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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: On Naval Timber and Arboriculture - With Critical Notes on Authors who have Recently Treated - the Subject of Planting - -Author: Patrick Matthew - -Release Date: December 6, 2016 [EBook #53678] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON NAVAL TIMBER AND ARBORICULTURE *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net, including RichardW (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - ON NAVAL TIMBER. - - - ON NAVAL TIMBER AND ARBORICULTURE; WITH CRITICAL NOTES ON - AUTHORS WHO HAVE RECENTLY TREATED THE SUBJECT OF PLANTING. - - BY PATRICK MATTHEW. - - LONDON: - LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN; AND - ADAM BLACK, EDINBURGH. - MDCCCXXXI. - - NEILL & CO. PRINTERS, - Old Fishmarket, Edinburgh. - - - - -{v} PREFACE. - - -It may be thought presumptuous in a person who has never had the -curiosity to peruse the British classic authors on planting and -timber—EVELYN, HANBURY, MARSHALL, MILLER, PONTEY—to make experiment of -the public sufferance. The author does not, however, think any apology -necessary; as, if the public lose time unprofitably over his pages, he -considers the blame attachable to them, not to him. A writer does not -obtrude as a speaker does, but merely places his thoughts within reach. - -As the subject, notwithstanding its great importance, might, _per se_, -be felt dry and {vi} insipid by the general reader, accustomed to the -luxuries of modern literature, the author has not scrupled to mix with -it such collateral matter as he thought might serve to correct the -aridity. The very great interest of the question regarding species, -variety, habit, has perhaps led him a little too wide. - -There is one advantage in taking a subject of this kind, that few -professional (literary) critics can meddle with it, further than as -regards style and language, without exposing their own ignorance. Yet -will the author experience the highest pleasure in being instructed -and corrected, wherever his knowledge may be found defective, or -when speculation or misconception of facts have led him into error. -Knowledge and truth, is mental strength and health; ignorance and -error, weakness and {vii} disease: the man who pursues science for its -own sake, and not for the pride of possession, will feel more gratitude -towards the surgeon who dislodges a cataract from the mind’s eye, than -towards the one who repairs the defect of the bodily organ. - - GOURDIE-HILL BY ERROL, - _Sept._ 10, 1830. - - - - -{ix} CONTENTS. - - - INTRODUCTION, . . . Page 1 - - PART I.—STRUCTURE OF VESSELS. - - SECTION I.—PLANK. - - Figure, dimensions, and quality of timber suitable, . . . 5 - - British trees suited for plank, . . . 7 - - Directions for training and pruning plank timber, . . . 8 - - SECTION II.—TIMBERS, . . . 14 - - Most suitable dimensions, . . . 18 - - Figures of bends and crooks, . . . 19 - - British trees suited for timbers, . . . 21 - - PART II.—BRITISH FOREST TREES SUITED FOR NAVAL PURPOSES. - - Oak—Quercus, . . . 31 - - Spanish Chestnut—Castanea vulgaris, . . . 42 - - Beech-tree—Fagus sylvatica, . . . 48 - - Scotch Elm—Ulmus montana, . . . 50 - - English Elm—Ulmus campestris, . . . 54 - - Red-wood Willow—Salix fragilis, . . . 58 - - Red-wood Pine—Pinus, . . . 63 - - White Larch—Larix communis, pyramidalis, . . . 75 - - Investigation of the causes of the rot in larch, . . . 78 - - Soils and subsoils most suited for larch, . . . 82 - - Soils and subsoils where larch generally takes rot, . . . 86 - - Remarks on open draining, . . . 88 - - Bending and kneeing larch, . . . 90 - - New plan of forming larch roots advantageously into knees, . . . 94 - - Uses of larch, and value as a naval timber, . . . 97 - - PART III.—MISCELLANEOUS MATTER CONNECTED WITH - NAVAL TIMBER. - - NURSERIES, . . . 106 - - Infinite variety existing in what is called species, . . . ib. - - Injurious effect from selecting the seed of the inferior varieties - for sowing, . . . 107 - - Injurious effect from kiln-drying fir cones, . . . ib. - - A principle of selection existing in nature of the strongest - varieties for reproduction, . . . 108 - - Injurious effect from the plants spindling in the seed-bed and - nursery line, . . . 109 - - Injurious effect from cutting the roots and from pruning, . . . 111 - - A light soil and open situation best suited for a nursery, . . . ib. - - Wide diverging root-leaders necessary to the large extension of a - tree, . . . 112 - - PLANTING, . . . 114 - - Further observations on pruning, . . . 117 - - Observations on timber, . . . 122 - - Table of the number of sap-growths of different kinds of - timber, . . . 124 - - Remarks on laburnum, . . . 126 - - Height to which trees may be trained of clear stem, . . . 128 - - CONCERNING OUR MARINE, . . . 130 - - Causes which befit Britain for being the first naval power, and the - emporium of the world, . . . 131 - - Utility of a system of universal free trade, . . . 133 - - Absolute necessity of abolishing every monopoly and restriction on - trade in Britain, . . . 134 - - Our marine not represented in Parliament, and the consequences, - . . . 135 - - Insane duty on the importation of naval timber and hemp, . . . 136 - - PART IV.—NOTICES OF AUTHORS WHO TREAT OF ARBORICULTURE. - - Utility of a general review of these authors, . . . 138 - - I.—FORESTER’S GUIDE, BY MR MONTEATH, . . . 140 - - Advantage of converting our coppice oak into forest, and of saving - our home oak in time of peace, . . . 140 - - Plan, by Mr Monteath, of preparing peat soils for planting, . . . 142 - - ————— of covering bare rocky ground with timber, . . . 143 - - ————— of raising oak-forest or copse by layers, . . . 144 - - Influence of our vernal eastern breeze on vegetation, . . . 146 - - Cause why the trees of narrow belts seldom grow to large timber, - . . . 148 - - Observations on pruning and thinning, . . . 150 - - Observations on the age at which the valuable part of oak bark is - thickest, . . . 154 - - Observations on the prevention of dry-rot, . . . 157 - - II.—NICOL’S PLANTER’S CALENDAR, . . . 163 - - Different influence of transplanting on herbaceous and woody - vegetables, . . . 164 - - Cutting the roots close in, injurious to some trees and not to - others, . . . 165 - - Mr Sang’s plan of raising forest from the seed _in situ_, . . . 167 - - Reasons which render the planting of young trees preferable to - sowing _in situ_, . . . 168 - - Mr Sang’s directions for nursery practice; sowing the different - kinds of forest trees in the seed-bed; removing the seedlings to the - nursery line, and from thence to the field, . . . 170 - - Remarks on transplanting, . . . 178 - - III.—BILLINGTON ON PLANTING, . . . 181 - - An account of the management of the Royal Forests, . . . ib. - - Reasons why government should rather purchase than raise timber, and - that they should sell off the Royal Forests, . . . 182 - - The Billingtonian system of pruning, . . . 185 - - Remarks on planting soils not easily permeable by water, . . . 187 - - Mr Billington’s directions for planting these soils, . . . 188 - - ————— ————— for clearing away weeds, and for cutting in or - pruning the points of the branches, . . . 189 - - IV.—FORSYTH ON FRUIT AND FOREST TREES, . . . 192 - - Mr Forsyth’s surgery of trees, and the value of his - composition-salve, . . . ib. - - Manner in which a tree can be transformed from disease and - rottenness to health and soundness, . . . 193 - - V.—MR WITHERS, . . . 198 - - Discomfiture of our Scottish Knights by Mr Withers, . . . ib. - - Account of a number of facts and experiments by the writer, on - the comparative strength of quick and slow grown timber—on the - influence of circumstance and age in modifying the quality of the - timber—on the difference in the quality of different varieties of - the same species, and of different parts of the same tree, . . . 199 - - Oak timber, moderately fast grown, so that it may be of sufficient - size, and still retain the toughness of youth, best suited for naval - use, . . . 214 - - Mr Withers, his literary friends and Sir Henry Steuart equally - imperfectly acquainted with the subject in dispute between them, - . . . 215 - - The Withers’ system neither necessary nor economically suited for - the greater part of Scotland, . . . 217 - - Fallacy of experiments on the strength of timber, from not taking - into account the difference of tension of the different annual - layers, and their position, whether flat, perpendicular, &c., - . . . 221 - - VI.—STEUART’S PLANTER’S GUIDE AND SIR WALTER SCOTT’S - CRITIQUE, . . . 226 - - Importance of whatever may serve to amuse the second childhood of - the wealthy, . . . 227 - - The subject—the art of moving about large trees in general, merely - a pandering to our wilfulness and impatience, . . . 227 - - Intolerable dulness of the park and smooth lawn, . . . 228 - - Delightful sympathies with the objects and varied scenery of our - _peopled_ subalpine country, . . . 229 - - Sir Walter Scott’s curious effort to give consequence to the art of - moving about large trees, . . . 231 - - Paroxysm of admiration of Sir Walter, at Sir Henry’s discoveries, - with his hyperbolic figures of comparison, . . . 233 - - Account of the writer’s practice in moving trees of considerable - size, . . . 235 - - Taste of Sir Walter Scott for “home-keeping squires,” practisers of - the Allanton system, . . . 245 - - What a British gentleman should be, . . . 246 - - The Allanton practice described, . . . 249 - - Quotation from Sir Henry Steuart’s volume, in which the philosophy - of his practice is described, . . . 254 - - Summary of Sir Henry’s discoveries, . . . 264 - - Consideration of the accuracy of some of Sir Henry’s assertions - regarding the desiccated epidermis of trees, and the elongation of - the shoots of plants, . . . 265 - - Sir Henry’s assertion that quick-grown timber is inferior to - slow-grown, and that culture necessarily renders it softer, less - solid, and less durable, not correct, . . . 282 - - The present climate of Scotland, and of the Orkneys and Shetlands, - inferior to a former, . . . 287 - - That this may have been owing to these islands having once been a - portion of the continent, . . . 288 - - The recent advance and recession of the German Ocean, render a - former junction with the continent not improbable, . . . 289 - - Mr Loudon’s statement, of the effect produced by pruning on the - quality and quantity of the timber, that trees produce the best - timber in their natural locality, not supported by facts, . . . 305 - - The apparent use of the infinite seedling varieties of plants, - . . . 307 - - VII.—CRUICKSHANK’S PRACTICAL PLANTER, . . . 309 - - Advantages of laying ground under timber, stated rather too high by - Mr Cruickshank, . . . ib. - - Mr Cruickshank’s account of the superior fertilizing influence of - forest upon the soil, . . . 310 - - Facts which in many cases lead to an opposite conclusion, . . . 316 - - An examination into the causes which promote or retard the - formation, or which tend to dissipate the earth’s covering of - vegetable mould, . . . 316 - - Account of an uncommon system of fallowing once practised in the - Carse of Gowrie, . . . 324 - - High manuring quality of old clay walls, . . . 325 - - Formation of nitre the probable cause of the fertilizing quality of - these walls, . . . ib. - - The fertilizing influence of summer fallow may in part be owing to - the formation of nitre and other salts, . . . ib. - - That there is a deficiency of these salts in some places of the - world, and an excess in others, . . . 326 - - Ignorance of Mr Cruickshank regarding the location of certain kinds - of trees, . . . 327 - - Mr Cruickshank’s reprehension of the practice of covering fir seeds - half an inch deep in England, and of _forcing_ suitable earth - for nurseries where awanting, . . . 330 - - Best method of transplanting seedlings in the nursery row, . . . 331 - - Quotation worthy the attention of planters, . . . ib. - - Error of authors on the location of trees, in inculcating a - determinate character of soil as generally necessary for each kind - of tree, . . . 334 - - Further errors of Mr Cruickshank on the location of trees, . . . 335 - - Adaptation of Scots fir to moist soils, even to peat-moss, . . . 338 - - An account by Mr Cruickshank of the most economical and successful - mode of planting moors and bleak mountains, . . . 340 - - Method of planting by the flat dibble or single notch, . . . 343 - - ————— ————— by the double notch or cross-slitting, . . . 344 - - Expense and comparative merits of each, . . . 345 - - These methods of planting best adapted for a sterile country, where - the weeds are small, . . . 346 - - Practice by the writer of cultivating young plantation by the - plough, suited for rich soil, . . . 347 - - Best season for planting moist soils, . . . 348 - - Manner in which frost throws up the young plant from the soil, - . . . 349 - - Mr Cruickshank’s plan of raising oak forest _in situ_ from the seed, - . . . 351 - - That although the bare plan given by our author, of sowing _in - situ_, under the shelter of nurses, is good, his directions for - executing it are not very judicious, . . . 352 - - Advantages of this plan which Mr Cruickshank has not noticed, - . . . 353 - - That the power of ripening seed is not increased by shelter in - proportion to the power of growing, . . . 356 - - That the line of seed ripening, and not the line of growing, - regulates the natural distribution of plants in respect to climate, - . . . 357 - - That oaks, under this plan of sowing _in situ_ under shelter, can be - extended to a climate inferior to the natural, . . . ib. - - That oaks grown in the low country, and best climate of Scotland, - appear not to ripen the seed sufficiently. Thence the probability - that oak now would not even keep its present locality in the low - country of Scotland, although it may “be taught to rise in our” - alpine country, . . . 358 - - APPENDIX. - - NOTE A.—That universal empire is practicable only under - naval power, . . . 363 - - NOTE B. On hereditary nobility and entail, . . . 364 - - NOTE C. Instinct or habit of breed, . . . 369 - - Nautical and roving disposition of the superior breed which has - spread westward over the maritime provinces of Britain, and over - nearly the whole continent of North America, . . . 370 - - Influence of change of place, . . . 371 - - Influence of civilization and confinement upon the complexion, - . . . 372 - - Difference of character between the population of the northern and - southern maritime provinces of Britain, . . . 373 - - That the middle and southern portion of the North Temperate Zone - is not so favourable to human existence as the northern portion, - . . . 375 - - NOTE D. Use of the selfish passions, . . . 376 - - NOTE E. Injudicious measurement law of the tonnage of - vessels, rendering our mercantile marine of defective proportions, - . . . 377 - - NOTE F. On the mud depositions or alluvium on the eastern - coast of Britain, . . . 378 - - Probability that a delta of this alluvium, a continuation of - Holland, had at one time occupied the entire German Ocean, . . . 379 - - Accommodation of organized life to circumstance, by diverging - ramifications, . . . 381 - - Retrospective glance at our pages, . . . 388 - - - - -{1} INTRODUCTION. - - -NAVIGATION is of the first importance to the improvement and perfecting -of the species, in spreading, by emigration, the superior varieties of -man, and diffusing the arts and sciences over the world; in promoting -industry, by facilitating the transfer of commodity through numberless -channels from where it is not, to where it is required; and in healing -the products of those most fertile but unwholesome portions of the -earth, to others more congenial to the existence of the varieties of -man susceptible of high improvement: Water being the general medium -of action,—fluidity or conveyance by water, almost as necessary to -civilized life as it is to organic life, in bearing the molecules -forward in their vital courses, and in floating the pabulum (the raw -material) from the soil through the living canals to the manufactories -of assimilized matter, and thence to the points of adaptation. {2} - -As civilization progresses under the influence of navigation, and -the earth exchanges her straggling hordes of savages for enlightened -densely-peopled nations, every climate and country will be more set -apart to its appropriate production, and the utility of the _great -conduit, the_ OCEAN, will more and more be developed, and become the -grand theatre of contested dominion—superiority there being almost -synonymous with _Universal Empire_—dry land only the footstool of the -_Mistress of the Seas_[1]. - -In the still hour which has followed the cannon roar of our victories, -we seem disposed to sleep secure, almost in forgetfulness, that we -possess this superiority, that we stand forth the Champion of the -World, and must give battle to every aspirant to the possession of the -_trident sceptre_. - -As soon as the recent principles of naval motion and new projectiles, -conjoined to shot-proof vessels, shall have been brought to use -in naval warfare, marine will have acquired a great comparative -preponderance over land batteries, and every shore be still more at the -mercy of the Lords of Ocean. - -When we consider the tendency of luxurious peace, the effeminacy thence -flowing in upon many of our wealthier population,—when we view, on -the {3} one hand, an entailed aristocracy[2], whose founders had been -gradually thrown uppermost in more stirring times, the boldest and -the wisest, but whose progeny, “in a calm world” entailed to listless -satiety, have little left of hope or fear to awaken in them the dormant -energies of their ancestors, or even to preserve these energies from -entirely sinking; and, on the other hand, an overflowing population, -chained, from the state of society, to incessant toil, the scope of -their mental energies narrowed to a few objects from the division of -labour, all tending to that mechanical order and tameness incompatible -with liberty; thus, perhaps, equally in danger of deteriorating and -sinking into _caste_, both classes yielding to the natural law of -restricted adaptation to condition:—when we reflect on this, the -conclusion is irresistibly _forced_ upon us, that the periodical -return of war is indispensable to the heroic chivalrous character and -love of freedom which we have so long maintained, and which (Britain -being the first in name and power in the family of nations) must be -so influential on the _morale_ of the civilized world. It is by the -jar and struggle of the conflict that the baser alloy and rust of our -manners and institutions must be removed and rubbed away: it is by the -{4} ennobling excitement of danger and of hardship that our generous -passions must be cherished, and our youth led to emulate the Roman in -patriotic thirst for glory—the Spartan in devotion—their own ancestor, -the more daring Scandinavian sea-king or rover[3], in adventurous -valour. Without, however, seeking the fight, yet in preparation for -the perhaps not distant time, when we shall face another foe, it -behoves us, without any sickly sentimentality, to cherish our warlike -virtues—above all things to attend to what must constitute “the field -of our fame,” _Our_ MARINE, and the material of its construction, -_Naval Timber_. - - -ENDNOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION. - -[1] See App. A. - -[2] See App. B. - -[3] See App. C. - - - - -{5} PART I. - -STRUCTURE OF VESSELS. - - -Vessels are constructed of wood under two forms, _Plank_ and _Timbers_; -Plank, the out and inside skin of the vessel—Timbers, the ribs or frame -which support the plank. - - -SECTION I. PLANK. - -Trees intended for plank ought to be reared in close forest, or -protected situation, drawn tall and straight, or what is preferable -for a part, with a gentle regular bend, technically _sny_, Figs. v -and x, (next page). It requires to be of clean solid texture, from 12 -to 40 feet in length, and at least 8 inches in diameter at small end, -or any greater thickness. For the conveniency of transport, oak plank -timber is generally squared or planked where grown, and is cut out from -2 1/2 to 7 inches in thickness, and from 6 to 18 inches in breadth. -Plank is needed of such various dimensions, that any oak tree of clean -timber, nearly straight one way, and straight, or with a gentle regular -bending, the other, may safely be cut into plank, the section to be -in the plane of the {6} curve. Figs. v, x, y, z, represent the most -advantageous forms of logs for cutting into plank. The dotted lines -shew the section of the saw in planking: the straighter the log is -in the plane of the saw, it is the more suitable, as the planks bend -sufficiently _side_-way by steaming; Fig. v, of considerable bend and -taper, where the planks, when cut, have a bend _edge_-way, is the most -valuable: this form requires to be very free of knots. In straight -planks, Fig. z, cleanness from knots is not such a desideratum. - -[Illustration: Figs. z, y, of any length—best long; x, from 25 to 35 -feet; v, v, from 12 to 24 feet. - -In the above cut, for distinctness, the saw is drawn entering the butt. -In practice it enters the top.] - -When planks are cut out where grown, they are sawn from the round -log immediately after it is {7} felled and barked, which not only -prevents injury from drought-cracks, but produces also a considerable -saving of timber and labour, as the wood is softer when green; and -the centre planks can thus be had much broader than after squaring -the log. The outer part of the matured or red wood, which is partly -cut away in squaring, is also the cleanest for bending. The sap or -not sufficiently matured wood, when left on the side of the plank -in the vessel, wherever it is not always soaking in water, is only -useful to the shipwright, as it decays in two or three years, and -demands an expensive repair. When plank timber is squared, it is for -the conveniency of carriage and stowage, and where timber is of little -value. - -Of British trees suited for plank, the most valuable are oak, Spanish -chesnut, larch, red wood pine, and sometimes beech[4], elm, plane -(_Acer pseudo-platanus_) under water. As no timber decays under water -for a considerable length of time, when put in fresh, unless it be -devoured by the sea-worm, beech or any other hard tough wood is nearly -equally good as oak for outside plank under light water-mark, provided -the timber be hastened out of the bush into the vessel, or be kept in -pools, either in log or {8} plank, till used, or be planked, and the -plank kept dry under cover. One summer on the ground will generally -render a beech log in the bark useless. - - -DIRECTIONS[5] FOR TRAINING PLANK TIMBER. - -[Illustration] - -Divide all branches into leaders and feeders; leaders, the main or -superior shoots which tend to become stems, A, _a_, _a_; feeders, the -inferior branches, B, _b_, _b_, _b_. {9} - -Should more than one leader appear from the time of planting the tree -till it attain the required height for the plank, shorten all but the -most promising one down to the condition of feeders, making the section -immediately above a twig, preferring one which takes a lateral or -horizontal direction. Vide dotted line crossing _a_, _a_. - -Should any feeder, below the required height, become enlarged beyond -its compeers, such as B, reduce it to equality (_vide_ dotted line), or -prune it close off, if this should be necessary to the symmetry of the -tree. - -Cut off, close by the trunk, all shoots which rise at a very acute -angle with the main stem, such as C. There is a triple reason for this: -they rise up and interfere with the more regular horizontal feeders, -tending also to become leaders; they do not form a proper junction with -the stem, by reason of the wood, as it swells, not being able to throw -up the bark out of the narrow angle; thence the bark of both stem and -branch is enclosed in the confined breek, and the wood never unites[6], -thence disease is {10} liable to be generated between them, or the -branches are subject to be torn down by the wind; and should they -ultimately come to be removed, being then of considerable size, and -the section from their perpendicular position being partly horizontal, -as the sides of the wound swell up, the rain lodges in the centre, and -generates rot. These nearly perpendicular branches generally originate -from improper pruning, springing out where a large branch has been cut -away. - -Lop off all branches, which, by taking an irregular direction, incline -to rub upon the more regular; also remove all splintered, twisted, and -diseased branches. - -Do not cut away any of the lower branches (feeders) till they become -sickly or dead. By pruning these prematurely, you destroy the fine -balance of nature, and throw too much vigour into the top, which in -consequence puts forth a number of leaders. You also diminish the -growth of the tree by the loss of healthy feeders; the timber of the -tree increasing in proportion to the quantity of healthy branches -and foliage (the foliage being the stomach and lungs {11} of the -plant). You also, by diminishing the number of feeders, increase the -comparative size of those remaining, which throws the upper part of -the stem into large knots, improper for plank, and renders then future -excision dangerous, as large feeders, when circumstance or decay -require their removal, or, when they are rifted off by winds or snow, -leave wounds which often carry corruption into the core of the tree. - -After the tree has acquired a sufficient height of bole for plank, say -from 20 to 60 feet, according to circumstance of exposure, climate, -&c., and also as many branches above this height as may be thought -necessary to carry on advantageously the vital functions, as the -superior head will now sustain small injury by being thrown out into -large branches and plurality of leaders, (if it be oak it will become -more valuable by affording a number of small crooks and knees); it -will then be proper, in order to have timber as clean as possible, and -regularly flexible, to lop clean off all the branches on the stem as -far up as this required height. From the early attention to procure -very numerous feeders, and to prevent any from attaining large size, -the wounds will very soon be closed over, leaving no external scar, and -as little as possible of internal knot or breaking off of {12} fibre. -There are many salves, panaceæ, and pigments in use for covering over -the section of removed branches, which in ordinary cases may occasion -no injury, but they are unsightly. In wounds of beech trees where the -cut tubes are so prone to die downward a considerable way into the stem -and to generate rot, an antiseptic quickly-drying pigment might be -beneficial. This and the time of the season for pruning, at which the -cut tubes or fibres are least liable to die inward, deserve attention. -We consider the spring the least dangerous time. Should a number of -small shoots spring out in consequence of this last pruning, they may -be swept down if good plank be desired; if not, they may remain, as -their presence will not greatly injure the plank, and they occasion the -stem to thicken considerably faster where they grow: yet it is probable -that, in doing this, by obstructing the flow of the sap downwards, they -may interfere with the natural enlargement of the roots, and ultimately -be injurious. Some varieties, or rather some individuals of oak, are -much more prone to this sprouting upon the bole after pruning than -others; where the disposition exists in a great degree it ought to be -encouraged, and the tree set apart for the construction of cabinet -work. {13} - -This system of pruning—encouraging numerous feeders and one leader -while the tree is young, and of allowing or rather inducing the -branches, after the tree has acquired sufficient height, to spread -out into a horizontal top, is in harmony with, and only humouring the -natural disposition of trees, and is therefore both seemly and of easy -practice[7]. The perfection of naval forest economy would consist in -superadding (according to instructions to be given on training of -timbers) a top of which every branch is a valuable bend or knee, though -in consequence of the situation the timber will be fragile, and of -light porous texture. - -_In pruning and educating for plank timber, the whole art consists -in training the tree as much as possible, and with as little loss of -branch as possible, to one leader and numerous feeders, and to the -regular cone figure which the pine tribe naturally assumes._ This can -be best and most easily performed by timely attention—checking every -over-luxuriant, overshadowing branch and wayward shoot on its first -appearance; so that none of the feeders which spring forth at first -may be smothered, till {14} they in turn become lowermost; and by the -influence of rather close plantation, which of itself will perform in a -natural manner all that we have been teaching by art, and will perform -it well. This closeness must, however, be very guardedly employed, and -timeously prevented from proceeding too far, otherwise the complete -ruin of the forest, by premature decay or winds, may ensue, especially -when it consists of pines. Of course all kinds of pines require no -other attention than this (well-timed thinning), and to have their -sickly moss covered under branches swept clean down. - - -SECTION II. TIMBERS. - -Timbers, as before stated, are the ribs of the vessel, spreading out -and upward (excepting at the bow and stern) at right angles to the -keel and keelson, two large straight logs which form a double spinal -support or backbone. The ribs or compass timbers in great public -building establishments are sometimes bent by machinery, after being -softened by steam or hot liquids[8]; and for this purpose the {15} -cleanest straightest wood is requisite. We, however, do not believe -that pieces of great diameter, bent artificially, can have equal -strength and resilience as when grown bent—the fibre must in some -degree be crippled. We admit that timbers and frames may be built of -separate bended pieces of no great thickness, and have all the strength -and resilience of natural bend: the strongest and most elastic mode of -forming vessels would be to compose them of different layers of plank -over each other in diagonal fashion, or at an angle 60°, but the labour -and inconveniency of these modes would be great. We will not admit that -an experiment between the strength of a piece of coarse cross-grained -timber, half naturally bent, half cut out of the solid, and that of a -piece of clean timber artificially bent, is any proof on the subject. -Let us produce a clean natural bend, exactly fitted to its place, -without any section of fibre, and make experiment with it. But at any -rate, as this plan (bending of timbers) has never been adopted to any -extent in our private building-yards, we must doubt its economy,—either -{16} that the practice is of no considerable advantage, or that the -requisite machinery is too expensive for private establishments, and -conclude that fine bent timber still continues a necessary in the -formation of at least our mercantile marine. - -Of the very ingenious innovations in the structure of vessels contrived -by Sir R. SEPPINGS, by which knees and crooked timber might nearly -be superseded, we can only say, the practice is not followed, and, -at least in private building-yards, not likely to be so;—that the -demand for fine crooked timber, comparatively, is, and will continue -to be, as great as ever. Should our war navy, from the introduction -of steam impulse and bomb cannon, be reduced to fleets of strong -gun-boats, the demand for crooked timber, instead of lessening, will -greatly increase,—the building of frames of straight timber being more -expensive, and less suitable, in small than in large vessels; and -should war occur, in the hurry of the formation of a new war navy under -a different principle, the speediest and simplest mode of construction -will be followed. - -Nearly two-thirds of the timbers of a vessel consist of the curves and -bends _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_; the other third is of straighter -timber, and easily obtained. {17} All timbers require to be straight -in one way—in the plane of their side, and the sides generally to be -square. The under measures embrace timbers of appropriate size for -vessels from 50 to 500 tons register; it is seldom that merchantmen are -required under or above this size. Of course, large war-vessels require -timbers of larger dimension. The corresponding timbers of vessels of -different size are nearly similar figures, and the length of their -respective lines not far from being in the ratio of the cube root of -the tonnage—a little deeper and thicker in the smaller vessels. When -timbers are formed of larch or pine, they require to be a little more -in diameter than when of oak. {18} - -[Illustration: - - Fig. _a_, Flat floor, from 9 1/2 to 18 feet long (that is, 9 1/2 - for a vessel of 50 tons, and 18 for one of 500), and from 9 to 16 - inches deep at middle; thickness 1/4th less than depth, the diameter - increasing in proportion to the length. When fillings such as _s_ are - used, flat floors are cut from straight logs. - - _b_, Rising floor shorter, and same depth and thickness as former. - - _c_, _c_, High rising floors, from 4 to 8 feet in length of wing, and - a little deeper, and same thickness as former. From the difficulty - of procuring this bend, the wings are often used of unequal length, - according as the timber turns out, the shorter wing to exceed 3 feet, - and more when of considerable diameter. Floors are of every rise from - _a_ to _c_, being flattest at midships, and rising gradually as they - approach the bow and stern. In all timbers, it is necessary, for - strength, that the fibre of the wood extend from one end to the other - without much cross grain. See lines on high rising floor, _c_. - - _d_, First foot-hook, from 7 to 13 feet long, and from 7 to 14 inches - deep; thickness 1/5th less than depth. - - _e_, Second foot-hook, from 6 to 10 feet long, and from 6 to 13 - inches deep, thickness 1/6th less than depth. This curve, when of - great size, is valuable as, breast-hooks—curved timbers stretching - horizontally within and at right angles to the bow-timbers, to support - the bow. - - _f_, _f_, _f_, Knees, the one wing nearly at right angles to the - other; from 2 to 9 feet in length of wing; depth at middle as much - as possible; thickness from 4 to 12 inches,—generally required about - 3 1/2 feet in length of wing, and from 6 to 8 inches thick. Knees, - when large, suit for high rising floors. - - Fig. _h_ is a valuable piece, and easily procured by bending the young - plant; when cut, it forms two second foot-hooks. - - Figs. _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, are suitable, though the part cut off - by the dotted line be awanting. In good work, this plan is often - followed, and a cross-chock put on. (Vid. _s_, left side of the - cross-section of a vessel thus timbered, page 20). By this {19} mode - of building, vessels can be constructed from much straighter timber, - and the vessels are superior, from being more elastic; but from the - nicety and expense of the work and waste of timber, the practice is - not much in use. {20}] - -[Illustration: Cross-section of a Vessel at midships—knees not - inserted.] - -A first foot-hook alternates with each floor, and second foot-hook, -alongside, extending from _o_ to _q_; and a top-timber, or third -foot-hook, alternates alongside of each second foot-hook, and chock -extending from _q_ to _a_. These timbers are bolted together, and -constitute a frame or double rib; and the skeleton is composed of a -series of double ribs (several inches separate, of course wider above -than lower down, as the timbers decrease in thickness), to within a -little of the bow and stern, where the timbers are usually placed -singly, without framing. {21} In large vessels a fourth futtock is -used; thence straighter timber is suitable. - -The knees occupy the position at _x_, stretching horizontally along the -inside of the vessel and end of the beams. - -Of British trees, timbers are formed of oak, Spanish chestnut, -larch, red-wood pine, red-wood willow (the stags-head ozier, _Salix -fragilis_), and sometimes the broad-leafed elm (_Ulmus montana_) under -water. - -In Britain, crooked oak for timbers is found chiefly in hedge-rows and -open forests, where the winds, casual injury, or overhanging superior -branches, have thrown the tree, while young, from its natural balance; -or, by the tree, from open situation, or excision of lower branches, -parting early into several leaders, which, in receding from each other, -form curves and angular bends. On the Continent of Europe, in the -natural forest, it is chiefly the tops of old lofty trees which afford -the crooks; in consequence, those we import are, for the most part, of -a free, light, insufficient quality[9]. {22} - -To procure a sufficiency of excellent crooks, every person who has -the charge of young plantations of timber intended for naval purposes, -ought, in the more exposed situations not favourable to the growth of -plank timber, or timber for bending, when the plants are from 3 to -15 feet high, to mark out the most healthy, suitably formed plants, -sufficiently close to fill the ground when of the proper size, say 6 -yards apart, and to bend these, as the under figures will illustrate. -The dotted portion is the growth after being bent. {23} - -[Illustration: Fig. _f._] - -The bend of floors requiring to be at the middle, and of angular bend, -see Fig. _f_, young trees of one-half the required length, should have -the earth removed from the bulb of the root, from one or both sides, -according to circumstances, and the tree and stool partially upset to -windward, that is, generally south-west; (the operator, in effecting -this, may be assisted by a strong pronged instrument); then fixed in -this inclined position, and the earth filled in. This inclination may -be given at planting, when the plants are tall. - -The best mode of securing the larger plants in their bent position, -is by rods, forked or hooked at one end, the other end nailed to a -ground-stake;—the upper end, if forked, firmly tied to the bent plant -by mat or straw rope. Smaller plants may be secured to the notched -tops of stakes by ligatures; and the smallest, particularly larch, -pinned down by small stakes with hooked tops. Advantage may also be -taken of an adjacent tree of small value, and which would ultimately -be required to be thinned out, to tie the bended standard down to the -most convenient part of its top or stem, lopping off all above the -ligature, if it interfere with the standard, and barking it near the -ground, to prevent much future growth. When the workmen comprehend {24} -the required bends, they will fall upon methods of fixing the plants -in the most suitable position, better adapted to the locality than -any directions can teach. The plants will require to be fixed down at -least two years, and bent a little more than what is requisite, as in -their after-growth they have generally a tendency to become straighter, -from depositing the thickest layers in the hollow of the bend. A -fine regular curve may be obtained by bending the plant for several -successive years, a little lower every year; this gradual lowering -does not so much check the growth of the leader, nor tend so much to -cause the feeders upon the upper side to push as leaders. When oaks are -bent, great attention must be paid to cut away any ground-shoots, and -to cut off or twist down any strong feeders that stand perpendicular -on the upper side of the tree; and also for several years afterwards, -to look over the trees twice a-year, correcting any exuberant feeder, -and destroying root-shoots. The forester ought to keep in mind that his -pupils are proverbially pliant, and that, should his growing timber -not be of the most valuable and most appropriate figure, he must rank -either with the negligent or the incapable. - -Ship timbers being generally required of greater depth than thickness, -that is, broadest in the plane {25} of the curve, hedge-row is better -adapted to growing them than the forest, especially when the trees are -close in the row. The bend generally takes place across the row; and -the bole of the tree acquires a greater diameter in that direction than -in the line of the row. If the figure of the top of a tree be very -elliptical in the horizontal plane, the cross section of the bole, -instead of being circular, will also be elliptical (cake-grown). The -lateral spread of the roots in thick planted rows being greater than -the longitudinal, also tends to give elliptic bole, the stem swelling -most on the sides where the strongest roots enter, which, of course, -always occurs on the sides affording most nourishment. Forests intended -for ship timbers might be planted and kept in rows a considerable -distance apart, with the plants close in the row, and thus acquire the -elliptic bole. This would also facilitate the bending; by being turned -a little right and left alternately, they would spontaneously, from the -weight of the top, and their inclination to avoid the shade of each -other, increase the original bias. Were forests planted in close double -rows, the plants thick in the row, with wide avenues or glades between, -many of the trees would acquire crooked boles, and the crooked might be -retained when thinning. Avenues of this description {26} would form -agreeable diversity from the monotonous irregularity of the forest, and -be highly picturesque. - -Were close triple rows planted with wide glades between, having spruce, -larch, birch, or other trees of more rapid growth than the oak in the -mid row, and oak in the side rows, the greater part of the oak would be -thrown out into fine curves by the overshadowing top of the superior -tree. After the oak had received a sufficient side bias, the central -row, which of those kinds comes soon to be of value, might be removed. - -The easiest way to procure good oak knees is to look out in hedge-row -and open forest for plants which divide into two or four leaders, -from 3 to 10 feet above ground; and should the leaders not diverge -sufficiently, to train them as horizontally as possible for several -feet, by rods stretching across the top, or by fixing them down by -stakes; see following figures. Figs. _a_, _b_, _f_, are drawn to a -smaller scale than _c_, _d_; of course, a stem, after dividing, never -extends in length below the division. {27} - -[Illustration] - -When grown, the main stem, either used whole, sawn in two, or -quartered, will form one wing of the knee, and the bent branch the -other; see figs. _c_, _d_. The dotted lines shew the saw section. -Particular attention must be paid to prevent oaks from separating -into more than four leaders, and also to train up these leaders a -considerable height, without allowing them to divide again, retaining -always numerous feeders; thus, when the tree acquires size, {28} many -valuable crooks _g_, _h_, _i_, will be formed above the knees. It is -necessary, however, to guard against training the branches to too great -a height, as, when so, they run much risk of being twisted and torn by -high winds. - -Knees may also be obtained by cropping the top from plants that have -side branches similar to _f_, and training these branches for leaders -as above directed. In this case, the section, where the top is cut -off, must not be too large, and the branches, either two or four, -well knotted to the trunk, or the situation sheltered, otherwise the -trunk at the section may be split down by the strain of the wind on -the new leaders. Also, in healthy growing trees of considerable size, -which have spreading tops, and which are not to be cut down for a -considerable time, the forester, if he have a good eye, may, by lopping -off a few branches here and there throughout the top, throw the greater -part of the boughs into condition to become knees, or valuable crooks, -when of size. This is of most material consequence to the ultimate -value of half-grown oak trees, in open situations, and ought to be -particularly studied by the superintendent, as, when allowed to run -into very numerous _stemmy_ branches, without direction or curtailment, -the top, instead of being ultimately of {29} considerable value -as timber, is of none. Directions in writing will scarcely suffice -to teach a forester this part of his business; he must consider -attentively the knee figures and bends we have furnished, fix them in -his memory, and use every eligible means to obtain them. Knees, of all -descriptions of oak timber are in the greatest request. We have known -them purchased at 7s. per computed solid foot, which, from the plan -of measuring, is as much as 10s. per real solid foot. The prevailing -inattention to judicious training will continue to occasion the supply -of knees to be short of the demand, and thence the price high, provided -some change does not take place in the structure of vessels, or iron -knees be adopted, which are now sometimes used, or vessels, with the -exception of the deck and rigging, be formed of iron altogether, which -we have seen do very well in inland navigation. - -As crooked round oak timber of the natural length is extremely -unmanageable, and its distant transport very expensive, it is desirable -that it be squared and cut in lengths suited to its ultimate use, where -grown. This requires a thorough knowledge of the necessary curves, to -which the figs. p. 19, will afford considerable assistance. However, -the superintendent of any extensive fall of naval timber either should -be {30} a shipwright who has had practice in lining off timbers, or -should have passed several months in a dock-yard during the timbering -of vessels, observing every piece that is put to use. - -As most part of the timbers of a vessel have their sides squared, the -cutter cannot err much in hewing away the sides in the plane of, and at -right angles to, the curves, at least as deep as the sap-wood reaches, -thus leaving only a little sap-wood on the angles; the sap-wood, in -all cases (except in those small craft used in carrying lime, which -preserves from rot), being worse than useless; by its decay not only -weakening the vessel from the want of entireness of the timbers, but -also acting as a ferment to further corruption. - -In our directions for obtaining curved and angular bent timbers, we -may be thought to have been a little too minute with the dimensions -and figures: under the hand of the shipwright, or person of skill, a -tree of almost any possible bend cuts out to valuable purpose: what -is wanted is crooked timber, free of large knots;—first and second -foot-hooks and knees are, however, most in demand. - - -ENDNOTES TO PART I. - -[4] Beech, suited for plank, is sometimes of more value when straight -and of considerable length for the purposes of keel-pieces; for this -the log requires to be from 30 to 70 feet in length, and at least of -sufficient thickness at the small end to square a foot. - -[5] These directions are generally applicable—as well for what may be -required for being bent for compass-timbers, and for what may be used -for land purposes, as for plank. - -[6] There are several valuable varieties of apple-trees of acute branch -angle, which do not throw up the hark of the breeks; this either -occasions the branches to split down when loaded with fruit, or, if -they escape this for a few years, the confined bark becomes putrid, -and produces canker, which generally ruins the tree. We have remedied -this by a little attention in assisting the rising of the bark with -the knife. Nature must not be charged with the malformation of these -varieties; at least, had she formed them, as soon as she saw her error -she would have blotted out her work. - -[7] Commencing by times, the greater part of training and pruning for -plank, excepting in the case of dead branches, fractures, and last -pruning, may be performed by a small knife. - -[8] We are not in possession of sufficient facts to judge of the effect -to hasten or deter decay occasioned by the timber having been softened -in hot liquids of 212° or upwards, and not raised so high as to -generate pyrolignous acid; but we think it must impair the elasticity. - -[9] As excellent plank can be obtained by importation, the grower -of naval timber ought to regard the production of crooks as a more -patriotic occupation than the production of plank. _It will generally -pay better._ - - - - -{31} PART II. - -BRITISH FOREST TREES USED AS NAVAL TIMBER. - - -OAK—_Quercus_. - -Oak appears to be the most prevalent tree about the middle of the -north temperate zone, growing, naturally, upon almost every soil, -excepting some of the sterile sandy hats. With the exception of the -pines, it is by far the most useful kind of tree, almost balancing -the accommodating figure of stem, and manageable quality of the pine -timber, by its greater strength and durability, and excelling the -pines in value of bark. It is not easy to determine whether there be -distinct British species in the genus _Quercus_; but, at least, there -are several breeds, or families, or grouped resemblances, which, -though the individuals may slightly vary, and though a gradation, or -connection, may be traced among these families themselves, yet possess -general character sufficiently marked to support names. Botanists, who -are so prompt and so well prepared with their classes, {32} orders, -genera, species, varieties, long before they acquire much knowledge -of what they are so ready to classify, or be able to distinguish -between species and variety, or know if species and variety be really -distinct, divide the oak of this country into two species, _Quercus -Robur_ and _Q. sessiliflora_, the former with long fruit-stalks, -and hard, strong, durable timber, the late leafing old kind once so -prevalent in the island: the latter an earlier leafing, faster growing -kind, timber inferior, leaves petiolate, fruit sessile, not common, -but supposed native. We consider there is no foundation for this -specific distinction; we have met with oaks with various lengths of -fruit-stalks: Besides, short and long fruit-stalks is a very common -difference among seedling varieties. The families or breeds which we -have observed in the indigenous oak resemble what are found among -almost every kind of vegetable, and graduate into each other,—those -farthest removed in appearance, no doubt having power to commix by the -pollen. The most remarkable distinction we have observed is in the -colour of the bark, whether inclining to white or black. The variety -or breed with grey white bark, often very smooth and shining, and -sometimes beautifully clouded with green, has also a different form -of leaf and figure of top from those with {33} blackish bark, and we -have no doubt will also afford a different quality of timber. Those -with blackish dingy bark vary considerably from each other, some being -of very luxuriant growth and heavy foliage, with thick fleshy bark, -affording much tannin; others, though in favourable situation, of -stunted growth, thin dry bark, and delicate constitution, often being -nipped in the twigs by the frost: some having a round easy figure of -top, even with pendulous branching, others extremely stiff and angular -in the branching; some with the most elegant foliage, deeply sinuated -and finely waved, others with the clumsiest, most misshapen foliage, -almost as if opposite principles had presided at their forming. We have -observed the earlier kinds, with the dark bark, to have generally the -easiest figure of top; the angular branching and stiffness of figure -of top being greatest in those sooty-barked late kinds, most disposed -to take two growths in the season, the spring and autumnal, which, -from the proneness of these kinds to be affected in the terminal bud -by monstrosities, and sometimes also to be nipped in the point of -the unripened autumn shoot by the frost, are generally thrown out in -different directions, the tree, from these causes, growing awkwardly -and irregularly, and by fits and starts. - -Besides the indigenous _Quercus Robur_, we have {34} a number of -kinds, termed distinct species, growing in Britain, of foreign -derivation—the Turkish oak, _Quercus Cerris_; the Lucombe oak, _Q. -sempervirens_; the scarlet-leaved American, _Q. coccinea_; the -evergreen, _Q. Ilex_, and several others. The Turkish and Lucombe -resemble each other, but the latter generally continues green till the -spring, when the old leaves wither, a little before the young appear: -Botanists make them varieties. We consider the Turkish oak the most -valuable and elegant of these foreign kinds. The leaves are generally -very long and slender, deeply and widely sinuated, and the teeth -or salient angles sometimes undulated, having a curled appearance; -yet there are some individuals with broad, short, flat leaves, not -differing in figure from those of the common oak, but the tree in other -respects not different from the Turkish, being easily distinguished -from the common oak by the reddish hairy appearance of the developing -shoot, the scales of the bud having a hair-like extension, visible in -each leaf axilla. The acorns are also bristled like echini, with this -scaly prolongation. The timber is tough and clean, resembling the white -American, and suitable for staves. The stem and branches are generally -very straight, as the terminal bud seldom fails, and the growing -proceeds steadily, without much autumnal shoot. {35} - -As oaks run more hazard in transplanting than most other kinds of -trees, the greater care is necessary in procuring well-rooted, -short, vigorous plants; in having the soil free of stagnating water, -in timing and executing the work in a proper manner, and in hoeing -around the plant, keeping the ground clean and friable on the surface -during the first two or three seasons. As young oaks grow much more -vigorously under considerable closeness and shelter, and as the plants -are expensive, it is proper to plant, along with them, a mixture of -cheaper plants, larches or other pines, which also sooner come to be -of a little value, to be removed gradually as the young wood thickens -up. In bleak exposed situations, it is well to plant the ground first -with pines, and when these attain a height of 6 or 8 feet, to cut out -a number, not in lines, but irregularly, and plant the oaks in their -stead, gradually pruning and thinning away the remaining firs as the -oaks rise. In general, pitting is preferable to slitting; but when -the plants are very small, and the ground wet-bottomed (with close -subsoil), liable to become _honeycomby_ with frost, slitting secures -the plant better from being thrown out. - -Oak is by far the best adapted tree for hedge-row, or for being grown -by the sides of arable fields, both {36} with respect to its own -qualities, and to the growth of the adjacent crops or hedge. The bark -is much thicker, and more valuable in proportion to its bulk here, than -in close forest, and the timber more crooked, which is desiderated in -oak, but which unfits most other trees for much else than firewood. The -oak is, besides, as generally suited for the variety of soils which -lines crossing a country in all directions must embrace: this is matter -of consideration, as few planters have skill to locate a number of -kinds properly. It will also be thought, by reason of British feeling, -the most interesting and ornamental; nor is it to be overlooked, that, -by the roots taking a more downward direction than other trees, the -plough has greater liberty to proceed around, and the moisture and -pabulum necessary to evaporation and growth are not drawn from the -ground so superficially; thence the minor plants adjacent do not suffer -so much. We have observed, too, that, when all cause of injury by -root suction was cut off by a deep ditch, the undergrowth seemed less -injured by shade of oak than of some other trees. The apple and the -pear only, appear to be as little detrimental to the surrounding crop -as the oak. The ash, the elm, the beech, in Scotland the most general -hedge-row trees, are the most improperly located; the ash and the {37} -elm as being the most pernicious to the crops, and the beech as being -of little or no value grown in hedge-row. In clays, most kinds of -trees, particularly those whose roots spread superficially, are more -detrimental to the crop around than in the more friable earths, owing -to the roots in clays foraging at less depth, and to the clay being -a worse conductor of moisture than other earths. The disadvantages -attending the planting of hedge-row with oaks are, that their removal -is not in general so successful as that of other trees, especially -to this exposed dry situation, and that the progress of the plant, -for a number of years, is but slow; and thus for a longer time liable -to injury from cattle. Fair success may, however, be commanded, by -previously preparing the roots, should the plants be of good size; -transplanting them when the ground is neither too moist nor too dry, -and in autumn, as soon as the leaves have dropped or become brown, -particularly in dry ground; performing the operation with the utmost -care not to fracture the roots, and to retain a considerable ball; -opening pits of considerable size for their reception, much deeper than -the roots, and should a little water lurk in the bottom of the pit, it -will be highly beneficial, provided none stagnate so high as the roots; -firming the earth well around the roots {38} after it is carefully -shaken in among the fibres; and, especially, keeping the surface of the -ground, within four feet of the plant, friable and free from weeds, -by repeated hoeings during the first two or three summers. Of course, -if you suffer the plant to waver with the wind, or to be rubbed and -bruised by cattle, or by the appendages of the plough, it is folly -to expect success. On this account, stout plants, from 8 to 12 feet -high, the branches more out of the way of injury, may, in sheltered -situations, under careful management, be the most proper size. Much -also depends on procuring sturdy plants from exposed situations. We -have experienced better success with hardy plants from the exposed side -of a hill, having unfibred _carrot_ roots much injured by removal, -than with others from a sheltered morass, having the most numerously -fibred, well extricated roots. In cases, where, from the moistness and -coldness of the ground in early summer, there was a torpor of root -suction, and, in consequence, the developing leaves withering up under -an arid atmosphere, we have attempted to stimulate the root action by -application of warm water, covering up the surface of the ground with -dry litter to confine the heat; we have also endeavoured to encourage -the root action by increasing the temperature of cold light-coloured -soils, by strewing soot {39} on the surface for a yard or two around -the plant, and by nearly covering a like distance by pieces of black -trap rock, from three to six inches in diameter. The success from the -pieces of trap appeared greatest; they diminished the evaporation from -the ground, thence less loss of heat and of necessary moisture; and -being at once very receptive of radiant caloric, and a good conductor, -they quickly raised the temperature of the soil in the first half of -the summer, when bodies, from the increasing power of the sun, are -receiving much more heat by radiation than they are giving out by -radiation. - -The oak should never be pruned severely, and this rule should be -particularly observed when the tree is young. We have known several -of the most intelligent gardener-foresters in Scotland err greatly in -this; and, by exclusively pruning the oak plants, from misdirected -care, throw them far behind the other kinds of timber with which they -were mixed in planting. There is no other broad-leaved tree which we -have seen suffer so much injury in its growth, by severe pruning, as -the oak. The cause of this may be something of nervous susceptibility, -or connected life, all the parts participating when one is injured; it -may be owing to the tendency to putrescency of the sap-wood, or rather -of the sap, the part around the section often decaying, especially -{40} when the plant is not vigorous; or it may arise from some torpor -or restricted connection of the roots, which, when robbed of their -affiliated branch, do not readily forage or give their foraging to the -support of the nearest remaining branch, or to the general top of the -tree, but throw out a brush of twigs near the section. - -Although the oak often lingers in the growth while young, yet, after it -attains to six inches or a foot in diameter, its progress is generally -faster than most other kinds of hard wood, not appearing to suffer so -much as others from excessive fruit-bearing. The value of the timber, -and also of the bark, and the slight comparative injury occasioned to -the under crop, whether of copse, grass, corn, or roots, independently -of any patriotic motives, or religious reverence lingering in our -sensorium from the time of the Druids, should give a preference to this -tree for planting, wherever the soil and climate are suitable, over -every other kind, with the exception of larch and willow, which, in -particular soils, will pay better. - -The planter of oak should throw in a considerable proportion of Turkish -oak into the more favourable soils and situations. The beautiful -clustered, fretted foliage of this species gives a richness, and, in -winter, when it retains the withered leaf, a warmth of colouring to -our young plantations beyond any other {41} of our hardy trees and -shrubs. We have had this kind, eighteen years old, equal in size to -larches of the same age in the same ground. We cut down several of -these oaks of about 8 inches in diameter, and compared the timber and -bark with those of common oak of the same age. The timber was clean, -very tough and flexible, with much _flash_, and we should suppose might -suit for plank when matured; at any rate, from the splendid shew of the -laminæ (_flash_), it would form beautiful pannelling and furniture. It -shrunk, however, extremely while drying, which must have been partly -owing to the quick growing and youngness, it thence consisting almost -entirely of sap-wood, and this sap-wood almost entirely of sap; and, -when left in the sun in the round state, after peeling, rent nearly to -splinters,—much more than the common oak under the same exposure. The -bark was about double the thickness and weight of that of the common -oak of equal size, and, in proportion to its weight, consisted much -more of that cellular or granular substance most productive of tannin. -The varieties of common oak with thick bark are generally of inferior -quality of timber; but they are by far the finest, most luxuriant -growing trees, with rich heavy foliage, and appear as giants standing -in the same row with {42} the thin barked varieties, though planted at -the same time. - -To the naturalist the oak is an object of peculiar interest, from the -curious phenomena connected with the economy of numerous insects who -depend upon it for existence. It would be tedious to describe the -different apples, galls, excrescences, tufts, and other monstrosities -which appear upon the oak. It is something like enchantment! These -insects, merely by a puncture and the deposition of an egg, or drop of -fluid, turning Nature from her law, and compelling the Genius of the -Oak to construct of living organized oak matter, instead of leaves and -twigs, fairy domes and temples, in which their embryo young may lie for -a time enshrined. - - -SPANISH CHESTNUT—_Castanea vulgaris_, (_Fagus Castanea, L._) - -Spanish or sweet Chestnut, sometimes named Chestnut Oak, sometimes -included in the genus Fagus, seems at least a connecting link between -Quercus and Fagus. This valuable timber tree, the largest growing, and, -in many places, also the most common in the south of Europe, and which -was once so {43} abundant in England that many of the largest of our -ancient piles are wooded of it, has been for several ages much on the -decrease in this country; owing, probably, to a slight refrigeration -of climate, which, during this period, appears to have taken place, -preventing the ripening of the seed, or, in more rigorous winters, -following damp, cold summers, destroying all the young plants (at -least the part above ground), whose succulent unripened shoots and -more delicate general constitution, from immatured annual round of -life, or imperfect concoction of juices, have not power to withstand -the severe cold sometimes occurring near the surface of the earth. A -very general destruction of the young plants of this kind of tree has -occurred more than once within our memory from severe frost; but as the -climate, a few years back, rather improved, and the spirit of planting -became more general, a considerable number of plants of this tree have -attained height and hardihood to withstand the cold, excepting in the -points of the annual shoot, which we notice are again nipped (year -1830). This may give encouragement to more extended planting, as the -tree is handsome, and, in most places, where water does not abound nor -stagnate, acquires great size in comparatively short time. It is said -to prefer a gravelly or stone {44} rubble subsoil, but we have seen it -in rich clay, in row with large beeches, even exceed them in size. We -should prefer for it any deep friable dry soil. - -There is one circumstance connected with this timber in this country, -at least in Scotland, which must prevent its general use in ship plank, -and be of material injury to it for ship timbers; this is, that few -trees of it of size are found without the timber being shaky or split, -some to such a degree that the annual rings or concentric growths have -separated from each other. This appears to be owing to our climate -being colder than what is suitable to the nature of the plant; the -sap in the stem possibly freezing in severe weather and splitting, or -severing the growths of the timber, but more probably occasioned by -the season being too short, and too moist and cold, to ripen or fill -up with dense matter, sufficiently, the frame of the annual growths; -thence, as each ring of sap-wood, prematurely hastened by the torpor -of moisture and cold, turns to red or matured wood, and, in so doing, -dries considerably within the other rings of moist sap-wood, the -contractile force may be sufficient to separate this growth from the -next external sap growth, the cohesion existing between the tissue or -fabric of the growth being much stronger than the cohesion between one -{45} growth and another. The uncommon dryness of the matured wood, and -moistness of the sap-wood of this tree, and smallness of the number of -sap-wood rings, commonly only from 2 to 6 in this country, incline us -to believe that this is the cause of the insufficiency or defect; and -that, in a milder, drier climate, the sap-wood rings will be found to -be more numerous, and thus, independent of a better first ripening, -affording a longer time for their cells to be more filled up with an -unctuous matter (which prevents the shrinking) gradually deposited -while they convey the sap, the sap-wood rings being the part of the -timber through which the sap circulates. As proof of this unctuous -deposit or filling up, we observe that dry sap-wood imbibes moisture -much quicker, and in greater quantity, than dry mature. We think this -premature maturity (if we may so term it) of timber in cold countries, -a general law. Our larch, originally from the Apennine, has not more -than one-third of the number of sap-rings of our Scots fir, indigenous -in Mar and Rannoch mountains; and our narrow-leafed, or English -elm, said to have been introduced from the Holy Land in time of the -Crusades, has not more than one-half of the number of our indigenous -broad-leafed, or Scots elm. From the sap-growths of Laburnum, {46} -scarcely exceeding in number those of the Spanish chestnut, we should -suppose that it has been moved northward, or that the proper climate -has left it. We have observed that moist, or water-soaked ground, has -influence, as well as climate, to deprive the alburnum vessels sooner -of their living functions, inducing that torpor of tubes, or semi-vital -condition, in which they only serve to support the more active parts, -and constitute what is called Mature Timber. - -It is a general opinion that Spanish chestnut soon takes rot in -situations where the roots come in contact with water. This appears -to result from moist soil inducing the too early maturing of the -timber already alluded to, and occasioning shaky insufficient fabric, -which soon corrupts. We have observed oaks which had fewer layers of -sap-wood, from growing in damp situations, have the timber of inferior -quality, and sometimes of a shaky, brownish description, when cut -across, throwing out a dirty brownish liquid or stain. - -From the use of the Spanish chestnut in the Spanish navy, both in -planking and timbering, and from the roofing beams and ornamental -work of Westminster Hall being also of this wood, we should suppose -it was not so liable to this defect of rents in {47} the timber in -milder climates. Chestnut timber is a good deal similar to oak, though -not quite so reedy and elastic, but is destitute of the large laminæ -or plates (_flash_), which, radiating from the pith to the outside, -become so prominent to view in the oak when the longitudinal section -is perpendicular to the outside, in the plane of the laminæ. It is, we -should think, as capable of supporting weight, when stretching as a -beam, as the oak, and is equally, if not more durable, many beams of -it existing in very old buildings undecayed: it is said even to have -been taken out fresh where it had stood 600 years as lintels. Earth -stakes of it are also very durable. It possesses one advantage over -oak, which must recommend it for ship-building, that is, having much -less proportion of sap-wood; and, from the matured wood containing much -less sap or moisture, we should suppose it not so liable to dry rot, or -that more simple means, or shorter period, would suffice for seasoning -it, so as to be proof against this evil. Spanish chestnut is as yet -little known among British shipwrights; but were a quantity of it in -the market free of the unsoundness we have alluded to, its merits would -soon become known. The bark is used by tanners, but is said not to -equal that of oak. - - -{48} BEECH-TREE—_Fagus sylvatica_. - -This hardy tree occupies fully as wide a range, both of soil and -climate, as the oak, and is generally the fastest growing, most -vigorous of all our hard-wood kinds, prospering on all soils, on the -dry and moist, the aluminous, the calcareous, the siliceous, provided -water does not stagnate. It combines magnificence with beauty, being -at once the Hercules and Adonis of our Sylva. The timber of our beech, -while green, is by far the hardest of our large growing trees, and, in -the American forest, the members of the beechen family match better -than those of any other, with the perseverance of the ruthless Yankee; -the roots retaining the hardness deeper in the earth than those of any -other tree, and being so plaited and netted throughout the ground for -a considerable space around the bulb, that it is next to impossible to -trench or dig over the soil till they have decayed. - -As we have before stated, the timber of the beech-tree soon corrupts if -it is not speedily dried, or kept in water after being cut down, and -is equally liable to corruption in the tree when deprived of life by -wounds or other injury. Beech has a matured and sap wood, although they -are not very distinguishable, being nearly of one colour. The former -has {49} considerable durability when kept dry, the latter is speedily -consumed by worming. - -The planter of beech should procure the kind[10] with yellow-coloured -wood, termed by joiners Yellow Beech, in opposition to the kind with -white wood, called White Beech. The yellow grows faster and straighter, -and is cleaner and freer of black knots, and also more pleasantly -worked than the white, but it corrupts much sooner in the bark when -cut down. This variety of beech, when properly trained, is probably -the most profitable hard-wood that we can raise; when planked, it -bends pleasantly under the shipwright to the curvature of the vessel’s -side. The tree is also much superior in size and grace of outline to -the white. There are few planters who need be put in mind that beech -of small size, or of short or crooked stem, is the least valuable of -all timber. Whoever plants with a view to profit will, therefore, -throw in only as many beech plants as may ultimately be required for -standards, and these in the bosom of plantations; as it is seldom that -beech attains to much value in hedge-row or on the outskirts of woods, -{50} from its proneness when so situated to ramify and grow crooked. -It is, however, quite possible, with a little early attention, to rear -beech as straight and clean as to be valuable, on the outskirts, where -it forms a beautiful fringe to the plantation, and affords excellent -shelter. - - -ELM—_Ulmus._—BROAD-LEAVED, OR SCOTCH, or WYCH ELM—_Ulmus montana._ - -This beautiful and most graceful tree, whose favourite locality is the -damp, deep, accumulated soil, free of stagnant water, at the bottom of -declivities, is, together with its sister, the small-leaved kind, the -English elm, when so situated, the fastest growing of our hard-wood -trees. Both delight in easy or gravelly soils, though the small-leaved -will also prosper in the more adhesive, the alluvial and diluvial clays. - -There are a number of kinds of elm growing in this country, differing -rather more from the common run of _U. montana_ and _U. campestris_, -than what occurs among seedling varieties of untamed plants; but as -these have very probably a power of mingling by the pollen, thence not -specifically different, we leave to {51} botanists to explain their -nice peculiarities, and think it sufficient to rank the whole under -_montana_ and _campestris_, especially as the timber seems to range -into two kinds—_Montana_, with large leaves, heavy annual shoots, -somewhat zig-zag, thick towards the point, thence drooping a little -from gravity; having much sap-wood, and timber of great longitudinal -toughness, but, from the great quantity of sap-wood, and want of -lateral adhesion, it splits considerably in drying;—_Campestris_, with -smaller leaves, more numerous straight annual shoots, which are small -towards the point, thence more erect, has but little sap-wood, and the -timber also possessing greater lateral adhesion, and less longitudinal, -it does not crack much in drying. We have noticed one broad leaved -kind or variety, whose annual twigs often spring out in tufts or knots -from one point; this seems to arise from the shoot of the preceding -year sometimes dying, probably nipped by frost, and the tuft of shoots -springing out from the knot at the lower extremity of the dead twig. -From this cause, it has not the graceful easy spread of branches of the -_U. montana_, but assumes a more angular, stiff, upright figure. We -have heard this named Dutch Elm, but it does not quite correspond with -the elm in the parks at London said to be Dutch. We consider it a kind -{52} not very nearly allied to _U. montana_, yet the above peculiarity -of appearance may only arise from individual tenderness, and may not be -accompanied by other difference of character. - -The elm, more especially the broad-leaved Scotch elm, has a peculiar -fan-like sloping-to-one-side spread of branches, most perceptible -while young; hence the tree when grown up, has generally a slight -bending in the stem, which renders it very fitting for floor-timbers of -vessels, the only part of a ship, excepting bottom plank, to which it -is applicable, as it soon decays above water. Its great toughness and -strength, however, render it good floors. - -There are some kinds of foreign elm which deserve attention. Some time -ago we planted several of these, and lately cut down one of about -six inches diameter, which we found a great deal harder and stronger -timber than our _U. montana_. We had this kind under the name of the -Broad-leaved American. The bark was rather lighter in colour, and -smoother, than _U. montana_; the leaves were rough and large, and the -annual shoots extremely luxuriant; but, probably owing to climate, -or difference of circumstance, the exposed situation where we had it -growing being very unlike the close American forest, it did not carry -up its vigour of growing into {53} the top, although the top was -healthy, but continued throwing out numerous annual shoots, five or -six feet long, from the bulb and side of stem, which disposition we -did not succeed in correcting by pruning. This did not seem to arise -from grafting, as some of the shoots broke out higher up than the graft -must have been, and there was no difference between the lower and upper -shoots. - -_U. montana_, when come to some size, on the primary branches being -lopped off, like the oak, often throws out a brush of twigs from the -stem, and these twigs impeding the transit of the sap, the brush -increases, and the stem thickens considerably, in consequence of a -warty-like deposit of wood forming at the root of the twigs. This -excrescence, when of size, after being carefully seasoned in some cool -moist place, such as the north re-entering angle of a building, exposed -to the chipping from the roof, forms a richer veneer for cabinet-work -than any other timber. This disposition to form brush and excrescence -might be given by art to almost any kind of tree, excepting the -coniferæ and beech, and might be made a source of considerable profit. -This could easily be effected by slitting, pricking, and bruising the -bark at certain periods of the season. A very beautiful waved timber -might also be formed by {54} twisting the stems of trees tight up -with round ropes, the screw circles of the rope not being quite close -to each other; the ropes to remain several seasons, then to be kept -off for a season or two, and again applied. The practice of forming -warty excrescences might be combined with that of forming wavy fibres, -with the finest effect. Of course, those trees with timber of rich -colour, and susceptible of high polish, would be the most suitable -for undergoing this process. _U. campestris_ also throws out a brush, -but from the great inferiority of the timber in beauty, and from its -unfitness for cabinet-work, it would be useless to encourage it by -art. Some plants of _montana_, not covered with brush, have a curious -unevenness (laced appearance) of the timber in the stem, which renders -it a beautiful cabinet plank. - - -NARROW-LEAVED OR ENGLISH ELM—_Ulmus campestris_. - -There are few Scotchmen, as they migrate southward, who have failed to -remark the tame subdued appearance of the landscape of the middle and -south of England, where a number of straggling tufted-headed poles, -along with windmill towers, occupy {55} the horizon. These straggling, -tall, tufted poles, stuck in, perpendicular to the flat surface, are -composed of living narrow-leaved elm-trees, which the perseverance of -the peasantry in quest of billets, has reduced to this condition. Some -varieties of this elm, however, when uncurtailed in lateral expansion, -attain the grandest development, stretching forth a hundred giant arms -aloft, supporting masses of foliage, fantastically magnificent. - -In the neighbourhood of London, this tree is attacked by an insect, -which, running along the outside of the timber, within the bark, -in a few seasons deprives the individual of life, the bark peeling -off in large girdles, threatening to bereave this capital of the -finest ornaments of its parks. We have observed, in different kinds -of growing trees, such as the apple and oak, the roads of insects -traversing between the rhind and wood, although the individual thus -affected appeared to suffer little or no injury; and we consider the -agency of the insect in the destruction of the English elm around -London to be merely sequent to disease—perhaps a taint of corruption, -or slight putrescency of the sap, occasioned by the _impurities of -the London air_, assisted by the hard beaten state of the ground[11] -above the roots. Should {56} any one examine the inside of the bark -of a cut tree, when corruption has just begun with the bark, and see -how thoroughly it is undermined by insects, he will, we think, admit -the strong probability, that the insect is only subordinate in the -destruction of those fine old elms around London. We do not wonder at -the condition of the trees—it would not surprise us if the human race -in London were swept off by some similar secondary cause. - -The small-leaved elm has great disposition to spread by suckers from -the roots, and thus extended has become very prevalent throughout -most parts of England, in the broad wastes (termed fences), which, -from the indolent husbandry, consequent to tithes and the want of -leases, generally surround the pasture and corn fields, but which are -so necessary to these unvaried plains, as some prominent object, or -characteristic land-mark, on which the _amor patriæ_ of the population -may perch; the finest remembrances and associations of youth being -mixed up with these bushy flower-covered enclosures. - -It is with country as with society, strong lasting {57} attachment -occurs only where there is individuality of character to give -distinctness of image. - - “Oh! how should I my true love know, - From many other one?” - -There is design and utility in this fascination of peculiarity. If -individual distinction be but strongly marked, it signifies little -of what character. Love of country often hangs upon features of the -harshest and most fearful description, with which the associations -and feelings become entwisted, as attachment to individual is often -rivetted by fierce, austere, or even morose qualities. - -The narrow-leaved elm is valuable for forming the blocks and -dead-eyes[12], and other wooden furniture of rigging, being -particularly suitable for these purposes, from its hard and adhesive -nature, and indisposition to crack or split, when exposed to sun and -weather. - -We have observed many minor distinctions, perhaps individual, in the -above kinds of elm, in figure, size and smoothness of leaf, in colour -and roughness {58} of bark, &c. Some varieties or individuals of the -English elm have the bark of the young twigs and branches covered with -corky ridges: others want this excrescence. - - -REDWOOD WILLOW, _or_ STAG’S HEAD OZIER,—_Salix fragilis_[13]. - -This kind of willow, once very common in the alluvial parts of -Scotland, before the introduction of _Salix alba_, _S. Russelliana_, -&c., is probably the most profitable timber that can be planted in such -soils. It was our district’s maxim, that “the willow will purchase the -horse before any other timber purchase the saddle,” on account of its -very quick growth, and the value of its timber. It delights in {59} -the rich easy clay by the sides of our _pows_ (the old Scottish term -for those sluggish natural drains of our alluvial districts), throwing -out its fibril roots in matted-like abundance under the water: it also -flourishes in the more sandy and gravelly alluvion, by the sides of -rivers and streams, which does not become too dry in summer. - -This tree, similar to some others which, like it, are continued -by cuttings or layers, is, in certain seasons, especially when of -considerable size, subject to a derangement in the sap-concoction, -which leads to the death of some of its more recent parts, particularly -the uppermost branches; whence its withered top sometimes assumes the -appearance of a stag’s head of horns, which, from the indestructibility -of these dead branches, it retains for many years; new branches -springing out from the sides, of much luxuriance. This disease, similar -to canker in the genus Pyrus, is generally concentrated to certain -places of the bark and alburnum, the portion of branch above these -places thence withering, the connection with the root being cut off; -though sometimes the points of the twigs appear to be nipped, without -any previous disease. From these affections, and also on account of -the branches and stem being often rifted by the winds, the tree is -frequently found with rot {60} in the stem, when it has stood long. It -agrees in this with the larch, that, though its timber, when cut down, -or withered and dried, as on the top of the tree, is little liable to -corruption, yet it is very subject to it, as part of the stem of the -living tree, perhaps under certain circumstances of semi-vitality. -To determine whether this tree, raised from seed, would be liable to -these disorders, the same as when continued by slips, would be an -interesting, though tedious, experiment. We never have seen any young -seed-plants rise around old trees. - -The use of the red wood willow, as timbers of vessels, has been of -long standing in this part of Scotland, and has proved its long -endurance, and excellent adaptation. By reason of its lightness, -pliancy, elasticity, and toughness, it is, we think, the best, without -exception, for the formation of small fast-sailing war-vessels. We -are pretty certain that our Navy Board would not have cause to regret -trial of it in a long, low, sharp schooner, of sufficient breadth to -stand up under great press of sail, moulded as much as possible to -combine great stability with small resistance from the water, and when -in quick motion to be buoyant—especially not to dip forward,—provided -it could be procured not too old, and free from rot, large knots, and -cross-grain; a very {61} little attention in the cultivation would -afford it of the finest bends, and clean and fresh. Our Navy Board -have received some slight teaching from our transatlantic brethren, of -the superior sailing of fir-constructed vessels, to those of oak, the -result of their superior lightness, pliancy, and elasticity. - -The writer of this has also had experience of two vessels, one of oak, -and the other of larch, on the same voyages, at the same time, and has -found the latter superior in sailing to the former, in a degree greater -than the difference of build could account for. From the superior -elasticity and lightness of the willow, even to larch, the lightest -and most elastic of the fir-tribe, we should expect that vessels of it -would outstrip those of fir, at least of Scots or red pine, as much -as the latter do those of oak; and that, from this greater elasticity -and lightness, they would move through the water, yielding to the -resistance and percussions of the waves, compared to those of oak, as a -thing of life to a dead block. For vessel-timbers, this wood requires -to be used alone; as, when mixed with other kinds less pliant or -elastic, the latter have to withstand nearly all the impetus or strain, -and are thence liable to be broken, or from the vessel yielding more at -one place than another, she is apt to strain and become leaky. {62} - -Some years ago, when demolishing an old building which had stood fully -a century, the writer found the large frames of the building, or ground -_couples_, which, from their situation, could not have been renewed, to -consist of this timber; and, with the exception of the outside, which -was so much decayed, for about half an inch in depth, as the finger -could pick it away, the body of the wood was as fresh as at first, -still fit for any purpose, and of a beautiful pink or salmon colour. -When we observed the mouldering exterior of these pieces, we laid one -of the smallest hollow over a log, and struck it with a large wooden -mallet, not doubting that it would go to fragments; such, however, was -the _resilience_, that the mallet rebounded so greatly as almost to -leap from our hands. - -For country purposes, red-wood willow is employed in the construction -of mill water-wheels, of the body or hoarding of carts, especially of -lining of carts employed in the carriage of stones, or of any utensil -requiring strong, tough, light, durable boarding. Formerly, before -the introduction of iron-hoops for cart-wheels, the external rim or -felloe was made of willow; when new, the cart or wain was driven along -a road covered with hard small gravel (in preference, gravel somewhat -angular), by which means {63} the felloe shod itself with stone, -and thus became capable of enduring the friction of the road for a -long time, the toughness and elasticity of the willow retaining the -gravel till the stone was worn away. Under much exposure to blows and -friction, this willow outlasts every other home timber. When recently -cut, the matured wood is slightly reddish, and the sap-wood white. When -exposed to the air and gradually dried, both are of salmon colour, -and scarcely distinguishable from each other. Willow-bark is used in -tanning; it also contains a bitter, said to be febrifuge. - - -RED-WOOD PINE—_Pinus_. - -This tribe of the order Coniferæ, at once the most useful, and the most -plentifully and widely extended over the North temperate zone—that -portion of the earth more congenial to man, and which contains about -four-fifths of his numbers, has a similitude of character and qualities -more distinguishable by one glance of the eye than by laboured -description. It consists of a number of kinds, which again divide into -families and individuals perceptibly different from each other. The -following are those whose timber is best known to us: {64} - - Scots fir, or Norway pine, _Pinus sylvestris_. - Pinaster, _Pinus Pinaster_. - Canadian red Pine[14] (foreign), * * * * - Pitch pine (foreign), * * * * - -And, though a little more distinct, - - Yellow American, or Weymouth Pine, _Pinus Strobus_. - -Very little observation will distinguish these from the next useful -great tribe of the Coniferæ with white wood, the Spruces and Silver -Firs—Abies. - -There are a number of foreign kinds of pine, some of great promise, -recently introduced into Britain, but of whose adaptation for -ship-building we cannot speak. Samples of the timber of _P. laricio_, -_P. tæda_, _P. cembra_, _P. maritima_, _P. rigida_, &c. of British -growth, may, however, soon be had of sufficient size for experiment. -The common Scots fir is the only pine of British growth which has been -employed as a naval timber; for which purpose, however, since the last -peace, and the introduction of our larch, it is in very little demand. - -An acute botanist, Mr G. Don of Forfar, a number of years ago, gave a -description of the varieties of cultivated Scots fir which had come -under his notice. The following is an abstract of his observations: -{65} - - “_Varieties of Pinus sylvestris._ - - “Var. 1st. The common variety, well known by its branches forming - a pyramidal head, the leaves marginated, of dark-green colour, but - little glaucous underneath, the cones being considerably elongated and - tapering to the point, and the bark of the trunk very rugged. This - variety seems short-lived, becoming soon stunted in appearance. - - “Var. 2d, Distinguishable from the former by disposition of branches, - which are remarkable for horizontal disposition and tendency to - bend downwards close to the trunk. The leaves are broader than var. - 1st, and serrulated, not marginated; leaves are distinguishable at - a distance by their much lighter and beautiful glaucous colour, the - bark not so rugged as var. 1st, and the cones thicker and not so much - pointed, and also smoother. This tree seems a hardy plant, growing - freely in many soils: this variety may be named Pinus horizontalis. - Var. 1st, much more general than var. 2d, and also sooner comes to - seed, which is also easier gathered from the position of the branches. - - “Var. 3d, Is of a still lighter colour than var. 2d, being of a light - glaucous hue, approaching to a silvery tint; its branches form, like - var. 1st, a pyramidal head, but it differs remarkably in its cones - from {66} both the former varieties; the cones of this seem beset - with blunt prickles bent backwards, the leaves serrulated. This - variety is rather more common than var. 2d; like it, it is a good tree. - - “Var. 4th, The leaves somewhat curled or rather twisted, and much - shorter than the others: this variety is very rare.” - -Our observation does not go to confirm these subdivisions. We think -they are little more distinct than the fair, the red[15], the black -haired, the fair, the sallow, the brown complexioned, the tall, -the short, of the same community or even family of men. There is -variation and individuality more or less strongly marked in all kinds -of organized beings: at least those vegetables which have exposed -fructification possess it; many whose fructification is secluded also -possess it; and the others of more constant character, such as some -of the Gramineæ, with a little art (removing their anthers before the -pollen bursts forth, and applying the pollen of others as near to them -in the chain of life as can be found to be different, or changing the -circumstances by culture), can also be rendered equally {67} variable. -These minor distinctions or individualities of vegetables become more -perceptible as our observation closes in upon the object. We have never -yet found one individual apple plant, raised from seed, to be the -counterpart of another; but differing even in every part and habit, -in bud, leaf, flower, fruit, seed, bark, wood, root; in luxuriance of -growth; in hardihood; in being suited for different soils and climates, -some thriving in the very moist, others only in the dry; in the -disposition of the branches, erect, pendulous, horizontal; in earliness -and comparative earliness of leaf, of flower, of fruit. - -We hope the above remarks will not be lost on those who have the -management of the sowing, planting, and thinning of woods, and that -they will always have selection in view. Although numerous varieties -are derived from the seed of one tree, yet if that tree be of a good -_breed_, the chances are greatly in favour of this progeny being also -good. Scots fir of good variety will thrive and reach considerable size -and age, in almost any soil which is not very moist, or very arid and -barren (such as our sand and gravel flats much impregnated with iron -or other deleterious mineral), provided the plants from their earliest -years have room to throw out and retain a sufficiency of side branches. -This is especially necessary to their health where the soil is {68} -ungenial, the resulting vigour often overcoming the disadvantages. -From the pine being found chiefly in the light sandy districts on the -continent of Europe, and in the sandy pine barrens of America, an idea -has gone abroad that these barren districts are more congenial to it -than the more clayey, the more rocky, or the richer vegetable mould; -but its natural location in the barren sandy districts results from its -being more powerful in this soil than any other plant of the country, -not from preference of this soil. Should any one doubt of this, let him -take a summer excursion to Mar Forest, where no other tree having been -in competition with Pinus sylvestris, and where it is spread over the -hill and the dale, he will observe that it prospers best in good timber -soil, and though comparatively preferring an easy soil, and having -superior adaptation to thin or rocky ground, that its taste does not -differ very materially from that of the plane or the elm, the oak or -the ash. - -In Mar Forest he will also observe (if they be not now all cut down) -several well marked individuals of the _splatch_ pine, esteemed a very -valuable and hardy kind; and with the right which a botanist has in a -plant sown by nature, he may bear off some of the seeds, and endeavour -to spread this rare indigenous kind throughout the island. Should he be -unsuccessful in finding these at Mar, he may return {69} by Kenmore, -where, on the side of the hill on the right bank of the Tay, near the -confluence of the Lyon, he will find several trees, we think five, -of this kind of pine, of considerable size, growing at one place, -apparently planted: we were told the plants had been brought down from -the natural forest farther up on the mountains. These are sufficiently -distinct in character from the common Scots fir growing around, having -a horizontal, straggling disposition of branches, the leaves being of -a much lighter, different shade of green, and more tufted, and the -bark of a yellower red, so as to merit a distinct name; and we should -consider Pinus horizontalis as descriptive as any other, if it shall -not appear to be only a sub-species of P. sylvestris. The descriptive -name _splatch_ fir, is from the prominences of the rugged bark not -being in longitudinal ridges or flutes, but in detached flat oblong -lumps, such as soft clay or mud takes when cast with force upon a wall. -We, however, do not think this the same as Mr DON’s var. 2d, at least -we have noticed in our lowland woods raised by planting, such as Mr DON -examined, individuals here and there having less or more resemblance to -his described varieties, but none of them approaching the distinctness -of this alpine Scots fir. The proprietors of this kind of pine will -confer a benefit on the public by causing the timber {70} be examined -and compared with that of trees of equal size of the common Scots fir -growing near, and making a public report of the number and size of -annual growths, the number of these of matured and of sap wood, the -comparative strength, density, quantity of resinous deposit, hardness, -&c. - -The Pinaster is a valuable kind of red-wood pine, with strong resinous -timber, and from not having one-half the number of sap-wood layers of -the common Scots fir, we should consider it deserving attention as a -naval timber; but perhaps the small number of sap-layers is from want -of climate: owing to the branches being larger, and, in proportion to -their size, being joined to the stem with a larger swell than those of -P. sylvestris, the timber is rougher with larger knots. In the very -barren sand and gravel district near Christchurch, scarcely affording -sustenance to lichens, and where even heaths will not grow, we have -observed this tree make considerable progress, and outstrip the Scots -fir in growth. - -The Canadian Red Pine has been employed to a considerable extent in -this country, both as planking and spars. It is inferior in strength -and durability to the Baltic red pine, and would seldom make its -appearance on this side the Atlantic while the Baltic was open to us, -did not a very ill advised {71} duty obstruct the supply of the better -article. This timber is sometimes supplied with a good character by the -shipwright, as it is soft, pliant, and easily worked. The Canadian red -pine has a greater number of layers of sap-wood than any other red pine -we are acquainted with; we have repeatedly counted 100 sap-wood layers. -We have never seen this kind of pine growing in Britain. - -The most common American pine, with yellow timber, Pinus strobus, has -been introduced for a long time back into Britain, it is said first by -the Earl of Weymouth, thence sometimes named Weymouth Pine. This rather -elegant tree requires a warm sheltered situation, as it is easily torn -down by wind, from the weakness of the timber, which is inferior in -hardness and strength to any other pine we are acquainted with; and -from its slender needle leaf not having substance to withstand the -evaporation of much exposure. Altogether, the kind appears rather out -of climate in Britain, and, though the monarch of the pines in Canada, -holds here but a very subordinate place. Although extremely tender and -light, the matured timber does not soon decay when cut out thin and -exposed to wind and weather, nor worm when kept dry in houses; but when -employed in shipbuilding,—remaining always between the moist {72} and -dry, the condition most favourable to putrefaction, and surrounded by -a close, warm, putrid atmosphere,—it very soon, especially in masses, -becomes corrupted. It requires more time to season or dry in the -deal than any other wood, owing to the fineness of fibre, smallness -of pores, and want of density. From this quality of parting with its -moisture with extreme slowness, it forms convenient deck-planking for -vessels on tropical stations, or when employed in carriage of unslacked -lime, as the plank does not readily shrink and become leaky under the -great evaporation occasioned by the heat and arid air. Yellow pine has -generally about 40 growths of sap-wood. - -We have had no acquaintance with American pitch pine as a growing tree. -As a timber, it is superior in several respects to all the others, -having a great deal more resinous matter, so much, as often to render -it semitranslucent. It is strong and weighty, and is used as a naval -timber for most of the purposes to which other pine timber is applied. -It forms the very best bottom planking. The shipwrights of the docks -at Devonport will attest its quality, as the bottom planking of the -Gibraltar of 80 guns: this vessel carried home to England from the -Mediterranean, a piece of coral rock of about ten tons weight sticking -in her bottom, her preservation {73} in all probability resulting from -the adhesive quality of this timber. Its great weight is, however, -a considerable inconveniency attending its use as spars, and the -abundance of resin, we should think, would unfit it for tree-nails; -resinous tree-nails,—probably from some derangement of the structure -or disposition to chemical change produced in the resin by the very -great pressure of the hard driving,—soon corrupting and infecting the -adjacent wood. In some cases we have also known very resinous Baltic -plank decay soon in vessels. The pitch pine, from the quantity of -resin, contracts little in drying, at least for a long time, till the -resin itself begins to dry up. It forms the best house-floors we have -seen, being strong and durable, continuing close at joinings, and the -fibre not readily taking in moisture when washed. - -Our red-wood pine, when come to some age, is in wet ground attacked -by rot, which commences in the bulb and adjacent roots and stem, in a -manner very similar to the rot in larch. The red-wood also approaches -nearer to the outside where this rot exists, and on the side of the -tree where the rot is greatest. Most of our planted red pine forest, -especially in poor wet tills, and in all flat sandy moorish ground of -close subsoil, fall by decay at from 30 to 60 years old. This decay is -gradual, owing to the {74} difference in strength of constitution of -the individuals. Closeness of rearing and consequent tall nakedness of -stem, and disproportion of leaves to stem, would alone induce this in -a few years longer even in good soil, excepting perhaps in protected -narrow dells; but the decay commences much sooner when the soil is -unfavourable, and is no doubt accelerated by the mode of extracting -the seeds by kiln-drying the cones, and by using a weak variety of the -plant. The approach of this decay may often be noticed, several years -previous, in the saw-cross section of the stem mid-way up the tree—an -irregular portion of the section appearing of a different shade, from -breaking off free and irregular before the teeth of the saw, and not -having so much fibrous cover as the healthy part. When Scots fir rises -naturally, it is not nearly so subject to this decay even in very -inferior soils: the plants having generally much more room from the -first, do not rise so tall, have more branch in proportion to stem, -thence are more vigorous. The cones not being injured by kiln-drying, -may also account for this. - -The fact that the red pine in Scotland has fewer sap-wood layers than -the red pine of Memel or of North America, and also the fact that, in -most situations in Scotland, the red pine soon {75} decays—soonest -in the places where the trees have fewest sap-wood layers, and where -the timber has been planted, that is, where the cones have been -kiln-dried—is worthy of notice. Scots red pine has generally from 15 -to 40 layers, Memel from 40 to 50, Canadian often 100. We consider the -long moist open winter and cold ungenial spring in Scotland, and the -till bottoms soaking with water, perhaps aided by the transplanting, -and the kiln-drying of the cones, to be the cause of this early loss -of vitality or change of sap-wood into matured. In Poland and Prussia, -the earth does not remain so long cold and moist as in Scotland, but -is either frozen or sufficiently warm and dry;—this occurs even to a -greater degree in Canada[16], and neither the Memel nor Canadian have -any chance of being planted or kiln-dried. - - -WHITE LARCH—_Larix communis_, (_L. pyramidalis_). - -White Larch is a timber tree combining so many advantages, its -properties so imperfectly known, of {76} so recent introduction, -and of such general culture, (about 10,000,000 plants being sold -annually from the nurseries of the valley of the Tay alone), that any -accurate notice of its history, its habitudes, and uses, must possess -an interest sufficient to arrest the attention of every one, from the -statesman and economist down to the mere lord and the squire. We shall -therefore devote to it a little more of our attention than we have -bestowed on those already treated of. - -Larch is scattered over a considerable part of the northern hemisphere, -inhabiting nearly the same regions with the other Coniferæ. White -larch, the kind[17] common in Britain, is found growing extensively on -the alpine districts of the south of Europe, in Italy, Switzerland, -Sardinia; this may be termed the European temperate species. Another, -native to the country around Archangel, and extending from {77} Norway -eastward through Russia and Siberia, of inferior size, may be styled -the European Hyperborean. North America, like the old world, is said to -possess a temperate and hyperborean species. The first, Black Larch (L. -pendula), more generally extending along the longitudinal parallel of -the United States; the other, Red Larch (L. microcarpa), along that of -Lower Canada and Labrador. We have seen the American temperate attain -18 inches in diameter in Scotland, but it is much inferior in figure -and growth, and also cleanness of timber, to the Appenine or European -temperate, being covered with knots and protuberances. Though rough, -the timber is said to be of excellent quality. - -It is now upwards of 80 years since the larch, so common in Britain, -was brought from the Appenines to Strath-Tay. The rapidity of its -growth and striking novelty of appearance, assisted by the influence of -the family of Athole (to a female of which some say we owe its first -introduction), soon attracted general attention: it quickly spread over -the neighbouring country, and was planted in every variety of soil -and situation, from the unfitness of which, in most places of the low -country, it is already fast decaying. About 40 years ago it began to -be planted in many parts of Britain. It is now introduced into almost -every new plantation in the two islands, and {78} the space of country -covered by its shade is extending with a rapidity unparalleled in the -history of any other ligneous plant. - -Larch is generally conceived to be an alpine[18] plant, and its decay -in the low country attributed to situation or climate. This idea -seems to have arisen from its locality in Italy, and from observing -it succeed so well in our alpine districts, not taking into account -that the soil is different,—that it may be the soil of these districts -which conduces to the prosperity of the larch, and not the altitude. -Throughout Scotland, wherever we have observed the decay, it appeared -to have resulted almost solely from unsuitableness of soil. We have -witnessed it as much diseased on our highest trap hills, 1000 feet -in altitude, as on a similar soil at the base. Yet the freeness from -putrescency or miasma of the pure air of the mountain, {79} and -deficiency of putrescent matter in the ground, or other more obscure -agencies connected with primitive ranges, may have some influence to -counterbalance unsuitableness of soil. It is not probable that the -coolness and moisture of altitude would be necessary in Scotland to the -healthy growth of a vegetable which flourishes under Italian suns, on -the general level of the Appenine and on the Sardinian hills. - -The rot, so general in growing larch, though sometimes originating in -the bulb or lower part of the stem, seems to have its commencement -most frequently in the roots. Thence the corruption proceeds upwards -along the connecting tubes or fibres into the bulb, and gradually -mounts the stem, which, when much diseased, swells considerably -for a few feet above the ground, evidently from the new layers of -sap-wood forming thicker to afford necessary space for the fluids to -pass upward and downward—the matured wood through which there is no -circulation approaching at this place within one or two annual layers -of the outside. In a majority of cases, the rot commences in the -roots which have struck down deepest into the earth, especially those -under the stool; these having been thrown to a considerable depth by -the young plant, as the tree enlarges, are shut out from aëration, -&c. by the {80} superior increasing stool and hard-pressed earth -underneath it; this earth at the same time becoming exhausted of the -particular pabulum of the plant. It is, therefore, quite probable, from -these parts of the roots being the weakest, that they will be most -susceptible of injury from being soaked in stagnant water in the flat -tills[19], starved during droughts in light sand, tainted by the putrid -vapours of rich vegetable mould, or poisoned by the corrosive action -of pernicious minerals. It may also be supposed that these smothered -sickly roots, not possessing sufficient power or means of suction -(endosmose), will be left out in the general economy of vegetation of -the plant, thence lose vitality, and become corrupt. But this affords -no explanation why the larch roots, under these circumstances, are more -liable to corruption than those of other trees, or how the bulb itself -should become contaminated. {81} - -We have cut off the top, where the diameter of the section was about -three inches, from sound young larch trees, and found a similar rot -proceed downwards in a few months from the section, as rises from the -diseased roots in improper soil. There is something favourable to the -quick progress of this rot in the motion of the sap, or vitality of the -tree; as, under no common circumstances, would the wood of a cut larch -tree become tainted in so short a time. - -The rot, though most general in trees which are chilled in wet cold -tills, or starved in dry sand, or sickly from any other cause, is also -often found to take place in the most luxuriant growing plants in open -situations, branched to the ground, and growing in deep soil free -from stagnating water. There must, therefore, be some constitutional -tendency to corruption in the larch, which is excited by a combination -of circumstances; and we must limit our knowledge for the present -to the fact, that certain soils, perhaps slightly modified by other -circumstances, produce sound, and others unsound larch, without -admitting any general influence from altitude, excepting in so far as -its antiseptic influence may go. - -The fitness of soil for larch seems to depend more especially upon -the ability the soil possesses of affording an equable supply of -moisture; that is, upon its {82} mechanical division, or its powers of -absorption or retention of moisture; and its chemical composition would -seem only efficacious as conducive to this. - -Soils and subsoils[20] may be divided into two classes. The first, -where larch will acquire a size of from 30 to 300 solid feet, and is -generally free of rot; the second, where it reaches only from 6 to 20 -feet solid, and in most cases becomes tainted with rot before 30 years -of age. - - -CLASS I. SOILS AND SUBSOILS FOR LARCH. - -_Sound rock, with a covering of firm loam, particularly when the rock -is jagged or cloven, or much dirupted and mixed with the earth._—In -such cases, a very slight covering or admixture of earth will suffice. -We would give the preference to primitive rock, especially micaceous -schist and mountain limestone. Larch seldom succeeds well on sandstone -or on trap, except on steep slopes, where the rock is quite sound and -the soil firm. {83} - -Fully the one half of Scotland, comprehending nearly all the alpine -part, consists of primary rock, chiefly micaceous schist and gneiss. -These rocks are generally less decayed at the surface, better -drained, and fuller of clefts and fissures containing excellent earth -(especially on slopes), into which the roots of trees penetrate and -receive healthy nourishment, than the other primitive and transition -rocks, granite, porphyry, trap, or the secondary and tertiary -formations of nearly horizontal strata, red and white sandstone, &c. -Primary strata are generally well adapted for larch, except where -the surface has acquired a covering of peat-moss, or received a flat -diluvial bed of close wet till or soft moorish sand, or occupies a too -elevated or exposed situation—the two latter exceptions only preventing -the growth, not inducing rot. - -_Gravel_, not too ferruginous, and in which water does not stagnate in -winter, even though nearly bare of vegetable mould, especially on steep -slopes, and where the air is not too arid, is favourable to the growth -of larch. It seems to prefer the coarser gravel, though many of the -stones exceed a yard solid. - -The straths or valleys of our larger rivers, in their passage through -the alpine country, are generally {84} occupied, for several hundred -feet of perpendicular altitude up the slope, by gravel, which covers -the primitive strata to considerable depth, especially in the eddies of -the salient angles of the hill. Every description of tree grows more -luxuriantly here than in any other situation of the country; the causes -of this are, _1st_, The open bottom allowing the roots to penetrate -deep, without being injured by stagnant moisture; _2d_, The percolation -of water down through the gravel from the superior hill; _3d_, The -dryness of the surface not producing cold by evaporation, thence the -ground soon heating in the spring; _4th_, The moist air of the hill -refreshing and nourishing the plant during the summer heats, and -compensating for the dryness of the soil; _5th_, The reverberating of -the sun’s rays, between the sides of the narrow valley, thus rendering -the soil comparatively warmer than the incumbent air, which is cooled -by the oblique currents of the higher strata of air, occasioned by the -unequal surface of the ground. This comparatively greater warmth of the -ground, when aided by moisture, either in the soil or atmosphere, is -greatly conducive to the luxuriancy of vegetation. - -_Firm dry clays and sound brown loam._—Soils well adapted for wheat and -red clover, not too rich, {85} and which will bear cattle in winter, -are generally congenial to the larch. - -_All very rough ground, particularly ravines, where the soil is -neither soft sand nor too wet; also the sides of the channels of -rapid rivulets._—The roots of most trees luxuriate in living or -flowing water; and, where it is of salubrious quality, especially when -containing a slight solution of lime, will throw themselves out a -considerable distance under the stream. The reason why steep slopes, -and hills whose strata are nearly perpendicular to the horizon, are so -much affected by larch and other trees, is, because the moisture in -such situations is in motion, and often continues dripping through the -fissures throughout the whole summer. The desideratum of situation for -larch, is where the roots will neither be drowned in stagnant water in -winter, nor parched by drought in summer, and where the soil is free -from any corrosive mineral or corrupting mouldiness. - -Larch, in suitable soil, sixty years planted, and seasonably thinned, -will have produced double the value of what almost any other timber -would have done; and from its general adaptation both for sea and land -purposes, it will always command a ready sale. - - -{86} CLASS II. SOILS AND SUBSOILS WHERE LARCH TAKES DRY ROT. - -_Situations (steep slopes excepted) with cold till subsoil, nearly -impervious to water._—The larch succeeds worst when moorish dead -sand alone, or with admixture of peat, occupies the surface of these -retentive bottoms. Where the whole soil and subsoil is one uniform, -retentive, firm till, it will often reach considerable size before -being attacked by the rot. When this heavy till occupies a steep slope, -the larch will sometimes succeed well, owing to the more equable supply -of moisture, and the water in the soil not stagnating, but gliding down -the declivity. - -In general, soils whose surface assumes the appearance of honeycomb -in time of frost, owing to the great quantity of water imbibed by -the soil, will not produce large sound larch. More than half the low -country of Scotland is soil of this description. - -_Soft sand soil and subsoil._—Sand is still less adapted for growing -larch than the tills, the plants being often destroyed by the summer’s -drought before they attain size for any useful purpose: the rot also -attacks earlier here than in the tills. It appears that {87} light -sand, sloping considerably on moist back-lying alpine situations, -covered towards the south by steep hill, will sometimes produce -sound larch; whereas did the same sand occupy a dry front or lowland -situation, the larch would not succeed in it. The same moist back -situation that conduces to produce sound larch in light dry soils, may -probably tend to promote rot in the wet. The moisture and the less -evaporation of altitude diminishing the tendency to rot in dry light -sand, and increasing it in wet till. Larch will sometimes succeed well -in sharp dry alluvial sand left by rivulets. - -_Soils incumbent on brittle dry trap, or broken slaty -sandstone._—Although soil, the debris of trap, be generally much better -adapted for the production of herbaceous vegetables than that of -sandstone or freestone, yet larch does not seem to succeed much better -on the former than the latter. The deeper superior soils, generally -incumbent on the recent dark red sandstone, are better suited for larch -than the shallow inferior soils incumbent on the old grey and red -sandstone. - -_Ground having a subsoil of dry rotten rock, and which sounds hollow to -the foot in time of drought._ - -_Rich deaf earth, or vegetable {88} mould._—Independently of receiving -ultimate contamination from the putrid juices or exhalations of this -soil, the larch does not seem, even while remaining sound, to make so -much comparative progress of growth, as some of the hard wood trees, as -elm, ash, plane. - -_Black or grey moorish soils, with admixture of peat-moss._ - -Although the soils specified in this class will not afford fine large -larch for naval use, yet they may be very profitably employed in -growing larch for farming purposes, or for coal-mines, where a slight -taint of rot is of minor importance. The lightness of larch, especially -when new cut (about one-third less weight than the evergreen coniferæ), -gives a facility to the loading and carriage, which enhances its value, -independent of its greater strength and durability. Those larches in -which rot has commenced, are fully as suitable for paling as the sound: -they have fewer circles of sap-wood, and more of red or matured. When -the rot has commenced, the maturing or reddening of the circles does -not proceed regularly, reaching nearest the bark on the side where the -rot has advanced farthest. - -A great amelioration of our climate and of our soil, and considerable -addition to the beauty and salubrity of the country, might be -attained by {89} landholders of skill and spirit, did they carry -off the noxious moisture, by sufficient use of open drainage, from -their extensive wastes of mossy moors and wet tills, which are only -productive of the black heath, the most dismal robe[21] of the -earth, or rather the funeral pall with which Nature has shrouded her -undecayed remains. This miserable portion of our country, so dreary -when spread out in wide continuous flats, and so offensive to the eye -of the traveller, unless his mind is attuned to gloom and desolation, -lies a disgrace to the possessor. Were a proper system of superficial -draining executed on these districts, and kept in repair, most of our -conifers, particularly spruce and Scots fir, with oak, beech, birch, -alder, and, in the sounder situations, larch, would thrive and come to -maturity, ultimately enhancing the value of the district an hundred -fold. This could be done by fluting the ground, opening large ditches -every 30, 50, or 100 yards, according to the wetness or closeness of -the subsoil—the deeper, the more serviceable both in efficacy and -distance of drainage. These flutes should stretch across the slope with -just sufficient declivity to allow the {90} water to flow off easily, -The excavated matter should be thrown to the lower side; and when the -whole, or any part, of the excavation consists of earth or gravel, it -ought to be spread over the whole mossy surface, whether the field -be morass or drier hill-peat: this would be useful in consolidating -it, and in preventing too great exhaustion of moisture in severe -droughts, from which vegetation in moss-soil suffers so much. Even -though planting were not intended, this fluting and top-dressing would -facilitate the raising of the gramineæ. These ditches, when the ground -is not too stoney, or too moist, or containing roots, might be scooped -out, excepting a little help at the bottom, by means of a scoop-sledge, -or levelling box, worked by a man and two horses, the surface being -always loosened by the common plough: one of these will remove earth as -fast as twenty men with wheelbarrows. - - -ON BENDING AND KNEEING LARCH. - -We cannot too forcibly inculcate the urgent necessity of attending to -the bending of the larch: for our country’s interest, we almost regret -we cannot compel it. In all larch plantations, in proper {91} soil, -not too far advanced, and in all that may hereafter be planted, a -proportion of those intended to remain as standards should be bended. -The most proper time for this would perhaps be May or June, before the -top-growth commences, or has advanced far; the best size is from three -feet high and upwards. The plants should be bent the first season to an -angle of from 40° to 60° with the horizon, and the next brought down -to from 10° to 60°, according to the size of the plant, or the curve -required,—the smallest plants to the lowest angle. - -From experience we find that the roots of larch form the best of all -knees; they, however, might be much improved by culture[22], although -it does not {92} seem as yet to have been attempted or thought of. To -form the roots properly into knees, should the plants be pretty large, -the planter ought to select those plants which have four main roots -springing out nearly at right angles, the regularity of which he may -improve a little by pruning, and plant them out as standards in the -thinnest dryest soil suited for larch, carefully spreading the roots to -equal distances and in a horizontal position. To promote the regular -square diverging of these four roots, he should dig narrow ruts about -a foot deep and three feet long out from the point of each root, and -fill them in with the richest of the neighbouring turf along with a -little manure. When the plants are small, and the roots only a tuft of -fibres, he should dig two narrow ruts about eight feet long crossing -each other at the middle at right angles, fill these as above, and put -in the plant at the crossing: the rich mould of the rotted turf and its -softness from being dug, will cause the plant to throw out its roots in -the form of a cross along the trenches. When the plants have reached -five or six feet in height, the earth may be removed a little from -the root, and, if more than one stout root leader have run out into -any of the four trenches, or if any have entered the unstirred earth, -they ought all to be cut excepting one, the stoutest {93} and most -regular in each trench. In a few years afterwards, when the plants have -acquired some strength, the earth should be removed gradually, baring -the roots to from two to five feet distance from the stool, or as far -as the main spurs have kept straight, cutting off any side-shoots -within this distance, should it be found that such late root-pruning -does not induce rot. This process of baring the roots will scarcely -injure the growth of the trees, as the roots draw the necessary pabulum -from a considerable distance, nor, if done carefully, will it endanger -their upsetting; and the roots, from exposure to the air, will swell -to extraordinary size[23], so as to render them, ere long, the firmest -rooted trees in the wood. The labour of this not amounting to the -value of sixpence each, will be counterbalanced thrice {94} over by -the ease of grubbing the roots for knees; and the whole brought to the -shipwright will produce more than double the price that the straight -tree alone would have done. - -_The forester should also examine and probe the roots of his growing -larch, even those of considerable size, in sound ground; and when -several strong horizontal spurs, not exceeding four, are discovered -nearly straight, and from two to five feet long, he ought to bare these -roots to that distance, that they may swell, carefully pruning away any -small side-roots, and reserve these plants as valuable store_, taking -good heed that no cart-wheel in passing, or feet of large quadruped, -wound the bared roots. In exposed situations the earth may be gradually -removed from the roots. - -The rot in larch taking place in the part appropriate to knees, the -forester cannot be too wary in selecting the situations where there is -no risk of its attack, for planting those destined for this purpose. It -is also desirable, if possible, to have the knee timber in ground free -of stones or gravel, as the grubbing in stoney ground is expensive, and -the roots often embrace stones which, by the future swelling of the -bulb, are completely imbedded and shut up in the wood, particularly -in those places between the spurs {95} where the saw section has to -divide them for knees. Were the roots carefully bared at an early -period, it would tend to prevent the gravel from becoming imbedded in -the bulb. Nothing can be more annoying to the shipwright, when he has -bestowed his money, ingenuity, and labour, upon an unwieldy root, and -brought his knees into figure at the cost of the destruction of his -tools by the enveloped gravel, to discover stains of incipient rot -which renders it lumber. - -This plan of baring the roots might be extended to oak trees for knees, -baring and pruning about a foot out from the bulb annually. By exposure -to the air, the timber of the root would mature and become red wood -of sufficient durability. When covered with earth, the root of the -oak remains white or sap wood, and soon decays after being dug up, -the matured wood of the stem scarcely extending at all underneath the -surface of the ground. The roots of the pine tribe are the reverse of -this, at least the bulb and the spurs near it, are the best matured, -reddest, toughest, most resinous, part of the tree. It is probably -unnecessary to observe, that it would be folly to remove the earth from -the bulb of trees in situations where water would stand for any length -of time in the excavation. {96} - -_Larch knees are possessed of such strength and durability, and are of -such adaptation by their figure and toughness, that were a sufficient -quantity in the market, and their qualities generally known, we -believe that none else would be used for vessels of any description of -timber—even for our war-navy of oak._ In America, where it is difficult -to procure good oak knees in their close forest, it is customary to -use them of spruce roots even for their finest vessels. The knees of -vessels have a number of strong bolts, generally of iron, passing -through them to secure the beam-ends to the sides of the ship. Larch -knees are the more suited for this, as they do not split in the driving -of the bolts, and contain a resinous gum which prevents the oxidation -of the iron. - -As the larch, unlike the oak, affords few or no crooks naturally, -excepting knees, the artificial formation of larch crooks is of the -utmost consequence to the interest of the holders of larch plantations -now growing. In order to obtain a good market for their straight -timber, it is absolutely necessary to have a supply of crooks ready -as soon as possible to work the straight up. This would increase the -demand, and thence enhance the price of the straight more than any one -not belonging to the craft could {97} believe. In good soil many of -the crooks would be of sufficient size in twenty years to begin the -supply, if properly thinned out. In a forest of larch containing many -thousand loads, and which had been untouched by any builder, we have -seen the greatest difficulty in procuring crooks for one small brig. -It is only on very steep ground, and where the tree has been a little -upset after planting, that any good crooks are found. From the rather -greater diameter required of larch timbers, and also from the nature of -the fibre of the wood, we should suppose that steam bending of larch -timbers would scarcely be followed, even as a _dernier ressort_. - -Larch, from its great lateral toughness, particularly the root, and -from its lightness, seems better adapted for the construction of -shot-proof vessels than any other timber; and opposed _end-way_ to shot -in a layer, arch fashion, several feet deep around a vessel, would -sustain more battering than any other subject we are acquainted with, -metal excepted. Were the part above water of a strong steam-vessel, -having the paddles under cover, a section of a spheroid or half egg -cut longitudinally, and covered all around with the root cuts of larch -five or six feet deep with the hewn down bulb, external; well supported -{98} inside, having nothing exposed outside of this arch, and only a -few small holes for ventilators and eyes; there is no shot in present -naval use that would have much impression upon it. Had such a vessel -a great impelling power, and a very strong iron cutwater, or short -beak wedge-shaped (in manner of the old Grecian galleys), projecting -before the vessel under water, well supported within by beams radiating -back in all directions, she might be wrought to split and sink a fleet -of men-of-war lying becalmed, in a few hours. This could be done -by running successively against each, midships, and on percussion -immediately backing the engine, at same time spouting forth missiles, -hot water, or sulphuric acid from the bow to obstruct boarding; but -even though the external arch were covered with assailants like a -swarm of bees, they would be harmless, or could be easily displaced. -To prevent combustion by red hot shot, the larch blocks, after drying, -might have their pores filled by pressure with alkali. However, the -employment of bomb-cannon about to be introduced in naval warfare, -throwing explosive shot, regulated with just sufficient force to -penetrate without passing through the side of the opposed vessel, will -render any other than metallic defensive cover ineffectual; but {99} -this circumstance will, at the same time, completely revolutionize sea -affairs, laying on the shelf our huge men-of-war, whose place will be -occupied with numerous bomb-cannon boats, whose small size will render -them difficult to be hit, and from which one single explosive shot -taking effect low down in the large exposed side of a three decker will -tear open a breach sufficient to sink her almost instantly. _For the -construction of these boats, larch, especially were a proportion bent, -would be extremely suitable, and thence larch will probably, ere long, -become our naval stay._ - -Larch has been used in the building-yards of the Tay for 20 years back; -and there is now afloat several thousand tons of shipping constructed -of it. The Athole Frigate built of it nearly 12 years ago, the Larch, a -fine brig built by the Duke of Athole several years earlier, and many -other vessels built more recently, prove that larch is as valuable -for naval purposes as the most sanguine had anticipated. The first -instance we have heard of British larch being used in this manner, was -in a sloop repaired with it about 22 years back. The person to whom it -had belonged, and who had sailed it himself, stated to us immediately -after its loss, that this sloop had been built of oak about 36 years -before; that at 18 years {100} old her upper timbers were so much -decayed as to require renewal, which was done with larch; that 18 years -after this repair this sloop went to pieces on the remains of the -pier of Methel, Fifeshire, and the top timbers and second foot-hooks -of larch were washed ashore as tough and sound as when first put into -the vessel, not one spot of decay appearing, they having assumed the -blue dark colour which some timber acquires in moist situations, when -it may be stiled _cured_; being either no longer liable to the putrid -change constituting dry rot, or which forms timber into a proper -soil for the growth of dry rot; or, from this blueness caused by the -union of the tannin with iron acting as a poison on vegetation: this -blueness, resulting from some alteration in the balance of affinities, -occurs chiefly in timber containing much of the tannin principle, in -which larch abounds. The owner of a larch brig who had employed her -for several years on tropical voyages, also assures us that the timber -will wear well in any climate, and that he would prefer larch to any -other kind of wood, especially for small vessels; he also states that -the deck of this brig, composed of larch plank, stood the tropical heat -well, and that it did not warp or shrink as was apprehended. - -From the softness of the fibre and want of {101} density of the larch, -we would not deem it suitable for planking vessels beyond the size -of ordinary merchantmen, say 500 tons, as in the straining of very -large vessels, when the greatest force comes upon the outward skin, -the fabric of the wood might crush before it, along the edge of the -plank, and throw (chew) the oakum. In ordinary sized vessels, however, -larch plank retains the oakum better than oak, from greater lateral -elasticity. For the purpose of timbers, if root-cuts[24], and properly -bent, we would think larch suitable to the largest class of vessels; -as, though light, it is tough and quite free from knot, crack, or -cross-grain, which is so common in oak, and which occasions dense old -oak in large masses to give way at once, before a shock or strain, -the hardness and unyielding nature of the fibre concentrating the -whole dirupting impetus to one point. Larch may also be advantageously -employed in the ceiling or inside skin of the part of war vessels -above water: shot bores it, comparatively, like an auger,—thence the -structure will endure longer under fire, and life be much economized. - -In all places where larch has become known, it has completely -superseded other timber for {102} clinker-built boats, surpassing all -others in strength, lightness, and durability. For this purpose, young -trees of about 9 inches diameter, in root-cuts from 10 to 20 feet in -length, with a gentle bend at one end, such as the larch often receives -from the south-west wind, are the most suitable. The log should be -kept in the bark till used, and in dry weather the boards put upon the -boat’s side within two or three days from being sawn out, as no timber -we are acquainted with parts sooner with its moisture than larch; and -the boards do not work or bend pleasantly when dry. When dried, the -thin larch board is at once strong, tough, durable, and extremely -light. The tough strength, almost equalling leather, is owing to the -woven or netted structure of the fibre of the wood, entirely different -from the pine, whose reedy structure runs parallel with very slight -connecting or diverging fibres. It is very difficult to split larch -even by wedges. - -For rural purposes generally, larch is incomparably the best adapted -timber, especially for rail or fence, or out-door fabric exposed -to wind and weather. It is also getting into use for implements of -husbandry, such as harrows, ploughs, and carts. We have seen a larch -upright paling, the timber of which, with the exception of the large -charred posts, {103} had only been eight years in growing, standing a -good fence, sixteen years old, decked out by moss and lichen in all the -hoary garniture of time. - -In the construction of buildings, larch is valuable only for the -grosser parts, as beams, lintels, joists, couples. For the finer -boarded part, it is so much disposed to warp, and so difficult to be -worked, as generally to preclude use. It is, however, asserted that if -larch be seasoned by standing two years with the bark stripped from -the bole before being cut down, that the timber becomes manageable for -finer house work. - -Although larch timber be extremely durable in exposed situation, yet -it yields to the depredations of insects fully as soon as any pine -timber in close houses. We have proof of it in house-furniture about 50 -years old, but it is considerably moth-eaten by apparently a smaller -insect than common. Larch stools also disappear in forests sooner than -the stools of Scots fir, being eaten by a species of beetle; and the -sea-worm devours larch in preference to almost any other wood. - -We have looked over some experiments conducted at Woolwich, in trial -of the comparative strength of larch and other fir timber, where the -larch is stated inferior to Riga and Dantzic fir, Pitch pine, {104} -and even Yellow pine. Larch, in the districts of Scotland where it -is grown and much in use, is universally allowed to be considerably -stronger than other fir; and the sawyers of it have one-fourth more pay -per stated measure. We, ourselves, have had considerable experience -of the strength of larch applied to many purposes, and have found it -in general much superior in strength to other fir. We have known a -crooked topmast of this timber, to which the sailors bore a grudge, -defy their utmost ingenuity to get carried away. We once had four -double horse-carts, made (excepting the wheels) of peeled young larch -of rather slow growth, for the carriage of large stones; these, by -mistake, were made very slight, so light, that, without the wheels, a -man could have carried one of them away. When we saw the first loading -of stones nearly a ton weight each, two in each cart, and the timber -yielding and creaking like a willow-basket, we did not expect they -would have supported the weight and jostlings of a rugged road many -yards; yet they withstood this coarse employment for a long time. The -timber of larch near the top of the tree is, however, very inferior and -deficient in toughness; and it is not improbable that the experiments -above alluded to at Woolwich had been made with larch {105} timber -deficient in strength from being a top. White larch has comparatively -smaller and more numerous branches than any other of the Coniferæ; -consequently the timber is freer of large knots, and has more equable -strength, as well in small spars as when large and cut out into joists -and beams, provided the timber be not too far up the tree. _Larch, -however, compared with pines and firs, has the timber much stronger -when young, and several inches or below a foot in diameter, than when -old and large_: this may partly be owing to its deficiency in resinous -deposit. - - -ENDNOTES TO PART II. - -[10] We have often preferred the terms kind, breed, family, individual, -to genus, species, variety, subvariety, as the former seem less -definite. Were nature true to the latter classification as employed by -botanists, it would be convenient. - -[11] In those we observed, we considered this last circumstance had a -considerable share as a predisposing cause of the attack of the worm. -Forests of _Pinus sylvestris_ are sometimes destroyed by insects under -the bark, in cases where it is difficult to decide whether external -circumstances, such as a dry warm season, has been promotive of the -increase of the insect itself, or has induced some disorder in the -plant, rendering the juices more suitable aliment to the worm. - -[12] Some nautical or technical terms have unavoidably crept into -this work; we shall not presume to think any explanation necessary: -Britannia would blush _jusqu’au blanc des yeux_, to the _tips_ of the -fingers and toes, did she think it were doubted that any of her sons, -not doomed to unceasing mechanical labour, were unacquainted with these. - -[13] It is termed by our professors _Salix fragilis_, or Crack Willow, -from the small branches breaking easily at the junction of the annual -growth—or, perhaps, Crack Willow, from the branches breaking with -considerable report; or from the wood, while burning, frequently -detonating or crackling, from the expansion of some aërial fluid within -the fibres. Though named by their sapience _fragilis_, it is not weaker -than other large growing willows, but stronger and denser; and, being -harder in the small branches, they do not bend, but break when their -bark and alburnum is driest, in winter. The timber is superior to that -of _Salix alba_, or of any other large growing willow we are acquainted -with, and is sufficiently pliant and tough. - -[14] Red Canadian pine is generally termed _Pinus resinosa_; but as -it is not so resinous as several other kinds, we consider _Pinus -rubra_ (_rubra_ from the colour of stem and also of timber), which is -sometimes used, more suitable. The pitch pine of the American United -States should be _Pinus resinosa_. - -[15] We think that in mankind the variations of the children of the -same parents do not soften entirely—there would seem to be certain -types or nuclei both of appearance and temperament around which -external and internal character vibrates. - -[16] The Canadian red pine resembles P. sylvestris or Norway pine so -much, that it is usually styled Norway pine by the settlers: Though -different, it is so nearly allied to P. sylvestris, that we consider -the number of sap-growths may be referred to the climate and soil, and -not to the kind,—that is, that, were it grown in Britain, if it did not -at first, it would in the course of time come to have fewer sap-growths. - -[17] Our common larch, like almost every other kind of tree, consists -of numberless varieties, which differ considerably in quickness of -growth, ultimate size, and value of timber. This subject has been -much neglected. We are, however, on the eve of great improvements in -arboriculture; the qualities and habits of varieties are just beginning -to be studied. It is also found that the uniformity in each kind of -wild growing plants called _species_, may be broken down by art or -culture, and that when once a breach is made, there is almost no limit -to disorder; the _mele_ that ensues being nearly incapable of reduction. - -[18] There is yet no sufficient data for the term alpine plant, but -with reference to latitude. The influence on vegetables, arising from -rarefaction and diminution of pressure of atmosphere, from difference -of stimulus of solar ray—when the entire ray of light, heat, and -chemical power, though less intense, is radiated fresh, and not much -broken or modified by refraction and reflection, and heat communicated -more in proportion by radiation than by contact of heated air; or -from difference of electric or galvanic or other meteoric impression -connected with altitude or ranges of mountains, or with primary rocks -or more upright strata, has not been made the subject of research, at -least has not been sufficiently investigated by any naturalist. - -[19] When water is stationary, either in the pores of the soil or by -itself, if the temperature be not very low, a slight putrefaction -generally commences, aided by the dead vegetable or animal matter -contained in the soil or the water; and it is only the more robust -aquatic vegetables whose juices are not corrupted, from their roots -being soaked in this tainted fluid. It would appear, too, that the -aqueous part of the atmosphere is also susceptible of the same putrid -changes, although in general the putrescency may have commenced before -the evaporation. This condition of the aqueous part of the atmosphere -is a disposing cause to blight or mildew in vegetables, and remittent, -intermittent, and putrid fevers in man. Mill-ponds are notorious both -for mildew and agues. - -[20] We have had no experience of larch, excepting very young, growing -on chalk and its affinities. We are told there are a few instances -where larch has reached 50 years in these calcareous soils, some -distance south of London. This merits attention. - -[21] “Oh! the bonny blooming heather.”—“Man has spoken evil things of -the sun, of love, and of life.” - -[22] As we held this plan of forming larch knees, and of bending -larch, of considerable importance, we some time ago presented it in -manuscript, along with some other matter, to the Highland Society -of Scotland. Tiring, however, of the delay of examination, perhaps -unavoidable in their official departments, and from some improvements -occurring to us during the delay, we requested it back. We now present -it under this more convenient form to the Society, and hope they -will find the examination or perusal of it printed, not quite so -impracticable as when in manuscript. It will afford us pleasure to -know that this useful Society approves, and that the members who have -opportunity are setting about following our directions. We especially -recommend to them to probe the roots of their growing larch, and to lay -bare those fitted for knees. - -[23] The landlord agriculturist is sufficiently aware of the influence -of the baring the upper part of the root of turnip, while the plant -is young, in extending the future growth of the bulb, and that a dry -situation gives most root in proportion to stem. These are general laws -in vegetation. There are few observers who have not remarked the very -large size which roots have attained when the trees have originally -been planted on dikes, and the dike earth removed, leaving the roots -bare. Should any person examine the very great difference of thickness -between the upper and lower part, from the heart of a root near the -bulb, he will at once discover the influence of exposure to the air and -freeness from pressure in promoting the swelling. - -[24] As you ascend the tree the timber deteriorates greatly. - - - - -{106} PART III. - -MISCELLANEOUS MATTER CONNECTED WITH NAVAL TIMBER. - - -NURSERIES. - -Much of the luxuriance and size of timber depending upon the particular -variety of the species, upon the treatment of the seed before sowing, -and upon the treatment of the young plant, and as this fundamental -subject is neither much attended to nor generally understood, we shall -take it up _ab initio_. - -The consequences are now being developed of our deplorable ignorance -of, or inattention to, one of the most evident traits of natural -history, that vegetables as well as animals are generally liable to -an almost unlimited diversification, regulated by climate, soil, -nourishment, and new commixture of already formed varieties. In those -with which man is most intimate, and where his agency in throwing -them from their natural locality and dispositions has brought out -this power of diversification in stronger shades, it has been forced -upon his notice, as in man himself, in the dog, horse, cow, sheep, -poultry,—in the apple, {107} pear, plum, gooseberry, potato, pea, -which sport in infinite varieties, differing considerably in size, -colour, taste, firmness of texture, period of growth, almost in -every recognisable quality. In all these kinds man is influencial in -preventing deterioration, by careful selection of the largest or most -valuable as breeders; but in timber trees the opposite course has -been pursued. The large growing varieties being so long of coming to -produce seed, that many plantations are cut down before they reach this -maturity, the small growing and weakly varieties, known by early and -extreme seeding, have been continually selected as reproductive stock, -from the ease and conveniency with which their seed could be procured; -and the husks of several kinds of these invariably kiln-dried[25], in -order that the seeds might be the more easily extracted! May we, then, -wonder that our plantations are occupied by a sickly short-lived puny -race, incapable of supporting existence in situations where their own -kind had formerly flourished—particularly evinced in the genus {108} -Pinus, more particularly in the species Scots fir; so much inferior -to those of Nature’s own rearing, where only the stronger, more hardy, -soil-suited varieties can struggle forward to maturity and reproduction? - -We say that the rural economist should pay as much regard to the breed -or particular variety of his forest trees, as he does to that of his -live stock of horses, cows, and sheep. That nurserymen should attest -the variety of their timber plants, sowing no seeds but those gathered -from the largest, most healthy, and luxuriant growing trees, abstaining -from the seed of the prematurely productive, and also from that of -the very aged and over-mature; as they, from animal analogy, may be -expected to give an infirm progeny, subject to premature decay. - -As, from many facts, a considerable influence is known to result in -several vegetables from drying severely the seeds from whence they -had sprung[26],—from exposure of these seeds to the sun and air,—from -long keeping, or from injury by mould or {109} impure air, which all -tend to shorten the life of the resulting individual, to accelerate -the period of its seeding, and to increase its reproductiveness; the -nurseryman should pay the utmost attention to the seeds he makes use -of, procuring them as recent as possible, and preserving them in -well-aired lofts, or under sheds, and also retaining them in the husks -till the time of sowing: the superior germinating power of the seed -thus treated will repay this attention. - -From facts we are also assured, that, in some hard wood kinds, -and also in the Coniferæ, the hanging of the growth of the young -plant, the spindling up in the seed-bed, or injudicious deterring -treatment afterwards, have a tendency to injure the constitution of -the individual, inducing premature seeding, and diminutive old age; -and also, that when plants, especially of some size, of these kinds -of trees have their roots much broken, the secondary or new roots -often partake something of the nature of the infirm runners, which, -in most kinds of trees, are thrown out by layers,—the resulting tree, -as in the case of those from layers in fruit trees being dwarfish, -sooner exhausting itself by reproduction, and sooner decaying. For -distinctness, we shall recapitulate: {110} - -That the seed be from the largest, hardiest variety of tree in -luxuriant growth. - -That the seed be recent, and carefully preserved in husk till sowing, -and extracted from the husk or cone without artificial drying. - -That the nursery be in an open, rather exposed situation,—most eligible -without shelter either of tree, hedge or wall, of rather light dry soil -of ordinary quality, of dry climate, and, in preference, soil naturally -good to that made so by high manuring. - -That the plants be not too close, nor remain too long in the seed-bed; -that they be extricated without much fracture of root, and be replanted -in wide rows, with good space between the plants in the row, keeping -the roots as superficially extended as they will thrive, and without -doubling the main root up to the surface of the ground. - -That the plant receive no pruning, excepting in the case of more than -one leader appearing, or feeder unproportionally extended; and no -root-section, in order to retard its growth, or increase the number of -root-fibres; and that its ultimate removal be accomplished without much -fracture of root or branch. - -By exposed situation of nursery, ordinary quality of soil, and much -room in the seed-bed and rows, we {111} shall have plants with firm -fibre and hardy constitution, with thick juicy bark, thick stem at the -surface of ground, and numerous feeders all the way down the stem. -Roots are most easily extricated from light soil, and with least -fracture. They are large in proportion to stem in dry soil and climate, -and when they are situated near the surface of the ground.—A healthy -growing plant, of firm fibre, large root, and sturdy short stem of one -leader and numerous feeders, is the great desideratum: a large root is -the more desirable, as a considerable part of it is generally broken -off in transplanting, rendering it disproportioned to the top, which, -in consequence, either languishes, or receives deterring cropping. - -We consider, that a tree grows more luxuriantly, acquires larger size, -and is much longer of reaching senility, when it is furnished with -several large roots, say one or two to each of the cardinal points, -extending horizontally out with bold leaders, than when numerous small -rootlets diverge in all directions from the bulb, as is the case -in some kinds when much fracture of root takes place from frequent -removals, or, when the nursery is of moist or mossy soil, the plants -being removed when of considerable size. We have cut down old stunted -hard wood trees having extremely numerous crowded roots, all {112} -engrafted into a matted net throughout the soil near the bulb, and -without any strong extended leaders. We attributed this crowded rooting -to the plants having been of considerable size when put in, and losing -their natural leaders; the situation, an avenue exposed to cattle, went -to confirm the probability that the defect of the rooting had been -owing to the largeness of the plants. - -When a tree is supplied by numerous, consequently small and not -wide-extending roots, as the tree acquires size, the wide spreading -branches and leafy top shed off the rain and dews from the space -occupied by these roots, very few of them extending beyond this shade; -at the same time, this narrow space becomes soon exhausted of the more -particular pabulum necessary to the kind of plant, the exhaustion -being accelerated by the dryness. This dryness and exhaustion of the -soil very soon show their effects aloft; the living hark of the tree -becomes covered from its connexion with the air, and constricted by a -thick hard dead crust, which, with the consequent very thin alburnum -affording an inefficient communication between the supply and demand, -react to impair the general vigour, and particularly to impede the -descent of the proper sap necessary to the enlargement and further -extension of the roots. The buds {113} not receiving sufficient supply -of root-moisture, instead of pressing on to new formation of wood, only -find enough to burgeon out into flower-buds, which the following season -drain the tree by reproduction; this fruit-bearing alternates with -periods of exhaustion, when the buds have not even supply sufficient to -swell into the embryo of flower and seed, but extend only into a few -leaves; and sometimes, in the event of a benign season, the buds may -throw out a small extension of new shoots. The tree progresses very -slowly in thickness of bole all this time, and generally soon falls a -prey to disease. On the other hand, when the tree has its naturally -fine large roots preserved, and is situated in open forest, and mixed -with other kinds, these large roots diverging widely from the tree and -each other, have a much larger less-sought space to forage in; and the -tree enjoying a long period of luxuriant growth before it fall much -into seed-bearing, acquires strength of constitution to thrive and -increase for ages under this drain. - -We are satisfied that cutting or fracture of the root-leaders, -especially near the bulb, when they have acquired some size, is -injurious to the extension and longevity of the tree, in pines and most -kinds of hard wood; and that branch-pruning, as generally practised, -is not less pernicious, first, by the {114} derangement which the -plant receives, from the regular connexion between the rootlets and -their affiliated twigs and leaves being destroyed by the section, -and afterwards from the distance between the manufacturing parts, -the leaves and the sources of supply in the ground being unnaturally -extended, especially when the stem is long, slender, and much denuded. - -Although we consider severe root fracture at planting pernicious to -some hard wood and resinous trees, yet there are kinds to which it -is advantageous. All plants which grow freely by cuttings, strike -better to have the roots pruned in near to the bulb. Many kinds -of seedling-plants also strike sooner, and throw out stronger new -root-leaders, when the long straggling fibres are cut in a little, -similar to the branches above, which, when over-numerous and slender, -throw out more vigorous shoots by being cropped at planting. - - -PLANTING. - -In regard to planting, soils divide into the _dry_ and the _moist_; -the former require to have the plants put in as soon as possible after -the leaves drop off—at any rate, not to allow February to pass without -completing the planting; excepting evergreens, {115} which should not -be delayed beyond the middle of April. In dry soils, if the expense -be not limited to a very low rate, pit-planting should be adopted, -and the pits are better to be dug some months previous, in order -that the earth may be aërated, and the turf partly rotted. The moist -soils may be divided into those which are much disposed to throw the -plant from the frosts and thaws, and those which are not; the former -consisting of moory, soft, or spongy earth, upon a retentive subsoil; -the latter, of the firmer, more equable loams, clays, and tills. Unless -the plants are large, they should always be slitted into the former -soil, and the work performed as soon as the ground becomes sadded in -spring—as, though the lateness of planting should preclude throwing of -pitted plants the first season, they will often be thrown the ensuing -winter. When plants are very small, they may be put into the latter, -by slitting; but if middle-sized, or large, they are better pitted. It -is of the greatest importance to these moist soils, to have very deep, -open[27] drains executed previous to planting, cutting off all the -springs at their sources, and, if possible, drying the subsoil to such -a degree that water will not stand in the pits. Should this be {116} -accomplished, it is highly advantageous to dig the pits in time for -the excavated clay to have its cohesion broken by frost: the planting -should afterwards be performed exactly at the time when this frosted -mould is sufficiently dry, and no more, to shake conveniently in among -the fibres of the roots, and not to knead into mortar, by the necessary -pressing of the feet. After this pressure, a little of the tenderest of -the soil should be spread loose over the surface, to exclude drought. -Should this dryness of subsoil not be effected, the pits must be dug -in spring, at the time the clay is most friable; that is, between the -moist and dry; and the plants put in immediately, breaking the clay as -fine as possible, and closing it well around the roots. It is better to -delay planting even till May, than to perform it too wet. When planting -is delayed late in spring, the plants should be kept _shoughed_ in the -coldest situation that can be found, at the top of a hill exposed to -the north, or in some cold, damp, back-lying place. Care should also -be taken not to expose them much while planting, as they, especially -if the buds be bursting, very soon wither when root and stem are both -exposed to the sun and dry air. When late planted, they ought always -to be dipped as far up as the branches in a puddle of clay and water: -{117} should they be dipped over head in the puddle, it will not -injure them. - -What is of most importance to the success of planting, is to have the -soil put very closely in contact with all the root-fibre, and these -fibres in due natural separation, with a little tender mould on the -surface;—not to have water stagnating around the root, at any rate -during the first spring;—to have the planting done in time, to receive -a good sadding by rain before the spring droughts commence;—to prevent -rank weeds, furze, &c. from smothering the young plants;—and to exclude -or destroy all bestial, as cattle, sheep, rabbits, hares, mice, &c. In -keeping the latter in check, a few families of foxes are very efficient. - - -FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON PRUNING. - -Every forester is aware, that when feeders are pruned off, they should -be cut away as close as possible to, and without tearing the hole. -To perform this without danger of injury to the tree, when feeders -of considerable size are to be removed, the branch should first be -sawn over at about one foot beyond the intended section, and a second -section then performed at the proper place. This {118} requires a -little more time, but not nearly so much as an inexperienced person -would suppose, as the section a foot out is made very quickly, and the -pruner generally takes as much time to reach the branch as to cut it -off. The neatness and advantage of this method will be acknowledged by -those who have seen it practised, to compensate for the longer time it -requires. - -We find the saw, shears, and knife, the best instruments for pruning; -in some cases of difficult approach, the long-handed pruning-iron may -be resorted to. When the lopping is performed by a percussion tool, the -wood and bark at the section is often shattered by the blow, and thence -is less likely to cicatrize soundly; and even when executed in the best -manner, the surface of the section is smooth and hard, consequently -a good conductor of heat, dries much, and thence shrinks and cracks -near the centre of the cut, opening a deep crevice, into which the -rain penetrates, and often rots deep into the stem. When the section -is made by the saw, a slight fibrous clothing is left upon the place, -which in some measure protects the ends of the cut tubes from the frost -and drying air, and excludes the heat; in consequence the wood at the -section does not lose its vitality so far inward, and is not so liable -to shrink {119} and crack in the centre and receive rain. The section -can also generally be made much neater and closer by the saw than by -any other instrument. The common erroneous belief, that a section by -a sharp-edged instrument is less injurious than by the saw, is merely -hypothetical, from wide analogy from animals. The pernicious influence -on the whole individual, received and transmitted by the nerves from -mangled section of animal fibre, is probably entirely awanting in -vegetables; the whole process of life and of cicatrization is also -totally different. - -The forester should also be very wary in cutting off a considerable -branch, whose section would incline upwards, as such a section, when it -has received a circle of new bark and wood, forms a cup which receives -and contains rain water, which quickly corrupts the bottom of the cup, -and often rots the centre of the tree down to the ground. It is better -to crop such a branch several feet from the main stem, close by some -small feeder, unless the branch be dead. In pruning, every considerable -section should be as near as possible at right angles with the horizon, -or rather inclining inward below. Of naval timber, the beech is by far -the most likely to take rot by being pruned, and should never have a -large limb cut off, as the divided fibres generally die {120} downward -a number of feet below the section, and soon afterward decay, leaving a -hole in the bole. - -As nothing retards the growth of trees more than full flowering and -seeding, if pruning diminish this flowering and seeding, so that the -gain from the prevention of this exhaustion more than counterbalances -the loss of the pruned-off part, the pruning will of course accelerate -the growth of the tree; but the removal of lower branches, although in -the first place promotive of growing buds and extension of the top, in -a year or two longer only tends to throw the tree more into flowering -and seeding. The rich dryness, or want of fluidity of the juices which -occasions flower-buds, is also induced by hot, dry atmosphere, and -short supply of moisture from the roots during the preceding summer, -both of which disposing causes are increased by a long naked stem. -When the proportion of the part above ground of a tree to the roots -is diminished, growing buds result, at least to a certain extent; yet -it would be very difficult to practise a proper system of pruning on -this principle, as the consequent lengthened stem is, in the end, -promotive of flower-buds, especially in dry seasons, and the loss of -feeders might greatly counterbalance the gain from not flowering, did a -succession of wet cold seasons follow. {121} - -The season when pruning should be performed, is something dependent -upon the kinds, whether they bleed when pruned in early spring or do -not. Almost any convenient time will suit for pruning the latter, but -we rather prefer March, April, May, June, or autumn after the leaf has -fallen. The former, sycamore, maple, birch, &c. ought either to be -pruned in autumn, or after the buds are beginning to break in spring, -as they bleed and suffer considerable exhaustion when pruned in the -latter part of winter or early spring. From some facts, we consider -that pruning in winter, especially in severe weather, gives a check to -the vigour of the tree; others agree with this. - - -{122} OBSERVATIONS ON TIMBER. - -The quantity of measurable wood of the various timber trees which -a certain extent of adapted ground will carry, when come to full -maturity, or when they may be most profitably felled, and the quantity -that may be thinned out during the maturing, with the time requisite -to bring to value, with the relative selling price per foot, and also -whether the greatest quantity of timber can be grown of one kind or -mixed, are questions of more importance than might be judged, from -the attention paid to the subject. Of our common timber trees, Scots -fir, silver fir, and spruce, larch, pinaster, black Italian poplar, -Salix alba, commonly called Huntingdon willow, red-wood willow, beech, -Spanish chestnut, ash, plane, elm, birch, oak, are here ranked nearly -in the order of quantity of measure which adapted ground in this -country will produce or support; that is, that an acre of close Scots -fir trees, of whatever age, will admeasure more timber than an acre -covered with any other tree of the same size; and a close acre of oaks -less. A little further south, in the temperate zone, the large-leaved -deciduous trees, particularly the {123} elms, acquire thicker and -longer stem, in closer order, in a given time. In this country, in -rich warm situations, this is visible in some degree, both as regards -quantity of timber and quickness of growth, compared with pines. It -would be difficult to state the comparative quickness of growth of -the various timber trees, as so much depends on soil, situation, and -treatment; it also varies considerably at different stages of their -growth. It is well known, that in proper soil, black Italian poplar, -Salix alba, and red wood willow, exceed all others. - -As, for naval use, it is not the quickness of growth and bulk of -the timber altogether, but of the matured timber alone, which is of -consequence—we give a view of the number of growths or annual circles -of sap-wood (the useless part), which the main stems of several kinds -of trees presented. Most of those we examined had a greater number -of sap-layers near the top than at a few feet above ground, and the -vigorous branches had generally more than the stem immediately adjacent -to them; the branches with least vigour had fewest sap circles. {124} - - _Of Home Growth._ - - Common oak, some trees 10, others 14, others 18 - Spanish chestnut, 2, 5, 6 - Scots elm, _U. montana_, 16, 25, 32 - English elm, _U. campestris_, 0, 10, 0 - Red-wood willow, 8, 14, 0 - Laburnum, 3, 5, 0 - Wild cherry, _Prunus cerasus_, 16, 24, 0 - Black Italian poplar, 9, 0, 0 - Scots fir, 20, 30, 40 - Pinaster, 0, 10, 0 - White larch, free of rot, 5, 12, 18 - - _Of Foreign Growth._ - - Memel fir, 0, 43, 0 - Red Canadian pine, 0, 100, 0 - Yellow Canadian pine, 38, 44, 0 - -The process of maturing in several did not proceed regularly, some -of the rings being reddened on one side and remaining white on the -other: this did not seem to be influenced by position to south or -north. In the larch, particularly in those trees {125} where the rot -is incipient, this maturing is very irregular, in the view of the -cross section dashing out into angles and irregularities, and being -darker red than in the healthy plants: in those where rot had made -considerable progress, the red-wood was within a circle or two of -the bark. This approach of red-wood to the outside is so regularly -connected with rot, that we needed no other indication of the roots -being unfit for knees, and therefore not worth grubbing, than merely a -slight notch by two cuts of a hatchet. - -Those kinds of timber whose matured wood assumes a brown or reddish -colour, are generally much less susceptible of change, either by simple -putrefaction or by attack of fungi, or gnawing of insects, than those -whose matured wood remains of a whitish colour. In many of the latter, -there does not even appear to be any particular change of constitution, -or greater capability of resisting corruption or insects, between the -alburnum and mature wood, although the difference between the two is -generally perceptible when the cross section is drying, and immediate, -as in the brown or red; there being no gradual change or softening in -either between the mature and immature. Although the change in those -which become brown and red does not much affect {126} the hardness or -strength of the timber (mature and immature being nearly equal in these -when dried before corruption injures the latter), yet it materially -influences its nature or quality. We have taken down Laburnum trees in -the round natural form from the roofing of an old building, from which -nearly the whole yellow or sap-wood was eaten away by insects, although -they had not made the least impression upon the brown[28]. {127} - - -Whether timber be more lasting when cut at one time of the season than -at another, is not yet determined. The matured wood does not seem to be -much affected by the season, continuing nearly equally moist throughout -the year; life or action in it, though not quite, being nearly extinct, -and little or no circulation remaining; yet the matured wood of the -stool of the pine throws out a little resin when the tree is cut -down in summer,—perhaps only a mechanical effect of heat and drying. -Steeping in water for a considerable time is of far more importance -to the duration of timber than any thing depending on the time of the -season when it is cut down; steeping causes some acetous {128} change -in the timber (easily recognisable by the sense of smelling when any -section of it is made), which, judging from the effect the acetous -change has to preserve other vegetable matter from putrefaction, is -probably of considerable use in preserving the timber from decay, -either by rot or worming. The time of cutting, although of considerable -importance to the quality and durability of the sap-wood, appears to be -of little or none to the matured. - -The age at which timber may be cut down being uncertain, the -height to which it should be trained up of clear stem is not very -determinable,—say that the trees are to be allowed to stand till -nearly full grown,—as long as the timber continues to retain its -strength and toughness when growing in proper soil, that is for -hard-wood trees 100 years and upwards, and for pines from two to three -hundred. On crowns of eminences and exposed bluffs, particularly when -the latitude or altitude is rather high, the soil inferior, or the -climate arid, from 15 to 30 feet of clear hole may be as much as can -judiciously be attempted; upon plains under common circumstances, -from 30 to 50 feet is an attainable stem; in sheltered dales and -valleys, they may be trained clean, and without branch, from 50 to -70 feet in altitude; and in cases where soil, situation, {129} and -climate, are all propitious, and it is desired that nature’s fullest, -grandest, development should be displayed, from 70 to 150 feet, clear -of branch, maybe gained. Lewis and Clarke describe a spruce, in a -sheltered dell on the river Columbia, which they measured, lying upon -the ground, 312 feet long from root to top. We have little belonging -to earth more sublime, or which bears home to man a deeper sense of -his bodily insignificance, and puny transient being, than an ancient -majestic forest, whose luxuriant foliage on high, seems of itself -almost a firmament of verdure, supported on lofty moss-covered columns, -and unnumbered branched arches,—a scene equally sublime, whether we -view it under the coloured and flickering lights and shadows of the -summer eve and morning, resounding to the song of the wild life which -harbours there,—or under the scattered beams streaming downward at -high noontide when all is still,—or in winter storms, when the wild -jarring commotion, the frightful rending and lashing of the straining -branches, like the arms of primeval giants, contending in their might, -bear accompaniment to the loud roar and bellow of the tempest, forming -a drone and chaunter to which demons might dance. - - -{130} CONCERNING OUR MARINE, &c. - -Can we consider the Briton sane who speaks of bounding this country -to her home resources? Can any one doubt that our name, our wealth, -our power, are not wholly attributable to our _Marine_? Can any one -be ignorant that the superiority of our marine is wholly dependant on -our _foreign trade_, particularly the bulkier part of it, on _foreign -supply_? Does any one dread the necessity of _foreign supply_, from the -foolish fear that it may be cut off by war? Keeping out of view the -argument, that ere the British pride would suffer _other domination -on the waters_, our numbers would be well thinned away, they know -little of the influence of circumstance on man, who do not perceive -that, in the event of free trade, and of the population of Britain -increasing beyond what the country, under the best possible culture, -could support, the very necessity of being mistress of the seas would -make her so. They know little of what Britain is, country and people, -who doubt of her continued supremacy, should she not be ruined, -indeed, by following the narrow selfish {131} views of a party—a -party alike ungrateful[29] for the past, and blind to, or heedless -of, their own ultimate good. The position of Britain,—her stretch -of sea-coast, serrated with harbours,—her minerals, the principle -of mechanical motion, so necessary in the arts,—her navy, docks, -canals, roads, implements, and machinery, so superior to those of the -whole world beside,—her fertile soil,—her capital,—her protection of -property,—her insular situation,—her steady government and consequent -ingress of capital from the continent on any commotion,—her habits -of industry,—her knowledge of trade,—her sciences,—her arts,—her -free press,—her {132} religion[30],—and the stamina and indomitable -spirit of her people. All these, causes and effects combined, brought -into action under a climate the most favourable for developing the -moral and physical energies of man, where the extremes of temperature -neither relax nor chill, where the human muscle and human mind are more -capable of continued strong exertion, and machinery less influenced by -hygrometric and calorific change, than on any other spot of earth. When -all these are condensed into a nucleus of power of so small compass -that one spirit, one interest, may pervade all, but drawing support -by ramifications from every nook of the habitable world, should an -infatuated party not render unavailable these unmatched advantages, -cowardice could not even dream of peril to the supremacy of British -naval power. - -Let us continue to extend our foreign intercourse and home -cultivation—let the merchant legislate in affairs of trade—the -landholder in country matters; each in that in which his judgment -has been formed by experience, acting always on the principle that -the general prosperity of the country is the interest {133} of -every class—that, like the branch and the root, their prosperity is -indissolubly combined. - -When we view the advantages of Britain—almost to a wish,—when we view -her able and ready to supply the necessities of man in every clime, -in exchange for his superfluities, and to scatter science, morality, -the arts of life, all that conduces to happiness and improvement over -the nations,—when we view all this, being blasted by an exclusive -system of monopoly, of very doubtful advantage to one party of the -nation, and tyrannically oppressive upon all others, can we refrain -from execration? We would desire the casuist to draw a distinction -between the criminality of preventing the operative from exchanging -the produce of his labour (otherwise unsaleable) for cheap food[31], -when his family is famishing; and compelling the labour of the Negro -(whom you support with food) with the whip. Men will be found of a -virtue sufficiently easy to advocate either system. We only wish that -the supporters of {134} monopoly and their abettors were sent off to -some separate quarter of the world with all their beloved restrictions, -duties, tariffs, passports, revenue officers, blockade men, with the -innumerable petty interfering vexatious regulations, and all the -contrivances which surely the devil has invented to repress industry -and promote misery, where they might form an Elysium of their own. - -There is nothing more certain, should we by restrictions continue to -banish knowledge, capital, and industry from our shores[32], than that -the Genius of Improvement will fix upon some other place for the seat -of her throne. _Maritime dominion_ will follow in her train; and on -the first war, all exportation of the products of our manufacturers -being at an end, unexampled misery will involve four-fifths of our -population, and an explosion will ensue, from its origin and character -of unparalleled fury, which will sweep to destruction the insane -authors of the calamity—tear to shreds the whole fabric of society—and -give to the winds all the institutions which man has been accustomed to -revere. {135} - - * * * * * - -It is disgraceful that our MARINE is not directly represented in the -British Parliament. Is it possible that every clown in England, who is -owner of a few acres or miserable hovel, is carried to the poll,—and -that our shipping interest, and brave seamen, to whom the rest of the -nation is indebted “for all they have, and almost all they know,” -are passed over—have not one direct representative—have not even one -direct vote, and that their interest is totally neglected[33]? Will it -be credited that our most sage legislators, as if on purpose to ruin -our marine, have laid on a tax of L. 4 per load (above 1s. 7d. per -solid foot) on oak-plank, and L. 2, 15s. per load on rough oak-timber, -imported from other nations; which, as only a small part of what is -(not of what would be) used, is so derived, at the same time that -it raises the price of the whole[34] nearly 100 per cent., tends -comparatively little to swell the revenue,—nearly the whole of the high -monopoly price reverting to our landholders and our grateful Canadian -{136} colony? As about a load (50 solid feet) of timber is required -for the construction of a ton of trading shipping, this duty, together -with the high duty on hemp, increases the cost of our vessels nearly -L. 4 per register ton, independent of the higher price of building -and sailing them, from other monopolies; and it is only from the very -superior skill, honesty and industry of our seamen[35], that our -shipping, since the peace, under this very great disadvantage, has been -at all enabled to compete with foreign. At Shields and Newcastle a new -merchant-vessel of oak, rigged and ready for sea, uncoppered, can be -purchased for L. 10 per register ton. Were the price, by the removal of -monopoly, reduced to L. 6 per ton, scarcely a foreign bottom, American -excepted, would compete with British, in the carrying trade, or would -enter a British port. Can it be believed that our very liberal late -minister (Mr Huskisson), and our very non-liberal member for Newark -(Mr Sadler), have both made a _full_ exposè of the distresses of our -shipping interest, and not once have adverted to the _cause_ of this, -and of the comparative decline of our naval preponderance—_the very -high duty on the_ {137} _material_? Does our Government perceive the -rapid strides which our rival brothers in America are making to surpass -us in marine—and will it be so besotted as continue laws to the speedy -fulfilment of this? - -May we hope that, through the energy of OUR SAILOR KING, Britain will -lead the van in the disenfranchisement of man from the old bondage of -monopoly and restriction—that a more sane system of taxation (a tax on -property) will be adopted, as well as a necessary retrenchment—that the -true interest of Britain will be understood and followed, and a new era -begin. We are sick of the drivelling nonsense of our closet economists -about loss by colonies and foreign connexion. Bonaparte well knew the -value of SHIPS, COLONIES and COMMERCE, and dreaded the power which -eventually wrought his fall. The existence of China depends upon her -Agriculture, and the sovereign devotes a part of his time annually to -the plough. The existence of Britain depends upon her Marine, and the -king should always be bred a sailor—the heir-apparent and presumptive -being always sent to sea. In the case of a female, if she did not take -kindly to the sea-service, a dispensation might be allowed, on her -marrying a sailor, and the foolish law prohibiting our Royal Family -from marrying a Briton be put aside. - - -ENDNOTES TO PART III. - -[25] If the heat and evaporation of a gardener’s pocket for several -days be sufficient to render the seeds of melons and gourds productive -of plants of earlier maturity, that is less disposed to extension and -more to reproduction,—what may be expected from kiln-drying fir-cones? - -[26] The full ripening of the seeds of some cultivated varieties -of vegetables, and also the drying of the seeds severely without -artificial heat, are found to have considerable influence upon the -germination of the seeds, and even some impression upon the character -of the resulting plant. - -[27] Covered drains are not adapted for woods, as the matted fibres of -the roots, especially of the semi-aquatic trees, very soon enter them -and form obstructions. - -[28] Laburnum (Cytisus) is the most valuable timber this country -produces. It is equally deep in colour, and takes as fine a polish as -rose-wood, having also something slightly pellucid in the polished -surface. From its extreme hardness, it is much better adapted for -use than mahogany, not being indented or injured by blows or rough -treatment. We are acquainted with no other timber of home produce so -little liable to decay. The large-leaved variety in rich warm soils -acquires a diameter of a foot or a foot and a-half, and grows rapidly -till it fall into seed-bearing. Its usual very stunted growth is partly -owing to less valuable faster growing trees overtopping it: Were it -planted alone, and trained to proper curve, it might be profitably -reared for the upper timbers (the part where decay commences) of small -vessels: it has the thinnest covering of sap wood of any of our timber -trees. The extreme beauty and richness of its clustered depending -blossoms is a considerable injury to its growth, as it is often broken -and despoiled of the branches on this account. The small-leaved -Laburnum, though producing the most beautiful timber, is of such -puny growth as not to rank as a forest tree. There is a peculiarity, -at least seldom occurring in other trees, attending the growth of -the small-leaved variety: a branch frequently gives up feeding the -connected trunk and roots, drawing supply of nourishment from these -upward, without returning much or any of the digested matter downward. -This branch above the place of the stagnation of the bark vessels -becomes enlarged, running into numerous shoots, which are generally -unnaturally thick and unhealthy, approaching to dropsical—often, -however, beautifully pendant down to the ground, from their weight -and the smallness of the supporting branch. We do not know whether -this is an awkward effort towards increase—that these branches, under -the influence of a not entirely matured instinct or faculty, droop in -search of earth to root, and extend by layers, in conformity to a habit -of some tribes of trees, in which this mode of increase is efficient, -or that it is a disease unconnected with design or final cause. These -overgrown branches of the small-leaved laburnum are generally thrown -out by trees, which, owing to circumstances, are little disposed to -seeding. - -[29] Let us compare the wealth of the British landholder with that -of the like grade on the Continent. It is the unrivalled skill and -industry of our manufacturers and traders which have laid every shore -under contribution for the immense riches which has poured in upon our -landholders, and which, from juxtaposition, will continue to do so, -in a certain degree, under the fullest freedom of trade. It is now -absurd to talk of duties on foreign products, to counterbalance home -taxation—taxation now bears lightly on home agricultural production, -more so than in many parts of the Continent, and our manufacturers, -under the same or greater taxation, compete with and outstrip all the -world in cheapness of production. - -[30] The dread of change in Catholic countries—the proscription of -almost every new work treating of science—the complete submission of -the mind to the religious authorities, bearded men “becoming little -children” even to the letter—the consequent general abandonment to -sensual enjoyment—the immense number of holidays—and the shoals of -meddling priests, are a great bar to improvement—an insurmountable -one to manufacturing pre-eminence. We need not say that all this is -subordinate to climate. Effect, however, soon turns to cause. - -[31] Our industrious operatives, rendered trebly more productive by -recent machinery improvements, fabricate three times more commodity -than our landed and other population can with their present habits -consume. Few other nations can give else but food in exchange for this -overplus; our landholders have enacted laws to exclude food, and our -operatives are being starved down to the requisite number for home -supply. - -[32] The same polity under which Britain has acquired supremacy, will -not now serve to continue it. A knowledge of the interests of nations -is abroad, and if we will not suffer our country to be the emporium of -the world, another will. - -[33] See App. E. - -[34] The price of any article raised at home, when any part requires to -be imported, of course rises to the whole cost (prime cost, duty and -freight) of the foreign. - -[35] The chance of loss by wreck, damage from sea-water, and pilfering, -being much less in British than in foreign bottoms, enables the British -to obtain a higher freight than the foreign. - - - - -{138} PART IV. - -NOTICES OF AUTHORS RELATIVE TO TIMBER. - - -After throwing together several of our own observations, we bethought -ourselves of examining into the ideas and experience of recent writers -on the same subject. Having taken notes of the more prominent matter -contained in their pages, we believe we shall do the public a service -by printing these notes, accompanied by slight remarks. This may be the -more useful, especially as almost every author has his own particular -mania, which few common readers have sufficient knowledge of the -subject to discriminate from the saner matter: and as, from the nature -of hobbies—from some shrewd enough guesses by the owner that they are -his own undoubted property—and, perhaps, from some misgivings, that -what he advances on these is not perfectly self-evident, he is thence -the more disposed to expatiate upon them, and embellish. The {139} -credulous and inexperienced, partly from this, and partly from the -fascination of the very improbability, rush at once into the snare; -bring the speculations or assertions to practical test; get quickly -disenchanted by realities, and ever after are disposed to treat all -written directions on material science with contempt. We bring forward -these authors in the order of perusal. We have found several remarks -similar to our own; this was to be expected. - - -{140} I. THE FORESTER’S GUIDE, _by Mr Monteath_. - -This volume is the work of a man of some experience, and of -considerable observation and ingenuity, not much assisted by botanical -or physiological science or literary attainment, which he, indeed, -disclaims. His principal forte, and what he seems to have been most -engaged with, is oak-coppice—his besetting sin, cutting and cropping. -His directions on rearing and cutting coppice may be sensible;—those -who wish to practise the sacrilege of destroying young oak-forest, we -refer to him, as we have always had a horror at seeing a beautiful -sapling untimeously cut down, like an American bullock for its hide. At -present, and while peace continues, it is very easy to obtain plenty -of foreign bark, and also oak-timber, for consumption, at a very cheap -rate, for this reason—_and also, because, in the event of war, the -price of these articles would be nearly doubled—we would request the -holders of coppice, and, indeed, of all growing oak-timber, to pause -in their operations of cutting, and not to sacrifice their property -so unprofitably, to their own ultimate disadvantage, and also to the -detriment of {141} the national resources; but immediately to -set about converting their coppice-hags into oak-forest, by careful -thinning and selection_. For performing this, we refer them to Mr -Monteath in person, who seems to comprehend the utility, and to be -pretty well versed in the practice, of thinning; only we would desire -him, in pruning, to attend to the functions of the leaves; that the -more abundant the covering of healthy foliage, the tree will progress -the faster; and that the repeated cutting down of a young plant, year -after year, as he recommends, even sometimes extending it to five -years in succession, will either destroy the plant altogether, or be -extremely injurious to its growth: although, if the plant be stunted, -cutting it down, once, as every body knows, is the plan which should be -adopted with all kinds of our common forest trees—the coniferæ, beech, -and birch, excepted. - -Mr Monteath advises a naturalization of young plants, after they are -got from nurseries, in a soil and climate similar to that which they -are ultimately to occupy. We see no necessity for this. All that is -required in a young plant, is, that it be of good variety, of firm -fibre, in a healthy growing state; with a stout stem, in proportion to -the height, {142} with numerous side branches, and with a root rather -large in comparison to the part above ground. - -Our author’s mode of preparation of turfy peat-moss soils for planting -we think good, but conveniently applicable in heathy moss ground, only -with the assistance of the late Mr Finlayson’s ingenious device of -the self-clearing plough. At every seven feet of breadth, Mr Monteath -excavates a deep rut, by means of a plough with three coulters and -two mould-boards,—two of the coulters cutting, each, a side of the -rut, the other dividing it in the middle, and the double mould-board -turning out a furrow to each side. He passes this plough twice along -in forming the rut, each time turning out from four to six inches in -depth, so that the whole depth of the rut is about ten inches. These -minor drains communicate with larger ones dug by the spade across the -field. The thrown up slices are then cut into lengths of eighteen -inches, and carefully dried, by turning and by piling a few together, -as openly as possible, that the wind may blow through. A small pile, -about six in number, is then burnt upon the intended site of each tree, -if necessary, aided in the combustion by furze or other fuel; taking -care, by proper regulation of the quantity of fuel, or otherwise, to -prevent the combustion from proceeding too {143} far, and the ashes -from becoming white and light, as in this case a considerable part -of their virtues is dissipated. This ploughing, drying, and burning, -being performed as early in the summer as the weather will permit, -the earth under the ashes is immediately dug over, from two to four -feet in breadth, and mixed with the ashes, and the following spring -the planting is performed. In situations where Mr Monteath’s plough -could not be worked to advantage, these minor drains may be formed by -the spade; and in heathy peat soils, not requiring drains, the burning -of the heathy turfs on the site of the plants might be efficacious in -correcting the tannin, and in reducing and enriching the soil within -the immediate reach of the young plant, which would thus acquire -strength to subdue the more distant part, and gradually reduce and form -the whole into soil capable of affording healthy nourishment. - -We also approve of the plan mentioned by Mr Monteath, for covering -with timber, rocks or stony ground, so bare of soil as not to admit of -planting, by means of placing seeds in the crevices, or on the shelves -of the rock, and scraping together a little mould to cover them; or, -when practicable, placing the seeds in the middle of the mould. Here, -however, we think he errs, in recommending the {144} cutting down -of the young resulting shoot, year after year, that the plant may -acquire long roots, extended down the crevices, to give the future -stem stability and sufficient foraging. We would never cut down but -when the plant appeared stunted, and not then in succession, nearer -than three or four years from the last cutting. Those who possess -rocky precipices, so steep or inaccessible that the above method -of our author could not be practised with conveniency, may cause a -quantity of the cheapest seeds of trees be sown down over the top of -the crags during the winter: we would prefer the end of January, as the -mouldering effects of the frost and the rains would cover numbers of -these, so as they would come to vegetate. - -Mr Monteath advises, in rearing oak-forest or copse, to put in only -about thirty plants per acre, and by layers from these to cover the -interstices. In order to recommend this practice, he states the -celerity with which these could be extended, layer beyond layer, making -steps, every second season, of eight or nine feet, by relaying the -last layer’s shoots, and he affirms, that a forest could be sooner, -and more economically raised by this means, than by planting the whole -at first. This is sufficiently imaginative. He seems not to be aware -of the fact, that life is {145} very languid, and growth slow, in any -branch horizontally extended, especially when upright stems from the -same root are suffered to remain. He also expects the layer-roots to -become strong and capable to forage for large trees. That they will, -in the oak, ever become so, we think very improbable. Examination -of the roots which proceed from oak-layers would place this beyond -dispute; if they are, as we presume, fibrous and slender, similar to -those produced by apple-layers, no tree or bush of any great size will -result. Large trees, generally, cannot be procured by layers, but only -in those semiaquatic kinds which grow readily by slips. Whether it -may be advantageous to fill up the vacancies of copse by layers, in -preference to seed-plants, experience only can determine. The bark of -trees or bushes raised by layers or cuttings is generally thicker than -that of those raised from seed:—this might balance some deficiency of -the growth in the case of oak-coppice. - -Our author advises the cutting off the upper part of spruce-trees on -the outside of plantations, in order that their lower branches may -extend the more, and remain vigorous,—thence affording more adequate -shelter to the within plantation. Perhaps it is quite unnecessary to -guard any person from practising this piece of folly. On the outside -of woods, spruce-firs {146} will retain the branches in vigour, -sufficiently low for all the purposes of shelter: nothing could be more -unseemly than the decapitated trees; and in a few years most of them -would become rotted in the stem, die, and fall down. - -From observing, on the western side of Scotland, thriving plantations -exposed to south-west winds and sea-spray, and also to north-east -winds and sea-spray, in woods extending along the western side of -the salt lochs in Argyllshire, our author predicts, that, under his -panacea of repeated cutting down, trees would grow luxuriantly in -exposed situations on the north-eastern margin of our island. We do not -desire to see Mr Monteath’s sanguine hope turned to disappointment, -which a trial would certainly effect. There is something peculiarly -hard and cutting in our _vernal_ north-eastern breeze fresh from -ocean, which withers up the tender spreading leaves of every plant -raised from the ground, and placed in its immediate draught. This is -occasioned as well by a cold moist, as by a cold dry wind, the new -vegetable structure in the developing process, when the tissues of -tubes and cells are only in the state of pulp, and all the molecular -germs floating into figure, under the direction of vital and chemical -impulses and attractions, being very susceptible {147} of derangement. -We attribute this effect on vegetables principally to the coldness and -saline matter. The depressing effect on the spirits or vital energy of -man, occasioned by the eastern breeze, does not appear to be dependent -on the same cause. The great rivers, the Rhine, the Weser, the Elbe, -independent of the English rivers, throw a great quantity of decaying -vegetable matter into the lower part of the German sea, which, being -there only a shallow muddy gulf, may thence have its waters so far -contaminated as to throw off pernicious exhalations. Or, what is much -more probable, the eastern breeze, sweeping along the swamps (at this -time in high evaporation, of malaria) which extend from Holland upward, -and along the whole southern shore of the Baltic, and thence eastward -nobody knows how far, must bear these exhalations, uncorrected, over -the narrow sea which intervenes between these flats and our shores. -It is even likely that a slight diffusion of saline matter from this -gulf, instead of correcting, may have the opposite effect, as a small -quantity of salt tends to promote putrefaction. It is evident that this -miasma-atmosphere, borne across the German sea, is not pernicious to -vegetables; as, when the breeze is not too cold, or too violent, they -progress rapidly in growth, {148} and acquire a deep green colour: -and, on the north-eastern Scotch coast, where timber suffers most, the -breeze has little of that depressive influence on man, although it -may derange his respiratory and transpiratory organs; while down on -the shores of Suffolk and Essex, where the malaria of the breeze is -greatest to man, the exposed trees receive less injury. Yet something -may depend upon the electric state of this air, or upon the greater -pressure of the atmosphere, which, we believe, are connected. On the -exposed east coast, when it is desired to grow timber, we must estimate -the most enduring kind of tree, perhaps sycamore plane, and place it to -seaward, covering it as much as possible by wall, and planting other -kinds under its lee. We have noticed several instances where timber -throve well, without shelter, close by the sea, on our north-east -coast, which we attributed to a diminished draught of the eastern -breeze, owing to the configuration of the adjacent higher country. - -Mr Monteath ascribes the sickliness and decay which, in many places, -is perceptible in the timber of narrow belts, to the want of shelter, -and recommends to form belts wider. There is some truth in this, and -the advice is good, although he does not seem to be aware of the -whole cause of the evil. {149} Trees in single rows thrive latterly -much better than in narrow belts, because, from the planting, they -are habituated to open situation, and acquire roots, branches, and -stem, suited to this: whereas trees in narrow belts, from being in a -thicket while young, acquire great length of stem, and roots and tops -unproportionably small; and, when thinned out, and from the narrowness -of the belt, exposed nearly as much, as, though in single row, they -become sickly, from delicacy of constitution unsuited to this exposure, -and from deficiency of roots to draw moisture commensurate to the -increased evaporation. To obviate this evil, resulting from narrow -belts, timely thinning, so as to retain numerous side-branches downward -to the ground, of course, should be adopted. In a drier climate, or in -high and exposed situation, continued forest will have great effect in -promoting the luxuriance and health of timber; but in the southern part -of Scotland, there are few situations, keeping away from high elevation -and the eastern coast, where any of our common trees would prosper in -forest, which would not grow pretty well singly, provided the plant be -allowed from the first to accommodate its figure to the situation. - -Mr Monteath’s system of pruning severely while {150} the trees are -young, we think very prejudicial; and his restricting pruning to trees -under 15 or 20 feet in height, equally erroneous. About 15 years ago, -we selected a number of young trees several years planted, and low -and bushy, in an open situation. We treated one half of these in a -manner similar to what our author inculcates, pruning away most of -the lower branches, and also any irregular top ones: and the other -portion, though very bushy, we left to nature’s own discretion, merely -correcting several which threw up more than one leader. The result -has been, that those much pruned up have required constant attention -to the top and repeated pruning, they continuing to break forth into -irregular branches and numerous leaders, and thence have sustained -considerable loss of growth; while those let alone, after hanging -several years in bush fashion, of their own accord have thrown up fine -leaders, which now form beautiful, upright stems, with sufficiency of -regular lateral branches or feeders, requiring little or no attention; -while the original bush at the ground, from the size and overshadowing -of the superior tree, appears now so diminutive as to be unworthy of -notice. We do not mean to inculcate that pruning is superfluous; on the -contrary, when judiciously executed, under regulation of the purpose -for which the {151} particular kind of timber may be required, it is -highly useful: but the cutting off and diminishing the number of lower -feeders, thence deterring the growth of the tree, and encouraging the -superior feeders to push up as leaders; or to increase in size so as to -render their removal, should it be necessary, dangerous to the health -of the tree, and the upper part of the stem useless from large knots -(a practice which in nine cases out of ten is followed), cannot be -sufficiently reprobated. _In pruning, every means should be taken to -increase the number of feeders_, in order that none of them may become -too large; and no healthy regular feeder should be lopped off till the -tree has reached the required height of stem, and a sufficient top -above this for the purpose of growth; at which time the feeders upon -the stem, as far up as this necessary height, may be removed[36]. - -Mr Monteath states that Scots fir should not be thinned to greater -distance than 20 feet apart, and larch 15 feet. This shews very little -consideration: the distance apart necessary for these kinds of timber, -and of all other kinds, must be relative to the soil, situation and -climate, and the intentions of the owner, whether he means to bring -them soon to {152} market, or carry them forward to great timber. -When fir trees are intended to be early cut down, or when disease in -larch from unfitness of soil may be apprehended, as it is thence of -small consequence though their future ability to become great timber -be destroyed by closeness, the plants should be retained pretty near -each other from the first, that the timber may be tall, straight, and -clean. On the other hand, when the soil is suitable and great timber -intended, early attention to thinning and great openness from the -first is absolutely necessary, as they (the firs), different from -other trees, can never repair the loss of their lower branches by -throwing out new ones from the naked stem; and double the distance -stated by Mr Monteath at least for larch, which, instead of less, needs -more space than Scots fir, will be required. We believe the decay of -Scots fir, occurring so generally at about 40 years of age, although -also dependent on inferior variety and kiln-drying of cones, arises -principally from want of timely thinning; that is, that the infirm -variety of Scots fir in common use, when supported by numerous feeders, -and not weakened by being drawn up into a tall slender stem, will often -have hardihood to continue growing, and acquire considerable size in -our cold, wet, moorish tills, or even in our moorish {153} sandy -flats. Many casualties will, however, occur among resinous trees[37], -especially in unsuitable soil, even when the plants rise from the seed -naturally sown, and have sufficient room for lateral expansion. The -same cause, viz. closeness or want of thinning, induces early maturity, -old age and decay in larch, although it does not seem to have any -influence, either as inducement to, or prevention of, the rot. We have -heard men,—even men reasonable on other subjects—speak of allowing a -pine wood to thin itself: as well might a farmer speak of allowing his -turnip field to thin itself. When woods are planted of various kinds -of timber, the stronger, larger growing kinds will sometimes acquire -room by overwhelming the smaller: but when the forest is of one kind -of tree, and too close, all suffer nearly alike, and follow each other -fast in decay, as their various strength of constitution gives way; -unless, from some negligence or defect in planting, a portion of the -plants have come away quickly, and the others hung back sickly for -several years, so that {154} the former might master the latter: -or when some strong growing variety overtops its congeners. In the -natural forest of America, when a clearance by any means is effected, -the young seedlings, generally all of one kind, spring up so numerous, -that, choaking each other, they all die together in a few years. This -close springing up and dying is sometimes repeated several times over; -different kinds of trees rising in succession, till the seeds in the -soil be so reduced as to throw up plants so far asunder as to afford -better opportunity for the larger growing varieties to develope their -strength; and, overpowering the less, thus acquire spread of branches -commensurate to the height, and thence strength of constitution -sufficient to bear them forward to large trees. - -Mr Monteath, apparently to encourage the destruction of young oak, and -keep his merciless hatchet agoing, asserts that “oak trees, at the age -of 24 or not exceeding 30 years, have as thick a rind or fleshy part -of bark, as when they arrive at 50.” If by this he means to say, that -the useful part of the oak bark of the stem of a tree at 50 years old -is no thicker than that of one of 30, we say he is wrong, widely wrong. -A thriving oak tree of 100 years will still continue to increase the -thickness of the valuable part of the bark on the stem, although part -of the {155} outer layers or cuticle may lose vitality, and become -_corky_. We have taken down a luxuriant growing oak, exceeding three -feet in diameter, the living bark of whose stem was about two inches -in thickness, resembling thick plank, and which was considered by the -tanners much stronger in quality than bark of younger growth. Has Mr -Monteath seen any bark resembling this on 24 years old sproutings? If, -by the above quotation, our author means to say, that the valuable -part of the bark on the branches of a tree 30 years old, is equal in -thickness to that on the same sized branches of a tree at 50, we say he -errs still; that is, provided the older tree be in a healthy thriving -condition, and growing equally open and exposed as the younger. Trees, -as they increase in years, increase also in the thickness of the living -bark, from the root upwards to the smallest twig, provided they have -not begun to get dry and sickly from over maturity. When this period -arrives, the living part of the bark upon the stem and larger branches -becomes very thin, with a great proportion of dead corky substance; -although, on the twigs and smaller branches, it still continues to -thicken. The age at which the external part of the bark begins to lose -vitality, is considerably dependant upon luxuriance of growth, climate, -and exposure; and the {156} period when this loss proceeds faster than -the annual increase within, is altogether dependent on the vigour of -the tree, not on the age, and never takes place till the timber is ripe -for the dock-yard. - -We would warn the readers of Mr Monteath’s volume, that his -calculations and statements regarding the worth of coppice and timber -generally, seem more suited to flatter the owner’s wishes than to be -useful to him as a merchant; or to be adjusted to the value of money -during the late war—not to the present value. We also do not very well -comprehend his re-establishment or resuscitation of life in dead trees. -We observe several other slight errors, such as the duration of his -paling,—and the affirmation that the sap-wood will not extend so as to -cover over the section of a pruned branch which contains any red or -matured wood. Most readers will be able to detect such errors as these. - -In taking leave of Mr Monteath’s volume, we would offer our -acknowledgment for the attention he has bestowed on the subject of the -seasoning of timber, by steaming with extract of wood (pyroligneous -acid) and by scorching, as prevention of dry rot. The greatest -objection we see to his plan is, that all timber dried quickly is -liable to crack and split, and loses a considerable portion of its -{157} toughness and elasticity; at least, timber when dried slowly is -harder and stronger than when dried quickly, the dryness in both cases -being carried to the same extent. The comparative strength of timber -scorched and timber not scorched, after both are soaked in water, as -in the lower timbers and plank of vessels, should be subjected to -experiment. - -Our author’s directions (although the practice is also not new) to -season larch by peeling off the bark one or more years previous to -cutting, in order to prevent it from warping or twisting in framed -housework; and his hints recommending stripping off the bark from -most kinds of timber a season previous to cutting, are also deserving -of notice. We greatly wonder that something efficacious has not been -done in regard to dry rot by our Navy Board, and consider the subject -of such importance, that we think a rot-prevention officer or wood -physician should be appointed to each war vessel from the time her -first timber is laid down, to be made in some shape accountable if -rot to any extent should ever occur; and that this officer should be -regularly bred to his profession at an institution established for the -study of this branch of science at the King’s largest building yard. -Perhaps it might be as well to endow several professors’ chairs at the -universities to follow {158} out and lecture on this science, as being -of far more importance than many which are already endowed. We think -that steeping in fresh water pits for several years, till a kind of -acetous fermentation take place in the timber, or till it become of a -blue colour; or in tan-pits; or for a shorter period in strong brine -pits; or even salting the timber like herrings, after it is blocked -out; or forcing pyroligneous acid, or composition of chlorine, or -other solution, antiseptic or obnoxious to life, into the pores of the -timber when dry, by pressure; or perhaps by charring the timbers after -they are cleaned down on the stocks ready for the plank, by playing on -them a jet of flame from a flexible gas pipe,—might, some of them, be -found preventive of the rot, and at same time not to impair any of the -valuable qualities of the timber. - -We are a little shy in committing ourselves, lest we should be -impressed as a dry-rot physician or professor; but if the following -plan for preservation of vessels when unemployed has not already been -tried, we recommend it to the notice of our Navy Board. - -Let every part of the vessel be cleared out, and every port-hole or -external opening be made as air-tight as possible. - -Let a quantity of recent-burned limestone {159} (lime-shells) be -spread thin over every inside deck or floor, and over the whole bottom -and sides of the vessel, and every door or hatch in the main-deck be -immediately closed down air-tight. A number of rods or shreds of timber -would require to be nailed slightly to the inside skin of the ship -where the slope is considerable, in order that the lime-shells may rest -and not roll down. - -As soon as it is found that the lime-shells are completely -slaked—become hydrate of lime—let it be sold to the farmer or -house-builder, or be used in any government erection going forward at -the time; and let another quantity be laid in. We would consider a -sloop of 80 tons load of lime, value, prime cost and freight, about -L.70, would suffice for covering the internal surface of a seventy-four -gun ship. When slaked to powder, the lime might be disposed of at -little loss. It is impossible, without trial, to say how often the -lime would require renewal, but we think twice or thrice a-year would -suffice to preserve the vessel dry and free of any corruption; perhaps -even once might be found effectual. Suppose that the lime was renewed -every four months, and that when slaked it only sold at two-thirds of -the whole cost, the preservation of a line-of-battle ship would be -nearly as follows. The price of the lime {160} and work is correct, -according to the rates in most of the harbours of Scotland. - - A quantity of rods or shreds of timber, about three inches - in diameter, for nailing on the sloping sides of the vessel, - material and labour, L.20 0 0 - - Eighty tons lime-shells = 560 bolls, at 1s. 7d. - per boll, prime cost, 44 6 8 - - Freight of 560 bolls, at 1s. 28 0 0 - The slaked lime is supposed to sell at 2-3ds - of the cost, thence the whole loss on a year - would equal the value of one cargo. - - Carrying three lime cargoes of shells aboard, - and spreading them, 30 0 0 - We allow here for the greater distance of - carriage, and spreading out of the cargo, - nearly thrice the sum requisite to remove - lime-shells from a vessel into a cart. - - Removing the slaked lime of three cargoes, 30 0 0 - ――――――――――― - Cost first year, L.152 6 8 - Deduct rods, 20 0 0 - ――――――――――― - Cost, second, and each following year, L.132 6 8 - -The complete efficacy of lime-shells in preventing dry-rot is already -proved—the coasting small craft frequently employed in the carriage -of lime-shells not being liable to it. All that requires to be -ascertained, is the minimum quantity which will effect it; and if -the expense of this quantity will greatly exceed the average loss by -dry-rot in our unemployed {161} shipping. If the quantity necessary be -not greater than what we have supposed—even Mr Hume himself would not -consider the expense extravagant—the preservation of a line-of-battle -ship not exceeding that of one of our numerous army _captains_ while -lying _in ordinary_. - -Lime is preventive of dry-rot in several ways,—when uncombined as an -antiseptic, simply by drying, from its attraction for water; by its -causticity, which remains for a number of months after it is slaked, -destroying organic life; and by its absorbing putrescent gases. It is -not easy, without trial, to form a correct estimate of the quantity of -moisture which would enter through the inside planking of a man-of-war; -but were the bottom of the vessel in good condition, the pumps attended -to, and external air excluded, we should consider that the moisture -would not greatly exceed 60 tons of water yearly, which would nearly -be required to convert 240 tons of lime-shells into dry hydrate of -lime. No very great injury or inconvenience would be produced by the -opening of the seams of the ceiling (the inside skin), or of the inner -decks or floors, or by the warping of the plank, resulting from the -contraction of the timber by the dryness; but the caulking of the main -deck would require to be looked to. {162} No danger from fire need be -apprehended, from the sudden slaking of a thin layer of shells, even -though a leak in the main deck should occur. The thickness beyond which -shells could not be suddenly slaked upon dry boards without danger of -fire, might be tried. - -It is necessary to mention, that, though lime-shells, or dry hydrate of -lime, when timber is so dry as to be liable to corruption by insects -or by dry rot, is, by destroying life and increasing the dryness, -preventive of this corruption; yet lime, in contact with timber for -a considerable time in very moist air, from its great attraction to -water, draws so much moisture from the air as to become wet mortar or -pulp, which, moistening the timber, promotes its decay by the moist -rot. - - -{163} II.—NICOL’S PLANTER’S CALENDAR. - -This volume, which ought to have been named Sang’s Nurseryman’s -Calendar, is a work of very considerable merit and usefulness, where -the craft of the common nurseryman is plainly and judiciously taught. -The editor, Mr Sang, admits that he was very little indebted to the -notes of his friend (the late Mr Nicol) for the matter of the volume; -and the work itself bears evidence of this, being principally devoted -to the operations of the nursery, the sowing and planting of hard-wood -trees, which are described with a judgment and accuracy attainable -only by long experience in that line, to which we understand Mr Sang -belongs. Every person engaged with the sowing, planting, or rearing of -timber, if he be not too wise or too old to learn, should forthwith -procure this volume. - -Mr Sang recommends sowing of forests in preference to planting, which -many before him have done, we believe, more from conjecture that -nature’s own process must be superior to any method of art, than from -any experience of the fact or accurate {164} knowledge of—at least -without giving sufficient explanation of, any cause rendering the -tree of more puny growth in consequence of being transplanted. In -the case of simple herbaceous vegetables, we find, on the contrary, -that transplanting increases the size, protracts the period of full -development, and retards the decay, the individual suffering no lasting -injury from root fracture, or that injury being more than compensated -by change to a new and more recently wrought soil; or even the root -fracture, instead of being of prejudice to the growth, by throwing the -energy of the plant in this direction to repair the injury, not only -may do so, but delaying the superior process towards reproduction[38], -may also give a {165} new vigour to the soft fibrous rootlets, -and greater extension than they otherwise would have attained. -But in regard to some kinds of compound plants of perennial stem, -transplanting, especially when the plant has attained some size, by -fracture, throws the main wide diverging roots into numerous rootlets -and slender matted fibres, none of which has individual strength to -extend as a leader far beyond the shade of the spreading top, thence -forage in a drier, more exhausted soil, and, from consequent want of -supply of moisture, the sap of the tree stagnates into flower, or -merely leaf-buds, instead of flowing out into new wood. The fibrous -softer rooting vegetables sustain no lasting injury from root-fracture -and transplanting; but the harder, more woody, larger growing roots, -losing their leader, never entirely recover their original power of -extention. Yet we think that one or two year old plants, taken from -the seed-bed, would suffer little or no injury from removal, as the -_tap-root_, which is ultimately of no consequence, never constituting -a leader, but eventually {166} disappearing, is the only part which -suffers fracture in the woody state; and the side shoots, which become -the grand root leaders, are in the fibrous state, which easily repairs -small injury. These observations refer only to certain kinds of timber -trees. The willows, poplars, and lindens, succeed better when their -roots are cropped in near the bulb when removed. We planted a piece of -trenched ground, partly with poplar plants, with good roots, from a -nursery, and partly with poplar loppings, about the same size as the -plants, stuck into the ground: the loppings grew more luxuriantly than -the nursery plants. The same occurs with willows—with this difference, -that willow-loppings do better with the top entirely cropped, without -any twigs or external buds; the poplar only pruned a little, with -a terminal bud left on every twig, especially on the top shoot. -The superiority of the growth of those without roots, results from -their having fewer buds and twigs to exhaust the juices before the -formation of new fibrils to draw from the ground, these few buds thence -continuing to push more strongly, and from the roots growing more -vigorously when sprung anew, than when they are a continuation of the -wounded deranged old ones. - -New rootlets spring out much sooner and more {167} boldly from the -thick vigorous green stem bark, than from the delicate tender root -bark, and also more vigorously from the bark of the bulb than from -the bark of the remote roots, of those soft-wooded trees; indeed, it -appears to be owing alone to the great strength of the vitality of the -bark of the stem, that those kinds are so capable of continuation by -cuttings. The roots have nearly the same delicacy of those of other -kinds of trees, and show no particular readiness to throw up sprouts -when bared. - -Mr Sang, in furtherance of his advocated scheme of raising forests -_in situ_ from the seed, sensible of the general impracticability of -fallowing or working the ground all over previous to sowing, gives -directions for pitting or stirring the earth the previous spring and -summer, in spots about fourteen inches square, and from six to nine -feet separate, burying the turf under the soil, in order that it may be -rotted, and a fine friable mould obtained for reception of the seeds to -be sown the following spring; several seeds are then deposited in each -spot, equidistant; these require to be hand-weeded the first season, -and the resulting plants hoed around for several successive years, till -they have mastered the weeds, after which they are all plucked out but -one (the most promising) in each spot. This is all very well, {168} if -we could have patience and assiduity to proceed thus systematically; -and if the mice, birds, and other enemies, would “let them be;” but -although this plan, when a braird is obtained, and the tufts cleaned, -and seasonably thinned, is probably the best, yet landlords, in general -incapable of exertion, but under the excitement of a fresh thought, are -so infirm of purpose; tenure of life and property are so precarious; -and trusted servants, especially when the procedure has originated -with another, are so liable to be negligent, that our amateurs ought -to gratify their passion for improvement while it lasts, and proceed -at once by purchase of plants, and pitting or slitting, which procures -them a forest immediately palpable to view. There is no doubt, however, -that wooing the soil to kindliness, rearing the infant plant from the -germ, and superintending _a principio_ the entire beautiful process of -vegetable development, will afford a deeper charm to a patient lover -of nature; and that the continued solicitude and attentions required -during this process acting upon man’s parental instinct, will excite an -interest hardly to be felt towards a child of adoption. - -A nursery gives such facility to the rearing of the plants, that, -taking into account the greater chance of failure by sowing _in situ_ -than by planting, the {169} latter practice will be executed for one -half the expense of the former. Supposing that the progress, after -twenty years’ occupancy of the ground, be equal in both cases,—at -which period, however, we think the transplanted would still have -the advantage,—it would require a considerable ultimate superior -progress in those sown, to outbalance the accumulating value of the -extra expense. It is probable a combination of both practices might be -advantageously followed—sowing the soils and situations most suitable, -and transplanting the thinnings of these into the more exposed -unpropitious places[39]. The matter, however, must, after all, be left -to the test of experiment in a variety of soils and situations. - -This volume, being principally a monthly detail of a nursery practice, -which has supported the test of competition, has, on this account, a -very different credit and value from much that has been published of -landlords’ practice, theorists’ conjectures, or adventurers’ quackery. -The burthen of our author’s song, which, from the nature of the work, -falls to be repeated at several of the calendary periods, and which -perhaps cannot be too often repeated, is nearly as follows. - -Procure good seed of the best varieties from large healthy trees, -and preserve these in husk in dry {170} well-aired places till -sowing; with the exception of ash keys, haws, holly-berries, roans, -and yew-berries, which require to be put in the rot-heap as soon as -gathered. The rot-heap consists of seed mixed with sandy earth formed -into a layer not exceeding ten inches in thickness; this is turned -several times before midwinter, when it is covered with a layer of -earth about seven inches deep, to exclude the frost. After remaining -in this heap one year—till September, or the following February, these -seeds are sown out. - -Sow seeds of trees during the last half of February, March, or April, -on beds of high manured easy soil, in very fine tilth, and clear of -weeds, such as follows hoed green crop, in distance and depth in -proportion to the size of the seed, or rather of the annual stem or -braird. To deposit the seed at an equable depth, the upper friable -mould is pushed (cuffed) off the bed to the interstices between by -the reversed head of a rake, as deep as necessary; the seed is then -deposited by the hand, and rolled over by a very light roller to fix -it, that it may not suffer derangement by the return of the earth which -is then evenly _cuffed_ back from the sides, and no harrowing or raking -given. - -Watch most narrowly, and ward off or destroy all {171} kinds of -vermin, mice, snails, birds, till the time when the rising braird has -disencumbered itself of the husk of the seed thrown up by the ascending -stem, and nip out every weed as soon as discernible by the naked eye. -In order to diminish the toil of watching, the different kinds should -be sown as near the same time as their nature renders prudent, and the -seed-beds be situated as near each other as circumstances will admit. - -At the end of the first or second season, according to size and -closeness of plants, remove the seedlings from the bed to nursery rows, -at any time when the leaf is off, and the ground sufficiently dry -not to poach; before April for deciduous trees, and during April for -evergreens, placing them in rather open order, either by dibbling or -laying, according to the nature of the root, firming the plants well in -the ground; in case of dibbling, taking good heed to leave no vacuum of -hole under the root, and to work the tool so as to compress the earth -more below than above. - -Keep the soil loose and friable on the surface, and clear of weeds -between the transplanted rows by repeated seasonable hoeings, and let -the plants rise with a single leader. - -After the plants have stood one or two years in {172} the nursery-row, -remove them to their ultimate destination with as little fracture or -exposure of root as possible,—the larger rooted by pitting, and the -smaller by slitting, or as the nature of the soil may require; paying -most particular attention to plant the dry ground early after the leaf -has dropped, and the moister and more adhesive soils in succession, as -they become so dry in spring as not to adhere to the tools in working, -or poach in treading the plant firm in; removing the evergreens -earlier, or later, in April, according to the dryness or moistness of -the ground; dipping the roots in a clay-puddle, and endeavouring to -seize the opportunity of planting before a shower, should the spring be -far advanced and dry, especially in the more arid situations. - -Stout healthy seedlings, one or two years old, may be at once removed -from the seed-bed to their place in the forest, and will often succeed -as well as when nursed in rows, as above.———We have preferred the -pick of the seedlings to the common run of the transplanted, as being -probably stronger growing varieties. - -In cases where it is practicable, work over the new plantations for -several years with crops of potatoes, turnips, lettuce, &c., manuring -the ground, if {173} possible; and then sow out with perennial -rye-grass and white clover, if the trees are not become a close cover, -making economical use of the grass as early in the season as it can be -mowed with a short scythe. - -For seeds that require to lie a season in the rot-heap, such as ash -keys, haws, &c. September-sowing is preferable to deferring it to the -following spring, as they are liable to chip in the heap. If not sown -in September, they must be got in as soon in February as possible. - -Acorns, Spanish and Horse Chestnuts, are best sown when they drop from -the tree; but when the seed is not procured till spring, the sowing -ought not to be deferred beyond February and March. The best soil is a -deep rich loam. - -Elm-seed may be sown in June, when it is new from the tree, or -carefully dried and kept over season till next spring; one-half may -then be sown in March, and the other in April, as the March-sown is -sometimes injured by late frosts. The utmost care is required to -prevent this seed from heating when newly gathered. - -Beech braird is also liable to be cut off by spring frost; the seed -should therefore be sown partly in March and partly in April, to -diminish the chance {174} of entire failure. The soil requires to be -rich, and is benefited by a dressing of well-made manure previous to -sowing. - -Sycamore Plane braird also suffers by late frost, and for greater -security ought also to be sown partly in March and partly in April. -Planes require dry, poor, rather exposed sandy soil, for seed-bed; as, -in rich damp soil, the top of the annual shoot does not ripen: the seed -ought to be thinly sown. - -Birch and Alder seeds require to be sown in March, or beginning of -April, on very fine, rich, easy mould, giving them very slight cover, -especially the birch. - -The Coniferæ, Scots Fir, Spruce, Silver Fir, &c. should be sown in -April, on very rich easy soil. The greatest care is required to deposit -these different seeds at proper regular depth, from an inch to the -fourth of an inch, in proportion to the size of the seed. - -Larch should also be sown in April; it succeeds best on the clean -mellow ground which has produced a crop of seedling Scots fir. It is -worthy of remark, that the larch seedlings and row-plants are liable to -die under a putrescent disease, when much recent manure is employed.—We -remark this accordance with its tendency to putrid disease in after -life. {175} - -Acorns, Chestnuts, and other large seeds, may be economically sown -in drill: where the soil contains much annual weed seed, this admits -of expeditious cleaning by the hoe. Ground which has borne a crop of -potatoes the preceding season, is unfit for seed-beds, as the tubers -and seed of the potato give much trouble. - -These are the chief of Mr Sang’s directions on raising timber-plants. -With the exception of kiln-drying of cones, and being rather too -prodigal of manure to the seed-beds (perhaps necessary in a sale -nursery), we see nothing in the volume to censure.—A premium should be -offered for a convenient plan of distributing fir-seed suitably in the -seed-bed, without the aid of artificial drying. - -It is perhaps unnecessary to state, that, in the culture of trees, -there are thousands of incidental circumstances to which general -directions will not apply, and which demand a discriminating judgment -in the operator: this acts as a school to the mental acumen; and there -is no class of operative men, which has the faculties of attention, -activity, discrimination, and judgment, more developed, than nurserymen -and gardeners,—whose diversified labours, requiring, at the same time, -constant mental and corporeal exertion, keep up a proper balance of the -human powers. {176} - -We leave to the judgment of the operator to proportion the thickness -of sowing of the different kinds of seed to the expected size of stem -and leaf, under regulation of soil, season, and quality of seed; and -to determine whether the plants may be continued more than one season -in the seed-bed, or be entirely or partly drawn the first, which -must depend on their luxuriance and closeness; also to notice if all -the seeds have vegetated the first season, or if many of them still -be inert; in the latter case, the seedlings must be picked out; to -facilitate which, the earth may be gently raised by a three-pronged -fork, with as little superficial disturbance as possible. - -In nurseries, the great and general error is having the plants too -close together, particularly in the row. Every nursery-row plant should -be of a regular cone figure, with numerous side-branches down near to -the root, and gradually widening in the cone downwards. These would, -indeed, occupy more space of package, and probably not please the -ignorant purchaser, who generally prefers a clean, tall body; but they -would support the hardships of removal to the moor, and be stately -trees; when the comely, straight, slender plants would either have died -altogether, or have become miserable, unsightly skeletons, or stunted -bushes. {177} - -In cases where plants are required of considerable size, for hedge-rows -or park-standards, it is matter of doubt, how far frequent removals in -nursery, or cutting of roots, is profitable. This occasions fibrous -matted roots, which tend much to the success of the ultimate removal, -and to the growth of the plant for several years after; but, by -checking the disposition the roots naturally have to extend by several -wide-diverging leaders, probably unfit the plant for becoming a large -tree. - -Mr Sang remarks that sycamore planes and birch should not be pruned in -the latter part of the winter, as they bleed greatly at that season: we -have often noticed this as early as midwinter, which also occurs to the -maple tribe. Our author introduces the mountain-ash as a forest tree, a -rank it by no means merits, at least for value as a timber tree. When -exceeding six inches in diameter, it is generally rotted in the heart, -and is only valuable as a copse for affording pliant, tough rods; or -twigs, as a charm or fetiche against witchcraft! It is, however, one of -our most beautiful trees. - -Mr Sang gives directions for kiln-drying fir cones previous to -thrashing out, or extracting the seeds. We have before adverted to -this, and would {178} particularly reprehend the practice. It is -difficult to determine how far early fruitfulness and consequent -infirmity of constitution, diminutiveness of size at maturity, and -early decay, may originate from kiln-drying the cones; but, from the -same process of drying in a less degree having been ascertained to -induce early seed-bearing in the case of other seeds, we may infer -almost to certainty, that the coniferæ of this country, not naturally -planted, are very materially injured by this practice. - -It is of small consequence, in reference to the tree itself, at what -season deciduous trees are planted, provided they be naked of leaf, -and the ground not too dry, as they are not liable to lose much -by desiccation or evaporation by the bark alone, before the roots -strike anew in spring, and draw freely from the soil; and the skin of -the bulb, although the small rootlets be broken, sucks up moisture -from the damp soil to repair the loss by superior evaporation: but -evergreens—firs, hollies, laurels, yews, sometimes suffer by removal at -a time when the roots do not immediately strike, as in winter, owing -to the torpor from cold. We have often seen their juices exhausted, -and their leaves entirely withered, by a continuation of dry northerly -winds, the manifest cause of which {179} was the great superficial -exposure of the leaves evaporating faster than the fractured torpid -roots afforded supply. Therefore, although winter planting seldom -fails, yet it is perhaps better to seize the exact time in spring, -immediately before the roots commence to strike anew, before there is -any new top-growth, and while the soil and air remain somewhat moist -and cold, that the evaporation may not be too great. In this climate, -April is a good season for removing evergreens to the field, although, -to throw the work from the busy season, it is often practised in the -nursery in September, when their annual growths are completed, and -while there is yet warmth to enable the roots to strike anew; this, -however, is only advisable where the soil for their reception is in -the most favourable state, friable, and inclining to moist, or when -there is great indication of rain, and the air near the dew point. Of -course they require to be planted as soon as extracted. In winter or -spring, when it happens that evergreens must lie in the _shough_, the -most protected situation, where the air is moist and still, ought to -be chosen, and the earth carefully closed to their roots, which is -best done by watering, if rain be not expected; the stems and branches -should also lie as close to the ground as possible. {180} - -There is appended to this valuable Planter’s Calendar a treatise on the -Formation and Management of Osier Plantations. As this will not bear -compression well, we refer our reader to the volume itself. - - -{181} III. BILLINGTON ON PLANTING. - -We have perused Billington’s account of the management of the Royal -Forests with much profit; it affords us an excellent series of -experiments, shewing how much conduct and integrity may exist in -Government establishments, even although the strictest watch be _not_ -kept over their motions by the nation itself. Words are awanting to -express our admiration of every thing connected with the management of -our misnamed Royal Wastes. We scarcely could have hoped to find such -pervading judgment and skill of calling, as have been displayed by the -Commissioners, and Surveyors General and Particular; but it is true, -the noble salaries attached to these situations must induce men of -the very first ability and knowledge of the subject, to accept of the -office. - -Our author, Mr Billington, proceeds with great naiveté to relate how -they sowed and resowed acorns—how they planted and replanted trees, -persevering even to the fifth time, sometimes covering the roots, and -sometimes not, “but all would not avail,” nothing would do; the seeds -did not vegetate, and the {182} plants refused to grow, excepting in -some rare spots, and a few general stragglers. Then how the natural -richness of the soil threw up such a flush of vegetation—of grass, -and herbs, and shrubs, that most of these plants were buried under -this luxuriance; and how the mice and the emmets, and other wayfarers, -hearing, by the _bruit_ of fame, of the wise men who had the governing -of Dean, assembled from the uttermost ends of the island, expecting -a millennium in the forest, and ate up almost every plant which had -survived the smothering. Now, this is well; we rejoice over the natural -justice of the native and legitimate inhabitants of the Royal Domain, -the weeds mastering the invaders the plants, who, year after year, to -the amount of many millions, made hostile entrance into the forest. We -only deplore the cruel doom of the mice, on whose heads a price was -laid, and of the emmets, who, acting as allies of the native powers, -merited a better fate than indiscriminate slaughter. - -May we hope that our Government will no longer persist in unprofitable -endeavours to turn cultivator, or to raise its own supply? We laugh at -the Pasha of Egypt becoming cotton-planter and merchant himself, in a -country where the exertions of a man enlightened beyond his subjects, -who has influence {183} to introduce intelligent cultivators, -possessing the knowledge of more favoured nations, may be necessary -to teach and stimulate the ignorant Copt to raise a new production: -And here, where discovery in every branch of knowledge almost exceeds -the progressive—here, where so many public and government _fixtures_ -stand out, as if left on purpose to indicate the recent march of -mind, contrasting so strongly with private and individual attainment -in science and art,—with every thing the reverse of what affects the -Egyptian’s conduct; or, at least, with no excuse beyond affording -a cover for a wasteful expenditure of the public money;—will our -Government continue the system, heedless of reason or ridicule? or -will they not at once end these practices, and immediately commence -sales of every acre of ground to which the Crown has claim, excepting -what is necessary for the use of royalty, abolishing Woods and Forest -Generals, Rangers—every one who has taken rank under Jacques’ Greek, -or the devil’s own invocation, and pay off a part of the debt which is -crushing the energies of the first of nations? - -Yet it is not of individuals that we complain; perhaps nobody -could have had a stronger _desire_ to do his duty, than the late -Surveyor-General. It is the system that is naught; where, to the lowest -{184} labourer, none have individual interest in the success of their -work; and where the efforts of the really honest, intelligent, and -industrious are, by directions and trammels, rendered unavailing; or -even through misrepresentation by _those_ of a contrary character, (as -would seem in the case of Mr Billington), are the cause of dismissal. - -We can only predicate of the future from the past. In spite of all -our Parliamentary acts respecting these forests, and the clamour that -for ages has been made about them, they, with little exception, have -existed only as cover for sinecure expenditure, or for display of tyro -ignorance and incapacity, and subject for pillage, thieving, and frauds -of every description[40]; (_vide_ Parliamentary Reports). We could -easily—by a very simple incantation, requiring a rod neither tipped -with silver nor with gold, but merely a plain cane or sword—bring forth -a sufficient quantity of large growing oaks to meet any emergency. -Our charm would be to give the title of Prince to the Duke who should -possess, and have at the command of Government at a fair price, a -certain {185} number of oaks above a certain size, and a step of -elevation to every titled person, and the title of Baronet to every -private gentleman, who should possess a given number, diminishing the -number requisite to give a step as the title became lower. We should -conceive this law would not render nobility of less estimation. Perhaps -the clause might be added, that one tree raised on waste ground should -count two. - -As a treatise on the rearing, or rather prevention of the rearing, -of young planting, Mr Billington’s small volume possesses some real -merit; and simplicity and useful and sagacious remark are so blended -together, as to afford to the reader at once amusement and information. -We are something at a loss to account for this incongruity. Has the -seclusion of a forest life given a cast of the _naturel_ to his mental -product; or has Jaques of Arden really been in Dean with his celebrated -invocation? - -Mr Billington’s directions on pruning and training are generally -good; but he distances common sense when on his hobby of shortening -of side branches, in recommending to extend this practice to pines. -His breeding as a gardener, and consequent taste for espalier and -wall-training, where every shoot must be under especial direction, seem -to have {186} unfitted his mind to expand to the comprehension of -nature’s own process of action, and disqualified him from walking hand -in hand with her. We also consider that no good, but rather evil, would -result from continued cutting in, and lopping off the points of the -branches of all kinds of trees, excepting when the plants were stunted, -or much covered with flower-buds. Even a very slight clipping greatly -retards the growth of hedges; and the labour and attention requisite -would be very great: besides, the poor things, the trees, trimmed to -the Billingtonian standard, would, amongst the unrestrained beauties -of the forest, be ready to sink into the earth for very shame of their -_formal deformity_. He errs, too, in recommending not to plant sycamore -plane, as being of little value while young. We have sold young planes, -six or seven inches in diameter, at a higher price per foot than large -oak. They will generally find a good market wherever machinery abounds, -and will probably become every year in greater request. - -Mr Billington is particularly solicitous to render his instructions -as plain as possible, in describing the mode of pruning young oaks -in formation of knee timber, as he confesses to bring it down to the -comprehension of gentlemen; but he is not very happy in his figures -of oak trees trained to this use, from {187} want of acquaintance -with the cutting out of naval crooks. He remarks that “larches are -more liable to die in wet ground by their roots being soaked in water -during winter, than oak and some other kinds;” but ground that is at -all pervious to water, ought not to be planted till it be drained in -such a manner that water will soon disappear from shallow holes; and -where, from the plastic closeness of the clay, draining is not quite -effectual, the planting should take place as late in the spring as the -breaking of the buds will permit; and principally by slitting, which, -by not breaking the natural coherence or turfiness of the soil, affords -less opening for water to stagnate around the roots, and does not -occasion the soil to sink down into the mortary consistence consequent -to pitting; there is also less destruction of the vegetables growing -in the soil, hence less putrescent matter to taint the water that may -stagnate round the roots; pure water, or water in motion, not being -detrimental to the roots for a considerable time: also, when the -plants are put in late in spring, there is seldom long stagnation of -water that season, and by next winter the ground has become so firmed -around the roots as to allow very little space for water, and has -also acquired a certain granular arrangement akin to polarization or -crystallization, which {188} allows the water gradually to percolate; -it is also bored by the earth-worm, and other insects, and the plant -itself, after the roots have struck anew and the fractures healed, -possesses a vitality which better enables it to withstand the exclusion -of air from the roots, and chilling by the water the ensuing winter, -and either prevents absorption of the stagnant fluid, or counteracts -its putrid tendency. Planting succeeds best in soil of this description -when the ground has been under grass for some period, at least the -new planted tree, in this case, is less liable to the root-rot; and -trenching or digging previous to planting is of more utility, as the -turfiness prevents the clay from sinking down into impervious mortar, -and allows the water to percolate to the drains. - -Mr Billington is very earnest in recommending to drain well at first, -and to keep the drains (open drains) in repair; he also directs, where -the ground is very impervious and wet, to take large square sods, about -18 inches square and 9 inches thick, from the drains while digging in -early winter, and place one of these, the grassy side undermost, in -the site which each plant is to occupy. In the spring, by the time of -planting, the sod has become firmly fixed, and the two swards rotting -afford an excellent nourishment to the plant, which is inserted in -the {189} centre of the sod, with the roots as deep as the original -surface; the drains, being necessarily numerous, afford turf sufficient -for all the plants. This is good. He also gives sensible directions -to beat down, hoe, or cut away all weeds, shrubs, and grass, from the -young plants, and to remove all rough herbage and thickets of shrubs, -that form harbour for the short-tailed mouse, which is exceedingly -destructive, in the case both of planting and sowing; in the former, -by nibbling the bark from the stem, and biting off the twigs of the -young trees, (from which our author may have taken the hint of cutting -in, as mankind took that of pruning from the browsing of the ass), and -gnawing their roots immediately below the surface of the ground; and -in the latter, by devouring the seed in the ground, and cutting down -the seedling annual shoot. He also instructs to keep the tree to one -leader, shortening all straggling large branches; but his assertion, -that plants which had the tops of the straggling branches pinched off -in the first part of summer, grew much larger in consequence, looks -rather absurd; although we have known a part of a hedge, clipped a week -or two after the growth had commenced in spring, grow more luxuriantly -than the part which had been pruned in the same manner before the -growth had {190} commenced. This was owing to the check by the late -clipping, throwing the period of growth into warm moist July; what was -earlier clipped performed its growth in dry June, and was considerably -injured by the manna blight which the latter escaped[41]. The same -cause operates to induce late sown grain and wheat, which has been -thrown late by much injury of spring frost, to acquire a larger, more -luxuriant bulk, than that of earlier growth. - -It would appear to us that Mr Billington, from ignorance of the value -of larch, and of the soil proper for maturing it, has done more -injury to the parts of the royal forests where a growth of timber was -obtained, by cutting out the thriving larch, than will be compensated -by his pruning and training of the sickly stunted oak which remained, -as described by him, scarcely visible, when the larches were of size -for country use; but we forget; no blame can attach to him—his orders -were, that every thing should give place to oak. {191} - -In parting with our author, it is but just to state, that we consider -many may profit by a perusal of his pages: that notwithstanding the -simplicity to which we have alluded, there is often something sterling -in his remarks and reflections, the result of much experience, -resembling the original freshness of our writers before writing became -so much of a trade. In some places, indeed, his narrative is so -simply, naturally descriptive, and speaks so eloquently, of ignorance -of climate, season, soil, circumstance—of all the unknown dangers and -difficulties incident to _their_ new employment—and of the wonderful -contrivances and inventions hit upon to remedy them—that, when perusing -it, we could scarcely persuade ourselves we were not engaged with -Robinson Crusoe. - - -{192} IV.—FORSYTH ON FRUIT AND FOREST TREES. - -The _surgery of trees_, which this author has the great merit of -almost perfecting, is the only important matter in this volume. His -composition salve, on the merits of which he expatiates so much, and -for the discovery of which he received a premium from the collective -wisdom of the nation assembled in Parliament, is, however, a piece of -mere quackery; and all the virtue of his practice lies in the cutting -out of the dead and diseased parts of the tree, thus effecting for -vegetables by excision, what nature herself performs for animals by -suppuration, exfoliation, and absorption. - -Mr Forsyth’s surgery is of slight importance to timber trees in respect -of economy, as with them as with man, it is generally easier to raise -up anew than cure the diseased. Yet it is well that the rationale of -this practice be understood by foresters, more in regard to prevention -than cure; an occasion will however sometimes occur where a tree may -economically be benefited by surgical aid: and in cases where the {193} -Dryades acquire lasting attachment to particular objects, the science -is invaluable, as the object of their love may be thus continued -flourishing to the end of time, or as long as the inamorata chooses to -pay the surgeon. - -Mr Forsyth presents us with numerous models of knives, irons, and -gouges, suited to the operation of removing the dead parts of his -patients. Where the gangrene occurs in the outside, he hews and scrapes -away with these till every portion in which the vital principle is -extinct be detached, and the surface all regular and smooth, so -scooped out as to afford no hollow where water may rest. He then -gives a coating of his composition salve to all the space operated -on, wherever the cuticle of the bark has been broken, which prevents -the drought, rain or air, from injuring the bared parts till the bark -spread over it. In cases where the removal of all the dead part at once -would endanger the stability of the tree, he first removes it along -the borders of the decayed part all round, close to the sound bark, -of such a breadth as to give full room for the bark to spread over in -one season, and covers this with his pigment, annually repeating the -cutting out, and painting around the rim or edge of the new-formed -bark, till the whole of the dead part be cleared away. {194} Under -this treatment, the excavation is gradually filled up with the new -wood forming under the spreading bark, and the wound becomes cleanly -cicatrized. Mr Forsyth has effected complete renovation, where the -sound vital part consisted only of a narrow stripe of bark and alburnum -upon one side of the stem, and where two cart loads of the diseased -trunk had been scooped out. - -When the heart of the tree is decayed, he makes a section -longitudinally in the side of the tree, as far up and down as the rot -extends, and of sufficient width to admit the working out the diseased -part; and managed as above, the bark and wood gradually extend from -the two sides of the section into the vacuity, and fill it up entirely -with new sound timber. When the tree is of considerable diameter, the -opening formed in the side of the stem must be wide, nearly extending -to half the circumference, otherwise the sides of the section would -meet before the bark extended over all the inside. When the bark from -the two sides approaches to touch in the bottom of the hollow, he pares -off the cuticle from each side where they join, in order that they may -unite thoroughly. Should any of the roots be diseased, he removes the -earth, and pares away the corrupting parts; and if the top be stunted -or {195} sickly, he crops it at the joints where the smaller branches -separate, whence numerous fine strong shoots spring forth, whose new -vigour of vegetation, and absence of drain by seeding for several -years, generally renovate the whole plant, and occasion the filling up -of the wounds (should the trunk be under cure) to proceed rapidly. - -Need we mention, that it is only in the cases where the partial death -or decay has resulted from casualty, or something not connected with -the general system of the plant, or with the soil, or other external -circumstances (unless these can be changed), that renovation by -clearing away the decayed or sickly parts is attainable? Where the -plant is sinking from mere old age, a source of decay of which in -some kinds at least we have doubts, or from the soil being improper -or exhausted for the particular kind of plant by long occupancy, or -from any circumstance not admitting of remedy, the attempt to heal up -the wounds caused by cutting out the diseased parts, or to induce new -vigour by cropping the top, must be abortive, or only attended with -partial or temporary success. - -Our author, who is a practical man, apparently very little disposed -to throw away time upon inquiring into causes, does not attempt even -to guess at {196} the mode by which his composition performs the -wonders for which he gives it credit. It is impossible, by any salve, -to promote discharge from the bare alburnum, though cut into the -vital part, to form, or assist in the formation, of bark; and the -sum of the resulting advantages consists in preventing the vitality -from becoming extinct far inward from the section (as under the best -management to a certain extent it will become so), by an antiseptic -cover from the drought and moisture, heat and cold; in promoting the -spread of the juices from the edge of the bark over the bared part by -exclusion of drought, and by forming a defence against insects. We -have found a paste of pure clay, wrought up with some fibrous matter, -as chaff or short hay, an excellent cover for tree wounds, applied in -spring or early summer, when dry weather followed the application; but -in autumn or winter, and when moist weather followed, the clay, by -remaining wet, only served to induce corruption. We think this clay -paste (probably benefited by a powdering of charcoal on the inside) the -best application when applied in spring. We have seen a terminal cross -section, of about one inch diameter, of a long branch, covered quite -over in two months with bark when clayed; and a tree of three inches -in diameter, from {197} which a dog had torn off the bark from one -half of the circumference of the stem, entirely renew the lost bark -in one season, when immediately clayed over. Resins, oils, bitumen, -paints and composts without number, have been used with more or less -success, depending upon the period of the year, weather, kind of tree, -individual health, and other circumstances; but these salves should, as -in flesh-wound salves, be considered only as protections, or slightly -auxiliary to the restorative energy of nature, not as cures. - - -{198} V.—MR WITHERS. - -Having by chance glanced over a pamphlet by an Englishman, a Mr -Withers, we find there has been jousting between that gentleman and our -Scottish knights, backed by their squire the Edinburgh Reviewer, in -which the discomfiture of the knights has been wrought by simple hands. - -It seems Sir Henry Steuart, forgetful that his own bright fame, which -rivals that of the discoverers of steam-power and gas[42], though of -comparatively quick growth, will endure for ages; and led astray, -probably, by the foolish adage, “soon ripe, soon rotten,” had stated -unqualifiedly, that “fast grown timber will sooner decay, and is of -opener weaker texture than slow grown of the same kind;” and on these -false premises concluded, that all culture or application of manure to -further the growth of timber is improper—winding up with some patriotic -flourish about danger to our war navy, from Mr Withers {199} rendering -the British oak of such exceedingly rapid growth as to be soft and -perishable as mushrooms. Withers completely demolishes his literary -and scientific adversaries, but is, withal, so very imperfectly -acquainted with the subject—himself, and also his junto of experienced -correspondents, that we shall attempt a few lines in elucidation. - - * * * * * - -We shall first state our facts, accompanied with explanatory remarks. - -No. 1. An ash tree of about 18 inches diameter, and 65 years of age. -The first 35 years, the annual growths were of middle size, and the -timber weighty and tough; the following 15 years, very small, light, -porous, and free; the latter 15 of middle size, and of fair quality. -This tree had been growing till about 49 years of age in a grassy -avenue, of dry clay soil, and close by a deep ditch. About sixteen -years back, the ditch had been filled up, and the ground ploughed and -manured regularly till the tree was cut down. After 35 years’ growth, -the scorching roots of the ash had rendered the soil so dry, that the -tree had run entirely to reproduction: _Nearly all the nourishment from -the ground assimilated in the leaves being expended in forming seed, no -extension of the top had taken place, and_ {200} _thence no thickening -of the bole being necessary for support, no wood proper had been -deposited on the trunk save the annual rings of lineal tubes to convey -the sap, which constituted a brittle light wood, of very slight lateral -adhesion_[43]. After the ditch was filled up, and the surrounding -ground ploughed and manured, the increased supply of moisture and -nourishment had induced a considerable new extension of top (which was -quite visible in fine young healthy branches rising from a stunted -base), and consequent necessary thickening of stem by annual layers of -proper dense wood, along with the lineal annual tubes. - -No. 2. A beautiful most luxuriant growing oak, in one of the sweetest -sunny spots of the sweetest valley of our Highlands. This tree, -of nearly two hundred solid feet of timber, and 80 years of age, -was growing upon the bare shelf of a sound mica-schist rock. From -underneath this shelf, several feet down in front, a most exuberant -spring welled out, and the roots spread down over {201} the rock to -the mouth of the crystal spring, no doubt tracing inward the course -of the limpid waters into the rocky chambers of the Naiad. We had -much conjecture how this tree came to be growing on the bare shelf, -and finally concluded, that the nymph of the spring, while she sat -there gazing on her beauties, under the varying dimpling reflection -of the living waters, her rosy feet bathed by the glassy flood, had -been surprised by some rude Celt, and to effect escape from his rough -embrace, had been transformed by Diana into a tree. Yet whether of -natural or supernatural origin, it was by the people of the glen held -of miraculous virtue, and the sickly children were brought to be dipped -in the spring after being borne several times round the charm-tree. -When torn from its seat, the tree, though sound, and having a level -fall (we saw it fall), broke across about twenty feet up, where the -stem was about eight feet in circuit; _this was owing to the very -soft tender nature of the wood, which, although consisting of very -large annual growths, was, when sawn out, the most porous insufficient -Scots oak we have ever seen_. As this fact may be ascribed to the -supernatural,—the heart of the nymph beginning to soften towards the -Celt at the time Diana interfered, accounting well for {202} the soft -texture of the heart-wood of the tree, we shall not press it as a proof -on either side of the controversy. Perhaps sober reasoners may think -this all phantasy, and conclude, that the tree, from deficiency of -substantial earthy food, and subsisting principally on _slops_ (being -mainly nourished by drinking of the delicious well), would, like an -animal under similar circumstances, be of soft flabby consistency. - -The above fact is opposed to common opinion—a Highlander always -choosing his oaken staff from off a rock, as being most to depend upon; -yet perhaps this preference is owing to some association with the -hardness of the rock itself. - -No. 3. We found a sycamore plane (Acer pseudo-platanus) in the same -row with other sycamores, and about the same size, so exceeding hard -that it could scarcely be cut down by mattock and hatchet, whereas -the others adjacent were comparatively of moderate hardness, though -differing considerably in hardness from each other; the soil in this -case was very equable, being of Carse clay. The peculiar hardness of -this tree could only be attributable to a harder variety. Indeed, -the difference of quality in timber depends chiefly on the infinite -varieties existing in what is called Species, though soil and {203} -climate have no doubt considerable influence, both in forming the -variety, and in modifying it while growing. Of varieties, those which -have the thinnest bark, under equal exposure, have the hardest wood. - -No. 4. We have cut a number of large old ash trees, and found, with one -or two exceptions, of what is called thunder-struck trees (which we -consider only an obdurate variety), that they were invariably of very -free, weak consistency, more especially the latter formed growths, but -even the earlier growths had become _frush_ from age. This timber soon -went to decay after being cut down:—one piece cut out into planks, and -these being laid down in the order they occupied in the log, was in the -course of some weeks rendered again entire by being agglutinated by -Jew’s ears (a species of fungus.) The workmen were greatly startled at -the fact, thinking the log bewitched. When immediately dissevered by -wedges, the wood was so much decomposed, that its fibre was tenderer -than the Jew’s ears, separating in a new course in most places, in -preference to the saw draught occupied by the ears. We have found very -old oaks have exactly the same friable character, so much so, as render -their safe felling almost impossible; yet this oak timber had not lost -much in weight {204} when compared after being dried with younger oak. - -No. 5. We cut a row of ash trees, about 50 years of age, in dry Carse -clay, by the side of a deep ditch, and consequently of slow growth; the -timber was excellent, hard, strong, and weighty, rather most so where -the size was smallest. At one end, where the row approached a brook, -and the soil became richer and moister, several of the trees were of -good size, but rather inferior in quality of timber, excepting one (the -largest, though not the nearest to the brook), which was of very hard, -strong, and reedy fibre, evidently a variety differing much from the -others. It is always easy to discriminate pretty accurately the quality -of the wood, by examination of the saw cross section of the trunk, that -is, provided the same saw be employed, and be kept equally sharp; the -best timber having the glossiest, smoothest section. - -No. 6. We have examined Scots fir grown in many different situations; -by far the best quality, of its age, of any we know, stands upon a -very adhesive Carse clay, which, from the proprietor’s neglect, is all -winter and in wet weather soaking with water, and the trees not of very -luxuriant growth. These, till a few years ago, stood in close order, -without the stem being {205} much exposed to parching or evaporation; -this exposure of the stem rendering fir timber much harder and more -resinous. Every body who has touched larch must be convinced that the -slow grown on poor _tills_, especially with long naked stems in exposed -situation, is very much stronger and harder than the quick grown, -though often not so tough: but much depends on the variety in larch, -those having the reddest matured wood being much harder than the paler -coloured. - -Memel fir, which is the largest growthed red pine we are acquainted -with, is very strong and durable, probably next to the pitch pine of -North America; yet the very large growthed Memel is generally weakest, -though we frequently find a log of small growthed, mild and inferior in -strength. In old buildings we have often witnessed the beautiful small -growthed red wood pine wormed, when the larger growthed was sound, -but we are sensible that spontaneous decomposition and consumption -by insects are very different; much resin deters insects, whereas, -in moist situations, as in treenails of vessels, it conduces to -spontaneous decay; yet is it preservative when the timber is exposed to -the weather by excluding the rain. {206} - -The coniferæ differ much in the internal arrangement of their woody -structure from the hard wood species, having tissue of much larger -cells, and being generally destitute of the large lineal tubes, which -in hard wood constitute the more porous inner part of the annual layer. -When these tubes occur in the pines, they also differ in position, -being in the outer part of the layer. Owing to the resin of the pines -becoming fixed in the cells of the outer part of the annual layers, -inspissated, we think, by the summer’s heat and drought (others say -congealed by the cold), these cells are filled up, and this part of -the growth rendered much denser than the inner part of the layer, -being from solidity semi-transparent. We would attribute the abundance -of resin in the Georgian pitch pine to the heat and long summer of -that country, probably in concert with damp richness of soil, not -only occasioning this deposit under these circumstances, but perhaps -inducing a disposition in this species to the formation of this -product[44]. The absence of the large tubes, {207} and the presence -of oleaginous resin, render pine timber, when old and small growthed, -not so brittle, nor so liable to decay, as that of deciduous trees; but -it becomes very deficient in lateral adhesion. From the same cause we -find the external layers of matured pine timber comparatively superior -to the quality of the inner layers: in hard wood the exterior layers -are generally much inferior to the inner. Boards of sap-wood of fast -grown Scots fir, particularly of the outside layers are much better -suited—stronger and more lasting, for boxes used as carriage packages, -or for machinery or cart lining much exposed to blows and friction; -than boards of the best matured red wood of Memel, Swedish, or Norway -pine. This is principally owing to the fast grown alburnum possessing -much greater lateral adhesion than the matured wood of old pines. To -have these sap-wood boards in greatest perfection, the tree must {208} -not lie in the bark after felling, and the boards must be well dried -soon after being cut out. To expose the tree, peeled, either standing -or felled, to the sun and dry air for some time, will considerably -increase the strength of this alburnum. The wood, while in the state -of sap-wood, of many kinds of timber is as strong and much tougher -than the same wood after being matured, and would be equally valuable -were any process discovered of rendering it equally durable; its -insufficiency often arises from partial decay having occurred while in -the log. The same sap-wood of oak, which, allowed to lie on the grass -after being peeled in spring, will be so much decomposed in autumn that -it may be kicked off with one’s heel; if cut out and dried immediately -on being felled, it will be tougher than the matured, and, kept dry -as cart-spokes, and defended by paint from the worm, will last and -retain its toughness for an age. The tilling up, which to a certain -extent occurs in maturing, is most probably deposited to fill up tubes, -and may thus not greatly strengthen the mass; a hollow cylinder being -stronger than a solid cylinder when extending horizontally over a -considerable stretch, like a joist or beam; the mass may also become -a little more fragile by maturing: besides a filling up is the result -of some chemical change the {209} wood probably becoming slightly -carbonized or approaching to that change which takes place when -vegetables become peat. - -It is rather difficult to speak of the strength of timber, as different -kinds of timber, and different parts and qualities of the same kind -of timber, have different kinds of strength. Some kinds are stronger -as beams or joists, other kinds as boarding; while, again, some kinds -are better for enduring a regular pressure, others for supporting a -sudden jerk or blow, either as beams or boards. Some kinds are also -comparatively stronger, moist; others when dry—and some kinds retain -their qualities of strength or toughness longer than others when moist, -and others longer when dry, although no rot appear. - -No. 7. Purposely for experiment[45], we selected three ash trees, all -growing in Carse clay, but differing the most in fastness of growth of -any we could discover. We cut these down on the same day; two of them -proved about 36 years planted, and the third 15; this, the youngest -was of fast growth, and had layers of more than double the size of one -of the {210} former, and about six times that of the other. We cut a -number of pieces of exactly equal length and thickness (17 inches long, -and nearly an inch on the side), from each of these, choosing them -of clean straight fibre, at equal distance from the ground, and from -the outside of the tree, and having their growths nearly parallel to -one side, of course free of heart. We proved one of each immediately -on being cut out while full of sap, with their growths on edge in -horizontal position, supported at each end with a weight suspended from -the middle. The smallest growthed, and the largest, weighed at the time -of trial nearly equal; the medium growthed one-thirtieth more. The -smallest growthed supported the weight about six minutes; the medium -and the largest about half that time; the smallest growthed yielded -the least before breaking, and the largest yielded the most. When -completely dried, the weight of the medium growthed still continued -greatest, surpassing the largest one-fourteenth, and the smallest about -one-thirtieth. The smallest and medium supported nearly equal weight, -during equal time, and outbore the largest about one-seventh[46]; when -placed {211} with the growths on edge, they were stronger than when -placed with the growths flat. - -After these rather lengthy references to facts, we must allude to a -circumstance which we are astonished has not been attended to by Mr -Withers, and his gentlemen correspondents connected with His Majesty’s -docks,—the not taking into account the place of the tree whence the -portion of wood for experimenting the strength had been taken, and also -how the annual layers stood, whether horizontal or on edge, or around -a centre, when the weight was applied. The experienced and accurately -practical Mr Withers presents two specimens of oak, the one of faster -and the other of slower growth, to Professor Barlow, of Woolwich Royal -Academy, and the strength of these specimens is tested and reported -upon, without once alluding to what we have mentioned above. Now, if -this has not been attended to, the experiment may be considered a test -of something else than of the timber. How much the strength is affected -by the place of the tree, any person may satisfy himself by proving -one piece of timber taken from near the root, another half way up the -tree, and a third near the top: he will find that in a tall tree the -comparative {212} strength will sometimes vary as much as 3, 2, 1; -that is, a beam, say 2 inches square, and 4 feet long, taken from near -the root, when horizontally placed, and resting only at each end, will -support three times as much as a like beam in like position from near -the top of the tree, although both are equally clear of knots or cross -section of grain. This is particularly manifest in large fast-grown -silver fir and old ash, and the difference is always greatest in old -trees. He will also find that the position of the beam, in respect to -the layers being circular round the heart, flat, on edge, or at an -angle, has considerable influence, and, should he inquire farther, will -perhaps notice, that the timber from different sides of the tree is -not always alike strong; that one specimen of timber will be superior -to another, both being moist, and inferior to it when both are dry, -and that also, as in No. 1, the tree at the same height on the same -side, will contain timber differing in strength fully one half, and not -always diminishing in strength from the heart outwards, even in hard -wood. We are well pleased with one gentleman of the Navy Dock-yard, who -naively admits, that he is incompetent to decide on these subjects, -having been altogether devoted to the mathematical, in estimating -the strain and resistance timber suffers under {213} different -combinations. Now we like this division of labour. - -But to return to our subject. The facts stated go to prove, that the -quality of timber depends much upon soil, circumstance, and more -especially on variety; and that in the early period of the growth of -trees, before much seeding, and when the soil is not much exhausted of -the particular pabulum necessary for the kind of plant, that rather -slow grown timber is superior in strength to quick grown, especially -when the quickness exceeds a certain degree; when this degree is -exceeded, the timber is not so weighty, and is well known not to be so -durable. However, when timber is required of considerable scantling, it -is only in good soils, where the tree increases moderately fast, that -timber will attain sufficient size for this, at an age young enough -to retain its toughness throughout, or to continue forming firm dense -wood on the exterior. This is particularly so in the case of hard-wood -timber, more especially when oak grows upon a moist soil, where the -matured wood, of brownish-red colour, is often unsound, and where -decay commences at a comparatively early period. In the pine, owing to -the oleaginous undrying nature of the sap (resin), the {214} timber -retains its strength to a great age; and the reedy closeness of slow -growth, for most purposes, outbalances any loss from deficiency of -lateral adhesion. - -Moderately fast grown timber is much more requisite for naval purposes -than for other uses; as, besides the greater longitudinal strength -when of large dimension, it has greater adhesion laterally, is far -more pliant, and therefore much better suited for the ribs of vessels, -where cross cutting a portion of the fibre, from the inattention to -training to proper bends, is unavoidable; and whence a disrupting -shock (which is rather to be withstood than fair pressure), makes the -unyielding splintering old wood fly like ice; the rift commencing its -run from the cut fibre. For plank, the lateral adhesion and pliancy -of young moderately fast grown timber is equally valuable, especially -for those which are applied to the curvature of the bow and stern. -Young timber also softens much better by steam, therefore is more -convenient for planking, and for being bent for the compass timbers -of large vessels. The vessel constructed of it will besides, from the -general elasticity of the fibre, be more lively in the water, sail -faster, and, though stronger to resist, will {215} have less strain -to endure[47]. Mr Withers’s corresponding friends, especially those of -his Majesty’s Dock-yards, with the good common sense of practical men, -are well acquainted with all this, although they get a little out of -element when they meddle with nature or causes. Mr Withers is himself -equally out of element when he expatiates on the mighty advantage of -trenching and manuring at planting, and when he talks of our Scottish -holes. The Knight, too, is still more at fault in dreading any great -influence on the quickness of the growth of trees from this gentleman’s -_new inventions_,—and doubly at fault, from conjecturing our navy would -suffer from being constructed of the fastest grown British timber there -is any chance of our shipwrights obtaining. Since we were in our teens, -we have almost every season trenched a portion of ground for planting, -and have manured highly at planting[48], {216} and for several years -afterwards. We have found, when very adhesive subsoil was brought -upward, that the trees throve _well_ while the ground continued under -cultivation; but when the labour ceased, they were soon overtaken by -those planted at the same time without trenching. This comparative -falling off was evidently owing to the surface being rendered more -adhesive by the gluey plastic subsoil being mixed upward with the -original small portion of surface-mould. This new surface melted to a -pulp by the winter rains, when drought set in spring, run together, -became indurated, and parting into divisions, admitted the drought down -to the unstirred ground by numerous deep and wide cracks, which rent -the rootlets of the trees, and rendered it impossible for any plant to -thrive. There are also many kinds of light subsoil, which it would be -folly to bring to the surface, and where little profit would arise from -deep stirring, even though the surface were retained uppermost. - -In cases where the plants were very small, we have found deep trenching -of no benefit, but in certain {217} soils rather hurtful, even during -the first years; but with larger plants, such as are often used in -England, it invariably occasioned their roots to strike quickly, by -affording a regular supply of moisture, and from being easily permeated -by the rootlets, expedited the growth, yielding much early luxuriance -when followed by skilful culture, but latterly, seldom to such a degree -as would lead us to suppose much difference would be discernible at 30 -years of age, between the trenched and those planted by mere pitting, -slitting, or sowing,—much more depending on proper draining, on young, -thriving, small sturdy plants, of best variety,—on suiting the plant to -the soil and climate, and on timely thinning. - -But even were a very superior ultimate progress of growth obtained by -trenching, manuring, and culture of timber, yet as capital and manure -will _probably_ be more advantageously employed in common agriculture, -which gives a comparatively quick return of both, we shall leave to -Mr Withers and his coterie of illuminati the whole advantage of his -discovery. Economic philosophy is the queen of our Scottish plants; she -will not admit any new system of nurture for her subjects without the -{218} strictest scrutiny of its utility as applied to her domains,—she -proceeds thus to weigh Mr Withers’s practice:— - - _Extra Cost per Acre._ - - Twenty loads of putrescent manure, at the average price at - which thousands of tons are annually imported to the valley - of the Tay from _England_, 9s. per load, L. 9 0 0 - - Carriage expenses of above, at 3s. per load, 3 0 0 - - Twenty loads calcareous manure, including - carriage (were marl not at hand, lime would - cost thrice as much), 4 0 0 - - Trenching, 9 0 0 - - Total first extra cost, L.25 0 0 - - Accumulation by 28 years’ interest, at 5 per - cent. nearly, L.100 0 0 - -Would land under timber 28 years planted, with growth accelerated -by Mr Withers’s practice, in two-thirds of the available portion of -Scotland, sell at more than L. 100 per English acre? Suppose that the -thinnings previous to the 28th year would cover the cost of planting, -and subsequent cultivation and attention which is necessary, besides -{219} the cost of the trenching and manuring (in many cases they -would not), the entire value of the land would be lost. It may be said -that the common rules of utility do not apply in this case,—that the -landlords will not be moved to any other improvement than planting, -and that otherwise their income would be dissipated entirely, without -any portion being applied to reproductive uses. We grant all this; -but Scottish landlords have very little taste for the Withers’ -system,—to deface their beautiful wastes, by burying all the fine -turf and wildflowers under the red mortar (the common subsoil), or to -scatter manure. Planting by pitting and slitting will prove far more -attractive; besides, the means are entirely awanting to carry on such -expensive proceedings to the necessary extent, and the cultivation of -one acre in this fashion would leave 19 untouched, when the whole 20 -might have been wooded, in many cases to equal advantage, by the money -expended on one. We have known planting executed by contract for one -year’s interest of the above stated first extra expenditure, which -we would match against planting raised by Mr Withers’s process, in -the same situation. There is also a very considerable proportion of -Scotland very suitable for {220} timber where the stony nature of the -surface entirely precludes trenching. - -Mr Withers, who appears to have no general knowledge of soils and -climates, would hold a different language with regard to Scotland and -Scotsmen, if he saw the beautiful thriving plantations now rising in -that country, planted by mere pitting and slitting, where, owing to -the drought in early summer being less fierce than what occurs in -the central, eastern, and southern counties of England, and to the -herbage being less luxuriant, planting without trenching can always -be depended upon. Mr Withers would also have been sensible had he had -much practice in rural affairs, that twenty loads of putrid manure per -acre at planting, although of very considerable advantage for two or -three seasons to the rising trees, in promoting, along with hoeing and -digging, an early start to luxuriance, would cause little or no lasting -amelioration of the soil; That the vegetable mould naturally occupying -the surface is generally by itself a much better defence against the -summer’s drought, than when incorporated with the subsoil, especially -after cultivation ceases; that lasting fertility of ground for timber, -though sometimes, is often not increased by admixture of soil {221} -and subsoil; and that, generally, the luxuriance of the tree must -ultimately depend on the natural depth and quality of the ground itself. - -Mr Withers, with that precise knowledge of the subject, and clear -conception of the nature of things, which generally accompanies -a partial acquaintance with facts, makes a confident and rather -imposing appearance as a wielder of language and a logician. From his -assumed superiority, we especially wonder that he should possibly -have envy of Scotsmen, which, from the tenor of his letter, we are -constrained to believe. Need Caledonia remind her noble sister, -England, of their consanguinity,—that they are sisters whom nature -hath _twinned_ together? Is there another in all the earth, with -quadruple the advantages of Scotland, who can rank with her in science -and literature, arts and arms? And is England not proud of her poorer -sister? Or can they feel aught but mutual love? - - * * * * * - -Since writing the above, we have looked over some experiments by Messrs -Barlow, Beaufoy, Couch, and others, on the strength of timber. These -show so much discrepancy of result, as leads us to conclude, {222} -that experimenters have not attended sufficiently to the structure and -nature of the timber, the position and quality of the different layers, -&c. Take, for example, the stem of a tall tree, 100 years old: At the -cross section, it is found to consist of a certain number of layers of -matured timber, and of sap timber. These layers having been gradually -formed, the external, after those more internal have partly dried, -and the internal and matured wood being also filled up to more solid -consistency than the external, the stem, on being barked, contracts in -drying much more externally than internally. As soon as the surface -has dried, the outer layers contracting laterally are not sufficient -to surround the undried internal layers, thence split in longitudinal -rifts; and as the drying proceeds inwards, the cracks deepen till they -reach nearly to the heart—these rifts, when the timber is thoroughly -dry, being generally wider in the sap timber than in the matured, more -than in the proportion of the size of the respective circles. This -effect of drying is what every body is acquainted with. - -Besides lateral contraction, there is also a disposition to contract -longitudinally by drying, much greater in the external than internal -layers. While the tree is undivided, this greater contraction of the -{223} exterior layers is prevented, by the adhesion to the drier more -filled up central column (which probably had contracted a little during -the formation of the exterior sap-wood layers), the contractile force -of the exterior balancing equally around this central column. Should -this balance be destroyed by the stem being cleft up the middle, the -longitudinal contraction will immediately take place, and the two -halves will bend outward, from the outside layers contracting more than -the inside layers. We have seen an ash tree rend up the middle from the -cross section above the bulb, nearly to the top, on being cut across in -felling, owing to the longitudinal contractile force of the exterior -existing even before drying. - -Should the dried stem of a tree, of considerable length, be laid -hollow, supported at each end, the outside layer being stretched -almost to breaking by the longitudinal contraction being greatest -in the outermost part, a very small weight, aided by a slight jerk -or concussion, may be sufficient to burst the outside layer on the -lower side, the outside layers on the upper side not standing out as -a support above, but combining their contractile force with gravity -to rend the lower. As the outer layer gives way, the strain is thrown -concentrated upon the next outermost, which also gives way, and the -beam is broken {224} across in detail. In like manner, when the -direct longitudinal strength is tested, the external circles being -in greater tension than the internal, the tightest parts of the log -will give way in succession, like a rope with strands of different -degrees of tightness; yet the lateral adhesion of the layers will have -considerable effect in strengthening the mass. - -The above explains the fallacy of estimating the longitudinal strength -of a thick piece of timber from experiments with small shreds; it -likewise explains how a large unbuilt mast is so easily sprung; -wherefore a beam round as grown will be rendered stronger as a beam by -being formed into a hollow cylinder, by boring out the central part; -and also how a square log will be strengthened as a beam, by cleaving -it up the middle, and placing the two pieces on edge, with their -outside or backs together. In the latter case, the middle, by being -turned outside, and exposed to the air, will contract more than what -it would do shut up and covered by the exterior wood, especially if -resinous pine timber, which continues to contract for many years, owing -to the resin, when exposed to the air, gradually drying or undergoing -some change, by which it is diminished in size, and rendered similar to -amber. {225} - -Consideration of the difference of tension of the concentric layers, -from the difference of disposition to contract by drying, modified -by the difference of position in which these layers may stand, when -supporting weights and bearing strain, with the various qualities of -timber of the same kind of tree, from variety, age, soil, climate, or -from being taken from near the outside or heart, or butt or top, will, -we think, account for the contrariety of results which unphilosophical -experiments have afforded. - - -{226} VI.—STEWARDS PLANTER’S GUIDE, AND SIR WALTER SCOTT’S CRITIQUE. - -We have noticed that a sensation has been produced in a certain -quarter, particularly among persons of a certain age, by a publication -of Sir Henry Steuart of Allanton, on removing large trees, eked out by -a very clever article in the London Quarterly, on Landscape Gardening, -ascribed to Sir Walter Scott. - -It may seem unnecessary to direct the attention of the public again -either to this volume or its subject, both of which have already -engaged the public attention to a degree greatly beyond their value -and importance; but Sir Henry, with all his foppery and parade of -decorating parks, approaches, and lawns, and all that sort of chateau -millinery, has now and then risen above his subject, and not only given -us several hints useful in rural economy, but has also pretensions to -have brought out some facts hitherto but imperfectly known, and to have -traced them to general principles. {227} - -It is curious to remark of how much greater importance the elder part -of society—those upon whom wealth has at length devolved, are generally -held. Any device, however trifling, which can in any way divert the -fancy, pamper the lingering senses, or patch up the body of our second -childhood, is infinitely more useful to the discoverer, and meets with -higher patronage and more eclat, than what is of a thousand times more -consequence to the young. Now, if this were the fruit of filial love, -all would be very well—we would idolize the picture: but when we see -these discoveries only patronized by the old themselves, in the merest -egotism, we blush for our patriarchs, and wonder if time and suffering -will be spent as unprofitably upon ourselves. - -We wonder much what fascination can exist to a mind of so much ability -and culture as that of Sir Henry Steuart, in decorating a few dull -unprofitable acres,—causing a few bushes and bush-like trees to change -place from one side of a dull green to the other!—laying digested -plans of action, embracing a great number of years, to accomplish -this very important feat, which most probably the next heir will make -_the business of his life_ to undo, by turning them back to their -old quarters, if he does not, with more wisdom, grub them out {228} -altogether as cumberers of the soil! For ourselves, we would rather -_baa_ with the silly sheep, and nibble the turf, than pass our time in -acting over this most pitiful trifling, or in publishing a memorial -of our shame. We know not how others are affected, but there is no -other place on earth where we have felt such oppression and weariness, -as in the extensive smoothed park and lawns around the country seat. -We sicken under the uniformity of the heavy-looking round-headed -trees,—the dulness of the flat fat pasture, undecorated by a single -weed,—the quiet stupid physiognomy of the cattle,—the officiousness of -the sleek orderly menial. It may be we are very destitute of taste in -this; here every thing is experiencing satiety of sensual enjoyment, is -full to repletion; every thing has been sedulously arranged to please, -and we ought certainly to admire; but we have no sympathy with such a -scene. - -The solitariness, the absence of men and of human interest, is not -compensated by any of the wild charms of nature. There is small room -here for the discovery of the _habitat_ and native character of plants, -no chance of meeting with a rare species, every thing is modelled -to art. The land-bailiff is an adept. With his dirty composts and -top-dressings, he smothers the _fog_ and the daisy; the scythe {229} -sweeps down every idle weed, every wild flower which escapes his -large-mouthed oxen. The live smooth bark of the lush fast-growing -trees, affords no footing for the various and beautiful tribes of -mosses and lichens. The fog-bee has lost its dwelling, the humble-bee -its flowers, and they have flown away. Scarce an insect remains, except -the swollen earth-worm, the obscene beetle, and the bloated toad, -crawling among the rank grass. There is a heavy dankness in the air -itself. The nervous fluid stagnates under it,—the muscles relax into -lassitude,—inexpressible depression sinks upon the heart. - -It is impossible to describe the relief we feel when we emerge again -into varied nature beyond the ring-fence,—we have the hill and the -furze, the wild-violet and the thyme, and all the sweet diversity of -our subalpine flora. We have the thatched, patched hut, the fine ragged -children, the blooming cottage-girl,—we have the corn-field, where -weeds of every dye, the beautiful centaurea and scabiosa, the elegant -fumaria, the gaudy cock-rose, and the splendid chrysanthemum, are -contending for existence with the cerealeæ. Look at the broken mound, -with its old picturesque trees and tangled bushes; there is the ancient -root where the throstle had its nestlings, which are now at large on -the leafy boughs, and are {230} tuning their yet unformed notes to -melody. Now every twig has raised its new column of foliage to the sun; -and branch, and root, and stone, embellished all over in the richest -variety of cryptogamic beauty, swarm of insect life. This smooth path -has been paved by the lightsome foot; how superior to the gravel-walk -on which the labourer has grudged his useless toil! Even the cart-ruts -possess an interest, which useful labour has worn. After the smooth -monotony of the park; the turf-dykes, the fluting of the ridges, the -different kinds of crops, are most agreeable diversity. The dunghil, -and chanticleer among his dames, the toiled horse, the lean milch-cow, -and the superhumanly-sagacious-looking shepherd-colley,—every thing we -behold commands a sympathy, draws forth a wish of benevolence. - - * * * * * - -As Sir Walter Scott’s Critique came under our notice prior to Sir -Henry’s Guide, we shall proceed in the same order. - -In the first half of this article, Sir Walter gives the history, and -describes the varied character, of Landscape Gardening, in a very -imaginative and felicitous manner, which, as depending on genius and -literature alone, was to be expected; but, in the latter part of the -essay, when he comes to treat of {231} action and facts, and Sir -Henry’s _discoveries_, the deficiency in practical knowledge and -judgment, only forms a contrast to the fancy, elegance, and erudition -of what goes before. - -Sir Walter, apparently not quite unconscious of the ridicule attaching -to the subject,—to this mighty scientific and historic parade in -teaching country gentlemen to amuse themselves by transferring grown -trees as they list, from one place to another, without entirely -destroying the life of the transported subject,—makes a curious effort -to sustain its consequence, by pointing out the immense advantages to a -district by the squire’s residing in it; insinuating, that every thing -which may amuse him at home, and thus induce him to stay, although -of itself childish or infamous, becomes of the highest importance, -being ennobled by the end. The following courtly quotation is from Sir -Walter’s proemial observations: “A celebrated politician used to say, -he would willingly bring in a bill to make poaching felony, another -to encourage the breed of foxes, and a third to revive the decayed -amusements of cock-fighting and bull-baiting; that he would make, in -short, any sacrifice to the humours and prejudices of the country -gentlemen, in their most extravagant form, providing only he could -prevail on them to dwell in their {232} own houses, be the patrons of -their own tenantry, and the fathers of their own children.” Sir Walter -does not attempt to describe or analyze the “humours and prejudices” -necessary to render the above lures efficacious. Does he infer that -such dishonourable power over their fellow men, or that the opportunity -of indulging in such low despicable practices, would induce the country -gentlemen to sojourn in their father-land? It is impossible to say -any thing more insultingly cutting. But we are far from imputing to -Sir Walter any intentional offence. Yet we cannot help being angry -with the freakish favouritism of Fortune, although we are sensible it -belongs instinctively to the female character, often a necessary and -very interesting trait; how she dooms one man from his childhood to -toil incessantly for a bare subsistence; how she lavishes her favours -upon another, and surrounds him from the cradle with every delight; -the mind enlightened, the taste cultivated, the body trained to the -most graceful exercises, _even whose very amusements_ are considered -of so great importance as to throw a high interest upon an art of -no earthly utility, but, on the contrary, where the labour of many -workmen is thrown uselessly away. We are aware that Sir Walter and his -Senator only regard these pastimes {233} of the country gentlemen, -thus highly, through a reflected interest, the latter in a political -view; and the Baronet, from the known warm benevolence of his heart (a -feeling generally associated with genius), towards his poor countrymen, -to whom he supposes, in the event of the country gentlemen being by -any means induced to stay at home, a part of the great land revenue so -unjustly wrung from the poor man’s labour would again devolve. - -It is amusing to observe with what a flow of imagination Sir Walter -shews off his friend’s inventions—inventions which have been practised -with less or more success, in a manner very similar, by almost every -planter of note, since the time of Nero. We quote again: “The existence -of the wonders,—so we may call them,—which Sir Henry Steuart has -effected, being thus supported by the unexceptionable evidence of -competent judges (_a deputation by the Highland Society_), what lover -of natural beauty can fail to be interested in his own detailed account -of the mode by which he has been able to make wings for time?”—“But -although we have found the system to be at once original, effectual, -and attended with moderate expense, we are not sanguine enough to hope -that it will at once find {234} general introduction. The application -of steam and gas to the important functions which they at present -perform, was slowly and reluctantly adopted, after they had been -opposed for many years by the prejudices of the public,—earlier or -later this beautiful and rational system will be brought into general -action, when it will do more to advance the picturesque beauty of the -country in five years, than the slow methods hitherto adopted will -in fifty. It is now found we possess the art of changing the face of -nature like the scenes in a theatre, and that we can convert, almost -instantaneously, a desert to an Eden.” - -Now, this is admirable! Even were it granted, that no planter before -Sir Henry Steuart’s time, or without his instructions, had ever removed -a tree of considerable size successfully (though we believe he has -nearly as much the merit of discovery in this as in the other curious -invention ascribed to him by Sir Walter, “making wings for time,” which -must certainly have been performed by Sir Henry a long while ago, as -we remember time flying very well when we were a truant boy); yet, -nevertheless, Sir Walter, now that his paroxysm of admiration has had -time to moderate, will surely help us to laugh {235} at the absurdity -of his hyperbolic figures of comparison, with steam, and gas, and -scenic transformation, which throw such ridicule upon his excellent -friend. - -We believe that Sir Henry Steuart has been as successful as many others -of his countrymen in transplanting grown trees. We have had some little -practice ourselves in this art, but which, had it not been for Sir -Henry’s _discoveries_, we should not have thought of obtruding on the -notice of the public. The house we occupied was covered to the south -and west by part of an old orchard of apple and pear trees, which -excluded the drying south-western breeze, so necessary in a low damp -situation. We transplanted nearly an acre of these, certainly with -more success and economy than could have been effected by Sir Henry’s -practice, the soil being so tenacious, that it was impossible to remove -the earth from the roots without fracturing all the smaller fibres. -The soil, an adhesive brown _Carse_ clay, contained a good deal of -vegetable matter, to the depth of about 15 inches, when the subsoil, -a close hard yellow clay commenced, into which very few of the roots -penetrated. This ground had been long under grass, and the upper soil -was much bound together by the grass and tree roots. Under these -circumstances we adopted the following plan:—{236} - -We first had a stout sledge made, about four feet square, of lumber -pieces of wood, the side pieces about five feet long, on which it slid, -had a small bend, and extended nearly a foot behind the cross bottom -sheaths, which were sparred over with three narrow boards. The stout -chain of a roller was affixed to this sledge, when at use, to drag -it by. In the autumn we prepared the site where we intended placing -each tree, by throwing out the earth on two sides about a foot deep, -and eight feet square, and then dug over the bottom of this shallow -pit one spit deep, and sloped the two other sides, to which the earth -had not been thrown, so that horses could walk across it; we then -took the opportunity of a slight shower, when the ground was slippery -above and hard below, so that the sledge could easily be dragged, and -set the labourers to work to dig a narrow trench, two feet deep, and -about three feet distant from the stem (more or less according to the -size of the tree), around those trees we intended to remove, paying no -regard to the roots, but cutting them right down where they interfered -with the trench, and where the roots in the central part (the part -surrounded by the trench) were not immediately at the surface, paring -off the turf till the roots appeared. This being done, we caused them -to {237} under-dig and scrape out the clay all round, nearly a foot -inward below the roots, and then to introduce two large ladders at one -side as levers to upset the tree, the strong end of the ladders being -put into the trench, and as far underneath the roots as to catch hold -firmly, the outer side of the trench being the fulcrum on which they -rested to obtain a purchase, the light end sloping upward about 14 -feet high. Two men were then employed upon each ladder; one of them -pulled down by a rope attached to the top, while the other guided the -ladder, and rocked it a little up and down; and, at the same time, -several men hung upon the opposite side of the tree, either by a rope -or the branches, till their united force upset the tree with a large -cake of clay bound together by the roots, five or six feet square, and -perhaps fifteen inches thick, standing up like a wall, similar to what -occurs when spruce or Scots fir are upset by high winds, in shallow -wet-bottomed soil. We then removed the ladders, sloped the outer side -of the trench where they had rested, and pared away the clay from the -upset root, till we thought four horses could drag it, one or two men -in the mean time sitting in the top to prevent the tree righting. After -this we introduced the sledge, pushing it as far back as possible; if -necessary, cutting holes to {238} admit the ends of the side-pieces of -the sledge through the lower edge of the upset root; and if the tree -were large, placing several wet slippery boards under the sides of the -sledge, that it might be more easily drawn up the acclivity of the -hole. The men hanging or sitting on the top, then let go their hold, -and the tree generally righted itself, standing fair upon the sledge as -it grew; if it did not do this of itself, they assisted its rising by -lifting at the top. The root was then secured firmly upon the sledge -with ropes, and the horses were attached, who, by pulling stoutly, -dragged the sledge with its load out of the hole up the slope, and away -to the prepared new situation, one man walking at each side, having -hold of a rope attached to the top of the tree to guide and steady it -when passing a furrow or other inequality of the road. The horses were -led across the new site, and stopped when the sledge and tree were in -the pit, about a foot past the berth; the ropes fixing the stool on the -sledge were then untied, and, by pulling backward upon the ropes fixed -to the top, the tree was upset again upon its side from off the sledge, -and the sledge dragged forward. The tree was then allowed or assisted -to right itself again in its proper berth, and friable earth packed -well around and scattered over the stool, and a little litter spread -over {239} all. The ground was then drained and trenched, excepting -the part around the tree, which had been stirred in the planting. If -thought necessary, a prop or two were placed to steady the tree during -the winter, as it might otherwise work a little back and forward with -the wind while the clay was moist and soft. After the earth had dried -in the spring, the props were removed. - -When we look back on the description of this practice, it seems -tedious; but much of the work is done sooner than described. Were it -of sufficient importance, trees might be grown in something like _lazy -beds_, with water always standing in the dividing trenches, about -fifteen inches lower than the surface, which would procure roots very -manageable by this practice. We once had a small nursery of oaks so -situated, and the trees which were removed, when of considerable size, -had roots uncommonly matted and fibrous, and which carried with them a -large mass of soil. These succeeded very well when transplanted, but -we should consider that plants from a drier poorer soil, with roots -equally fibrous, would be preferable, could they be extracted with as -much adhering earth, which, however, could not be accomplished without -preparation and considerable labour. Were it the only consideration to -procure plants which would best {240} support the transplanting when -of considerable size, this, or the practice of cutting the roots, and -encouraging the rooting by manuring and thickening the earth around -the stool, would merit attention; but as we have already stated, we -consider plants with these matted roots not so likely to grow to large -timber as those with several unchecked large diverging root-leaders. - -Besides the above mentioned part of orchard, we have, by this practice, -removed successfully (in some cases so much so as that no trace of the -removal appeared), a considerable number of trees, where they were -growing too close, and think it simpler, and much superior to Sir -Henry’s, wherever the stool of the tree can be turned up with a large -cake of earth, as in cases where the greater part of the roots run out -horizontally near the surface, which always occurs in flat ground, when -the subsoil is soaking with moisture the greater part of the season. -Whatever risk there may be of the tree not growing when it has been -subjected to all Sir Henry’s formal and tedious process, assisted -by costly machinery, there is none here, provided it is placed in -drained trenched ground, as a considerable number of the small fibres -on which the suction of moisture for supply of the leaves depends, -remain untouched, with this earth around them, and {241} strike out -immediately in the new moist soft soil; and there is no laceration -of the main roots, which, by Sir Henry’s plan, cannot altogether be -avoided, this laceration being much more pernicious, and likely to -occasion putrescency, than simple cross section[49]. - -By the above sledging practice, we have successfully removed fruit -trees 2 1/2 feet in circumference, at two feet from the ground, -and have had some 20 feet high, make a new addition to their height -of six inches the first summer, where no shortening of the top had -taken place. We have also plucked fair loads of fruit, both first -and second season, as large {242} and well matured as any of the -same kind produced by trees which had not been touched; but it is -generally prudent not to allow them to fruit the first two seasons. As -an experiment, we cut most of the branches from the top of two of the -trees—that is, headed them down, but found these did not grow so well -as those which were only slightly pruned, or not pruned at all. - -Pruning at planting should take place in cases where there are long -annual shoots of the preceding season, or much close spray as in old -fruiting-trees; the former should be cut in, to five or six buds in -length, and the latter ought to be thinned, to an extent, which the -kind of tree, the largeness and safe state of the root, soil, exposure, -and climate, must determine: we request our readers to pay attention to -this. Pruning the long annual shoots, prevents a too early formation of -leaves, which often occurs in moist cold soil, and which wither before -the roots begin to strike. - -In some cases, where we found the earth too friable, and not -sufficiently bound together by the roots, to rise up in a cake, we -first prepared the stool for upsetting, and waited for hard frost[50] -to bind {243} the earth and roots into a firm body like a large -millstone, pouring some water upon it the evening previous to the -commencement of the frost, that it might become firmer; we then -proceeded with our sledging during the frost if the road was smooth; -and, if rough, we covered over the frozen root with straw to retain -the frost; and the first day of fresh, when the ground was soft and -slippery above, and hard underneath, we proceeded with our work, taking -care not to cover up the root with earth till it had thawed. We have -found (contrary to general opinion), that no injury is sustained by -exposure of the roots of various kinds of trees to frost, or as great -cold as generally occurs at the surface of the ground in this climate. -We have succeeded equally well with pear-trees, which had lain out on -the exposed bare crown of a ridge for two months of winter, without -the smallest quantity of earth adhering to the roots, or protection of -any kind, as with those immediately from the ground where they grew. -We have even thought that a certain exposure of the roots to cold -increased their susceptibility to be stimulated to strike quicker by -the warmth of the ground in spring, and thus the root suction coming to -act sooner than it usually does in transplanted trees without balls, -and nearer the time of the expansion {244} of the leaves; the check -occasioned by the upper vegetation being too forward for the lower, was -not so great. In some cases a slight degree of withering also appeared -to have a good effect in deterring the development of the buds till the -earth acquired a warmth sufficient for the root striking. - -We succeeded to our wish with those we transplanted by sledging, -excepting a few which were placed among young trees obtained from a -sale nursery. These young plants brought along with them a number of -the eggs of the common green caterpillar. These eggs produced larvæ -upon the young trees the following spring; and these larvæ going down -into the earth, produced a small grey silvery moth in July. The moths, -from the tallest plants being most opposed to them in their flight, -or from being guided by common parasitical instinct to choose the -largest subjects, deposited their eggs upon the removed old trees in -preference to those on which they had been brought from the nursery,—a -preference which did not seem to arise from any sickliness of the old, -as they were fully as vigorous the first summer after transplanting -as the young. These imported vermin prospering under the propitious -dry warm summer of 1826, rendered several of the old trees as bare of -foliage the second and third June after {245} removal as they were in -December; they have now, however, recovered their vigour, shaken off -their parasites, and have produced good loads of fruit. - -We may be thought fastidious in our tastes, and extravagant in our -wishes, but we desire and expect more of our country gentlemen than -to be mere idlers, or worse than idlers,—practisers of the _Allanton -system_. When they turn their attention to forestry, we would have -them to sow, or to plant from the nursery, and not to disturb and -torture the fine growing timber which their fathers had located, and -which generally suffers irreparable injury from removal,—a system to -which Sir Henry Steuart is so absurdly attached, as to recommend its -practice, although only _to turn the lee side of the tree round_ to -the wind in the same spot. Nor have we much sympathy with Sir Walter -Scott’s taste for home-keeping squires,—those Shallows and Slenders -with whom our great dramatist has made himself so merry. We would have -our landed gentlemen to know that _they_ are the countrymen,—many -of them, perhaps, of the blood of the Raleighs, the Drakes, and the -Ansons. Let them, like our Wellington, our Nelson, our Cochrane, -Wilson, Miller, and many others, continue to set before the world some -little assurance of British manhood. Let them, like our {246} no less -honourable Penns, and Baltimore, and Selkirk, lay foundations of future -empires. We would have our young men of fortune go abroad into the -world as soon as their scholastic education is completed,—not to spend -a few idle years in Paris, Rome, or other of the common enervating -haunts,—they might as well remain in mother’s drawingroom or father’s -stable; but to view man and nature under every appearance. Let them -acquire horsemanship on the Pampas of La Plata; hunt the lion and -the elephant, and other game, at the Cape, and study the botany and -natural history of these prolific wilds. Let their ideas shoot while -they recline under the lone magnificence of the primeval forest, while -they gallop over the unappropriated desert, free as the Bedouin, or lie -down composedly to sleep, serenaded by the hyena and jackal’s howl, and -lion’s roar. Let them learn geology and mineralogy on the Andes and -Himalaya, and around every shore where the strata are denuded. Let them -wind about among those abrupt rocks and craggy precipices, where they -may contemplate the sea-bird’s household economy—the wild herbs of the -cliff—the vegetation and shells and monsters of the ocean—the solitary -white sail from distant land—the vestiges of olden time, the exuviæ -of former worlds, in the {247} exposed strata—the abrasion of the -rocky land by the continued battering of the numberless pebbles moved -backward and forward by the heaving of the ceaseless wave. Let them -study the currents, and winds, and meteorology on the ocean, and enjoy -the sublime feeling of riding over it in its wildest mood. Let them -join the ranks of freedom in any quarter of the world where freedom is -opposed to tyranny. Let them head the savage horde, and introduce the -morality and arts of Britain among the ignorant barbarian; or lead out -colonies of our starved operatives to new lands of high agricultural -capability, where for centuries no population-preventive checks would -be necessary. No other employment of life could be so abounding in -heart-stirring emotion, as leading out the enthusiastic emigrants, with -their huddled groups of children, whom you know you have rescued from -the irksome unhealthy toil and wretchedness of the city manufactory; -no occupation could be more delightful than cherishing the new-born -settlement during the privations and hardships of infancy; in procuring -a supply of food, when through mistakes, owing to ignorance of the -climate and other circumstances, success had not attended their -industry; and in leading them on to an effective self government. One -would gladly leave {248} this old world, whose surface is disfigured -all over by man’s patched drilled deformities, and pass on to a new -one, where inviolated nature has produced and reared her own children -after her own fashion, where every plant occupies its own place and -blossoms in its own time. This order must afford intense delight -to the naturalist, independent of the novelty of every thing, from -the constellation in the sky to the lichen on the stone. In such a -place, one should feel remorse to suffer the hatchet to work, or the -ploughshare to enter in. - -We fear these amusements (to which indeed, the British seem more -disposed than any other people), would spoil all relish for the -_Allanton system_, and that our travellers, on their return, would -suffer the thriving trees planted by their fathers to remain at rest, -and rather incline to introduce into the park some of their hardy -foreign favourites—the iron-wood evergreens of Patagonia, the valuable -pines and other trees of New Zealand and Eastern Asia. We believe, -also, that an acquaintance with the real world, obtained in this -way, would be much better fitted, than the following Sir Walter’s -recommendation, to render our gentlemen in after life able and ready to -direct at the nation’s councils, and to improve their estates, and the -condition of their dependents. {249} Perhaps they would then disdain -to hang on at St Stephen’s, the contemptible retainers (all but in -livery) of some intriguing member of the cabinet, like hungry jackals -(call-jack), for the pickings their master might leave them. - - * * * * * - -Having now looked at the general bearing of our subject, we shall -approach it a little closer, to examine the facts, inductions, and -minutiæ of the practice. - -When we first heard of Sir Henry Steuart’s celebrated discoveries -and new system of moving about large live trees, and read Sir Walter -Scott’s declaration, that Birnam wood might now in reality come down -living to Dunsinane, we were disposed to hold Sir Henry a magician, -and were not a little alarmed lest grown up trees might indeed -acquire, under his art, the locomotive power, and gallop about, to -the no small terror and danger of his Majesty’s subjects; but, on -closer examination, we find all Sir Henry’s art resolve itself into -transferring them from one hole into another, by the labour of real men -and horses, without injuring the trees to such a degree as preclude -hope of recovery under proper subsequent attention. His mode of -performing this may be stated shortly as follows:— - -1st, Procure sturdy subjects, not drawn up tall {250} and delicate -in close plantations, but with short stem balanced all round with -numerous compact branches, and well and regularly rooted, such as occur -in open situation on level surface. If you have not trees possessing -these _prerequisites_ ready at hand Go prepare them. Thin out your -young woods to double and triple distance, according as you intend -to transfer them to sheltered or exposed situations; cut the roots -of these trees, and trench around them at a few feet distant from -the bulb, or lay down rich compost mould around them, to encourage -exuberance of rooting, _and in eight or ten years_ you will have fit -subjects for removal! - -2d, Prepare the site a year previous, by trenching and manuring with -compost, carefully mixing and blending the whole (the upper and lower -earth of the soil and compost), and adding mould when the soil is -shallow; attending to thicken and mix clay soil with sandy mould, and -sand soil with clayey mould, also guarding against lodgment of water. -Recent farm-yard dung, peat-moss, and quick-lime, when well compounded -together, make an excellent compost manure. - -3d, Commence extricating your trees by opening a deep trench at the -extremities of the roots, undermining a little inward, and gradually -severing the {251} earth from the rootlets, by stirring, scraping, and -shaking with a very light pick, at the same time throwing the separated -earth out of the hole, and working inward with the shovel underneath -the bared rootlets, till the tree is so far loosened as to be upset -by pulling on a rope fixed near the top, the rootlets, as extricated, -being bundled up so as to be as much out of the way of injury as -possible. Now, throw some earth into the hole; re-elevate the tree -upon this earth, and upset it in the contrary direction; continue to -throw in earth, elevate and upset in the contrary direction, till the -bottom of the root be nearly on a level with the surface of the ground. -Procure a large two wheeled wood-drag, and wheel it backward close to -the standing tree. Elevate the pole of this drag, and tie it firmly -aloft to the stoutest and most convenient part of the top. Make the -body of the tree near the root fast to the axle, or to a beam raised a -little above the axle, a pad intervening between the axle or beam and -body of the tree, to prevent injury to the bark; then by pulling down -upon the top of the pole, upset the tree upon the drag, balancing as -near as possible upon the axle. All being now in readiness, attach your -horses to the reverse end of the drag, where the root is swung, and -have your plant pulled {252} backward to its new berth, and deposit it -carefully there, without any top-pruning, having its heaviest branches -towards the west, that it may the better withstand our prevailing -winds, taking great care to divide and comb out all the rootlets, and -to pack in the fine prepared mould, so as to separate them nearly in -the order they formerly occupied. Then _sad_ down the whole by beating -or watering, and mulch over all to exclude the drought. - -4th, Water every two or three days in dry weather, during the early -part of the first summer, and continue for several years to work over -the surface of the ground by repeated hoeing or otherwise, till the -tree has forgotten her rough treatment, and has become reconciled to -her new quarters. - -Now, this is Sir Henry’s practice. What is there here meriting the name -of discovery? All the world knew long ago, that trees drawn up tall and -delicate, in sheltered situations, were unfit for an open exposure, -especially when of considerable size. We have ourselves dug trenches -round trees, and picked the earth from the rootlets with pointed -instruments, preserving as far as possible every fibre entire. We have -often collected fine mould and composts upon the ground previous to -planting, and trenched over the soil; we have carefully arranged the -{253} rootlets, and packed in our prepared mould; we have noticed -that mutilating the top of certain kinds of trees was very pernicious, -particularly of the beech and the oak; we have invariably turned round -the heaviest branches to the west; we have mulched and watered the -first summer, and have hoed around the plants for years afterwards; -conveyance by a two-wheeled timber-drag has been long in use (we have -employed the axle and wheels of a common cart); many, before Sir Henry, -have prepared the roots by previous cutting; what planter of experience -is ignorant of all this? We grant Sir Henry has done all this well; -much of it must have occurred to himself, as it has done to us, as it -will do to any person of ordinary acuteness and observation, but does -this merit the name of discovery, or comparison with steam and gas? - -We shall now give some little attention to a subject on which we -consider Sir Henry’s claim to the rank of philosophic discoverer solely -rests, and which he introduces to our notice certainly with sufficient -prefatory flourish, under the designation of his “new principle,” -“his rational theory,” which he predicts will raise transplanting of -trees of considerable size to the rank of a useful art, it being thus -founded on fixed principles. In order to bring the matter fairly {254} -before the mind of our readers, we are under the necessity of having -recourse to a long quotation. We fear our readers will find Sir Henry’s -metaphysics not very intelligible; but this may well be forgiven, we -are all too guilty of plunging about when we get into deep water, and -some of us have not always sense enough to swim with the stream. - -We here introduce a quotation of our author: - - “But while every organic creation tends to full development, that is, - to absolute energy, or perfect life, still we find, that the organs of - which it is composed are each reciprocally dependent on every other, - for the possibility and degree of their peculiar action. At the same - time, as these internal conditions of animated existence are severally - dependent on certain external conditions, which, again, are not always - fully and equally supplied; so it follows, that the life of every - organized being is determined in its amount, and in the direction - of its development, by the outward circumstances of its individual - situation. For this reason, we see that every animal, and every plant, - is dependent for its existence, and also for its perfect existence, on - conditions both internal and external. - - “From this reasoning it may be conceived, how the several parts of - the living whole reciprocally act and react. They are, in fact, cause - and effect {255} mutually; and no one can precede another, either in - the order of nature, or of time. Thus, in an animal, the digestive, - and the absorbent, the sanguineous, the respiratory, and the nervous - systems are at once relative and correlative. In like manner, in a - plant, the same reciprocal proportion is found to hold between the - roots and the stem, the branches and the leaves: Each modifies and - determines the existence of all the others, and is equally affected - by all in its turn. And as their several parts, by means of their - union, constitute the organic whole; and as their functions, by the - same means, realize the complement of life, which the plant or animal - exhibits; it is evident, that every living individual is a necessary - system, in which no one part can be affected, without affecting the - other parts, and throughout which there reigns an intimate sympathy, - and a complete harmony of perfection and imperfection. - - “Further; The external conditions of this internal development of - plants and animals, are Food, Air, and Heat; while Light seems to be a - peculiar condition, indispensably necessary to plants. Where any one - of these conditions is not supplied, the existence of life, whether - animal or vegetable, becomes impossible; where it is insufficiently - supplied, life is {256} proportionally enfeebled or repressed. - But, to limit our consideration to the vegetable kingdom, it may - be observed, that where a loose and deep soil affords an abundant - supply of food, where a genial climate diffuses warmth in an adequate - degree, and where a favourable exposure allows a competent access of - light (for air, being fully and universally given, may be thrown out - of the case); in these circumstances, a plant, if not mechanically - injured, will vigorously exercise its functions, and attain the full - development of its parts, thus realizing the absolute complement - of life, to which it naturally tends. In the same way, when these - conditions are stinted, the luxuriance of the plant is checked, in the - ratio of that restraint, and the deficiency of the supply. Where any - one of the external conditions is partially or inadequately supplied, - the plant appears to make special, and even forced efforts to secure - as much of the beneficial influence as it can, and to accommodate - itself to the exigency of its situation. Thus, where light is admitted - only from a single point, a plant concentrates all its powers, in - stretching towards the direction of the light. Where light is shed all - around, the plant throws out its branches on every side. In conformity - with this principle, we find, that, in the interior of a wood, where - the Trees {257} mutually impede the lateral admission of light, the - tendency of each is upwards; and the consequence of this tendency is, - that the plant is thereby not developed in its natural and perfect - proportions, but is elongated, or drawn up to an undue height. It - displays its ramification chiefly near the top; while the imperfection - of its life is manifested in the whole character of its vegetation. In - open exposures, on the other hand, the tree developes its existence, - in full health and luxuriance. It reaches a height, such as the soil - and situation admit, and sufficient to allow the branches, which are - thrown out on every side, to expand their leaves freely to the sun. - Not being compelled to concentrate its efforts, in securing a scanty - supply of one beneficial influence, all its proportions are absolute - and universal, not relative and particular. In such circumstances, - therefore, it may be considered as in a full and natural state of - perfection. - - “Another condition of vegetable life appears to be an adequate - degree of Heat. Within a certain range of temperature, vegetation - is positively promoted: Below, or above a certain point (the degree - differing in different species of plants), vegetation is positively - checked. To speak only of the latter case, which is briefly expressed - by the term {258} Cold, it is either produced by absolute lowness - of temperature, or, in particular circumstances, by the generation - of cold, through the effect of wind, and consequent evaporation - from a moist surface; for trees, in themselves, have but little - self-generated heat, above the surrounding temperature. Some they - certainly possess, otherwise they would be killed during severe - frosts. Of the above accidents nature can modify the former, by - accommodating different species of plants to different latitudes - and elevations: Against the latter she adopts the plan of affording - suitable protection to the individual. In the interior of woods, where - the free current of air is intercepted, where stillness and serenity - are maintained, and where each tree affords shelter, more or less, - to every other, nature has little need to generate the provisions - necessary to mitigate the injurious effects of evaporation. But, in - open exposures, and in the case of isolated trees, this effect must - be assuaged, and is, in fact, to a certain extent alleviated, by - various provisions or properties, bestowed upon the tree itself. In - the first place, a thicker and closer ramification of the sides and - top is supplied, and a more abundant spray towards the stormy quarter, - thereby furnishing a kind of clothing of leaves, in order to protect - from cold both the {259} ascending and the descending sap-vessels: - And, secondly, a greater induration of the epidermis, and thickness - of the cortical layers of the bark are provided; which, forming a bad - conductor of heat, act as a still more effectual defence to the stem, - by preventing the immediate and powerful application of cold, through - the sudden subtraction of caloric, from the proper vessels of the - inner bark. - - “In this economy, nature only follows the analogy which she displays - in modifying the influence of cold upon the animal kingdom. The - quadrupeds, which are destined to encounter the severity of an Arctic - winter, are provided with thick and shaggy coats, to enable them to - withstand the intensity of the cold; and all the richest furs, which - man employs to supply his natural, or rather his artificial wants, - are always furnished by animals inhabiting the highest latitudes, and - killed during the severest frosts. What is still more illustrative of - the point under consideration is, that the coats of animals, of which - the thin and short hair is familiar to us in the temperate climates, - such as the dog, the fox, and the ox, are all remarkable, under the - polar regions, for their close, lengthened, and almost impenetrable - fibre, as a secure barrier of non-conducting matter, to prevent the - escape of their vital heat. {260} - - “In like manner, in all the other relations, we see Nature especially - accommodating the character of each individual plant, to the - exigencies of its particular situation. In the interior of woods, the - wind can exert a far less mechanical effect on individual trees; and - therefore, while they are _positively_ determined to push upwards - towards the light, they are _negatively_ permitted to do so, by the - removal of any necessity to thicken their trunks, for the sake of - greater strength, and to contract the height of them, in order to - afford the blast a shorter lever against the roots. But, with trees in - an open situation, all this is widely different. There they are freely - exposed to the wind, and the large expansion of their branches, gives - every advantage to the violence of the storm. Nature, accordingly, - bestows greater proportional thickness, and less proportional - elevation on trees, which are isolated, or nearly so; while their - system of root, which, by necessity, is correlatively proportional - to their system of top, affords likewise heavier ballast, and a - stronger anchorage, in order to counteract the greater spread of sail, - displayed in the wider expansion of the branches. - - “Every individual tree is thus a beautiful system of qualities, - specially relative to the place which it holds in creation; of - provisions admirably {261} accommodated to the peculiar circumstances - of its case. Here every thing is necessary; nothing is redundant. In - the words of a great philosopher, who was an accurate observer of - nature, ‘Where the necessity is obviated, the remedy, by consequence, - is withdrawn.’ If these facts and reasonings be correctly stated, - the only rational theory of the removal of large trees consists, - in prospectively maintaining the same harmony between the existing - provisions of the tree, and the exigencies of its new situation, as - had previously subsisted between its relative properties and the - circumstances of its former site.” - - “In considering the characteristics of trees above mentioned, we - should always bear in mind, that every production of nature is an - end to itself, and that every part of it is, at once, end and mean. - Of trees in open exposures we find, that their peculiar properties - contribute, in a remarkable manner, to their health and prosperity. - In the first place, their shortness and greater girth of stem, in - contradistinction to others in the interior of woods, are obviously - intended to give to the former greater strength to resist the winds, - and a shorter lever to act upon the roots; Secondly, their larger - heads, with spreading branches, in consequence of the free access of - light, are formed as plainly for the nourishment, as well as {262} - the balancing of so large a trunk, and also for furnishing a cover to - shield it from the elements; Thirdly, their superior thickness and - induration of bark is, in like manner, bestowed for the protection - of the sap-vessels that lie immediately under it, and which, without - such defence from cold, could not perform their functions; Fourthly, - their greater number and variety of roots are for the double purpose - of nourishment and strength; nourishment to support a mass of such - magnitude, and strength to contend with the fury of the blast.” - - “On the other hand, in the interior of woods, a universal tendency, - for the reasons already stated, is observable in trees, to rise to - the light, to attain greater altitude, to form far smaller heads, and - taller, slenderer, and more elegant stems. Here is found a milder - and more genial climate; in which, by means of the calm generated by - shelter, vegetation is not checked by cold, and, at the same time, - is undisturbed by the external impediment of wind; and nature has no - need, as in the case of exposures, to generate provisions necessary - to mitigate the effect of evaporation, as has been above observed, or - to endue each individual tree with distinct and appropriate means of - defence against the elements.” - - “That, as the four protecting properties, {263} already delineated, as - belonging to trees in open situations, are essential and necessary to - the vigorous development of their existence, so they may be set down - as indispensable prerequisites for those intended for transplantation, - which generally implies increased exposure; and that soil and climate - being equal, such subjects will succeed the best as are endued in the - greatest degree with those prerequisites or properties.” - - “If we adopt this principle, and follow it up with a judicious mode - of execution, it seems evident that the necessity of defacing or - mutilating the fine tops of trees will be entirely superseded. _We - shall obtain at once_, what the art, as hitherto practised, has not - been able to obtain for us, the Immediate and Full effect of Wood, - that is, _Trees complete and perfect in all their parts_, without - the loss of the time required to replace the parts so defaced and - mutilated.”—“And if such a mode of execution be superinduced upon it, - as shall furnish to the tree a competent supply of sap at the critical - period of removal, the art probably may be said to be established on - _fixed principles_.” - - “Wind being, in a great degree, excluded in unthinned plantation, and - evaporation prevented, heat is, by consequence, generated in an undue - degree. {264} In the same way, light is nearly shut out from such - plantations, except from the top, and a disproportionate elongation of - the stem is occasioned _by the efforts which each individual makes to - gain the light_.” P. 191. - - * * * * * - -Now, what do we gather from all these _discoveries_ which, in -continuation, our author turns round and round, and exhibits to us -under every combination, with admirable elegance, it must be allowed, -like the objects in a kaleidoscope?—that trees grown in sheltered -situation are not suited for exposed situation, because their roots are -proportionally too small, and the stem too long for stability under -the strain of high winds; their exterior bark or epidermis, dead and -living, too thin to afford protection to the sap-vessels from cold, -the effect of evaporation caused by the wind; their spray and leaves -too elevated and open to exclude the cold, or wind generating cold, -from the stem and branches. That the reverse coexistent conditions of -trees in open situation—short stout stem, thick bark dead and living, -strong rooting, close cover of spray and leaves all around, befitting -the plant to withstand the tempest, and affording shelter to the -sap-vessels of the stem and branches—and these conditions being {265} -wanting when redundant in sheltered situation, show the beautiful -adaptation of means to end, like warm fur of animals in cold countries: -That trees being formed to grow tall in close situation, is a -beneficent provision of Providence for accommodating man with straight -long clean deal and beams: That trees shoot tall in close situation -because they strain hard to reach the light: That trees shoot tall in -close situation from warmth: That shelter and exposure is heat and -cold: That, “to establish any just analogy between the transplanting of -young and of old trees is utterly impossible:” That these conditions -of trees being thus explained to mankind, and followed up by judicious -execution, the thing is reduced to fixed principles, and raised to the -rank of an useful art, and the necessity of defacing, or mutilating, -the fine tops of trees, when transplanted, entirely superseded. - -We shall now attempt to weigh some of these assertions and conclusions -of Sir Henry, and to pursue these inquiries a little farther. - -It is known to every forester, that trees growing in close order, -and drawn up tall, will not continue healthy on being thinned out to -very open arrangement, but will often fall victims to the change of -circumstances, even though they withstand the gale. Who, then, would -be guilty of the folly of expecting {266} they would bear exposure -and the injuries of transplanting at the same time? Sir Henry Steuart -mentions some particular facts as causes of this unsuitableness. -Perhaps it would have been as well to ascribe it to general inaptitude -and delicacy, as there are several other circumstances not easily -understood, such as vital stamina, habitude or acclimatizing, and -texture and configuration of vessels, which must have influence. We -should also think simple evaporation of the fluids of the transplanted -tree a much greater cause of its failure than the cold of this or -of any other evaporation acting to numb the sap-vessels in the stem -and branches. The absorbing mouths of the rootlets, excepting in the -case of very large balls, are generally destroyed by the operation -of removal; and the development of the leaves to a certain extent -taking place before any new process of striking of the roots, owing -to the atmosphere and branches getting sooner heated in spring than -the ground and roots, the half-developed leaves shrivel up in the -arid spring air, from the evaporation of the juices and deficiency -of root-suction; and when the air gets moist, showers fall, and the -earth becomes warm enough for the _striking_ of the roots, the vital -principle is too far spent, or the material substance too much changed, -for the {267} recommencement of organic action. We have found that -trees which had remained months out of ground, and were planted in -March, succeed better than trees removed immediately from their old -site to their new, both being planted with equal care in the same -ground at the same time. The latter acquired half developed leaves -early in April, which withered from deficiency of root-suction; and it -was only with attention that we succeeded in causing them to bud forth -anew and acquire leaves about midsummer; in several, we stimulated the -root-suction by application of heated water, covering up with litter -to retain the heat. The former were several weeks more backward in -leafing, and when the buds burst, the ground had become warm enough -for _root-striking_, and the vegetation proceeded without check. Sir -Henry will say, that the check sustained by those which leafed early, -was owing to the numbing effect of the cold spring wind, and of the -cold of evaporation on the sap-vessels of the stem; but we had caused -several of them to be wrapped round the stem with soft straw-ropes, -and this did not prevent the shrivelling of the leaves, although it -certainly protected the sap-vessels from the cold. This withering of -the leaves of transplanted trees, by which large transplanted trees so -{268} frequently perish, is most prevalent in cold damp soils, when -the air is dry and the sun powerful, and evidently results from the -superior vegetation being in advance of the inferior; torpor of the -roots, not torpor of the sap-vessels of the stem from cold. It is also -perfectly evident, that trees with long naked stems will suffer most, -as their leaves are raised higher, more in the current of the drying -wind; their root and top farther asunder, therefore less liable to -contemporaneous impulse; the sap-vessels of the stem longer and more -attenuated, therefore the streams of fluids from the soil, not only -smaller, but also more liable to obstruction, or to flow slowly, from -the insufficiency of the vital impulse, or of endosmose in the wounded -sickly plant to impel to such a height. Our author’s assertion, that -the rough epidermis generally covering the live bark of trees in open -situations, is necessary to the health of the tree, in protecting the -sap-vessels from cold, is, we think, not quite correct. Some time ago -we caused the dead epidermis be hewn down from several trees, in a -rather exposed situation. This was done with considerable nicety, and -extending up along the branches. We remember of one case, of very thick -indurated epidermis, where a carpenter was employed more than a day -in laying bare the live bark of one tree. {269} Instead of suffering -injury by this exposure of the sap-vessels to cold, the trees rather -acquired new vigour from the operation; and the particular tree alluded -to, was unusually luxuriant the season following this flaying, which -was performed in winter. Now, to apply Sir Henry’s analogy of fur of -animals, would an arctic fox have been benefited by exposure to the -winter’s cold in like plight? We also think Sir Henry will find the -trees of dry climates have a much thicker coating of dead bark than in -cold countries, evidently a consequence of desiccation[51], and, if Sir -Henry must have animal analogy—similar to the desiccation and cracking -of the skin of man in arid air. {270} - -It is a subject of considerable difficulty to explain the cause of -slender lengthened shoots in sheltered situations, and short stout -shoots in exposed. Sir Henry solves this “excellently well” in two -ways, first, attributing it to shelter and exposure themselves,—“for -shelter is heat, and exposure cold,”—and again, to an instinctive -straining in the sheltered to reach the light, of which its neighbours -deprive it every way but from above, and would do so there too if it -failed to exert itself. - -We find that vegetables have long spindling shoots, and wide spaces -between the leaves or buds, when growing in a damp, still, close -atmosphere, especially when the plant is sickly or weak from deficiency -of nourishment, and that this happens equally, whether a trailing -plant being supported aloft throws out depending shoots in opposition -to the current of light; whether a climbing[52] plant runs out -horizontally along a branch or beam at right angles to the light, or -whether a self-supported mounting plant rises in direct opposition -to gravity. No doubt, when the light comes from one direction, {271} -such as the aperture of a window, the plant shoots forth towards the -light, possibly in consequence of the leaves inclining themselves to -receive the ray on their superficies, and thus leading the shoot in -the direction of the light. But this does not prove any straining or -lengthening of the shoot to approach the light; and we ask, what do -general opinion and Sir Henry found their belief upon, of lengthening -growth and straining to approach the light? - -Again, with regard to heat, we notice that plants, particularly shoots -from tubers, left to sprout in cold, damp, confined cellars, throw -out very long stems, with wide spaces between the buds or leaves, and -that very long shoots always occur in confined damp air—long in the -ratio of the dampness and confinement, whatever the degree of heat -may be, provided it exceed a little the vegetating point. Also on -the north side of hills, the trees have generally longer stems than -on the sun-ward side, although in the former case, they are exposed -to the northern blast, while in the latter they bask in the sun. Has -the same kind of plant, in lower latitudes, longer spaces between the -leaves than in higher? And if it has not, is the cold, from greater -evaporation, sufficient to balance the superior heat of the climate? -{272} - -The above facts must lead, we think, to the conclusion, that -evaporation, or non-evaporation, of the fluids, has, directly, a very -considerable influence in causing a shorter or longer extension of the -shoot between the buds or leaves, and that the influence of the cold -of this evaporation is at most but of a very secondary character. We -would compare the extending rudiments and matter of the young scion to -the slow flowing of a gelatinous fluid. In moist air, the watery part -is slowly evaporated, and the drop extends into a long pendulous form. -In dry air, the water of solution is quickly evaporated, longitudinal -extension ceases, and the pendant is thicker and shorter. The cold of -evaporation may a little affect the fluidity, but only in a very small -degree[53]. - -The causes of the elongation of vegetables are, {273} however, not -very plain. We have noticed, that the deeper the seed is placed in -the ground, the braird rises the higher above ground, even when the -seeds at the different depths have been equally moist. This might -admit of explanation, but having already occupied too much space with -this subject, we shall only remark further, that in close woods, the -trees elongate, because they are precluded from extending laterally. -The top buds, from receiving more of the stimulating or nourishing -influence of the dew, sun’s rays, fresh unvitiated air, invigorating -motion of the winds, and perhaps of electricity[54], {274} throw out a -greater continuation of shoot than the under branches; nearly the whole -nourishment from the soil being on this account drawn up and consumed -by these top shoots, and the lower overshadowed twigs and branches -languishing and dying from the absence of these advantages. Besides -this extension of top shoots, by the greater continuation of leaves, -or links of life, occasioned by the above causes, these shoots, owing -to the moist atmosphere of the wood, also push out into longer spaces -between the leaves. However, these top branches do not push sun-ward, -but merely in opposition to gravity. - -Sir Henry states, that “trees certainly possess some heat, otherwise -they would be killed during severe frosts.” Our belief of the vital -heat of vegetables is placed on a much better foundation than {275} -this _otherwise_; otherwise our credence would be far from philosophic. -Freezing cold affects many vegetables as well as some of the lower -animals, only by mechanical injury, in rending the vessels by means of -the expansion of the contained fluid. Now, if these vessels are not -quite full of fluid, if the fluid be of such a nature as not to congeal -into greater size, or if the body be small, and the vessels elastic, to -yield to expansion without fracture—the vegetable or animal will often -resume vitality, on being thawed from thorough congelation. We have -rendered potatoes, turnips, and fruits, frost-proof, at least unless -the frost was intense, by a slight desiccation caused by exposing them -a short time to the air after being taken from the ground or tree[55]. -In the cases where fishes and reptiles have been found {276} frozen so -hard as to require a hatchet to dissect them, and reviving on thawing, -it will be found that the fluids were principally oleaginous, which -do not expand in congealing; and in the case of insects being frozen -in masses during the night, and resuming their liveliness next day in -the sun, we think, if their fluids have congealed at all, that either -the vessels must have yielded, being elastic (which might more likely -take place in a small body, without general fracture and derangement), -or that the fluids had not extended by being congealed; but it is very -probable, though frozen together in a mass of water and mud, that their -fluids, from being of an acid nature, had resisted the congelation. - -With regard to trees, we have heard that intense frost often splits -the trunks of some of our indigenous kinds by congelation[56]; but -these trees retain vitality, and only suffer from the consequences -which may ensue from the fissures. We have seen evergreens, plants -from milder climates, and trees which had not thoroughly ripened their -{277} wood (that is, retained the vessels full of moisture), injured -in the extremities, and even killed throughout by cold. But this does -not prove that these had any vegetable heat, any more than those which -suffered no injury from the same degree of cold, prove that they had -vegetable heat. The juices of some kinds of plants do not congeal at -the same point of temperature as others. The vessels of some in winter -are not so much distended with fluids as others; and probably the vital -principle of some is less susceptible of injury from cold than others. -These facts may account for the endurance of intense cold by some kinds -of trees, independent of vegetable heat. - -Our author, speaking of the transplanting of fruit trees, states, that -“any gardener could have predicted the probability of fruit during the -first season, together with the certainty during the second of its not -taking place.” Our gardeners will be moonstruck at having the gift -of prophecy attributed to them, at least to predict in such a way. -We have thought Sir Henry sufficiently ready to impute ignorance to -gardeners before we came to this remark; but to represent a useful and -intelligent class of men in so ludicrous a light, is certainly using a -very improper liberty. {278} - -Every gardener is aware that trees will fruit the first season after -transplanting, just if they have had the rudiments of the fruit formed -in the bud before transplanting, and should the blossom not be injured -by severe weather. Every gardener is aware, though Sir Henry seems not, -that all fruit trees, of any size, form these rudiments the season -after transplanting, and that they invariably fruit the second season, -if the season suit the fruiting of the kind; and every gardener of -any experience is capable, even without Sir Henry’s instructions, of -removing a fruit tree of considerable size, without injuring it so -severely as to prevent it fruiting both first and second season, which -it will do, and even mature fine fruit both years, though during the -first, under very unfavourable circumstances, it should scarcely be -able to develope leaves 1-5th of the usual size, and though these -leaves wither and drop off long before the summer is ended, while the -fruit remains to ripen on the tree. This is _a direct consequence -of evaporation_. The thin leaves shrivel up in the ardent sun from -evaporation and want of sufficient supply by root-suction; and the -bulbs of the fruit, from their massiveness, contain sufficient moisture -to resist withering till the night, when they drink the dews, and -suck up some little moisture from the roots, undiminished {279} by -evaporation in the transit, to replenish the daily loss. - -Sir Henry remarks, that “no man who knows any thing of wood, will put -down the oak or the elm on light sand or gravel, as it is only on deep -loam and clay that the oak, in particular, will really thrive and -grow into timber.” No man who knows _how much a suitable soil for any -kind of plant is under regulation of the moistness or dryness of the -atmosphere, and other circumstances_, will refrain from smiling at Sir -Henry’s very superficial acquaintance with his own subject, and at -the manner he thus again brings forward mankind to testify in support -of his own error. Our author will place the above quotation among the -errata should he take a ride up Strath-Tay from Birnam to Kenmore. - -Among other items of expense given by our author, none of which seem -to be overstated, we feel grateful for the information, that compost -manure of lime, farm-yard dung, and moss, can be obtained, compounded, -fermented, conveyed and applied, at the rate of 6d. and 9d. per single -and double load! - -Sir Henry makes good his assertion, that slow grown timber is always -stronger, denser, and more durable than fast grown, by a cloud of -witnesses,—every forester, gardener, and carpenter of the {280} -country, is ready to attest it of course! There are few sublunary -matters which admit of evidence more conclusive. We quote his account -of this uniform “law of nature.” - - “The same general law operates in a similar way on all woody plants, - but of course less rapidly, owing to the less rapid growth of - trees, from the lowest bush to the oak of the forest. In all these, - the culture of the soil tends to _accelerate vegetation_, and by - consequence to _expand the fibre of the wood_. It necessarily renders - it softer, less solid, and more liable to suffer by the action of the - elements. Let us shortly give a few examples of the uniform effect of - this law of nature. - - “Every forester is aware how greatly easier it is to cut over thorns - or furze that are trained in hedges, than such as grow naturally wild, - and are exempt from culture. Gardeners experience the same thing in - pruning or cutting over fruit trees or shrubs; and, the difference of - the texture of the raspberry in its wild and in its cultivated state, - is as remarkable; for although the stem in the latter state is nearly - double the thickness of that in the former, it is much more easily - cut. On comparing the common crab, the father of our orchards, with - the cultivated {281} apple, the greater softness of the wood of the - latter will be found no less striking to every arboriculturist. - - “Further, the common oak in Italy and Spain, where it grows faster - than in Britain, is ascertained to be of shorter duration in those - countries. In the same way, the oak in the Highland districts of - Scotland or Wales, is of a much harder and closer grain, and therefore - more durable, than what is found in England; though in such mountains - it seldom rises to the fifth part, or less, of the English tree. Every - carpenter in Scotland knows the extraordinary difference between the - durability of Highland oak and oak usually imported from England, for - the spokes of wheels. Every extensive timber-dealer is aware of the - superior hardness of oak raised in Cumberland and Yorkshire, over that - of Monmouthshire and Herefordshire; and such a dealer in selecting - trees in the _same_ woods, in _any_ district, will always give the - preference to oak of slow growth, and found in cold and clayey soils, - and to ash on rocky cliffs, which he knows to be the soils and - climates natural to both. If he take a cubic foot of park-oak, and - another of forest-oak, and weigh the one against the other (or if - he do the like {282} with ash and elm of the same description), the - latter will uniformly turn out the heavier of the two.” - -It is certainly the case, that luxuriant growth increases the size -of the sap-vessels and cells, but with this increase of size, there -is often a proportional increase of thickness of the sides of these -vessels and cells, and a greater than proportional filling up of dense -matter, as the alburnum is better ripened in autumn, or as the mature -wood, especially of hard wood in dry situations, ripens more slowly in -the course of years. There is also in many kinds more of close tissue -and cellular part, in proportion to large sap-vessels, when the tree -is growing vigorously than when it is stunted. (See the facts in our -notice of Withers, p. 199.) _Thence culture does not necessarily render -the timber softer, less solid, and more liable to suffer by the action -of the elements._ We are really angry with those smooth-tongued rogues -who “fool us to the top of our bent.” _Every artificer_ who has worked -slow grown ash of considerable age, that is, when most of the timber -has been deposited after the tree has been seeding strongly, _assures -us_ that the timber is very inferior, in all respects, to that of -quicker growth. {283} - -We consider the forester who has observed that thorns or furze trained -in hedges are much easier cut from softness of timber than when growing -in detached bushes, a much better observer than ourselves; and we -would inquire whether he were certain that the greater efficiency -of his blows was not owing to their being better directed, from the -conveniency of access, owing to the training up, than from the timber -being softer? The example of the raspberry we consider very irrelevant, -it being only a semi-herbaceous plant of biennial stem. - -Gardeners certainly experience the branches and roots of crab-apple -to be harder than the varieties with thicker bark, larger more downy -leaves, and larger fruit. The largest growing apple varieties, however, -are not the above mentioned mild varieties, but those which have a -pretty close approximation to the crab. We have taken slips from some -of the very largest of our pear-trees, and having placed them close -to the ground on young stocks, have found they threw out spines and -rectangular branching similar to crabs. Those most dissimilar to -the crab have thick annual shoots, without any lateral rectangular -branching, and very thick bark; they have been gradually bred to this -condition by repeated sowing, always choosing the seed of those {284} -partaking most of these qualities for resowing, their disposition to -vary to mildness being at the same time influenced in some measure -by culture and abundant moist nourishment; but these mild varieties, -although they throw out a strong annual shoot while young, seldom or -never reach to any considerable size of tree, unless they are nourished -by crab roots, their own roots being soft and fleshy, and incapable of -foraging at much depth or distance. Their branches and twigs as they -get old, are also very soft and friable, covered with a thick bark, -but the timber of the stem is very little inferior in hardness to crab -timber. - -We ask, if even the fact of these unnaturally tender varieties -(obtained by long-continued selection, probably assisted by culture, -soil and climate, and which, without the cherishing of man, would soon -disappear), being of rather more porous texture of wood, goes any -length to prove our author’s assertion? We have paid some attention to -the fibre of the genus Pyrus, and find that the Siberian crabs have -by far the smallest vessels. Having grafted the large Fulwood upon -the smallest Red Siberian Crab, or Cherry-apple, the new wood layers -above the junction swelled to triple the thickness of those below. By -ingrafting other kinds upon other {285} stocks, we have found the -reverse to take place, no doubt owing to those with largest vessels -swelling the most, there being the same number of vessels above and -below the junction, each corresponding, or being a continuation of the -other[57]. But this small Siberian crab, when ingrafted upon a common -crab, grew fully as quickly during several years as the Fulwood under -the same circumstances; and the timber, though of much finer texture, -scarcely exceeded the other in hardness. Sir Henry tells us, that the -oak is less durable in Italy and Spain than in England[58]. We tell -Sir Henry, that the red-wood pitch-pine from Georgia and the Floridas, -on the confines of the torrid zone, is more durable than the red-wood -pine from Archangel, on the confines of the frigid zone. But does this -fact {286} regarding the oak of the south of Europe, prove any thing -regarding the oak of England,—that it will always he deteriorated by -culture for several years after planting, or that the quality may not -suffer as much from slowness of growth as from fastness, or from the -climate being too cold as from being too warm? - -The reason why Highland Scots oak spokes are superior to English, is, -because the latter are generally split from out the refuse of the -timber cut for naval purposes,—principally _the branches and tops_ of -large trees; whereas, those from the Highlands of Scotland are from -_the root cuts_ of copse. We believe most carpenters of Scotland are -aware of this. The oak from the Highlands of Scotland is, however, for -the most part, of excellent quality, growing generally on _dry gravel -and rock_, not on cold moist _clayey soils_. The hardest we have ever -seen was from a steep, dry gravel bank, of south exposure, in an open -situation, much exposed to the western breeze. The Highland oak from -these soils is generally of a greyish colour, and very dense; whereas -that from moist soils is often reddish-brown, and defective. Should Sir -Henry weigh portions of oak from these soils in a pair of material, -in place of mental scales, we think his conclusions would be {287} -somewhat different.—The strongest, hardest ash we have seen, was cut -from a hard, dry, adhesive clay, of course a young tree. - -Sir Henry, speaking of the Western Highlands and Islands of Scotland, -states that “it is from a want of soil, and not of climate, that woods -of any given extent cannot be got up in these unsheltered, but romantic -situations.” Of many situations of these bleak districts, this must -be admitted, but we cannot receive it as a general fact; and even -where it holds true, the want of (proper) soil, or formation of peat, -is a _consequence_ of the want of climate, although _this_ may have -reacted to increase the evil. There must have been a greater warmth of -climate, at least in summer, when the forests grew, which lie buried -in the mosses of the northern part of Scotland, and of the Orkney and -Shetland Islands, as some kinds of timber are found in situations -where such kinds, by no circumstances of gradual shelter under the -present climate, could have grown. There are several indications of -a greater warmth having been general throughout Britain, and even -farther eastward, and that a slight refrigeration is still in progress. -We instance the once numerous vineyards of England,—the vestiges of -aration so numerous upon many of our hills, where it would now be -considered fruitless to attempt raising grain, even {288} with the -assistance of modern science; and the report that the Caspian is -gradually overflowing her shores, a probable consequence of diminished -evaporation from decrease of heat. - -That this is not wholly owing to the moisture and cold consequent to -the moss formation, or to any cover or want of cover to the earth, of -timber, or of any other plants which might possibly have effect upon -the temperature by shade, evolution of vegetable heat, electric or -meteoric agency, we think proved, should the asserted fact be correct, -that, in the small _oes_ of Shetland, (so distant from any considerable -portion of land as not to be under these influences, and so small, that -the climate must be solely dependant upon the sea), timber is found -in the morasses, although the climate will not now admit of timber -growing, being apparently equally deteriorated as that of the Mainland. -It is not improbable that the superior former climate of the North of -Scotland and Islands was owing to their having formed, at one time, an -extensive country, perhaps joined to the continent, and thus partaking -of the continental climate, that is, having a colder winter and -warmer summer, capable of producing considerable vigour of arboreous -vegetation, and not so favourable to the generating of that fixed -vegetable incubus, peat-moss, who has crept over, and folded {289} -in her chill embrace, the once fair districts of northern Scotland. -The fogs and more steady low temperature of insular situation, which -now prevail, not only induce that chemical change in dead and dying -vegetables which forms peat-moss, and preserves this moss from decay, -but also being too cool for the vegetation of the gramineæ, &c. tend -only to promote the general spread of sphagni and other moss-generating -plants, which, again, are almost the only plants that can vegetate on -acrid moss-flow, as they draw little or nothing from below, and are -nourished directly by the moisture and other fluids of the atmosphere. - -Our eastern shore affords sufficient proof that the ocean has both -receded and advanced recently—at least recently in comparison with -the great changes which have occurred to modify the surface of the -earth. In proof of this recession, we have the upper _carses_, or -deltas, visible in every firth or creek where a river falls into the -German Sea. These carses, on the firths in Ross-shire, at Dun near -Montrose, around the upper end of the Firths of Tay and Forth, are all -of nearly equal level, about 20 feet above the highest stream-tides. -The gravel bar at Montrose is considerably above the present sea-level. -A number of caves exist on this {290} eastern coast, evidently worn -into the rock by the action of the sea at the height where the waves -have broken. These caves have nearly one level, corresponding in -height with that of the carses. There are also many places where the -coast has been shorn away by the action of the waves, and a shelf of -rocks left extending out some hundred paces. This abrasion, which -takes place nearly at, or a little above, low water-mark, is effected -by innumerable hard pebbles (the most indurated parts of the rocks -which give way being converted into battering material for further -reduction), being upborne and dashed against the rock by the continuous -heaving and lashing of the waves. Wherever any breach commences from -the feebler opposition of any softer part, the action of the waves and -battering train proceeds with increased impetus and concentration, -especially if the breach be wedge-shaped narrowing inward, thence caves -of considerable extent are hallowed out. The rocks thus abraded and -undermined, tumble down and are ground into sand, which is swept by the -tides and motion of the waters into the depths of the ocean, or borne -along to the upper end of the bays, or to some part of the coast where -more sluggish lateral tides, and particular motion of the waves leave -it and throw it ashore to be blown up into {291} downs. There are some -former islands which have been altogether shorn down to this sea-level, -of which the Bell-Rock, extending nearly a mile of shelf, affords a -well known specimen. In many places of the coast, these shelves accord -with the superior former level of the sea, and with the floors of the -caves. - -In proof of the sea having advanced upon the land, there are vestiges -of submerged forests (the stumps of the trees standing erect where -they grew, at or a little above the present lowest ebb) existing at -different places on the eastern coast, both of England and Scotland, -and these vestiges standing upon a former carse or alluvium of the -rivers, are visible in the same firths with the upper level of carse, -of course generally more to seaward than these higher carses, as -deposition of rivers occurs at what may be termed deposition point, -that is where the rivers, from the stemming of the sea-water, begin -to widen—where the firths commence; and the slowness of the motion of -the water gives time for the subsidence of the floated mud. By reason -of the flux and reflux of the tide into the mouths of rivers, this -deposition takes place only at or near high water, that is, when the -strength of the inward tide-flux ceases, and before that of the reflux -begins. It is {292} most abundant at the windward shore, or where -there is least surf, and among the tall gramina and other vegetation -where there is least undulation and current; the deposition which -occurs at this time, some distance below high water level, is floated -away by the current of the following flux and reflux, unless some -object afford a nucleus of formation. Hence deltas or carses usually -form near the shore of firths, generally soon rise to high-water level, -and have often steep, or even abrupt, banks, collecting at one place, -and giving way before the waves and undermining current at another. -There is a deposition of another kind than river diluvium, which also -takes place at the bottom, or further end, of bays and firths, and is -sometimes mixed with the preceding: This consists, as mentioned above, -of the abrasion of the rocks, or shores of the bay and neighbouring -coast, and also of molluscous exuviæ, borne along by the motion of the -waters; but this is generally rather an accumulation than a deposition, -occurring in greatest quantity where a heavy swell rolls dead in. - -Although we have pretty accurate proof that the present elevation of -the German Sea has remained nearly steady for several hundred years, -yet our new formation of carse, at the present high-water level, {293} -bears a small proportion to the extent of the upper carse; from which -may be inferred, either that the sea has remained a shorter time at the -present level, or that some general cause has more recently operated -to diminish the deposition, such as inferiority of present climate not -producing so much littoral vegetation,—tides or higher winds preventing -subsidence by greater undulation or current, till the diffused mud -be carried out to sea[59]. The junction of the higher and present -sea-level carses, abrupt and always definite, that is, not gradually -declining from the one to the other, would seem to indicate a quick -subsiding of the sea, or rising of the land, such as has been known -to result from subterraneous derangement. The very accurate level of -these carses proves, that this portion of the world has remained a very -long time pretty free from these disturbances, recently so prevalent -in some other quarters; and if the change of sea-level has been owing -to such disturbance, it follows, from the extent and regularity of -the upheaving or subsidence, that the cause must have been very deep -seated, or of great magnitude. - -We begin to think, from our disposition to ramble from the Allanton -system, that we tire of Sir {294} Henry; and we believe, should -_he_ follow us thus far, that he will be tired of us. On looking -back on what we have written, we are almost disposed to accuse -ourselves of being splenetic; but the truth is, we regard the whole -art as very unimportant, if not positively pernicious, at least in -the way in which it has been exemplified by Sir Henry, as a throwing -away of valuable labour to no purpose, if it ought not indeed to be -considered as a mere pander to luxury and caprice. We have no sympathy -with the aristocratical object of the book, and as little with the -aristocratical tone in which it has been bepraised by Sir Walter -Scott. We should also have no greater pleasure in the discovery of a -royal road to virtue than we should have to the discovery of one to -science,—the four cardinal virtues being, as every body knows, writing -books, building houses, and raising trees and children, but we should -hope, neither by proxy, nor by the _Allanton System_. While, however, -we thus state our opinions with freedom, we do not hesitate to add, -that Sir Henry’s volume has afforded us more information, or, at least, -more materials for reflection, than any other of the works which we -have brought under the notice of our readers. {295} - - * * * * * - -We shall finish our remarks on Sir Henry’s work, by making some -observations upon a quotation made by Sir Henry Steuart, from “A -Treatise on the Forming and Improving of Country Residences,” by the -Author of the Encyclopædia of Gardening, &c.—an author, who combines -talent, successful industry, and enlightened benevolence, in no common -degree. We are sorry to appear before this author, whom we have long -esteemed, in opposition; yet we regret the less, as we consider him one -of the few who prefer accuracy and truth to an old opinion, and whose -name stands too high to be affected by a casual misconception. - - “The general effects of pruning,” says this author, as quoted by Sir - Henry Steuart, “is of a corresponding nature with culture, that is, - to increase the quantity of timber-produce: the particular manner - in which it does this is by directing the greater part of the sap, - which generally spreads itself into side branches, into the principal - stem. This must consequently enlarge the stem in a more than ordinary - degree, by increasing the annual circles of the wood. Now, if the tree - be _in a worse soil and climate than those which are natural to it, - this will be of some advantage_, as the extra increase of {296} timber - will still be of a quality _not inferior_ to what would take place in - its natural state; or, in other words, it will correspond with that - degree of quality and quantity of timber, which the nature and species - of the tree admit of being produced. If the tree be in its natural - state, the annual increase of timber occasioned by pruning, must - necessarily _injure its quality_ in a degree corresponding with the - increased quantity. If the tree be in a better climate and soil than - that which is natural to it, and at the same time the annual increase - of wood be promoted by pruning, it is evident that such wood must be - of _a very different quality_ from that produced in its natural state - (that is _very inferior_).”—“_Whatever tends to increase the wood - in a greater degree than what is natural to the species when in its - natural state, must injure the quality of the timber._ Pruning tends - to increase this in a considerable degree, and therefore it must be - a _pernicious practice_.”—“Mr Knight has shown, in a very striking - manner, that timber is produced, or rather that the alburnum or - sap-wood is rendered ligneous, by the motion of the tree, during the - descent of the tree (or proper) sap. It is also sufficiently known, - that the solid texture of the wood greatly depends upon the quantity - of sap which must necessarily {297} descend, and also on the slowness - of the descent. Now, both these requisites are materially increased - by side-branches, which retain a large quantity of sap, and, by their - junction with the stem, occasion a contraction and twisted direction - of the vessels, which obstructs the progress of the (proper) sap. Of - maple and birch, those trees which have fewest side-branches bleed - more freely than the other, but during a much shorter space of time. - These hints, therefore, afford additional evidence against pruning, - and particularly against pruning fir trees, which, as Mr Knight justly - observes, have larger vessels than the others, and therefore, when in - an improved soil and climate, side-branches for the purposes above - mentioned are essentially necessary to them, if solid, resinous, and - durable timber be the object in view. - - “From the foregoing remarks, I think the following conclusions may be - drawn. - - “First, That trees should be planted as much as possible in soils, - situations, and climates, _analogous to those of their natural - state_; and that it is chiefly in this state, or when there are some - defects relative to it, that pruning or culture can be exercised with - advantage. {298} - - “Secondly, That in proportion to the superiority of the soil, &c. in - which trees are placed, over the natural soil of these trees, in the - same proportion pruning and cultivating the soil ought to be avoided, - and thinning encouraged. - - “Thirdly, That particular regard should be had to the soil and - situation, where either larches, or any other of the pine tribe, - are planted, to remain as the final crop. For as the roots of these - chiefly run along the surface, and as in them the great current - of the sap is chiefly confined to one channel, that is the trunk, - consequently that tribe of trees is peculiarly liable to injury and - change, when subjected to unnatural agency. - - “Fourthly, That the only way in which oak timber of safe quality can - be provided for the British navy, is by enclosing, preserving from - cattle, and properly managing, those royal forests where oak is the - natural produce of the soil. (Alas! there is reason to fear, that on - some future day the neglect of this advice will be regretted). Park - oak is very frequently much inferior to _forest oak_ in durability.” - -We differ from the author of the Encyclopædia of Gardening here, -even _in limine_, in his {299} assumption, that pruning is of a -corresponding nature with culture, in increasing the annual circles of -the wood[60]. Culture, if judiciously executed, increases these annual -circles; but common pruning up (which, from the general bearing of the -language, we suppose is meant), nine times out of ten diminishes them, -and merely tends to extend the stem in length, by throwing all the new -formation of branches to the top of the tree, in place of partly to the -sides. Thence the tree acquires a slenderer figure, and more delicate -constitution; and from greater height, and being without cover of -side-branches, loses more by evaporation, and receives less moisture -from the ground, which is dried by the breeze passing along under the -branches; the principal process of vegetation, assimilation by the -leaves, being reduced by the pruning, and carried on at an unnatural -height, in a colder less genial atmosphere, under a diminished supply -of nourishment from the ground, is consequently less productive of -new assimilized {300} matter; and this smaller quantity requiring -to be extended along a greater length of stem, the annual rings are -necessarily thinner. - -We admit that a tree becomes more _stemmy_ by being repeatedly pruned -up;—we admit, that, on removal of the lower branches, the upper part -of the stem may have, for a few seasons, larger annual circles; but -the annual circles will be diminished in thickness in a much greater -proportion on the lower part of the stem;—we admit, that the timber, -from being deposited in a clean lengthened cylinder, becomes far more -useful, there being less redundant matter than when scattered out -into _stemmy_ branches, to which disposition, trees in open situation -sometimes incline, especially if not transplanted very young, but -to which they are nevertheless much more disposed under the common -mode of pruning in an early stage of their growth, than when left to -themselves;—we admit, that trees, by pruning, raised to lengthened -stem, and thence performing less assimilation, partly compensate for -this less assimilation, for some time, by making more stem deposit -in proportion to the other deposit, which extends the parts more -immediately necessary to new formation,—the roots and twigs; but -the deficiency of productory parts soon {301} reacts to diminish -the amount of _all_ the new products. In tall trees, this greater -deposition on the stem, in proportion to that on the roots, twigs, and -leaves, some will think instinctive; some will refer it to an effort of -nature to supply the necessary strength to enable the stem to resist -the great strain of the winds upon the elevated top. If it take place -to a greater extent than what arises from the greater elongation of -the necessary vessels of communication, perhaps it is owing to the -evaporation or stagnation of the sap on the tall exposed stem, and -to the considerable motion or waving of the stem by wind promoting -deposition, evincing one of the deep balancings of material cause -and effect, or circumstantial regulation, which mocks the wisdom of -the wise. We admit, also, that pruning, in the first place, impedes -formation of flower-buds, and will sometimes thus prevent exhaustion -of trees by seeding, which is so prejudicial both to the quality -and quantity of the new wood deposit; but the consequent greater -length of stem, greater exposure to evaporation, constriction of -bark, and slenderer connecting tubes between leaf and roots, all tend -subsequently to promote formation of flower-buds, although the removal -of the lower branches may for a few seasons serve to {302} prevent -this. We therefore consider pruning, excepting in a very slight degree, -to guide to one leader, and to remove the sickly, lower, moss-covered -branches a few seasons earlier than they would have dropped off in -the common course of decay, to be generally preventive of quantity of -wood-deposit, even of common marketable timber, in any considerable -number of years, although pruning to a greater degree is often -necessary where fine clean timber is required. - -Our author’s next implied assumption, that a tree produces best timber -in a soil and climate _natural_ to it (we suppose by this is meant the -soil and climate where the kind of tree is naturally found growing), -is, we think, at least exceedingly hypothetical; and, judging from our -facts, incorrect. The natural soil and climate of a tree, is often -very far from being the soil and climate most suited to its growth, -_and is only the situation where it has greater power of occupancy, -than any other plant whose germ is present_. The pines do not cover -the pine barrens of America, because they prefer such soil, or grow -most luxuriant in such soil; they would thrive much better, that is, -grow faster, in the natural allotment of the oak and the walnut, _and -also mature to a better wood in this deeper richer soil_. But the {303} -oak and the walnut banish them to inferior soil from greater power -of occupancy in good soil, as the pines, in their turn, banish other -plants from inferior sands—some to still more sterile location, by the -same means of greater powers of occupancy in these sands. One cause -considerably affecting the natural location of certain kinds of plants -is, that only certain soils are suited to the preservation of certain -seeds, throughout the winter or wet season. Thus many plants, different -from those which naturally occupy the soil, would feel themselves at -home, and would beat off intruders, were they once seated. We have had -indubitable proof in this country, that _Scots fir, grown upon good -deep loam, and strong till_ (what our author would call the natural -soil of the oak), _is of much better quality, and more resinous, than -fir grown on poor sand_ (what he would call the natural soil of the -Scots fir), although of more rapid growth on the loam than on the sand; -and the best Scots fir we have ever seen, of equal age and quickness of -growth, is growing upon Carse land (clayey alluvium). - -The reason that Scots fir is of better quality, and more resinous, on -good loam and moist till, than on poor siliceous ground, may probably -be, that the loam contains more oleaginous matter, and other {304} -vegetable products which bear a near relation to resinous, and which, -transmitted upwards from the roots, may occasion richer assimilated -juices. Men fed upon whale or seal blubber, if the digestion is good, -have much fatty deposit upon the body, and the perspired fluid is oil. -It is a fact well known to every intelligent farmer, that _infield_ or -_croft_ land, that is land, which, having been earliest cultivated, -was, of course, the best soil at first, and which has also been long -highly manured at the cost of the _outfield_, and therefore containing -much oleaginous and other matter, products of organization, produces -grasses and other vegetables much more nutritive to cattle than the -_outfield_, even though these vegetables be of the same species, and -by reason of more careful culture of those of the _outfield_, also of -the same size of plant. We have also considered that light, poor sandy -soil, which throws up a considerable flush of vegetation in the spring, -partly because it has then sufficient moisture, but which almost -entirely gives over producing throughout the latter part of the summer, -partly because the winter’s moisture is exhausted, may throw out the -frame or skeleton of a considerable growth, or annual layer of wood, -in the early part of the season, but may not afford sufficient matter -for the filling up or {305} maturing the layer into good dense timber -later in the season, when the assimilated fluid or sap is believed to -descend. - -Our author states, that the timber of pruned trees must be inferior -to that of trees with many side-branches, because the consequent -contracting and twisting of the vessels as they pass the junction of -the branches and stem, obstruct the descent of the sap, thence the -timber is better matured, and in firs has more of resinous deposit. We -admit that the resinous deposition is more abundant in knots and in -some of the parts adjacent; but the timber is not better throughout. -Worm-eating may be observed to commence generally in the neighbourhood -of knots. Although one part of the wood, in consequence of the -obstruction of the knot, be more dense and resinous, another part, -immediately above or below the knot, where the growths are extended to -fill up the vacant space, where the worming commences, is less dense, -and of inferior durability, and corruption begun, extends. The knotted -timber, of course, is very inferior in strength and value to the clean. -We would refer the longer continued flow of sap from maple and birches, -which have many side-branches, in part, to the lower or side-branches -commencing to vegetate sooner in the {306} spring than the top of -the tree; this successive commencement of vegetation prolonging the -bleeding. - -Again, in larch, we find that by far the hardest and most durable wood -is grown upon poor, hard, thin tills (that is, thin of vegetable mould -upon the diluvium), even where the root-rot commences about thirty -years of age. Now, we ask, is this the natural soil of larches? We have -not, however, found larch from rich loam, of better quality than from -poor sand, as we have observed in Scots fir. We also consider larch, -grown on a proper larch soil—on sound soil and subsoil, or sound rock, -common in acclivous situation—superior in quality to larch of equal -quickness of growth, raised on rich loam or sand, though not equal to -larch of slow growth from the above mentioned poor tills. - -We would ask how our author is enabled to assume, as an axiom, that -trees produce the best timber in their natural locality? We would also -desire some _rational_ information to shew in what manner pruning -up can in any way conduce generally, to the increase of the timber, -or to the enlargement of one-stemmed vegetables. A tree naturally -rises in one stem. It throws out its branches in the disposition most -favourable to draw the fullest benefit from the light and air. It of -its own {307} accord (that is when man does not meddle), gradually -raises its pyramidal centre, with proportional lateral spread, as high -as is befitting, for the fullest expansion of the individual, under -the circumstances of its location. Man may mar this beautiful natural -balance easier than decypher the proximate cause he may throw the -new deposit of wood in greater proportion upon the upper part of the -stem, rendering his beam more suitable from equality of thickness, -and particularly in pines, of cleaner, smaller growthed, more durable -timber, thence more valuable. But the tree will neither produce the -same quantity of measurable timber in a considerable number of years, -nor will it ultimately reach to nearly the same size, nor continue life -nearly so long, as when left to itself. Man’s interference is useful -in removing competitors, in giving it lateral room for extension, -in _training_ it skilfully to one leader and subordinate equality -of feeders, should transplanting, early pruning up, or other cause, -destroy the natural regular pyramidal disposition—not in pruning it up, -thus reducing it to narrower compass, and destroying its balance to the -locality. - -The use of the infinite seedling varieties in the families of plants, -even in those in a state of nature, differing in luxuriance of growth -and local adaptation, {308} seems to be to give one individual (the -strongest best circumstance-suited) superiority over others of its kind -around, that it may, by overtopping and smothering them, procure room -for full extension, and thus affording, at the same time, a continual -selection of the strongest, best circumstance-suited, for reproduction. -Man’s interference, by preventing this natural process of selection -among plants, independent of the wider range of circumstances to -which he introduces them, has increased the difference in varieties, -particularly in the more domesticated kinds; and even in man himself, -the greater uniformity, and more general vigour among savage tribes, -is referrible to nearly similar selecting law—the weaker individual -sinking under the ill treatment of the stronger, or under the common -hardship. - -As our author’s premises thus appear neither self-evident, nor -supported by facts, it might seem unfair, at least it would be -superfluous, to proceed to the consideration of his conclusions and -corollaries. {309} - - -VII. CRUICKSHANK’S PRACTICAL PLANTER. - -After the preceding parts of this volume had gone to press, we received -a copy of Cruickshank’s Practical Planter. We endeavour to give a short -view of the contents. - -The author commences with some general remarks on the expediency and -profit of laying uncultivated ground under timber, stating, rather too -strongly, the very superior income derivable from forest than from -heathy moors, and its advantages to the soil. No doubt, a great portion -of the higher and more rocky part of Scotland is susceptible of little -other improvement than planting; and, under timber, would produce more -than ten times the income that it does in pasture; and the patriotic -motive of embellishing his country, and enriching his countrymen, may -excuse his having drawn the advantages of planting in rather high -colours. Mr Cruickshank’s statement (as he says, designedly kept rather -below the truth), that an acre of moor, of average quality, covered -with Scotch fir, sixty years {310} planted, would contain 600 trees, -value 10s. each, differs considerably from what has come within our -experience. The timber of an acre of Scotch fir, sixty years planted in -such waste ground as occurs in the valley of the Tay, will not average -much more than one hundred pounds per acre on the spot, and laid down -on the quay at Newcastle (the place to which the greater part of the -Scotch fir on the east of Scotland is carried), would not produce L. -300 per acre. - -In order the more to encourage planting, Mr Cruickshank runs into a -speculative statement of the fertilizing influence of planting upon -the soil, in rather a novel manner, leaving out the particular facts, -which, he says, had come under his own observation, and adducing one -as proof, furnished to him by another person unnamed. We have often -had occasion to see ground, which had produced a crop of firs, brought -under tillage without any marked fertility beyond the adjacent fields -which had been under proper rotation of cropping, certainly inferior -to what had lain for the same length of time in natural grass pasture. -There is a particular instance in a slight rising ground (diluvial -soil) in the Carse of Gowrie, where the fields, since the rooting out -of the fir-wood, have not paid seed and labour in corn, though {311} -under regular manuring and rotation. There are even varieties of pine, -such as the loblolly, which are known to have an influence upon the -soil where they grow poisonous to succeeding crops. Mr Cruickshank -himself adverts several times to ground which had produced a crop of -timber, being _boss_ (hollow) from the roots remaining in the soil, -and owing to this hollowness being unsuited for replanting till the -roots were removed or consumed. We do not very well comprehend this -hollowness, and ascribe the unsuitableness for replanting immediately, -rather to exhaustion, or to the formation of something inimical to -vegetation, than to any hollowness or manner of arrangement of the soil. - -As the causes which promote or retard the formation, or which tend to -dissipate the earth’s covering of vegetable mould—a covering, on the -richness or thickness of which the fertility of ground, as well for -most kinds of naval timber as for other products, is so much dependent, -though of the greatest importance—have never, that we are aware of, -been generally brought into view, we shall devote some space to their -consideration. - -In the first place, to give a fair specimen of our author, we shall -transcribe several pages where he {312} has treated this subject with -some ingenuity, and on which he appears to have bestowed considerable -care. - - “Those who have never had an opportunity of seeing old woodlands - brought into cultivation, will scarce credit what has now been - advanced, that the soil should be enriched by the production of wood, - when the experience of ages has proved that it is always exhausted by - other crops.”—“Trees draw their nourishment from a much greater depth - than any of the grasses, roots, or different kinds of grain raised - by the agriculturist. Most of the latter derive the whole of their - subsistence from the part of the soil that lies within a few inches of - the surface; but the former, from the superior strength and magnitude - of their roots, are enabled to penetrate much farther, and extract - food from the very rock which forms the substratum of a great portion, - both of our cultivated and uncultivated grounds. This, though it does - not account for lands being positively enriched by wood, makes it, at - the same time, far less surprizing that trees should grow to a large - size, and yet not exhaust the upper part of the soil in so great a - degree as most of the crops cultivated by the farmer. - - “There is another circumstance which gives ground in wood a great - advantage over that in {313} tillage, which is, that the leaves of - the trees are suffered to decay and rot where they fall, and, by - this means, an annual addition is made to the depth of the vegetable - mould. Now, the leaves of a tree may be considered as bearing the same - proportion to the trunk and branches, in respect to the nourishment - which they require, as the straw of corn bears to the grain. But the - manure which cultivated land receives, is, in general, little more - than the straw which grows on it after it has served for food or - litter to cattle. Ground in wood, then, actually receives, in the - annual fall of the leaves, as much enrichment as the farmer bestows on - his land under tillage. - - “Ground employed in agriculture is exposed at almost every season of - the year to the full action of the atmosphere; and in the drought and - heat of summer, much of its strength is evaporated. In land covered - with wood, the case is entirely different, as from the shade afforded - by the leaves and branches, very little evaporation takes place. - This, then, is another reason that serves in some measure, at least, - to explain the seemingly paradoxical fact in question. For, that - evaporation has a very powerful tendency to exhaust land, by drawing - off and dissipating the more volatile part of the matter which {314} - assists in the process of vegetation, there can be no doubt, when we - consider that any kind of dung may be deprived of the greater part - of its strength by being long exposed to a dry atmosphere. Nor is it - merely by preserving its own original substance that land in wood has - the advantage of cultivated ground. Whatever is extracted from the - latter in the form of vapour, falls again, when condensed, in the - shape of rain or dew; but, instead of descending wholly on the same - spots from whence it rose, it is, of course, diffused over the whole - space which the clouds, containing it, may happen to cover, and woods - and moors have as good a chance of receiving it on its return to the - earth, as the ground in tillage. The part of it which falls, either - on the cultivated fields or the naked wastes, may be again evaporated - before it has time to be productive of any benefit; but the portion - of it which the woodlands imbibe is retained to enrich the soil; for, - the umbrage excluding the rays of the sun, there is no possibility of - its being extracted a second time. Land covered with trees, therefore, - while it never loses any thing, receives, with every fall of rain, - or of dew, a tribute from the riches of the cultivated part of the - country. The advantage derived from this source is greater than - will be credited by those who are not aware how much {315} of the - substances proper for vegetable nutriment are exhaled from the land in - a gaseous state during the dry season of the year. - - “But the principal way in which wood becomes instrumental in enriching - land still remains to be noticed. When trees attain a certain size, - they attract multitudes of birds, which build their nests and seek - shelter among the branches. The dung of these animals is the very - richest kind of manure which can be applied to land, and possesses, at - least, three times the strength of that commonly used in agriculture. - The quantity of it produced during the long series of years which - trees require to reach maturity is, especially where large colonies of - crows take up their abode, very considerable, and must have a powerful - influence in improving and fertilizing the soil. - - “I ought not to omit here to mention, among the causes why ground is - improved by producing wood—the minuteness into which its particles - are divided by the roots and their fibres. On taking up a young tree, - or even a gooseberry bush, and shaking the earth from its roots, we - find the mould that falls from it as completely reduced to powder, as - if it had been passed through a fine sieve. Now, the fact {316} seems - undoubted, that land is much increased in fertility by being brought - to this state.” - -Whether a greater accumulation of vegetable mould or enriching of -the soil, would take place under a system of rotation of crops, -stirring of the ground, and manuring, or under Nature’s own system -of management—whether, under forest, or under the rich leafy grasses -depastured by cattle, is a question of the greatest intricacy, and -only admits of local decision, being dependent upon climate, soil, -and circumstance. From our author’s statements, it would appear that -his mind had only ranged along the surface of the subject. He has not -taken into account the quantity of root which herbaceous vegetables -annually leave in the ground—in some kinds little inferior in bulk to -the portion above ground. We have traced oat and wheat roots running -down into clay five and six feet (as deep as those of many kinds of -trees), extremely numerous, and fine as human hair. He seems not aware -that the bulk of yearly vegetable produce is much increased by culture, -alternate cropping, and extraneous manure, such as lime, mixture of -earths, sea-ware, bones. He has not considered that the annual dead -roots within the soil, and the vegetable and animal manure, and the -{317} sward and the stubble ploughed down, conduce much more to enrich -and thicken the soil than the tree leaves, blown about by the winds, -and nearly dissipated into air, before the residuum fixes as a part -of the soil; and also that ploughing is often beneficial to shallow -soils, by mixing the thin covering of mould with the pure earth of -the subsoil,—the vegetable soil-matter, from consequent deeper cover, -and more equable moisture, not losing so much by evaporation, and at -the same time being more efficacious as nutriment to the vegetation. -He seems unacquainted with the fact, that the matter of wood and -tree-leaves, especially of the resinous kinds, and those containing -much tannin, if not actually pernicious, have very little fertilizing -effect—saw-dust has generally no manuring influence, but turns into -peat. He also appears to be ignorant, that some kinds of vegetables -draw more from the air and water, and others more from the earth; -and, especially, that vegetables in a moist climate, depastured or -cut before maturity, exhaust the soil much less than when allowed to -seed. In Britain, soils, particularly those of good quality, become -richer, and thicken more under pasturage, than under any other common -vegetation. This is owing to the manuring of the cattle—to the natural -grasses not being what is termed scourging plants, especially {318} -when not allowed to seed—to the complete cover of the ground by the -leaves—to the quantity of root which dies annually—and to the mould -thrown up by the red earth-worm, renovating the surface, and partly -covering the moss and decayed leaves and old bulbs. It is a curious -fact, that, under pasturage, fertility should increase in Britain and -diminish in Australia. An uncropt deep cover of grass appears necessary -to shelter the vegetable soil-matter during the arid heat, and even to -protect the roots from being burned out, in the latter country. And the -manure of cattle, instead of being covered by the luxuriant herbage -before it is desiccated, and enriching the soil as in England, is, in -New South Wales, under the powerful sun and arid air, quickly reduced -to dust and dissipated. - -The fertility of soils may also be quickly increased, and the vegetable -cover thickened almost to any extent under tillage, by first rearing -a quantity of large growing annual vegetables, and when nearly full -extended, burying this green vegetable produce in drills, resowing the -ground immediately with another fast growing kind, and proceeding thus -continuedly. - -The influence of birds in enriching forest soil, is exceedingly -limited, and is chiefly perceptible, not in continued forest, but in -some detached portions or {319} clumps of park trees, which colonies -of rooks or other large birds frequent. - -Of the natural grass which Mr Cruickshank states succeeds in woods -to the original heaths, and which he describes as affording such -excellent tender food for cattle, we can only say, that either the -woods must have been unprofitably thin, and the trees naked, or that -he has completely mistaken the quality of the herbage. The grass of -woods is unhealthy food for cattle, and generally not relished, being -rendered unpalatable and noxious by the resinous and bitter droppings -from the tree leaves, and by the bitter and nauseous juices generated -in the soil by the roots of trees, which the herbage roots draw up. -In dry soils, there is sometimes an accumulation of whitish substance -within the ground, around the roots of trees, which some refer to -excrementitious deposit[61], but which, we think, is rather the produce -of a subterraneous vegetable, of the nature of a fungus or mould. -Wherever this has increased to a considerable extent, we believe old -forest ground will be found of great fertility. {320} - -The friability and minute division of the soil to which Mr -Cruickshanks refers, existing around the bulbs of trees, can only be -of utility where the soil is too adhesive. Light soil is often injured -by being cropped by plants which tend greatly to reduce adhesion—what -the farmer styles being _driven_: besides, all luxuriant annual crops -render adhesive soils friable; and, remaining for a time under natural -grass, gives what is termed a turfiness to soils, which continues for -several years, and which renders both adhesive and light soils more -productive, preventing the adhesive from sinking down into mortar -under cultivation, and the light from losing all adhesion or granular -arrangement. - -There is, no doubt, a disposition to accumulate vegetable deposit -in forests, from the moistness, coolness of the ground, and shade, -not tending so much as the sunshine and exposure of open country to -dissipate or volatilize the residuum of the decayed leaves and roots. -In a lower latitude, beyond the line of peat formation, this will have -some influence to increase the depth and richness of the vegetable -mould; but, in Scotland, where cold till bottom prevails, more injury -will result from forest tending to throw the debri of vegetation into -combinations unfavourable to the nourishment of plants (such as peat -{321} and compounds in which iron forms a part), than advantage, from -the dead vegetable matter not being so much dissipated by aration and -exposure to the sun. We have often observed the effect of remaining for -a length of time in a state of considerable dryness, dissipating the -vegetable part of the soil, in some of the old infield clays, where -the crown of the large ridges are raised up a foot or two above the -original surface-level. At the crown of the ridge, the vegetable clay -mould often only extends down about nine inches from the surface, the -subsoil immediately under being nearly void of vegetable matter, and -extremely close tenacious clay,—a solid foot of it, though of equal -moistness, being nearly double the weight of the same bulk of the -vegetable clay mould above it. From this clay, almost purely mineral, -being a little above the original surface-level, there can be no doubt, -that at one time it consisted of the vegetable surface mould of the -country, heaped up by repeated ploughings, and that it has gradually -lost the vegetable part. The depth of vegetable soil, near the furrows -of the ridges, is generally found to be greater than at the ridge crown. - -The same dissipation of vegetable matter takes place when a ditch has -been dug in clay ground, and {322} the excavated earth thrown up to -form a dike on one side. On removal of the dike, the original surface, -which no doubt, at the time the dike was formed, consisted of vegetable -clay mould similar to the surface around, is always found to be close, -heavy, poor clay, containing little or no carbonaceous or vegetable -matter. In this case, from the draining effect of the ditch, the -original surface under the dike must have been drier than the subsoil -of the crowns of the ridges. - -The difference of depth and richness of vegetable mould, may nearly -always be referred to existing causes, such as the original surface -(diluvium, or decayed rock), being a combination of earths favourable -to vegetation; occupying a genial situation; being favourably placed -with regard to moisture, that is, less or more moist, according as the -original surface has been clayey or sandy, or open or close bottomed; -and is in no way connected with those flood torrents to which we owe -the diluvium deposits themselves—tills, sand and gravel, in which -we have never found any vegetable matter, excepting in the coaly or -mineralized state. - -Unless in the case of alluvium, or of drift sand, or where surface -earth has been rolled down from {323} heights, or been _forced_ by -man[62], soil is seldom found to exceed 6 feet in depth, and that only -in warm moist situations, propitious to vegetation. In Scotland we -never have seen it exceed 3 or 4 feet in depth where its accumulation -had not been aided by the above causes. The most common depth is from -6 inches to 2 feet; but, in many of our sterile districts, the surface -hardly deserves the name of mould, containing very little vegetable -matter, or that matter being unavailable from the presence of tannin. - -It is a well known fact, that summer-fallowing always dissipates a -portion of the vegetable matter in the soil, although it may, at the -same time, tend to fertility, especially in adhesive soils, and where -the climate is not very arid and warm, overbalancing the loss from -dissipation by the advantage resulting from aëration and absorption -of gases and heat, and the sun’s rays; by the mechanical disposition -and comminution from being thoroughly dried and then moistened; and, -probably, by the formation of salts, {324} stimulative to vegetation; -or, as it has been thought, by the resting for a season. In the case -of any tannin or inert vegetable matter existing in the soil, the -heat and drying will tend to reduce these to a condition suitable for -vegetable food. In the West Indies, when a summer fallowing is resorted -to in order to get clear of the weeds, the fertility of the ground -is considerably lessened, from the evaporation or burning out of the -putrescent or carbonaceous matter. Were the fallowing continued for -several successive seasons, there is no doubt that the whole matter, -which, combined with earth, forms mould, would be dissipated. - -About a century ago, it was the practice, in our neighbourhood (an -alluvial clay district), to build up the soil of the fallow division, -furrow deep, into thin dikes, or walls, about 5 feet high. This was -done in early summer. After being dried and aërated by the summer’s -drought, the dikes were levelled down in the autumn and sown with -wheat. This system was considered so fertilizing as to counterbalance -the labour and the loss of a crop. - -Our own practice has proven that there is scarcely any manure more -effective for one crop, particularly of spring sowing, than the clay of -old mud walls of {325} houses, though applied in no larger quantity -than is usually given of farm-yard manure, and though the clay appear -quite free from vegetable matter. It is improbable that the resting -of the clay from production could have any effect to occasion this -fertility. We considered it to arise chiefly from a quantity of nitre -having been formed in, or deposited about, the walls from their long -proximity to animal effluvia and to atmospheric air. The fertilizing -effect of the dike system of summer-fallow, and even of the present -system, may also depend in part on the formation of nitre, well known -to be a powerful manure or stimulant in this country. In dry seasons we -have scraped together handfuls of salts, partly nitre, from the exposed -surface of clay-banks. Should a considerable part of the fertilizing -effect of fallowing arise from the formation of nitre, the application -of lime and putrescent manures to fallows, in the early part of -summer, will be advantageous, as the presence of both are favourable -to the formation of nitre. Of course, the utility of encouraging the -formation[63] of {326} nitre or other salts, combinations of potassa -or of soda, will depend on the climate, whether much or little rain -falls, and whether the rain water goes off by evaporation or by -drainage. In the case of little rain, or the rain-water being nearly -all evaporated, nitre and other salts will accumulate in the soil, so -as, from their excess, to be injurious to vegetation; whereas, should -much rain fall, or the rain-water be chiefly carried off by drainage, -vegetation may languish from deficiency of these salts, there being -less deposition of the salts, or the salts as they form being washed -away. The same will apply to the graminivorous animals. Sea-salt, -perhaps also nitre and other salts, will be serviceable in a moist -country, or far from the sea, where the plants and water contain little -saline matter, and probably pernicious in a dry climate, where the -plants and water generally contain much saline matter. - -In the portion of the earth from the Atlantic eastward, through -Numidia, Libya, Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, Persia, as far as the Indus, -from the enormous ruins, and other vestiges of dense population, -as well as from ancient records, there must have {327} existed a -considerable depth of vegetable mould covering, where now little is -left but pure sand, baked clay, bare rock, and saline encrustations. -From the footing which an industrious and brave nation has recently so -honourably acquired in this territory, may we not hope that the tide -of arid sterility, dissipating the vegetable covering, will be turned, -and that through European enterprise and mechanical science, by means -of steam and wind power, a system of irrigation will be introduced -which will reanimate this dead portion of the earth—spreading forth -again perpetual spring, strewing the desert all over with herbs, and -fruits, and flowers, converting the sirocco into a breeze loaded with -fragrance, and reproducing, in profusion, all the delights of the -gardens of Hesperus? From the carbonaceous or soil-matter being burned -out, and from the quantity of saline deposit, a very considerable time -will, however, elapse before production be generally extended, and -the desert so far circumscribed, and the ground cooled so much, as to -condense a sufficiency of rain and dew, that a new vegetable mould -cover may be formed. - -But to return from our wide exclusion, we observe, that Mr Cruickshank -states, page 25, “that any land that is proper for Scots fir will be -found to answer well with the larch.” This observation, with {328} -what he says of larch “being heavier in proportion to its bulk” than -Scots fir, and that “spruce is very easily wrought, and tries the -carpenter’s tools less than any other kind of wood used in building,” -would lead us to suspect that our author has had a very limited -acquaintance with his subject. A number of different soils will produce -large Scots fir where larches will be generally rotted and hollow in -the heart, by twenty years of age[64]. This ignorance of our author is -the more glaring, as it is coupled with {329} some severe strictures -on planters in general for _their ignorance_ of the proper location -of trees. He says, “Scots fir, on soils of a fertile character, is -short lived, and the excellence of its timber is in proportion to -the slowness of its growth.” This is erroneous. We would rather say -it is short-lived in bad soil: Memel fir (Pinus sylvestris), is of -very superior quality, very large growthed, and of great age. He also -asserts “elm prefers a strong clay soil, and it is perhaps impossible -to bring this tree to the utmost size it is capable of attaining in -land of a different quality.” This is also erroneous. We have seen very -beautiful large Scots elms grubbed out from a soil of pure gravel, and -we can show thousands of instances where Scots elms do not thrive well -in clay—in rich as well as poor clay. We are aware that in every volume -treating of numerous facts, such as Mr Cruickshank’s, many inaccuracies -may always be picked out, but the above are rather too prominent. - -Mr Cruickshank censures the practice of covering fir seeds one-half -inch deep in England, referring the {330} demand there for Scots -plants to the seeds being thus buried in place of being sown, and -states that they should only be covered one-fourth of an inch, as is -the practice in Aberdeenshire. He also reprehends the author of the -Encyclopædia of Gardening, on account of some directions which this -author has given, to form, by forcing, a fine friable soil, suitable -for the delicate seeds of trees, where this does not previously exist. -Now, we should consider that the difference of climate between the -neighbourhood of London and Aberdeen would require a difference of -cover nearly equal to this; and that forcing a friable earth for -seed-beds was absolutely necessary, in the very adhesive clays around -London, and so general in the more recent formations of the south and -middle of England, although superfluous in the north of Scotland, -where sandy or light soil is sufficiently abundant. Seeds, under a -moist cloudy atmosphere, will vegetate without cover at all; but in -situations where the air is arid in spring, with much sunshine, a -covering of some depth is necessary, and that covering, where the -rudiments of the plant spring out weak and delicate, is required to be -soft and friable, a good absorber and retainer of moisture, and not -disposed to run together with rain, or crack with drought. - -Mr Cruickshank gives an account of our different {331} forest -trees, neither very accurate nor interesting, but, luckily, not very -tedious. He then proceeds to treat of nursery, sowing, transplanting, -and choosing of plants, where many sensible, though some of them -common-place, observations occur, of much use to the generality -of planters. His views, however, of the proper manner of planting -seedlings in the nursery, are defective. The best method of planting -these—neither by laying, nor by dibbling—is first to stretch the -line and make a furrow, level in the bottom, as broad as the roots -may stretch, with the inner side straight and steep. One person then -holds the plant erect in its berth, from two to four inches from the -perpendicular side, according to the general size of the horizontal -roots, so that the fibres may be regularly spread; and another person -throws on the earth from the place of the next furrow; the placer of -the plants footing the earth to the roots as he proceeds, or after the -row is completed. - -The following observations of Mr Cruickshank are worthy the attention -of planters: - - “Proprietors should not attempt to raise seedlings, but purchase - them from professional nurserymen, and place them in a succession - nursery of their own. A proprietor may, in general, purchase seedlings - much cheaper than he can raise them; while the case {332} is just the - reverse with regard to plants of a greater age. In raising seedlings, - much skill and attention is requisite, which the professional man can - always command at a much more reasonable rate than the proprietor. - In the treatment of plants after they are removed from the seed-bed, - the rent of the ground is the chief source of expense, as any common - gardener will be able to manage them.” - - “A general, and a very gross error, in purchasing plants, is to - consider those as best which are the largest in proportion to their - age. This absurd principle of selection makes those nurseries most - frequented by customers which least deserve to be so, such, namely, - as are situated in the richest soils, surrounded by the closest - shelter, and stimulated by the greatest quantities of manure. It is - necessary, no doubt, that plants should be of a size to suit them to - the situations for which they are intended; but if they have attained - this size sooner than the due time by being forced, they are in the - worst state imaginable for growing in a barren moor, or on the bleak - side of a mountain.” - - “Plants are often much injured, though raised sufficiently hardy in - other respects, by being too much crowded in the nursery line.”—“The - surest method that I know of enabling those who have little {333} - experience, to ascertain whether plants, in the seed-bed, are too - much crowded or not, is to compare such as grow on the verge of the - alley with those in the interior. If the girt of the latter be equal, - or nearly so, to that of the former, the plants have sufficient - room.”—“When plants have stood for several years in nursery lines, - if they are too much crowded, many of their lower branches will be - sickly or withered, or the stems will be entirely devoid of branches, - excepting within a few inches of the top. This is a mark so plain that - no one can mistake. - - “Care should be taken not to purchase plants which betray symptoms of - disease. When larches not more than three years old cast the whole, - or even the greater part, of their leaves, just when the winter - commences, it is a sure sign that they are in an unhealthy state, and - that many of them will die in the course of next season; for, under - this age, the larch should retain a considerable quantity of its old - leaves till spring.”—“There is also a minute white insect, which - is fatal to the larch in plantations, that sometimes attacks it in - the nursery after it enters its second year; on this account, it is - proper to examine the larch plants the summer previous to purchasing - them.”—“Scots fir maybe regarded as sickly, when the points of the - leaves become withered, or {334} when they change their naturally - dark colours into a faint yellowish green. Any vestige of withering - on the spruce or silver fir, is a sure prognostication of approaching - decay. Any kind of fir which has lost its leader may be considered - useless. - - “When plants are packed up in mats for the conveniency of carriage, - strict orders should be given that those which carry their leaves in - winter be taken up when they are entirely free from moisture. If they - be pulled wet, they will heat and get mouldy in the packages. In the - course of a few days good plants are often spoiled in this manner.” - -Mr Cruickshank does not swerve from the common foolish system, of -inculcating a determinate character of soil as generally necessary for -each kind of tree. We are angry with the dulness of the writers on -location of timber; they will not comprehend that a tree has two ends, -by both of which it draws moisture, though from different elements, -earth and air. The dullest clown is sensible he requires to drink more -under an arid sun than under a drizzling rain. The same holds of trees; -if there be little evaporation of moisture from the leaves, and if the -leaves, instead of exhaling, can frequently even imbibe water, from the -plant occupying an elevated situation, where the air the greater part -of the season {335} is cool, and nearly surcharged with moisture, the -most porous, driest soil (sufficiently damp in such a situation), will -generally be the most suitable; and trees of every kind will prosper in -sands, in which, under a dry atmosphere, they would not have survived -one summer; whereas in arid, warm, low country, the deepest, dampest -loams and clays are generally the best suited for timber, provided -water does not stagnate. And, besides, we have found varieties of the -same kind or species of tree, _some of them adapted to prosper in dry -air and soil, and others in moist air and soil_. Although the above -causes prevent a positive limitation of certain kinds of trees to -certain soils, yet there are some which have superior adaptation to -moist soils and others to dry; some whose roots, from their fibrous -soft character, can only spread luxuriantly on light, soft, or mossy -soils, and others, whose roots have power to permeate the stiffest -and most obdurate. The above explanations will account for much of -the incongruity which we find in authors regarding the adaptation of -certain kinds of timber to certain soils. - -In describing the soils suitable for different kinds of trees, Mr -Cruickshank mentions, that “the Scots fir will thrive in very barren -situations, provided the soil be dry. Dryness is, in fact, the {336} -most indispensable requisite in order to produce a good crop of Scots -fir, and it is never advisable to plant this tree in very moist ground, -or where draining is necessary to carry off the surface water.”—“Stiff -land seems decidedly hostile to its growth.”—“On a deep rich soil -it grows very fast, attains a large size, and soon decays. In these -circumstances, its wood is spongy, and of inferior value.”—“The most -important precept that can be delivered with regard to this tree, is -never to plant it either in _wet_ or _very stiff_ land.” - - “The larch is also a very hardy plant, and is sure to thrive on any - land that will answer for the Scots fir. It is, however, less delicate - in its choice of soil than the latter, and will grow in a much greater - degree of moisture.”—“This tree is one of the surest growers we have - in barren soils.” - - “The spruce is as partial to moist land as the Scots fir is to dry; - and in this particular these two species stand directly opposed to one - another.”—“Spruce may indeed appear to thrive in a dry situation for - a few years; but by the time it reaches ten or twelve feet in height, - its lower branches will decay, and after that period it will make - little progress, but remain even a cumberer of the soil.”—“ Spruce - seems to be most partial to a cold stiff clay: it is, {337} however, a - very hardy plant, and not very nice in its choice of soil, provided it - have enough of sap.”—“I do not mean such as is deluged in winter with - stagnant water. This is incompatible with the growth of wood of every - kind.”—“The silver fir and balm of Gilead will answer in the same - kinds of land as the spruce.”—“They, together with the spruce, are - invaluable for where the soil is deep peat-moss, as neither the Scots - fir nor the larch will thrive in it.” - - * * * * * - -There is in the above quotations, in common with many of our opinions -(formed hastily upon a too partial acquaintance with facts), a -considerable proportion both of truth and error. Such sweeping -assertions will, however, generally command the assent and admiration -of the reader. From the enjoyment the mind has in forming clear -conceptions and reaching conclusions, from its love of order, and from -its disposition to cling to every thing like definite, unfluctuating -arrangement, to assist its limited powers of comprehension, we are led -away by the author, who reduces the character of natural phenomena to -great simplicity, although in reality exceedingly complicated. - -Scots fir, it is true, has rather a superior adaptation to dry, sharp, -and rocky soils; yet there are many {338} situations of poor wet till -and clay, and even peat-moss ground, where it will be advantageous -to plant Scots fir in preference to any other kind of timber; for -this plain reason, that no other kind will thrive so well in those -cold moist moors. Both Larix and Abies have a much narrower range of -adaptation than Pinus sylvestris. Larch will not thrive in the dead -sand nor till flats of the low country, often not in the dead sand and -till of rising grounds, in both of which the Scots fir, if allowed -sufficient room for side branching, will reach good-sized timber. There -is a considerable formation of peat-moss near Dunmore, in which the -Scots fir has shown superior adaptation to the Norway spruce. We have -also seen, in the moss of Balgowan, Perthshire, fine thriving Scots -firs, many of them two feet in diameter, growing in very moist, rich, -mossy loam,—so moist, that although in a rather protected situation, -a number of the trees, while young, had been laid on their sides by -the wind, and were growing luxuriantly in the form of a quadrant of -a circle, with as much as six and eight feet of the stem upon the -level ground, affording a curve sufficient to reach from the keel of a -vessel to the deck at midships. We examined the timber of several of -these, and found it superior to the average of home P. sylvestris. The -superior {339} quality of the timber may be ascribed to the richness -and moisture of the soil, and to the full branching of the trees from -their rather open arrangement. There is nothing which conduces so much -to the good quality of Scots fir as exposure. Under the great shelter -of the close _planted_ woods, the timber is soft and porous, without -much resin; but under great exposure, especially to dry air, the timber -is hard, close, and resinous. This is, however, considerably modified -by the soil. - -The quality of natural grown timber is considered superior to the -planted. Is this occasioned by the former having generally more -branches and leaves in proportion to the length of the stem, and being -more exposed than the latter? Can root fracture at transplanting, -or the kiln-drying of the cones, have any influence to diminish the -strength of the fibre or quantity of resinous deposit? We have been -told by several old people, in the neighbourhood of Dunsinane, that -Scots fir plants, brought more than half a century ago from Mar Forest -to Dunsinane Wood, succeeded much better than some which had been -procured from nurseries, and also produced better timber. - -Clay is assuredly _not_ the proper soil for spruce and silver fir; -their exceedingly numerous, soft, fibrous, moss-like rootlets, require -an easy damp soil. {340} We have tried a number of kinds of abies, -in both dry and moist clay, and have found they did not grow so -luxuriantly (thrive so well) as Scots fir or larch. The silver fir -shewed superior adaptation to any of the other kinds of abies. - -Almost in every instance where we have seen the silver fir and Norway -spruce (by far the best spruce for Scotland) growing together, the -former was the superior. The timber, in the lower part of the stem, is -harder than that of the spruce, but freer and more porous in the upper -part. It is probable that the silver fir will not thrive in so elevated -or so moist a situation as the spruce, but in all favourable soils it -merits a preference. - -We now come to a very important part of our author’s volume—an account -of the most economical, and, as he says, the most successful, mode -of planting moors and bleak exposed mountains, but which is brought -forward by him under no limitation to place. To the invention of this -method, our author lays no claim; he merely describes the practice in a -clear and judicious manner. - - “The most proper time for removing firs from the nursery to waste - land, is when they are two years old.”—“The experience I have had - enables me to say, with as much confidence as I can speak on {341} - any point whatever, that the longer any fir is allowed to remain - in the nursery after it has attained two years’ growth, so much - the less chance is there of its success when removed to its final - destination.”—“At this period (two years’ growth) larches may be - obtained transplanted, as it is customary to put considerable numbers - of them out into nursery-lines when they are one year old. Such plants - have better roots than those that have remained in the seed-bed till - they are of the same age; but as their price is considerably higher - than that of the latter, it is somewhat doubtful whether they are so - much superior in quality as to compensate for the greater expense. At - all events, healthy larches from the seed-bed have never failed to - give satisfaction when properly planted in soil suitable for them. - Other species of fir are scarce ever transplanted in the nursery till - they are two years old, so of this age there is no choice left but to - take them from the seed-bed.”—“Birch, alder, and mountain ash, succeed - well when removed from the nursery in their second year.”—“Beech - and plane do not succeed well unless they have stood some time (two - years at least) in nursery lines, after having been removed from the - seed-bed.” - - “The pitting system of planting should be {342} adopted in every - instance in which the plants exceed two years old. - - “The expense of planting was much reduced by the introduction, about a - century ago, of the notching system. Of this there are two varieties, - the oldest of which may be described as follows:—One person makes a - notch in the ground, or rather two notches crossing each other, with - a common spade, raising the sod by bending down the handle of the - instrument, till the notch become wide enough to receive the roots of - the plant. An assistant, with a bundle of trees, slips the root of - one into the aperture thus made for its reception. The spade is then - withdrawn, and the closing of the sod on the root is assisted by a - smart blow of the heel of the planter. In this way two persons, well - practised in the work, will put into the ground between five hundred - and a thousand per day. - - “This system was much simplified about fifty years ago, and rendered - so expeditious, that it seems in vain to look for its receiving any - further improvement. Instead of the spade, an instrument of nearly - the same shape, but so small that it can be wrought with one hand as - easily as a common garden-dibble, was introduced, and is now known by - the name of the Planting-iron. With this, a notch is made in {343} - the ground to receive the root; and owing to the portability of the - tool, and its occupying but one of the hands, the person that works it - requires no assistant, but, carrying a parcel of plants in a wallet - before him, he singles out one with his left hand, inserts it in the - notch, withdraws the implement, fixes the plant with his heel, and - proceeds with as much apparent ease as if he were performing the - operation in the soft ground of the nursery. In this way of planting, - the workman goes forward in such a line as he can judge of by his eye; - and as it is extremely difficult to see the plants after they are put - in, especially if the heath is pretty long, he sets up poles in the - first line, to enable him to keep the second a due distance from it; - and in planting the last mentioned, he removes these poles into it as - he comes opposite to them, which then serve as his guide in planting - the third; and thus he proceeds till he cover the whole ground. The - lines thus formed are necessarily so zig-zag, that when the trees grow - up, they do not seem to have been planted in rows. - - “In this way, an expert workman will plant between three and four - thousand young plants a-day, and do it so perfectly, that the fault - will not be his if a single individual of the whole number fail to - {344} grow. I have assisted in planting, according to this plan, - upwards of three thousand acres in Aberdeenshire; and, in all that - extent, I know not of a single instance of failure, where the plants - were in a healthy state when put into the ground, of the proper age - and varieties, and suitable for the soil.” - - “To plant well and expeditiously in this way, requires considerable - dexterity on the part of the workman; and where raw hands are - employed, it will be necessary to have some person to teach and - superintend them.” - -Mr Cruickshank disposes of the old cross system of slit planting -by the spade, with very little ceremony; as it would almost seem, -without being able to appreciate its merits. It is, in fact, a totally -different mode of planting from that by the flat dibble-planter or -planting-iron, and is well adapted for all plants with horizontal -roots, and which have stood from one to three years in the nursery -line. By first striking the spade in perpendicularly, as deep as the -turf-soil, by again striking it in at right angles to the end of -the first cut, in the form of a T, and bending back the spade, the -turf-soil is raised from a horizontal bed, and the first cut opened so -wide as to admit the root, which {345} inserted and drawn a little -along by an experienced hand, and well tramped down, has its rootlets -disposed over the horizontal bottom almost as regularly and well -adjusted for growing, as can be done by pit-planting. This practice -is sometimes performed singly, a clever workman managing the spade -with one hand and the plants with the other, and inserting 1000 each -day. The plants suited for this system are fully double the size of -those suited for the flat-dibble system, and are purchased at about -one half more price, thus enhancing the cost of planting to £1, 10s. -or £2 per acre; but in many situations, especially where the herbage -grows freely, affording an earlier growth, and more regular success, -sufficient to balance the greater expense ten times over. - -Although the cross-system of slitting is the best for commanding -general success, yet wherever the flat dibble planting can be depended -on, it merits a preference, as from the smallness of the plants, the -roots receive less fracture and derangement in the woody state, and the -process comes nearer to raising from the seed _in situ_. - -The expense of each system per acre, will be nearly as follows:— {346} - - _By Cross-slitting, or the Double Notch._ - - 3000 larches and Scots firs, from one to three years transplanted, - at 5s. L.0 15 0 - - 500 hard wood, from one to three years transplanted, - at 12s. 0 6 0 - - 4 days of one superior planter, or of two ordinary - planters, at 3s. 0 12 0 - ――――――――― - L.1 13 0 - - _By the Flat Dibble, or the Single Notch._ - - 4000 larches or Scots firs, from the seed-bed, or one year - transplanted, at 2s. 6d. L.0 10 0 - - 1000 hard-wood plants, 0 7 0 - - 1 1/2 day of a planter, at 2s. 0 3 0 - ――――――――― - L.1 0 0 - -Although our author speaks so confidently of the success of -transplanting out firs at one and two years of age, yet this must only -be taken under limitation to the country in which his experience has -lain,—the barren mountains and moors of Scotland, where the vegetation -of the heaths is extremely slow, and the herbage both thin and short. -Were these small plants used in the superior climates of England and -Ireland, where the vegetation of the grasses, and {347} other natural -occupiers of the soil, is very luxuriant, there would scarcely be one -in a hundred that would ever be seen after the first spring, unless -a very expensive cultivation to check the weeds were resorted to. To -effect economical planting in these soils, it is necessary to have the -plants sufficiently large, not too close together, and placed in rows, -that a mower may be able to distinguish them among the herbage while -he cuts it down; or what is much better, that the spade or plough[65] -culture may be {348} practised, and potatoes, turnips, or other green -crop, raised among them, without the plants being overwhelmed. In case -of grass production, the oftener during the season the young plantation -is mown, the more advantageous, as well that the plants may be the more -easily distinguished, as that the lower branches may not be smothered, -nor the soil so much exhausted and dried by the blooming and seeding -of the herbage; of course, a short scythe is required, and also a very -careful mower. - -Speaking of the best season for planting, Mr Cruickshank states:— - - “In wet and swampy soils, as well as in land, whether dry or moist, - whose surface is bare, I would be inclined to prefer the spring. Wet - land swells to such a degree, that plants which have not had time to - take a firm hold with their roots, are almost {349} inevitably thrown - out.”—“These remarks have reference only to the system of planting by - notching: when the pitting system is adopted, it fixes the plant so - thoroughly, as to render the utmost power of frost incapable of doing - them any injury.”—“The utmost limits of the planting season may be - estimated from the middle of October to the middle of March.”—“I am a - decided advocate for thick planting, and would advise that no fewer - than 3000 trees per acre be planted in good land, nor a less number - than 4000 when the soil is of a middling or inferior quality.” - -Mr Cruickshank must surely have had little acquaintance with soft, -spongy, close-bottomed soils, or he would not have asserted that -pit-planted trees are not subject to be thrown. If planted in the early -part of winter or autumn, trees of the usual size, which have remained -from one to three years in the nursery line, are very frequently -thrown from such soils. This is caused by the freezing earth first -catching fast hold of the plant at the surface, and afterwards swelling -underneath from the enlargement of the freezing water in its pores, -and from the open crystallized _honeycomb_ arrangement which takes -place by congelation. As the stem is fast to {350} the ground at the -surface, and the earth subsequently enlarged underneath as far as the -congelation proceeds, the roots below the congelation must of necessity -be drawn upwards to the distance which the ground has swelled after -the stem was fixed to the surface. The earth, on thaw, first loses -hold of the plant at the surface, and then falls away as it contracts. -Each successive frost and thaw during winter thus raises the plant a -certain space, till by spring it often is so far extracted, as to fall -over on its side. When the plant has stood a season, there is generally -a tuft of herbage around its stem, which prevents the freezing in a -considerable degree; and the roots having fixed in the lower earth, -resist the pulling up so much, that the hold which the frozen earth has -of the stem at the surface gives way, sometimes pulling off a portion -of the bark, and the earth rises around the stem in place of pulling -the tree. - -Instead of the season for spring planting being over by the middle of -March, we think that, in many of our wet moors, it should then only -be commencing, especially under the pitting system. However, planting -should never be deferred a day later in spring than what is absolutely -necessary to render the ground sufficiently dry for the process. {351} - -Mr Cruickshank’s opinions regarding pruning and thinning are generally -not very incorrect. His commencing sentence on pruning, that “most -deciduous trees, if left to themselves, have a tendency to grow with -short trunks, containing little timber, and to waste their strength -on large unwieldy tops,” would, however, lead us to form a different -conclusion. The very tall, clean, straight, deciduous trees, in the -American forests, give a sufficient answer to this. We like his remark -respecting thinning, that “it is only efficacious when applied as a -preventive, not as a cure.” - -Mr Cruickshank next brings forward his plan of raising oak forest, -which appears to have been his own invention, although invented before. -Whenever mice and other gnawers (glires) are not very abundant, it, -if properly executed, would seem to be the best method of raising oak -forest; and, indeed, in many situations, the only practicable one. Mr -Cruickshank’s method coincides nearly with Mr Sang’s, only he does not -carry his system of protection so far as Mr Sang, in first raising -belts of the most hardy kinds of timber, distributed to windward of, -and intersecting the place intended to be planted, in such a manner as -to afford the best possible shelter from the coldest most destructive -{352} winds. Mr Cruickshank, who has never carried his plan into -execution, except in an experiment embracing a few yards, directs that -the ground intended for oak forest should first be planted with Scots -fir and larch, about 4000 to the acre, by the single-notch process, -previously described, which can be accomplished under L. 1 per acre. As -soon as these have risen to four feet in height, he prepares patches -about two feet square and ten feet distant in the interstices, by -digging the soil over, and mixing a spadeful of slaked lime carefully -with the mould, taking out a tree whenever the interstices do not suit -for the patches. He then plants, in the end of March or beginning -of April, five acorns in each patch, about an inch deep, one in -the centre, and the other four in the angles of a foot square, and -gives them no farther attention for two years, except removing any -overhanging low fir branch. He then goes over the patches, cutting out -all the supernumerary plants, a few inches below the surface, leaving -the most promising one on each patch, being very careful not to disturb -any of its roots in cutting out the others. As these oak plants extend -in size, he gradually removes the fir. - -Excepting the bare plan itself, which is certainly very plausible, -there is nothing in the description {353} of the practice—the -preparation of the patches of ground to receive the seed and the -subsequent management—which merits attention. His very particular -interdiction of the use of manure is, to say the least of it, -injudicious—as if it signified to the plant whether it were forced by -the use of lime, or by a little putrescent manure, both of which Mr -Withers would consider very advantageous; or as if there were much fear -on our poor exposed wastes of erring on the side of rendering the plant -delicate from over luxuriance; its constitution, on the contrary, would -rather be strengthened. Mr Cruickshank, in directing the removal of -the fir nurses, one thousand per acre to stand till they have reached -twenty-five years, fit for roofing of cottages, and similar purposes; -and five hundred till they have reached thirty-five years; his dividing -a slaked boll of lime into five hundred spadefuls; and his bestowing no -hoeing or weeding upon his seedlings, would show, without his admitting -it, that he had never practised this mode of forming plantation. - -Prefacing this system of rearing oak forest, Mr Cruickshank in rather -a clever manner points out its advantages, and also the disadvantages -and consequent failures of _planting_ young oak trees in exposed -situations. But after all his eulogy, we think he has {354} left -something unsaid. The great disadvantage attending transplanting oaks -to situations not very favourable to their growth, is, that the plant -which, under any circumstances, receives irreparable and often mortal -harm, from the severe injuries of removal, has to contend, in this -mutilated condition, at the same time with the uninjured occupiers of -the soil (the nurses or the native weeds), and with the unpropitious -situation; whereas, when the plant springs up from the acorn a native, -especially when it is assisted at first by weeding or hoeing, the part -above ground being always in proportion to that below, and receiving -due nourishment, it contends with the occupiers on more equal terms, -and encounters the sterility of the soil, or the severity of the -climate, with all its natural powers unimpaired. - -As it is the natural condition of the seedling to grow up under the -shelter of the parent tree, so also does it happen, that it rises under -this shelter with greater luxuriance and vigour than when exposed to -the evaporation, and parching sun, and battering wind, of the bare -country. - -We have admired the beautiful, straight, luxuriant, shoots of the -young hollies, thrown out under shelter, and have compared them with -the dry stunted shoots of the young holly in the open country, though -in the former case their roots had to contend {355} with the roots -of larger trees, and in the latter they had the soil to themselves. -Experience has proved, that in exposed bleak situations, shelter is -necessary to young plants. Transplanted oaks among the roots of young -trees, so large as to afford sufficient shelter, very frequently do not -succeed, at least without the utmost care in the transplanting, and a -considerable deal of labour to prevent the roots of the shelter trees -from starving the transplanted ones, unless a very propitious moist -summer follow the transplanting. Raising from the seed, which obviates -all this, seems therefore the only conveniently practicable way. Yet it -must be owned, that the system of raising forests _in situ_ from the -seed, appears, as yet, much more successful on paper than on our hills -and moors. - -In endeavouring to confute the opinion, that the oak will not grow -throughout Scotland, but in the milder and more propitious situations, -Mr Cruickshank adduces the well-known fact, that large oak timber is -found in almost every peat-moss. - -This is a fact worth tracing to its cause. Under Nature’s own conduct, -trees advance considerably further into elevated or cold inhospitable -regions, than they would otherwise do, by means of the mutual shelter, -and of the more hardy kinds acting as an advance guard. Yet there is a -limit to this, as the {356} power of ripening seed is not increased -by shelter in proportion to the power of growing—perhaps not at all; -we instance the Spanish chestnut, which has scarcely ever been known -to ripen seed in Scotland. Seed-grown trees will, therefore, under -Nature’s arrangement, not be found extending much beyond _the line of -seed ripening_. From nuts, acorns, and other seeds, fully developed, -being found in elevated mosses in this country, other causes than -shelter appear to have existed. - -Before this country was so much overrun by men and oxen, a great deal -of timber had existed, covering much of the superior land which is now -under tillage. This consisted chiefly of the oak, Scots fir, birch, -hazel, and alder,—the oak extending northward and to elevations, and -ripening seed, and attaining to a size which it does not now do, either -wild or cultivated, in the same latitude, neither here nor in any other -portion of the world; which, along with some other facts, lead to the -supposition, that the climate has changed a little,—in part, possibly, -as we have before stated, from the gradual formation of peat, to which, -overthrown oak forest, from the abundance of the tannin principle, has -a great disposing influence, even under a warmer climate than present -Scotland. The highest latitude to which a tree, or any other kind of -plant, reproducing by seed, {357} naturally extends, depending on the -ripening of the seed, and also on the power of occupancy, is however -different from that where it will grow, when ripe seeds are procured -from the coldest place where they ripen, and all the competitors -removed; and under the system of shelter belts, hardy pine nurses, and -seeds from the nearest place where they ripen, we have no doubt that -oaks may be extended to a colder situation than Nature herself would -have placed them in. For the higher more bleak portion of the country, -we would recommend acorns grown in Scotland, in preference to those -imported from England. We have several times observed wheat, the seed -of which had been imported from England, sustain blight and other -injuries in a cold moist autumn, when a portion of the same field, sown -of Scots seed, at the same time as the other, and under the very same -circumstances, was entirely free from injury. English acorns are also -frequently heated in the casks in which they are imported, which must -impair their vigour[66]. {358} - -The part of Mr Cruickshank’s volume which we have analyzed, does -not extend much beyond the first half: this portion is well worth a -perusal. We have merely glanced over the remainder: it is a make-up -scarce worth noticing. The language, on the whole, is easy and plain; -and although the volume contains a considerable number of errors, in -the pointing out of which we have not been sparing, yet will it form an -excellent planter’s assistant to people who have ground to plant, and -are ignorant of the process of planting. - - * * * * * - -We have now brought before the reader a pretty fair picture of the -Forestry of the present day. Some may wonder that the written science -of arboriculture should be so imperfect and inaccurate; but the -knowledge of the art, and the power of communicating that knowledge, -are of so different a {359} character, it not unfrequently happens, -that those write who cannot act, and those who can, are incompetent -to write—sometimes unwilling; besides, correct opinions on this -subject, as on most others, are only just beginning to be formed. -We have endeavoured to assist in disentangling the correct from -the erroneous. It is impossible for the most wary always to avoid -misconception of facts, but man merits the name of rational only, when -he evinces a readiness to break from those misconceptions, to which -the narrow-minded, the proud, the vain, and the creature of habit -and instinct, cling so obstinately. As a friend, we have stood on no -ceremony with our brother arboriculturists. We have laid ourselves open -to their criticism, and we hope they will shew as little ceremony with -us. - - -ENDNOTES TO PART IV. - -[36] This repetition of our directions on pruning is -intentional—“Carthago est delenda.” - -[37] The coniferæ have a weaker or more connected vitality than most -other trees—the whole individual participating in the injury of any -part. Perhaps this arises from the liability of resinous juice to -putrescency—any putrid affection in one spot of the more vital part of -the tree spreading quickly over the whole. - -[38] Transplanting having an opposite influence on the young of -herbaceous and woody vegetables, in the former when not already rising -into stem, retarding, and the latter accelerating or furthering -development of the reproductory parts, is a good lesson to reasoners -from analogy. The root-fractured herbaceous plants repairing the injury -almost immediately, and before the rudiments of the reproductory parts -have time for expansion, the greater quantity of moist nourishment -afforded by the unsought newly stirred soil, produces a flush of -radical leaves, which react to further the extension of the roots. The -new rootlets have again more connexion to promote the growth of the -radical leaves, and to induce offsets—_tillering_—from the sides of the -bulb, than to nourish or mature the core part, from whence the stem -arises—a certain comparative extension and maturity of the core being -necessary to the rising of the stem. Thence seeding can be retarded, -and life in annuals be continued, _ad libitum_. On the contrary, in -woody vegetables of perennial stem, the reparation of the root-injury -takes place slowly, and the evaporation from the stem and elevated -branches and leaves exhausting the little moisture afforded by the -inadequate root-suction during an entire season, gives time and bias -for the germs to pass into reproductory instead of productory organs -even the first season. - -[39] We rather think Mr Sang mentions this. - -[40] They say a better management has lately been established. This may -be followed for a short time in the high stream of the agitation, or -while the present heads of management remain in power; but the system, -we fear, contains the seeds of evil, which, like the weeds, will soon -overwhelm the alien good. - -[41] The inferior growth of the part of a hedge which was pruned -before the vegetation had begun, may be ascribed to the vital action -having been checked at the commencement by the destruction of the buds -necessary to stimulate this action; and being deprived of this first -strong impulse, life had remained languid throughout the season, the -roots never recovering their proper suction or foraging power;—when the -pruning was later, a sufficient stimulus had already been given. - -[42] Vide Sir Walter Scott. - -[43] The want of the annual layers of cellular tissue of wood, exterior -to and separating the annual lineal tubes, is so complete in some cases -of slow growth, that the timber seems only a light congeries of tubes, -without arrangement; hence the age of the tree cannot be determined but -by a section of the root-bulb, where the growths are larger, and the -deposits regular. - -[44] The climate of a country in regard to annual steadiness, can be -pretty accurately determined by the appearance of the annual layers -of trees, especially of the pine tribe; and in a new settlement where -great difference of size of layer, and of resinous deposit is observed, -we may be pretty certain the seasons are not steady, or that insect -depredations or blights occur; and a reserve of food ought always -to be retained. By careful inspection of the nature of the annual -wood deposit, or of the locality with regard to moisture, it may be -ascertained, whether the irregularity has been owing to difference of -temperature, or of moisture. In warm climates the irregularity will -generally depend on drought and moisture, and in cold climates on -heat and cold; though sometimes the depredations of insects, such as -locusts, or of blights, may be the cause. - -[45] Though we give this experiment, we admit that little dependence -can be placed upon a single fact. The trees must have been different in -variety, and probably in sex, both of which may occasion a discrepancy. - -[46] The time the weight is in suspension, must be attended to. A beam -will support a much greater weight during a minute than during an hour; -and two beams may be found, the one capable of supporting the greatest -weight during a minute, and the other the greatest during an hour. - -[47] We shall not here introduce the interminable discussion of -dry-rot, as it remains to be proved that moderately fast grown young -timber is at all more liable to dry-rot than small-growthed old, -provided the sap-wood be entirely removed. - -[48] In fairness, it may be proper to explain, that the greater part -of the trees we have thus cultivated have been of _Pyrus_, although -we commenced the practice with common forest trees—yet the pear and -apple vary nothing from the oak and ash in the primary stage of life, -in as far as respects the extension—we can also profit fully as much -by raising apple timber of proper fast grown variety, as by any other -timber; and have it in our power to sell this timber to machine-makers -at double the price of oak of the same size. - -[49] We think Sir Henry would find some of the failures of which he -owns he cannot well ascertain the cause, but occurring especially in -beech and oak, to be owing to a number of the lower roots, which are -by far the tenderest, being bruised by the weight of the tree itself, -when he turns it repeatedly over from the one side to the other, in -order, by throwing in earth beneath it, to raise the root on a level -with the surface of the field, the whole weight of the incumbent mass -resting upon these soft roots. The oak, and still more the beech, are -exceedingly susceptible to injury from cutting or bruises, and die far -inward from the laceration. The wounded lower roots, especially when -any vacuity is left not filled close in with earth, where mouldiness -might generate in a dry situation, or when soaking in moisture for a -part of the season, will become corrupted; the putrefaction thence -gradually extending upward into the bulb, will contaminate the whole, -and the second or third year after planting, the tree will be dead. - -[50] We understand freezing the earth around the bulb is an old -practice. - -[51] We particularize the oak, cork-tree of arid warm Spain, and -much of the timber of New Holland. Owing to the hot parching air -in the latter place, the epidermis becomes dried to such a degree, -that contracting by the drought, and bursting by the swelling of the -enveloped stem, it peels off like the old skin of a serpent, and -is often seen hanging upon the tree in large shreds like tattered -garments. In several kinds of trees, we have counted regular annual -rings of desiccated bark; in some kinds this appeared a growth or -deposition, in others, mere parched exuviæ. Trees attain some age -before the _exuviæ_ commence; the _deposit_ begins the first season, -even in sheltered situations. The cork-tree, and the small-leaved -elm, shew the greatest annual deposit of dry bark. The former does, -and the latter is said to belong to warm arid countries; both form a -better nonconductor of heat than any other dry bark we are acquainted -with—infinitely better than the bark exuviæ of trees which approach the -polar regions. - -[52] We do not pretend to explain how it is, that one kind of climbing -plant follows the sun in its convolutions, and another traverses his -course. There surely cannot be any thing in a habit acquired in the -southern hemisphere. - -[53] In proceeding further on in Sir Henry’s volume, we have noticed an -excellent observation quoted from Du Hamel: “The extension of the shoot -is inversely as its induration, rapid while it remains herbaceous, -but slow as it is converted into wood. Hence moisture and shade are -the circumstances, of all others, the most favourable to elongation, -because they prevent induration or retard it.” Although quoting this, -Sir Henry recurs to his old opinions, and proceeds to observe, “Trees -so circumstanced, push upward to the light; and from the warmth -which their situation affords, their stems being thin and slender in -proportion to their height, they are destitute of strength to resist -the winds.” - -[54] We do not mention temperature, because we are not in possession -of facts sufficient to lead us to form an opinion on the subject. -Judging from animal analogy, of which our author is so fond, we -notice, that those animals exposed in open atmosphere, have generally -warmer blood than those who lurk in holes,—even than those of the same -species who happen to live under shelter. Now evaporation takes place -from animals as well as from vegetables, and the consequent cold is -more than balanced by the heat of what may be termed the vital fire, -which, like most other fires, burns brightest on exposure to a current -of atmospheric air, being increased either by the result of the new -chemical combinations having less capacity for heat, or by the stimulus -of the fresh moving air exciting the vital action. Of the general -influence of close forest on temperature, we are also not very well -assured; but the few facts which observation has afforded, lead to the -opinion, that to the northward of 50 deg. Lat. forests have higher -temperature than bare country; that from about 50 to 30 degrees Lat. -forests are cooler in winter and warmer in summer; and that nearer -the equator, forests are generally cooler than bare country. But the -temperature is regulated so much by the position of seas and lakes, in -combination with the prevailing currents and strength of currents of -the air—by the configuration of the country,—moisture and cloudiness of -the atmosphere and quantity of rain,—by the composition, arrangement, -and colour of the soil,—by the lower vegetable cover, and even by the -nature of the forest itself, whether deciduous or evergreen, that -particular facts must be very carefully weighed to enable us to reach -general conclusions. It is generally understood, that forests render -the climate moister. - -[55] Our experiments have not yet been carried so far, as to determine -if, by any arrangement of drying or exposure, they may be seasoned -to sustain intense frost, which may affect them differently from -moderate frost, either by causing complete congelation of all their -structure (moderate freezing appearing only to congeal their fluids, -but not entirely the containing vessel, at least only partly congealing -the mass), or by killing the vital principle itself through nervous -affection. The potatoes became green from the exposure to the light, -and we rather think acquired greater hardihood of constitution, or -greater vitality or excitability by the exposure, thence greater power -to resist the cold, independent of the disposition they acquired by -desiccation to endure it. - -[56] Is the rending of the stems of trees, during intense frost, -internal only, and occasioned by the alburnum expanding more by -congelation than the drier mature wood? or, is it external, and caused -by the contractile effect of the dry air and cold on the alburnum -rendering it insufficient to surround the mature wood, which, from -dryness and want of living susceptibility, may not contract so much. - -[57] The fineness of vessel or fibre of the Siberian crab, may be -induced by the arid warm air, the continued radiation of heat and -light upon the portion above ground, and the coldness of the ground -around the roots during the short summer in Siberia, where the air -and surface of the ground is warm, and vegetation progressive, while -the ground remains frozen at a small depth. Like all varieties of -plants habituated to colder climate, the Siberian crab developes its -leaves under less heat than varieties of the same kind which have been -habituated to milder climate. - -[58] We have not taken Sir Henry in the literal sense. Timber is well -known to decay sooner in a warm than in a cold country, _cæteris -paribus_. - -[59] See Appendix F. - -[60] The preliminary sentence is very vaguely worded; we suppose, -“increasing the annual circles,” means increasing them in thickness, -not general contents of length multiplied by thickness. But even in the -latter sense, we hold pruning tends generally to diminish the annual -circles. - -[61] It is a theory of Mr Sheriff, Mungo’s Wells, that all plants have -excrementitious deposit from the roots, the deposit from one kind -affording a good manure to another kind. Thence the advantage of mixed -grasses and legumes in pastures, and of the rotation of different kinds -of crops. - -[62] Vegetable soil is sometimes buried deep under volcanic mud, sand, -and ashes, or mixed with the subsoil by earthquakes. In some districts -of South America, the country, from being fertile, has been recently -reduced to sterility, by the vegetable mould being so much scattered -through the subsoil by repeated upheavings and tossings about by -earthquakes, as to be out of the reach of plants. - -[63] There is a deposition from the atmosphere of saline matter going -on at the surface of the earth, either evaporated from the ocean, and -falling with the rain and dews, or formed by gaseous combinations—most -probably both. In countries where the quantity of rain is insufficient -to wash this saline accumulation away into the ocean as fast as it is -formed, it increases to such a degree as almost to prevent vegetation, -only a few of what are termed saline plants appearing. This saline -accumulation in warm dry countries, bears considerable analogy to -tannin deposit in cold countries. - -[64] The matured timber of the larch, in some cases, remains for a -considerable time stained before the rot proceeds rapidly; in other -cases, the rot makes quick progress; in this rapid decomposition, -certain kinds of fungi assist greatly. When once seated, they seem -to form a putrid atmosphere or tainted circle around them, either by -their living exhalations, or corrupt emanations when dead, which is -poisonous to the less vital parts of superior life, and also expedites -the commencement of decay in sound dead organic matter, such as timber, -thus furthering the decomposition so far as to render it suitable food -for their foul appetite, and paving the way to their further progress. - -How their seeds enter into the heart of a growing tree having no -external rottenness, is not very obvious, unless they are inhaled or -imbibed by the root tendrils: from the resemblance which the growth -of some of them has to fermentation, it is not even very improbable -that the animalcules of supposed molecular or inferior life, have, -of themselves, a disposition to unite into some of these aggregates -without the presence of any disposing germ. - -The modifications of material attractions, by the varied germs of -superior life—the fixity of some of these deposites after life is -gone—the resolution of these into inferior animalcular, or even -molecular, life—and the instrumentality of zoophytes of the lower order -of organization, in hastening this decomposition by the balancing -of the attractions of this secondary life, afford a wide field for -investigation. Those uncouth sportings of nature quickly appear and -disappear as _material_ spectres, feeding on corruption, and mocking at -primary life. - -[65] We have raised crops among young trees (as well timber as fruit -trees), not four yards apart, by plough culture, and have found the -process, after the ploughmen and horses were accustomed to it, not -much more expensive than common cultivation, and the crop, till the -trees became too close, scarcely inferior. By means of a long _muzzle_ -to the plough standing out towards the left side, and a driver to the -horses beside the ploughman, we succeeded in getting the two first -furrows lapped a little over each other in the row of trees, where -the gathering of the ridge commenced (we gathered up at every other -row). In the row of trees where the finishing of the ploughing of the -ridge occurred, we were obliged to leave a stripe of ground about two -feet wide, to be dug by the spade. The horses required to be yoked in -file, and to drag by ropes (traces) rather than by chains, as the bark -of the trees was liable to be rubbed off by the latter. The more to -guard against rubbing, we had the _swingletree_ constructed so that -the trace-ropes came out from a hole in the ends, without any hook. -In harrowing the ground, one man is required to lead the horses, and -another to direct the harrows. In rich soil, under cultivation of green -crop, in this manner, trees progress very rapidly, and from the open -arrangement acquire very healthy constitutions. Of course, when not -coniferæ, the plants require a little more attention to train to one -leader and equality of feeders, than when close planted. We should -consider plough cultivation of young woods, provided ploughmen as -expert and careful as the Scots could be obtained, much more worthy the -attention of the English planter than the Withers’ system (trenching). -Need we mention, that in green crop, every thing depends upon plenty of -manure and of well-timed plough and horse hoe labour? Excepting in the -case of larch, we should dread no injury to the trees or timber from -plenty of manure. - -[66] We are indebted to our friend Mr Gorrie, Annat Garden, for the -fact, that English acorns throw up a much more luxuriant stem than -the Scots; they forming a step of several inches when planted next -each other in the nursery line. We should consider this to arise from -the largeness of the rudiments of the plant, and greater quantity of -garnered nourishment in the English acorns, which are nearly double -the size of the Scots, our present climate being insufficient for -the proper development. This leads to the question, will the greater -luxuriance balance any tenderness from want of acclimatizing? Would the -oak keep its present locality in Scotland if left to nature? A careful -inspection of the most elevated peat mosses in which remains of timber -exist, and a comparison of the size of the seeds found there, with that -of those of the present day, grown the nearest to this in situation, -would resolve the question of refrigeration. - - - - -APPENDIX. - - - - -{363} APPENDIX. - - -NOTE A. - -It is only on the _Ocean_ that _Universal Empire_ is practicable—only -by means of _Navigation_ that all the world can be subdued or retained -under one dominion. On land, the greatest numbers, and quantity of -materiel, are unavailable, excepting around the spot where they are -produced. The most powerful army is crippled by advancing a few degrees -in an enemy’s territory, unless when aided by some catching enthusiasm; -its resources get distant—communication is obstructed—subjection -does not extend beyond the range of its guns, and it quickly melts -away. The impossibility of dominion extending over a great space, -when communication is only by land, has often been proved. The rule -of Cyrus, or Alexander, the Cæsars, the Tartar conquerors[67], or -Bonaparte, did not extend over a tithe of the earth; and we may -believe, that, by some of these chiefs, dominion was {364} extended as -widely as under land communication could be effected—further than under -it could be supported. - -On the contrary, when a powerful nation has her warlike strength -afloat, and possesses naval superiority, independent of being -unassailable herself, every spot of the world, wherever a wave can -roll, is accessible to her power and under her control. In a very short -time she can throw an irresistible force, unexhausted by marches, and -with every resource, upon any hostile point, the point of attack being -in her own choice, and unknown to the enemy. In case of her dependent -dominions being scattered over the two hemispheres, her means of -communication, and consequent power of defending these and supporting -authority, are more facile than what exists between the seat of -government of any ordinary sized continental kingdom and its provinces. -Were a popular system of colonial government adopted, many islands and -inferior states would find it their interest to become incorporated as -part of the Empire. - - -NOTE B. - -There is a law universal in nature, tending to render every -reproductive being the best possibly suited to its condition that -its kind, or that organized matter, is susceptible of, which appears -intended to model the physical and mental or instinctive powers, to -their highest perfection, and to continue them so. This law sustains -the lion in his strength, the hare in her swiftness, and the {365} -fox in his wiles. As Nature, in all her modifications of life, has a -power of increase far beyond what is needed to supply the place of what -falls by Time’s decay, those individuals who possess not the requisite -strength, swiftness, hardihood, or cunning, fall prematurely without -reproducing—either a prey to their natural devourers, or sinking under -disease, generally induced by want of nourishment, their place being -occupied by the more perfect of their own kind, who are pressing on -the means of subsistence. The law of entail, necessary to hereditary -nobility, is an outrage on this law of nature which she will not pass -unavenged—a law which has the most debasing influence upon the energies -of a people, and will sooner or later lead to general subversion, more -especially when the executive of a country remains for a considerable -time efficient, and no effort is needed on the part of the nobility to -protect their own, or no war to draw forth or preserve their powers -by exertion. It is all very well, when, in stormy times, the baron -has every faculty trained to its utmost ability in keeping his proud -crest aloft. How far hereditary nobility, under effective government, -has operated to retard “the march of intellect,” and deteriorate the -species in modern Europe, is an interesting and important question. -We have seen it play its part in France; we see exhibition of its -influence throughout the Iberian peninsula, to the utmost degradation -of its victims. It has rendered the Italian peninsula, with its -islands, a blank in the political map of Europe. Let the panegyrists -of hereditary nobility, primogeniture, and entail, say what these -countries might not have been {366} but for the baneful influence of -this unnatural custom. It is an eastern proverb, that no king is many -removes from a shepherd. Most conquerors and founders of dynasties -have followed the plough or the flock. Nobility, to be in the highest -perfection, like the finer varieties of fruits, independent of having -its vigour excited by regular married alliance with wilder stocks, -would require stated complete renovation, by selection anew, from among -the purest crab. In some places, this renovation would not be so soon -requisite as in others, and, judging from facts, we would instance -Britain as perhaps the soil where nobility will continue the longest -untainted. As we advance nearer to the equator, renovation becomes -sooner necessary, excepting at high elevation—in many places, every -third generation, at least with the Caucasian breed, although the -finest stocks be regularly imported. This renovation is required as -well physically as morally. - -It is chiefly in regard to the interval of time between the period of -necessary feudal authority, and that when the body of the population -having acquired the power of self-government from the spread of -knowledge, claim a community of rights, that we have adverted to the -use of war. The manufacturer, the merchant, the sailor, the capitalist, -whose mind is not corrupted by the indolence induced under the law of -entail, are too much occupied to require any stimulant beyond what the -game in the wide field of commercial adventure affords. A great change -in the circumstances of man is obviously at hand. {367} In the first -step beyond the condition of the wandering savage, while the lower -classes from ignorance remained as helpless children, mankind naturally -fell into clans under paternal or feudal government; but as children, -when grown up to maturity, with the necessity for protection, lose the -subordination to parental authority, so the great mass of the present -population requiring no guidance from a particular class of feudal -lords, will not continue to tolerate any hereditary claims of authority -of one portion of the population over their fellow-men; nor any laws -to keep up rank and wealth corresponding to this exclusive power.—It -would be _wisdom_ in the noblesse of Europe to abolish every claim or -law which serves to point them out a separate class, and, as quickly as -possible, to merge themselves into the mass of the population. It is -a law manifest in nature, that when the use of any thing is past, its -existence is no longer kept up. - -Although the necessity for the existence of feudal lords is past, yet -the same does not hold in respect to a hereditary head or King; and the -stability of this head of the government will, in no way, be lessened -by such a change. In the present state of European society, perhaps no -other rule can be so mild and efficient as that of a liberal benevolent -monarch, assisted by a popular representative Parliament. The poorest -man looks up to his king as his own, with affection and pride, and -considers him a protector; while he only regards the antiquated feudal -lord with contempt. The influence of a respected hereditary family, -as head of a country, is also of great utility in {368} forming a -principle of union to the different members, and in giving unity and -stability to the government. - -In respect to our own great landholders themselves, we would ask, where -is there that unnatural parent—that miserable victim of hereditary -pride—who does not desire to see his domains equally divided among his -own children? The high paid sinecures in church and state will not -much longer be a great motive for keeping up a powerful family head, -whose influence may burthen their fellow-citizens with the younger -branches. Besides, when a portion of land is so large, that the owner -cannot have an individual acquaintance and associations with every -stream, and bush, and rock, and knoll, the deep enjoyment which the -smaller native proprietor would have in the peculiar features, is not -called forth, and is lost to man. The abolition of the law of entail -and primogeniture, will, in the present state of civilization, not -only add to the happiness of the proprietor, heighten morality, and -give much greater stability to the social order, but will also give a -general stimulus to industry and improvement, increasing the comforts -and elevating the condition of the operative class. - -In the new state of things which is near at hand, the proprietor and -the mercantile class will amalgamise,—employment in useful occupations -will not continue to be held in scorn,—the merchant and manufacturer -will no longer be barely tolerated to exist, harassed at every turn by -imposts and the interference of petty tyrants;—Government, instead of -forming an engine of oppression, being simplified and based on morality -and justice, will {369} become a cheap and efficient protection to -person and property; and the necessary taxation being levied from -property alone, every individual will purchase in the cheapest market, -and sell the produce of his industry in the dearest. This period -might, perhaps, be accelerated throughout Europe, did the merchants -and capitalists only know their own strength. Let them, as citizens of -the world, hold annual congress in some central place, and deliberate -on the interests of man, which is their own, and throw the whole of -their influence to support liberal and just governments, and to repress -slavery, crime, bigotry—tyranny in all shapes. A Rothschild might -earn an unstained fame, as great as yet has been attained by man, by -organizing such a power, and presiding at its councils. - - -NOTE C. - -The influence of long continued impression, constituting instinct or -habit of breed, is a curious phenomenon in the animal economy. Our -population in the eastern maritime districts of Britain, descended -principally from the Scandinavian rover, though devoted for a time -to agricultural or mechanical occupation, betake themselves, when -opportunity offers, to their old element, the ocean[68], {370} and -launch out upon the “wintry wave” with much of the same home-felt -composure as does the white polar bear. They roam over every sea and -every shore, from Behring’s Straits to Magellan’s, with as little -solicitude as the Kelt over his own misty hill, overcoming, in -endurance, the native of the torrid zone under his vertical sun, and -the native of the frigid among his polar snows. - -To what may we ascribe the superiority of this portion of the Caucasian -breed,—may it arise in part from its repeated change of place under -favourable circumstances? Other races have migrated, but not like this, -always as conqueror. The Jew has been a stroller in his time; but he -has improved more in mental acumen and cunning—not so much in heroism -and personal qualities: his proscribed condition will account for this. -The Caucasian in its progress, will also have mingled slightly, and, -judging from analogy, perhaps advantageously, with the finer portion -of those whom it has overwhelmed. This breed, by its wide move across -the Atlantic, does not seem at all to have lost vigour, and retains -the nautical and roving instinct unimpaired, although the American -climate is certainly inferior to the European. It is there rapidly -moving west, and may soon have described one of the earth’s circles. -A change of seed, that is, a change of place, within certain limits -of latitude, is well known {371} to be indispensable to the more -sturdy growth and health of many cultivated vegetables; it is probable -that this also holds true of the human race. There are few countries -where the old breed has not again and again sunk before the vigour of -new immigration; we even see the worn out breed, chased from their -homes to new location, return, after a time, superior to their former -vanquishers, or gradually work their way back in peace, by superior -subsisting power: this is visible in France, where the aboriginal -sallow Kelt, distinguished by high satyr-like feature, deep-placed -sparkling brown or grey eye, narrowed lower part of the face, short -erect vertebral column, great mental acuteness, and restless vivacity, -has emerged from the holes of the earth, the recesses of the forests -and wastes, into which it had been swept before the more powerful -blue-eyed Caucasian; and being a smaller, more easily subsisting -animal, has, by starving and eating out, been gradually undermining -the breed of its former conquerors. The changes which have been taking -place in France, and which, in many places, leave now scarcely a trace -of the fine race which existed twenty centuries ago, may, however, in -part, be accounted for by the admixture of the Caucasian and Keltic -tending more to the character of the latter, from the latter being a -purer and more fixed variety, and nearer the original type or medium -standard of man; and from the warm dry plains of France (much drier -from cultivation and the reduction of the forests), having considerable -influence to increase this bias: In some of the south-eastern -departments, {372} more immediately in the tide of the ingress of the -Caucasian, where the purest current has latest flowed, and the climate -is more suitable, and also in some of the maritime districts, where the -air is moister, and to which they have been seaborn at a later period, -the Caucasian character is still prominent. Something of this, yet not -so general, is occurring in Britain, where the fair bright-blooded race -is again giving place to the darker and more sallow. This may, however, -be partly occasioned by more of artificial heat and shelter and other -consequences of higher civilization. There seems to be something -connected with confinement and sedentary life, with morbid action of -the liver, or respiratory or transpiratory organs, which tends to this -change under dry and hot, and especially confined atmosphere. Perhaps -imagination is also a worker here; and the colour most regarded, as -snow in cold countries, black among colliers, white among bleachers, -or even the dark colour of dress, may produce its peculiar impression, -and our much looked-up-to Calvinistic priesthood, from the pulpit, -disseminate darkness as well as light. - -Our own Kelt has indubitably improved much since, _par necessité_, -he took to the mountain; but, though steadily enduring, when there -is mental excitement, he has acquired a distaste to dull hopeless -unceasing labour, and would fare scantily and lie hard, rather than -submit to the monotonous industry of the city operative, or the toil of -the agricultural drudge. Though once a fugitive, the Kelt is now, in -moral courage and hardihood, equal {373} perhaps to any other, yet he -still trembles to put foot on ocean. - -Notwithstanding that change of place, simply, may have impression -to improve the species, yet is it more to circumstances connected -with this change, to which the chief part of the improvement must be -referred. In the agitation which accompanies emigration, the ablest -in mind and body—the most powerful varieties of the race will be -thrown into their natural position as leaders, impressing the stamp -of their character on the people at large, and constituting the more -reproductive part; while the feebler or more improvident varieties will -generally sink under the incidental hardships. When a swarm emigrates -from a prosperous hive, it also will generally consist of the more -adventurous stirring spirits, who, with the right of conquerors, will -appropriate the finest of the indigenæ which they overrun; their choice -of these being regulated by personal qualities, not by the adventitious -circumstances of wealth or high birth—a regard to which certainly tends -to deteriorate the species, and is one of the causes which renders the -noblesse of Europe comparatively inferior to the Asiatic, or rather the -Christian noblesse to the Mahometan. - -It has been remarked, that our finest, most acute population, exist in -the neutral ground, where the Caucasian and Keltic have mixed, but this -may arise from other causes than admixture. Our healthiest and poorest -country borders the Highlands, and the population enjoy more of the -open air. Our eastern population, north of the {374} natural division -of Flamboroughead, are also harder and sharper featured, and keener -witted, than those southward, who may be styled our fen-bred. There is -no doubt more of Keltic blood mingled with the north division; but the -sea-born breeds have also been different, those more northerly being -Scandinavian, and the more southerly consisting of the native of Lower -Germany and the heavy Fleming. The placid-looking Englishman, more -under the control of animal enjoyment, though perhaps not so readily -acute, excels in the no less valuable qualities of constancy and bodily -powers of exertion; and when properly taught under high division of -labour, becomes a better operative in his particular employment, and -even will sometimes extend scientific discovery further, than his -more mercurial northern neighbour, who, from his quick wits being -generally in advance of his manual practice, seldom attains to the -dexterity which results from the combination of continued bodily -action and restricted mental application. There exists, however, very -considerable intellectual capacity in this English breed, but it too -frequently is crushed under the preponderance of the animal part, -affording that purest specimen of vulgarity, the English clown. But, -independently of climate and breed, a great part of the low Englander’s -obtuseness is referable to his being entailed lord of the soil, under -poor-rate law, contravening a natural law (see note B), so that, when -unsuccessful or out of employment, he, without effort to obtain some -new means of independent subsistence, sinks into the parish {375} or -work-house labourer. On the contrary, the Scotsman, with no resource -but in himself, with famine always in the vista, as much in his view -as a principle of action in material affairs as his strong perception -of the right in moral, and also under the stimulus of a high pride, -leaves no means untried at home; and, when fairly starved out of his -native country, among various resources, often invades the territory -of his more easy-minded southern neighbour, where his acuteness seldom -fails to find out a convenient occupation, in which manual dexterity is -second to economy and forethought—his success exciting the wonder and -envy of the dull-witted native. - -It would appear, that the finest portion, at least apparently so, -of the north temperate zone, between the parallels of 30° and 48° -latitude, when nearly of the level of the ocean, is not so favourable -for human existence as the more northern part between 50° and 60°, -or even the torrid zone. The native of the north of Europe has a -superior development of person, and a much longer reproductory life -than the native of the south, which more than counterbalances the -earlier maturity of the latter in power of increase. Independent of -the great current of population setting south in the northern part of -the temperate zone, there seems even to be some tendency to a flux -northward, from the confines of the torrid; but this arises rather from -the unsteadiness of the seasons, and consequent deficit of food, at -particular times, than from a steady increase of population. {376} - - -NOTE D, p. 4. - -Our milder moods, benevolence, gentleness, contemplation—our refinement -in sentiment—our “lovely dreams of peace and joy,” have negative -weight in the balance of national strength. The rougher excitement of -hatred, ambition, pride, patriotism, and the more selfish passions, -is necessary to the full and strong development of our active powers. -That Britain is leaving the impress of her energy and morality on a -considerable portion of the world, is owing to her having first borne -fire and sword over these countries: the husbandman tears up the glebe, -with all its covering of weeds and flowers, before he commit his good -seed to the earth. Life and death—good and evil—pleasure and pain, are -the principles of impulse to the scheme or machine of nature, as heat -and cold are to the steam-engine, thus moving in necessary alternate -dependence. Our moral sense, our perception and love of good, could not -exist without the knowledge of evil; yet, we shudder at the truth of -evil being part and portion of nature. - - -NOTE E. - -There cannot be a more striking proof of the necessity of a better -representation of the marine interest, than the fact, that our trading -vessels are constructed of an {377} unsuitable figure, owing to the -improper manner of measuring the register tonnage. In order to save a -little trouble of calculation to the surveying officer in gauging the -contents of the vessel, the law directs him merely to take the length -and breadth at the widest place, and from these lines, by a regular -formula, to compute the tonnage; the vessel paying the charges for -lights and harbours, and other dues, in proportion to this measurement. -The result is, that, in order to lessen these dues individually, our -vessels are constructed deep in proportion to breadth, consequently are -sluggish sailers, and not nearly so safe and pleasant sea-boats as they -otherwise would be—many a ship, especially with light cargo, getting -on her beam-ends and foundering, or not standing up under canvass to -weather a lee shore. The influence of this absurd measurement law is -the more unlucky, as the ship-owner, from a deep vessel being, in -proportion to the capacity of the hold, cheaper than one of shallower -or longer dimensions, is already more disposed to construct his vessel -deeper than is consistent with the safety of the seamen and security -of the ship and cargo, the particular insurance of a deep vessel not -being greater than that of one of safer proportions. The injurious -effect from vessels being constructed on the principles of avoiding -tolls or dues, rather than for sailing, will occur to every one. We -need not say that all this flows from the ignorance or carelessness of -the constructors of our Parliamentary acts, consequent to defective -representation. {378} - - -NOTE F. - -In the case of the upper carse on the Tay Firth, there is evidence, -both from its vestiges and from records, that it had occupied, at -least, the entire firth, or sea-basin, above Broughty Ferry, and -that about 50 square miles of this carse has been carried out into -the German Ocean by the strong sea-tide current, a consequence of -the lowering of the German Ocean, and of the deepening of the outlet -of this sea-basin at Broughty Ferry, apparently by this very rapid -sea-tide current. This carse appears to have been a general deposition -at the bottom of a lake having only a narrow outlet communicating with -the sea, and probably did not rise much higher than the height of the -bottom of the outlet at that time. - -An increase of deposition of alluvium, or prevention of decrease, may, -in many cases, be accomplished by artificial means. The diminution of -the carse of the Tay was in rapid progress about sixty years ago, the -sea-bank being undermined by the waves of the basin, the clay tumbling -down, becoming diffused in the water, and being carried out to sea, -by every ebbing tide, purer water returning from the ocean the next -tide-flow. This decrease was stopped by the adoption of stone embanking -and dikes. A small extension of the carses of present high-water level, -in the upper part of the firths of Tay and Forth, has lately been -effected, by forming brushwood, stone and mud dikes, to promote the -accumulation. {379} In doing this, the whole art consists in placing -obstructions to the current and waves, so that whatever deposition -takes place at high-water, or at the beginning of the flood-tide, when -the water is nearly still, may not again be raised and carried off. - -Notwithstanding this accumulation, and also the prevention of further -waste of the superior carse, the deepening of the Tay Firth, formerly -carse, and of the gorge at Broughty Ferry, seems still in progress, -and could not, without very considerable labour, be prevented. In the -case, however, of the sea-basin of Montrose, a little labour, from -the narrowness of the gorges, would put it in a condition to become -gradually filled with mud. Not a great deal more expenditure than what -has sufficed to erect the suspension-bridge over its largest outlet, -would have entirely filled up this outlet, and the smaller outlet -might have been also filled to within several feet of high-water, and -made of sufficient breadth only, to emit the water of the river, which -flows into the basin. The floated sand and mud of this river, thus -prevented from being carried out to sea, would, in the course of years, -completely fill up the basin. - -From some vestiges of the upper carse, as well as of the lower or -submarine carse, in situations where their formation cannot easily be -traced to any local cause, it seems not improbable that the basin of -the German sea itself, nearly as far north as the extent of Scotland, -had at one time been occupied with a carse or delta, a continuation -of Holland, formed by the accumulation of the {380} diluvium of the -rivers which flow into this basin, together with the molluscous exuviæ -of the North Sea, and the abrasion of the Norwegian coast and Scottish -islands, borne downward by the heavy North Sea swell. - -In the case of the delta of Holland having extended so far northward, -a subsidence of the land or rising of the sea, so as to form a passage -for the waters round Britain, must have occurred. The derangement, -at several places, of the fine wavy stratification of these carses, -and the confusedly heaped-up beds of broken sea-shells, shew that -some great rush of water had taken place, probably when Belgium was -dissevered from England. Since the opening of the bottom of the gulf, -the accumulation may have been undergoing a gradual reduction, by -more diffused mud[69] being carried off from the German Sea into -the Atlantic and North Sea, than what the former is receiving—the -same process taking place here as has been occurring in the basin -of the Tay. The large sand-banks on the Dutch and English coast,—in -some places, such as the Goodwin Sands, certainly the heavier, less -diffusible part of the former alluvial country, and portions of these -alluvial districts being retained by artificial means,—bear a striking -resemblance to the {381} sand-banks of the sea basin of the Tay—the -less diffusible remains of the removed portion of the alluvium which -had once occupied all that basin, and to the remaining portion of the -alluvium also retained by artificial means. - - * * * * * - -Throughout this volume, we have felt considerable inconvenience, from -the adopted dogmatical classification of plants, and have all along -been floundering between species and variety, which certainly under -culture soften into each other. A particular conformity, each after -its own kind, when in a state of nature, termed species, no doubt -exists to a considerable degree. This conformity has existed during -the last forty centuries. Geologists discover a like particular -conformity—fossil species—through the deep deposition of each great -epoch, but they also discover an almost complete difference to exist -between the species or stamp of life, of one epoch from that of every -other. We are therefore led to admit, either of a repeated miraculous -creation; or of a power of change, under a change of circumstances, -to belong to living organized matter, or rather to the congeries of -inferior life, which appears to form superior. The derangements and -changes in organized existence, induced by a change of circumstance -from the interference of man, affording us {382} proof of the plastic -quality of superior life, and the likelihood that circumstances have -been very different in the different epochs, though steady in each, -tend strongly to heighten the probability of the latter theory. - -When we view the immense calcareous and bituminous formations, -principally from the waters and atmosphere, and consider the oxidations -and depositions which have taken place, either gradually, or during -some of the great convulsions, it appears at least probable, that the -liquid elements containing life have varied considerably at different -times in composition and in weight; that our atmosphere has contained -a much greater proportion of carbonic acid or oxygen; and our waters, -aided by excess of carbonic acid, and greater heat resulting from -greater density of atmosphere, have contained a greater quantity of -lime and other mineral solutions. Is the inference then unphilosophic, -that living things which are proved to have a circumstance-suiting -power—a very slight change of circumstance by culture inducing a -corresponding change of character—may have gradually accommodated -themselves to the variations of the elements containing them, and, -without new creation, have presented the diverging changeable phenomena -of past and present organized existence. - -The destructive liquid currents, before which the hardest mountains -have been swept and comminuted into gravel, sand, and mud, which -intervened between and divided these epochs, probably extending over -the whole surface of the globe, and destroying nearly all living {383} -things, must have reduced existence so much, that an unoccupied field -would be formed for new diverging ramifications of life, which, from -the connected sexual system of vegetables, and the natural instincts -of animals to herd and combine with their own kind, would fall into -specific groups, these remnants, in the course of time, moulding and -accommodating their being anew to the change of circumstances, and -to every possible means of subsistence, and the millions of ages of -regularity which appear to have followed between the epochs, probably -after this accommodation was completed, affording fossil deposit of -regular specific character. - -There are only two probable ways of change—the above, and the still -wider deviation from present occurrence,—of indestructible or molecular -life (which seems to resolve itself into powers of attraction and -repulsion under mathematical figure and regulation, bearing a slight -systematic similitude to the great aggregations of matter), gradually -uniting and developing itself into new circumstance-suited living -aggregates, without the presence of any mould or germ of former -aggregates, but this scarcely differs from new creation, only it forms -a portion of a continued scheme or system. - -In endeavouring to trace, in the former way, the principle of these -changes of fashion which have taken place in the domiciles of life, -the following questions occur: Do they arise from admixture of -species nearly allied producing intermediate species? Are they _the -diverging ramifications_ of the living principle under modification -of {384} circumstance? Or have they resulted from the combined -agency of both? Is there only one living principle? Does organized -existence, and perhaps all material existence, consist of one Proteus -principle of life capable of gradual circumstance-suited modifications -and aggregations, without bound under the solvent or motion-giving -principle, heat or light? There is more beauty and unity of design -in this continual balancing of life to circumstance, and greater -conformity to those dispositions of nature which are manifest to us, -than in total destruction and new creation. It is improbable that -much of this diversification is owing to commixture of species nearly -allied, all change by this appears very limited, and confined within -the bounds of what is called Species; the progeny of the same parents, -under great difference of circumstance, might, in several generations, -even become distinct species, incapable of co-reproduction. - -The self-regulating adaptive disposition of organized life may, in -part, be traced to the extreme fecundity of Nature, who, as before -stated, has, in all the varieties of her offspring, a prolific power -much beyond (in many cases a thousandfold) what is necessary to fill -up the vacancies caused by senile decay. As the field of existence -is limited and pre-occupied, it is only the hardier, more robust, -better suited to circumstance individuals, who are able to struggle -forward to maturity, these inhabiting only the situations to which -they have superior adaptation and greater power of occupancy than -any other kind; the weaker, less circumstance-suited, being {385} -prematurely destroyed. This principle is in constant action, it -regulates the colour, the figure, the capacities, and instincts; those -individuals of each species, whose colour and covering are best suited -to concealment or protection from enemies, or defence from vicissitude -and inclemencies of climate, whose figure is best accommodated to -health, strength, defence, and support; whose capacities and instincts -can best regulate the physical energies to self-advantage according -to circumstances—in such immense waste of primary and youthful life, -_those_ only come forward to maturity from the strict ordeal by which -Nature tests their adaptation to her standard of perfection and fitness -to continue their kind by reproduction. - -From the unremitting operation of this law acting in concert with -the tendency which the progeny have to take the more particular -qualities of the parents, together with the connected sexual system in -vegetables, and instinctive limitation to its own kind in animals, a -considerable uniformity of figure, colour, and character, is induced, -constituting species; the breed gradually acquiring the very best -possible adaptation of these to its condition which it is susceptible -of, and when alteration of circumstance occurs, thus changing in -character to suit these as far as its nature is susceptible of change. - -This circumstance-adaptive law, operating upon the slight but continued -natural disposition to sport in the progeny (seedling variety), does -not preclude the supposed influence which volition or sensation may -have over the configuration of the body. To examine into the {386} -disposition to sport in the progeny, even when there is only one -parent, as in many vegetables, and to investigate how much variation -is modified by the mind or nervous sensation of the parents, or of the -living thing itself during its progress to maturity; how far it depends -upon external circumstance, and how far on the will, irritability and -muscular exertion, is open to examination and experiment. In the first -place, we ought to investigate its dependency upon the preceding links -of the particular chain of life, variety being often merely types or -approximations of former parentage; thence the variation of the family, -as well as of the individual, must be embraced by our experiments. - -This continuation of family type, not broken by casual particular -aberration, is mental as well as corporeal, and is exemplified in many -of the dispositions or instincts of particular races of men. These -innate or continuous ideas or habits, seem proportionally greater -in the insect tribes, those especially of shorter revolution; and -forming an abiding memory, may resolve much of the enigma of instinct, -and the foreknowledge which these tribes have of what is necessary -to completing their round of life, reducing this to knowledge, or -impressions, and habits, acquired by a long experience. This greater -continuity of existence, or rather continuity of perceptions and -impressions, in insects, is highly probable; it is even difficult -in some to ascertain the particular stops when each individuality -commences, under the different phases of egg, larva, pupa, or if much -{387} consciousness of individuality exists. The continuation of -reproduction for several generations by the females alone in some of -these tribes, tends to the probability of the greater continuity of -existence, and the subdivisions of life by cuttings, at any rate must -stagger the advocate of individuality. - -Among the millions of _specific varieties_ of living things which -occupy the humid portion of the surface of our planet, as far back -as can be traced, there does not appear, with the exception of man, -to have been any particular engrossing race, but a pretty fair -balance of powers of occupancy,—or rather, most wonderful variation -of circumstance parallel to the nature of every species, as if -circumstance and species had grown up together. There are indeed -several races which have threatened ascendency in some particular -regions, but it is man alone from whom any general imminent danger to -the existence of his brethren is to be dreaded. - -As far back as history reaches, man had already had considerable -influence, and had made encroachments upon his fellow denizens, -probably occasioning the destruction of many species, and the -production and continuation of a number of varieties or even species, -which he found more suited to supply his wants, but which, from the -infirmity of their condition—not having undergone selection by the -law of nature, of which we have spoken, cannot maintain their ground -without his culture and protection. - -It is, however, only in the present age that man has {388} begun -to reap the fruits of his tedious education, and has proven how -much “knowledge is power.” He has now acquired a dominion over the -material world, and a consequent power of increase, so as to render it -probable that the whole surface of the earth may soon be overrun by -this engrossing anomaly, to the annihilation of every wonderful and -beautiful variety of animated existence, which does not administer to -his wants principally as laboratories of preparation to befit cruder -elemental matter for assimilation by his organs. - - * * * * * - -In taking a retrospective glance at our pages from the press, we notice -some inaccuracy and roughness, which a little more timely attention to -_training_ and _pruning_ might have obviated; the facts and induction -may, however, outbalance these. - -We observe that Fig. _d_, p. 27, from the want of proper shading, -and error in not marking the dotted lines, does not serve well to -illustrate our purpose. This figure is intended to represent a tree -of a short thick stem, dividing into four branches, springing out -regularly in the manner of a cross, nearly at right angles with the -stem. These branches cut over about three or four feet out from the -division, form each one wing of a knee, and the stem, quartered -longitudinally through the heart, forms the other wing. It is of great -advantage to have four branches rather than two or three, as the stem, -divided into four, by being twice cut down the middle, forms the wings -nearly square; whereas, when divided {389} into two, the halves are -broad and flat, and a considerable loss of timber takes place; besides, -the two branches afford a thicker wing than the flat half of the stem -does when squared. When the tree separates into three branches, the -stem does not saw out conveniently; and when divided, the cleft part -is angular, and much loss of timber also takes place in the squaring. -When the stem divides into four branches, each of these branches -coincides in thickness with the quartered stem, and the knees are -obtained equally thick throughout, without any loss of timber. The four -branches, at six or eight feet above the division, may with a little -attention be thrown into a rectangular bend, and thus give eight knees -from each tree. Knees are generally required of about eight inches in -diameter, and three and a half feet in length of wing; but when they -are to be had thicker and longer, a foot or more in thickness, and -from four to ten feet in length of wing, they are equally in request, -suiting for high rising floors or heel-knees. - -The directions for forming larch roots into knees after the tree is -grubbed, are also not very explicit. The stem of the tree is cut over -nearly the same distance from the bulb as the length of the root spurs; -this quartered through the heart (in the same manner as above), forms -one wing of the knee, and the four spurs form the other wings. The -same advantage results from having four regular root-spurs in larch, -as in having four regular branches in oak: the two processes are quite -similar, only the roots in the one case, and the branches in the other, -form one wing of the knees. {390} - -We have given no directions for the bending of plank timber. In larch, -the wind generally gives the slight necessary bend to a sufficient -proportion; and in oak, the trees frequently grow a little bent of -their own accord. - -A foot-note has been omitted, stating, that the plan of bending young -trees, by tying them to an adjacent tree, intended to be soon removed, -belongs, as we are informed, to Mr Loudon. - -We regret that our allusion to the lamented Mr Huskisson was printed -off before we knew of his death. - - * * * * * - -Since this volume went to press, there has been some changes of -scenery on the political European stage, _even rivalling_ what has -ever been accomplished of sylvan metamorphosis on the face of nature -by Sir Henry Steuart. The intense interest excited by these efforts -towards the regeneration of man, has completely thrown into shade our -humbler subject—the regeneration of trees. We have even forgot it -ourselves in the hands of the printer, while yet unborn. These sudden -transformations altering the political and moral relations of man, -also render a number of our observations not quite apposite, and our -speculations, some of them, rather “prophetic of the past.” They, by -obliterating national distinctions, and diminishing the occasions for -going to war, will, it is hoped, bring the European family closer -into amity. At any rate, they have completely thrown out the {391} -calculations of our politicians regarding the balance of power and -international connection as natural allies and foes, and bind the -French and the British together by ties on the surest principle of -friendly sympathy, “_idem velle atque nolle_,” which no Machiavellian -policy of cabinets, nor waywardness of political head, will be able to -sunder. - -We had intended to bring out Naval Timber and Arboriculture as a -portion of a work embracing Rural Economy in general, but this is not a -time to think of rural affairs. - - -ENDNOTES TO THE APPENDIX. - -[67] The very extended sway, the state of civilization considered, -of the Tartar, was evidently the consequence of the great facility -of communication from the plain open surface of the country, and the -equestrian habits of the people. - -[68] The habit of breed is apparent in many places of the world. Where -a fine river washes the walls of some of the internal towns of France, -scarce a boat is to be seen, except the long tract-boats employed in -the conveyance of fire-wood—nobody thinks of sailing for pleasure. The -Esquimaux, and the Red Indian of North America, inhabiting the same -country, shew an entirely distinct habit of breed. The Black and the -Copper-coloured native of the Australian Islands, are equally opposed -in instinctive habit. - -[69] The sea water from Flamborough-head, southward to the Straits -of Dover, is generally discoloured with mud; and during every breeze -takes up an addition from the bottom, which is an alluvium so unstable -and loose, that no sea vegetation can hold in it. From not producing -herbage, the general basis of animal life, few fishes or shells can -find support in it. - -FINIS. - - - - -ERRATA. - - - Page 10, top line, _for_ they _read_ the branches - 18, line 13. from bottom, _for_ under _read_ within - 18, line 8. from bottom, _for_ long _read_ in length of wing - 22, _insert_ f _at fig. on right-hand side of wood cut_. - 26, line 8. from bottom, _for_ 5 _read_ 3 - 57, line 4. from top, _for_ any _read_ many - 78, line 11. from top, _for_ latitude _read_ altitude - 87, line 9. from top, _dele_ may also in some degree - —, line 10. from top, _for_ diminish _read_ diminishing - —, line 11. from top, _for_ increase _read_ increasing - 205, line 12. from top, _dele_ generally esteemed - 206, bottom line, _for_ lineal _read_ large - 218, line 5. from bottom, _for_ ground _read_ portion - 220, line 7. from bottom, _after_ soil _insert a semicolon_ - 222, line 14. from top, _for_ latterly _read_ laterally - 223, line 13. from top, _for_ falling _read_ felling - 242, line 12. from top, _for_ into _read_ in, to - 280, line 14. from top, _for_ the _read_ this - 285, top line, _after_ n _insert_ o - 300, line 2. from bottom, _dele_ of - 327, line 6. from bottom, _for_ that dew, _read_ dew, that - 331, line 10. from bottom, _for_ root _read_ row - 372, line 14. from top, _for_ tend _read_ tends - - - - -TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE. - -Original spelling and grammar have been generally retained, with some -exceptions noted below. Original printed page numbers are shown like -this: {52}. Original small caps are now uppercase. Italics look _like -this_. Footnotes have been converted to endnotes labeled 1–69, and -moved to the end of the appropriate book division—i.e. Introduction, -Parts I–IV, or Appendix. The transcriber produced the cover image -and hereby assigns it to the public domain. Original page images are -available from archive.org—search for “onnavaltimberarb00matt”. - -Page iii. Changed “EDINDURGH” to “EDINBURGH”. - -Page xiv. Changed “and and” to “and”. - -Page 216. Changed “in in” to “in”. - -Page 218. The phrase “3s. per do.” was changed to “3s. per load,”. - -Page 325n. Changed “coutnries” to “countries”. - -Page 326. Changed “Eygpt” to “Egypt”. - -Page 346. Ditto marks in the first table, “do. do.” were changed to -“, from one to three years transplanted,”. - -Page 351. Changed “unweildy” to “unwieldy”. - -Page 386. Changed “mpressions” to “impressions”. - -Page 391, ERRATA. The errata have been applied to the text in the -proper locations. The correction for page 327 l.6 from bottom had -already been applied in the edition which is the basis for this -transcription. The correction for page 331 l. 10 from bottom cannot -be applied, as there was no “root” or “row” on that line. There was, -however, a “row” on line 8 from the bottom, so perhaps the correction -had already been applied. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On Naval Timber and Arboriculture, by -Patrick Matthew - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON NAVAL TIMBER AND ARBORICULTURE *** - -***** This file should be named 53678-0.txt or 53678-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/6/7/53678/ - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net, including RichardW (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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