pug dog carries it, only without the curl, and her
ears pricked forward. The piece of horn broken off
would show the rest of the hinds and calves, led
by an old 'yeld' (<i>i.e.</i>, barren) hind, who would be leading
the herd up wind with her nose and ears forward to
'get the wind' of any danger ahead.</p>
<p class="bq">"The day is a hot one in the middle of August, shown
by the big stag blowing and his being with the hinds,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
instead of with other stags by themselves, and by his
not having 'run' yet, though his horns are clear of
velvet. He is most likely the stag on whose horn this is
engraved. The length of the deer's feet shows that they
live on ground which is soft and not many stones about
to wear down their toes.</p>
<p class="bq">"Maybe the fish indicate that the deer are crossing a
shallow ford, and the salmon are getting frightened and
jumping. The right-hand-most fish is just in the attitude
of a hooked salmon trying to leap clear of the fly....</p>
<p class="bq">"The picture was most likely first drawn on some flat
flexible surface, skin or bark, in a sticky medium, and
then transferred to the horn by rolling it round the horn
and then rubbing it. This would give a transfer,
which would guide the subsequent engraving, otherwise
it would be very difficult to engrave direct on the horn,
and mistakes could not easily be corrected.</p>
<p class="ar">
"<span class="sc">Walter Winans</span>
</p>
<p class="bq">
"<span class="sc">Surrenden Park, Pluckley, Kent</span></p>
<p>With regard to the six fishes in the picture of "The
Three Red Deer," I think that there can be little doubt
that they are put in in the same spirit of exuberance
which induced early Italian masters to introduce a cherub
wherever a space for him could be found. The fish represented
are the same in each case, and are undeniably
salmonids. Presumably they are drawn on a larger scale
than the deer. Their markings and the form of the head
are deserving of some criticism and comment by those
who are familiar with fish as seen by the fisherman.
Probably the artist's friends at Lourdes captured fish in
those days by spearing them with serrated bone-headed
fish spears or harpoons (Fig. 3). No fish hooks of bone
have been found in the cave of Lortet or in others of like
age, although needles and whistles of bone and other
useful little instruments, as well as serrated spear heads
and harpoons have been obtained in several of them.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
<p>The tool used by the prehistoric man in engraving the
cylinder of stag's antler was undoubtedly a suitable chipped-out
piece of flint—a flint graving tool, in fact a "burin,"
such as are abundant in these caves.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_06.jpg" id="i_06.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_06.jpg" width="549" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Fragment of a
roughly-painted vase of the Dipylon age (<i>circa</i> 800 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>)
from Tiryns, figured by Schliemann and cited by Hörnes in
his "History of Pictorial Art in Europe." Compare the fish between the
horse's legs with the fish in the Lortet picture of the Three Deer; also
note the lozenge-shaped designs (similar to the pair above the big stag
in the Lortet picture) near the fish and near the man's head (<i>d</i>); and,
further, the swastika (<i>s</i>).</div>
</div>
<p>Attention has been drawn by Hörnes in his "History of
Pictorial Art in Europe" to the resemblance of the Lortet
picture to a fragment of a roughly painted vase of the
Dipylon age (<i>circa</i> 800 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>) found at Tiryns and figured
by Schliemann in his account of excavations made at that
ancient Mykenæan fortress of the Peloponese. The fragment
(Fig. 6) shows very roughly drawn figures of a man
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
and of a horse. Between the fore and hind legs of the
horse a large elaborately ornate fish is represented, reminding
us of the fishes between the deer's legs in the Lortet
picture. Two other similar fragments of pottery, showing
a fish in this position, are recorded by Schliemann. The
drawing is conventional and careless. It is of a debased
decorative character, and is very far removed from the
careful nature-true work of the Lortet cave-man. It is
not possible to trace by any known line of transmission
a connection between the engraving executed 20,000 years
ago in the caves of the Pyrénées and the figures rapidly
knocked off in black paint on the Tiryns vase some 17,000
years later by the local dealers in cheap pottery. Yet we
cannot avoid the suggestion that there is some connection
between the two designs. For the Tiryns painting shows
not only the curious upright fish between the horse's legs,
but also diamond-shaped figures—one marked <i>d</i> in Fig. 6,
another near the fish's tail, and another between the man's
feet—closely resembling the pair of diamond-shaped
figures engraved above the neck of the big stag in the
Lortet picture (see Figs. 4 and 5). As we do not know
what these diamond-shaped figures or "lozenges" are
intended to signify in either case, we do not get, at
present, beyond the bald fact of their coincidence.
The Tiryns painting also shows (at <i>s</i> in Fig. 6) a
"swastika" (see Chapter XVII), and below the man's
arm a carelessly drawn bit of the ancient wave-fret or
key-pattern. It is, of course, possible that the tradition
of an ancient design—even dating so far back in origin
as many thousands of years—may be preserved in the
use made in the Tiryns decoration of the fish and the
diamond-shaped lozenges, though associated with the
swastika and the bit of wave-fret which are probably of
later origin and are not known in the decorative work of
the cave-men. The Mykenæan decorative assimilation of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
geese to the ship's barnacle exercised its influence over
three thousand years and led to the mediæval belief in the
hatching of young geese from barnacles attached to floating
timber, and even from the buds of trees (see my
"Diversions of a Naturalist": Methuen, 1915). Nevertheless
it must not be supposed that the connection of the Lortet
engraving and the vase-painting of Tiryns is probable or
more than a very remote possibility. The gap in time is
too vast, and our present ignorance of what took place in
that interval too complete, to warrant us in regarding the
resemblance as more than a coincidence.</p>
<div class="footnotes p4"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
<div class="footnote">
<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
"L'Age du Renne," a posthumous work, with one hundred coloured
quarto plates of objects in the Piette collection, is published by Masson, of
Paris, and gives the complete list of Piette's numerous earlier papers, issued
as his excavations proceeded.</p>
</div>
<div class="footnote">
<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
Seven years ago the ape-like lower jaw and thick walled brain-case called
"Eoanthropus" were discovered in a sparse gravel near Lewes in Sussex.
It is probably of older date than either the Neander men or the Heidelberg
men. See on this subject the chapters on "The Missing Link" in my
"Diversions of a Naturalist" (1915) and those on "The Most Ancient
Men" and "The Cave-men's Skulls" in "Science from an Easy Chair.
First Series" (1910).</p>
</div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">PORTRAITS OF MAMMOTHS BY MEN WHO
SAW THEM</p>
<p class="drop-cap">SOME fifty-five years ago pieces of reindeer's antler
were discovered in the cave known as "La Madeleine"
in the Dordogne (a department of France
some eighty miles east of Bordeaux), upon which were
engraved the outlines of various animals such as reindeer
and horses. They and the bone spear-heads and needles,
and the flint knives found with them, were the first
revelation to later man of the existence of the prehistoric
cave-men. Among the carvings was a piece of ivory which
excited the profoundest interest. Partly hidden by a confused
mass of scratches it showed the well-drawn outline of
the great extinct elephant, thus scratched or "engraved"
on a bit of its own tusk (Fig. 7). The engraving was
barely 5 in. long, and has been reproduced in many books.
The specimen is now in Paris, and was for long the only
known representation of the Mammoth by the ancient
men who lived with it in Western Europe.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_07.jpg" id="i_07.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_07.jpg" width="600" height="267"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Engraving of a mammoth
drawn upon a piece of mammoth's ivory, found in the cave of La Madeleine
in the Dordogne, in 1864. The specimen is in the Museum of Natural History, Paris.
The engraving is here represented of the actual size.</div>
</div>
<p>During the last fifteen years, however, our knowledge
of the works of art executed by these ancient men has
increased to an extraordinary extent, chiefly owing to the
energy and skill of the French explorers of the caverns
in the south central region of that country. As long ago
as 1879 a little girl, the daughter of Señor Sautuolo—a
proud woman she should be if alive to-day—when visiting
the cavern of Altamira, near Santander, in the north of</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
<p>Spain, with her father, drew his attention to a number of
"pictures of animals," painted on the rocky vault or roof
of the cave. At first no one believed that these pictures
were more than a few hundred years old, whilst some held
them to be modern and made with fraudulent purpose.
In 1887 Piette, the distinguished French investigator of
the remains of human work in the caverns of the French
Pyrénées (whose great illustrated book of carved and
engraved portions of reindeer antler, ivory, and stones
discovered by his excavations, is a classic), declared that
in his opinion the pictures of the Altamira cave were of
the same age as the bone and ivory carvings of the
Madeleine cave—that is to say, dated from what "prehistorians"
call the later Palæolithic age, an age when the
mammoth, the bison, the cave lion, and the reindeer still
existed in Western Europe, and when the British Isles were
not yet separated by sea from the Continent. The age
indicated is probably from 25,000 to 50,000 years ago.
Still, the opinion prevailed that the "wall-drawings" and
"roof-drawing" of the Altamira cave were either mediæval
or modern until the French explorers discovered wall-paintings
in some of the caves of the Dordogne. Then
they proceeded to a careful investigation of the Altamira
cave, and discovered conclusive evidence of the great age
of the paintings by the removal of some of the undisturbed
deposit in the cave, in which were found flint implements
and small engravings on bone, proving the deposit to be
of the late Palæolithic age. When this deposit was
removed, pictures of animals, partly engraved and partly
completed in colour (black, red, yellow, and white), were
found on the wall of the cave previously covered up by
the deposit. M. Cartailhac, who had been a leading
opponent of the view that the Altamira wall-pictures
were very ancient, now renounced his former position and
became an enthusiastic investigator and exponent of these
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
pictures. M. Breuil, who had discovered wall-pictures,
including those of the mammoth, in French caves, and
had been met by disbelief and even suspicion, now received
due recognition, and joined Cartailhac in preparing a
complete account of the wall and roof pictures of the
Altamira cave. The Prince of Monaco, who had carried
out, with the aid of French experts, an investigation of
the caves on his property at Mentone, on the Mediterranean
"Riviera," undertook the expense of producing
a splendid volume, giving coloured reproductions of the
Altamira pictures. To him the world is indebted, not
only for most important discoveries of human skeletons
and objects of human workmanship in the caves of
Mentone (there are no wall-pictures there), but for the
publication in illustrated form of the Mentone discoveries
and of those obtained in the Altamira cave. He has not
rested at this stage of accomplishment, but has produced
at his own expense large volumes by MM. Breuil, Capitan,
and Peyrony, illustrating and describing the discoveries
made by them of wall-paintings and engravings of animals
in the cave known as the "Font de Gaume," in the
Dordogne. The Prince has also published a volume, by
MM. Breuil, de Rio, and Sierra, reproducing the drawings
found in a whole series of caves and rock-shelters in
various parts of the Spanish peninsula, where the rock-painting
race seems to have persisted to a somewhat later
period and to have painted, more frequently, pictures of
human beings as well as of animals. These, whilst less
artistic and truthful than those of the North Spanish and
South French area, yet have surpassing interest, since they
have special similarity to ancient rock-paintings found in
North Africa and to the rock-paintings of the Bushmen
of South Africa.</p>
<p>The Prince of Monaco has finally established the
great study in which he has played so valuable a part by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
founding in Paris an "Institute of Human Palæontology";
that is, "of the study of prehistoric man," which he has
endowed with a magnificent building, comprising laboratories
and residences for professors, together with funds
to pay for its maintenance and the proper publication of
results. This he has done in addition to founding entirely
at his own expense a similarly complete Institute for the
study of "oceanography"—the study of the living contents
and history of the great seas.</p>
<p>The illustrations in this chapter are (with the exception
of Fig. 7) copies, greatly reduced in size, of faithful representations
of the great hairy elephant or mammoth which
still survived in southern France in the days when the
caves were occupied and decorated by men. I am indebted
to the valuable little book "Repertoire de l'Art
Quatermaire," by M. Salomon Reinach, for these outlines
carefully drawn by him from various large illustrations
by the use of a tracing and reducing instrument. In the
next chapter I have given examples from the same source
of similar drawings of other animals.</p>
<p>There are five kinds of artistic work of Palæolithic age
found in the caverns of France and Spain; namely (1)
small solid carvings (complete all round) in bone, ivory,
or stone; (2) small engravings in sunk outline on similar
material, rarely with relief of the outlined figure; (3) large
stone statues, 2 ft. to 6 ft. across, in high relief, with
complete modelling of the visible surface; (4) rock engravings
and paintings on the walls and roofs of caverns
or rock shelters, often partly outlined by engraving and
scraping of the surface, and then completed in black
or red paint or in several colours (black, red, yellow,
white); they are of large size, from 2 to 5 ft. in cross
measurement; (5) models in clay, one side only shown,
the other resting on rock; a few incomplete clay models
of this nature representing the bison of about 2 ft. in</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
<p>length, have recently been discovered in one of the French
caverns, and are the only examples of modelling in clay
by the Palæolithic men yet discovered.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_08.jpg" id="i_08.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_08.jpg" width="497" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Outline engravings of
mammoths on the wall of the cavern known as the "Font de Gaume," near Eyzies
(Dordogne). Each figure is about 2 ft. long.</div>
</div>
<p>Our figures of the mammoth are (excepting Fig. 7) all
of the fourth class—namely, rock-paintings in one colour
(black or red) partly
engraved and scraped.
The originals are from
1-1/2 ft. to 2-1/2 ft. long.
The mammoths given
in Fig. 8 are carefully
copied from engravings
discovered,
reproduced, and described
by M. Breuil
and his fellow-workers.
They are
on the walls of the
cavern known as the
"Font de Gaume," in
the commune of Tayac
in the Dordogne.
Those copied in Fig.
9 and Fig. 10, A,
were discovered on
the walls of the cave
of Les Combarelles
in the same district.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_09.jpg" id="i_09.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_09.jpg" width="423" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Similar engravings from
the neighbouring cave of Combarelles. The lower figure is an enlargement of the smaller of
the two above it.</div>
</div>
<p>Fig. 10, B, is from a cave at Bernifal, near les Eyzies, in
the Dordogne, and shows a mammoth enclosed in a
triangular design, which is believed to represent a trap,
or else a cage. Such triangular figures with upright and
also bent supports are found in various degrees of elaboration
on both small and large engravings of this period, and
are generally accepted as representing huts or enclosures
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
supported by wooden poles. They are called "tectiforms"
by the French explorers.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_10.jpg" id="i_10.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_10.jpg" width="358" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—<i>A</i>, similar engraving
from the cave of Combarelles. <i>B</i>, Mammoth enclosed by plank-like
structure—supposed to be either a cage or a trap. (Called
tectiform structures, and often seen in these wall engravings.) From
the cave of Bernifal, five miles from Eyzies.</div>
</div>
<p>The bones and teeth of the mammoth are very
common in the river gravels and clays of Western
Europe and England, and
a complete skull, with its
tusks, dug up at Ilford, in
the east of London, is in the
Natural History Museum.
Frozen carcasses of this
animal are found in Northern
Siberia, and two showing
much of the skin and hair
are in the museum of
Petrograd. There is no
tradition or knowledge of
the mammoth among living
races of men. The natives
of Siberia, who have from
time immemorial done a
large trade in the ivory,
regard the tusks as "horns,"
and have stories about the
ghosts of the mammoth, but
no tradition of it as a living
beast. The mammoth was
closer to the Indian elephant
of to-day than to the African
one. It had, as these drawings
show, a pelt of long hair. Indian elephants from
upland regions often have a good deal of hair all
over the body: and the newborn young of both the
Indian and African elephant has a complete coat of
hair. The drawings here reproduced are not only of
thrilling interest because they are the work of remotely
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
ancient men who lived with and observed mammoths in
the south of France, but also because they show an
extraordinary skill in "sketching"—in giving the essential
lines of the creature portrayed and in reproducing the
artist's "impression." These artists were "impressionists"—the
earliest and most sincere—without self-consciousness
or other purpose than that of making line and colour
truly register and indicate their vivid impressions. It is
interesting to note that (as in other works of art showing
true artistic gift) actual error in drawing (for instance, in
the size and shape of the eye and the placing of the two
tusks on the same side of the trunk—possibly due to the
unfinished state of the drawing) sometimes accompanies
the most penetrating observation and skilful delineation of
the characteristic form and pose of the animal. Probably
mammoths were getting rare in the south of France when
these drawings were made, and were not so familiar in
all their details to the artist as were bison, horse, and
deer.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">THE ART OF PREHISTORIC MEN</p>
<p class="drop-cap">THE works of art produced by the cave-men are,
as we have already seen, of five kinds or classes—(1)
All-round small statuettes, or "high-relief"
carvings, in ivory, bone, or stone (examples of which are
shown in Figs. 14, 25, 26, 27, 28 of the present chapter);
(2) small engravings on bits of ivory, deer's antler, bone,
or stone (examples are shown in Figs. 15, 16, 20, and
24); (3) large statues, hewn in rock, and left in place;
(4) drawings of large size—two to five feet in diameter
(partly engraved and partly coloured) on the rocky walls
and vaults of limestone caverns (shown in Figs. 11, 12, 13,
17, 18, 19, 23, as well as in the figures of mammoths in
the last chapter); (5) models (high relief) worked in clay.
I give reproductions in the present chapter of several
samples of this art, showing how skilfully these men of
50,000 years ago could portray a variety of animals.</p>
<p>Who were these men, and why did they make these
remarkable carvings and drawings? First, as to their age.
We now know of a long succession of human inhabitants
of this part of the world, namely, Western Europe.
The earliest reach back to an antiquity never dreamed
of fifty years ago. We cannot fix with any certainty
the number of thousands, or hundreds of thousands, of
years which is represented by this succession, but we can
place the different periods in order, one later than the
other, each distinguished chiefly by the character of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
workmanship belonging to it, though in a few instances
we have also the actual limb-bones, skulls, and jaw-bones
of the men themselves, which differ in different periods.
It is practically certain that these prehistoric successive
periods of humanity do not represent the steps of growth
and change of one single race belonging to this part
of the world, but that successive races have arrived on
the scene of Western Europe from other parts, and it
is usually very difficult even to guess where they came
from and where they went to!</p>
<p>It is convenient to divide the human epoch, the time
which has elapsed since man definitely took shape as
man—characterized by his large brain, small teeth, upright
carriage, and large opposable thumb and still larger and
more peculiar non-opposable great toe—into the historic
and the prehistoric sections. In this part of the world
(Europe) the first use of metals (first of all copper, then
bronze, and then iron), as the material for the fabrication
of implements and tools of all kinds, occurs just on the
line between the historic and the prehistoric sections;
that is to say, between those times of which we know
something by tradition and writing, and those earlier
times of which we have no record and no tradition, but
concerning which we have to make out what we can by
searching the refuse heaps and ruins of man's dwelling-places
and carefully collecting such of his "works" as have
not utterly perished, whilst noting which lie deeper in the
ground, which above and which below the others.</p>
<p>Practically the men of the prehistoric ages in Europe
had not the use of metals (though our quasi-historical
records go back to a less remote time in many parts of
Europe than they do in Greece, Assyria, and Egypt).
The prehistoric peoples are spoken of as the men of
the Stone Age, because they used stone, chiefly flint,
as many savage races do to-day, as the material from
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
which they fabricated by means of deftly struck blows
all sorts of implements. Undoubtedly they also, by aid
of stone knives, saws and planes, made weapons and other
implements of wood and of the horns, bones, and teeth
of animals. But these latter substances are perishable,
and have only been preserved from decay under special
circumstances, such as their inclusion in the deposits on
the floors of caverns.</p>
<p>The Stone Age is itself readily and obviously divisible
into two periods. The latter is a comparatively very short
and recent period, when great skill in chipping flints and
other stones was attained, and the implements so shaped
were often rubbed on large stones of very hard material
(siliceous grit), so as to polish their surfaces. This is
the "Neolithic," or later Stone, period, and extends back
in Europe certainly to 7000 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, and probably a few
thousand years further. Passing further back than this,
we leave what are called "recent" deposits, and come to
those associated with great changes of the earth's surface.
We enter upon "geological" time, and vastly changed
climatic and geographical conditions. We are in the
older Stone period, called the "Palæolithic period."
It is not really comparable to the "Neolithic," since it
comprises many successive ages of man, and, although
called the "Palæolithic" or "ancient Stone" period, has
no unity, but, whilst readily divisible into several sub-periods
or epochs of comparatively late date, stretches
back into immense geologic antiquity indicated by flint
implements of special and diverse types, which are found
in definitely ascertained geologic horizons.</p>
<p>The Pleistocene strata—the latest of the geologists' list—are
the river gravels of existing river valleys, the deposits
in many caves, and the sands and clays piled up by ice
action during the repeated glacial extensions or epochs
of glaciation which alternated with milder climate for
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
many thousands of years over north and middle Europe.
It is identical with the Palæolithic period, which, however,
probably extends beyond it into the Pliocene and even
further back. In the later deposits of the Pleistocene,
which necessarily have been less frequently disturbed and
re-deposited than the older ones, we find more numerous
remains of man's handwork, and in less disturbed order
of succession, than in the older deposits. Lately we have
obtained in East Anglia beautifully-worked flint implements—the
rostro-carinate, or eagle's beaks—from below
shelly marine deposits—the Red Crag of Suffolk and the
Norwich Crag—the oldest beds of the Pleistocene. They
were made by men who <i>lived</i> in the Pliocene period, and
carry the ancient Stone period of man back to a much
earlier period than was admitted nine years ago.</p>
<p>The Pleistocene series or "system " of strata—also called
the "Quaternary" to mark its distinction from the underlying
long series of "Tertiary" strata—does not comprise
the actual surface-deposits in which the remains of Neolithic
man are found. It is usual, though perhaps not
altogether logical, to separate these as "Recent" and to
begin the long enumeration of "geologic" strata after
a certain interval when the relative levels of land and sea
and the depth of river-valleys were not precisely what
they are to-day, and the human inhabitants of Western
Europe were hunters using rough unpolished flint implements—in
fact, when the "Palæolithic" period of human
culture had not given place to the "Neolithic," which
was after some ten thousand years itself to be superseded
by the age of metals. "Prehistorians," the students of
prehistoric man—divide the Pleistocene series of deposits
with a view to a systematic conception of the successive
changes of man and his surroundings during the period
occupied by their deposition, into an upper, a middle
and a lower group—and further have distinguished certain
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
successive "horizons" in these groups—characterized by
the remains of man and animals which they contain.
They are exhibited in the tabular statement here given
in the ascertained order of their succession, and are represented
in the southern part of Britain as well as in France.</p>
<p class="ac noindent">HORIZONS OR EPOCHS OF THE PLEISTOCENE
OR QUATERNARY SYSTEM</p>
<div class="bq">
<p class="ac noindent"><i>A.</i> <span class="ac sc">Upper Pleistocene</span> (post-glacial;
also called epoch of the Reindeer).</p>
<p class="indent-left">1. <i>The Azilian:</i> (Elapho-Tarandian of Piette) nearest
to the Neolithic section of the Recent Period and more or less transitional to that
period; named after the cavern of the Mas d'Azil in the department
of the Ariège. The Reindeer had largely given place to the great
Red Deer (Cervus elephus).</p>
<p class="indent-left">2. <i>The Magdelenian:</i> named after the cave of La Madeleine
in the Dordogne.</p>
<p class="indent-left">3. <i>The Solutrian:</i> after Solutré near Macon.</p>
<p class="indent-left">4. <i>The Aurignacian:</i> after the grotto of Aurignac in the
Haute Garonne.</p>
<p class="ac noindent"><i>B.</i> <span class="sc">Middle Pleistocene</span> (period of
the last great extension of glaciers).</p>
<p class="indent-left">1. <i>The Moustierian:</i> so named after the cave of Le Moustier
in Dordogne; the epoch of the Neander men. Also called the "epoch of the
Mammoth," whilst the upper Pleistocene is called the epoch of the
Reindeer, though the Mammoth still survived then in reduced numbers.</p>
<p class="ac noindent"><i>C.</i> <span class="sc">Lower Pleistocene</span> (inter-glacial
and early glacial, also called period of the Hippopotamus and of Elephas antiquus and
Rhinoceros Merckii).</p>
<p class="indent-left">1. <i>The Chellian:</i> named after Chelles on the upper Seine, river
gravels and sands earlier than the Moustierian. Large tongue-shaped flint
implements, flaked on both surfaces—the later and better-finished
classed as "Acheulæan," after St. Acheul, near Amiens.</p>
<p class="indent-left">2, 3, 4 ... various fluviatile and lacustrine gravels, sands and clays
divisible into separate successive horizons, as well as marine deposits,
some of glacial origin—including the mid-glacial gravel, the boulder
clays and shelly Red Crag and Norwich Crag (but <i>not</i> the underlying
"Coralline" Crag, which must be classed with the Pliocene). The
relations of the marine deposits to the older river-gravels and fresh-water
deposits, and to the earlier periods of glacial extension indicated
by the glacial moraines of central Europe, have not been, as yet,
satisfactorily determined.</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
<p>The amount of the sedimentary deposits of the earth's
crust belonging to the Pleistocene or Quaternary Period—about
250 feet in thickness—is exceedingly small, and
represents a surprisingly short space of time as compared
with that indicated by the vast thickness of underlying
deposits. It has nevertheless been possible to study and
classify the "horizons" of this latest very short period
minutely because the deposits are easily excavated, and
having been more recently "laid down" have not suffered
so much subsequent breaking up and destruction as have
the older strata; and further, because they embed at
certain levels and in favourable situations an abundance
of well-preserved bones and teeth of animals and the
implements and carvings in stone and bone made by
man. It is worth while to look at this matter a little
more exactly.</p>
<p>The total thickness of sedimentary deposits—that is,
deposit laid down by the action of water on the earth's
surface, and now estimated by the measurement of strata
lying one over the other in various parts of the globe—tilted
and exposed to view so that we can trace out
their order of super-position—is about 130,000 feet. The
lower half of this huge deposit contains no fossilized
remains of the living things which were present in the
waters which laid it down; they were soft, probably
shell-less and boneless, and so no fossilized trace of them
is preserved. Thus we divide the sedimentary crust into
65,000 feet of "archaic" non-fossiliferous deposit, and an
overlying 65,000 feet of fossil-containing deposits.</p>
<p>The earliest remains of living things known are not
very different from marine creatures of to-day; they are
the strange shrimp-like Trilobites and the Lingula-shells
found in the lower Cambrian rocks of Wales. Over them
lie 65,000 feet of sedimentary deposit teaming with fossils—the
petrified remains of animals and plants. The
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
Trilobites and the Lingulas must have had a long series
of ancestors leading up to them from the simplest
beginnings of life—for they are highly organized creatures.
But no trace of those ancestors is preserved in the
65,000 feet of sedimentary rock underlying the earliest
fossils.</p>
<p>This great basal mass of non-fossiliferous deposit is
called "the Archæan series." The 65,000 feet of deposit
<i>above</i> it are divided by geologists into three very unequal
series. The first and lowest is the Primary or Palæozoic
series, occupying the enormous thickness of 52,000 feet;
above these we have the Secondary or Mesozoic series
of 10,000 feet, and lastly, bringing us to recent time, we
have the Tertiary or Cainozoic of only 3000 feet. These
three series amount in all to 65,000 feet. The Palæozoic
series is more than five times as thick as the Mesozoic, and
these two taken together are twenty times the thickness of
the Tertiary. Each series is divided by geologists into a
series of systems, distinguished by the fossils they contain,
which, on the whole, indicate animals of a higher
degree of evolution as we ascend the series.</p>
<p>The Palæozoic series include the vast thicknesses of
the Cambrian, the Ordovician, the Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous and Permian systems. The first "trilobite"
is found in the lowest Cambrian rocks, and the last or
most recent existed in the Permian period—after 50,000
feet of rock had been deposited. None are known
of later age. The first fossil remains of a vertebrate
are found in the uppermost beds of the Silurian—in
"beds" (that is to say, stratified rocks) which are just
<i>half-way</i> in position so far as the measurable thickness
of the deposits are concerned, between the earliest
Cambrian fossils and the sediments of the present day.
To put it another way, 34,000 feet of fossiliferous rock
precede the stratum (upper Silurian) in which the earliest
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
remains of vertebrates are found. These first vertebrates
to appear (others soft and destructible preceded them)
are fishes—a group which, apart from this fact, are
shown by their structure to present the ancestral form
of all the vertebrate classes. In later Palæozoic beds we
find the remains of four-legged creatures like our living
newts and salamanders. The Secondary or Mesozoic
series is divided into the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous
systems. It ends with the familiar chalk deposit of this
part of the world, and is often called the age of Reptiles,
because large reptiles abounded in this period. The
Tertiary or Cainozoic series are divided into the Eocene,
Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene systems.
The huge reptiles disappear and their place is taken by an
endless variety of warm-blooded, hairy animals—the
Mammals—small at first, but in later beds often of great
size. As we pass upwards from the Eocene we can trace
the ancestry of our living Mammals such as the horse,
rhinoceros, pig and elephant in successive forms. Complete
skeletons are preserved in the rocks and show a
gradual transition from the more primitive Eocene kinds—through
Miocene and Pliocene modifications—until
in the Pleistocene strata many of the species now
inhabiting the earth's surface are found. A number
of horizons, characterized by the special mammalian
and other animal remains preserved in them, are distinguished
by geologists in each of the "systems"
of sands, clays and harder beds known as Eocene,
Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene. At last we arrive at
the latest or most recent 250 feet of deposit, consisting
of sand, clay and gravel. This is called "Pleistocene."
It is only a very small fraction (1/260<sup>th</sup>) of the thickness
of the whole fossil-bearing sedimentary crust of
the earth—about the proportion of the thickness of a
common paving-stone to the whole height of Shakespeare's
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
cliff at Dover. This Pleistocene or post-glacial Tertiary—often
now called Quaternary—has been so carefully
examined that we divide it as shown on page 39 into
upper, middle and lower, and each of these divisions
into successive horizons (only a few feet thick) characterized
by the remains of different species of animals
and often by the differing implements and carvings as
well as the bones of successive races of men.</p>
<p>When we are concerned with written history, ancient
Egypt seems to be of vast and almost appalling antiquity;
on the other hand, if we study the cave-men,
ancient Egypt becomes relatively modern, and the first
cold period and extension of glaciers, which 500,000 years
ago marked the passage from Pliocene to Pleistocene,
becomes our familiar example of something belonging to
the remote past—beyond or below which we rarely let our
thoughts wander. That is a natural result of concentration
on a special study. But it has had the curious result,
in many cases, of making students of ancient man unwilling
to admit the discovery of evidences of the existence
of man at an earlier date than that which belongs to the
deposits and remains to which their life-long studies have
been confined and upon which their thought is concentrated.
The last 500,000 years of the earth's vicissitudes,
which resulted in the 250 feet of "Pleistocene" deposit
and the marvellous treasures of early humanity embedded
in them, form but a trivial postscript to the great
geological record which precedes it.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_11.jpg" id="i_11.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_11.jpg" width="600" height="341"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Horse (wall engraving),
cave of Marsoulas, Haute Garonne. The drawing suggests the Southern less heavy
breed as compared with Figs. 12 and 13.</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_12.jpg" id="i_12.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_12.jpg" width="600" height="395"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Horse (wall engraving)
outlined in black, cave of Niaux (Ariège).</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_13.jpg" id="i_13.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_13.jpg" width="600" height="202"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Horses: <i>A</i>, wall
engraving (cave of Hornos de la Péna). <i>B</i>, wall engraving from cavern of
Combarelles. <i>C</i>, engraved on reindeer antler (Mas d'Azil). Note the halter
in <i>A</i> and in <i>C</i>; also note the heavy head and face of <i>B</i> like
that of Prejalvski's horse.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
<p>No estimate can be made of the time represented
by the 65,000 feet of fossiliferous strata known to us and
the same thickness of non-fossiliferous deposit which precedes
them. There are no facts known upon which a
calculation of the related lapse of time can be based.
But most geologists would agree that whilst we have good
ground for assigning half a million years to the formation
of the Pleistocene strata,
it is not an unreasonable
supposition that the period
required for the formation
of the fossiliferous rocks
which precede them in
time, is not less and
probably more than
five hundred million
years.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_14.jpg" id="i_14.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_14.jpg" width="600" height="427"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Drawing (of the actual size
of the original) of a flat carving in shoulder-bone of a horse's head,
showing twisted rope-bridle and trappings. <i>a</i> appears to represent
a flat ornamented band of wood or skin connecting the muzzling rope
<i>b</i> with other pieces <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>. This specimen is from the cave of St.
Michel d'Arudy, and is of the Reindeer period. This, and others like it are
in the same museum of St. Germain.</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_15.jpg" id="i_15.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_15.jpg" width="600" height="314"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Drawing (of the actual size of the
original) of a fully rounded carving in reindeer's
antler of the head of a neighing horse. The head resembles that of the Mongolian horse.
This is one of the most artistic of the cave-men's carvings yet discovered. It is of
the Palæolithic age (early Reindeer period), probably not less than 50,000 years old.
It was found in the cavern of Mas d'Azil, Ariège, France, and is now in the museum
of St. Germain.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The pictures and carvings
with which we are
for the moment concerned
all belong to the <i>later</i>
Pleistocene or Reindeer
epoch. None have been
found in the middle and
earlier Pleistocene, though finely-chipped flints of several
successive types are found in those earlier beds. So that
it is clear that many
successive ages of
man had elapsed
in Western Europe
before these pictures—immensely
ancient
as they are—were
executed. The men
who made these
works of art had
ages of humanity,
tradition, and culture
(of a kind) behind
them. Yet they
were themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
tens of thousands of years earlier than the ancient
Egyptians!</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_16.jpg" id="i_16.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_16.jpg" width="600" height="514"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Reindeer engraving on schist,
small size (cavern of Laugerie basse).</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_17.jpg" id="i_17.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_17.jpg" width="600" height="259"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Rhinoceros in red outline
(2-1/2 feet long), drawn on the wall of the cavern of Font de Gaume.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Our illustrations show a variety of drawings and
carvings. It appears
probable that the
primitive intention of
ancient man in depicting
animals was "to
work magic" on those
which he hunted. This
is the case at the present
day among many
"savage" races. The
drawings of bisons in
Fig. 19 are from the
walls of the cavern of
Font de Gaume, in the Dordogne, and are about 5 ft. long,
partly engraved and scraped, partly outlined in black, and
coloured. The body is often coloured in red, white and
black, so as to give a true representation of the masses of
hair and surface
contours.
A specially
well preserved
painting of
this kind—from
the
cavern of
Altamira—is
shown in
Fig. 18, where the colours of the original—black,
red, and brown, and white are indicated by the varied
shading. These drawings, like those of the mammoths
figured in the last chapter, are found in the recesses of
caverns where no daylight reaches them, and must have
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
been executed and viewed by aid of torch or lamp-light.
They probably were exhibited as part of a ceremony
connected with witchcraft and magic. These, like the
mammoths and all the specimens figured here, were
executed in the Reindeer, or later Pleistocene period.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
The exact "horizon" of each is, as a rule, well ascertained,
but there is uncertainty as to whether some specimens
should be attributed to the Aurignacian or to the Magdalenian
horizon—and as to whether work by men of the
Magdalenian race is not in some cases associated in the
cave deposits with that by the earlier negroid Aurignacians.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_18.jpg" id="i_18.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_18.jpg" width="600" height="421"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Bison from the roof of
the cavern of Altamira: engraved, and also painted in three colours (5 feet long).</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_19.jpg" id="i_19.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_19.jpg" width="600" height="224"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Bison: wall engravings
(5 feet long) filled in with colour (Font de Gaume).</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_20.jpg" id="i_20.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_20.jpg" width="600" height="433"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—Bear: engraved on stalagmite,
from the cave of Teyjat near Eyzies. (Small size.)</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_21.jpg" id="i_21.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_21.jpg" width="600" height="438"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Bear, engraved on
stone, Massol (Ariège).</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_22.jpg" id="i_22.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_22.jpg" width="421" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Wolf,
engraved on wall of the cave of Combarelles.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_23.jpg" id="i_23.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_23.jpg" width="600" height="408"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Wall engraving of a Cave Lion
(Combarelles).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The horses shown are from various caves. Fig. 12
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
is drawn in black on the wall of a cave at Niaux
(Ariège), and Fig. 11 is a similar drawing from a cave in
the Haute Garonne. Both are remarkable for the exact
representation of natural poses of the horse. Figs. 13, A
and B, are also from the walls of caves. The latter is
remarkable for the large head, short mane, and thick
muzzle, which closely correspond with the same parts in
the existing wild horse of the Gobi desert in Tartary (to
be seen alive in the Zoological Gardens in London). The
horse drawn in Fig. 11 seems to belong to a distinct race,
suggesting the Southern "Arab" horse rather than the
heavier and more clumsy horse of the Gobi desert. Fig.
13, C, is engraved of the size here given, on a piece of
reindeer's antler. It is remarkable
for the halter-like ring around the
muzzle. A similar cord or rope is
seen in Fig. 12 and in Fig. 13, A.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_24.jpg" id="i_24.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_24.jpg" width="600" height="334"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>—Goose: small
engraving on reindeer antler (Gourdan).</div>
</div>
<p>The most remarkable horses'
heads obtained are those drawn (of
the actual size of the carvings) in
Figs. 14 and 15. Fig. 14 is from
the cave of St. Michael d'Arudy, engraved on a flat
piece of shoulder-bone. It shows what can only be
interpreted as some kind of "halter," made apparently
of twisted rope (<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>), disposed about the animal's
head, whilst a broad, flat piece ornamented with angular
marks is attached at the regions marked "<i>a</i>." This and
other drawings similar to Fig. 13, C (of which there are
many), go far to prove that these early men had mastered
the horse and put a kind of bridle on his head. Fig. 15 is
a solid all-round carving in reindeer's antler from the cave
of Mas d'Azil, Ariège (France). The original is of this
size, and is supposed to be one of the oldest and yet is the
most artistic yet discovered, and worthy to compare with
the horses of the Parthenon.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
<p>In Fig. 20 we have a wonderful outline of a bear
engraved on a piece of stone, from the cave of Teyjat, in
the Dordogne; Fig. 22, the head of a wolf on the wall of
the cave of Combarelles, Dordogne; Fig. 23, lion (mane-less),
engraved on the wall of the same cave; Fig. 21, small
bear, engraved on a pebble; Fig. 24, a duck engraved on
a piece of reindeer's antler (Gourdan, Haute Garonne);
Fig. 17, the square-mouthed, two-horned
rhinoceros, drawn in red
(ochre) outline on the wall of the
cavern of the Font de Gaume. This
drawing is 2-1/2 ft. long. In successful
characterization the bear (Fig. 20), the
wolf (Fig. 22), and the feline (Fig. 23)
far surpass any of the attempts at
animal drawing made by modern savages,
such as the Bushmen of South
Africa, Californian Indians, and Australian
black fellows.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_25.jpg" id="i_25.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_25.jpg" width="307" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>—Female
figure carved in oolitic limestone from Willendorf near Krems, Lower Austria (1908).
Half the size (linear) of the original.</div>
</div>
<p>Fig. 27 is an outline sketch of a
rock-carved statue, 18 in. high, proved
by the kind of flint implements found
with it to be of Aurignacian age. It
was discovered on a rubble-covered
face of a rock-cliff at Laussel, in the
Dordogne, by M. Lalanne. The woman
holds a bovine horn in her right hand. The face is
obliterated by "weathering." Four other human statues
were found in the same place, one a male, much broken,
but obviously standing in the position taken by (Fig. 28)
a man throwing a spear or drawing a bow.
<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Near these
were found a frieze of life-sized horses carved in high
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
relief on the rock. These are the only statues of any
size, executed by the Reindeer men, yet discovered.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_26.jpg" id="i_26.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_26.jpg" width="373" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>—Drawing
(of the actual size of the original) of an ivory carving (fully rounded) of
a female head. The specimen was found in the cavern of Brassempouy, in the
Landes. It is of the earliest Reindeer period, and the arrangement
of the hair or cap is remarkable.</div>
</div>
<p>The representations of men are rare among these
earliest works of art, and less successfully carried out than
those of animals. But several small statuettes of women
in bone, ivory, and stone of the early
Aurignacian horizon are known. They
suggest, by their form of body, affinity
with the Bushmen race of to-day (Fig. 25).
The all-round carving of a female head
(Fig. 26) also suggests Ethiopian affinities
in the dressing of the hair. Some regard
this hair-like head-dress as a cap. Here
and there badly executed outline engravings
of men, some apparently wearing
masks, have been discovered.</p>
<p>The fact that the "Reindeer men"
were skilful in devising decorative design—not
representing actual natural objects—is
shown by the carving drawn in Fig.
29 and in many others like it.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_27.jpg" id="i_27.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_27.jpg" width="405" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>—Seated figure of a woman
holding a bovine horn in the right hand;
high relief carved on a limestone rock; about 18 inches high. Discovered
at Laussel (Dordogne) in a rock-shelter in 1911, by M. Lalanne.</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_28.jpg" id="i_28.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_28.jpg" width="332" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>—Male figure represented
in the act of drawing a bow or throwing a spear. Carved on limestone rock; about
16 inches high. Discovered by M. Lalanne with that drawn in Fig. 27.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The later horizons of the Reindeer
period or Upper Pleistocene yield some
beautiful outline engravings of red deer
and reindeer (Fig. 16) on antler-bone, as
well as of other animals. One celebrated
carving I have described in the first
chapter of this book. It is now regarded
as probable that whilst the art of the Aurignacians persisted
and developed in the South of France and North-West of
Spain until and during the time of the Magdalenian horizon,
yet a distinct race, with a different style of art, spread
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
through South-East Spain and also from Italy into that
region, and affected injuriously the "naturalistic" Aurignacian
art, and superseded it in Azilian and Neolithic times.
We find late drawings (Azilian age?) in some of the east
Spanish caves of a very much simplified character, small
human figures armed with bow and arrow, and others
reduced to geometric or mere symbolic lines derived from
human and animal form (see Fig. 52, p. 206). The latest
studies of Breuil on this subject tend to throw light by aid
of these simplified inartistic and symbolic drawings on the
migrations of very early races in the south and south-east
of Europe, and to connect them perhaps with North
African contemporary races. The subject is as difficult as
it is fascinating. Those who wish to get to the original
sources of information should consult the last ten years'
issues of the invaluable French periodical called
"L'Anthropologie," edited by Professor Marcelin Boule.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_29.jpg" id="i_29.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_29.jpg" width="236" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>—A piece of mammoth
ivory carved with spirals and scrolls from the cave of Arudy (Hautes
Pyrénées). Same size as the object.</div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes p4"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
<div class="footnote">
<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
M. Reinach relates ("Repertoire de l'Art Quatermaire") that two of
these statues were in 1912 deliberately stolen by the German Verworn professor
of Physiology in Bonn, who repaid the hospitality of M. Lalanne by
bribing his workman and secretly carrying off these valuable specimens to
Germany, where (it is stated) they were sold to the museum of Berlin for a
large sum.</p></div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">VESUVIUS IN ERUPTION</p>
<p class="drop-cap">AT intervals of ten to twenty years the best-known
volcano in the world—Vesuvius, on the Bay of
Naples—has in the last two centuries burst into
eruption, and the probability of the recurrence of this
violent state of activity, at no distant date, render some
account of my own acquaintance with that great and
wonderful thing seasonable. We inhabitants of the West
of Europe have little personal experience of earthquakes,
and still less of volcanoes, for there is not in the British
Islands even an "extinct" volcanic cone to remind us of
the terrible forces held down beneath our feet by the crust
of the earth. In regions as near as the Auvergne of
Central France and the Eiffel, close to the junction of the
Moselle with the Rhine, there are complete volcanic
craters whose fiery origin is recognized even by the local
peasantry. They are, however, regarded by these
optimist folk as the products of ancient fires long since
burnt out. The natives have as little apprehension of a
renewed activity of their volcanoes as we have of the outburst
of molten lava and devastating clouds of ashes and
poisonous vapour from the top of Primrose Hill. Nevertheless,
the hot springs and gas issuing from fissures in the
Auvergne show that the subterranean fires are not yet closed
down, and may at any day burst again into violent activity.</p>
<p>Such also was the happy indifference with which from
time immemorial the Greek colonists and other earlier
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
and later inhabitants of the rich and beautiful shores of
the Neapolitan bay before the fateful year <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79, had
regarded the low crater-topped mountain called Vesuvius
or Vesbius, as well as the great circular forest-grown or
lake-holding cups near Cumæ and the Cape Misenum, at
the northern end of the bay—known to-day as the
Solfatara, Astroni, Monti Grillo, Barbaro, and Cigliano—and
the lakes Lucrino, Averno, and Agnano. These
together with the Monte Nuovo—which suddenly rose
from the sea near Baiæ in 1538 and as suddenly disappeared—constitute
"the Phlegræan fields." Vesuvius
was loftier than any one of the Phlegræan craters, and
the gentle slope by which it rose from the sea level to a
height of nearly 3700 ft. had, as now, a circumference of
ten miles. It did not terminate in a "cone," as in later
ages, but in a depressed, circular, forest-covered area
measuring a mile across, which was the ancient crater. A
drawing showing the shape of the mountain at this period
is the work of the late Prof. Phillips of Oxford (Fig. 30).
The soil formed around and upon the ancient lava-streams
of Vesuvius appears to have been always especially fertile,
so that flourishing towns and villages occupied its slopes,
and the ports of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiæ were
the seats of a busy and long-established population. The
existence of active volcanoes at no great distance from
Vesuvius was, however, well known to the ancient Greeks
and Romans. The great Sicilian mountain, Etna—more
than 10,000 ft. in height, rising from a base of ninety
miles in circumference—and the Lipari Islands, such as
Stromboli and Volcano, were for many centuries in intermittent
activity before the first recorded eruption of
Vesuvius—that of <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79—and great eruptions are
recorded as having occurred in the mountain mass of
the island of Ischia, close to the Bay of Naples, in the
fifth, third, and first centuries <span class="sc">B.C.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></span></p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_30.jpg" id="i_30.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_30.jpg" width="600" height="398"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>—Vesuvius as it appeared
before the eruption of August 24, <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79. From a sketch by
Prof. Phillips, F.R.S.</div>
</div>
<p>Nevertheless, the outburst of Vesuvius in <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79 and its
re-entrance into a state of activity came upon the unfortunate
population around it as an absolutely unexpected
thing. At least a thousand years—probably several
thousand years—had passed since Vesuvius had become
"extinct." All tradition of its prehistoric activity had
disappeared, though the learned Greek traveller Strabo
had pointed out the indications it presented of having
been once a seat of consuming fire. From <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 63 there
were during sixteen years frequent earthquakes in its
neighbourhood, which, as we know by records and inscriptions,
caused serious damage to the towns around it,
and then suddenly, on the night of Aug. 24, <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79, vast
explosions burst from its summit. A huge black cloud of
fine dust and cinders, lasting for three days, spread from
it for twenty miles around, streams of boiling mud poured
down its sides, and in a few hours covered the city of
Herculaneum, whilst a dense shower of hot volcanic dust
completely buried the gay little seaside resort known as
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
Pompeii. Many thousand persons perished, choked by
the vapours or overwhelmed by the hot cinders or engulfed
in the boiling mud.</p>
<p>The great naturalist Pliny was in command of the
fleet at Cape Misenum, and went by ship across the bay
to render assistance to the inhabitants of the towns at the
foot of Vesuvius. Pliny's nephew wrote two letters to
the historian Tacitus, giving an account of these events
and of the remarkable courage and coolness of his uncle,
who, after sleeping the night at Stabiæ, was suffocated by
the sulphurous vapours as he advanced into the open
country near the volcano. The friends who were with
him left him to his fate and made their escape. The
younger Pliny had prudently remained, out of danger,
with his mother at Misenum.</p>
<p>The alternating periods of activity and of rest exhibited
by volcanoes seem to us capricious, and even at the
present day are not sufficiently well understood to enable
us to discern any order or regularity in their succession.
Vesuvius is a thousand centuries old, and we have only
known it for thirty. We cannot expect to get the time-table
of its activities on so brief an acquaintance. Strangely
enough, Vesuvius, having, after immemorial silence, spasmodically
burst into eruption and spread devastation
around it, resumed its slumber for many years. There
is no mention of its activity for 130 years after <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79.
Then it growled and sent forth steam and cinder-dust to an
extent sufficient to attract attention again; its efforts were
thereafter recorded once or so in a century, though little, if
any, harm was done by it. In <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 1139 there was a great
throwing-up of dust and stones, with steam, which reflected
the light of molten lava within the crater, and looked
like flames. And then for close on 500 years there was
little, if any, sign of activity. The "eruptions" between
that of <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79 and that of
<span class="sc">A.D.</span> 1139 had been ejections of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
steam and cinders, unaccompanied by any flow or stream
of lava. Then suddenly the whole business shut up for
500 years, and after that—also quite suddenly—in 1631,
a really big eruption took place, exceeding in volume the
catastrophe of Pliny's date. Not only were columns of
dust and vapour ejected to a height of many miles, but
several streams of white-hot lava overflowed the edge of
the crater and reached the seacoast, destroying towns and
villages on the way. Some of these lava-streams were
five miles broad, and can be studied at the present day.
As many as 18,000 persons were killed.</p>
<p>There were three more eruptions in the seventeenth
century, and from that date there set in a period of far
more frequent outbursts, which have continued to our own
times. In the eighteenth century there were twenty-three
distinct eruptions, lasting each from a few hours to
two or three days, and of varying degrees of violence—a
vast steam-jet forcing up cinders and stones from the
crater into the air, usually accompanied by the outflow of
lava, from cracks in sides of the crater, in greater or less
quantity. In the nineteenth century there were twenty-five
distinct eruptions, the most formidable of which were
those of 1822, 1834, and 1872. All of the eruptions of
Vesuvius in the last 280 years have been carefully
described, and most of them recorded in coloured pictures
(a favourite industry of the Neapolitans), showing the
appearance of the active volcano both by day and night
and its change of shape in successive years. Sir William
Hamilton, the British Ambassador at the Court of Naples
at the end of the eighteenth century (of whose great folio
volumes I am the fortunate possessor), largely occupied
himself in the study and description of Vesuvius, and
published illustrations of the kind mentioned above, showing
the appearance of the mountain at various epochs.
Since his day there has been no lack of descriptions of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
every succeeding eruption, and now we have the records
of photography.</p>
<p>The crater or basin formed by a volcano starts with
the opening of a fissure in the earth's surface communicating
by a pipe-like passage with very deeply-seated molten
matter and steam. Whether the molten matter thus
naturally "tapped" is only a local, though vast, accumulation,
or is universally distributed at a given depth below
the earth's crust, and at how many miles from the surface,
is not known. It seems to be certain that the great
pressure of the crust of the earth (from five to twenty-five
miles thick) must prevent the heated matter below it
from becoming either liquid or gaseous, whether the heat
of that mass be due to the cracking of the earth's crust
and the friction of the moving surfaces as the crust cools
and shrinks, or is to be accounted for by the original high
temperature of the entire mass of the terrestrial globe.
It is only when the gigantic pressure is relieved by the
cracking or fissuring of the closed case called "the crust of
the earth" that the enclosed deep-lying matter of immensely
high temperature liquefies, or even vaporizes, and rushes
into the up-leading fissure. Steam and gas thus "set
free" drive everything before them, carrying solid masses
along with them, tearing, rending, shaking "the foundations
of the hills," and issuing in terrific jets from the earth's
surface, as through a safety valve, into the astonished
world above. Often in a few hours they choke their own
path by the destruction they produce and the falling in of
the walls of their briefly-opened channels. Then there is
a lull of hours, days, or even centuries, and after that
again, a movement of the crust, a "giving" of the blockage
of the deep, vertical pipe, and a renewed rush and jet of
expanding gas and liquefying rock.</p>
<p>The general scheme of this process and its relations
to the structure and properties of the outer crust and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
inner mass of the globe is still a matter of discussion,
theory and verification; but whatever conclusions geologists
may reach on these matters, the main fact of
importance is that steam and gases issue from these
fissures with enormous velocity and pressure, and that
"a vent" of this kind, once established, continues, as a
rule, to serve intermittently for centuries, and, indeed, for
vast periods to which we can assign no definite limits.
The solid matter ejected becomes piled up around the
vent as a mound, its outline taking the graceful catenary
curves of rest and adjustment to which are due the great
beauty of volcanic cones. The apex of the cone is blown
away at intervals by the violent blasts issuing from the
vent, and thus we have formed the "crater," varying in
the area enclosed by its margin and in the depth and
appearance of the cup so produced. At a rate depending
on the amount of solid matter ejected by the crater, the
mound will grow in the course of time to be a mountain,
and often secondary craters or temporary openings,
connected at some depth with the main passage leading
to the central vent, will form on the sides of the mound
or mountain. Sometimes the old crater will cease to
grow in consequence of the blocking of its central vent
and the formation of one or more subsidiary vents, the
activity of which may blast away or smother the cup-like
edge of the first crater.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_31.jpg" id="i_31.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_31.jpg" width="406" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>—Five successive stages in
the change of form of Vesuvius (after Phillips' "Vesuvius," Oxford, 1869). In the oldest
(lowest figure) we see the mountain with its still earlier outline completed by the cone
drawn in dotted line. Within the period of historic record that cone
had not been seen. The mountain had, so far as men knew, always
been truncated as shown here and in Fig. 30. The next figure above
shows the further lowering of the mountain by the first eruption on
record—that which destroyed Pompeii in <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79. The commencing
formation of a new ash-cone is indicated by a dotted line. In the three
upper figures we trace the gradual growth of the new cone from 1631 to
1868. In 1872 the top of the new ash-cone was blown away, and the
mountain reverted to the shape of 1822. Now (1920) the cone has
accumulated once more and is higher than it was in 1868.</div>
</div>
<p>Such a history has been that of Vesuvius shown in
outline in Fig. 31. In geologic ages—perhaps some
thousands of centuries ago—Vesuvius was probably a
perfect cone (its outline is shown at the bottom of p. 62)
some 7000 ft. high, rising by a characteristically accelerated
upgrowth from a circle of ten miles or more
in diameter to its delicate central peak, hollowed out
at the summit by a small crater a couple of hundred
yards across. Its eruptions at that time were neither
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
excessive nor violent. Then came a period of greatly
increased energy—the steam-jet blew with such violence
that it shattered and dispersed the cone, lowering the
mountain to 3700 ft. in height, truncating it and leaving
a proportionately widened crater of a mile and a half
in diameter. And then the mountain reposed for long
centuries. We do not know how long this period of
extinction was, for we do not know when it began, but
we know that this was the state of the mountain when in
<span class="sc">A.D.</span> 79 it once more burst into life. In recent years—that
is, since the seventeenth century <span class="sc">A.D.</span>, a curious change
took place in the mountain: the vent or orifice of the
conducting channel by which eruptive matters were
brought to the surface ceased to be in the centre of
the wide broken-down crater of Pliny's time, and a vent
was formed a few hundred yards to the south of the
centre of the old crater, nearer to the south side of the
old crater's wall. From this ashes or cinders issued, and
were piled up to form a new cone, which soon added
600 ft. to the height of the mountain and covered in the
southern half of the old crater's lip, whilst leaving the
northern half or semicircle free. This latter uncovered
part was called by the Italians "Monte Somma," and
the new cone low down in the southern side of which
the rest of the old crater-lip could be traced, was henceforth
spoken of as "the ash-cone" and sometimes misleadingly
as "the true" Vesuvius. Clearly it was not
"the true Vesuvius" since it was a new growth. The
original old Vesuvius was crowned by a crater formed by
the cliffs of Monte Somma and their continuation round
to the south side, now more or less completely concealed
by the new ash-cone.</p>
<p>In the course of various eruptions during the last two
centuries the new ash-cone thus formed was blown away
more or less completely, and gradually grew up again.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
During the nineteenth century it was a permanent feature
of the mountain, though a good deal cut down in 1822,
and later grew so high as to give a total elevation from the
sea-level of 4300 ft. The crater at the top of the ash-cone
has varied during the past century in width and depth,
according to its building up or blowing away by the central
steam jet. In 1822 it is reported to have been funnel-like
and 2000 ft. deep, tapering downwards to the narrow
fissures which are the actual vent. At other times it has
been largely filled by débris, and only 200 ft. deep.
Molten lava has often issued from fissures in the sides of
the ash-cone, and even lower down on the sides of the
mountain, and a very small secondary crater has sometimes
appeared on the side of the ash-cone 100 ft. or
200 ft. from the terminal crater which "finishes off"
the cone.</p>
<p>Such was the condition of the mountain when I first
saw it in the autumn of 1871. Six months later I witnessed
the most violent eruption of the nineteenth century.
Vesuvius kept up a continuous roar like that of a railway
engine letting off steam when at rest in a covered station
only a thousandfold bigger. Its vibrations shook with a
deep musical note, for twenty-four hours, the house nine
miles distant in Naples in which I was staying. My
windows commanded a view of the mountain, and when
the noise ceased and the huge steam-cloud cleared away,
I saw a different Vesuvius, the higher part of the ash-cone
was gone, and a huge gap in it had been formed by the
blowing away of its northern side.</p>
<p>In October 1871, when I joined my friend Anton
Dohrn at Naples in order to study the marine creatures
of the beautiful bay, Vesuvius was in the proud possession
of a splendid cone, completing its graceful outline. A
little steam-cloud hung about one side of the cone during
the day, and as night came on Vesuvius used, as we said,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
to "light his cigar." In fact, a very small quantity of
molten lava was at that time flowing from the side of the
ash-cone, about 100 ft. from its summit, and this gave a
most picturesque effect as we watched it from our balcony
high up on Pausilippo, when the sun set. It was a
friendly sort of beacon, far away on the commanding
mountain's top, which was answered by the lighting up
of a thousand lamps along the coast, and by innumerable
flaming faggots in the fishermen's boats moving across
the bay, drawing to their light strange fishes, to be impaled
by the long tridents of the skilful spearmen. That
little beacon light on Vesuvius increased in volume in the
course of three weeks, and was supplemented by other
flaming streams and by showers of red-hot stones from
the crater. This small "eruption" was the precursor by
six months of the great eruption of the end of April 1872,
and I spent a night on Vesuvius during its progress, and
looked into the crater from which the glowing masses of
rock were being belched forth.</p>
<p>Not long before I went, in 1871, to Naples I had spent
some weeks in visiting the extinct volcanoes of the
Auvergne and of the Eiffel, and I was eager to examine
the still living Vesuvius. In the first week of October I
made an excursion to the crater of Vesuvius in company
with the son of a Russian admiral, whose name, "Popoff,"
was under the circumstances unpleasantly suggestive.
We examined some black slaglike masses of old lava-streams,
and struggled up the loose sandy ash-cone (there
was no "funicular" in those days), and prodded with our
sticks the few yards of molten lava which emerged from
the side of the cone about 100 ft. from the summit.
On Nov. 1 my friend Anton Dohrn (who was then
negotiating with the Naples Municipality for a site in
the Villa Nazionale on which to erect the great Zoological
Station and Aquarium, now so well known) was with me
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
and some Neapolitan acquaintances looking at Vesuvius
across the bay from Pausilippo, where we had established
ourselves, when we noticed that a long line of steam was
rising from the lower part of the ash-cone and that puffs
of steam were issuing at intervals from the crater. "Dio
mio! Dio di Dio!" cried the Neapolitans in terror, and
expressed their intention of leaving Naples without an
hour's delay. As night fell a new glowing line of fire
appeared far down near the base of the ash-cone, whilst
what looked in the distance like sparks from a furnace,
but were really red-hot stones—each as big as a Gladstone
bag—were thrown every two or three minutes from
the crater.</p>
<p>We hired a carriage, drove to Resina (built above
buried Herculaneum), and walked up towards the
Observatory in order to spend the night on the burning
mountain. We found that two white-hot streams, each
about twenty yards broad at the free end, were issuing
from the base of the cone. The glowing stones thrown up
by the crater were now separately visible; a loud roar
accompanied each spasmodic ejection. The night was
very clear, and a white firmly-cut cloud, due to the
steam ejected by the crater, hung above it. At intervals
we heard a milder detonation—that of thunder which
accompanied the lightning which played in the cloud,
giving it a greenish illumination by contrast with the
red flame colour reflected on to it by red-hot material
within the crater. The flames attributed to volcanoes are
generally of this nature, but actual flames do sometimes
occur in volcanic eruptions by the ignition of combustible
gases. The puffs of steam from the crater were separated
by intervals of about three minutes. When an eruption
becomes violent they succeed one another at the rate of
many in a second, and the force of the steam jet is
gigantic, driving a column of transparent super-heated
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
steam with such vigour that as it cools into the condition
of "cloud" an appearance like that of a gigantic pine-tree
seven miles high (in the case of Vesuvius) is produced.</p>
<p>We made our way to the advancing end of one of the
lava-streams (like the "snout" of a glacier), which was
20 ft. high, and moved forwards but slowly, in successive
jerks. Two hundred yards farther up, where it issued
from the sandy ashes, the lava was white-hot and running
like water, but it was not in very great quantity and rapidly
cooled on the surface and became "sticky." A cooled
skin of slag was formed in this way, which arrested the
advancing stream of lava. At intervals of a few minutes
this cooled crust was broken into innumerable clinkers
by the pressure of the stream, and there was a noise like
the smashing of a gigantic store of crockery ware as the
pieces or "clinkers" fell over one another down the nearly
vertical "snout" of the lava-stream, whilst the red-hot
molten material burst forward for a few feet, but immediately
became again "crusted over" and stopped in its
progress. We watched the coming together and fusion of
the two streams and the overwhelming and burning up of
several trees by the steadily, though slowly, advancing
river of fire. Then we climbed up the ash-cone, getting
nearer and nearer to the rim of the crater, from which
showers of glowing stones were being shot. The deep
roar of the mountain at each effort was echoed from the
cliffs of the ancient mother-crater, Monte Somma, and the
ground shook under our feet as does a ship at sea when
struck by a wave. The night was very still in the intervals.
The moon was shining, and a weird melancholy "ritornelle"
sung by peasants far off in some village below us
came to our ears with strange distinctness. It might
have been the chorus of the imprisoned giants of Vulcan's
forge as they blew the sparks with their bellows and shook
the mountains with the heavy blows of their hammers.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
<p>As we ascended the upper part of the cone the red-hot
stones were falling to our left, and we determined to risk
a rapid climb to the edge of the crater on the right or
southern side, and to look into it. We did so, and as we
peered into the great steaming pit a terrific roar, accompanied
by a shuddering of the whole mountain, burst
from it. Hundreds of red-hot stones rose in the air to a
height of 400 ft., and fell, happily in accordance with
our expectation, to our left. We ran quickly down the
sandy side of the cone to a safe position, about 300 ft.
below the crater's lip, and having lit our pipes from one
of the red-hot "bombs," rested for a while at a safe distance
and waited for the sunrise. A vast horizontal layer
of cloud had now formed below us, and Vesuvius and the
hills around Naples appeared as islands emerging from a
sea. The brilliant sunlight was reassuring after this night
of strange experiences. The fields and lanes were deserted
in the early morning as we descended to the sea-level.
On our way we met a procession of weird figures clad in
long white robes, enveloping the head closely but leaving
apertures for the eyes. They were a party of the lay-brothers
of the Misericordia carrying a dead man to his
grave. Then we found our carriage, and drove quickly
back to Naples and sleep!</p>
<p>In the following March I acted as guide to my friend
Professor Huxley in expeditions up Vesuvius, now
quiescent, and to the Solfatara. Then suddenly, in April,
the great eruption of 1872 burst upon us. On the first
day of the outbreak some imprudent visitors were killed
by steam and gas ejected by the lava-stream. By the
next day the violence of the eruption was too great for
any one to venture near it. The crater sent forth no
intermittent "puffs" as in the preceding November, but a
continuously throbbing jet which produced a cloud five
miles high, like an enormous cauliflower in shape, suspended
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
above the mountain and making it look by comparison
like a mole-hill. Showers of fine ashes, as in the
days of Pompeii, fell thickly around, accumulating to the
depth of an inch in a few hours even at my house in
Pausilippo, nine miles distant across the bay. I was
recovering at the time from an attack of typhoid fever,
and lay in bed, listening to the deep humming sound and
wondering at the darkness until my doctor came and told
me of the eruption. I was able to get up and see from
the window the great cauliflower-like cloud and the vacant
place where the ash-cone was, but whence it had how
been scattered into the sky. (It has been gradually re-formed
by later eruptions, of which the last of any size
was in 1906.) I could also see steam rising like smoke
from a long line reaching six miles down the mountain
into the flat country below. It was the great lava-stream
which had destroyed two prosperous villages in its course.</p>
<p>After ten days I was able to get about, and drove
over to one of these villages and along its main street,
which was closely blocked at the end by what looked like
a railway embankment some 40 ft. high. This was the
side of the great lava-stream now cooled and hardened
on the surface. It had sharply cut the houses, on each
side of the street, in half without setting them on fire, so
that the various rooms were exposed in section—pictures
hanging on the walls, and even chairs and other furniture
remaining in place on the unbroken portion of the floor.
The villagers had provided ladders by which I ascended
the steep side of the embankment-like mass at the end of
the street, and there a wonderful sight revealed itself.
One looked out on a great river seven miles long, narrow
where it started from the broken-down crater, but widening
to three miles where I stood, and wider still farther
on as it descended. This river, with all its waves and
ripples, was turned to stone, and greatly resembled a Swiss
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
glacier in appearance. A foot below the surface it was
still red-hot, and a stick pushed into a crevice caught fire.
It was not safe to venture far on to the pie-crust surface.
A couple of miles away the campanile of the church of a
village called Massa di Somma stood out, leaning like
that of Pisa, from the petrified mass, whilst the rest of the
village was overwhelmed and covered in by the great
stream.</p>
<p>The curious resemblance of the lava-stream to a glacier
arose from the fact that it was almost completely covered
by a white snow-like powder. This snow-like powder, which
often appears on freshly-run lava, is salt—common sea
salt and other mineral salts dissolved in the water ejected
as steam mixed with the lava. The steam condenses, as
the lava cools, into water and evaporates slowly, leaving
the salt as crystals. Often these are not white, but contain
iron salt, mixed with the white sodium, potassium,
and ammonium chlorides, which gives them a yellow or
orange colour. Salts coloured in this way have the
appearance of sulphur, and are often mistaken for it.
The whole of the interior of the crater of Vesuvius
when I revisited it in 1875 was thus coloured yellow,
and I have a water-colour sketch of the scene made
by a friend who came with me for the purpose. As
a matter of fact, though small quantities of the choking
gas called "sulphurous acid" are among the vapours
given off by Vesuvius, there is no deposit of sulphur
there. Some large volcanoes (in Mexico and Japan)
have made deposits of sulphur, which are dug for commercial
purposes; but the sulphur of Sicily is not, and has
not been, thrown out or volatilized by Etna. It occurs in
rough masses and in splendid crystals in a tertiary calcareous
marine deposit, and its deposition was probably
due to a chemical decomposition of constituents of the sea
water brought about by minute plants, known as "sulphur
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
bacteria." Whether the neighbouring great volcano had
any share in the process seems to be doubtful.</p>
<p>It is generally supposed that sea-water makes its way
in large quantity through fissures connected with volcanic
channels, and is one of the agents of the explosions
caused by the subterranean molten matter. Gaseous
water, hydrochloric acid, carbonic acid, hydrofluoric acid,
and even pure hydrogen and oxygen and argon are
among the gases ejected by volcanoes.</p>
<p>The molten matter forced up from the bowels of the
earth and poured out by volcanoes is made up of various
chemical substances, differing in different localities, and
even in different eruptions of the same volcano. It
consists largely of silicates of iron, lime, magnesium,
aluminium, and the alkali metals, with possible admixture
of nearly every other element. Some volcanoes eject
"pitch" or "bitumen." When the molten matter cools,
interesting crystals of various "species" (<i>i.e.</i>, of various
chemical composition) usually form in the deeper part of
the mass. The lavas of Vesuvius frequently contain
beautiful opaque-white twelve-sided crystals of a siliceous
mineral called "leucite." I have collected in the lava of
Niedermendig, on the Rhine, specimens embedding bright
blue transparent crystals (a mineral called Haüynite)
scattered in the grey porous rock. The lava-streams, and
even the "roots," of extinct volcanoes which are of great
geologic age, sometimes become exposed by the change of
the earth's surface, and extensive sheets of volcanic rock
of various kinds are thus laid bare. Basalt is one of these
rocks, and it not unfrequently presents itself as a mass of
perpendicular six-sided columns, each column 10 ft. or
more high, and often a foot or more in diameter. The
"Giant's Causeway," in the North of Ireland, and the
"Pavée des Géants," in the Ardêche of Southern France,
are examples both of which I have visited. It is not easy
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
to explain how the molten basalt has come to take this
columnar structure on cooling. It has nothing to do with
"crystallization," but is similar to the columnar formation
shown by commercial "starch" and occasionally by
"tabular flint". A theoretical explanation of its formation
has been given by Prof. J. Thompson, brother of the
late Lord Kelvin.</p>
<p>The varieties of volcanoes and their products make
up a long story—too long to be told here. There are
from 300 to 400 active craters in Existence to-day—mostly
not isolated, but grouped along certain great
lines, as, for instance, along the Andean chain, or in
more irregular tracks. If we add to the list craters no
longer active, but still recognizable, we must multiply
it by ten. Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the
mainland of Europe—Hecla, Etna, Stromboli, Volcano,
and the volcanoes of the Santorin group are on islands.
The biggest volcanoes are in South America, Mexico, Java,
and Japan. Volcanoes and the related "earthquakes"
have been most carefully studied with a view to the
safety of the population in Japan. The graceful and
well-beloved volcano, Fujiyama, is more than 12,000 ft.
high, but, unlike others in those islands, it has been
quiescent now for just 200 years. The most violent
volcanic eruptions of recent times, with the largest
"output" of solid matter, are those of the Soufrière of
St. Vincent in 1812, of the Mont Pelée of Martinique in
1902, and of Krakatoa in 1883. A single moderate
eruption of the great volcano Mauna Loa, in Hawaii,
nearly 14,000 feet high, throws out a greater quantity
of solid matter than Vesuvius has ejected in all the
years which have elapsed since the destruction of Pompeii.
Many hundred millions of tons of solid matter were
ejected by Mont Pelée in 1902, when also a peculiar
heavy cloud descended from the mountain, hot and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
acrid, charged with incandescent sand, and rolling along
like a liquid rather than a vapour. It burnt up the
town of St. Pierre and its inhabitants and the shipping
in the harbour. In the eruption of the volcano of
St. Vincent in 1812 three million tons of ashes were
projected on to the Bahamas Islands, 100 miles distant,
besides a larger quantity which fell elsewhere. The
great explosion at Krakatoa, lasting two days, blew an
island of 1400 ft. high, into the air. A good deal of
it was projected as excessively fine needlelike particles
of pumice with such force as to carry it up thirty miles
into the upper regions of the atmosphere, where it was
carried by air currents all over the world, causing the
"red sunsets" of the following year. The sky over
Batavia, 100 miles distant, was darkened at midday so
completely that lamps had to be used—as I heard from
my brother who was there at the time. The explosions
were heard in Mauritius, 3000 miles away. A sea wave
50 ft. high was set going by the submarine disturbance,
and reaching Java and neighbouring islands inundated
the land and destroyed 36,000 persons. This wave
travelled in reduced size over a vast tract of the ocean,
and was observed and recorded at Cape Horn, 7800 miles
distant from its seat of origin.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">BLUE WATER</p>
<p class="drop-cap">MOST people know and admire the splendid
expanse of blue colour offered by the clear sea
water on many parts of our coasts, and by that
of lakes at home and abroad. I find that there is still
a sort of a fixed determination not to believe that this
colour is due (as it is) to the actual blue colour of pure
water. Pure, transparent water is blue. Those who
think they know better will point to a glass of pure
water, hold it up to the light, and affirm that it is colourless.
But this apparent colourlessness is due to the
small breadth of water in the glass through which the
light passes. It is definitely ascertained that if water
as pure and as free from either dissolved or suspended
matter as it is possible to make it (by distillation and
the use of vessels not acted upon by water) be made to
fill an opaque tube 15 ft. long, closed at each end by
a transparent plate, and then a beam of light be made
to traverse the length of the tube, so that the eye receives
the light after it has passed through this length of 15 ft.
of water, the colour of the light is a strong blue. Water
is blue in virtue of its own molecular character, just as
sulphate of copper is. Liquid oxygen, prepared by the
use of intense cold, is also transparent blue, and the
peculiar condensed form of oxygen known as "ozone" is,
when liquefied, of a darker or stronger blue than oxygen.</p>
<p>At one time (some thirty years ago) there was still
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
some doubt as to whether water was self-coloured blue,
or whether its blue colour was due to the action on light
of excessively minute solid white particles of chalk suspended
in the water. Such fine suspended particles in
some cases act on the light which falls on to them so
as to reflect the blue rays. This occurs in certain
natural objects which have a blue colour. But these
can be distinguished from transparent self-coloured blue
substances by the fact that whilst the light reflected from
their surface is blue, the light which is made to traverse
them (when they are held up to the light so that they
come between one's eye and the sun's rays) is brown.
This is the case with very hot smoke, and can be well
seen when a cigar is smoked in the sunlight. The smoke
which comes off from the lighted end of the cigar is very
hot, and its particles are more minute than those of
cooler smoke. The hot smoke shows a bright blue
colour when the sunlight falls on it and is reflected, but
when you look through the smoke-cloud at a surface
reflecting the sunlight, the cloud has a reddish-brown
tint. As the smoke cools its particles adhere to one
another and form larger particles, and the light reflected
from the cloud is no longer blue but grey, and even
white. Thus the smoke which the smoker keeps for
half a minute in his mouth is cooled and condensed, and
reflects white light—is, in fact, a white cloud—when he
puffs it out, and contrasts strongly with the blue cloud
coming off from the burning tobacco at the lighted end of
the cigar. The blue colour of the sky is held by many
physicists (though other views have been of late advanced)
to be due to the same action on the part of the very
finest particles of watery vapour, which are diffused
through vast regions of our atmosphere above the condensed
white-looking clouds consisting of larger floating
particles of water.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
<p>Vapours are given off by many liquids, and even by
some solids, varying in their production according to the
heat applied in different cases. They are gases, and quite
transparent and invisible at the proper temperature, like
the atmospheric air. Thus water is always giving off
"water-vapour," which is quite invisible. When water
is heated to the boiling point it is rapidly converted
into transparent invisible vapour. Steam, as this vapour
is called, is invisible, and we all habitually make a
misleading use of the word "steam" when we apply it
both to this and to the slightly cooled and condensed
cloud which we can see issuing from the spout of a
kettle or from a railway engine. It seems that the
fault lies with the scientific writers, who have applied
the word "steam" to the invisible water vapour or gas
before it has condensed to form a cloud. The old English
word "steam" certainly means a visible cloudy emanation,
and not a transparent invisible gas. A cloud is not
a vapour, but is produced by the coming together or
condensation of the minute invisible particles of a vapour
to form larger particles, which float and hang together,
and reflect the light, and thus are visible.</p>
<p>By the examination of other vapours or gases than that
which is gaseous water, namely, the vapours of bodies like
chloroform and ether, it has been shown that "cloud"
forms in a vapour not merely in consequence of the
cooling of the vapour, but in consequence of the presence
in the air (or in the tube in which the vapour is enclosed
for observation) of very fine floating dust particles. They
act as centres of attraction and condensation for the
vapour particles. When there are no dust particles
present clouds do not form readily in cooling vapours,
or only at lower temperatures, and in larger mass.
Tyndall made some beautiful experiments on this subject,
obtaining clouds of great tenuity in vapours enclosed in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
tubes, which reflected the most vivid blue tints when
illuminated by the electric arc-lamp. Later Aitken, of
Edinburgh, showed that the "fog" which forms in smoke-ridden
towns is due to the condensation of previously
invisible watery vapour as "cloud" around the solid
floating particles of carbon of the smoke. Aitken further
used this property of solid floating particles, namely,
that they cause the formation of fog and cloud in vapours—to
test the question as to whether the excessively minute
odoriferous particles which affect our noses as "smell" are
distinct solid floating particles as often supposed, or are of
the nature of gas and vapour. He admitted strong perfumes
such as musk into tubes containing watery vapour, at
such a temperature that the vapour was in a "critical" state—just
ready to condense and precipitate as "cloud." If
he had admitted fine solid particles such as a minute
whiff of smoke, or some "dusty" air—the cloud would
have formed. But the admission of the perfume had no
such effect Therefore, he concluded that the odoriferous
emanations used by him are not distinct particles like
those of smoke or dust, but are gaseous.</p>
<p>The beautiful blue tint of the semi-transparent "white"
of a boiled plover's egg is due to a fine-particled cloud
dispersed in the clear albumen. London milk used to
be "sky-blue" for a similar reason, before the recent
legislation against the adulteration of food. The blue eyes
of our fair-haired race and of young foxes are not due to
any "pigment"—that is to say, a separable self-coloured
substance—but to a fine cloud floating in a transparent
medium which reflects blue rays of light as blue smoke does.
The iris of the eye can and often does develop a pigment,
but it is a brown one. When present in small quantity it
produces a green-coloured iris, the pale yellow-brown
being added to the blue cloud-caused colouring. When
present in larger quantity the same pigment gives us brown
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
and so-called "black" eyes. The blue colours in birds'
feathers and insects' wings are produced without blue pigment
by special effects of reflection, and where green is
the colour it is often due to the addition of a small
quantity of yellow pigment to what would otherwise look
blue: though some caterpillars and grasshoppers have a
real green pigment in their skin. Flowers, on the other
hand, have true soluble blue "pigments," and green ones
too, notably that called leaf-green or chlorophyll. The
little green tree frog has no blue or green pigment in its
skin; only a yellow pigment. Sometimes rare specimens
are found in which the yellow pigment is absent altogether,
and then the little frog is turquoise-blue in colour. But
there is no blue pigment in the skin; only a finely-clouded
translucent film overlying a dead-black deep
layer of the skin, and the result is that the frog is of a
wonderful pure blue. Sometimes the commoner large
edible frog is found with a similar absence of yellow pigment
(I found some in a garden near Geneva six years
ago), and then all the parts of its skin which usually are
green show as brilliant blue.</p>
<p>It is at first difficult to believe that such fine, smoothly-spread
turquoise blue as that of the blue frog is due
merely to a "reflection effect," and that there is no blue
pigment present which would show as blue if light were
transmitted through it, or could be separated and
dissolved in some medium. Yet this is undoubtedly the
case. The nearest experimental production of such a
blue surface without blue pigment is obtained by first
varnishing a black board, and when the varnish is nearly
dry passing a sponge wetted with water over it. Some
of the varnish is precipitated from its solution in the spirit
(or it may be turpentine) as a fine cloud, and until the water
has evaporated it looks like blue paint, as the poet Goethe
found when cleaning a picture. It would be interesting
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
to know more precisely the precautions to be taken in
order to get the blue colour in this way in fullest degree.</p>
<p>It appears that when light is reflected from a cloud of
fine colourless particles so as to give a predominant blue
colour, the light so reflected is affected in that special way
which physicists describe as being "polarized." It is
possible by the use of certain apparatus (the polariscope)
to distinguish polarized from non-polarized light, so that
it should be possible to decide (or at any rate to gain
evidence) whether blue water—a sheet of blue water—owes
its colour to fine particles suspended in it or to the
self-colour of the water. An admirable case for making
this simple experiment is presented by the great tanks—some
20 ft. cube—which are used by the water companies
which draw their water supply from the chalk, for the
purpose of precipitating the dissolved chalk—"Clarking"
the water, as it is called, after the inventor of the process—and
so getting rid of its excessive "hardness." Such
tanks are to be seen by the side of the railway near
Caterham. The water in these tanks is of such a
brilliant turquoise blue that many people suppose that
copper has been added to the water to free it from
microbes! Such, at any rate, was the conviction expressed
by a friend in conversation with me only a few weeks ago.
The water in these tanks, when seen from the railway, looks
like a magnificent blue dye, and a very important point
for those (not a few) who believe that the blue colour of
seas and lakes is due to the reflection of the blue colour of
the sky overhead is that the water in the tanks looks just
as blue when the sky is overcast with cloud as when
there is blue sky. The blue colour of water has, as a rule,
nothing to do with the reflection of the sky, though it is
the fact that a shallow film of water may at a certain
angle reflect the sky to our eyes, just as a mirror may.
The effect is quite unlike that due to light passing through
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
deep water when reflected from below it. If we examine
the tanks in question we find that they have been filled
with water pumped from the chalk, and that then lime has
been added to the water in order to combine with the carbonic
acid dissolved in it and form chalk or carbonate of
lime—which is insoluble in pure water and falls as an
excessively fine white powder to the bottom of the tank.
But the important fact is that water having carbonic acid
dissolved in it can dissolve carbonate of lime or chalk to a
certain amount: and this water pumped from the chalk,
having carbonic acid naturally dissolved in it, has consequently
also dissolved a quantity of chalk. It is this
which gives the chalk-spring water the objectionable
quality of "hardness." When lime is added to the chalk-spring
water as pumped into the tanks, the carbonic acid
in it is taken up by the lime, and the chalk previously
dissolved by the carbonic-acid-holding water is, so to speak,
"undissolved," and thrown down as a very fine white
powder, together with the chalk newly formed by the
union of the lime and the carbonic acid. These large
tanks are used to allow the fine powder of chalk to settle
down and leave the water clear. The brilliantly white
chalk sediment accumulates not only on the floor of the
tank, but on its sides. Any light which falls on the tank
is refracted and reflected from side to floor and from floor
to side, and eventually emerges from the tank, a great
deal of it having traversed the 20 ft. breadth and depth
many times. Most of its red, yellow, and green rays are
quenched by the many feet of blue water through which it
has passed, and it issues as predominantly blue. This is
largely due to the fine reflecting surface furnished by the
"white-washed" or chalk-coated floor and sides and the
great purity of the white reflecting material—no yellow
or brown matter being present to give a greenish tinge to
the result I remember being taken to see "Clark's
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
process" in use, and the splendid blue colour of the water
in the "softening" tanks at Plumstead, when the process
was first used by the North Kent Water Company, sixty-four
years ago.</p>
<p>It is, I think, still a possible question as to whether the
fine floating particles of precipitating chalk act in any way
as a "cloud"—in short, as the blue clouds of smoke, egg-white,
milk, and varnish. There is no evidence that they
do, but no one, so far as I know, has ever taken the trouble
to settle the question. It could be done by examining the
blue light from the tanks with a polariscope, and also by
sinking a black tarpaulin into the tank to cover the white
floor and hanging others at the sides. Then if the blue
colour were due to light reflected from the white floor and
sides traversing repeatedly the clear self-coloured blue
water, the blue colour should no longer be visible, for the
reflecting surfaces would be covered by the black tarpaulin
and little light sent up through the water. But if it were
due to a cloud of greatest delicacy in the water—like fine
smoke reflecting the blue light rather than the other rays—then
the colour should be as intense or more intense
when the black background is introduced. I am surprised
that some inquirer, younger and more active than I am,
does not put the matter to the test of experiment.</p>
<p>On the whole, practically all the facts which we know
about "blue water" are consistent with the blue self-colour
of water, and not with that of a "blue cloud" in the water.
Now that we have porcelain baths of the purest white and
of large size, one may often see the strong blue colour of
water of great purity in the bath, especially where waves
or ripples send to our eyes those rays of light which have
taken a more or less horizontal course from side to side of
the bath, and have thus been through a large thickness of
the pale-coloured fluid. Great masses of clear ice, such as
one may study in glaciers, are blue; the "crevasses" which
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
transmit light which has passed through a considerable
thickness of ice (as, for instance, in an ice cave), are deep
blue; there is no question of a reflection from suspended
particles. The green colour which some glaciers show at
a little distance is due to the yellow rust—iron oxide—blown
on to the surface of the ice and dissolved. Many
glaciers or parts of glaciers are quite free from it, and of a
splendid indigo blue in their deeper fissures. So, too, as
to the sea and lakes. The Blue Grotto or Cavern of the
island of Capri, near Naples, is a case in point. All the
light which enters it comes through the sea-water and is
blue. I was taken to it in a boat rowed by two men. As
the boat enters the low mouth of the cavern you have to
bend down to avoid knocking your head against the rock.
Then you find yourself floating in a vast and lofty
chamber the white rocky floor of which is some twenty
feet below the surface of the clear water. No light enters
the cavern by the low part of the entrance above water.
Below the surface it widens and the strong Southern sun
shines through the clear water and its light is reflected up
into the cave from the bottom. It is blue, and everything
in the cave above as well as below the water is suffused
with a blue glow—a truly wonderful and fascinating
spectacle. In order to get the best effect you must
choose an hour when the sun is in a favourable position.
Where there is a white bottom at a depth of fifty or a
hundred feet, the sea has a fine ultra-marine colour, so
long as it is clear. It is often made green by yellow-coloured
impurities, either fine iron-stained sediment or by
minute living things in the water. The colour of the
water of either sea or lakes, when it is clear and overlying
great depths (200 fathoms and more), tends to be dark
indigo owing to the deficiency of reflected light. But
there are enough white particles as a rule to send some of
the light, which penetrates the water, upwards again.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
Even the great ocean has a dark purplish-blue colour,
but never the bright blue of clear water in shallow seas
with light-coloured or white bottom.</p>
<p>One of the most beautiful exhibitions of the colour of
clear water in various thicknesses which I know, is at the
entrance of the Rhone into the Lake of Geneva. The
thick pale-coloured brownish-white sediment of the river
shoots out for a quarter of a mile or more into the dark
blue waters of the deep lake, and on a bright sunny day as
it subsides reflects the light upwards from different depths
through the clear water. Where it has sunk but little the
colour is green, owing to the influence of the yellow mud.
Farther on it is ultra-marine blue, and then, where it has
sunk deeper, we get full indigo tints. The movement of
the water and its churning up by the steamers' paddles
add to the variety of effects, since the foam of air-bubbles
submerged throws up the light through the water. It is
not possible to doubt as one watches the admixture of the
river and the lake, and the eddies and hanging walls of
sediment, that one is floating over a vast depth of
magnificent blue self-coloured fluid which is traversed by
the sunlight in ways and degrees varying according to its
depth and the volume of the pale mud of the in-rushing
Rhone and the abundance of fine air-bubbles "churned"
into the water by the paddle-wheels of the steamer.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">THE BIGGEST BEAST</p>
<p class="drop-cap">THERE is a prevalent notion, encouraged by the
fanciful exaggerations of newspaper gossips, that
the animals of past ages, whose bones are from time
to time dug out of rocks and sand quarries, were many of
them much bigger than any at present existing, and that
we are living in an age of degeneracy. It is true that the
mammoth and the mastodon were enormous creatures,
but they were <i>not</i> bigger than their living representatives,
the great elephants of Africa and India. The African
elephant often stands 11 ft. high at the shoulder, and
occasionally attains 12 ft.</p>
<p>Some eighty years ago Dr. Gideon Mantell became
celebrated by his discovery of the bones of huge reptiles—far
bigger than any existing crocodile or lizard—nearly
as big as elephants, in the Wealden rocks of
Tilgate Forest in Sussex. He and Sir Richard Owen
distinguished several kinds—the Iguanodon, the Megalosaurus,
the Hylæosaurus, and others. Models of these
creatures as they appeared when clothed in flesh and hide
were carefully made, and placed picturesquely among the
ponds and islands of the gardens of the Crystal Palace
at Sydenham when it was first opened to an enchanted
public in the fifties. As a small boy I, at that time,
fell under their spell.</p>
<p>The passing years have brought to us more complete
knowledge of these strange beasts—now classed as the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
"Dinosauria"—and new kinds and complete skeletons of
those already known have been discovered in the United
States and in Belgium. The leg bones and vertebræ of
one of the biggest were found near Oxford, and are in
the Oxford Museum; it received the name Cetiosaurus.
Only a few years ago a very complete skeleton of a
creature closely allied to Cetiosaurus was with great
labour and skill dug out of the Jurassic rocks of Wyoming,
U.S.A., by Dr. Holland, at the charges of Mr. Andrew
Carnegie. It was known as Diplodocus (referring to
certain bones in its tail), and a wonderful cast of the
completely reconstructed skeleton was presented to the
Natural History Museum in London, when I was
Director, by Mr. Carnegie. The skeleton is 84 ft.
long; but we must not be mis-led as to the animal's
actual bulk by this measurement, for the tail is 46
ft. long and whip-like, whilst the neck is 23 ft.
long and carries a small head not bigger than that
of a cart-horse. The jaws were provided with small peg-like
teeth, showing that the beast fed on soft vegetable
matter. The body, apart from neck and tail, was really
only a little bigger than that of a large elephant, and the
limb-bones longer in the proportion of about six to five.
Another reptile very similar to these and also found in
the mesozoic rocks of the U.S. America is Brontosaurus.</p>
<p>The fact is that, if we wish to make an intelligent
comparison of the sizes of different animals, we have
carefully to ascertain not merely the length measurements,
but the <i>proportions</i> of the various parts, and the actual
bulk and probable weight of the beasts under consideration.
Also (and this is a very important and decisive matter)
we must know whether the beasts were terrestrial in habit,
walking with their bodies raised high on their legs, or
whether they were aquatic and swam in the lakes or seas,
their bodies buoyed up and supported by the water. By
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
far the biggest animals of which we have any knowledge
are the various kinds of whales still flourishing in the sea.
A mechanical limit is set to the size of land-walking
animals, and that limit has been reached by the elephant
"Flesh and blood," and we may add "bone," cannot carry
on dry land a greater bulk than his. He is always in
danger of sinking by his own weight into soft earth and
bog. His legs have to be much thicker in proportion
than those of smaller animals—made of the same material—or
they would bend and snap. His feet have to be
padded with huge discs of fat and fibre to ease the local
pressure, and his legs are kept straight not bent at the
joints, when he stands (a fact to which Shakespeare makes
Ulysses refer), so that the vast weight of his body shall
be supported by the stiff column formed by the upper
and lower half of the limb-bones kept upright in one
straight line. A well-grown elephant weighs five tons.
Compare his weight and shape with that of a big whale-bone
whale! No extinct animal known approaches the
existing whale in bulk and weight. He is 80 to 90 ft.
long, and has no neck nor any length of tail. His outline
is egg-like, narrower at the hinder end. He weighs
200 tons—forty times as much as a big elephant—and
is perfectly supported without any strain on his structure
by the water in which he floats. There is no such limit
to his possible size as there is in the case of land-walking
animals. But it seems probable that he too is
limited in size by mechanical conditions of another kind.
Probably he cannot exceed some 90 ft. in length and 200
tons of bulk on account of the relatively great increase
of proportionate size and power in the heart required in
order to propel the blood through such a vast mass of
living tissue and keep him "going" as a warm-blooded
mammal. The original pattern—the small dog-like
ancestor of the whale—cannot be indefinitely expanded
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
as an efficient working machine, though its limit of growth
is not determined by the same mechanical causes as those
which limit the bulk of the terrestrial quadruped.</p>
<p>These considerations make it clear that we should
compare as to "bigness" terrestrial animals with other
terrestrial animals, and aquatic animals with aquatic ones.
It seems probable that Diplodocus was an aquatic
reptile, and never raised himself on to his four legs on
dry land as the Carnegie skeleton at the Natural History
Museum is doing. His legs and feet are quite unfitted
to support his weight on a land surface; on land he
would have rested on his belly, as a crocodile does,
with much bent legs on each side. But submerged
in 20 ft. depth of water, he could have trotted along,
half-floating, with his feet touching the bottom and his
head raised on its long neck to the surface, slowly
sucking the floating vegetation into his moderate-sized
mouth. (See drawing on p. 91.)</p>
<p>Diplodocus and Cetiosaurus have huge thigh-bones
and upper-arm bones—respectively 5 ft. 9 in. and 3
ft. 2 in. in length—until lately the biggest known <i>limb</i>-bones,
although the lower jaw-bone of a Right Whale
grows to be 18 ft. in length. But a thigh-bone (femur)
of a reptile similar to Diplodocus has been found in
Wyoming, 6 ft. 2 in. in length. This reptile was named
Atlantosaurus, and a cast of the huge bone—the biggest
known when it was placed there—stands in our museum
gallery. However, its glory has departed, for we now
know "than this biggest bone, a bigger still." The bones
of several individuals of a huge reptile similar to
Diplodocus, but actually twice as big in linear dimensions,
were found by Dr. Fraas at Tendagoroo, fifty miles from
the coast in German East Africa, and brought safely to
Berlin in 1912, though they have not yet been mounted
as a complete specimen. They were lying in a sandy
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
deposit of the same geologic age as our Sussex Wealden.
A special expedition of 500 negroes was sent—not by
the Government, but by the Berlin "Society of the
Friends of Natural History" (we need such a society in
England), at a cost of £10,000, to fetch the bones. They
were of many individuals, and had to be skilfully dug
out and packed. Dr. Fraas calls this biggest of all
quadrupeds "Gigantosaurus." A cast of the humerus,
or upper-arm bone, is now exhibited in the Natural
History Museum. It is over 7 ft. in length. The
femur, or thigh-bone, was still bigger—it was over 10
ft. in length. Alas for the glory of Atlantosaurus!
This enormous creature was, of course, like Diplodocus,
aquatic. Its bulk was much less than that of a big
whale, but extinct aquatic reptiles may yet be found of
greater size. Ichthyosaurus, the extinct whale-like reptile,
does not exceed 30 ft. in length. Our engraving (Fig. 32)
shows the relative size of the humerus of man, the
elephant,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and the Gigantosaurus. How puny is that
human arm-bone! And yet...!</p>
<p>When stretched on the shore, resting on the belly, the
body of the great lizard of Tendagoroo bulked like a
breakwater 12 ft. high, and his tail like a huge serpent
extended 80 ft. beyond it; whilst his head and neck
reached 40 ft. along the mud in front.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_32.jpg" id="i_32.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_32.jpg" width="347" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>—The upper-arm bone or humerus
of the great reptile (Gigantosaurus) of Tendagoroo—compared with that of man and
of an Indian elephant.</div>
</div>
<p>An important limitation to great size in an animal is,
it must be remembered, often imposed by the nature of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
the animal's food. Ten individuals each weighing a
hundredweight will more easily pick up and swallow the
amount of food required to nourish ten hundredweight
of the species than will one individual responsible for the
whole bulk, provided that the food is scattered and not
ready to the mouth in unlimited quantity. A creature
which has unlimited forest or grass or seaweed as its
food will be at no disadvantage owing to its size. But a
carnivor or a fish-eater or one depending on special fruits
and roots not offered to him by nature in mass has to
search for, and sometimes to hunt, or at any rate to
compete with others, for the scattered and elusive "bits"
of food. So it is that we find that the fruit-eating apes
are not very big, and that terrestrial carnivors are small,
though powerful and swift, as compared with cattle, deer,
and vegetarian beasts. Ten carnivors weighing each ten
stone will with their ten mouths "pick up" more prey
than one carnivor weighing a hundred stone and having
only one mouth. Even the carnivorous Dinosaurs such
as Megalosaurus and Tyrannosaurus were much smaller
than the vegetarian Iguanodon, Diplodocus, Brontosaurus
and Triceratops on which (or on the like of which) they
preyed—just as a tiger is smaller than a buffalo, and a
wolf smaller than a horse. It is owing to causes of this
nature that the life of some animals, and consequently
their growth, is limited in duration. Occasionally the
common lobster lives to a great age, and grows to be
more than 2 ft. long. But he is doomed by his size; the
smaller lobsters "go quickly around" and get all the
food (carrion of the sea), and the big fellow has to starve.
The whale-bone whales, it is true, take animal food; but
it occurs in the form of minute sea-slugs and shrimps,
which fill the surface waters in countless millions over
hundreds of miles of ocean. Hence the whales of this
kind have only to swim along with their mouths open
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
through an unlimited supply of luscious food. The size
of terrestrial animals is also, it appears, definitely related
to the natural water-supply. There are very few small
quadrupeds in the interior of Africa. On account of
frequent "drought," the mammals have often to run a
hundred miles or more in search of water. Only animals
as big as the larger antelopes and the zebra can cover the
ground. The smaller kinds die (and have, in fact, died
out in past ages) in these regions of sudden drought.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_32a.jpg" id="i_32a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_32a.jpg" width="576" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1">The gigantic reptile Diplodocus on land.</div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes p4"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
<div class="footnote">
<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
The elephant, the thigh-bone of which, measuring nearly 3 ft. in length,
is drawn in Fig. 32, is a large Indian one. This species is exceeded in size by
the African. See "Science from an Easy Chair," Second series, p. 123.—The
largest elephant the bones of which are known is the Elephas antiquus of
the Pleistocene, bigger than either of the living species and bigger than the
mammoth, Elephas primigenius. The arm-bone (humerus) of one of this
species (Elephas antiquus) lately dug up near Chatham and now in the Natural
History Museum, is 4 ft. 3 in. in length.</p></div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">WHAT IS MEANT BY "A SPECIES"?</p>
<p class="drop-cap">THOSE who take an interest in natural history must
find it necessary to know what the naturalist
means by "a species" of animal or plant. What
does he mean when he says: "This is not the same species
as that," or "This is a species closely allied to this other
species," or "This is a new species"? What are the
"species" concerning the origin of which Darwin propounded
his great theory? There is really no English
word which can be exactly used in place of the word
"species." I often have to use the word when writing
about plants or animals, and should like once for all to
say what is meant by it. One might suppose that a
"kind" is the same thing as a species. And so it often is;
but, on the other hand, by the word "kind" we often
mean a group including several species. For instance,
we say the "cat-kind" or the "daisy-kind," meaning the
"cat-like" animals or the "daisy-like" plants. The
expression "the cat-kind" includes the common cat and
the wild cat, and even leopards, lions, and tigers, each of
which is a species of cat. And by the "daisy-kind" we
understand a group including several species of daisies,
such as the common daisy, the ox-eye daisy, the camomile
daisy, the michaelmas daisy, and others. Hence we
cannot translate species simply by the word "kind."
"Kind" is the same word as "kin"—"a little more than
kin and less than kind," runs Hamlet's bitter pun. "Kind"
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
means a group held together by kinship, and it may be a
larger or a smaller group held together by a close kinship
or by a more distant one. "Sort," again, will not serve
our purpose as an English translation of "species." For,
although "a sort" implies a certain selection and similarity
of the things included in the "sort," the amount of
similarity implied may be very great or it may be indefinitely
vague and remote. Hence naturalists have to
stick to the word "species," and to use it with a clear
definition of what they mean by it.</p>
<p>Suppose we get together a large unsorted collection—many
hundred "specimens" or individuals—of the
common butterflies of England. Then, if we look them
over, we shall find that we can pick out and arrange the
specimens into definite groups, according to their colour-pattern.
We find that the kinds which we readily
distinguish are called in English the swallow-tails, the
whites, the sulphurs, the clouded yellows, the tortoise-shells,
the peacocks, the red admirals, the painted ladies,
the gatekeepers, the meadow browns, the heaths, the
coppers, and the blues. There might be others in such
a collection, but that is enough for our purpose. On
examining the specimens closely, we find that the colour-markings
and "venation" or network by which the wings
are marked and the shape of the wings, body, and legs
of all the specimens of the swallow-tails are almost exactly
alike, and unlike those of any of the others. We shall
find if we have a dozen or two specimens that there is a
slight difference in the pattern, size, and colour of wing of
some of the swallow-tails, dividing them into two groups,
which we soon ascertain to be the males and females; but
this is so small a difference that we may ignore it. The
swallow-tail is obviously and at once distinguished from
any of the other butterflies in the collection by its colour-pattern
and shape. So also with the others, there will be
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
many specimens in each case agreeing in colour and
pattern, and recognizable and distinguishable from the
rest by the colour-pattern and by the "venation" or
"nervures" of the wings. If we collect butterflies again
in other years and in other parts of the country, we find
the same set of shapes and patterns exactly, corresponding
to what we have learnt to call swallow-tails, whites,
sulphurs, clouded yellows, tortoise-shells, etc. There are,
we thus learn, several distinct, unchanging kinds of
butterfly, which are common in this country, and appear
every year. Similarly we may go into a meadow in
spring, and gather a number of flowers, and a naturalist
will roughly arrange our bouquet into "kinds"; there
will be the buttercups, the daisies, the clovers, the dead
nettles, the poppies, the roses, the orchids, etc.</p>
<p>If, now, we look more carefully at our collection of
butterflies, sorted out roughly into kinds or species, we
shall find that the "whites," although holding together
by a close similarity in having merely white wings edged
and spotted with black, yet differ amongst themselves,
so that we distinguish a larger kind, the large garden-white,
and a smaller, commoner kind, the smaller
garden-white, and we distinguish also the green-veined
white, and possibly the rare Bath white, each of them
differing a little in their spots as well as their size.
These different sorts of "whites" can, once our attention
is drawn to the matter, be readily distinguished from one
another, and constantly are found in our collections. We
thus arrive at the conclusion that, though the whites are
much alike, and are a kind distinct from the other kinds
of butterflies, yet the "whites" themselves can be divided
into and arranged as several kinds distinct from one
another. In fact, we discover (and an illustrated book on
butterflies confirms us in the conclusion) that there are
several ultimate kinds of whites which cannot be further
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
separated into groups. These are what are called "species."
The whites are therefore not a single species, as are our
British swallow-tails, but a group of species, closely related
to one another. We find the same thing to be true with
regard to the blues. Though they are much alike, agreeing
in a variety of details of spotting and colour, yet we can distinguish
the chalk-hill blue, the common blue, the azure-blue,
the Adonis blue, and others, as distinct "species" of blues.
Then, again, when we carefully examine our English
specimens of tortoise-shells, we find that there are two
distinct "species"—the greater and the smaller—differing
not only in size, but in pattern; and when we compare
with these the painted lady and the peacock and the red
admiral, we find that there is a certain agreement of wing-pattern
(venation and outline) and details of shape among
them all, although their tints and the shape of the spots
and bands of colour differ. These different species "hold
together" just as the whites do and just as the blues do.
Naturalists have met the need for expressing this similarity
of a number of distinct species to one another by introducing
the term "genus" for such a group. In fact we arrange
several species into a "genus." The "genus" is a "kind,"
but a more comprehensive "kind," than is a species. The
species is an assemblage of <i>individuals</i> closely alike to one
another; the genus is a group of <i>species</i> which are more
like to one another than any of them are to other
species.</p>
<p>Naturalists give to every genus a name, and also a name
to each species in the genus. Since we naturalists want
to know what butterflies or other species of animals and
plants are found in other countries, and to be sure that we
all (whatever our native language may be) mean the same
thing by a name, Latin names are given to the genera
and the species, and are necessarily used when one wishes
to be sure that one is understood. The greatest trouble
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
is taken to make certain that the name used is applied
only to the original species and the original genus to
which it was applied, for only so can one be sure that a
writer in America or one in Italy or France means the
same thing by a name as we do here in England. This
is rendered possible and is actually brought about by the
preparation of catalogues in which the species are described
and figured, especially with regard to obvious points of
detail which are constant, and are called "specific
characters." These are chosen for special description, not
haphazard, but with a view to their being recognized with
certainty by those who study other specimens. Another
extremely important proceeding in connection with this
purpose of uniform naming, which involves vast labour
and expense, is the maintenance of great collections of
preserved animals and plants by the State in all civilized
countries. In these collections either the original specimens
to which names were given by recognized describers (called
"type-specimens" or "the type") are preserved, or else
specimens which have been compared with those original
described specimens, and authoritatively ascertained to be
the same as the "type." The maintenance of accuracy
and agreement in regard to the names of all the "species"
of plants and animals is a big task. It is now carried out
by international councils, in which the skilled naturalists
of the world are represented. Certain principles have
been agreed upon as to the method of determining the
priority of one name over others which have been employed
for one and the same species by naturalists of different
countries and at different times, and a general agreement
as to what names are to be used has been arrived at. It
is a matter which has involved a great deal of uncertainty
and dispute, and still causes difficulty. By the exercise
of good sense, and in consequence of the existence of an
urgent desire really to understand one another, there is
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
now every year an increasing uniformity and agreement
among naturalists about the exact name to be applied to
every species of living thing.</p>
<p>Returning to our collections of butterflies and meadow
flowers, we may take the names of some of the species and
genera as an example of the system of naming in use by
scientific naturalists. The common swallow-tail is assigned
to the genus Papilio. Its "specific name" is "Machaon,"
given to it by Linnæus, hence it is spoken of as Papilio
Machaon. It is found in various parts of Europe as
well as in England. But in Central Europe (often
seen in Switzerland) there is also another species of
swallow-tail, which only occurs as a rare accident in
England. This is the pale swallow-tail, differing, not only
by its paler colour but by definite spots and markings of
the wings, from the English species. Its species name,
or "specific name," is "Podalirius," and so it is known
as Papilio Podalirius. Species of Papilio are found all
over the world; more than 500 are known. Our two
commonest whites belong to the genus Pieris—they are
called respectively Pieris brassicæ (the larger) and Pieris
rapæ (the smaller). The green-veined white is Pieris napi.
Each of these three is called after the plant, cabbage,
rape, or turnip, on which its caterpillar feeds. The rare
Bath white is Pieris daplidice. Its caterpillar feeds on
mignonette. There are dozens of species in other parts
of the world allied to our "whites," which naturalists have
carefully distinguished and characterized by their marks.</p>
<p>Several of our most beautiful species of English butterflies
which are much alike have been enrolled in one
genus—the genus Vanessa. This genus includes the great
tortoise-shell, called Vanessa polychloros; the smaller
tortoise-shell, Vanessa urticæ; the peacock, Vanessa Io;
the painted lady, Vanessa cardui; the red admiral,
Vanessa Atalanta; and the comma butterfly, Vanessa
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
C-album. There are other European, Asiatic, and
American species of Vanessa.</p>
<p>In the same way we find with our meadow plants that
what we at first thought was a single kind, "<i>the</i>" buttercup
really bears a name applicable to a genus in which are
several common species. The genus is called Ranunculus,
and there are several common English species with yellow
flowers, but distinguished from one another by definite
characters. They are Ranunculus acris, Ranunculus
flammula, Ranunculus bulbosus, Ranunculus arvensis,
Ranunculus ficaria (the lesser celandine). And then there
is the white-flowered Ranunculus aquatilis—a common
pond plant. Clover, again, is by no means the name for
a single species. The clovers form the genus Trifolium,
and in any English meadow we may come across the
white clover, Trifolium repens; the red clover, Trifolium
pratense; the hop clover, Trifolium agrarium: the strawberry
clover, Trifolium fragiferum; the haresfoot clover,
Trifolium arvense. So it is with the plants which at first
sight we distinguish merely as "daisies." There are
several distinct genera of daisies—Aster, Bellis, Chrysanthemum
(ox-eye), Anthemis (camomile), and others,
with several distinct species in each genus.</p>
<p>Enough has been said to show the reader that the
mere notion of "kinds" does not carry the same meaning
as "species," but that there are a number of regularly
occurring definite forms of both animals and plants which
can be arranged in groups consisting only of individuals
which are very nearly identical with one another. A
group of living things of this degree of likeness is called
"a species," and receives a name. A less degree of likeness
holds together a number of species to form what we
call a genus, and the name of the genus is cited together
with the name of the species when we wish to speak of the
species with clearness and certainty. This system of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
double names we owe to the great Swedish naturalist of
the eighteenth century, Linnæus. He proposed also that
the relationships of living things to one another should be
further expressed by grouping like genera into "families,"
then like families into "orders," and like orders into
"classes." And since his day we go further and group
classes into "phyla" or great stems of the animal pedigree.
In this way a complete hierarchy or system of less and
more comprehensive groups has been established, and is
the means by which we indicate the natural groups of the
family-trees of plants and of animals, what, in fact, is
called the "classification" of each of these great series of
living things. Linnæus compared his system of groups to
the subdivisions of two armies. Thus, the one army
represents the whole animal series, the other the whole
vegetable series. An army is divided into (1) "legions,"
these into (2) "divisions," "divisions" into (3) "regiments,"
regiments into (4) battalions, and battalions consist of
(5) companies, consisting of individual soldiers. According
to Linnæus, we may compare the legions to
classes, which are divided into orders, comparable to
divisions; these into families, comparable to regiments;
these into genera, comparable to battalions; and these
into species, comparable to companies, or ultimate
groups of individual units or soldiers.</p>
<p>Just as the legions, divisions, regiments, battalions
and companies of an army have each their own name or
at any rate a distinctive numeral assigned to them in
order that they may be cited and directed, so are names
given to each class, order, family, genus and species of
the classification or enumeration of the kinds of animals
and plants. Here, for instance, are the names of the
greater and smaller groups in which our common "white"
finds itself enrolled. <i>Class</i>—Insects. <i>Order</i>—Lepidoptera.
<i>Family</i>—Pieridæ. <i>Genus</i>—Pieris. <i>Species</i>—brassicæ.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">MORE ABOUT SPECIES</p>
<p class="drop-cap">I WROTE in the last chapter of the recognition of
that degree of "likeness" or kinship in animals and
plants which we point to by the word "species," and
of the grouping of several similar species to form a
"genus," and of several genera to form a family, of families
to form orders, and of orders to form classes—and of the
giving of names to all these groups. Whilst the making
of this or that lot of species into a distinct <i>genus</i>, and
giving it a new name is a mere matter of convenience
for the indication of more or less important agreements
and divergences, and is to a large extent arbitrary or an
expression of opinion—it has always been recognized
among naturalists that the group called "a species" is
not a mere convention, but has a real natural limitation.
It is true that the actual things which we see in studying
natural history are so many units or individuals.
But the possibility of arranging these by pattern, colour
and shape into ultimate companies of which all the
units are alike and differ from all the units of another
company, has been regarded as a natural fact of
primary importance and not a mere convention or
convenience. The conception of the "naturalness" of
a species depends really upon a further qualification of
great importance as to what we naturalists understand
by it.</p>
<p>We find by rearing plants from seed and by causing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
animals to breed under actual observation that the individuals
of a species pair with one another, and not
with individuals of other species, and further, that the
young which they produce are like the parents—show
themselves, in fact, to be of the same "species." The
species continually year after year reproduces itself with
little variation, though some variation does occur. The
faculty of pairing only within the group, of never
naturally breeding with members of other groups, has
accordingly been adopted as a test of species. Hybrids
between two species do not occur, except in very rare
cases, in the state of nature. It is not always the case
that the members of two species cannot possibly pair
together, but it is the fact that they do not do so. Man
sometimes brings about such crossing or hybridization,
and it is a curious fact that the hybrids are often infertile
or give rise only to weakly offspring, which could not
survive in the natural struggle for existence. Sometimes,
however, when the two hybridized species happen to
come from regions of the world remote from one another,
the resulting hybrids establish a vigorous race. There
are real obstacles (of which I will say more below) in
natural conditions to hybrid-breeding between any two
species which occur naturally in the same territory. Thus
the idea of a species is expanded so as to be not merely
"a group of individuals of constant likeness in form and
characteristics," but we add to that definition a living or
constitutional quality expressed by the words, "which
produce fertile offspring by pairing with one another, but
do not pair with the members of other species."</p>
<p>This enables us to distinguish the conception of a
"species" from that of a "variety" or a "race." We
find occasionally peculiarly-marked examples of a species
of plant or animal, or even local races of peculiar
form; but we do not regard them as "distinct species"
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
if we find that they breed as a rule with the ordinary
members of the species. The decisive test is the breeding.
If the variety is found not to breed with the regular
species, but to keep apart and breed only with other
individuals like itself, then we say, "This is no mere
variety! It is a distinct species!" Unfortunately we
have vast series of animals, insects, and others, from all
parts of the world, collected and preserved in our
museums, of which we know only the dead preserved
specimens. So that we cannot be sure in doubtful
cases whether a series of forms differing a little from
the ordinary members of a species indicate distinct
species, as defined and tested by breeding. We have
in such a case to note the difference, and record it
either as a variety or as a species by a guess at the
probabilities one way or the other. Naturalists really
<i>intend</i> by the word "species" to designate a form
represented by numerous like individuals, which, in the
present natural conditions of the region they inhabit, have
attained a certain "stability" of distinctive form and
character (not without some variability within definite
limits) and constitute a more or less widely distributed
population, the members of which inter-breed but do
not produce offspring with other allied species.</p>
<p>A good case by which to exhibit further our conception
of a species is that afforded by the species which
are united in the genus Equus—the horse-genus. There
are living at the present day several wild kinds of Equus—namely,
the wild horse, or Tarpan, of the Gobi desert of
Mongolia, called after the Russian explorer Przewalski; two
kinds of Asiatic wild ass, called the Kiang and the Onegar;
the African wild ass, and two or three kinds of zebra.
There are, besides, many kinds of domesticated horses,
ranging from the Shetland pony to the Flemish dray horse,
and from the Shire horse to the Arab. Then there are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
many kinds of fossil extinct horses known, some of which
clearly must be placed in the genus Equus with the
living kinds; others which have to be separated into
special genera (Hippidium, Onohippidium, etc.). Now,
as to the living forms or form-kinds of the genus Equus—which
are we to regard as true species, and which are
only varieties and races of lower significance than species?
The answer is clear enough in regard to several of them.
The wild Mongolian horse and all the domesticated horses
are varieties, races, or breeds of one species, judged not
only by such marks as the possession of callosities on
both the hind and the fore legs, but also by the test of
breeding. They breed together and produce persisting
races. But the asses and the zebras, though they will
form mules with the horse, do not in a state of nature
freely breed with it. When an ass or zebra is mated by
man with the horse it will produce hybrids, called "Mules,"
but will not in "a state of nature" <i>establish</i> a hybrid race.
The asses and the zebras are distinct from the horse, not
only in markings and certain details of shape and hair,
but in the fact that they cannot be fused into one race
with him. There are no sufficient experiments on the
aloofness of zebras and asses from one another in regard
to breeding, although it seems that they cannot establish
a mixed race, and are, therefore, distinct species judged
by that test as well as by their form and marking. It
is not known whether the so-called species of wild ass—the
Asiatic and the African—would prove to produce
fertile or infertile mules if intercrossed, nor has the test
been applied to the very differently-marked local races
of the African zebras—Grevy's zebra, Burchell's zebra,
and the mountain zebra. It is likely enough that the
three or more "species" distinguished among zebras on
account of their being differently striped, and existing
in different localities, would be found to breed freely
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
together, and prove themselves thus to be entitled to
be regarded as local "varieties" or "races," but not as
fully-separated true species.</p>
<p>Thus one sees how difficult it is to have knowledge
of the breeding test, even in regard to large animals.
It is obvious that the difficulty of obtaining it in
regard to the thousands of kinds of minute creatures
is much greater. Yet when they say, "This is a distinct
species," naturalists do mean that it is not only marked
off from other animals or plants most like to it by a
certain shape, colour, or other quality or qualities, but
that it breeds apart with its own kind and does not
naturally hybridize with those other forms most like
to it.</p>
<p>Although the kind of naturalist called a "systematist"
who makes it his business to accurately describe and
record and distinguish from one another all the existing
species of some one group—say, of antelopes, of mice,
of flowering plants, of fishes, or of fleas—has only a
knowledge in a few instances of the breeding of the
organisms which he describes as "distinct species," he yet
does know, in regard to some one or more of his species
in most groups, the facts of pairing and reproduction, and
what are the limits of variation in the markings and other
characteristics of at least one or two species definitely
submitted to the "breeding test," that is to say, ascertained
to be "true physiological species," kept apart by deep-seated
chemical differences in their blood and tissues.
Hence it is legitimate for him, by careful balancing and
consideration of all the facts, to determine—not absolutely,
but by analogy—the value to be assigned (whether as
indicating true species or merely varieties capable of
pairing with the main stock) to points of difference among
the specimens of a dead collection brought from some
distant land or from some position in which it would be
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
impossible to make observations with regard to "pairing"
and "breeding true."</p>
<p>Some 400 species of fleas have been described, and
we are certain as to the value of the characters relied on
to distinguish those species, owing to what we know of
the breeding of some common species of fleas. The flea
of the domestic fowl, that of the domestic pigeon, that
from the house-martin, and that from the sand-martin—used
to be considered as one species until they were
carefully examined twenty years ago. In reality each of
them has its own peculiar "marks," and they do not mix
with one another. The nests of the sand-martin yield
only one species of flea, namely that peculiar to the
sand-martin. The hen-house, the dove-cote, and the
nests of the house-martin yield each their flea maggots,
which can be reared and become in each case a
distinct species with definite recognizable "characters."
On the other hand, the flea of the rabbit gives an
opportunity of studying the limits of variation in a
"good" species. Rabbit warrens swarm with the rabbit
flea, and often a great number are found on one
rabbit, the individual fleas "varying"—"differing" from
one another to a slight extent. The "systematist" thus
gets to know what organs are variable within the limits
of an undoubted physiological species of flea, and what
are comparatively constant—so that he can form a
reasonable opinion about the claim of other specimens
which he may receive without full history of their habits,
to be regarded as true distinct species.</p>
<p>The fact that most important chemical differences of the
blood and digestive juices often accompany the small external
differences which enable us to distinguish one species
of animal or plant from another, makes it obvious that
the knowledge of species is a very valuable and necessary
thing. One species of flea, the Pulex Cheopis, habitually
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
carries the plague bacillus from animals to man, and is
a cause of death; other species, extremely like it in appearance,
but distinguishable by a trained observer, do not
carry the plague bacillus, but if they swallow it, destroy it
by digestion. One species of gnat, the common grey gnat,
digests and destroys malaria germs when it sucks them up
with blood; in an allied species, the spot-winged gnat or
Anopheles, the chemical juices of the gut allow the germ to
live in it and multiply, and so to be carried to men by the
gnat's bite. So with many other flies and parasites the
recognition of the dangerous species is of vital importance,
and that recognition often depends on minute features of
form and colour not at once obvious to an ordinary
observer.</p>
<p>But this recognition of distinct species is, from the
point of view of the study of Nature, only a preliminary
to the question, "How did these species come about?
How is it that there are so many species, some very like
one another, forming genera, and these genera grouped
into related families, these into larger groups, and so on,
like the branches of a family tree?" The answer to these
questions given by Linnæus was: "There are just so
many species as the Infinite Being created at the beginning
of things, and they have continued to propagate themselves
unchanged ever since." The answer which we give to-day
is that the appearance of a huge family tree which our
classification of animals takes is due to the simple fact
that it really is neither more nor less than a family tree
or pedigree—the "tree of life," of which the green leaves
and buds are the existing species. Further, we hold that
the existing species of a genus have "come into existence"
by natural birth from one ancestral species, its offspring
having slightly varied (we are all familiar with this
individual variation in our own species, in dogs, cats, trees,
and shrubs), and that the varieties have wandered apart
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
and become continuously emphasized and selected for
survival by their fitness or suitability to the changed
conditions around each of them. Meanwhile a natural
destruction, or failure of intermediate forms to survive,
has gone on.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">SPECIES IN THE MAKING</p>
<p class="drop-cap">A SERIES of important conceptions are implied in
the word "species," as used by naturalists. Some
of these we have noted in the last chapter. There
is first, as a starting-point, the conception that a species
is a number or company of individuals, all closely and
clearly alike (though presenting some minor individual
variations), and capable of sharp separation by certain
"characters" from other similar groups or companies.
Then follows the addition (2) that the species is constant
if the conditions of life are not changed, or but little
changed, and that year after year it reproduces itself
without change. It has a certain stability (but not
permanent immutability) greater in some species than in
others. Next we find (3) that the species constitutes a
group of individuals which have descended by natural
breeding from common parents, not differing greatly from
the present individuals. They are, in fact, one "stock."
Then (4) that the species is a group, the individuals of
which pair with one another in breeding, but do not pair
with the individuals of another species, and that this is
due to various peculiar and inherent chemical, physiological
and (in higher animals) psychological characteristics
of the species.</p>
<p>We have now further to note that species have their
special geographical <i>centres of origin</i> from which most
spread only a small distance, whilst others have a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
wonderful power of dispersal, and have become cosmopolitan.
Moreover, we find that some species are
numerically very abundant, others very rare; that rare
and abundant species have often invaded each other's
territory, and exist side by side.</p>
<p>Whilst we often find a number of species, fifty or more,
so much alike that we unite them in a single genus (as,
for instance, in the case of the cats, lions, tigers, leopards,
which form the genus "Felis," and the hundred or more
species of the hedge brambles or blackberries, which form
the genus "Rubus"), there are many species which to-day
have, as it were, lost all their relatives and stand alone, the
solitary species in a well-marked genus, or have perhaps
only one other living co-species. And sometimes (curiously
enough) that one co-species is an inhabitant of a region
very remote from that inhabited by the other. Thus the
two living mammals called tapirs (genus Tapirus) inhabit,
the one the Malay region, and the other Central America.
This is explained by the fact that tapirs formerly existed
all over the land-surfaces of North Europe, North Asia,
and North America, which connect these widely-separate
spots. We find the bones and teeth of the extinct tapirs
embedded in the Tertiary deposits of the connecting
regions.</p>
<p>Once we have gained the fundamental conceptions
as to what is meant by a "species," we are able
intelligently to consider innumerable facts of the most
diverse kind as to their peculiar structure and colours,
their number, localities, their interaction and dependence
on other living things, their modifications for special
modes of life, their isolation or their ubiquity. We can
discuss their genetic relations to one another, and to
extinct fossil species, which have all been to a very large
extent "accounted for" or "explained" by Mr. Darwin's
theory of the origin of species by the natural selection
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
of favoured races in the struggle for existence. But
there is always more to be made out—difficulties to be
removed, new instances to be studied. The classification
of the genera of plants and animals, with their included
species into larger groups, helps us to state and to
remember their actual build and structure, and to survey,
as it were, the living world, from the animalcule to the
man, or from the microbe to the magnolia tree. Every one
interested in natural history should carry in his mind as
complete a scheme of the classification of animals and
plants as possible.</p>
<p>The older naturalists held that species were suddenly
"created" as they exist, and have propagated their like
ever since. Darwin has taught us that the present
"species" have developed by a slow process of transformation
from preceding species, and these from other predecessors,
and so on to the remotest geologic ages and
the dawn of life. The agents at work have been "variation"—that
is to say, the response to the never-ceasing variation
of the surrounding world or environment—and the survival
in the struggle for existence of the fittest varieties so
produced.</p>
<p>There is nothing surprising or extraordinary in the
existence of variation. The conditions of life and growth
are never absolutely identical in two individuals, and the
wonder is not that species vary, but that they vary so
little. The living substance of animals and plants is an
extremely complex chemical substance, ever decomposing
and ever being renewed. It is the most "labile" as it is
by far the most elaborately built-up chemical body which
chemists have ever ventured to imagine. It differs,
chemically, not only in every species but in every individual
and is incessantly acted upon—influenced as we may say—by
the ever-changing physical and chemical conditions
around it. At the same time it has, subject to the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
permanence of essential conditions, a definite stability
and limitation to its change or variation in response to
variations of its environment. That part of the living
substance which in all but the lowest plants and animals
is set aside during growth to form the eggs and sperms
by which they multiply or "reproduce" themselves, is
called the "germ-plasm," and is peculiarly sensitive to
variations in (that is a <i>change</i> in) the environment of the
plant or animal.</p>
<p>New conditions of life (locality and climate)—unusual
food or reproductive activity—act often in a powerful way
upon the germ-plasm and cause it to vary—that is to say,
they alter some of its qualities, though not necessarily disturbing
in any way the general living substance of the
organism so far as to produce any important change perceptible
to the human eye. In consequence, the young produced
after such disturbance of the germ-plasm are found
to differ more from their parents than in cases where no
such disturbance has been set up by the natural never-ceasing
variation of the surrounding world. This fact is
well known to horticulturists and breeders, and is made
use of by them. When a gardener wishes to obtain variations
of a plant from which to select and establish a new
breed, he deliberately sets to work to disturb—to shake
up, to act upon in a tentative, experimental way—the
germ-plasm of one or more parent plants by change of
soil, climate, food and often by cross-fertilizing them with
another breed or variety. In this way he to some extent
"breaks" the constitutional stability of the germ-plasm of
the plant and obtains abundant "variations" in the offspring.
These are not precisely foreseen, and show
themselves in all parts of the new generation. But some
of them are what the gardener wants, and are "selected"
by him for retention, rearing and breeding.</p>
<p>The response of the germ-plasm of organisms to the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
stimulus of new environmental conditions has been compared
to that of the well-known pattern-producing toy—the
kaleidoscope. The bits of glass, beads and silk which
you see in a kaleidoscope, forming by reflection in its
mirrors a beautiful and definite pattern, are changed
by a simple vibration caused by tapping the instrument
into a very different pattern, the coloured fragments
being displaced and rearranged. The apparent change
or variation is very great though produced by slight
mechanical disturbance, and the new pattern is altogether
without any special significance—the fortuitous outcome
of a small displacement of the constituent coloured
fragments. We can imagine that similarly slight disturbances
of the organic molecules of the germ-plasm
may produce considerable and important variations in it
and the new growth to which it gives rise: and, further,
that these variations may prove to be either (1) injurious,
or (2) of life-saving value, or often enough (3) of no consequence
whatever although bulking largely in our human
eyes and thereby misleading our judgment of them.</p>
<p>There is no reason to doubt that the same sequence of
events occurs in nature apart from man's interference.
Changes occur in the earth's surface, or the organism is
transported by currents of water or air into new conditions.
The germ-plasm is "disturbed," "shaken" or
"shocked" by those new conditions, and a variation, in
several structures and qualities of the offspring subsequently
produced, follows. Then also follows the selection
of one of the new varieties by survival of the fitter to
the new conditions into which the organism has been
transported or have developed in the region where it was
previously established.</p>
<p>This process of germ-variation is obviously as necessary
and constant a feature of the living organism as is the
variation in the contour of land and sea and in the extent
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
of the polar ice-cap—a necessary feature of the physical
conditions of the terrestrial globe. But it is the fashion
with a certain school of writers nowadays to declare
that "variation" in organisms is a "mystery" unsolved.
Another very common and almost universal error is to
overlook the fact that variation is constitutional and
affects whole systems of organs and their deeply related
parts, and is <i>not</i>, as it is so frequently and erroneously
assumed to be, a mere local affair of patches and scraps
visible on this or that part of the surface of an animal or
plant. These superficial "marks," readily seen and noted
by the collector, are rarely of any life-saving importance:
they are but the outward and visible signs of deep-lying
physiological or constitutional change or variation. The
varying organism has, like Hamlet, "that within which
passeth show" and the superficial variations (like his
"inky cloak" and other customary features of mourning)
are but "the trappings and the suits" of a deep-lying
change. Variation is not an inexplicable mystery, nor,
on the other hand, are "varieties" sufficiently dealt with
and their nature appreciated when one or two surface
peculiarities are enumerated by which the collector can
recognize them. A deeper study of the varying organism
is both possible and needed.</p>
<p>If the gradual formation of new species from ancestral
species is a true account of the matter, we must expect to
find, at any rate here and there, if not frequently, traces of
the process—for instance, gradations, or series of intermediate
forms, connecting new, well-established species
with the ancestral form or with one another. We do find
such gradations—sometimes more, sometimes less, completely
persisting over a wide tract of country, or discoverable
in the fossiliferous deposits containing the remains of
extinct animals.</p>
<p>For instance, when we look at the butterflies of a much
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
larger region than our little island—namely, at those of a
great continent like Africa or South America—we find that
there are species which show gradations. Thus at a series
of points, A, B, C, D, separated by some hundreds of miles
from each other, we find a corresponding series of butterflies
which are apparently closely similar species of one genus,
differing by a few spots of colour, or darker and lighter
tint, much as our Large White, Garden White, and Green-veined
White differ. But when the butterflies are caught
which occur at points intermediate between A and B, B and
C, C and D, we find intermediate varieties, and, in fact, if
we get a very large number from intermediate regions, we
can, in some instances, arrange them in line so that they
constitute a graduated series of forms, each being scarcely
distinguishable from the one before or the one behind it,
yet differing clearly from one a dozen places away. In
such cases there is often evidence to show that the variety
found at A breeds with that found at B, that of B with
that of C, of C with D, so that they form an inter-breeding
group, though perhaps the varieties at D will not pair with
those at A, or even with those at B. Then sometimes we
find in such a series, otherwise complete, a gap. Let us
suppose it is between the butterflies of B and C. We
find the series of gradations nearly complete, but some
natural condition—such as the encroachment of the sea,
or the slow elevation of a mountain range, or the climatic
destruction of the necessary food-plant—has "wiped out"
a few forms somewhere between those of B and C. They
no longer exist. The series is no longer connected by
inter-breeding forms; those occurring from A to B and
some distance beyond are one "species" varying in the
direction of the series C to D, but abruptly broken off
from the latter. The series C to D is also a "species"
with graduated varieties, but distinct; it is cut off from the
lot once in continuity with it by the destruction of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
intermediate forms inhabiting an intermediate area. Thus
the one species becomes two, and these may again break
up, and, having become thus disconnected and stabilized,
they may spread over one another's territory—fly side by
side and yet remain distinct forms which do not pair
together—although originally they were varieties spreading
from a common centre, where the ancestral species
lived and multiplied.</p>
<p>Other similar gradational series of an interesting
character have been noticed in the case of fresh-water
fossil snail-shells. In the layers of clay and marl exposed
by digging a railway cutting or a pit we may find that the
successive layers represent a continuous deposit of 100,000
years or more, and we find sometimes that a form of
snail-shell (not a species living to-day) occurs in the
lowest stratum very different from that occurring in the
highest stratum—the lowest being short and spherical,
the highest elongated and of differing texture. In
the intermediate layers, each 6 or 12 ins. thick and
occupying perhaps altogether 30 ft. of vertical thickness,
we find a graduated series of snail-shells leading
almost imperceptibly from the oldest lowest form to the
latest uppermost form. Such cases are known. But it
is an exceptional thing to find these graduated series
either spread over an area of the earth's surface, or
following one another in successive strata. When they
came into existence they were rapidly superseded and
destroyed as a rule, and have left only one or two widely-separated
examples of the intermediate forms. This we
should naturally expect by analogy from what we know
of the successive traces of human manufactures in the
deposits on the site of some of the great cities of the
ancient world which have been carefully excavated layer
by layer. But still we have the important fact that here
and there such gradational series have been found, and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
we are justified in considering a few isolated intermediate
forms (which often occur connecting two greatly-differing
species) as survivors of a former complete graduated
series of intermediate forms, which came into existence
by slow modification of an ancestral stock, and may, when
the stock was widely spread over a continental area, not
merely have succeeded one another in time, but actually
coexisted in neighbouring regions.</p>
<p>There are many remarkable facts bearing upon the
origin of "species," the description of which fills volumes
written by such men as Darwin, Wallace, Poulton, and
others, and become interesting to every one who has
gained a correct notion of what naturalists mean by a
"species." I will cite one in order to illustrate this. The
bird which we call the red grouse, or nowadays simply
"grouse" (the old Scotch name for it was "muir-fowl"), is
one of twenty-four birds (among the 400 species of birds
which live in the British Islands), including several kinds of
titmouse, the goldfinch, bullfinch, song-thrush, stonechat,
jay, dipper, and others which are very closely similar to
species of birds living in Continental Europe, yet show
some definite and constant marks, such as small differences
in the colour of a group of feathers, enabling us to distinguish
the British from the Continental forms. Are these
twenty-four British forms to be regarded as distinct species?</p>
<p>The red grouse is placed in a genus called "Lagopus,"
of which there are several species in the northern hemisphere.
In Scotland the red grouse, which is distinguished
as Lagopus Scoticus, is accompanied by a rarer species
of Lagopus, which lives in high, bare regions. This is
the bird called by the Celtic name "ptarmigan"; it
differs in several points from the red grouse, and acquires
white plumage in the winter, which the latter bird does
not; it is called Lagopus mutus. Now in Norway we
find also two species of grouse or Lagopus, called "rypé"
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
(pronounced "reeper") by the Norwegians. One is the
same bird in every respect as the Scotch ptarmigan, and
is known as "the mountain rypé." The other is very
close to our red grouse, and is called "the common or
bush rypé," and by English naturalists the "willow
grouse," and by ornithologists "Lagopus salicetus." It
agrees in habits, voice, eggs, and anatomical detail with
our red grouse, but the back of the cock-bird of the red
grouse and the whole plumage of the hen-bird have a
darker colour. Moreover, the willow grouse, like the
ptarmigan or mountain rypé, turns white—acquires a
white plumage—in the winter which the red grouse does
not. Are the red grouse and the willow grouse to be
regarded as distinct species? Our British red grouse
lives on heather-grown moors; the willow grouse prefers
the shrubby growths of berry-bearing plants interspersed
with willows, whence its name. Their food differs accordingly.
Formerly the red grouse lived on the moors of
the South of England, and when in Pleistocene times
England was a part of the Continent of Europe the
willow grouse and the red grouse were one undivided
species inhabiting all the north-west of Europe. It is
probable, though the experiment would be almost impossible
to carry out, that were the eggs of a number of
willow grouse now brought to Scotland and hatched on
the moors, they would tend to keep apart from the
native red grouse, and not inter-breed with them, in which
case we should say that the Scotch form is a "species on
the make," or, even, a completed and distinct species. On
the other hand, it is possible that the two forms would
freely pair with another, and that the colour and winter
coat of the one (probably that of the Scotch form if the
experiment were tried in Scotland) would predominate,
and after some generations no trace of the other strain
would be observable.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">SOME SPECIFIC CHARACTERS</p>
<p class="drop-cap">AN interesting case, showing that qualities which
are life-preserving under certain severe conditions
exist in some varieties of a species and not in
others, was recorded some eight years ago. After a very
severe "blizzard" 136 common sparrows were found benumbed
on the ground by Professor Bumpus at Providence,
United States. They were brought into a warm room
and laid on the floor. After a short time seventy-two
revived and sixty-four perished. They were compared to
see if the survivors were distinguished by any measurable
character from those which died. It was found that the
survivors were smaller birds (the sexes and young birds
being separately compared) than those which died, and
were lighter in weight by one-twenty-fifth than the latter.
Also, the birds which survived had a decidedly longer
breastbone than those which died.</p>
<p>Similarly, the late Professor Weldon found that in the
young of the common shore-crab, taken in certain parts
of Plymouth harbour, those with a little peculiarity in the
shape of the front of the shell survived when those without
this peculiarity died. Many thousands were collected
and measured in this experiment. It is not necessary
to suppose that the distinguishing mark of the survivors
in such cases is "the cause" of their survival. Such marks
as the breadth of the front part of the crab's shell and the
length of a bird's breastbone very probably are but "the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
outward and visible signs of an inward and (physiological)
grace."</p>
<p>The marks, little peculiarities of colour and proportionate
size, or some peculiar knob or horn, by which the
student of species distinguishes one constant form from
another, can rarely, if ever, be shown to have in themselves
an active value in aiding or saving the life of the
species of plant or animal. The mark or "character" is
an accompaniment of a chemical, nutritional, physiological
condition, and is in itself of no account. It is what is
called "a correlated character." Such, for instance, is the
black colour of the skin of pigs which in Virginia, U.S., are
found, as stated by Darwin, not to be poisoned by a marsh
plant ("the paint-root," Lachnanthes tinctoria), whilst all
other coloured and colourless pigs are. The pigs which
are not black develop a disease of their hoofs which rot
and fall off, causing their death when they eat this special
plant "the paint-root." The colour does not save the pig—it
cannot correctly be called the <i>cause</i> of the pig's
survival—but is an accompaniment of the physiological
quality which enables the pig to resist the poisonous herb.
So, too, with white-spotted animals. They are known to
breeders as being liable to diseases from which others
are free. Fantail pigeons have extra vertebræ in their
tails, and pouter pigeons have their vertebræ increased
in number and size. But the vertebræ were never thought
of and "selected" by the breeders. They only wanted a
fanlike set of tail feathers in the one case, and a longer
body in the other. Some varieties of feathering maintained
by pigeon breeders lead to the growth of abundant
feathers on the legs (as in Cochin-China fowls), and it is
found that these feather-legged pigeons always have the
two outer toes connected by a web of skin. If it were a
stabilized wild form we should separate it as a species on
account of its webbed toes, yet the real selection and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
survival in the hands of the breeder had nothing to do
with the toes or their web, but was simply "caused" by
these pigeons having feathers of "survival or selection
value" in his judgment. Male white cats with blue eyes
are deaf. If deafness were ever an advantage (a difficult
thing to imagine), you would get a species of cat with
white hair and blue eyes, and be led to distinguish the
species by those characters, not by the real cause of
survival, namely, deafness. Not enough is yet known of
this curious and very important subject of correlation,
but its bearing on the significance of "specific characters"
is sufficiently indicated by what I have said.</p>
<p>An interesting group of species, three of which are to
be purchased alive through London fishmongers, are the
European crayfishes, not to be confused with the rock-lobster
or Langouste (Palinurus), sometimes called "crawfish"
in London, nor with the Dublin prawn (Nephrops).
The little river crayfishes are like small lobsters, and
were placed by older naturalists in one genus with the
lobsters. Now we keep the European species of crayfishes
as the genus Astacus, and the common lobster and the
American lobster have been put (by H. Milne-Edwards) into
a separate genus (Homarus). You can buy in London the
"écrevisses à pattes rouges" of French and German rivers,
which is called Astacus fluviatilis, and differs from that of
the Thames and other English and European rivers
(which you can also buy) called A. pallipes ("pattes
blanches" of the French), by the bright orange-red tips
of its legs, and by having the side teeth of the horn or
beak at the front of the head larger and more distinct.
The English crayfish grows to be nearly as large as the
"pattes rouges" in the Avon at Salisbury, though it has
nearly disappeared about Oxford. You can also sometimes
buy in London the big, long-clawed Astacus leptodactylus
of East Europe. There are two or three other species,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
named and distinguished, which do not come into the
London market.</p>
<p>Crayfishes, lobsters and the like have groups of plume-like
gills (corresponding in the most ancient forms to the
number of the legs and jaw-legs) overhung and hidden by
the sides of the great shield or "head" of the animal.
The common lobsters and crayfishes retain most of these
in full size and activity, but have lost in the course of
geologic ages the original complete number. These
plume-like gills—each half an inch or so in length—are
attached, some to the bases of the legs and some
to the sides of the body above the legs. In the
ancestral form there were thirty-two plumes on each
side, twenty-four attached to the bases of the legs,
and eight placed each at some distance above the connection
of one of the eight legs with the side of the body.
It is those on the side of the body which have suffered
most diminution in the course of the development of
modern crayfishes (and lobsters) from the ancestral form
provided with the full equipment of thirty-two gill-plumes
on each side. In fact, only one <i>well-grown</i> gill-plume, out
of the eight which should exist on each side of the body-wall,
is to be found—and that is the one placed above the
insertion of the hindermost or eighth of the eight legs
(eight when we reckon the three jaw-legs as "legs" as
well as the five walking-legs). In front of this the side or
wall of the body is bare of gill-plumes though they are
present in full size on the basal part of most of the legs.
Nevertheless, when one examines carefully with a lens
the bare side of the body overhung by the head-shield or
"carapace," one finds in a specimen of the common
English "pale-footed crayfish" a very minute gill-plume
high above the articulation of the seventh leg and another
above the articulation of the sixth leg. They are small
dwindled things, as though on the way to extinction, and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
are the mere vestiges of what were once well-grown gill-plumes,
and still are so in the rock lobster and some
prawns. In the red-footed crayfish of the Continent
(Astacus fluviatilis) yet another minute vestige of a gill-plume
is found, farther in front, on the body-wall above
the fifth leg on each side of the animal. This furnishes
a definite mark or character by which we can distinguish
the red-footed crayfish from the common English pale-footed
one. But these three rudimentary gill-plumes in
the red-foot species, and two in the pale-foot species are
all that until lately were recorded. The region of the
body-wall above the fourth, third, second, and first of the
legs was declared to be devoid even of a vestige of the
branchial plumes which were there in ancestral forms, and
have been retained more or less in some exceptional
prawn-like creatures allied to the crayfish.</p>
<p>Zoologists take a special interest in the crayfish
because it is found to be a most convenient type for the
purpose of teaching the principles of zoology to young
students, and with that end in view was made the subject
of a very beautiful little book by the great teacher
Huxley. The conclusions above stated in regard to the
gills are set forth in that book with admirable illustrative
drawings, and the striking fact of the dwindling and
suppression of the various gill-plumes is clearly explained.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_33.jpg" id="i_33.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_33.jpg" width="425" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>—The rudimentary
gill-plume of a crayfish from that part of the body-wall to which the first pair of
jaw-legs (maxillipedes) is articulated. Found in the red-footed crayfish (Astacus
fluviatilis) but in no other species of Astacus. It is one-fifteenth of an inch long.
Drawn by Miss Margery Moseley in 1904. ("Quart. Journal of Microscopical
Science," vol. 26 (1904-5).)</div>
</div>
<p>And now we come to an interesting discovery in this
matter of the gill-plumes of crayfishes. Some fifteen years
ago the daughter of my friend and colleague—Professor
Moseley—was a member of the class of Elementary Biology
at Oxford. She had to examine and identify these and
other points in the structure of the crayfish. The class
was supplied with specimens of the French red-footed
crayfish "Astacus fluviatilis," as it is more readily obtained
from fishmongers than our own "pale-foot" or "Astacus
pallipes." She found in her specimen far forward on each
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
side of the "head" a very minute gill far away from the
others and previously unknown. The demonstrator in
charge of the class refused even to look at her discovery.
So she confirmed it by examining three other specimens—made
drawings of the tiny
branched gill (as shown in Fig.
33) and their position, and sent
them to me in London. It was
at once clear that she had discovered
in this much studied
little animal a very interesting
pair of gills (right and left)—unknown
to Huxley and the rest
of the zoological world. She
proceeded to examine specimens
of A. fluviatilis from various
rivers of Germany and France
and always found the new gill-plume.
She also showed (I
supplied her with specimens at
the Natural History Museum)
that it was, on the other hand,
absent from A. leptodactylus,
A. pallipes, and all the foreign
species (some from Asia) which
are known, and she published
an illustrated account of it in
the "Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science." This
tiny gill-plume is placed very far forward on each side
of the body, the farthest point forward at which any
gill-plume is found in any kind of prawn, shrimp or
lobster, namely in the region where the first pair of jaw-legs
is attached, so that there are three empty spaces
between it and the rudimentary gill over the fifth pair of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
legs, already known in the red-footed crayfish. It is only
two millimetres long—about one-fifteenth of an inch!
But its presence serves very distinctly to separate the red-footed
crayfish, Astacus fluviatilis of French and German
rivers, thus discovered to have four pairs of rudimentary
gill-plumes, from the Astacus leptodactylus of the Danube
basin and East Europe, which has only three pairs, and
still more to emphasize the difference between it and our
British species, the "white-foot" or Astacus pallipes,
which has only two!</p>
<p>This little history is noteworthy, firstly, because it
shows that a young student may, to use an appropriate
term, "wipe the eye" of an expert observer and rightly
venerated teacher (who would have delighted in the
little discovery had he been alive), as well as the eyes of
tens of thousands of students and teachers (including myself)
who have studied the red-foot crayfish year after year,
and missed the little gill. It is also interesting as showing
us a good sample of a specific mark or character which
has no survival value; that is, could not advantage the
crayfish in the struggle for life. The fact is, that this one
particular very minute forward pair of gill-plumes is like
the other rudimentary gills—a survival in a reduced condition
of a pair of gill-plumes which were well-grown,
useful plumes aerating the blood, in the prawn-like
ancestors of all crayfishes, lobsters, shrimps, and prawns,
and is, owing to circumstances of nutrition and growth
which we know nothing about but can vaguely imagine,
retained by the red-foot species of crayfish, but lost by
all other crayfishes, lobsters, common prawns and
shrimps, and, in fact, only retained besides by a very few
out-of-the-way kinds of marine prawns. That is the sort
of thing which frequently has to serve as "a specific
character" or mark, distinguishing one "species" from
another.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
<p>A more ample discussion of the origin of species is not
within the scope of this book. But I may say that until
recently the conception that <i>every</i> organ, part and feature
of a plant and animal <i>must</i> be explained, and can <i>only</i> be
explained, as being of life-saving value to its possessor, and
accordingly "selected" and preserved in the struggle for
existence, was held by many "Darwinians" in too uncompromising
a spirit. This conception was, really from the
first, qualified by the admission that the life-saving value
and consequent preservation of a structure must undoubtedly
in some cases have been in operation in
ancestors of the existing species, and is no longer operative
in their descendants although they inherit the
structure which has now become useless. Moreover, the
operation of those subtle laws of nutrition and of form
which are spoken of as the "correlation of parts in growth
and in variation" (mentioned on p. 119) was pointed out
by Darwin himself as probably accounting for many remarkable
growths, structures and colour-marks which we
cannot imagine to be now, or ever to have been in past
ancestry, of a life-saving value. Nevertheless, the old
"teleology," according to which, in pre-Darwinian days,
it was held that every part and feature of an animal or
plant has been specially created to fulfil a definite pre-ordained
function or useful purpose, still influenced the
minds of many naturalists. Natural selection and survival
of the fittest were reconciled with the old teleological
scheme, and it was held that we must as good Darwinians
account for every structure and distinctive feature in
every animal and plant as due to its life-saving value.
Herbert Spencer's term, "the survival of the <i>fittest</i>," conduced
to the diffusion of this extreme view: Darwin's
equivalent term, "the preservation of <i>favoured</i> races," did
not raise the question of greater or less fitness.</p>
<p>The extreme view is now, however, giving place to the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
recognition of the fact that the actual tendencies to variation—accumulated
in the living substance of the various
stocks or lines of descent and handed on during an
immense succession of ages of change by hereditary
transmission—counts for more in the production of new
species and strange, divergent, even grotesque forms of
both animals and plants than had been supposed.</p>
<p>Undoubtedly selection or survival of the fittest mainly
accounts for the colouring and adaptive shaping of
living things, and so for those several great types
of modelling which arrest the eye and have excited
the interest of inquisitive man. But there seems to be
no justification for the assumption that in all cases a
variation—that is to say, an increase or a diminution
of the volume of some existing structure in proportion
to other coexisting structures in the body of a living
plant or animal—must be <i>either</i> favourable, that is, conducive
to survival, <i>or</i> injurious, that is, tending to the
defeat and destruction of its possessors or their race. On
the contrary, it is the fact that there are vast areas and
conditions related to countless myriads of living creatures
in which variations of those creatures of large and imposing
kind and degree are neither advantageous nor disadvantageous,
but matters of <i>absolute indifference</i>, that is
to say, without any effect upon the preservation or survival
of their race or stock. Nature is far more tolerant than
some of us were inclined to assume. In certain restricted
conditions of competition and in regard to some special
structures and components which are often so minute and
obscure as to be not yet detected by that recent arrival,
the investigating biologist—though sometimes, fortunately
for him, large enough to jump to his eyes—it is undeniable
that there must be a "survival" or "favouring" of
individuals presenting a variation in increase, or it may be
decreased, of this or that special feature of its "make-up"
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
or structural components. But it is a more correct statement
of the case to say that natural selection or survival
preserves <i>not the fittest</i>, but <i>the least fit possible</i> under the
circumstances—namely, all those which, however great
their divagations and eccentricities of variation in other
respects, yet at the same time attain to a minimum
standard of qualification in those structures (or inner
chemical qualities) essential for success in the competition
for safety, food and mating determined by the
particular conditions in which the competition is taking
place. Consequently forms which are meaningless so far
as standards of utility or "life-saving" are concerned, and
are rightly described as grotesque, monstrous, gigantic or
dwarfed—excessive (as compared with more familiar
kinds) in hypertrophy or atrophy of their colouring and
clothing, or of out-growths such as leaves of plants and
limbs, jaws or other regions of the body of animals—are
found existing in various degrees of eccentricity in every
class of both plants and animals. Among animals such
tolerated "exuberances of non-significant growth" are
more striking than in plants. The group of fishes seems
to be especially privileged in this way. They are freely
variable in the position of the fins, the suppression or
exaggeration of them, as well as of the scales on the
surface of the body (<i>e.g.</i> leather carp and mirror carp).
Take, for example, the mackerel and the salmon as
standards of utilitarian adaptation of the body to an active
life in sea or river, and then compare with theirs the
astounding proportions of the sun-fish (Orthagoriscus) like
a cherub "all head and no body," or the almost incredible
Pteraclis—with its little body framed immovably
between a huge dorsal and a huge ventral fin (see figures
on p. 130). The fin-like crest of enormous size on the
back of the great extinct lizard Dimetrodon of the
Permian age supported by long bony spines is a similarly
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
excessive and useless outgrowth. (This astonishing
creature is shown in our Frontispiece.) Such exuberant
products may be ascribed to an unrestrained "momentum"
of growth which once set going by fortuitous variation has
been <i>tolerated</i> but not <i>favoured</i> by natural selection.
Or (as supposed by some) their excessive development
may be due to the <i>persistence</i> of some nutritional condition
which at first resulted in a moderate growth of the
fin-like crests in question as a serviceable structure, but
has persisted and increased long after the fin or crest has
attained a sufficient size—simply because its increase
though of no life-saving value—yet was not harmful and
so did not bring its owner under the guillotine of natural
selection. Such disproportionate exuberance of growth
due to innate variability, tolerated but not specially
favoured by natural selection, will account for many
strange and grotesque forms of living things. From time
to time in the long process of change, such exuberances
may suddenly become of service and be, so to speak,
taken in hand by natural selection, or they may become
dangerous and lead to the extermination of the stock in
which they have been previously tolerated.</p>
<p>Before my reader turns—as I hope he or she will do—to
some handbook of zoology in which the genealogical
tree or classification of the species of animals and of
plants is treated at length, I will endeavour to give some
estimate of the immense numbers of "species" which
exist. As to mere individuals, it is impossible to form
any estimate, but when we reckon up the teaming population
of a meadow or forest in England, the hundreds of
thousands of plants, including the smallest mosses and
grasses, as well as the larger flowers, shrubs, and trees,
the still greater number of insects, spiders, snails, and
larger animals and birds, feeding on and hiding among
them, and when we remember that in the ever-warm tropical
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
regions of the earth life is ten or twenty times more
exuberant than with us,—then the immensity of the living
population of the land and water of the globe becomes
as difficult to realize as are the figures in which the
astronomer tells of the number and distances of the stars.
On the other hand, some idea of the number of distinct
species of animals and plants which have up to this date
been recognized and described by naturalists as at present
existing, may be formed by a statement of those which
have been described in some of the more familiar groups.
About 10,000 species of mammals have been described;
about 14,000 of birds; 7000 of reptiles; 15,000 of fishes;
500,000 of six-legged insects; 14,000 of crustacea (shrimps,
lobsters, crabs); 62,000 of molluscs (snails, mussels, etc.);
15,000 of star-fishes and sea-urchins; 5000 of corals and
polyps; 3000 of sponges; and 6000 of microscopic protozoa.
In all about 800,000 species of animals have been
recorded, and probably as many more remain yet to be
recognized and described.</p>
<p>The total number of described species of plants has
never been estimated, but some idea of it may be formed
from the fact that 1860 species of flowering plants alone
have been distinguished in Britain, 17,000 in British India,
and 22,000 in Brazil, not to mention those of Africa and
Australia! These figures do not include the vast numbers
of flowerless plants, the ferns, mosses, sea-weeds, mushrooms,
moulds, lichens, and microscopic plants.</p>
<p>And then we have to add to these enumerations of
living species the extinct species of successive geological
ages, the remains of which are sufficiently well preserved
to admit of identification. Those which are known are
only a few thousands in number, and a mere fragment of
the vast series of species which <i>have</i> existed in successive
past ages of the earth. They are a few samples of the predecessors
of the existing species, and some of them were
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
the actual ancestors of those existing to-day. The larger
number of them have left no direct issue, but represent side
branches of the "tree of life" which have died out ages ago.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_33a.jpg" id="i_33a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_33a.jpg" width="471" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Strangely-shaped Fishes.</span>—1. The
Coffer-fish (Ostracion); 2. Pteraclis, an oceanic fish allied to the so-called
Dolphins; 3. The Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus); 4. An Australian Blenny Patæcus.</div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">HYBRIDS</p>
<p class="drop-cap">THE subject treated in this and the next chapter
is one of the most interesting to mankind, and is
surrounded by extraordinary prejudice, sentiment,
and ignorance. It is one upon which really trustworthy
information is to a very large extent absent—and difficult
to obtain. I cannot profess to supply this deficiency, but
I can put the matter before the reader.</p>
<p>It is a well-established fact that the various "kinds"
of animals and of plants do not breed promiscuously with
one another. The individuals of a "species" only breed
with other individuals of that "species." They do not even,
as a habit, breed with the individuals of an allied species.
So nearly universal is this rule that it was for a long
time held by naturalists to be an absolute definition of
"a species," that it is a group of individuals capable of
producing fertile young by breeding with one another
and incapable of producing fertile young by mating with
individuals of another such group, which were, therefore,
held to constitute a distinct species. The practical importance
of this definition was that it could, in a large
number of instances among animals, and still more
amongst plants, be made use of as a test and decided
by experiment.</p>
<p>It is a curious fact that popular belief amongst
country-folk and those who have opportunities of coming
to a conclusion on so simple and direct a question has
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
never accepted this law of the limitation of species in
breeding as more than a general rule to which it has
always been supposed that frequent exceptions occur.
I mention this not in order to add that "there is always
some basis of truth in these popular beliefs," but on the
contrary to point out that popular beliefs on such matters
are very frequently altogether erroneous, and though
their origin can sometimes be explained, it is rare to
find that they are due, in however small a degree, to
true observation and inference. Where the subject under
consideration has the obscurity and strong fascination for
the natural man which all that relates to the processes
of life, growth, and reproduction possess, we find that
traditional fancies of the most unwarrantable kind are
current, and hold their ground with tenacity even at
the present day. Some 250 years ago, and earlier—in
fact, before the commencement of that definite epoch of
"the New Philosophy" marked by the foundation of
the Royal Society of London—any queer-looking animal
brought from remote lands, and any misshapen monstrosity
born of cattle, sheep, dogs, or men, was "explained,"
and confidently regarded as a "hybrid," the
result of a "cross" or irregular coupling of two distinct
species of animals to which the "monster" presented
some fanciful resemblance. Whole books were devoted
to the description and picturing of such supposed examples
of mis-begotten progeny.</p>
<p>The belief in the existence of such extraordinary
hybrids is still common among so-called "well-educated"
people. I have with difficulty avoided causing annoyance
and offence to a friend, a celebrated painter, by refusing
to admit that a deformed cat, of which he gave me an
account, was a hybrid between a cat and a rabbit. A very
eminent person whom I was conducting some years ago
round the galleries of the Natural History Museum,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
declared, as we stood in front of the specimen of the
Okapi of the Congo Forest, that it was clearly a hybrid
between the giraffe and the zebra. He insisted that it
was obvious that such was its explanation, and pointed
to its striped haunches and legs, and its cloven hoofs
and giraffe-like head. I failed to change his opinion.</p>
<p>It is the fact—ascertained by careful observation of
natural occurrences and by experiment—that, in spite
of the almost absolute law or general truth to the effect
that the members of a species (whether of plant or
animal) only produce fertile offspring by mating with
members of that same species, yet there are rare instances
known in which individuals of two distinct but allied
species have mated and produced fertile offspring. The
cases in which such unions have resulted in the production
of offspring, but in which the offspring so produced prove
to be infertile—that is, incapable of producing offspring
in their turn—are much more numerous. An important
distinction has also to be made between cases of either
fertile or infertile hybrid-production which occur spontaneously
in nature, and those in which man by separating
the parent animals or plants from their natural conditions
of life, or by bringing about impregnation (as in
"pollinating" one flower with the pollen-dust of another)
succeeds in obtaining a "cross" or "hybrid," whether
fertile or infertile, not known to occur in "wild" (that
is, not humanly controlled) nature. The rarest case
would be that of the production of fertile hybrids in
uncontrolled natural conditions. Such possibly occur in
the case of some fishes in which the fertilization of the
eggs takes place in water, the fertilizing microscopic
sperms passing from the males like dust into the water and
thus reaching the eggs laid by the females. Occasionally
hybrids are thus produced between some common fresh-water
fishes—species of the same genus—and between
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
species of flat-fish, such as the turbot and the brill, though
it is difficult to be sure that the rare hybrids so produced
are fertile even if they attain to maturity. The same is
true as to certain small flowering plants having distinct
regions of natural distribution and occurrence. At the
confines of the regions proper to two such allied species,
insects passing from one to the other do sometimes effect
a reciprocal fertilization of the two species, and a natural
hybrid is the result. Here, again, it is difficult to follow
the subsequent history of the hybrids, but it is believed
that in some instances they are fertile, and that the
hybrid race is only gradually merged by subsequent
crossing into one or other of the parent species. Not
a single instance is on record of the production of a
"natural" hybrid (that is to say, one produced in natural
conditions without man's interference), whether fertile or
infertile, between two species of the larger animals (such
as between horse and ass or zebra and ass, or between
lion and tiger or any of the species of cats, or between
species of bears) or birds (such as pheasants of various
species, including the jungle cock, the wild original of
our domestic fowl, or between various species of ducks,
various species of geese, or between various species of
the grouse-birds).</p>
<p>Nevertheless, in conditions brought about by man—that
is to say, confinement in cages or paddocks, or at
any rate removal from their native climate and home—all
the groups of species just cited commonly and frequently
produce hybrids <i>inter se</i>, that is, one or more
species of the horse group thus inter-breed with one
another, so will certain species of cats, certain species
of bears, many species of pheasants, also of ducks, of
geese, and of grouse. In nearly every case the hybrids
so produced are infertile; they will not mate with a
similar hybrid, and even when mated with one of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
parent species rarely produce offspring, though they sometimes
do so. The best cases of the production of fertile
hybrids are between species of flowering plants brought
to this country from widely separated regions. The
surprising and instructive result has been obtained that
a cross between two allied species (that is, of one and
the same "genus") which will fail altogether or "come
to nothing" as infertile hybrids—if the two species crossed
are from the same or contiguous regions—yet will yield
readily vigorous fertile hybrid offspring when the two
species (always, of course, of one and the same genus)
have their native homes in widely separate parts of the
world—as, for instance, the Indian Himalaya range and
the South American Andean range.</p>
<p>This has been found in crossing species of rhododendrons,
of orchids, and of many other plants with which
horticulturists occupy themselves for commercial purposes.
It is in some ways the reverse of what one might expect.
It would be reasonable to suppose that allied species from
the same climate and geographical region would have
more affinity and be more readily hybridized than species
from widely remote and physically differing regions. But
the reverse is the case, many thriving hybrid stocks which
duly fertilize and set their seed are now in cultivation,
having been produced by the union of parent species
from "the opposite ends of the earth."</p>
<p>The consideration of this case throws some light on
the significance of the non-occurrence of natural hybrids
and of the very remarkable and curious fact that hybrids
are so usually sterile. When we come to think of it, the
natural preliminary assumption should be (as is that of
unsophisticated humanity) that any animal or plant
might, so far as possibilities go, breed with any other;
and the questions to be answered are: (1) What advantage
to a species is it not to be able to hybridize with other
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
species, and (2) how—that is to say, by what structure or
by what subtle chemical differences or other features in
their make-up and habit—are they prevented from so
hybridizing? Then we come on further to the question,
Why should a hybrid, once produced, fail to bear healthy
eggs or sperms according to its sex, although it grows up
to full size and is to all appearances mature? And why
should hybrids between parents of origin locally remote
from one another not show this failure, but behave like
ordinary healthy organisms?</p>
<p>In the full solution of these inquiries we should get
very near to some of the most important secrets of the
living body which have still to be searched out. But a
reply to these questions which is probably in large
measure true, and serves to help us in the further
collection and examination of facts, is as follows: First,
the production and maintenance of "species" of plants
and of animals by survival of favourable variations in the
struggle for existence (Darwin and Wallace's theory of
the origin of species) requires the maintenance of the purity
of the favourable stock which survives in the struggle. If
it were continually liable to hybridization by other species
it would never establish its own distinctive features. It
would deteriorate by departing from those characteristics
which have been "naturally selected" and have rendered
it a successful "species." Thus the breeder, when he
has selected a stock for propagation which approaches
the standard at which he is aiming, keeps it apart, and
does not allow it to be "crossed" by other stock. One of
the qualities "naturally selected" in "the wild" is the
power of resistance to fertilization by neighbouring
species.</p>
<p>This power of resistance or immunity to fertilization
by other species may be attained by several different
methods. Amongst these are (1) a difference in the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
season of breeding or sexual ripening; (2) the production
of secretions (whether by plant or by animal) which poison
or paralyse the fertilizing sperms of allied and locally
associated species, but are harmless to those of the secreting
species; (3) the mechanical differences of size, etc.,
which prevent the fertilizing material of a strange species
from gaining access to the egg-cells; (4) psychical activities
(antipathies) in the case of animals or mere attraction and
repulsion by odoriferous substances, which serve to repel a
strange species, but are attractive to individuals of the
same species; (5) finally, a chemical and physiological
incompatibility between the sperms of one species and
the germs of another (as distinct from the attraction or
repulsion of the entire living individual), which, even when
all other difficulties are absent or have been overcome,
may be, and frequently is, present, so that the spermatozoon
cannot penetrate the egg-cell even when resting upon it,
but may be paralysed or repelled, and in any case is not
guided and drawn into the aperture of the egg-covering,
called the micropyle, or "little entry," so as to fuse with
and fertilize the egg.</p>
<p>The operation of these hindrances to hybrid fertilization
and breeding have been ascertained in several different
instances. It is not always possible, and certainly not
easy to ascertain, which is at work in any and every case.
But we can well conceive that one or other of these
agencies have been developed and accentuated by survival
of the fittest, so as to protect a species against fertilization
by a neighbouring species, and thus to enable it to maintain
its own "bundle of characteristics" free from the swamping
effects of "mixture" (that is, "hybridization") with another
species. It is also thus intelligible that an allied species
from a distant land against which our native species and
its closer ancestry—struggling for purity of race—have had
no occasion or opportunity to develop a repelling protection—will
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
have no such difficulty in effecting the fertilization of
the native species as have those adjacent species against
whose intrusions the latter is specifically moulded and
selected by long generations of severe natural selection.</p>
<p>The failure of hybrids generally to ripen their ova and
sperm so as to reproduce themselves is a subject upon
which, considering its enormous importance and significance,
singularly little has been done in the way of investigation.
Fifty years ago it was usually taught that the
mule, between the horse and the ass, so largely produced
under human superintendence for transport service, was
unable to breed owing to some deformity in the reproductive
passages. Even now no adequate study of the subject has
been made, but it appears that whilst a female mule can
be, and sometimes is, successfully mated to a horse or an
ass, giving birth to a foal, the male mule does not produce
fully-formed spermatozoa. What precisely is the nature
of this failure, what the ultimate microscopic condition of
the sperm cells in infertile male mules, or in any other infertile
male hybrids, has not yet been properly worked out
by modern cytological methods. It would be a matter of
vast interest to determine what is the difference in the
structure of the sperm-cells of a fertile and of an infertile
male hybrid. At present, so far as I know, this has not
been done.</p>
<p>So far what I have written applies to hybridization—the
inter-breeding of distinct species. A similar but by
no means identical subject is that of the inter-breeding of
distinct races or varieties of one species, and the production
of "mongrels." "Mongrels" are to races what "hybrids"
are to species. To this branch of the subject belongs the
study of the effects of intermarriage between distinct
races of men.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">THE CROSS-BREEDING OF RACES</p>
<p class="drop-cap">WE have seen that there is no simple rule as to
the "mating" of individuals of a species with
individuals of another closely allied but distinct
species. Such mating very rarely comes about in natural
conditions, but man by his interference sometimes succeeds
in procuring "hybrids" between allied species. Hybrids
between species belonging to groups so different as to be
distinguished by zoologists as distinct "families" or
"orders" are quite unknown under any circumstances.
Such remoteness of natural character and structure as is
indicated by the two great divisions of hoofed mammals—the
even-toed (including sheep, cattle, deer, antelopes,
giraffes, pigs and camels), and the odd-toed (including
tapirs, rhinoceroses, horses, asses and zebras) is an
absolute bar to inter-breeding. So, too, the carnivora
(cats, dogs, bears and seals, and smaller kinds) are so
remote in their nature from the rabbits, hares and rats—called
"the rodents"—that no mating between members
of the one and the other of these groups has ever been
observed, either in nature or under artificial conditions.</p>
<p>Even when individuals of closely allied species mate
with one another it is a very rare occurrence that the
hybrids so produced ripen their ova and sperms so as
to be capable of carrying on the hybrid race, though
sometimes they do ripen them and breed. The great
naturalist Alfred Wallace, in his most valuable and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
readable book called "Darwinism," expressed the opinion
that the apparent failure of hybrid races to perpetuate
themselves by breeding was to a large extent due to the
small number of individuals used in experiments on this
matter, and the in-and-in breeding which was the consequence.
One of the great generalizations established
by Darwin is that in-and-in breeding is, as a rule, resisted
in all animals and plants, and leads when it occurs to a
dying-out of the inbred race by resulting feebleness and
infertility. A large part of Darwin's work consisted in
demonstrating the devices existing in the natural structure
and qualities of plants and animals for securing cross-fertilization
among individuals of the same species but of
different stock. Both extremes seem to be barred in
nature—namely, the inter-breeding of stocks so diverse
in structure and quality as to be what we call "distinct
species," and again the inter-breeding of individuals of
the same immediate parentage or near cousinship. What
seems to be favoured by the natural structure and qualities
of the plant or the animal is that it shall only breed within
a certain group—the species—and shall within that group
avoid constant self-fertilization or fertilization by near
cousins. Thus we find numerous cases in which, though
the same flower has both pollen and ovules, and might
fertilize itself, the visits of insects (specially made use of
by mechanisms in the flower) carry the pollen of one flower
to the ovules of another and to flowers on separate plants
growing at a distance. It is necessary to note that there
are, nevertheless, self-fertilizing flowers, and also self-fertilizing
lower animals, the special conditions of which
require and have received careful examination and consideration,
upon which I cannot now enter.</p>
<p>In relation to the question of the possibility of establishing
hybrids between various species experimentally, I
must (before going on to the cognate question of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
"mongrels") tell of an interesting suggestion made to
me by my friend Professor Alphonse Milne-Edwards
not long before he died, and never published by him. He
was director of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, where
there is a menagerie of living beasts as well as a botanic
garden and great museum collections and laboratories.
He held it to be probable, as many physiologists would
agree, that the fertilization of the egg of one species by
the sperm of another, even a remotely related one, is
ultimately prevented by a chemical incompatibility—chemical
in the sense that the highly complex molecular
constitution of such bodies as the anti-toxins and serums
with which physiologists are beginning to deal is
"chemical"—and that all the other and secondary
obstacles to fertilization can be overcome or evaded in
the course of experiment. He proposed to inject one
species by "serums" extracted from the other, in such
a way as seemed most likely to bring the chemical state
of their reproductive elements into harmony, that is to
say, into a condition in which they should not be actively
antagonistic but admit of fusion and union. He proposed,
by the exchange of living or highly organized fluids (by
means of injection or transfusion) between a male and
female of separate species, to assimilate the chemical
constitution of one to that of the other, and thus possibly
so to affect their reproductive elements that the one could
tolerate and fertilize the other. The suggestion is not
unreasonable, but would require a long series of experiments
in which the possibility of producing such "assimilation,"
even to a small extent and in respect of less
complex processes than those ultimately aimed at, would
have to be, first of all, established. My friend did not
live to commence this investigation, but it is possible that
some day we may see the obstacle to the union of ovum
and sperm of species, which are to some extent allied,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
removed in this way by transfusion or injection of
important fluids from the one into the other.</p>
<p>We must not lose sight of the fact, in the midst of
these various and diverging observations about the
fertilization of the ova of one species by sperms of
another species, that there is such a thing as "parthenogenesis,"
or virgin-birth. In some of the insects and
lower forms of animals the egg-cell habitually and
regularly develops and gives rise to a new individual
without being fertilized at all. And in other cases by
special treatment, such as rubbing with a brush, or in the
case of marine animals by addition of certain salts to the
water in which the eggs are floating—or, again, in the
case of the eggs of the common frog by gently scratching
them with a needle—the eggs which usually and regularly
require to be penetrated by and fused with a spermatozoon
or sperm-filament before they will develop, proceed to
develop into complete new individuals without the action
upon them of any spermatozoon. In such marine animals
as the sea-urchins or sea-eggs it has been found that the
eggs deposited in pure sea-water, though they would die
and decompose if left there alone, can be made to develop
and proceed on their growth by the addition to the sea-water
of the sperm filaments of a star-fish (the feather
star or comatula). The spermatozoa or sperm-filaments
do not, however, in this case fuse with the egg-cells.
They mechanically pierce the egg-coat, but contribute
no substance to the embryo into which the egg develops.
They have merely served, like the scratch of a needle on
the frog's egg and the brushing of insects' eggs, to start
the egg on its growth, to "stimulate" it and set changes
going. It appears thus that the fertilizing sperm-filaments
of organisms generally have two separate and very important
influences upon the egg-cells with which they
fuse. The one is to stimulate the egg and start the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
changes of embryonic growth; the other is to contribute
some living material from the male parent to the new
individual arising from the growth and shaping of the
egg-cell. The first influence can be exercised without
the second, as is seen in the case of the eggs of some
sea-urchins stimulated to growth by the spermatozoa of
some star-fishes. It happens that these marine animals
are convenient for study and experiment because their
eggs are small and transparent and that they and the
spermatozoa are freely passed into the sea-water at the
breeding season, in which the fertilization of the eggs
takes place.</p>
<p>When these facts are considered we have to admit that
in the mating of two species which will not regularly and
naturally breed together, there may be a limited action of
the spermatic element which may stimulate the egg to
development without contributing by fusion in the regular
way to the actual substance of the young so produced, or
only contributing an amount insufficient to produce a full
and normal development of the hybrid young. Such
cases not improbably sometimes occur in higher animals,
though they have not been, as yet, shown to exist except
in the experiments with sea-urchins' eggs and feather-star's
sperm.</p>
<p>In all animals and plants, but especially in domesticated
and cultivated stocks or strains, varieties arise which,
by natural or artificial separation, breed apart, and give
rise to what are called "races." Such races in natural
conditions may become species. Species are races or
groups of individuals, which, by long estrangement (not
necessarily local isolation) from the parent stock and by
adaptation to special conditions of life, have become more
or less "stable"—that is, permanent and unchanging in
the conditions to which they have become adapted. They
acquire by one device or another the habit of not breeding
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
with the stock from which they originally diverged—a
repugnance which may be overcome by human contrivance
or by natural accident, but is, nevertheless, an effective
and real quality. Distinct forms, which have not arrived
at the stability and separation characteristic of species, are
spoken of as "races," or "varieties." It is very generally
the case that the "races" of one species can inter-breed
freely with one another, and with the original stock, when
it still exists. Comparatively little is known as to the behaviour
of wild or naturally-produced "races." Practically
all our views on the subject of "races" and their inter-breeding
are derived from our observation of the immense
number and range of "races" and "breeds" produced by
man—as farmer, fancier, and horticulturist. It has been
generally received as a rule, that the various races produced
in the farm or garden by breeding from a species,
will inter-breed freely, and produce offspring which are
fertile. A special and important series of races, in which
human purpose and voluntary selection necessarily have
a leading part, are the races of man.</p>
<p>The offspring of parents of two different races is called
a mongrel, whilst the term "hybrid" has been of late
limited, for the sake of convenience, to the offspring of
parents of two different species. Mongrels, it has been
generally held, are fertile—often more fertile than pure-bred
individuals whose parents are both of the same race,
whilst "hybrids" are contrasted with them, in being infertile.
We have seen that infertility is not an absolute
rule in the case of hybrids, and it appears that there is also
a source of error in the observations which lead to the
notion that "mongrels" are always fertile. The fact is
that observations on this matter have nearly always been
made with domesticated animals and plants which are, of
course, selected and bred by man on account of their
fertility, and thus are exceptionally characterized by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
fertility, which is transmitted in an exceptional degree to
the races or varieties which are experimentally inter-bred,
and, consequently, may be expected to produce fertile
mongrels. Alfred Russel Wallace insisted upon this fact,
and pointed out that in a few cases colour varieties of a
given species of plant have been found to be incapable of
inter-breeding, or only produce very few "mongrels."
This has been established in the case of two dissimilarly-coloured
varieties of mullein. Also the red and the blue
pimpernel (the poor man's weather-glass, Anagallis), which
are classed by botanists as two varieties of one species,
have been found after repeated trials to be definitely incapable
of inter-breeding. Wallace insists in regard to
crossing, that some degree of difference favours fertility,
but a little more tends to infertility. We must remember
that the fertility of both plants and animals is very easily
upset. Changed conditions of life—such as domestication—may
lead (we do not know why) to complete or
nearly complete infertility; and, again, "change of air,"
or of locality, has an extraordinary and not-as-yet-explained
effect on fertility.</p>
<div class="poetry-container">
<div class="poetry">
<div class="verse">"Oh, the little more and how much it is!</div>
<div class="verse">And the little less, and what worlds away!"</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Infertile horses sent from their native home to a different
climate (as, for instance, from Scotland to Newmarket)
become fertile. A judicious crossing of varieties or races
threatened with infertility will often lead to increased vigour
and fertility in the new generation, just as change of locality
will produce such a result. Physiological processes which
are not obvious and cannot be exactly estimated or
measured are then, we must conclude, largely connected
with the question of sterility and fertility. Mr. Darwin
has collected facts which go far to prove that colour (as
in the case of the black pigs of Virginia, which I cited
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
in Chapter X.), instead of being a trifling and unimportant
character, as was supposed by the older naturalists, is
really one of great significance, often correlated with
important constitutional differences. It is pointed out by
Alfred Wallace that in all the recorded cases in which a
decided infertility occurs between varieties (or races) of the
same species of plants (such as those just cited), those
varieties are distinguished by a difference of colour. He
gives reasons for thinking that the correlation of colour
with infertility which has been detected in several cases in
plants may also extend to animals in a state of nature.
The constant preference of animals—even mere varieties
of dog, sheep, horses, and pigeons—for their like, has
been well established by observation. Colour is one
of the readiest appeals to the eye in guiding animals
in such selection and association, and is connected with
deep-seated constitutional qualities. "Birds of a feather
flock together" is a popular statement confirmed by the
careful observation of naturalists. Thus we arrive at some
indication of features which may determine the inter-breeding,
or the abstention from inter-breeding, of diverse
races sprung from one original stock. The "colour
bar" is not merely the invention of human prejudice,
but already exists in wild plants and animals.</p>
<p>We now come to the questions, the assertions, the beliefs,
and the acts concerning the inter-breeding of human races,
to the consideration of which I have been preparing the
way. The dog-fancier has generally a great contempt for
"mongrels." Breeders generally dislike accidental crosses,
because they interfere with the purpose which the breeder
has in view of producing animals or plants of a quality,
form, and character which he has determined on before-hand.
This interference with his purpose seems to be the
explanation of beliefs and statements, to the prejudice of
"mongrels." Really, as is well known to great breeders
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
and horticulturists, a determined and selective crossing of
breeds is the very foundation of the breeder's art, and
there is no reason to suppose that a "mongrel" is
necessarily, or even probably, inferior in vigour or in
qualities which are advantageous in the struggle for life in
"natural"—that is to say, "larger"—conditions of an
animal's or plant's life; not those limited conditions for
which the breeder intends his products. Indeed, the very
opposite is the case. In nature, as Mr. Darwin showed,
there are innumerable contrivances to ensure the cross-breeding
of allied but distinct strains. Dog-owners who
are not exclusively bent upon possessing a dog which
shows in a perfect way the "points" of a breed favoured
by the fashion of the moment, or fitting it for some
special employment, know very well that a "mongrel"
may often exhibit finer qualities of intelligence, or endurance,
than those exhibited by a dog of pure-bred "race."
And the very "races" which are spoken of to-day as
"pure-bred," or "thoroughbred," have (as is well known)
been produced as "mongrels"—that is to say, by crossing
or mating individuals of previously-existing distinct and
pure breeds. The history of many such "mongrel breeds,"
now spoken of as "thoroughbred," is well known. The
English racehorse was gradually produced by the "mongrelizing,"
or cross-breeding, of several breeds or races—the
English warhorse, the Arab, the Barb. A very fine
mongrel stock having at last been obtained, it was found,
or, at any rate, was considered to be demonstrated, that no
further improvement (for the purposes aimed at, namely,
flat-racing) could be effected by introducing the blood of
other stock. The offspring of the "mongrels" Herod,
Matchem, and Eclipse accordingly became established as
"the" English racehorse, and thenceforward was mated
only within its own race or stock, and was kept pure or
"thoroughbred." Another well-known mongrel breed
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
which is now kept pure, or nearly so, is that of the St.
Bernard's dog, a blend of Newfoundland, Bloodhound,
and English Mastiff.</p>
<p>Often the word "mongrel" is limited in its use to
signify an undesired or undesirable result of the cross-breeding
of individuals of established races. But this is
not quite fair to mongrels in general, since, as we have
seen, the name really refers only to the fact they are
crosses between two breeds. When they happen to suit
some artificial and arbitrary requirement they are favoured,
and made the starting-point of a new breed, and kept
pure in their own line; but when they do not fit some
capricious demand of the breeder they are sneered at
and condemned, although they may be fine and capable
animals. No doubt some mongrels between races differing
greatly from one another, or having some peculiar mixture
of incompatible qualities the exact nature of which we
have not ascertained, are wanting in vigour, and cannot
be readily established as a new breed. In nature the
success of the mongrel depends on whether or not its
mixture of qualities makes it fitter than others to the
actual conditions of its life, and able to survive in the competition
for food and place. In man's breeding operations
with varieties of domesticated animals and "cultivated"
plants, the survival of the mongrel depends upon its
fitting some arbitrary standard applied by man, who
destroys those which do not suit his fancy, and selects
for survival and continued breeding those which do.</p>
<p>What is called "miscegenation," or the inter-breeding
of human races, must be looked at from both these points
of view. We require to know how far, if at all, the mixed
or mongrel offspring of a human race A with a human
race B is really inferior to either of the original stocks A
and B, judged by general capacity and life-preserving
qualities in the varied conditions of the great area of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
habitable globe. And how far an arbitrary or fanciful
standard is set up by human races, similar to that set up
by the "fancier" or cultivator of breeds of domestic animals.
The matter is complicated by the fact that what we loosely
speak of as "races" of man are of very various degrees of
consanguinity or nearness to one another in blood, that is,
in stock or in ultimate ancestry. It is also complicated
by the fact that we cannot place any reliance upon the
antipathies or preferences shown by the general sentiment
of a race in this (or other matters) as necessarily indicating
what is beneficial for humanity in general or for the
immediate future of any section of it. Nor have we any
assurance that what is called "sexual selection"—the
preference or taste in the matter of choosing a mate—is
among human beings necessarily anything of greater importance—so
far as the prosperity of a race or of humanity
in general is concerned—than a mere caprice or a meaningless
persistence of the human mind in favouring a choice
which is habitual and traditional. I have referred to this
point again in the last paragraph of this chapter.</p>
<p>In regard to marriage between individuals of different
European nationalities, a certain amount of unwillingness
exists on the part of both men and women which cannot
be ascribed to any deep-seated inborn antipathy, but is
due to a mistrust of the unknown "foreigner," which very
readily disappears on acquaintance, or may arise from
dislike of the laws and customs of a foreign people.
English, French, Dutch, Scandinavians, Germans, Russians,
Greeks, Italians and Spaniards have no deep-rooted prejudices
on the subject, and readily intermarry when
circumstances bring them into association. Though the
Jews by their present traditional practice are opposed to
marriage with those not of their faith, there is no effective
aversion of a racial kind to such unions, and in early
times they have been very frequent. During the "captivity"
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
in Babylon and again after the "dispersal" by the Romans,
the original Jewish race was practically swamped by
mixture with cognate Oriental races who adopted the
Jewish faith. So far from there being inborn prejudice
against intermarriage of the peoples above cited, it is
very generally admitted that such "miscegenation" leads
frequently to the foundation of families of fine quality.
The blend is successful, as may be seen in the number
of prominent Englishmen who have Huguenot, German,
Dutch, or Jewish blood in their veins.</p>
<p>But when we come to the intermarriage of members
of the white race of Europe with members of either the
negroid (black) race or of the yellow and red mongoloid
race, a much greater and more deeply-rooted aversion is
found, and this is extended even to members of the
Caucasian race who, possibly by prehistoric mixture with
negro-like races, are very dark-skinned, as is the case
with the Aryan population in India and Polynesia. It
is a very difficult matter; in fact, it seems to me not
possible in our present knowledge of the facts, to decide
whether there is a natural inborn or congenital disinclination
to the marriage of the white race, especially of the
Anglo-Saxon branch of it, with "coloured" people, or
whether the whole attitude (as I am inclined to think) is
one of "pride of race," an attitude which can be defended
on the highest grounds, though it may lead to erroneous
beliefs as to the immediate evil results of such unions,
and to an unreasonable and cruel treatment both of the
individuals so intermarrying and of their offspring. There
is little or no evidence of objection to mixed unions on
the part of the coloured people with whites, no evidence
of physical dislike to the white man or white woman,
but, on the contrary, ready acquiescence.</p>
<p>A curious aversion to marriages with whites on the
part both of North American Indians and of negroes is,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
however, recorded from time to time in the official reports
of the United States Government.</p>
<p>Two beliefs about such unions are more or less
prevalent among white men in the regions where
they not infrequently occur. Neither of these beliefs
is supported by anything like conclusive evidence.
The one is that such unions lead to the production
of relatively infertile offspring; the mixed breed or
stock is said to die out after a few (some seven or
eight) generations. It is, however, the fact that the
circumstances under which this occurs suggest that it
is not due to a natural and necessary infertility. The
other assertion is that the offspring of parents—one
of white race and the other of black, yellow or brown—tend
by some strange fatality to inherit the bad qualities
of both races and the good qualities of neither. This is
a case to which must be applied the saying, "Give a dog
a bad name and hang him." The white man in North
America, in India, and in New Zealand desires the increase
and prosperity of his own race. Like the fancier set on
the production of certain breeds of domesticated animals,
he has no toleration for a "mongrel." In so far as it is true
that miscegenation (marriage of white and coloured race)
produces a stock which rapidly dies out—this is due to
the adverse conditions, the opposition and hostility to
which the mixed race is exposed by the attitude of the
dominant white race. To the same cause is due the
development of ignoble and possibly dangerous characteristics
in the unfortunate offspring of these marriages
more frequently than in those who find their natural place
and healthy up-bringing either in the white or the coloured
sections of the community. The "half-breed" is in some
countries inexorably rejected by the race of his or her
white parent and forced to take up an equivocal association
with the coloured race.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
<p>That some, at any rate, of the evils attributed to
"miscegenation" are due to the baneful influence of "pride
of race" is evident from the fact that the Portuguese (with
the exception of a small aristocratic class) have not since the
early days of the fourteenth century, perhaps in consequence
of established association with the Moorish and other
North African races, shown that pride of race and aversion
to mixture with dark-skinned races which is so strong a
feature in the Anglo-Saxons, their successors and rivals
as colonists. The long-standing admixture of black blood
in the Portuguese population before the colonization of
South America, has led to a toleration on the part of the
Portuguese colonists of "miscegenation," both with Indians
and the liberated descendants of imported negro slaves.
The consequence is that in Brazil there is no condemnation
of black blood; children of mixed parentage and of
coloured race attend the same schools as those of European
blood, and freely associate with them. There is no notion
that that portion of the population which is of mixed
negro, Indian, and white blood is less vigorous or fertile
than the unmixed, nor that vice and feebleness are the
characteristics of the former, whilst virtue and capacity
belong to the latter.</p>
<p>The determined hostility of the Anglo-Saxon race in
North America and in British India to "miscegenation"
is in the case of the United States to be explained by
the peculiar relation of a large slave population in the
Southern States to a pure white slave-owning race: whilst
in India we have a handful of white men temporarily
stationed as rulers of millions of "natives," but never
accepting India as their home. The attitude of the
Anglo-Saxon race to the North American Indians, and
also to the Maoris of New Zealand, has never been so
extreme in the matter of miscegenation as it has been
to negroid people and to the very different though dark-skinned
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
people of the East. In support of that opinion
may be cited the fact that some of "the first families of
Virginia" are proud of their descent from Pocahontes,
the Algonkian "Princess" who married the Englishman
Rolfe. In New Zealand there are many families of mixed
Anglo-Saxon and Maori blood. Though they are not
ostracized, as are the half-breeds of negro blood in the
United States, there is a firm tendency to relegate the
half-breeds in New Zealand to the Maori section of the
population, which it must be remembered includes some
of the richest and most prosperous landowners in the
colony.</p>
<p>It may be questioned whether there is in this matter
a greater "pride of race" among Anglo-Saxons than
among other Northern European peoples. Neither the
French nor the Germans have established great colonies
like the English, nor undertaken the administration of
a huge Eastern Empire, and have, therefore, not shown
what attitude they would adopt under such circumstances.
The tolerance and easy-going humanitarianism of the
French in relation to "miscegenation" in their dependencies
in past times has never had the significance or
practical importance which it would have possessed in
the English Colonies and in the great Indian Empire.</p>
<p>There is, on account of the sporadic and exceptional
occurrence of modern instances, no information of any
value as to the results of mixture of other races of man.
In early times and among more primitive or less civilized
peoples there appears to have been, when immigration
or conquest gave the opportunity, no obstacle to a free
intermixture of an incoming race with the natives of an
invaded territory. The "pride of race" has, nevertheless,
throughout historic time been a frequent factor in the
adjustment of populations of diverse races, and though
"colour" has been a frequent "test" or symbol of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
superior and exclusive race, it has not been the only
characteristic exalted to such importance. Such "pride
of race" has frequently excluded the members of a
closely allied but conquered racial group from intermarriage
with the conquerors, and has only disappeared
after centuries of persistence. The term "blue blood" is
interesting in this connection. It is the "saing d'azure"
of the Gothic invaders, the conquerors of the Iberian and
Moorish people of Spain. It refers not to any "blueness"
of the blood itself, such as distinguishes veinous from
arterial blood, but to the blue colour of the veins as
seen through the colourless skin of a northern race (the
Goths), as compared with the invisibility of the veins
when the skin is rendered more or less opaque by a
brown pigment, as in the Moors and the swarthy Iberians.</p>
<p>Among the people of Western Europe marriage has
assumed more and more a character which is almost
unknown in the rest of the world. Whatever the future
may be in regard to this matter, there is no doubt
possible that the place given to women in Western
Europe by the ideals of chivalry and the practice of
the northern race (which has so largely displaced the
traditions of the Roman Empire) has established a relation
of the sexes in which marriage and consequent parentage
have ceased to be regarded as a mere regularization of
animal desire and appetite. The accepted, but not always
consciously recognized, view of marriage in Western
Europe is that the union so sanctioned and the families
thereby produced should be the result not of the mere
physical necessity of irresponsible victims of an impulse
common to all animals, but the outcome of the deliberate
choice of man and woman attracted to one another by
sympathy, understanding and reciprocal admiration, based
upon knowledge of character, mental gifts and aspirations,
as well as upon bodily charm. A rarely-expressed but
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
none the less deeply-seated conviction exists that from
such unions children of the finest nature, nurtured in
circumstances most likely to make them worthy members
of the community, will be born and reared. It is this
conviction which leads to, or at any rate endorses, the
exclusiveness which is described as "pride of race." The
Anglo-Saxon man and equally the Anglo-Saxon woman
(as well as the allied races of neighbouring nationalities)
recognize a responsibility, a race duty, resulting from
accumulated tradition, the heirloom of long ages of family
life, which causes the man to be ashamed of, and the
woman to shrink with instinctive horror from, union with
an individual of a remote race with whom there can be
no real sympathy, no intimate understanding. That
seems to me to be the explanation and the justification
of the "colour bar."</p>
<p>In relation to the probable effectiveness of sexual
selection among uncivilized peoples in favouring and
maintaining a particular type or form of features, hair, etc.,
characteristic of the race, independently of the life-preserving
value of such qualities, I may mention, before
quitting this difficult but strangely fascinating subject,
a fact observed by a traveller in Africa, and related to
me by him. Other similar facts are on record. Among
the negroes employed as "porters" by my friend, some
thirty in number, was one who had a narrow aquiline
nose and thin lips. He was as black and as woolly-haired
as any of them, but would if of fair complexion
have been regarded by Europeans as a very handsome,
fine-featured man. Such cases are not uncommon in
parts of Africa, where probably an unrecognized mixture
with Arab or Hamite blood has occurred. My friend
expected this man to be a favourite, on account of what
to him appeared to be "good looks," with the girls of
the villages at which he camped during a three months'
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
journey. At every such village, as they journeyed on,
the travellers were received with joy and good nature.
The negro porters were fêted and made much of by the
young women. But one alone was unpopular and regarded
with ridicule and dislike. This was the handsome negro
with the fine, well-modelled nose and beautiful European
lips. The black beauties turned their backs on him, in
spite of his amiable character and kindly overtures. They
invariably and by open confession preferred the men
with the thickest lips, the broadest noses, and the most
thoroughly (as we should say) degraded prognathous
appearance and disgusting expression. Hence no doubt
the young negresses were likely to perpetuate in their
offspring the features which are characteristic of their
race, and hence it is probable that mere capricious sexual
selection of individuals most completely conforming to
a preferred type—irrespective of the value of the features
preferred—may have great effect in both the selection
and the maintenance of the peculiarities of the type.
Dark skin may thus have been selected, until it became
actually black; a slight curling of the hair, until it
became woolly; thickish lips and broadish nose, until
they became excessive in thickness and breadth.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">WHEEL ANIMALCULES</p>
<p class="drop-cap">TWO hundred years ago the Dutch naturalist
Leuwenhoek, who made many discoveries with the
highly magnifying lenses which he himself ground
and mounted, wrote to the Royal Society of London
that he had "discovered several animalcula that protrude
two wheels out of the forepart of their body as they
swim, or go on the sides of the glass jar in which they
are living." He says that "the two wheels are thick
set with teeth as the wheel of a watch," and he sent to
the society for publication drawings of these wonderful
little creatures. This was the first account of the Wheel
Animalcules. Since then they have been studied by many
microscopists, especially by Ehrenberg, who figured many
in his great book on animalcules in 1838. Fourteen years
later the delightful English naturalist, P. H. Gosse, who
studied and illustrated the "sea-anemones" so ably—and,
by his example and charming descriptions, made
the keeping of these beautiful things in marine aquaria
a favourite occupation among people of leisure, blessed
with a "curiosity concerning the things of nature"—published
some microscopical studies on Wheel Animalcules,
and continued throughout his life to make them
a special subject of his investigation.</p>
<p>The microscope was greatly improved—in fact, reached
its present state of perfection—during Mr. Gosse's lifetime,
and a wonderful amount was added to our knowledge
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
not only as to the various kinds of wheel animalcules
(which now number not less than 900 species), but also
with regard to the minutest details of their structure,
their growth from the egg, and their habits. Another
English lover of these minute creatures, Dr. C. T. Hudson,
of Clifton (Bristol), began his observations a few years
later, and also discovered many wonderful kinds. It
was my good fortune to bring these two devotees of the
Rotifera, or Wheel Animalcules, together, and to induce
them to write a conjoint work on their favourites—after,
as they say in their preface, they had each continued
their studies almost daily for thirty years, and had made
innumerable drawings from living specimens, which are
reproduced in the many hundred (mostly coloured) figures
engraved in the thirty-four quarto plates of their monumental
book. This was published in 1889, a year after
Mr. Gosse's death at the age of 78. My friend, Mr.
Edmund Gosse, the distinguished man of letters, is the
son of the naturalist; the microscope, the aquarium, and
the rock-pools of the seashore were the familiar delights
of his boyhood, as of mine.</p>
<p>In Fig. 34 I have sketched the common Rotifer or
wheel animalcule. It is about the one-fortieth of an inch
long. The two specimens drawn in Figs. 34, A and B, are
seen to be clinging by the forked tail-end of the body to
a piece of weed (drawn in dotted lines). The body is
stretched in these specimens to its full length. It can be
shortened by a "telescoping" or pulling in of either end,
so as to make the animal a mere oval particle. The four
narrower joints or segments at the tail-end can be pulled
in like the segments of a telescope, whilst the two wheels
and adjacent parts can be drawn down into the body as
shown in Fig. 34, C, where the two wheels (W) are seen
showing through the skin by transparency.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_34.jpg" id="i_34.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_34.jpg" width="356" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>—Diagram of <i>Rotifer
vulgaris</i>—the common wheel animalcule—one
hundred and twenty times as long as the creature itself. <i>A</i>, front view.
<i>B</i>, side view. <i>C</i>, head showing eyes <i>S</i>,
and retracted wheel apparatus <i>W</i>. The letters in <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> have the
following signification: <i>M</i>, mouth. <i>W</i>, wheel or ciliated disc. <i>S</i>, eye
spots on head. <i>T</i>, spur or tentacle. <i>G</i>, gizzard. <i>St</i>,
stomach. <i>Int</i>, intestines. <i>V</i>, vent: aperture of intestine.</div>
</div>
<p>The common rotifer can walk like a looping caterpillar
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
or a leech—fixing itself by its tail, then stretching out the
head and fixing that,
whilst letting go the tail
and bringing it up by
"telescoping" it, near
to the head region. The
tail is forked, and in the
side view (Fig. 34, B) it
is seen to have a soft
branched process, which
helps it to cling. The
letter V in Fig. 34, A,
points to the vent or
opening of the gut at
the fork of the tail.
The mouth, marked
M, is seen between the
two "wheels." The two
"wheels" are really
two discs, the edges of
which are beset by
coarse "cilia," or vibrating
hairs of protoplasm.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
These cilia "lash" and
straighten again one
after the other, so that
the optical illusion is
produced of the toothed
edge of the disc being
in movement like a
wheel. They may be
"focused" with the
microscope so that the groups or "bunches" of them
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
look like stiff, motionless "teeth," although they are
really, all the time, lashing and beating in regular rhythm.
When the animal is fixed by its tail, the lashing of the
cilia on the wheels causes currents in the water which set
with great strength to the mouth and bring floating food
particles to it. It is thus that the Rotifer feeds. When
the tail is not grasping a support, the movement of the
cilia on the wheels causes the animal to swim forward
through the water, so that it has two modes of locomotion—the
leech-like crawling method and the free swimming
method.</p>
<p>The various internal organs of a Rotifer are readily seen
through its transparent skin (Fig. 34, A). It has a nervous
system, many bands of contractile muscles and a pair of
little tubular kidneys or nephridia, besides reproductive
germs (the eggs). I have here sketched only the digestive
canal. The mouth leads through a gullet to a very curious
organ called the "gizzard," marked G. All the wheel
animalcules have this gizzard, but its teeth, shown as two
oval bodies in the drawing, differ a great deal in shape
and complexity in the different kinds. Whilst the Rotifer
is feeding by bringing currents of water to its mouth, the
two halves of the gizzard are kept in rapid movement by
muscles, causing them to rub against one another and to
grind up the food particles which reach them through the
gullet. The gizzard (G) is followed by the digestive
stomach (St), and that by the intestine (Int), which opens
at the vent (V). The side (or three-quarter profile) view
of a similar specimen (Fig. 34, B) shows only the surface
of the little animal, and is intended to show especially the
snout-like head-lobe (S), with its two eye-spots, which
are red in colour. Standing out backwards from this is
a finger-like process (T), which is called the spur, or
tentacle. It has hairs at its tip, and is a sensory
organ.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_35.jpg" id="i_35.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_35.jpg" width="387" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>—The Rotifer <i>Pedalion
mirum</i>—seen from the right side, magnified 180
diameters. <i>w.a.</i>, wheel apparatus or "ciliated" margin of the cephalic disc.
<i>r.e.</i>, right side eye-spot. <i>m.</i>, mouth. <i>p.</i>, tactile process.
<i>d.l.</i>, median dorsal limb (as it is seen in profile, only three of
the fringed hairs at its extremity are seen). <i>v.l.</i>, the great ventral limb
(only five of its fan of eight fringed hairs are seen).
<i>l.l.</i><sup>1</sup>, dorso-lateral, and <i>l.l.</i><sup>2</sup>, ventro-lateral
limbs of the right side: they show the complete fans of eight fringed hairs.
<i>x.</i>, the pair of posterior processes tipped with vibratile cilia, better
seen in Fig. 36.</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_36.jpg" id="i_36.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_36.jpg" width="369" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>—The Rotifer <i>Pedalion
mirum</i>—seen from the ventral surface. Letters as in Fig. 35.
The complete fan of eight fringed hairs terminating the great ventral
limb are seen, and the three spine-like processes on each side
of it. The fringed hairs of the two ventro-lateral limbs, <i>l.l.</i><sup>2</sup>, are
omitted; they are fully shown in Fig. 35, and are the same in
number and disposition as those forming the "fan" of the great
ventral limb. Compare these hairs with those of the "Nauplius"
Crustacean larva drawn as a tail-piece to Chapter XIII.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In some wheel animalcules there is a pair of these
spurs, and the very
remarkable wheel
animalcule drawn in
Figs. 35 and 36 has
six large processes
which, though much
bigger, appear to be
of the same nature.
Of these four are seen
in Fig. 35, namely,
<i>d.l.</i>, the dorsal limb,
<i>v.l.</i>, the great ventral
limb, and <i>l.l.</i><sup>1</sup> and <i>l.l.</i><sup>2</sup>,
the two lateral limbs
of the right side, all
of them carrying fan-like
groups of fringed
hairs. They are moved
by very powerful
muscles, and strike the
water with energetic
strokes, so as to cause
the little owner to
dart through it. This
jumping or darting
wheel animalcule is
called "Pedalion,"
and was discovered
and described by
Dr. Hudson. It is
so astonishing and
wonderful a little
beast, that when Dr.
Hudson sent me some alive in a tube by post in 1872,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
soon after he had discovered it, I could not believe
my eyes, and thought I must
be dreaming. It is very
like the young form of
Crustaceans known as a
"Nauplius" (see tail-piece to
the present chapter) in having
(what no other wheel animalcule
has) great hollow paired
limbs moved by <i>striated</i> muscular
fibre, carrying fringed
hairs only known before in
Crustaceans (crabs, shrimps
and water fleas), and striking
the water violently just as do
those of the Nauplius. And
yet all the while it has on its
head a pair of large ciliated
wheels which serve it just
as do those of the common
Rotifer. No Crustacean,
young or old, has this "wheel-apparatus"
nor any vibratile
"cilia" on the surface of its
body. Pedalion possesses an
astounding "blend" of characters.
Fig. 35 shows, besides
the "paddles" or "legs" (of
which two on the other side
of the animal are not seen),
the broad and large wheel-apparatus
W (within which
the right eye-spot <i>r.e.</i> is seen),
and a little lobe (<i>p</i>) called the "chin" lying just below
the mouth (<i>m</i>). The big leg (<i>v.l.</i>) and the pair on each
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
side (<i>l.l.</i><sup>1</sup> and <i>l.l.</i><sup>2</sup>), of which
that on the right side only
is seen, end in beautiful fringed hairs, which are only
seen elsewhere in the Crustacea (water-fleas and others).
Those on the lateral limbs and
the great ventral limb (Fig. 36)
are set in two groups of four on
each side of the free end of the
limb, whilst those on the dorsal
leg (<i>d.l.</i>) are apparently not so
numerous. I have corrected the
drawings, Figs. 35 and 36, by reference
to actual specimens kindly
given to me by Mr. Rousselet.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_37.jpg" id="i_37.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_37.jpg" width="335" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>—The Rotifer
<i>Noteus quadricornis</i>—to show its curious four-horned
carapace—from which the wheel apparatus,
<i>wa</i>, emerges in front, and the tail, <i>t</i>, behind; somewhat
as the head and tail of a tortoise emerge from
its protective "box" or carapace. The ridges on
the horney covering of the Rotifer recall the horney
plates of the tortoises and turtles.</div>
</div>
<p>The 500 different species of
Wheel Animalcules or Rotifera
differ from one another in the exact
shape of the wheel-apparatus,
in the jointing of the body and its
general shape, and in the development,
in some, of a hard skin or
shell like a turtle's or tortoise's shell
(Fig. 37) over that broadest region
of the body in which in our Fig. 34, A,
the stomach marked "St" is placed.
They differ also in the shape of the
gizzard's teeth, in the presence of
paddles or legs (in Pedalion alone),
and in the presence in some of longer
or shorter projecting movable rods
or bristles in pairs or in bunches.
Many build for themselves tubular
habitations of jelly or of hard cemented particles. They
are all minute (from the ¹/₁₂ to the ¹/₅₀₀ in. in length).
They are divided into five principal groups, which are
(1) the crawlers, like the common Rotifer (Fig. 34), which
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
can crawl like a leech and also swim freely by aid of their
wheel-apparatus; (2) the naked free swimmers, which do
not crawl, but move only by swimming; (3) the turtle-shelled
free swimmers (Fig. 37) like the last, but provided
with strong, often faceted, angular, and spike-bearing
shells or "bucklers," from which head and wheel-apparatus
project in front and narrow tail behind; (4) the rooted or
fixed forms (Figs. 37 <i>bis</i>); these never swim when full
grown, but each forms and inhabits a protective tube or
case; (5) the skipping or darting forms. Of these there
is only the Pedalion mirum (Figs. 35 and 36), which is
quite unlike all the other wheel animalcules in having limbs
like those of the minute water-fleas (Nauplius, Cyclops)
which strike the water and are fringed with feather-like
hairs.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_37a.jpg" id="i_37a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_37a.jpg" width="562" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption">The larval or young form of Crustacea known as "the Nauplius." This is
the "Nauplius" of a kind of Prawn. The three pairs of branched limbs
are well seen. Much magnified.</div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes p4"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
<div class="footnote">
<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
For some account of "cilia," see "Science from an Easy Chair,"
Figs. 29, 33, 40 and the accompanying text.</p></div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">MORE ABOUT WHEEL ANIMALCULES</p>
<p class="drop-cap">MICROSCOPIC as the wheel animalcules are
they yet have been watched and examined by
their admirers to as great a point of intimacy as
that reached by the devotees of insects or of birds. A
remarkable fact about them is that in about 130 different
species (out of the 500 known) it has been found that the
males are diminutive creatures, about one-tenth the size
of the females, and devoid of digestive canal; in fact, little
more than minute swimming sacs full of spermatozoa.
In one group, that of the crawling Rotifers, to which the
common wheel animalcule, figured in the last chapter,
belongs, no male at all has ever been discovered. They
are all females. They are precisely those wheel animalcules
which are known to microscopists for their power of
surviving (like the little water-bears or tardigrades and
some other minute animalcules) the desiccation, or
"drying-up" of the water in which they were living,
swimming, and crawling (see Chapters XV. and XVI.).
And it is quite probable that this power of resistance
to the adverse conditions of changing seasons has, in
the crawling Rotifers, taken the place of the production
of eggs fertilized by a male. For, as in the case
of the crustacean water-fleas (and of the terrestrial
plant-lice, or aphides and gall-flies), it is found that the
female Rotifers or wheel animalcules, which hatch from
fertilized eggs, are themselves "parthenogenetic," and lay
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
eggs which develop without fertilization by males—that
is to say, are "impaternate." In the case of the water-fleas
these are called "summer eggs," and after one or more
generations of such fatherless females a proportion of
males are produced which fertilize the females hatched
at the same period. The eggs so fertilized acquire a
thick shell and are called "winter eggs." They remain
dormant for some months and resist the injurious influences
of winter cold, or, it may be, of drying up and
conversion of the pond-mud into dust, but hatch out when
warmer and wetter conditions return.</p>
<p>This, however, is just what the adult crawling kind
of Rotifer can do in the full-grown state by drawing
up her body into the shape of a ball and exuding
a jelly-like or horny coat. So that she has no need
of "winter eggs," and the whole process of forming
them and of males to impregnate them has "dropped
out" of the life-history of this special kind of resistant
Rotifers. The minute insignificant males and the
eventual disappearance of males altogether in some races
is a subject which may well occupy the attention of
our human "suffragettes." That the males are minute
creatures, less than the thousandth part of the size of the
females, is a fact also ascertained in the case of some
curious marine worms (called Bonellia and Hamingia).
The only other instance of such degradation of the male
sex is in some of the barnacles (discovered by Darwin), in
which the big individuals are of double sex (hermaphrodite).
Adhering to the shells of these are found minute dot-like
"supplemental males." It is to be observed that these
are instances where the inferiority of the male is an
obvious measurable fact. In the mammals, the group of
vertebrate animals to which man belongs, the male
possesses measurably greater activity and size than does
the female, and is provided with more powerful natural
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
weapons, such as teeth and horns. He entirely dominates
and controls the female, or a whole company of females,
and in no case is there equality of the sexes, or any
approach to it, still less inferiority of the male. It is,
perhaps, a question whether "by taking thought" this
natural inferiority of the mammalian female can be
changed.</p>
<p>The survival of Rotifers, especially of a pink-coloured
species (called Philodina roseola), after long drying or
"desiccation," has been experimentally studied. It is
found that if the water in which some are swimming is
placed in a watch-glass and allowed to dry up rapidly
the Rotifers are killed, none reappear when after a few
hours fresh water is poured into the watch-glass. But if
a few grains of sand or particles of moss are present from
the first in the water the final drying up takes place more
slowly and the Rotifers find their way between the sheltering
fragments, where the water remains long enough to
give them time to form a little gelatinous case, each for
itself. When thus encased they survive, motionless, for
months. The experiment has often been made, and is
not in doubt. According to trustworthy statements,
Philodina can thus survive even for so long as five years.
The processes of life are arrested, but the drying has not
proceeded to the extent which is called chemical drying
or dehydration. The tiny Rotifers are still of soft consistence:
the protoplasm is not chemically destroyed.
When one is watched with the microscope as water is
allowed to flow round it after several months of dust-like
aridity, it is seen to emerge from its protective case
and at once to commence swimming and searching for
food by means of the currents directed towards its mouth
by its so-called "wheel-apparatus." I may just say that
in the case of the slime-mould called "flowers of tan" the
protoplasm dries to the consistency of hard wax, and I
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
have kept it for years in that state and then revived it
by moisture into full activity and growth. I used also at
one time to keep in my laboratory a supply of the dried
yellow lichen from apple-trees, in which one could always
rely upon finding the animalcules called "Macrobiotus"
or "water-bears" ready to be revived from a desiccated
condition, after three or four years passed in that condition.</p>
<p>Many of the Rotifers carry their eggs when ripe
extruded from the body in two bunches or clusters, as is
the habit also of the little microscopic shrimps known as
Cyclops. There is a whole group of Rotifers which fix
themselves by the tail, when full grown, to some solid
support. Each then forms a protective tube or case
around itself, from the mouth of which it puts forth its
wheel-apparatus and into which it can retire for protection.
Some of the largest and most beautiful of the
wheel animalcules belong to this group of fixed or
sedentary Rotifers. The crown animalcule (Stephanoceros)
is one of these, having what are discs edged with
vibrating hairs in the common Rotifer—here drawn out
into a circlet of tapering lobes like the points of a
coronet (Fig. 37 (<i>bis</i>), B). Another is the floscule
(Floscularia), in which the wheel-apparatus has the form
of five knobs arranged on a pentagonal disc around
the mouth (A in same figure). Each knob has a
bundle of excessively fine, long, stiff, motionless hairs
spreading out from it ready to entangle food particles
which may drift into contact with them. I used to find
the stems of the fresh-water polyp (Cordylophora) of
Victoria Dock a sure source of supply of these fine little
creatures. When seen under the microscope as brightly
illuminated glassy florets on a black ground (by what is
called "dark ground illumination") their strange delicacy
and beauty cannot be surpassed. A rare species of
floscule (which I have never seen) has extra-long and fine
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
filaments, each of which shows a fine streaming current
in its substance, and is, in fact, a naked filament of living
protoplasm like one of the ray-like filaments of the sun-animalcules.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_37b.jpg" id="i_37b.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_37b.jpg" width="600" height="554"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 37</span> (<i>bis</i>).—Three
tube-building wheel animalcules. <i>A</i>, Floscularia
campanulata. <i>B</i>, Stephanoceros Eichhornii. <i>C</i>, Melicerta ringens.</div>
</div>
<p>The most curious of the tube-building Rotifers are those
which form their tubes of little, equal-sized pellets of solid
matter—as it were, "bricks"—which they first form by compacting
fine particles in a special pit on the head and then
build them up and cement them together in rows to form the
tube, adding row after row as the animal itself increases in
length (Fig. 37 (<i>bis</i>), C). These are known as Melicerta;
and, though some kinds use any minute particles to make
their bricks, one kind is frequent which uses its own
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
excrement for this purpose. By feeding the little creatures
first with food coloured with carmine and then with blue-stained
material, one can obtain alternate rows of pink
and blue pellets, carefully manufactured and laid in position
to build up the growing length of tube. Melicerta
has certainly an extraordinary and economical way of disposing
of that refuse which we larger creatures carefully
remove from our habitations and should be very unwilling
to employ as building material. The individuals of one
rare and interesting kind of the tube-builders, after swimming
freely in the youngest stage, settle down together and
form their gelatinous transparent tubes side by side, to the
number of fifty or more, in such a way as to produce a
perfect sphere, a twentieth of an inch or more in diameter,
built up of fused jelly-like tubes radiating from a common
centre. The inhabitant of each tube is quite separate
from and independent of his neighbours, but they all
protrude their vibrating wheel-apparatus simultaneously,
and cause the glass-like ball to rotate and travel through
the water. Many years ago I found this beautiful little
thing in a small moss-pool (not more than 3 ft. wide),
high up the sloping-side of the north-west section of
Hampstead heath, above the "Leg of Mutton Pond."
The well-meant care of the public guardians of the heath
has now drained this region, and my little moss-pools and
the "bog," in which grew the Drosera, or Sun-dew, and the
Bog-bean and such plants, have gone for ever. But we
must console ourselves with the fact that the same progressive
expansion of the great city has given us electric
railways, tubes, and tramways by which we can go farther
afield than Hampstead in a few minutes, and still find
moss-pools and the undisturbed glories of ancient swamps
and bog-land.</p>
<p>Many of the Rotifers have a pair of ruby-red eyes, and
in some of them there is a minute crystalline lens overlying
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
the red sensitive spot, which receives the fibres of
the optic nerve coming from the brain—one on each side.
It is almost incredible that so minute a creature—often
only the one-fiftieth of an inch long when full grown—should
have a nervous system and special organs of touch
(sensory hairs) as well as eyes, and on the other hand
muscles running from one attachment to another and
called into activity by nerves connected with this same
central brain. The pair of branched tubes, which end
internally in flickering "flame-cells" and open externally
far back at the vent, are kidneys. Similar tubes called
"nephridia" or little kidneys are found in many of the
smaller animals; the earthworm has a pair in each ring
of its body.</p>
<p>There is little doubt that the wheel animalcules are
related in pedigree to the primitive ancestors of the
marine segmented or annulate worms, which also gave
rise to the ringed leg-bearing jaw-footed creatures with
hard skin, called Crustacea, Arachnids and Insects (the
Arthropods). The wheel-apparatus or cilia-fringed discs
of the Rotifer is seen in the young stages of many marine
worms, and also in the young of marine snails, known as
the "veliger"—"velum" or "sail" being the name given
to the wheel-apparatus of the young snails (see the
drawing on p. 181). There are very minute marine
annulate or segmented worms (Dinophilus and others),
which come near to the Rotifers in many features,
whilst the ringed or segmented character of the body is
obvious in the common wheel animalcule.</p>
<p>The Rotifers are so small that they are built up of very
few "cells" or nucleated units of protoplasm. Many of
them are of smaller size than some of the big infusorian
animalcules, which consist of a single cell. The Rotifers
are probably a dwindled pygmy race descended from
ancestors of ten or a hundred times their linear measurement.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
It is an important fact that in the possession of a
toothed gizzard, in the hard body-case or cuirass of some
kinds, and in Pedalion's rapidly-moving legs or paddles,
fringed with plumose hairs and moved by that peculiar
variety of muscular tissue which is called "striped
muscular tissue," the wheel animalcules give evidence of
relationship to the Crustacea—that is to say, it appears
to be probable that they were derived from the common
ancestor of marine worms and Crustacea before those two
lines of descent had diverged.</p>
<p>Rotifera or wheel animalcules are found all over the
world, in the tropics, the temperate zones, the Arctic and
Antarctic, and many species have a world-wide distribution.
They occur in fresh waters and in the sea, in
great lakes, in gutters which dry up, in pools in the polar
regions and on high mountains which are solid ice for the
greater part of the year. A few are parasitic, some living
on the legs of minute Crustacea. One which I discovered
in 1868 in the Channel Islands lives in crowds on the skin
of a remarkable sea-worm (Synapta), which burrows in
the sand, exposed at low tide. It holds on (as I found
and figured) by a true sucker, which replaces the forked
tail of other commoner Rotifers. It was named "Discopus"
by Zelinka, who searched for it in consequence of
my description, and gave a very detailed account of it.
Others are parasitic inside earthworms, and one is found
inside the globe animalcule Volvox! Another causes the
growth of warts or "galls" in a curious kind of Alga
called Vaucheria.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">SUSPENDED ANIMATION</p>
<p class="drop-cap">OUR leading newspapers, with rare exceptions, never
report the discoveries announced at our scientific
societies. But they often seek to astonish their
readers with silly stories of monsters said to have been
seen in tropical forests, ghostly "manifestations" and
such rubbish transmitted to them at a high price by
crafty "newsmongers," and do much harm to themselves
and to the public thereby. On the other hand, foreign
newspapers do occasionally report the proceedings of
their local Academies—and then "our own correspondent"
telegraphs to London with a flourish, a confused report
of what he has read and ignorantly imagines to be "a
startling discovery" because he knows nothing whatever
of the subject. Thus shortly before the recent war—the
confirmation by a French experimenter of the fact,
long since demonstrated, that the seeds of plants can
survive exposure to very low temperature, was announced
with ridiculous emphasis by one of these "fat boys" of
journalism <i>pour épater le bourgeois</i>.</p>
<p>A temperature very near to that of the total absence
of that molecular movement or vibration which we call
"heat," can now be attained by the use of liquid hydrogen,
which enables us, by its evaporation, to come within a
few degrees (actually three!) of that condition known
as the "absolute zero." We divide into one hundred
equal steps or degrees the column of liquid (mercury,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
spirit, or other liquid) of a thermometer as it expands
from the shrunken bulk which it occupies when placed
in freezing water to the full length which it attains when
the water is heated to boiling point. This is called the
centigrade scale, or scale of a hundred degrees. But,
as we know by the records of travellers in the Arctic
regions and by the experiments made in laboratories,
there are "degrees" of coldness or diminution of heat
which are much below that of freezing water, and can
be measured by the further shrinking of the column of
liquid in the thermometer, so that we record "degrees
below zero centigrade," each of the same length as
those above it and corresponding to the same "quantum"
of decrease or increment of heat. As we pass from the
temperature at which water is solid to that much lower
or diminished state of hotness at which mercury becomes
solid, the shrinking column of the thermometer (in which
a liquid is used not rendered solid by this amount of
cooling) falls through 39 degrees of the centigrade size,
so that we say that mercury freezes at minus 39 or at
39 degrees below zero of the centigrade scale. The conclusion
has now been reached that the absolute zero or
cessation of all heat in a body is represented by a fall
of no less than 273 degrees below zero on the centigrade
scale. Hydrogen gas becomes a liquid at 252 degrees
below zero centigrade, and a solid at 264 degrees. If we
start our counting of those degrees or increments of heat,
of which there are 100 between the freezing and boiling
points of water, at the absolute zero or condition of total
absence of heat, we must say that hydrogen "melts"—that
is, passes from the solid to the liquid state—at
11 degrees (absolute), and boils at about 20 degrees
(absolute), whilst water does not melt until 273 degrees
(absolute) of temperature are reached, and boils at
373 degrees above the absolute zero.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
<p>It is the fact that, from the year 1860 onward,
numerous observers have experimented on the influence
of very low temperatures upon seeds, and have uniformly
shown that the power of germination and healthy growth
of the seeds is not destroyed by exposure to very low
temperatures. The celebrated Swiss botanist, De Candolle,
published the first careful observations on this subject
in conjunction with Raoul Pictet, who had devised an
apparatus for producing exceedingly low temperatures.
Pictet in 1893 exposed various bacteria and also seeds
to a temperature of nearly 200 degrees below zero centigrade
without injury to them. They "resumed" their
life when gradually restored to the normal temperature.
Pictet concluded that since all chemical action of the
kind which goes on in living things requires a certain
degree of temperature for its occurrence, and that this is
demonstrably considerably higher than minus 100 degrees
centigrade, we must suppose that all chemical action in
living things (as in nearly all other bodies) is annihilated
at 100 degrees below zero centigrade. Accordingly he
maintained that what we call "life," or "living," is a
manifestation of chemical forces similar to those shown
in other natural bodies, and liable to interruption and
resumption by the operation of unfavourable or favourable
conditions as are other chemical processes. In 1897,
Mr. Horace Brown and Mr. F. Escombe published, in
the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, an
account of experiments in which they exposed seeds of
twelve plants belonging to widely different natural orders
to a temperature varying from 183 degrees to 192 degrees
below zero centigrade for a period of 110 consecutive
hours (about four days and a half). As a result the
germinative powers of the seeds showed no appreciable
difference from that of seed not subjected to cold, and
they produced healthy plants. The low temperature was
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
obtained by the use of liquid air in a vacuum-jacketed
flask (like the well-known "thermos" flasks), into which
the seeds were introduced in thin glass tubes. Professor
M'Kendrick had previously shown that the putrescence
of meat, blood and milk by bacteria infesting them was
temporarily arrested, but not permanently so, by exposing
those substances for one hour to a temperature of
182 degrees below zero centigrade. It appeared that
the putrefactive bacteria present in those substances were
not destroyed by that degree of cold, but returned to
a state of activity when the normal temperature was
restored. Professor M'Kendrick also showed that seeds
would germinate after exposure to like treatment.</p>
<p>All this is ancient history, twenty years and more in
the past. The experiments of a French observer, mentioned
at the beginning of this chapter as foolishly
trumpeted in a London paper, were of service as confirming
the extensive and careful work of his predecessors.
It is only when our old well-bottled discoveries have,
however tardily, been brought before the Paris Academy
of Sciences and sent back to us by the Paris correspondents
of news agencies as "startling novelties" and "amazing
discoveries" (twenty years old), that any attempt is made
to mention them in the London daily Press. And then
they are announced without any reference to their true
history. This habit of culling stale morsels of information
from the proceedings of foreign academies points to the
fact that there is incompetence both in the purveyor and
publisher of such scraps. If our newspaper editors must
publish scraps about scientific novelties, they should
employ educated assistants to see that they do not
make themselves ridiculous. The scraps which come
round to our newspapers from Paris are usually plagiarized
from a French newspaper by some one who has a very
imperfect knowledge of the subject to which they refer,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
and adds his own blunders to those of the original
reporter.</p>
<p>The action of extreme cold in arresting life in such
minute organisms as plant seeds and bacteria without
destroying the possibility of the resumption of those
chemical and physical changes when warmth is restored,
is dependent on the fact that those chemical changes
can only proceed in and by the aid of liquid water.
When thoroughly frozen the chemical constituents of
minute organisms and seeds—which until frozen were
living and undergoing continuous, though perhaps slow,
change—become solid, and can no longer act on one
another or be acted on by surrounding chemical bodies
equally reduced in temperature. They may be compared
to the solid dry constituents of a Seidlitz powder—one
an acid, the other a carbonate. So long as they are
dry they remain—when mixed and shaken together—inert,
without action on one another. Even if one is
dissolved in water and then frozen solid and mixed in
a powdered state with the other at an equally low
temperature the mixture remains dry and inert. Nothing
happens so long as the low temperature is maintained.
But if we raise the temperature above the freezing-point—so
as to liquefy the solution—chemical action will
immediately ensue. With much fizzing and escape of
gas the two chemicals will unite. The effect of cold on
living matter is of this nature. It is a real "suspension"
of the changes which were—however slowly and quietly—going
on before complete solidification of the protoplasm
by freezing. A frozen seed and frozen bacteria are in
a state of "suspended animation."</p>
<p>It is not the fact that absolutely all chemical union
and change whatsoever is prevented—that is to say,
arrested or suspended—by extreme cold, although the
union with oxygen and other such changes of the essential
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
material of living things, which we call "protoplasm,"
and most other chemical changes are thus arrested or
suspended. The most striking exception is that of the
most active of all elements, the gas fluorine, which
becomes a liquid at 210 degrees below zero centigrade,
and in that condition attacks turpentine if brought into
contact with it at the same low temperature with explosive
force. Even solid fluorine combines with liquid
hydrogen with violent explosion. It seems certain, however,
that elements or chemical compounds brought into
the solid (not merely liquid) condition by extreme cold
cannot act chemically upon other bodies in the same solid
condition, even when they would at normal temperatures
so act with the greatest readiness, because they are then
either liquid or gaseous.</p>
<p>The conception of an arrest of the changes in
organisms, which we call life, followed by their resumption
after a greater or less interval of suspense,
was long ago suggested and discussed before we had
knowledge of the action of low temperatures. The
winter-sleep of some animals and the "comatose" condition
sometimes exhibited by human beings had led to
the notion of "suspended animation." But a careful study
of hybernating animals and of human instances of prolonged
"coma" satisfied physiologists nearly 100 years
ago that the processes of life—the beating of the heart
and the respiration—were not actually and absolutely
suspended in these cases, but reduced to a minimum. The
chemical processes connected with life were still very
slowly carried on.</p>
<p>Again, a great deal of interest and discussion was
excited in the last century by the drying up of delicate
yet complex aquatic animalcules, such as the Rotifers
(the wheel animalcules described in our last chapter)
and Tardigrades (bear animalcules), and the fact that
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
after their preservation as mere dust for many months
dried on a glass-slip they could be revived and made to
return to life by wetting them with a minute drop of
water, whilst the whole process of revival was watched
under the microscope. Letters were published in the
"Times" in the "fifties" by the Rev. Lord Sydney
Godolphin Osborn, describing his observations and experiments
on these animalcules.</p>
<p>The yellow slime-fungus called "flowers of tan," after
creeping as a naked network of protoplasm over the
"spent tan," thrown out from tan-pits, will in dry
weather gather itself into little knobs, each of which is
as hard and brittle as a piece of sealing-wax. Yet (as
I have repeatedly experienced in using material given
to me by the great botanist, de Bary) a fragment of one
of these hard pieces, if carefully guarded in a dry pill-box
for two or three years, will when placed on a film of water
at summer-heat gradually absorb moisture and expand
itself into threads of creeping, flowing protoplasm, nourish
itself, and grow and reproduce. It was formerly suggested
in regard to these cases of resuscitation after drying, as
also in the case of seeds which germinate after being kept
in a dry condition for many years, that really they were
not thoroughly dried, but were sufficiently moist to allow
of very slow oxidation and gas exchange, which it was
said was so small in amount as to escape observation.
There was a plausible comparison of the condition of
these dried organisms to that of hybernating mammals,
desiccated snails, and comatose men. It was held that
here, too, the life-processes were not absolutely arrested,
but reduced to an imperceptible minimum.</p>
<p>This view of the matter was connected, no doubt,
with a traditional assumption that life was an entity—an
"anima animans"—which entered a living body, kept it
continually "going" or "living," and if driven out from
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
it could not return. Curiously enough, Mr. Herbert
Spencer seems to have been (perhaps unconsciously)
affected by this traditional view, since he defined life as "the
continuous"—that is the important word—"adaptation
of internal to external relations." This definition prejudiced
the view of some distinguished physiologists on
the question of "suspended animation," and I remember
a very warm dinner-table discussion with Michael Foster
and other friends, some twenty-five years ago, when I
put forward the view that so long as the intimate
structure—in fact, the chemical structure—of the protoplasm
of a living thing is not destroyed, it does not
"die" though all chemical change in it may be arrested.
I compared the dried seed and dried animalcule—as I
would now compare the frozen seed and the frozen
bacteria—to a well wound watch which is stopped by
the intrusion of a needle between the spokes of its balance
wheel, or, better, by the cooling on the wheel of a tiny
drop of soft wax so as to clog it. The works of the
watch are rendered absolutely motionless, but it is not
"dead." As soon as the needle is removed or the tiny
speck of wax melted by a gentle warmth it resumes its
movement. It is, as we say, "alive again." So, too,
the frozen or dried organism is absolutely motionless.
No chemical movements can go on in it. They are
stopped by the solidity set up by freezing, or in the case
of simple "desiccation," by the absence of the moisture
necessary for bringing the chemical molecules into contact.
If protected from destructive agents, the mechanism
remains perfect for just so many years or centuries as
that protection lasts. Whenever the frozen organism
thaws or the dried organism becomes wet, the life-processes
are resumed, the seed germinates, the bacteria
grow and multiply.</p>
<p>Thus we see what are some of the points of interest
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
and importance raised by the old experiments of Pictet,
M'Kendrick, and Horace Brown, the results of which were
the same as those announced as Parisian novelties. I
have yet to say a few words as to the reason why we
cannot produce "suspended animation" in higher organisms
or in man by the application to them of extreme
cold. Further, the influence of extreme cold on the
possible passage, through space, of living germs from
other worlds to this earth—a possibility suggested by
the late Lord Kelvin—requires some consideration in
connection with the striking experiments with phosphorescent
bacteria described ten years ago by Sir James
Dewar.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_37c.jpg" id="i_37c.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_37c.jpg" width="600" height="322"
alt="" />
<div class="caption">Young stages of growth or Veliger larvæ of marine snails,
showing the ciliated band or velum which is identical
with the wheel apparatus of the Rotifers or Wheel animalcules.</div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">MORE ABOUT SUSPENDED ANIMATION</p>
<p class="drop-cap">I GAVE some account in the last chapter of the
experiments made within the last twenty years,
which have shown that, in certain very simple
organisms and in seeds, all chemical change can be stopped
by the application to them of methods of freezing. The
continuous changes which go on in these living things
under ordinary circumstances are arrested by the solidification
of what was more or less "moist" material. Water
in the liquid state, though it may be in extremely minute
quantity, is necessary for the chemical combinations and
decompositions which go on in living things. Hence not
only the solidification of all moisture, in or having access
to the living bodies experimented on, arrests those
chemical combinations and decompositions, but very
thorough drying also has this result. Yet either on
thawing the frozen liquid or supplying moisture to the
"dried up" organism, the previously continuous chemical
and physical changes are resumed as though no arrest or
suspension of them had occurred. No limit is known to
the length of time during which this arrest may be
continued, and yet a resumption of living changes occur
when the cause of arrest—namely, either solidification by
cold or else dryness—is removed. The apparatus—the
exact structure and the exact chemical materials—of the
seeds or the bacteria remains uninjured and unchanged
by either freezing or drying carefully applied. It is, of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
course, impossible to guarantee that no accident, no
unforeseen change in the surroundings, shall take place
and destroy in one way or another the experiment. But
the arrest of all change, such as goes on in life, has been,
in many experiments, maintained under careful supervision
and protection for several months, and yet life has been
resumed when the cause arresting chemical change has
been removed. The presumption, then, is in favour of
the possibility of the arrest being maintained for an unlimited
period, and yet at any time being resumed when
the arresting cause (cold or dryness) is removed.</p>
<p>Before what we may call "the suspensory action" of
very low temperatures had become generally known, the
question occurred as to whether seeds kept in a dry
condition for several months, or even years, and yet
capable of germination when placed in moist earth, are
during their dry condition undergoing any chemical
changes. The matter presented itself in this way.
The dry seeds can germinate when sown, therefore
they are not dead, but living. According to various
physiologists and philosophers (<i>e.g.</i>, Herbert Spencer),
life is a continuous adjustment of internal to external
relations. Burdon Sanderson, the Oxford professor of
Physiology, declared that "life is a state of ceaseless
change." If this is a correct conception, and if by "living"
we mean, as the great Oxford English Dictionary tells
us, "manifesting the property called life," then the seeds
which, though dry, are still "living" or "alive" or
"endowed with life," should yield some evidence of the
"ceaseless change" (by which is meant chemical change)
of which, as things not dead but living, they are supposed
to be the seat. The late Dr. George Romanes published
in 1893 some experiments on this matter. We know that
free oxygen is very generally (though not universally)
necessary for the continual chemical changes which the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
minutest as well as the largest plants and animals carry
on. Romanes enclosed a quantity of dry seeds in glass
tubes, from which he pumped out all gas as completely
as possible—that is to say, all except one-millionth of
the original volume. He also expelled all oxygen by
replacing it by other gases. As a result of this treatment,
continued for as much as fifteen months, he found that
neither a high vacuum nor subsequent exposure for twelve
months in separate instances to oxygen or to hydrogen,
or nitrogen, or carbon monoxide, or carbon dioxide, or
hydrogen sulphide, or the vapour of ether or of chloroform,
had any effect on the subsequent germinative power of the
seeds employed. These experiments proved that anything
like respiration by ordinary gaseous exchange with the
atmosphere was <i>not</i> going on in the seeds, and that if
they are the seat of "ceaseless change" because not dead,
the changes must be chemical interactions of some kind
or other within their protoplasm.</p>
<p>The keeping of seeds and also of bacteria for days and
even months—at temperatures as low as 100 degrees below
zero centigrade—and their subsequent resumption of life,
has removed the possibility (not excluded by Romanes)
of the occurrence of chemical interactions within the
substance of these organisms preserved during long
periods of time, and yet not ceasing to be what is ordinarily
called "alive," or endowed with "life." It is time that we
should definitely abandon Herbert Spencer's and Burdon
Sanderson's definitions or verbal characterizations of
"life." The word "life" is commonly and properly used
to designate the condition of a "living thing" or a thing
which is "alive." A thing which has lost life—that is,
which was living, but is so no more, and cannot be
"restored to life" or resuscitated—is, in correct English,
said to have "died," or to be "dead." The motionless,
unchanging frozen seed or bacterium, which resumes its
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
living activities when carefully thawed, has <i>not</i> "died."
The mere fact that it can be resuscitated justifies the
application to it, according to correct English usage, of
the word "alive"—it is still "alive." It is not possible to
alter the significance of the words "life," "living" and
"alive," so as to retain the definitions of Herbert Spencer
and Burdon Sanderson as correct. They are incorrect.
Life is not continuous or ceaseless change. It is a property
of the more active substance of plants and animals which
has special structure and definite chemical constituents.
The property is, no doubt, usually manifested under
normal conditions of temperature, light, moisture, pressure,
chemical and electrical surroundings in a continuous
series of changes, both chemical and physical. But at
exceptionally low temperature, and in other arresting
circumstances these changes can, in a few exceptional
organisms, be absolutely stopped, though the organism
in which the changes cease is uninjured as a mechanism.
It still possesses "the property of life"—is still "alive"
although motionless and unchanging. Its life is in
suspense, as is that of a clock with arrested pendulum.</p>
<p>The unjustified conception of "life," or "living," or
being "alive," and not dead, as necessarily a state of
incessant chemical and other change, is bound up with the
old fancy that life is not to be considered as a state or
motion of a special and complex structure called protoplasm,
but is a thing, a spirit or an essence, which takes
possession of organic bodies and makes them "live."
According to Sir Oliver Lodge, if chemists could build up
the chemical materials which constitute protoplasm, the
protoplasm so made by them would not live. It would
(he stated at the meeting of the British Association in
Birmingham in 1912) have to receive a charge or infusion,
as it were, of this thing suggested by the word "life." It
cannot live itself (according to the suppositions of Sir
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
Oliver), but serves as the vehicle, the receptacle, for this
supposed intangible entity "life." In the same imaginative
vein, our grandfathers used to say that heat was due to
the entity or "fairy" "caloric" which could be enticed
into or driven from material bodies, making them "hot"
by its presence and cold by its greater or less exclusion.
The suspended animation of frozen germs and their return
to life when warmed could thus be represented as an
affection or affinity between the fairy "Vitalis" and the
fairy "Caloric," the former fleeing from the body and
waiting near when the latter deserts his place, but returning
to happy union with "Caloric" when he again, however
feebly, pervades once more the vehicle provided for
"Vitalis." Such imaginary essences are not of any
assistance to us in arriving at a knowledge of the facts,
and so far from helping us to a comprehension of the
ultimate nature of things (which we have no reason to
suppose that it is possible for us to attain) their introduction
tends to the substitution of imaginary causes
and unverified assumptions for the carefully-tested and
demonstrated conclusions of science.</p>
<p>In 1871 Lord Kelvin, when president of the British
Association, suggested that the origin of life as we know
it may have been extra-terrestrial, and due to the "moss-grown
fragments from the ruins of another world," which
reached the earth as meteorites. It was objected to this
that the extreme cold—very near to the absolute zero—which
prevails in interstellar space would be fatal to all
germs of life carried by such meteoric stones. But twenty
years later Sir James Dewar showed that this objection
did not hold, since at any rate some forms of life—certain
bacteria—could survive an exposure of several days to a
temperature approaching the absolute zero. Later Sir
James made some very striking experiments by exposing
cultivations of phosphorescent bacteria to the temperature
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
of liquid hydrogen (252 degrees below zero centigrade).
These bacteria may be obtained by selective cultivation
from sea-water taken on the coast, in which a few are
always scattered. A rich growth of these bacteria in
gelatine broth gives off a brilliant greenish light when
shaken with atmospheric air or otherwise exposed to
oxygen. The light is so intense that a glass flask holding
a pint of the cultivation gives off sufficient light to enable
one to read in an otherwise dark room. The emission of
light is dependent on the chemical activity of the living
bacteria in the presence of oxygen. In the absence of
free oxygen they cease to be luminous. As soon as they
are killed the light ceases. When they are frozen solid
the light ceases, even in the presence of free oxygen gas.
When a film consisting of such a culture is frozen solid it
will remain inactive if the low temperature be maintained
for months, though exposed to free oxygen gas, and then,
as soon as it is liquefied by a gentle rise in temperature,
the active changes recommence, and the phosphorescent
light beams forth. Sir James Dewar exposed such films
to the low temperature of liquid hydrogen for (so far as I
remember) six months, and obtained from them at once
the evidence of their living chemical activity, namely, their
"phosphorescence," as soon as they were thawed. In the
frozen state, at a temperature of minus 250 degrees centigrade,
nothing, it appeared, could injure these phosphorescent
bacteria. No chemical can "get at them" at that
temperature, the most biting acid, the most caustic alkali
cannot touch them when, like them, it is in a hard, solid
condition. Powdering the film by mechanical pressure
has no effect on the bacteria. They are too small to be
crushed by any mill. Such germs would, it seemed, surely
be able to travel through interstellar space, as suggested
by Kelvin.</p>
<p>Then it occurred to Sir James that light—the strangely
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
active ultra-violet rays of light—might be able to disintegrate
and destroy the bacteria, even when frozen solid at
the lowest temperature. He exposed his frozen cultures
to strong light, excluding any heat-giving rays, and found
that the bacteria no longer recovered when subsequently
the culture was thawed. Light, certain rays of light, can,
it thus appears, penetrate and cause destructive vibrations
in chemical bodies protected from all other disintegrating
agencies by the solidity conferred by extreme cold. I am
not able to say, at the moment, how far this important
matter has been pursued by further experiment, nor
whether what are called the "chemically active" rays of
light and other rays such as the Röntgen rays can effect
chemical change in other bodies (besides living germs),
upon which they act at normal temperatures, but in regard
to which they might be expected to be inoperative when
the bodies in question are brought into the peculiar state
of inactivity produced by extreme cold. Since light is far
more intense outside our atmosphere than within it, it
seemed, at first, that the demonstration of its destructive
action on frozen germs puts an end to Kelvin's theory of
a meteoric origin of life. It must, however, be remembered
that minute living germs could conceivably be protected
from the access of light by being embedded in even very
small opaque particles of meteoric clay. So Lord
Kelvin's suggestion as to the travelling of life on meteoric
dust cannot be set aside as involving the supposition of
the persistence of life in conditions known to be destructive
of it.</p>
<p>The great interest in former times in relation to
"suspended animation" has naturally been in relation to
the occurrence of this condition in man and the possibility
of producing it in man by this or that treatment. There
is no doubt whatever, at the present day, that "death-like"
trances, whether occurring naturally or after the administration
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
of drugs, in the case of man and of higher animals,
are not due to that complete suspension of living changes
which we can produce, as I have here related, in certain
lower forms of life. These death-like trances are merely
cases of reduction of the living changes to a very low
degree.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
<p>The bodies of all but the simplest animals and plants
are too large and too complex to survive the bursting and
disruptive action of extreme cold, due to the unequal
distribution of water within them and its irresistible
expansion when frozen. Their living mechanism is
broken, mechanically destroyed by this expansion. We
cannot hope to apply cold to man so as to produce
"suspended animation." It is true that experiments are
on record in which fish and even frogs have survived
enclosure within a solid mass of ice by the freezing of the
water in which they were living. But careful experiments
are wanting which would demonstrate that these animals
were actually frozen through and through, and that either
fish or other cold-blooded animals can survive a thorough
solidification by freezing of their entire substance. Such
survival cannot be pronounced to be impossible, but it has
not been demonstrated in any cold-blooded animal—even
shell-fish or worm or polyp—let alone a warm-blooded
mammal. It appears that, apart from disruptive effects,
the protoplasm of even very minute and simple organisms,
such as the Protozoa, does not in all kinds, even if in any,
survive exposure to great cold. The toleration of great
cold and return to living activity after thorough freezing
is, it appears, a special quality attained by the living
material of vegetable seeds and by many kinds of bacteria.
A similar special toleration of high temperatures, a good
deal short of the boiling point, but high enough to kill
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
most plants and animals, is known to characterize certain
bacteria and allied Schizophyta found in hot springs. It
is a matter of common knowledge that many animals
and plants are killed by a temperature (whether too
high or too low for them) which allows others to flourish
and may be necessary for their life. Minute organisms
(flagellate monads) have been cultivated experimentally in
a nourishing liquid, the temperature of which was raised
daily by one or two degrees until the liquid was so hot
that the same species of organism was at once killed by
it when abruptly transferred to it from liquid at ordinary
summer temperature.</p>
<p>The true "suspended animation" of many vegetable
seeds and of many kinds of bacteria under the influence
of cold is not an exhibition of a general property of living
things, but is due to a special quality of resistance gradually
attained by natural selection of variations a little more
tolerant of cold or of drought than are the majority. It is
of life-saving value and a cause of survival to the species
of plants and bacteria concerned. No doubt there is need
of further experiment on the subject of the "killing" or
destructive effect exerted by different degrees of diminution
of temperature upon the protoplasm of all kinds of
organisms, and with the knowledge so obtained we shall
be able to frame a conception of the actual mechanical
and chemical peculiarities of the protoplasm of those
bacteria and of those vegetable seeds which can be exposed
to the extreme of cold for many months or for an indefinite
period and yet subsequently recover or live again.
Probably in order to survive freezing, protoplasm must be,
not absolutely dry, but free from all but a minimum of
moisture.</p>
<div class="footnotes p4"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
<div class="footnote">
<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
See the chapter on "Sleep," in my "Science from an Easy Chair,"
Methuen, 1909.</p></div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">THE SWASTIKA</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_38.jpg" id="i_38.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_38.jpg" width="600" height="563"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>—The swastika
in its simplest rectangular form. It may turn to the right, as here, or to the left, a
less usual thing, but without significance.</div>
</div>
<p class="drop-cap">A GOOD many people have never heard of the
Swastika. It is an emblem or device such as is
the Cross or the Crescent. Here it is (Fig. 38)
in its most simple and most common form. In India it
is in common use at the present day, and has been so
for ages. It is the emblem of good
luck. The name "Swastika," by which
it is widely known, is a Sanskrit word
meaning "good luck." The word is
composed of Su, the equivalent of the
Greek <i>eu</i>, signifying "well" or "good,"
and asti (like the Greek <i>esto</i>), signifying
"being," whilst ka is a suffix completing
the word as a substantive.
The sign or emblem called Swastika
must have existed and been largely
used in decoration of temples, images,
swords, banners, utensils, and personal
trinkets of all sorts long before this name was given to it.
It has a name in many widely separate languages. It
is often referred to by English writers as the fylfot, the
gammadion, and the "crux ansata," also as the "croix
gammée." It is often found more roughly drawn (on
pottery or cloth) as shown in Fig. 39. Often the arms of
the cross are bent rigidly at right angles as in Fig. 38,
but they are often only curved as seen in Fig. 39, C,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
or curled spirally as in B, when it is called an "ogee."
The arms of the Swastika are sometimes bent to the
right as in Fig. 38, and sometimes to the left as in Fig. 39.
This difference does not appear to have any symbolic
significance, but to depend on the fancy of the artist.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_39.jpg" id="i_39.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_39.jpg" width="600" height="185"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>—Three simple varieties
of the swastika. <i>A</i>, the normal rectangular. <i>B</i>, the
ogee variety (with spiral extremities). <i>C</i>, the
curvilinear or "current" variety.</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_40.jpg" id="i_40.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_40.jpg" width="529" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>—Footprint of the Buddha,
from an ancient Indian carving, showing several swastikas. (Fergusson and
Schliemann.)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In Figs. 40 to 45 a few examples are shown of the
Swastika from various places and ages. It was in use
in Japan in ancient times, and is still common there and
in Korea. In China, where it is called "wan," it was at
one time used, when enclosed in a circle, as a character
or pictograph to signify the sun. It has been employed
in China from time immemorial to mark sacred or
specially honoured
works of art, buildings,
porcelain,
pictures, robes, and
is sometimes tattooed
on the hands, arms,
or breast. In India
it is widely used in
decoration by both
Buddhists and Brahmins; children have it painted on
their shaven heads, and it is introduced in various
ceremonies. The gigantic carved footprints of Buddha
from an Indian temple drawn in Fig. 40 show several
Swastikas on the soles of the feet and on the toes. In
the Near East and in Europe the Swastika is no longer
in use: it is not, in fact, popularly known. But in ancient
and very remote times it was in constant use in these
regions, especially by the Mykenæan people and those
who came under their influence, and also by the people
of the Bronze Age—before the use of iron in Europe.
Fig. 41 shows a vase of Mykenæan age (about 1200
years <span class="sc">B.C.</span>) from Cyprus ornamented with Swastikas.
Hundreds of terra-cotta "spindle-whorls" like Fig. 42
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
were found by Schliemann in excavating Hissarlik and
the site of ancient Troy, and some of them date from
3000 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> in layers of different ages. The vase on which
is painted the ornament shown in Fig. 43 is from Bœotia,
and belongs to the same early period—the "Mykenæan"
or "Ægæan" before that of the Hellenes. It still
survives in the pottery of the Dipylon period (<i>circa</i>
800 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>), as is seen in the fragment drawn in Fig. 6,
Chapter I. The later Greeks of the great classical period
(Hellenes) did not use the Swastika. Nor has it been
found on the works of art of the ancient Egyptians, nor
in the remains of Babylonia, Assyria or Persia. It, in
fact, seems to have belonged especially to that ancient
"Minoan" civilization, the remains of which are found in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
Crete and the other Greek islands. The same culture
and the same race is revealed
to us by the discoveries of
Schliemann at Mykenæ and
other spots in Greece, and at
Hissarlik, the seat of ancient
Troy. The Mykenæan art
seems not to have been transmitted
to the post-Homeric
Greeks, nor to Egypt, nor to
Babylonia and Assyria. The
Swastika seems, like the "flying
gallop" of Mykenæan art, to
have travelled in very ancient
times by a north-eastern route
to the Far East. I have given
some account of the latter, with
illustrations, in "Science from
an Easy Chair," Second series.
Like the representation of the galloping horse, with
both fore and hind legs stretched and the hoofs of the
hind legs turned upwards, the Swastika is found in the
remarkable metal work (Fig. 43 <i>bis</i>)
discovered in the necropolis of Koban,
in the Caucasus, dating from 500 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>
The Swastika and the "flying gallop"
probably travelled together across
Asia to China and the Far East,
and so eventually to India on the
one hand and Japan on the other—the
Swastika thus escaping altogether,
as does the pose of the "flying
gallop," the Near East and later
Greece. This is a very remarkable and interesting
association.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_41.jpg" id="i_41.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_41.jpg" width="434" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>—Vase from Cyprus
(Mykenæan Age, <i>circa</i> 1200 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>); painted with lotus,
bird and four swastikas (Metropolitan Museum, New York City).</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_42.jpg" id="i_42.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_42.jpg" width="600" height="597"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>—Terra-cotta
spindle-whorl marked with swastikas. Troy, 4th city (Schliemann).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p>
<p>The Mykenæans and their island relatives obtained
the Swastika either from the ancient Bronze-age people
of Europe or else gave it to them, since it is very nearly
as common as a decoration or symbol on the bronze
swords, spear-heads, shields, and other metal work of
these prehistoric people of the middle and north of Europe
(also occurring in the pottery of the Swiss Lake dwellings),
as it is in the islands and adjacent
lands of the Eastern Mediterranean.
The Swastika is also
found abundantly on the early
work of the Etruscans, but disappeared
from general use in
Italy, as it did from the rest of
Europe, before historic times,
although occasionally used (as
in the decoration of the walls of
a house at Pompeii). All over
Germany, Scandinavia, France,
and Britain it is found (Fig. 44)
on objects of the Bronze period—sometimes
on stone as well as
on bronze utensils, ornaments,
and weapons. A few objects of
Anglo-Saxon age are ornamented
with it—especially remarkable
is a piece of pottery of that age from Norfolk
(Fig. 45).</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_43.jpg" id="i_43.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_43.jpg" width="385" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—Ornament from an
archaic (pre-Hellenic) Bœotian vase, showing several
swastikas, Greek crosses and two serpents (from Goodyear).</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_43a.jpg" id="i_43a.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_43a.jpg" width="600" height="347"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span> (<i>bis</i>).—Swastika in
bronze repoussé, from the necropolis of Koban,
Caucasus (after Chantre "Le Caucase"), about 500 <span class="sc">B.C.</span></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_44.jpg" id="i_44.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_44.jpg" width="600" height="518"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>—Silver-plated bronze horse-gear
from Scandinavia, showing two swastikas, and below a complex elaboration of a swastika.
(Bronze Age, about 1500 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>)</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_45.jpg" id="i_45.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_45.jpg" width="515" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>—Anglo-Saxon urn from
Shropham, Norfolk, ornamented by twenty small hand-made
swastikas stamped into the clay. (British Museum.)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The history of the "Swastika" would be remarkable
enough if it ended here with the disappearance of its use
in Europe in prehistoric times and its continued use in
the Far East and India. But the most curious fact about
it is that we find it as a very common and favourite
decoration and device among the native tribes in North
America and Mexico, and exceptionally in Brazil. It is
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
found in use among the Indians of Kansas and other
tribes—as a device in pottery, in bead-work (Fig. 46),
patch-work, quill-embroidery, and other decorative fabrics.
The Indians called Sacs, Kickapoos, and Pottawottamies,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
who worship the sun (which is associated with the
Swastika in China), call it by a native name signifying
"the luck." It is also found as a decorative design in
the most ancient remains of man in America, dating (so
far as can be guessed) from a thousand years or more
before Columbus (Fig. 47).</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_46.jpg" id="i_46.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_46.jpg" width="600" height="219"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>—Piece of a ceremonial
bead-worked garter, showing star and
two swastikas made by the Sac Indians, Cook County, Kansas. (Modern.)</div>
</div>
<p>It is generally held that the Swastika must have been
introduced into America in prehistoric times by early
redskin immigrants from Asia. The question has been
raised as to whether this introduction was before or after
the worship of Buddha in Asia. It is only amongst
Buddhists that the Swastika has a religious or sacred
character. Elsewhere it seems to have been a mark
or sign carrying "good luck." A representation of a
sitting human figure incised on shell has been found in a
prehistoric burial-mound in Tennessee, which has remarkable
resemblance to the Asiatic statues of the Buddha.
Shell ornaments have also been found here decorated
with sharply-cut Swastikas, and in a mound in Ohio
thin plates of copper were found cut into simple Swastika
shapes like that of Fig. 38, four inches across. Modern
Mexican Indians make brooches of gold and turquoise in
the form of the Swastika, and it is a favourite device
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
among the Indians of neighbouring territory. Swastikas
occur as decorations or lucky marks on the small terra-cotta
"fig-leaf," which was worn by the women of some
of the aboriginal tribes of Brazil, and have also been
found on native pottery from the Paraguay River.</p>
<p>Some students of this subject have held the opinion
that the "Swastika" has been invented independently at
different times in different parts of the world. It is a
fairly simple device, it is true; but the view which is
accepted at present is that it has spread from one centre—probably
European in the
late Stone period—through
the Mykenæans, across Asia,
and so with early immigrants
across the Pacific into the
American continent.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_47.jpg" id="i_47.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_47.jpg" width="600" height="438"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>—A stone slab from the
ancient city of Mayapan (Yucatan, Central America), on which (right
side) a curvilinear swastika is carved. (From the American Antiquarian
Society, 1881.)</div>
</div>
<p>Apart from this problem,
there is an interesting
question as to how the
device probably took its
origin. The "Swastika"
is sometimes called the
"gammadion," because it
may be regarded as four
individuals of the Greek letter gamma (which has this
shape [Greek: G]) joined at right angles to one another. The old
English name for it, dating from Anglo-Saxon times,
was fylfot—an old Norse word of doubtful meaning, which
has no currency at the present day.</p>
<p>A method of making the Swastika by piling up sand
or grain on a flat surface, actually in use at the present
time in India, is shown in Fig. 48. The artist makes
first of all a circle with a cross drawn within it (A).
Then the circle is rubbed out or cut away at four
corresponding points where the arms of the cross touch
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
the circle, and so we get B. Then by the straightening
of the curved pieces we get the correct rectangular
Swastika, C. It is not probable that this is the way
in which the Swastika was originally devised, though it is
not possible to arrive at any certainty on the subject.</p>
<p>In these matters concerning the origin of simple
ornamental patterns, designs, and symbols, we always
have to deal with certain natural opposing tendencies
on the part of the artist-draughtsman or designer, one or
other of which may be variously called into prominence
by the softness or hardness or other quality of the
material he has to use, or by the individual fancy for
elaboration or for simplification which exists in him. I
will call four of these tendencies which concern us in
regard to the Swastika: 1, the rectilinear as opposed to
2, the curvilinear, and 3, the grammatizing as opposed
to 4, the naturalizing tendency, and will show what
bearing they may have on the origin of the device known
as the Swastika.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_48.jpg" id="i_48.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_48.jpg" width="600" height="246"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span>—Diagram to show the
derivation of the swastika from a Greek cross enclosed by a circle. In India the swastika
is actually modelled in this way—in native ceremonies with
rice-grain spread on the ground. The successive figures
drawn above are produced by moving the rice with the hand.</div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">THE ORIGIN OF THE SWASTIKA</p>
<p class="drop-cap">THE Swastika is, we have seen, a very early device
or symbol in use among ancient races in Europe,
Asia and America. Though it has been found
on an ingot of metal in Ashanti it was of late foreign
introduction there, and is not known in Africa, nor in
Polynesia and Australia, nor among the Eskimos. How
did it as a mere matter of shape and pattern come into
existence? One might suppose that such combinations
of lines as the simple cross and this modified cross, with
the arms bent each half-way along its length to form a
right angle, would be very natural things for a primitive
man—or a child—to make when trying to produce some
ornamental effect by tracing simple rectilinear and symmetrical
figures. No doubt such a "playing with lines"
is a common phase or stage of the human search for
decorative design. It leads by gradual steps to very
complex line-decoration in early pottery and woven work,
which is sometimes called "geometrical design."</p>
<p>It is, however, the fact, and a very interesting one,
that the tendency to make geometrical design is not so
pronounced in the very earliest examples of human
drawing and ornament known to us, as is the tendency
to copy natural objects. And this would appear to be
especially the case where the drawing is to be a symbol
or significant badge. In the earliest art-work known to
us—that of the cave-men of the late Pleistocene period in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
Western Europe (see Chaps. I., II. and III.)—the artists
were busy with attempts (often wonderfully successful
ones) to present the outlines of familiar animals (and
sometimes plants) by incised carving on bone or painting
on the rock walls of caves—preceded, it is true, by a
period in which "all-round" sculpture in bone or stone
or modelling in clay was the method employed. The
extensive use of lines—concentric or parallel, like those
on the finger-tips—as decoration of stone work is not
known until the later or Neolithic period.
<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> On one at
least of the incised bone drawings of the Palæolithic
cave-men two little diamond-shaped lozenges are engraved.
They are seen in the cave-men's drawing of
a stag figured on pp. 12, 13 of this book. These lozenges
are supposed to be the "signature" of the artist, and,
if so, are not only the first examples of a geometrical
rectilinear figure as ornament, but the earliest examples
known of the use of a badge or symbol as a means of
identification.</p>
<p>When we compare the simpler decorative designs
made use of by the less cultivated races of men, we find
that there are certain distinct and opposed tendencies
the predominance of which is of importance in helping
us to explain the origin of the design. The tendency to
make straight lines and rectilinear angles, which we may
call the "rectilinear habit," is found in work executed
on hard stone by a graving tool, and in work where
square-cut stones are set together or flat pieces of wood
or straw are interlaced, and in coarser kinds of weaving,
bead-work, and basketwork. The opposite tendency is
found in work executed with a brush and fluid paint on
pottery or cloth, or even with a graver on soft clay or bone.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p>
<p>The contrast is well shown in the two renderings of
one and the same "pattern," shown in A and B of Fig. 49.
A is the rectilinear angular decorative design which is
known as the "Greek key pattern," whilst the scroll
below it is the "curvilinear" treatment of the same
subject. The first takes its rectilinear character from
a structure built up of hard blocklike pieces; the other
is the flowing, easily moving line of a brush laying on
paint, or of a style moving over clay or soft wax. The
contrast is the same as that of the capital letters of the
Roman alphabet, as used in print, with their equivalents
in "copper-plate,"
cursive handwriting.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_49.jpg" id="i_49.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_49.jpg" width="600" height="325"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span>—The Greek Key pattern
in <i>A</i> rectangular, and <i>B</i> curvilinear or "current" form.</div>
</div>
<p>Another pair of
tendencies opposed
to each other which
have much significance
in the explanation
of decorative
design is the tendency
to convert the
simple lines of an
original design into a drawing representing some animal
or plant shape. At the end of the last chapter I distinguished
this as the "naturalizing" tendency, contrasting
it with the grammatizing or simplifying tendency.
A good example of it is seen in Fig. 50. In A of that
figure we see a circle divided into three cones by curved
lines; this is a known design. It is called a "triskelion"
(meaning a three-legged figure), or is more correctly
termed "a three-branched scroll." The curves are converted
into angles and straight lines in B, and then the
stiff rectilinear "triskelion" is subsequently developed into
three human legs, as shown in C, Fig. 50. It is naturalized.
Were the change to proceed in the other way from the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
three human legs to the simple lines, we should have an
example of the opposed tendency, namely, that of converting
drawings of natural objects—by a degenerative or
reducing process—to the simplest lines representative of
them. This tendency, which we call "grammatizing"
(from gramma, the Greek for a line), is far commoner
in early art than the naturalizing tendency which sets
in when the artist is exuberant, self-confident, and
imaginative. We see a "naturalizing" tendency in the
flamboyant and arabesque decorative work of the renascence,
but it is also found among the happy Minoan,
or Ægæan, island folk
who decorated great
pots and basins in
Cyprus and Crete with
forms suggested by
birds, sea-creatures,
and climbing plants,
and worshipped the
great mother Nature
as Aphrodite, the sea-born
goddess.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_50.jpg" id="i_50.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_50.jpg" width="600" height="234"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 50.</span>—Diagrams of the "triskelion" or
figure formed by the division of a circle into three equal bent cones as in <i>A</i>.
<i>B</i> is the rectangular form derived from it. <i>C</i>
is a "naturalized" form derived from it, namely, the three conjoined legs used as
the badge of Sicily and of the Isle of Man.</div>
</div>
<p>The triangular island of Sicily (called also Trinacria)
had in ancient times (even as far back as 300 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>) the
conjoined three legs (shown in Fig. 50, C) as its badge or
armorial emblem. An ancient Greek vase found at
Girgenti has this badge painted on it. Ancient Lycia
had a triskelion formed by three conjoined cocks' heads
stamped on its coins. Though it has no direct connection
with the Swastika, the introduction of the "three legs"
as the armorial emblem of the Isle of Man is worth
relating, as it is not known to most of those who are
familiar with the device, with its motto, "Quocunque
jeceris stabit" on the copper pence minted for that island
up to as late a date as 1864, and current in Great Britain.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
King Alexander III of Scotland expelled the Norse
Vikings from the Isle of Man in <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 1266, and substituted
for their armorial emblem in the island, which was a ship
under full sail, the three legs of Sicily. Frederick II,
King of Sicily, married Isabella, the daughter of Henry III
of England. Alexander III of Scotland married Margaret,
another daughter of Henry, and Henry's son, Edmund
the Hunchback, became King of Sicily, in succession to
his brother-in-law Frederick. Alexander of Scotland was
thus brother-in-law both of Frederick II and of Edmund,
successive kings of Sicily. It was in this way that he
was led, when he added the Isle of Man to his kingdom,
to replace the former Norse emblem of the island by the
picturesque and striking device of that other island—Sicily—with
which he had so close a family connection.</p>
<p>The tendency for drawings of men and animals when
used as decorative designs to degenerate, in the course
of time and repetition, into more and more simple lines,
to become more and more "grammatized" and simplified,
till at last their origin is hardly recognizable, is both a
very remarkable and a very usual thing. The process
of degeneration, step by step, can often be traced, and
curious remnants of important parts of the original drawing
are found surviving in the final simplified design. The
paddles and other carvings of some of the South Sea
Islanders show very curious "degenerations" of this kind.
A carved human head with open mouth becomes by repeated
copying and simplification a mere crescent or hook,
which is the vastly enlarged mouth of the original face. It
alone survives, and is of enormous size, when all other
features and detail have been abandoned. In some
carvings of a face the tongue is shown projecting as an
indication of defiance. In course of simplification in
successive reproductions the face becomes a mere curved
surface with a large pointed piece standing out from it;
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
it is the tongue. That one significant thing—suggesting
defiance—alone persists. The study of this process in
human art covers a very wide field, including all races
and all times. An excellent example is that given in
Fig. 51. It shows the step by step "grammatizing" of
a favourite decorative drawing—that of an alligator, as
painted by the Chiriqui Indians of Panama on pottery.
We start in Fig. 51, A, with an alligator, already considerably
"schematized" or conventionalized. The Indians
could do better than that, but it served for pottery
decoration. The figures B, C, D show three stages of
further "grammatizing"
of the design
(from different parts
of the surface of a pot)
till, in D, we get the
alligator reduced to a
yoke-like line and a
dot!</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_51.jpg" id="i_51.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_51.jpg" width="600" height="280"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 51.</span>—Four stages in the simplification
of a decorative design—the Alligator—as painted on pottery by the Chiriqui
Indians. (Holmes.)</div>
</div>
<p>Familiar modern
examples of this reduction
of an animal
figure to one or two lines, with mysterious-looking branches
(representing limbs or horns), are seen in the scattered
devices on the Turkey carpets so largely used at the
present day. A comparison of various examples of such
carpets of different age and locality reveals the true nature
of these queer-looking patterns as representations of
animals! Another familiar instance of the grammatizing
of an animal form is that shown in Fig. 52, D, which is
the common symbol in modern European art for a flying
bird. Fig. 52 shows, however, some more important
simplifications of animal form. The series marked E are
a few examples from hundreds painted on the walls of
caves in Cantabria (Spain) by prehistoric men. They
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
start with a clearly recognizable figure of a man—many
such, an inch or two high, occur on some parts of the
cave-walls—and then we have all sorts of simplifications
and deviations from the more naturalistic initial design,
as shown by the rest of the series, ending in a T—a
primitive symbol
often arrived at by
savage decorative
artists in various
parts of the world
by reducing and
grammatizing the
human figure. The
letters of many
alphabets have
been simplified in
this way from original
picture-like
signs or pictographs.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_52.jpg" id="i_52.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_52.jpg" width="523" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 52.</span>—Simplification (grammatizing) of
decorative design. <i>A</i>, a stork walking. <i>B</i>, a stag. <i>C</i>, a stork with
wings spread for flying—resulting when fully "grammatized"
in a curvilinear swastika. <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, and <i>C</i>,
from spindle-whorls found at Hissarlik. <i>D</i>, conventional representation of three
flying birds. <i>E</i>, grammatized human figure from the walls of caverns in
Cantabria.</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_53.jpg" id="i_53.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_53.jpg" width="586" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 53.</span>—Spindle-whorl
from Troy (fourth city), with three swastikas—two resembling
"stylized" storks (see Fig. 52, C). (Schliemann.)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The drawings
lettered A, B and C
in Fig. 52 represent
accurately figures
scratched on the
clay "spindle-whorls"
(before baking), so abundant
in the remains
of the ancient cities on the hill of Hissarlik (Troy),
found by Schliemann (see Figs. 42 and 53). These
heavy, bun-like spindle-whorls have retained their use
and shape since Neolithic times (they are found in
the Swiss lake-dwellings) to the present day. Similar
whorls were made of modern porcelain, variously decorated,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
in France in the last century and sold to the
peasants for giving weight and rotatory stability to
the spindle used in spinning, and are still used wherever
the spindle survives, as among the Indians of
Central America. A "grammatized" profile representation
of a stork (Fig. 52, A) is one of the designs on
these Hissarlik spindle-whorls, and so is the linear representation
of a stag (Fig. 52, B). And now we come
back to the Swastika. The four figures in a row, marked
C in Fig. 52, are a few of the representations
of "flying" storks on
these same spindle-whorls; one so
marked is drawn in Fig. 53. They
are of various degrees of simplification,
and the last but one on the
right hand side is identical with a
Swastika! It must be carefully
remembered that these clay spindle-whorls
from Hissarlik are very
commonly inscribed with undoubted
well-shaped Swastikas, as shown in
Fig. 42. The Swastika is quite
a common and usual decorative
lucky badge in the household art
of that locality and age. Hence it is not surprising
that M. Solomon Reinach, of Paris, has suggested
that the Swastika may have originated thus—by the
"stylizing" or "grammatizing" of a favourite and sacred
bird—the stork. Once thus suggested and drawn in the
simple Swastika shape the emblem (it would be supposed)
became fixed, and made as rectilinear and simple as
possible. Thenceforward it was accepted as an emblem
of good luck, which has been transmitted throughout the
ancient world of Europe, Asia and America. This theory
has a plausible aspect, but I understand from M. Reinach
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
that he no longer attaches importance to it. I do not
know what theory, if any, of the origin of the Swastika
now commends itself to him, nor whether he thinks it has
originated independently in several times and places, or
holds that it has one common origin. I am inclined to
favour the theory that the Swastika has been started by
the copying of the form of a natural object on the part of
a primitive race of men, and that this form has lent itself
to the invention of other badges and symbols besides that
known as the Swastika. I will explain this in the next
chapter.</p>
<div class="footnotes p4"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
<div class="footnote">
<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
But spiral and leaf-like decorative designs engraved on bone (see Fig.
29, p. 54) are found in caves associated with other carvings made by cave-men
of the Reindeer or late Palæolithic period.</p></div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">THE TOMOYE AND THE SWASTIKA</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_54.jpg" id="i_54.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_54.jpg" width="589" height="600"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 54.</span>—The
"Tomoye"—the Japanese badge of triumph.</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_55.jpg" id="i_55.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_55.jpg" width="600" height="164"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 55.</span>—Symbols of the history
of the universe used by the ancient Chinese philosopher Chu-Hsi.
<i>A</i>, The original "void." <i>B</i>, The great
monad. <i>C</i>, The monad divides into two, male
and female. <i>D</i>, The halves in rotatory movement,
suggested by the S-like bending of the
dividing line or diameter of the circle.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="p4">
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_56.jpg" id="i_56.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_56.jpg" width="600" height="297"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 56.</span>—Diagrams
to show the possible derivation of
the swastika from the inscription of two S-like lines
(or "ogees") within a circle so as to divide the
circle into four bent cones. <i>B</i> and <i>C</i> are ogee and
rectangular swastikas easily produced by modification
of the encircled figure.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p class="drop-cap">FIG. 54 represents a remarkable design which is a
sort of national emblem, a universally accepted
badge of triumph and honour in Japan, and is called
"Tomoye"—meaning "triumph." The black and white
portions are in that country painted respectively red and
yellow. It is simply a circle divided
into two equal cone-like figures by the
inscription within it of a doubly-curved
line like the letter S. Where and how
did the Japanese get this badge? Who
invented it, or from what natural object
is it copied? A modified Tomoye with
the cones dislocated is used as the
national flag of Korea. A single one
of these curious, tapering, one-sided
cones is closely similar to the cone-like
figures sometimes called "pines" which one sees
on Indian shawls. The origin of these is sometimes
said to be a copying of some fruit or vegetable growth,
but is really not ascertained—and is possibly half of a
Tomoye! A great circular altar-stone has been found in
Central America, 5 ft. across, divided by a deep S-shaped
groove into two equal one-sided cones (Fig. 59) like the
Tomoye. The figure formed by an S within a circle is
found in the writings of the ancient Chinese philosopher
Chu-Hsi. He gives a series of symbols representing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
(according to him) the history of the universe. They are
shown in Fig. 55, and are explained as follows. The
empty circle A
represents the
original "void"—the
boundary line
is conventional.
After untold æons
the great monad
appeared. It is
represented by B.
Then we get the
division of the
great monad (now called "Tai-I") into two, shown in
C of our Fig. 55—singularly recalling the division of the
nucleated cell or protoplasmic unit of animal and vegetable
structure. The two halves, however, in this case represent
the feminine called "Yin" and the masculine called
"Yang." The last drawing, D of Fig. 55, shows the Yin
and the Yang in
rotatory motion.
This is indicated
by the S-like
bending of the
diameter, and
the consequent
formation of a
figure like the
Tomoye. By
this motion the
visible universe
is supposed—by
the philosopher Chu-Hsi—to be produced. The figure
marked D is described as a "cosmological symbol."
It does not help us to the origin of the figure showing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
the division of the circle as in the Tomoye, for it dates
only from about the twelfth century of our era.</p>
<p>If we suppose the circle divided, as in the Tomoye,
to be a very ancient badge or device, dating from prehistoric
man, then it is probably derived from a natural
object. And this object was probably a ground-down
transverse section across a whelk-shell, for if one makes
such a section just above the mouth of the shell
at right angles to its length, one gets two adjacent
chambers of the spirally-coiled shell separated by an
S-like partition, the resulting figure given by the slice
across the shell being that of the
"tomoye," with its paired, one-sided,
cone-like constituents. Shells are
amongst the chief ornaments used by
prehistoric and modern savage man.
Large ones are ground down to make
armlets. The perception of the spiral
as a decorative line is almost certainly
due to the handling and grinding-down
of snail shells, and, indeed, we
find spirals and reversed spiral scrolls
engraved on bone by the Pleistocene cave-men (see
Fig. 29).</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_57.jpg" id="i_57.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_57.jpg" width="600" height="456"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 57.</span>—Terra-cotta
cone with a seven-armed sun-like figure engraving on it. Troy. (Schliemann.)</div>
</div>
<p>The Ægæan people of the Greek islands (of whom
the Mykenæans are a part) copied a variety of forms of
marine animals in their decorations of pottery, and, in
fact, natural shapes were the basis of their decorative art.
They simplified and "grammatized" their more nature-true
designs into badges and symbols.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_58.jpg" id="i_58.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_58.jpg" width="600" height="548"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 58.</span>—Scalloped Shell Disk, from a
mound near Nashville, Tennessee, showing in the centre a tetraskelion with four
curved arms, about four inches in diameter, made of polished shell. (Peabody
Museum.)</div>
</div>
<p>We find in early work discovered in the ancient mounds
of North America decorative circles (Fig. 58) in which two
S-like lines at right angles to one another are inscribed
as shown in Fig. 56, and we find also that these curved
rays may be prolonged as a marvellous enveloping
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
spiral coil or helix—especially in the painting of pottery.
When the curved rays are many in number, as in Fig.
57, the design has been interpreted by some archæologists
as symbolizing the sun, and it is important to
remember that the Swastika itself was used in China
as the pictograph of the sun. A single curved S-like
line has been found cut on a great circular slab, an
ancient altar-stone (Fig. 59) in Honduras (Copan)—so as
to divide the circle as is
done in the Japanese
Tomoye. It is obvious
that the exact geometric
character of the
S-like division is of
great significance in
these designs and requires
careful study
and explanation. I
have briefly discussed
this matter at the end
of the chapter. In
the common "ogee
Swastika," Fig. 56, B,
the more or less
elaborately helicoid
arms are merely careless
flourishes of the painter's brush. The simple four-rayed
figure, shown in Fig. 56, A, is often spoken of as
a "tetraskelion," or four-legged scroll, and is associated
with the three-legged figure or triskelion which I wrote
of in the last chapter. If the curvilinear "tetraskelion"
be angularized—that is to say, rectangles substituted for
semicircles, we get the correct fully developed Swastika,
Fig. 56, C. And if, abandoning the circle, the draughtsman
rapidly drew with a brush or on soft clay lines like
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
an S crossing one another at right angles, he produced
what is common enough wherever the more formal rectangular
Swastika is found, namely, the curvilinear or
"ogee Swastika," Fig. 56, B.</p>
<p>It is not possible with our present knowledge to penetrate
into the remote past and really ascertain the origin
of the shape or device called a Swastika. But it is, I think,
quite likely that in manipulating the "tomoye" symbol
(whether copied from a section of shell or originating by
more independent invention and "trying" of lines and
curves and circles), very
early man duplicated the
symmetrical S by which
he had divided a circle
and produced the tetraskelion
seen in Fig. 56, A.
The conversion of this
into the rectangular
Swastika and into
varieties of the ogee and
menander (which I have
not found space to describe)
would be an easy
and natural sequence.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_59.jpg" id="i_59.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_59.jpg" width="600" height="470"
alt="" />
<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.</span>—An altar-stone of prehistoric
age. The circular surface is cut into by a trough of S-shape, which divides it so
as to resemble the Japanese "Tomoye." From Copan, Honduras.</div>
</div>
<p>At the same time, I have no conviction that this is
the real origin of the Swastika, and await further evidence.
The "flying-stork theory," which was put forward by
Reinach, is very attractive. Birds as badges and "totems"
are frequent among primitive mankind, and certain species
are often regarded as sacred and bringing good luck.
The stork is one of these. If the artists who marked the
very ancient clay-pottery of Hissarlik with the Swastika
and also with outlines of the flying stork, strongly
resembling a Swastika, did not derive the Swastika from
the stork, but had received it from some independent
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
source, then it is probable that they purposely drew the
flying stork, so as to make it resemble as much as possible
a Swastika.</p>
<p>When we take account of the apparently arbitrary
passage of human decorative design from the naturalistic
to the linear, and from the linear to the naturalistic; from
the curvilinear to the rectilinear, and from rectilinear to
curvilinear; when we also reflect that some races and
populations of men have been prone to seek for the
forms of their decoration in the natural forms of plants
and animals, whilst others have made use of mere
mechanical patterns of parallel or interlacing lines, we must
conclude that by the appeal to one or other of these
various tendencies it is easy to invent a large variety of
more or less plausible theories as to the origin of the
Swastika. The truth of the matter can only be decided,
if ever, by more direct and conclusive evidence than we
at present possess. Nevertheless, it is a legitimate and
fascinating thing to speculate on the origin of this
wonderful world-pervading emblem coming to us from
the mists of prehistoric ages, and to endeavour to arrive,
if possible, at possible points of contact between it and
other "devices" and "symbols," even though they may
be of equally obscure birth.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
<div class="figcenter"><a name="i_60.jpg" id="i_60.jpg"></a>
<img src="images/i_60.jpg" width="600" height="494"
alt="" />
<div class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.</span></div>
</div>
<p>The accurate division of a circle into two equal
comma-shaped areas of the special shape presented by
the "Tomoye" of the Japanese (Fig. 54) and the rotating
"Great Monad" of Chinese cosmogony (Fig. 55), is effected
by describing within a given circle two circles each having
its diameter equal to a radius of the enclosing circle. The
two inscribed circles touch one another at the centre
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
of the latter, but do not overlap. The area of the enclosing
circle is thus divided into four areas, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>
(see Fig. 60, A). The areas <i>a</i>, <i>b</i> are the two inscribed
circles. Each of the residual areas <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> is called (as Sir
Thos. Heath, F.R.S., kindly informs me) an "arbelus" by
ancient Greek geometricians—a name used for a rounded
knife used by shoemakers. The comma-shaped bent
cone or pine is formed by the fusion of one of the two
small circles with one of the adjacent arbeli (Fig. 60, B).
The figure so formed which to-day is loosely spoken of as
a "bent cone," a "pine," or a "comma," has never, so far as
I can ascertain, received a name in geometry, nor in the
language of decorative design or pattern-making. Nor
has the S-like line made by the two semicircles separating
the contiguous "pines" or "commas" received any
designation though vaguely indicated by the word "ogee."
The comma-like areas might conveniently be called
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
"streptocones," and their S-like boundary "a hemicyclic
sigmoid." As shown in Fig. 56, by drawing a second
hemicyclic sigmoid of the same dimensions at right angles
to the first, the circle is divided into four smaller streptocones.
By using sigmoids or half-sigmoids of a curvature
of a different order from that of the hemicyclic one, but of
a precisely defined nature, the circle may be divided into
three, six, eight or more equal "streptocones" of graceful
proportions, some of which have been used either in series
as borders in metal work (for circular dishes and goblets) or
as detached or grouped elements in pattern-designs (stone-work
tracery, embroidery, woven and printed fabrics).</p>
<p>Apart from this development of the "streptocone" as
an important feature in decorative work, it is not without
interest in connection with the probable importance and
significance of the Japanese double streptocone, as we may
call the Tomoye, to note some of its geometrical features.
Referring to the Fig. 60, it is obvious that each of the
paired streptocones is equal in area to half the enclosing
circle, also that each of the two inscribed circles (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>) has
an area of one-fourth of that of the enclosing circle—and
that each arbelus (<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>) has also an area one-fourth that
of the enclosing circle and is equal in area to each of the
inscribed circles (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). Each of the two constituent
"streptocones" is made up of a <i>complete</i> circle capped by
an "arbelus" equal in area to it (namely, one-quarter of
that of the big circle). It is obvious that the area of the
arbelus formed in a semicircle by two enclosed semicircles
which are contiguous and of equal base as in Fig. 60,
is equal to that of a circle the diameter of which is the
vertical line drawn from the apex of the arbelus to the arc
of the semicircle (Fig 60). This is true whether the
enclosed contiguous semicircles have chords of equal or
unequal length (Fig. 60). This fact was known to the
Greek geometricians, as I am informed by Sir Thos. Heath.</p>
<div class="footnotes p4"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
<div class="footnote">
<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
I am indebted for the figures (not the diagrams) illustrating Chapters
XVII., XVIII., XIX. to the report by Mr. Thomas Wilson on the Swastika—in
the Smithsonian Reports, 1894. Those interested in this subject will find
a vast store of information in that report.</p>
</div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">COAL</p>
<p class="drop-cap">COAL is so much "a matter of course" in our daily
life that most people are only now, when its supply
is becoming precarious, anxious to know something
of its nature and history. By the word "coal," or "coles,"
our ancestors understood what we now distinguish as
"charcoal," prepared from wood by the "charcoal-burner,"
or "charbonnier," as the French call him. What we
now call "coal" was known to them as "sea-coal," and,
later, as "black" or "stone cole," to distinguish it from
"brown coal," known nowadays as "lignite," though the
name "stone coal" is locally applied in England to that
very hard kind of black coal also called "anthracite," of
which jet is only an extremely hard and dense variety
found in small quantities in the oolitic strata of Whitby,
Spain, and other localities.</p>
<p>It is on record that in the year 1306 a citizen of
London was tried, condemned, and executed for burning
"sea-coal." This severe treatment was held to be justified
by the poisonous and otherwise injurious nature of the
smoke produced by fires of sea-coal. I have not met
with any records of the earliest digging for and trade in
"sea-coal," but presumably it was obtained near the
coast in the North of England and brought to London by
ship—hence its name. The coal-trade of Newcastle
began in the thirteenth century, but, owing to an Act of
Parliament in the reign of Edward I forbidding the use
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
of sea-coal in London, did not become important until
the seventeenth century. It came very gradually into
use, and we find that Evelyn (the diarist) in 1661 noted
the withering and bad condition of rose-bushes and other
plants in London gardens, which he attributed to the
pestilential action of the smoke given off by the newly
introduced "sea-coal" which was increasingly used as
fuel in London houses. The sea-coal was not yet largely,
if at all, used in the production of iron; and Evelyn as a
forest-owner and lover of trees, has much to say about the
necessity for attention to the cultivation of our forests in
connection with the iron industry which then flourished
in the Weald of Sussex; charcoal procured by the slow
burning or roasting of wood being the fuel used in the
smelting furnaces, whilst the ore was the orange-brown
wealden sand. It was during the eighteenth century
that what we now call simply "coal" came rapidly into
use—not only for domestic heating, but for furnaces of
all kinds employed in industrial enterprise, and, at a
later date, for the earlier and later forms of steam-engines.
The smoke of the new coal was everywhere regarded as
a terrible nuisance, and a source of injury to both animal
and vegetable life. The poisonous action of coal-smoke
is not due to the finely divided black particles of carbon
of which it largely consists, but to the sulphuric acid
derived from the small quantities of sulphur present in
coal. It is calculated that more than sixteen million tons
of coal are annually used in London alone for heating
purposes, and that 480,000 tons of black carbon powder
are discharged over London by its chimneys every year,
together with very nearly the same weight of poisonous
sulphuric acid!</p>
<p>What, then, is this "sea-coal" or "coal" of our modern
life? We all know its black, glistening appearance, and
more or less friable character. Its nature and origin are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
best conveyed by the statement that it is very ancient
"peat," compressed and naturally changed by chemical
action and retaining little or no trace of its original
structure. Peat, as we know it from the low land of
English and French river valleys and the bogs of Scotland
and Ireland, is formed by the annual growth and death
of "mosses" of several kinds and of other accompanying
vegetation. It retains the woody forms of the vegetable
growths which constitute it, and they are often but loosely
adherent to one another. Peat may be merely a growth
of the past five years, but is sometimes many thousand
years old. Older than peat, and more caked and compressed,
is lignite, or brown coal, which occurs on the
Continent of Europe, also in South Devon and elsewhere,
in geological strata newer than those which yield our black
coal. Then we have the most important class of black
coals which are known as "bituminous coals," because they
soften when heated and form hydrocarbons of both viscid
and gaseous nature. They are used for domestic purposes,
and wherever flame is desired. They are, in fact,
the "lumps of coal" familiar in our scuttles. The
"bituminous coal" with the greatest amount of hydrogen
in it is the cannel or candle coal, so called from its bright
flame when burning. This kind is especially valuable for
gas-making, and of smaller value as fuel. The term
"anthracite" is reserved for a hard, stone-like coal which
is very nearly pure carbon (ninety per cent). This class
of coal burns with a very small amount of flame, gives
intense heat, and no smoke. It is used in drying malt
and hops.</p>
<p>Like all woody matter, that from which peat is formed
consists of a combination of the elements carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen; and these remain in somewhat changed
chemical union in the brown coal, bituminous coal, and
anthracite. The carbon and a varying and small proportion
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
of the original hydrogen of the woody peat, are the
important elements in coal; and we may well ask how
they come to be produced as a black or dark brown mass
from dead vegetable growths which are often bleached
and colourless. It is true that vegetable refuse does not
necessarily blacken when left to itself. We know that
by roasting or charring wood (or animals' flesh or bone)
we can drive off the elements oxygen and hydrogen
and nitrogen (if there), and obtain a black mass of
carbon (so-called charcoal). That blackness is the
actual true tint of carbon. The dead weeds and leaves
at the bottom of a stagnant pond break down and form
a pitch-black mud. They would not, and do not, go
black if exposed to the oxygen of the atmosphere; but
at the bottom of a stagnant pond or in a refuse heap they
are excluded from the air, and a microbe—a bacterium
which has been carefully studied, and is of a kind which
can only flourish in the absence of free oxygen—attacks
the dead weeds, producing by change of their substance
marsh-gas and black carbon, the black mud emitting
bubbles of gas which one may stir up with a pole in such
a pond. This chemical attack by anaërobic bacteria goes
on in the deeper layers of all marshes and stagnant pools,
remote from the oxygen of the air; and it is fairly
certain that the black coal which we find in strata of
great geological age was so produced by the action of
special kinds of bacteria upon peat-like masses of vegetable
refuse. Indeed, by studying microscopic sections
of coal, numerous forms of bacteria have been recognized
which might be capable of effecting such chemical
changes. On the other hand, we must remember that
it is not possible to conclude by form alone as to what
subtle chemical work a bacterium or bacillus or micro-coccus
may be, or may have been, carrying on. The
peat-like deposits which became carbonized and so formed
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
the "coal" were probably masses of algæ, mosses and soft
aquatic plants, which were brought down and accumulated
in swampy, forest-covered ground about the mouths
of rivers, the deposit being covered in owing to rapid
oscillations of level by beds of sand or clay, followed by
new growth and deposit.</p>
<p>Our British coal and a good deal of foreign coal is
found in certain stratified rocks of the earth's crust
known as "the Carboniferous System," about 12,000 ft.
thick, consisting chiefly of very dense limestone. The
"seams," or stratified beds of coal, occur in sandy rock
known as the "Coal Measures," and vary in thickness
from a mere film to 40 ft. Above the Carboniferous
System are later deposits, some 14,000 ft. in thickness—the
Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary
strata. Below them we find stratified deposits containing
fossilized remains of plants and animals, to a depth of
another 40,000 ft.: they are the Devonian, Silurian, and
Cambrian "systems" or series of strata. Coal of a workable
nature is found in many parts of the world in the
beds or strata of later age than our Coal Measures—namely,
those of Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary age.</p>
<p>Coal is so valuable and used in such vast quantities by
modern man that, though procured at first from beds
lying at or near the surface, it has been found remunerative
to mine far into the depths of the earth's surface,
where its existence is ascertained, in order to procure it.
A depth of 4000 ft. is apparently the limit set to such
mining by the increase of temperature in mines which
penetrate to that extent below the surface. In 1905 the
annual output of British coal-mines was in round numbers
230,000,000 tons. It is certain that there is a limit to
this production, but not possible to calculate what that
limit may be, owing to the uncertainty as to the future
working of coal-fields as yet unexplored.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p>
<p>Such questions have been, and are being, considered by
experts on behalf of the Government. A matter of interest
of another kind is that in and associated with the coal
seams of our Coal Measures, fossilized remains of peculiar
fern-like trees, ferns, and other strange plants, and of very
peculiar, extinct newt-like animals (as large as crocodiles)
are found in great variety. The notion that the toads
occasionally found embedded in the black mud of a coal-yard
or even in a fractured lump of coal are survivals from
the time—many millions of years past—when the plants
and animals of the Coal Measure swamps were living, is
a baseless fancy. The toads so found are of the kind or
species now living on the earth—totally different from
those whose bones occur in the Coal Measures, and the
presence of such modern toads embedded in black slime,
in coal-heaps in store-yards, or even in coal-scuttles, is
only what may be expected to occur and does occur in
damp quarries and other places where these familiar little
beasts love to hide.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">BORING FOR OIL</p>
<p class="drop-cap">CLOSELY similar to coal in chemical matter—that
is to say, consisting chiefly of definite chemical
compounds, called hydrocarbons, built up of only
two elements, carbon and hydrogen, and of no other—is
a very remarkable class of mineral substances known to
the ancients as "bitumen." In its widest sense, it includes
"natural gas," the variously mixed liquids called
"petroleum" and the solid "asphalts." In ancient times
the more fluid kinds of petroleum issuing from the ground
in South Russia and Persia were called "naphtha," and
that name is still applied to the more volatile hydrocarbons
obtained by the distillation of such substances as
coal-tar (the residue of the extraction by heat of commercial
gas from coal), bituminous shale, petroleum, wood
and some other bodies which owe their existence to the
activity either of living or of long-extinct and "fossilized"
plants and animals.</p>
<p>The bitumens, together with coal, present in their
natural state a very large variety of inflammable constituents—gaseous,
liquid, and solid hydrocarbons; but,
when "distilled" at various temperatures and under conditions
determined by the manufacturing chemist, they
yield a still larger series of pure separable bodies, which
have been minutely studied and classified according to
their chemical constitution. They are produced in great
chemical factories in large quantities for use in the most
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>
diverse ways invented by human ingenuity. Thus
natural gas—superseded by distilled coal-gas—has served
for fuel and for illumination: refined petroleum serves not
only for those uses in general, but as the special source of
power in the engines of motor-cars and aeroplanes. A
wonderful solid crystalline wax-like substance, paraffin,
as white as snow, is distilled in enormous quantities
(nearly three million tons a year) from "bituminous shale"
or "oil-shale" in this country alone. It can be obtained
in soft (vaseline) and liquid forms, and in fact the "paraffin
series" recognized by chemists starts from the gas
"methane," or marsh-gas, and comprises some thirty kinds,
leading from gas to volatile liquids, thence to viscid liquids,
to butter-like solids, and up to hard crystalline substances
which melt only at the temperature of boiling water.
Endless chemical manufacturing industries—<i>e.g.</i>, those of
dye-stuffs and explosives—depend upon the chemical
treatment of these paraffins and of various bodies obtained
as secondary products in their preparation. Benzine and
aniline are chiefly obtained from coal-tar. The oils and
waxes of quasi-mineral origin have a great advantage over
vegetable and animal oils in many uses, since they are not
liable to become "rancid"; that is to say, to decompose
owing to the action on them of bacteria. A marked
difference between the paraffins (often distinguished,
together with the "olefines," as "mineral" oils) and the
oils and fats found in living plants and animals is that they
do not "saponify"; that is to say, they do not form those
combinations with alkalis and other bases which are called
"soaps," nor can they serve as food to man or any other
animal. They are not acted on by the digestive juices.</p>
<p>From ancient times natural deposits or outpourings of
"bitumens" have been known and used by mankind.
The Assyrians and other early peoples of the East used
"asphalt" (translated by the word "slime" in the English
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
version of the Bible) in place of calcareous mortar in
building; and to this day it is used largely in this country
as a "damp-course" in walls built of brick. Great deposits
of asphalt are found in Central America and some of the
West Indian islands, and "quarried" for commercial
purposes. The great pitch-lake of Trinidad yields an
abundant supply. In the Val de Travers, in the Canton
of Neuchatel (Switzerland), a rich deposit is worked which,
mixed with earthy material, forms a road-making concrete,
largely used in London and other cities, and also for
main roads in country districts. The ancient Egyptians
used asphalt for embalming the dead. But the ancients
also knew natural springs of liquid bitumen—that which
nowadays we call petroleum—some of them freely flowing
like water, which would take fire and burn for long
periods, and were described as fountains of "burning
water." We find, as we pass from the Middle Ages to the
days of geographical exploration, records of such springs
of inflammable oil and of natural inflammable gas in all
parts of the world—Japan, China, Burma, Persia, Galicia,
Italy (Salsomaggiore), Central and North America, and of
not a few in these islands—for instance, in Shropshire,
Derbyshire, Sussex, Kimmeridge and various sites in the
southern counties. The oil was, until the middle of the
last century, valued chiefly as a medicinal application, and
"Seneca oil" and "American medicinal oil" were largely
sold and used as an embrocation in the United States.</p>
<p>We owe the introduction of the name "petroleum" to
Professor Silliman, who in 1855 reported upon the "rock
oil or petroleum" of Venango County, Pennsylvania.
The first attempt as a commercial enterprise to obtain
rock-oil or petroleum by <i>boring</i> into the strata in which
there was local evidence of its existence in greater or less
quantity, was made in 1854 by the Pennsylvania Rock Oil
Company. After some unsuccessful attempts, when the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
drilling had been carried to a depth of 69 ft. the tools
suddenly dropped into a subterranean cavity, and on the
following day the well was found to have "struck oil," and
twenty-five barrels a day were yielded by that well for
some time. From here the industry spread over the
States and Canada, and in 1908 the year's yield was
45,000,000 barrels.</p>
<p>Since 1870 the industry has spread all over the globe—Russia,
Galicia, Rumania, Java, Borneo and Burma being
prominent sources of the oil supply of the world. The
raw petroleum of different localities differs in each case in
the amount of solid paraffins and olefines dissolved in the
liquid paraffins. Other substances also are dissolved in it
in variable amount—such as benzene, acetylene, camphene
and naphthalene. The fact that the oil, when reached by
a boring, is often found to be under a considerable
pressure, so that it rises and flows from the surface of the
well, or even may shoot up as a great fountain, is an
important feature in the oil-seeking industry, though the
supply depends largely on pumping and not necessarily
on natural flow. The borings when made, act like Artesian
wells, and sometimes are carried to a great depth. Those
in Pennsylvania vary in depth from 300 ft. to 3700 ft.,
according to the distance below the surface at which the
oil-bearing strata (usually a sandstone) is situate. As in
the case of an Artesian well, the boring is in the first
instance an exploration subject to uncertainty as to
"striking" the desired liquid, but the uncertainty is
greater in the case of the search for oil than in that for
water. The water-well is also far less likely to "give
out" when once flowing than is that bored for oil,
which, even if at first successful, may be soon exhausted
owing to the small area of the oil-bearing strata tapped.
A cause of the high pressure in many oil-wells is the gas
which accompanies the oil. The pressure may amount to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
as much as 1000 lb. to the square inch. In the Northern
Caucasus spouting wells caused by the high pressure of
gas in the boring are frequent. A famous fountain-well in
that region, which began to flow in August 1895, threw
up 4-1/2 million gallons a day, gradually diminishing during
fifteen months until it became exhausted. At first, when
boring was introduced, such outbursts led to an enormous
loss of the oil, for there was not sufficient means of storing
or transporting it. Ordinary cartage in barrels was the
earlier method; then followed tanks on railway trains and
canal boats; and this has been supplemented by the use
of pipes along which the oil is pumped from the well to
the refinery. In Pennsylvania there are said to be no less
than 25,000 miles of such pipes in use for the distribution
of petroleum.</p>
<p>It will be obvious from what is here stated that the
attempt to discover an oil-supply in Derbyshire must not
be regarded, at present, as more than a praiseworthy and
interesting enterprise. There is no room for doubt that
the best expert opinion has been brought to bear on the
matter. A small quantity of petroleum has already been
raised; but whether the flow will be sufficient to cover the
expenses of the boring, and how long the flow may last,
or how much it may amount to, are matters quite impossible
to foretell. In any case, it is in the highest
degree improbable that such an abundance of oil will be
obtained as to count much, if at all, in the world's production
of petroleum. It must also be remembered that
products similar to those yielded by petroleum are
already extracted in quantity as a remunerative industry
by the distillation of oil-shales in various parts of the
United Kingdom; and that there are oil-shales in this
country still unworked. So that we need not be in despair
if we do not tap an oil-spring of any importance close to
hand. The world's supply is still open to British
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
enterprise. Another reflection of some importance is that
these world-wide sources of rock-oil or petroleum are
likely to be exhausted by exploitation much sooner than
are the coal-fields of the world. We cannot rely on their
long duration.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII</h2>
</div>
<p class="ac noindent">THE STORY OF LIME-JUICE AND SCURVY</p>
<p class="drop-cap">FROM mediæval times onward a serious constitutional
disease—a morbid condition of the blood and tissues—has
been known by the name "scurvy," and the
word "scorbutic" has been coined from it. It is to-day
practically unknown in the ordinary conditions of civilized
life, but formerly was common, and the cause of disablement
and of frightful mortality in ships' crews, beleaguered
cities, armies on campaign, and war-stricken regions. It
begins with a certain failure of strength. Breathlessness,
exhaustion, and mental depression follow. The face looks
haggard, sallow, and dusky. After some weeks the exhaustion
becomes extreme; the gums are livid, ulcerated,
and bleeding; the teeth loosen and drop out; purple
spots appear on the skin; ulcers break out on the limbs;
effusions of blood-stained fluid take place in the great
cavities of the body; profound exhaustion and coma
follow; and death results from disorganization of the
lungs, kidneys, or digestive tract. It was recognized in
early times that the disease was dependent on the
character of the food of those attacked by it; and not
the least of the horrors accompanying it was the terror
caused by the well-founded conviction that the appearance
of a single case in a ship's crew or other specially circumscribed
community was an unfailing index, and meant
that all were likely within a few days—owing to the
enforced identity of their food and conditions of life—to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
develop the disease. Often, in past centuries, a half
or two-thirds of a ship's company have been carried off
by it before a port could be reached and healthy food
and conditions of life obtained. At the present moment
in view of the actual condition of Europe, it is a fact
of very grave importance that scurvy is known to break
out and cause a terrible mortality among civil communities
in time of scarcity—especially in prisons, workhouses, and
other public institutions, which are the first to suffer
deprivations when food is scarce.</p>
<p>Three hundred years ago it was held that fresh
vegetables and fruit-juices were both a cure for and a
preventive of scurvy, or "anti-scorbutic." But the fact
was not appreciated by Army and Admiralty officials
that <i>dried</i> vegetables, even of kinds which were held to
be especially "anti-scorbutic," would not serve in place
of <i>fresh</i> ones. In 1720, <i>dried</i> "anti-scorbutic" herbs were
supplied to the Austrian Army when suffering from
scurvy; but they were of no avail, and thousands of the
soldiers perished from the disease. A few years later,
the British Lords of the Admiralty (actuated by a
spirit of blundering parsimony) proposed to supply the
Navy with dried spinach, although it was well known
that dried vegetables were useless against scurvy. In
the American Civil War, 1861-1865, in spite of this
knowledge, large rations of dried vegetables were supplied
to the armies, and failed to prevent outbreaks of scurvy.
Even at the present day so little attention has been
given of late years to the subject, that many ignorant
officials, upon whose action the life of thousands depends,
regard dried vegetables as equivalent in value to fresh!</p>
<p>A great advance was made in the second half of the
eighteenth century, when the British Admiralty became
convinced by the repeated experience of its officers that
"lime-juice" <i>is</i> a specific remedy and preventive for
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
scurvy, and, in spite of the great expense and difficulties
entailed, adopted its use officially. In those days of
sailing-ships, long voyages (such as those of Captain Cook)
were safely carried through without serious outbreak of
scurvy so long as a ration of so-called "lime-juice" (about
one ounce) was swallowed each day by each sailor. But
it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century
that the disease was practically eliminated from the Navy
by the introduction (after many foolish delays) of a
general issue of what was called "lime-juice."</p>
<p>The complete control and elimination of scurvy by
the use of so-called "lime-juice" sufficed to carry us on
until the introduction of steam navigation, when it became
superfluous owing to the fact that long absence from land,
where fresh food could be obtained, ceased to be usual.
Moreover, after a mutiny on the part of our defrauded
sailors, better food and greater variety of it was secured
for them, and the profits of murderous contractors were
stopped.</p>
<p>The history of outbreaks of scurvy for the last
century is practically confined to the experiences of Arctic
Expeditions and the campaigning of troops in remote or
devastated regions. So little had scurvy been investigated,
or any serious study made of the nature of the remedial
and preventive action of lime-juice, that up to the year
1914 it was regarded as a matter of course that the acid,
the citric acid, of lime-juice was what gave to it its virtue,
and samples of lime-juice supplied by contractors were
tested solely as to the percentage of that acid present.
Eminent medical authorities proposed to use crystals
of citric acid in place of the juice; others declared that
vinegar would do just as well; others, in spite of the
overwhelming record as to the value of lime-juice, held
that scurvy was due <i>not</i> to the absence of a food constituent—supplied
by fresh vegetables and fruit-juice—but
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
to a peculiar poison present in the salted and dried
meat served out as rations; others again, without any
study of the disease, have expressed the opinion that it
is due to a bacterial micro-organism.</p>
<p>A blow to the easy-going belief of the Admiralty that
they had mastered and made an end of scurvy was struck
when scurvy broke out (60 cases among 122 men) in the
expedition to the North Pole which sailed in May 1875 in
the <i>Alert</i> and the <i>Discovery</i>, under the command of Sir
George Nares. The expedition had to return prematurely
after seventeen months' absence, and a committee was
appointed to inquire into the cause of the outbreak. The
stores of food and of lime-juice were shown to have been
ample; and the action of the leader in equipping his
sledging parties was in accordance with the judgment
and experience of successful explorers who gave evidence.
The cause of the outbreak remained a mystery. The
firm belief in the anti-scorbutic powers of "lime-juice" was
shaken, and this unfavourable opinion of its value has
been confirmed by medical officers who, during the recent
war, have been confronted by outbreaks of scurvy. These
outbreaks occurred among troops who, in military circumstances
which rendered an adequate supply of fresh meat
and vegetables impossible, were supplied with lime-juice
prepared from the West Indian "sour-lime."</p>
<p>Under these circumstances, an experimental study of
scurvy has been carried out during the last four years
by a group of workers at the Lister Institute, together
with a historical inquiry as to the use of lime-juice. The
reports of these investigators have very great practical
value and far-reaching interest, as showing what disastrous
results may arise from inaccurate use of a word, and the
neglect to ascertain the exact nature of the material thing
upon which the issue between life and death may depend.</p>
<p>Here let me say that the staff of the Lister Institute
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
for medical research has done work in its laboratories in
Chelsea Gardens of the very greatest national importance
during the war. It was founded by public subscription,
and has now an endowment of some £10,000 a year.
Sir David Bruce, the chairman of its Council, gives in
the Report of the Governing Body for 1919 a very striking
summary of the work done in the laboratories and by the
staff of the Institute. The successful investigation of
trench fever and of tetanus, of the destruction of lice, and
of the effects of cold storage on food, besides the study
of scurvy and other diseases due to deficiency of what
are now called "<i>accessory food factors</i>," are, we learn,
the chief matters in which the Lister Institute was engaged
in the year 1918-19. Besides this, however, at its
farm at Elstree it has prepared and supplied to the War
Office, the Admiralty, the Overseas Forces, and the Local
Government Board more than a million doses of anti-toxins
(diphtheria and tetanus), bacterial vaccines (cholera,
plague, influenza), and other similar curative fluids—requiring
for their safe production the highest skill and
most complete knowledge of recent discovery. And this
is only a sample of what the Lister Institute has been
doing for many consecutive years.</p>
<p>Now we return to the investigation of scurvy. Within
the last ten years the fact has been established (which
was more or less guessed and acted upon by medical men
of past days) that, in order to maintain health, the diet
of man and of many animals must contain not merely
the necessary quantities of meat or cheese-like bodies,
of fat and starch and sugar, but also minute quantities
of accessory food-factors which it is convenient to term
"vitamines." The name serves (though its etymology is
unsatisfactory) to indicate certain "proteids" or highly
complex nitrogenous compounds which are only to be
obtained from fresh and uncooked or slightly heated
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
vegetables and from some foods of animal origin. These
"vitamines" are destroyed by heat and by desiccation.
They have not yet been isolated though in some cases
extracted in a nearly pure state. Their presence or
absence is demonstrated by careful experiments in feeding
animals, such as guinea-pigs, with weighed quantities of
different foods. The "vitamine" is often found to be
present only in one part of a seed or fruit or special kind
of fat liable to be rejected in food preparation. An
important fact is that it may not amount to as much as
one-ten-thousandth of the weight of the food in which
it occurs; and the part containing it may be overlooked
and rejected, or its value destroyed by heat or by desiccation.
A committee on these "accessory food-factors"
is carrying on experiments at the Lister Institute. Dr.
F. G. Hopkins, F.R.S., who first discovered the importance
of one of these factors in feeding young rats, is the chairman,
and Dr. Harriette Chick is the secretary. Three
kinds of these vitamines, or accessory food-factors, have
up to this date been recognized. The first is the anti-neuritic
or anti-beri-beri vitamine. Its principal sources
are the seeds of plants and the eggs of animals—yeast-cells
are a rich source of it. Where "polished rice," as
in the Far East, is the staple article of diet, to the almost
entire exclusion of other food-stuffs, lassitude and severe
pains like those of rheumatism set in, and a whole colony
or shipload of Chinese "coolies" may be disabled. The
disease is called beri-beri, and it can be cured by administering
that part of the rice-grain (the skin and germ)
which is removed by "polishing," and unfortunately is
just that part which contains the needful vitamine. It
exists in very minute quantity, amounting to only one
part in ten thousand by weight of rice-grain. The second
"vitamine" recognized is the anti-rachitic factor (studied
by Hopkins), which tends to promote growth and prevent
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
"rickets" in young animals. Certain fats of animal origin
(milk) and green leaves contain it in minute quantity, and
are necessary for the life of young animals and for the
health of adults.</p>
<p>The third vitamine recognized is the anti-scorbutic,
the factor which prevents scurvy. It is found in fresh
vegetable tissues, and to a less extent in fresh animal
tissues. Its richest sources are cabbage, swedes, turnips,
lettuce, water-cress, and such fruits as lemons, oranges,
raspberries, and tomatoes; other vegetables have a less
value. Fresh milk and meat possess a definite but low
anti-scorbutic value. This vitamine (I am quoting the
report of the Committee, which has been issued to our
military, naval, and medical administrators and famine-relief-workers
throughout the world) <i>suffers destruction</i>
when the fresh food-stuffs containing it are subjected
to <i>heat</i>, or <i>drying</i>, as methods of preservation. It is
habitually destroyed and wasted by stewing fresh vegetables
with meat for two or three hours. All dry food-stuffs,
such as cereals, pulses, dried vegetables and dried milk,
are deficient in anti-scorbutic properties; so also are
<i>tinned vegetables</i> and <i>tinned meat</i>—hence the disgust to
which they soon give rise!</p>
<p>The explanation of the mystery about lime-juice
(which a hundred years ago was used with absolute
success to prevent scurvy, and in 1875 was a dead failure)
is shown by the workers at the Lister Institute to be this—namely,
"lime" and "lemon" are in origin the same
word, and have become applied in ways unrecognized by
the Admiralty and their medical advisers in various parts
of the world to which the citron, the lemon, the sweet-lime
and the sour-lime—all varieties of one species, <i>Citrus
medica</i> of Linnæus—have been carried from their original
home of origin, the south-east of Asia. The original
effective and valuable "<i>lime</i>-juice" of the eighteenth
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
century was <i>lemon</i>-juice, carefully prepared from lemons
in Sicily and Italy, and from 1804 to 1860 in Malta.
When the demand for it increased in the nineteenth
century, it was adulterated and made up from poor
fruit, as the commercial enterprise of contractors and
the fatuous incapacity of the naval authorities progressed
hand in hand. And then, in the early fifties, the West
Indian growers of the small sour-lime (<i>Citrus medica
var. acida</i>) in Montserrat got the naval contracts, the
honest intention of Sir William Burnett, the chief medical
officer of the Navy, being to establish a permanent and
first-rate supply. Strangely enough, the naval "lime-juice"
now really was <i>lime</i>-juice and no longer <i>lemon</i>-juice. By
a natural but fatal misconception, the medical value of
the juice, whether of lemon or of lime, was by all authorities
attributed to the citric acid present; and the only
tests applied to it were chemical ones, and not therapeutic.
The Lister Institute Committee have shown by therapeutic
experiment—the feeding of guinea-pigs, in which scurvy
can be produced and cured at will—that <i>the anti-scorbutic
vitamine remains active and unimpaired in lemon-juice
from which all the citric acid has been extracted</i>. And,
further, that the juice of the West Indian sour-lime
(<i>Citrus medica acida</i>), although very rich in citric acid,
<i>contains only one-fourth the anti-scorbutic vitamine</i> which
the same quantity of the juice of the true lemon (<i>Citrus
medica limonum</i>) contains. This has been most carefully
established by prolonged series of feeding experiments.
It explains the failure of the <i>lime</i>-juice in Sir George
Nares' Polar Expedition, and restores the confidence in
<i>lemon</i>-juice based on the unanimous testimony of the
early records of its use.</p>
<p>Whilst lemon-juice is thus justified, Dr. Harriette
Chick has made a discovery which will go far to remove
it from supremacy. She finds that an anti-scorbutic food
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
can be prepared, when fresh vegetables or fruit are
scarce, by moistening any available seeds (wheat, barley,
rye, peas, beans, lentils) and allowing them to germinate.
This sprouted material possesses an anti-scorbutic value
equal to that of many fresh vegetables; the unsprouted
seeds have none. Probably this explains the anti-scorbutic
value of sweet-wort and of beers made from lightly dried
malt; and the total failure in this respect of our modern
beers made from kiln-dried malt. Dr. Chick, amongst
many other interesting and important results published
by members of the Lister Institute Committee, states
that the juice of raw swedes and of raw turnips is a
valuable anti-scorbutic (to be added to milk for the use
of artificially nourished infants); so, she states, is orange-juice.
But, contrary to the usual opinion, she finds that
beetroot has little or no anti-scorbutic value. The whole
subject is of extreme importance, and is necessarily in
a tentative stage of pioneer experiment.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter p4">
<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
</div>
<ul class="index">
<li class="ifrst">Ages, successive, of stone, bronze, and iron, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
<li class="indx">Aitken, Dr., F.R.S., on fog, cloud, and odoriferous particles,
<a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
<li class="indx">Alligator, simplification of, in the decorative work of the Chiriqui
Indians, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
<li class="indx">Altamira, cave of, discovery of pictures in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
<li class="indx">America (Central), stone slab from, with carved swastika,
<a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
<li class="indx">American Indians bead-work garter with two swastikas,
<a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
<li class="indx">Anglo-Saxon urn ornamented with swastikas, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
<li class="indx">Aniline, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
<li class="indx">Animalcules, wheel, <a href="#Page_157">157-172</a></li>
<li class="indx">Animation, suspended, <a href="#Page_173">173-190</a></li>
<li class="indx">Anthracite, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
<li class="indx">Anti-scorbutic value of germinating wheat, barley, peas, beans,
lentils, discovered, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
<li class="indx">Anti-scorbutics, no use when dried, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
<li class="isub2">or preservatives against scurvy described,
<a href="#Page_235">235-236</a> studied at the Lister Institute,
<a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
<li class="indx">Antler, engraved, from the cavern of Lortet, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
<li class="indx">Arbelus, the, of ancient Greek geometers, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
<li class="indx">Asphalt, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
<li class="indx">Aurignacian negroid race, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Bacteria, suspended animation of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,
<a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
<li class="indx">Bear engraved on stalagmite, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
<li class="indx">Beer, modern, not so effective an anti-scorbutic (preserver from
scurvy) as older sorts, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
<li class="indx">Benzine, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
<li class="indx">Bison, pictures of, from walls of caves, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
<li class="indx">Bitumen, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
<li class="indx">Bituminous coal, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
<li class="indx">Blue blood and pride of race, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
<li class="isub2">colour of frogs, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
<li class="isub3"> of the Lake of Geneva, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
<li class="isub3"> of water, <a href="#Page_74">74-85</a></li>
<li class="isub2">Grotto of Capri, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
<li class="indx">Breeding and inter-breeding as a test, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
<li class="indx">Bridle seen in engravings of horse, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
<a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
<li class="indx">Brown, Horace, F.R.S., his experiments with seeds at low
temperatures, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
<li class="indx">Bruce, Sir David, his report of the work done by the Lister
Institute in 1919, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
<li class="indx">Buddha, footprint of the, picture showing swastikas,
<a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
<li class="indx">Bumpus, Prof., on variation in sparrows, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
<li class="indx">Burnett, Sir William, by mistake introduces in the Navy juice of the</li>
<li class="isub3">sour-lime in place of lemon-juice, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
<li class="indx">Burning water, fountains of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
<li class="indx">Butterflies of the genus Vanessa, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
<li class="isub2">several different species of white and of blue,
<a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
<li class="isub2">several species united to form one larger kind–a genus,
<a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
<li class="isub2">species of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
<li class="isub2">the kinds of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Caloric, an assumed entity, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
<li class="indx">Cannel (or candle) coal, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
<li class="indx">Carbon, weight of, annually discharged over London,
<a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
<li class="indx">Carboniferous system, the, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
<li class="indx">Cats, male, with blue eyes are deaf, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></li>
<li class="indx">Cause of survival in the struggle for life, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
<a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
<li class="indx">Cave of Altamira, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of Brassempouy, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of Combarelles, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of Font de Gaume, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of Laugerie basse, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of Lortet, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of Marsoulas (Haute Garonne), <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of Mas d'Azil, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of Niaux (Ariège), <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of St. Michel d'Arudy, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
<li class="indx">Caves, pictures on walls of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
<li class="indx">Census of species of animals, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
<li class="indx">Chick, Dr. Harriette, secretary, and Dr. Hopkins, F.R.S., chairman,
of a committee investigating accessory food-factors, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
<li class="indx">Chinese "great monad," <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
<li class="indx">Circle, how to divide it so as to describe a Tomoye,
<a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
<li class="indx"><i>Citrus medica limonum</i>, the lemon, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
<li class="isub2"><i>acida</i>, the West Indian sour-lime, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
<li class="indx">Coal, <a href="#Page_217">217-222</a></li>
<li class="isub2">mines, annual output of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
<li class="indx">Coal-tar, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
<li class="indx">Coffer-fish, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
<li class="indx">Cold, action of extreme, in preventing chemical combination,
<a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
<li class="indx">Copan, circular altar-stone from, divided by an S-shaped trough so as
to resemble the Tomoye, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
<li class="indx">Correlated characters or structures, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
<a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
<li class="indx">Crab, common shore, variations in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
<li class="indx">Crag, the Red, of Suffolk, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
<li class="isub2">the Norwich, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
<li class="indx">Crayfish, species of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
<li class="indx">Cromagnard race, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
<li class="indx">Cross-breeding of races, <a href="#Page_140">140-156</a></li>
<li class="indx">Crystal Palace, the, sixty years ago, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Decorative design, <a href="#Page_200">200-208</a></li>
<li class="indx">Deer, the picture of the Three, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
<li class="indx">Dewar, Sir James, his important experiments on action of cold and of
light on phosphorescent bacteria, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
<li class="indx">Diplodocus, a gigantic reptile, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>,
<a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
<li class="indx">Discoveries falsely announced, and others misrepresented or
unnoticed by newspapers, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
<li class="indx">Dolphins (oceanic colour-changing fish), <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Equus the horse genus, the history of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
<li class="indx">Exuberances of non-significant growth, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
<a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Fat boys of journalism, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
<li class="indx">Fertilization, resistance to hybrid, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>,
<a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
<li class="indx">Fish drawn between horse's legs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
<li class="indx">Fishes, examples of strangely-shaped, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
<li class="indx">Fleas, species of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
<li class="indx">Flowers of tan survive desiccation, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
<li class="indx">Food, the accessory factors in, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
<li class="indx">Fylfot, the, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Gammadion, the, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
<li class="indx">Geometrical properties of the Tomoye, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
<li class="indx">Germ variation, a constant process, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
<li class="indx">Gigantic reptiles, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
<li class="indx">Gigantosaurus, discovery of, in Africa, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
<li class="isub2">upper-arm bone of, compared with that of an elephant and of man,
<a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
<li class="indx">Gills of crayfishes, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
<li class="isub2">a new one discovered by a lady student at Oxford,
<a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
<li class="indx">Glacial period, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
<li class="indx">Goose engraved on reindeer antler, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
<li class="indx">Grammatizing <i>v.</i> naturalizing in decorative art,
<a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
<li class="indx">Grouse, the red and allied species, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
<a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Harpoons of Azilian and Magdalenian period, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
<li class="indx">Horses, cave-men's pictures of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
<a href="#Page_45">45</a>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></li>
<li class="indx">Horses' heads drawn with bridle or halter, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
<a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
<li class="indx">Hybrids, <a href="#Page_131">131-138</a></li>
<li class="isub2">among allied species of fish, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
<a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
<li class="isub2">infertile and fertile, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
<a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Inter-Glacial climate and animals, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Kaleidoscope, the living organism compared to a,
<a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
<li class="indx">Kelvin, Lord, on the origin of life, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
<li class="indx">Kipling, Mr. Rudyard, on primitive man, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
<li class="indx">Koban necropolis, swastikas from, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Lake dwellings of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
<li class="indx">Lalanne, M., discovery by, of human statuettes,
<a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
<li class="indx">Laussel, rock-shelter of, human statuettes from,
<a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
<li class="indx">Life-saving qualities not alone survive in nature,
<a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
<li class="indx">Lime-juice, action of, was not understood, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
<li class="isub2">and scurvy, <a href="#Page_229">229-237</a></li>
<li class="isub2">on long voyages, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
<li class="isub2">shown to be effective when prepared from the true lemon,
<a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
<li class="isub2">the original lime-juice was lemon-juice, not the juice of the
sour-lime, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
<li class="isub2">when prepared from West Indian sour-lime not effective,
<a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
<li class="indx">Linnæus, his method of naming and classifying animals and plants,
<a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
<li class="indx">Lion, wall engraving of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
<li class="indx">Lister Institute, investigations carried on there,
<a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
<li class="indx">Lodge, Sir Oliver, on life, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
<li class="indx">Lortet, cavern of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Mammoth, engraving of, on ivory, from the cave of La Madeleine,
<a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
<li class="indx">Mammoths, engravings of, on walls of caves,
<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
<li class="indx">Man, Isle of, and the Sicilian three-legged emblem,
<a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
<li class="indx">Mantell, Dr. Gideon, discoverer of gigantic extinct reptiles,
<a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
<li class="indx">Marsh-gas, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
<li class="indx">Milne-Edwards, Alphonse, his proposed experiment on cross-breeding of
races and species, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
<li class="indx">Miscegenation or cross-breeding of human races,
<a href="#Page_148">148-156</a></li>
<li class="indx">Monaco, Prince of, his researches and publications,
<a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
<li class="indx">Mongrels defined as distinct from hybrids, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
<a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
<li class="isub2">may exhibit fine qualities, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
<li class="indx">Monsters, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
<li class="indx">Mules between horse and ass, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
<li class="indx">Mykenæan age, swastikas of, illustrated, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
<a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Neander men, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
<li class="indx">Negro with European features disliked by other negroes,
<a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
<li class="indx">Neolithic people, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Ogee, a vague term, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
<li class="isub2">swastika, so-called, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
<a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
<li class="indx">Oil, boring for, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
<li class="indx">Oil-boring industry, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
<li class="indx">Oil-shales, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
<li class="indx">Okapi of the Congo Forest, not a hybrid, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
<li class="indx">Olefines, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
<li class="indx">Osborn, Rev. Lord Sydney Godolphin, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Pairing as a test of species, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
<a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
<li class="indx">Palæolithic or ancient Stone Age, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
<li class="indx">Papilio, the genus of swallow-tailed butterflies,
<a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
<li class="indx">Paraffin series, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
<li class="indx">Peat, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
<li class="indx">Pedalion, the leg-bearing wheel animalcule, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
<a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
<li class="isub2">to be compared with young of certain prawns,
<a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
<li class="indx">Petroleum, the name invented in 1855 by Prof. Silliman,
<a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
<li class="indx">Pictet and de Candolle on suspended animation,
<a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
<li class="indx">Picture, the earliest, in the world, <a href="#Page_1">1-25</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of the Three Red Deer, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
<a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
<li class="indx">Piette, Edouard, his excavations of caves, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></li>
<li class="indx">Pigs and the paint-root, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
<a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
<li class="indx">Pimpernel, red and blue, will not inter-breed,
<a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
<li class="indx">Pine ornament of Indian shawls, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
<li class="indx">Pleistocene, a small fraction of earth's crust,
<a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
<li class="isub2">series or system, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
<li class="indx">Pliny the elder at Vesuvius, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
<li class="indx">Pocahontes, the Algonkian princess, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
<li class="indx">Prehistoric men, art of, <a href="#Page_35">35-54</a></li>
<li class="isub2">successive ages of, <a href="#Page_36">36-39</a></li>
<li class="indx">Printings from engraved cylinders, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
<a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Race, pride of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
<a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
<li class="indx">Racehorse, English thoroughbred, history of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
<li class="indx">Races, nature of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
<li class="isub2">produce mongrels by cross-breeding, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
<li class="indx">Reindeer, cave-man's engraving of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
<li class="isub2">period, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
<li class="indx">Restoration of the Lortet picture of the Three Deer,
<a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
<li class="indx">Rhinoceros drawn on wall of a cavern, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
<li class="indx">Rice, polished, the story of, and the disease beri-beri,
<a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
<li class="indx">Rock-oil, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
<li class="indx">Romanes, Dr. George, his experiments on the suspended animation of
seeds, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
<li class="indx">Rotifer, the common, or wheel animalcule, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Scandinavian silver work showing swastikas, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
<li class="indx">Schliemann, fragment of pottery found by, in Tiryns,
<a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
<li class="isub2">swastikas discovered by, at Hissarlik, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
<li class="indx">Scurvy, description of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
<li class="indx">Seeds, frozen, survive, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
<li class="indx">Simplification of decorative designs (figures of),
<a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
<li class="indx">Smoke nuisance, London citizen executed for producing it in
1306, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
<li class="indx">Sparrows, variations in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
<li class="indx">Species, an attempt to estimate their number,
<a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
<li class="isub2">in the making, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
<li class="isub2">Latin names for, why used, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
<li class="isub2">not a convention, but a naturally limited group of individuals,
<a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
<li class="isub2">not the same as a variety or a race, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of common English plants, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
<li class="isub2">of crayfish, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
<li class="isub2">types or type-specimens of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
<li class="isub2">what the word means, <a href="#Page_91">91-99</a></li>
<li class="indx">Specific characters, <a href="#Page_118">118-130</a></li>
<li class="indx">Spencer, Herbert, on life, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
<li class="indx">Spirals carved on mammoth ivory, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
<li class="indx">Statuette of a man, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
<li class="indx">St. Germain, museum of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
<a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
<li class="indx">Stork theory of the swastika, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
<li class="indx">Strata of the earth's crust, thickness of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
<a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
<li class="indx">Streptocone, the bent cone or comma-like figure forming half a
Tomoye, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
<li class="indx">Sulphuric acid, weight of poisonous, annually discharged over</li>
<li class="isub3">London, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
<li class="indx">Sun-fish, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
<li class="indx">Survival value, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
<li class="indx">Suspended animation, <a href="#Page_173">173-190</a></li>
<li class="indx">Swastika, mode of forming a, in India, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
<li class="isub2">on a piece of painted pottery from Tiryns, figure of, associated
with horse and fish, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
<li class="isub2">possible derivation from a doubled Tomoye, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
<li class="isub2">related to the tetraskelion, with four curved arms, shown in
Fig. 58, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
<li class="isub2">the, <a href="#Page_191">191-208</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Tapirs, the two living species of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
<li class="indx">Temperature, measurement of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
<li class="indx">Thoroughbred English racehorse a mongrel, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
<li class="indx">Tiger, sabre-toothed, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
<li class="indx">Time, estimate of, in geology, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
<li class="indx">Tinning of vegetables destroys their anti-scorbutic value,
<a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
<li class="indx">Tiryns, fragment of pottery from (date 800 B.C.), and having swastika
and horse and fish, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
<li class="indx">Toads in coal, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></li>
<li class="indx">Toleration in nature, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
<li class="indx">Tomoye, the, and its relation to the swastika,
<a href="#Page_208">208-216</a></li>
<li class="indx">Triskelion of Sicily and the Isle of Man, history of,
<a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Variation in nature, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
<li class="isub2">made use of by gardeners and breeders, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
<li class="indx">Varieties and gradational series in nature, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
<a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
<li class="indx">Veliger, young stage of marine snail, drawing of, to compare with a
wheel animalcule, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
<li class="indx">Vesuvius, <a href="#Page_55">55-73</a></li>
<li class="isub2">as it appeared in A.D. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>,
<a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
<li class="isub2">ascent of, during eruption, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
<li class="isub2">eruption of 1872 witnessed, <a href="#Page_68">68-70</a></li>
<li class="isub2">history of eruptions, <a href="#Page_61">61-64</a></li>
<li class="indx">Vitamines or accessory food factors, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
<li class="indx">Volcanoes and eruptions, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>,
<a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Water, blue colour of, <a href="#Page_74">74-85</a></li>
<li class="indx">Weldon, Prof., on variation in the shore-crab,
<a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
<li class="indx">Wells, spouting and fountain, of rock-oil, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
<li class="indx">Whales, their size and its limit, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
<li class="indx">Wheel animalcule, parasitic, on the sea-worm Synapta,
<a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
<li class="isub2">animalcules, <a href="#Page_157">157-172</a></li>
<li class="isub3">book on, by Mr. Gosse and Dr. Hudson, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
<li class="isub3">compared with the young stages of growth of marine
snails, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
<li class="isub3">minute males of some, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
<li class="isub3">pictures of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
<a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
<li class="isub3">some survive drying up of the water in which they live,
<a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
<a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
<li class="indx">Willendorf, female statuette from, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
<li class="indx">Winans, Mr. Walter, on the picture of the Three Deer,
<a href="#Page_19">19-22</a></li>
<li class="indx">Wolf, engraving of head of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
<li class="indx">Women, carvings representing, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
<a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Zebras, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li></ul>
</div>
<p class="p4 ac noindent x-smaller">
PRINTED BY<br />
MORRISON AND GIBB LTD.<br />
EDINBURGH
</p>
<div class="transnote p2">
<h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3>
<ul>
<li>Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.</li>
<li>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</li>
<li>Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs
and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that
references them. The paginations in the list of illustrations and Index
have been adjusted accordingly.</li>
<li>Footnotes were moved to the end of chapters and numbered in one continuous
sequence</li>
<li>Other corrections:
<ul>
<li> p. 72: Suffrière changed to Soufrière (Soufrière of St. Vincent in 1812).</li>
<li>pp. 153, 242: Pocahontes changed to Pocahontas.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 53751 ***</div>
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