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diff --git a/old/53638-0.txt b/old/53638-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index dd316f5..0000000 --- a/old/53638-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12489 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gentle Art of Faking, by Riccardo Nobili - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The Gentle Art of Faking - A history of the methods of producing imitations & spurious - works of art from the earliest times up to the present day - -Author: Riccardo Nobili - -Release Date: November 30, 2016 [EBook #53638] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GENTLE ART OF FAKING *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - - -Text preceded by a caret symbol ^ and enclosed in curly braces {} was -superscripted in the original book; text enclosed in equals signs was -in =boldface=; and text enclosed in underscores was in _italics_. - - - - -THE GENTLE ART OF FAKING - - - - -The New Art Library - -“The admirable New Art Library.”--_Connoisseur._ - - -NEW VOLUME. - -=Perspective.= - - As applied to pictures, with a section dealing with - architecture. 472 Illustrations. 18s. nett. - By REX VICAT COLE. - -“Makes perspective quite fascinating.--_Aberdeen Journal._ - -“An indispensable book to the student of art.”--_Daily Graphic._ - - -RECENTLY ISSUED. - -=Water Colour Painting.= - - By ALFRED W. RICH. 60 Illustrations. 10s. 6d. nett. - -“Mr. Rich’s work has placed him among the comparatively few -water-colourists of to-day who count, and the work of his students -proves that he can teach.”--_Saturday Review._ - -=The Artistic Anatomy of Trees.= - - By REX VICAT COLE. Over 500 Illustrations. 15s. nett. - -“Like all the volumes of the New Art Library, thorough in its teaching, -eminently practical in its manner of presenting it, and splendidly -illustrated.”--_Connoisseur._ - -=The Practice and Science of Drawing.= - - By HAROLD SPEED. 96 Illustrations. 10s. 6d. nett. - -“No work on Art has been published in recent years which might be more -advantageously placed in the hands of a young student. Every page shows -robust common sense expressed in a clear style.... We imagine that Mr. -Speed is an admirable teacher, and cordially recommend his treatise.” ---_Athenæum._ - -=The Practice of Oil Painting and Drawing.= - - S. J. SOLOMON, R.A. 80 Illustrations. 10s. 6d. nett. - -“If students were to follow his instructions, and still more, to heed -his warnings, their painting would soon show a great increase in -efficiency.”--_Manchester Guardian._ - -=Human Anatomy for Art Students.= - - By Sir ALFRED DOWNING FRIPP, K.C.V.O., 159 Illustrations. 15s. nett. - -“Combines the best scientific and artistic information.”--_Connoisseur._ - -=Modelling and Sculpture.= - - By ALBERT TOFT, A.R.C.A., M.S.B.S. With 119 Illustrations. 15s. nett. - -“Will be found an invaluable aid to the student.... Takes the student -step by step through the various technical processes, the text being -supplemented by over a hundred excellent illustrations.”--_Studio._ - - -SEELEY, SERVICE & CO., LTD., 38 Great Russell St. - - - - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_] [_Alinari_ - -SUPPOSED PORTRAIT OF THE POET BASTIANINI BENIVIENI. - -A direct cast from the original now in Paris and formerly kept in the -Louvre Museum.] - - - - - THE GENTLE ART - OF - FAKING - - A HISTORY OF THE METHODS OF PRODUCING - IMITATIONS & SPURIOUS WORKS OF ART - FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES UP - TO THE PRESENT DAY - - BY - RICCARDO NOBILI - AUTHOR OF “A MODERN ANTIQUE” - - - “Le dernier mot de l’art je le trouve dans la contrefaçon” - SAINTE-BEUVE - - - WITH 31 ILLUSTRATIONS - - - LONDON - SEELEY SERVICE & CO. LTD. - 38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET - 1922 - - - - - TO - - MRS. MARY S. SHEPARD - - WITH THE DEVOTED AFFECTION OF A SON - - THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED - - - - -PREFACE - - -“Collectomania” may with some reason be looked upon as a comedy in -which the leading parts are taken by the Collector, the Dealer, and the -Faker, supported by minor but not less interesting characters, such -as imitators, restorers, middlemen, _et hoc genus omne_, each of whom -could tell more than one attractive tale. - -In analysing the Faker one must dissociate him from the common forger; -his semi-artistic vocation places him quite apart from the ordinary -counterfeiter; he must be studied amid his proper surroundings, and -with the correct local colouring, so to speak, and his critic may -perchance find some slight modicum of excuse for him. Beside him stand -the Imitator, from whom the faker often originates, the tempter who -turns the clever imitator into a faker, and the middleman who lures on -the unwary collector with plausible tales. - -It is not the object of this volume to study the Faker by himself, but -to trace his career through the ages in his appropriate surroundings, -and compare the methods adopted by him at various periods of history, -so far as they may be obtained. - -Ethically, there is a strict line drawn between the imitator and the -forger, but in practice this line is by no means rigid. Many imitators -place their goods before the public _as_ imitations; others tacitly -permit their work to be sold as genuinely antique, influenced no doubt -by the fact that though possibly the imitation and the original may -possess equal merit, the one is handicapped by modernity, the other -is hallowed by age. The inexperienced and unwary collector is in most -cases the innocent originator of fraud; if there were no buyer there -would be no seller. Too often fashion leads folly, and so fictitious -values are created, and as demand increases so, too, do the sources of -supply, but unhappily they are frequently not legitimate. - - RICCARDO NOBILI. - - VILLE MARIE, - VIA DANTE DA CASTIGLIONE 3, - FLORENCE. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PART I - - THE BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF FAKING - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. GREEKS AND ROMANS AS ART COLLECTORS 17 - - II. COLLECTOMANIA IN ROME 24 - - III. RAPACIOUS ROMAN COLLECTORS 36 - - IV. ROME AS AN ART EMPORIUM 44 - - V. INCREASE OF FAKING IN ROME 57 - - VI. DECADENCE OF ART AND CONSEQUENT CHANGES 63 - - VII. THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD 68 - - VIII. IMITATION, PLAGIARISM, AND FAKING 83 - - IX. COLLECTORS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 101 - - X. COLLECTING IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 107 - - XI. MAZARIN AS A COLLECTOR 114 - - XII. SOME NOTABLE FRENCH COLLECTORS 129 - - - PART II - - THE COLLECTOR AND THE FAKER - - XIII. COLLECTORS AND COLLECTIONS 135 - - XIV. THE COLLECTOR’S FRIENDS AND ENEMIES 150 - - XV. IMITATORS AND FAKERS 165 - - XVI. THE ARTISTIC QUALITIES OF IMITATORS 181 - - XVII. FAKERS, FORGERS AND THE LAW 194 - - XVIII. THE FAKED ATMOSPHERE AND PUBLIC SALES 207 - - - PART III - - THE FAKED ARTICLE - - XIX. THE MAKE-UP OF FAKED ANTIQUES 225 - - XX. FAKED SCULPTURE, BAS-RELIEFS AND BRONZES 234 - - XXI. FAKED POTTERY 246 - - XXII. METAL FAKES 263 - - XXIII. WOOD WORK AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 279 - - XXIV. VELVETS, TAPESTRIES AND BOOKS 287 - - XXV. SUMMING UP 301 - - - INDEX 311 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Supposed Portrait of the Poet Bastianini Benivieni _Frontispiece_ - - FACING PAGE - Marcus Aurelius 48 - - Diomedes with the Palladium 72 - - Imitations of the Antique 88 - - Marsyas 96 - - The Spinario 120 - - A Child. By Ferrante Lampini 136 - - San Giovanni 136 - - Athlete 144 - - The Battesimo 152 - - Bacchus 152 - - The Resurrection 184 - - Pietà 184 - - A Portrait 192 - - A Child. By Donatello 200 - - An Imitation of Roman Work 240 - - An Imitation of Sixteenth-century Work 240 - - A Mantelpiece 266 - - A Lamp 266 - - Plaquettes by Various Artists 272 - - Europa on the Bull 288 - - - - -THE GENTLE ART OF FAKING - - - - -PART I - -THE BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF FAKING - - - - -CHAPTER I - -GREEKS AND ROMANS AS ART COLLECTORS - - Why the Greeks by not being collectors in the modern sense were - spared faking in art--How the Romans became interested in art - --Genesis of their art collections--The first collectors - and their methods--Noted citizen’s indictment against art - plundering of Roman conquerors--Attitude of noted writers - towards art, and art collecting. - - -The collector, the chief patron of fakery, being somewhat of a selfish -lover of art, it is quite natural that the Greeks, who saw in art a -grand means of public education and enjoyment, cannot be called art -collectors in the modern sense of the word. Consequently there was -hardly room for sham art in a country where art as the direct emanation -of public spirit was rigorously maintained for the sake of the people. -It was the temples that became art emporiums--museums that everyone -was allowed to enjoy--or free institutions, like the pinacotheca of -the Acropolis, the collection of carved stone at the Parthenon, the -gymnasium of the Areopagus, containing a collection of busts of the -most celebrated philosophers. With this public spirit in the enjoyment -of art Delphi gathered a famous picture gallery in the oracular temple -and, according to Pliny, possessed no fewer than three thousand -statues, one of them being the famous golden Apollo. From this temple -Nero carried off five hundred bronze statues, and later on Constantine -removed many of the remaining works of art to Constantinople. An -identical spirit of public enjoyment of art had turned the temples -of Juno in Olympia, of Minerva in Platæa and Syracuse into veritable -museums of art and--curiosities also. The temple of Minerva at Lyndon -in the island of Rhodes, for instance, contained a cup of _electrum_ -(amber) offered by Helen of Troy, which was said to have a cavity cut -to the exact shape of the bosom of the beautiful wife of Paris (Pliny, -XXXIII, 23). - -That the Greeks at their highest historical level did not indulge in -the private and artistic delights of the collector may also be gathered -from the poor construction of their usual dwelling-houses. It is well -known that thieves, more especially in Athens, were called “wall -breakers,” and obtained this odd nickname from their peculiar method -of entering houses, namely, by making a hole through the wall rather -than troubling to unlock the door. Such flimsy dwellings can hardly -have sheltered the treasures of an art collection. Thus simplicity of -customs and a clearly defined manner of enjoying art, saved the Greeks -to a great extent from a regular trade in antiques with all its strange -and deplorable etceteras. - -As a matter of fact, we have no information as to anything that -might be called a private art collection in Athens, though quite -consistently, considering their extreme passion for knowledge, the -Greeks had fine private libraries, such as those of Aristotle and -Theophrastus. But even these, though containing the rarest and most -precious works, were true libraries, not collections of elaborate -volumes. The mania for fine bindings of costly materials was later on -the caprice of the learned Roman, not of the Greek. - -The home of the “collector,” and consequently of his faithful -companion, the faker, was Rome. - -The Roman was not a born lover of art. In fact during the early and -primitive period of its existence Rome had not only been somewhat -negative as regards art, but was even rather averse from its enjoyment. -It took centuries for the Roman to overcome the belief that matters -of art were trifling amusements that might be left as toys to their -conquered people. Thus for a long time Romans saw in the enjoyment -of art the chief source of the weakening and degeneration of the -enemies they had subjugated. Springing from a progeny of soldiers and -agriculturists, born to conquer the world, the Roman citizen assumed as -an aphorism the Virgilian saying that his sole duty was to subjugate -enemies, by granting them pardon or humiliating their pride. - -Thus the early Romans not only show great ignorance as to marvels of -art, but even contempt for them. When art treasures were brought to -Rome as booty for the first time by Marcellus from conquered Sicily the -Senate censured such an innovation. Fabius Maximus, called the “shield -of Rome,” rose among others in protest, saying that after the siege of -Tarentum, he, unlike Marcellus, had brought home only gold and valuable -plunder. As for statues, more especially images, he had preferred to -leave to the conquered people “their enraged gods.” In fact the only -statue Fabius took away from Tarentum was the Hercules of Lysippus, a -bronze colossus which must have appealed to him either for its heroic -size or the large quantity of material. - -A type of the early ignorant Roman art collector is given by Lucius -Mummius, the general who destroyed Corinth, and of whom Velleius -Paterculus tells (I, 13) that in sending to Rome what might be styled -the artistic booty of the destroyed city he consigned the statues and -paintings to those in charge of the transport with the warning that -should the goods be lost they would be held responsible and would have -to reproduce them all at their own expense. - -Even when with the progress of time art was finally appreciated in -Rome, the old contempt for it was transferred in a way from the -product to the maker. Thus with the feeling that seems to characterize -the parvenu in art, and with inexplicable inconsistency, the Roman -lover of art persisted in seeing in the artist either a slave or a -good-for-nothing, and never for a moment regarded the artist as worth -the consideration he granted to art. Notwithstanding his belief of -being a lover of art and an intelligent connoisseur, Cicero calls -statues and paintings toys to amuse children (_oblectamenta puerorum_). -In his fourth oration, _In Verrem_, he candidly confesses that he fails -to understand the importance attached by Greeks to those arts which the -Romans most rightly despise. - -Valerius Maximus, who lived at the time of Tiberius, that is to -say when Rome had fully completed its education in art, calls the -profession of the painter a vile occupation (_sordidum studium_), and -wonders how Fabius, a Roman and patrician, can bring himself to sign -his painting with full name and qualification, “Fabius Pictor” (VIII, -14, 6). - -In one of his letters (No. 88) Seneca, the contemporary of Nero, states -that sculpture and painting are unworthy to be classified as liberal -arts. Petronius, the _magister elegantiorum_ of Rome, two hundred years -after the destruction of Corinth, that is to say when Rome had reached -its maturity in the understanding of art, calls Apelles, Phidias and -other famous artists of Greece, crack-brained (_græculi delirantes_). - -With such an innately negative sense of art and strong racial -prejudice, it is not surprising that when brought to an appreciation -of art by circumstances, the Romans, though willing and fully prepared -to pay extravagant prices for works of art, should still retain their -old contempt for artists, those _græculi delirantes_ who had come to -beautify the Capital as slaves or tempted by gain. - -As a result of this peculiar feeling and in full contrast with the -Greek sentiment which has handed down to posterity a great deal about -the artists who lived in Athens and the honours they received, Rome has -preserved for us hardly a name of painter, sculptor or architect. And -they must have been legion if we consider the magnitude of the work -accomplished. Vitruvius (VII, 15) informs us that Damophilus, Gorgas, -Agesilas, Pasiteles and other artists were called to Rome by Julius -Cæsar, and that so many Greek artists were in Rome that when the temple -of Jupiter Olympicus was to be finished in Athens the citizens were -obliged to send to Rome, as none of their architects were to be found -in Greece. - -It is interesting to trace how the Romans gradually became collectors -of art, and how there gradually developed in Rome a whole world of -lovers of art with all its true and fictitious enthusiasms, furnishing -a group of varied types of collectors not altogether dissimilar from -those of our modern society of lovers of art. - -As we have said, conquest and booty furnished the first articles of -virtu. At first statues and objects of art of all kinds were brought -to Rome without discrimination, then education gradually progressed, -taste developed and plunder became more enlightened. Fulvius Nobilior, -to quote one of the many conquerors who brought artistic war booty -to Rome, enriched it with 285 bronze statues, 230 marble ones, and -112 pounds of gold ornaments. Following the custom of the Greeks, the -Romans at first presented statues and paintings to various temples as -ornaments. - -Later on, with more discrimination and less greed, Roman officials -proceeded to a systematic spoliation of Greece and the Orient of their -treasures of art. Statues and paintings followed in the triumphs -of Roman generals as did slaves and prisoners of war. Occasionally -returning officials brought home with them pillaged artistic mementoes -of the place they had been ruling in the name of mighty Rome. Thus -Fulvius, consul in Ambracia, brought home the finest statues of that -country. One of these mementoes was excavated in the year 1867; it bore -the naive and candid confession of the consul:-- - - Marcus Fulvius Marci Filius - Servii Nepos Nobilior - Consul Ambracia - Cepit - -Having carried off the statues of the Nine Muses in his conquest of -Ambracia, this same Fulvius Nobilior placed them in the temple of -Hercules. At this time Roman conquerors had progressed, and they -already travelled with experts and advisers. Fulvius Nobilior was -accompanied by the poet Ennius (Strabo, B. X, 5), whose suggestion it -may have been to place Hercules in the midst of the Nine Muses playing -the lyre like an Apollo, a metamorphosis of the god showing that the -Roman had finally harmonized “Strength,” his chief and most cherished -quality, with the gentler feelings of an understanding of art. This -“Hercules Musagetes” seems to symbolize a first conquest of art over -the rude, sturdy Roman character. - -Departing from the established rule of presenting their artistic -plunder to the temples after it had followed in their triumphs to -enhance the importance of their conquest, in time the generals began to -keep part of the spoil themselves. In this way were the first private -collections in Rome formed. - -The real artistic education of the Romans dates from this time. The -passion and ambition to enrich and embellish private houses helped to -teach what was worth consideration. Sulla, who plundered Greece and -Asia Minor, is said to have acquired a sure eye for valuable _objets de -virtu_; Verres, who with an excellent eye had robbed and collected all -that came within his reach, was perhaps Rome’s best connoisseur of art. -He and Sulla were practically the first to organize that enlightened -manner of plundering subjugated countries that finally made Rome the -first emporium of art in the world. - -Naturally, these early Roman collectors rarely bought their articles of -virtu. When they could not obtain by pillage they had ready to hand a -speedy and coercive means of gratifying their artistic craving. Sulla -placed on the proscription list the names of all possessors of artistic -objects who were so unwise as to refuse to give them up to him. Mark -Antony did the same to Verres. The latter paid with his life his -refusal to offer the despotic Triumvir some famous vases of Corinthian -bronze which he sorely longed to have in his collection. - -It was, we repeat, in Sulla’s time that the passion for collecting -arose among the Romans, not only guided by an artistic sense of -discrimination, but with all the peculiar characteristics that seem to -attend the development of this passion. - -Sulla’s collection--to which the spoils of the temple of Apollo -in Delphi and of the temples of Jupiter in Elis and Æsculapius in -Epidaurus, considered the richest emporium of art in Greece, had -contributed--must have been magnificent and without an equal--except, -perhaps, that of Verres, Sulla’s pupil, who surpassed his master in the -art of plundering, and sacked Sicily of all the island possessed of art. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -COLLECTOMANIA IN ROME - - Collectomania develops--Rampant parvenuism in Rome--Extravagant - prices paid for art and curio--Faking arrives--Good and - foolish collectors as seen by writers and satirists of the time - --Art dealing--The _septæ_, shops and auction rooms. - - -Such was the earliest type of the real collector of art in Rome, -a first phase in a city where the passion for art was, generally -speaking, rarely genuine. This phase led first to the acquisition of -what might be styled something between ambition and love of display. -Then the trade in objects of art eventually appeared, and as a logical -consequence, imitation and fraudulent art finally had their scope. -Fictitious masterpieces of painting and sculpture, often signed, as in -modern times, with the forged names of noted artists, were already on -the market before Cicero’s time. “_Odi falsas inscriptiones statuarum -alienarum_” (I hate the forged inscriptions on statues not one’s own), -remarks Cicero, who although somewhat of a collector himself never -missed a chance to ridicule the pretentious amateur lost in hysterical -ecstasy before imitations supposed to be original works, or of fanning -the art lover’s pseudo-enthusiasm for the work of Polycletus, which was -extremely fashionable at one time among art collectors. - -Thus forgery received a great impulse when art reached its climax in -Rome and multiplied the number of collectors, dragging after it in -its triumphal march wealth and all the fickle forces of wealth. Taste -in art, then, became apparently more exclusive, or rather, according -to Quintilian, more unstable in its standards. “Nowadays,” says the -Latin rhetorician and critic, “they prefer the childish monochrome -works of Polycletus and Aglæphon to the more expressive and more -recent artists.” Yet, very likely not understanding this not unusual -love for the archaic and the odd, so common in collectors of all ages, -Quintilian cannot explain the preference for work he considers gross, -except by fashion or what we should call to-day a snobbish sentiment. -Criticizing the art in vogue, he adds, in fact: “I should call this -art childish compared to that of most illustrious artists who came -afterwards, but in my judgment it is, of course, only pretension” (XII, -10). - -It is evident that with the Romans as with us--the times are not -entirely dissimilar; indeed but for art critics, the new modern fad, -they might be called identical--prices paid for works of art, or -simple curiosities, became freakish and fabulous, going up or down in -a single period according to fickle fashion. The momentary passion -for _murrhines_, for instance, tempted a collector to pay for one of -these cups of fluor-spar a sum approximating to £14,200. Another mania -succeeded, that of tables made of _citrus_, a species of rare wood, -possibly Thuja, grown on the slopes of Mount Athos. Cathegus invested -in one of these fashionable tables a sum equivalent to twelve thousand -pounds. Then at another time wrought silver becomes the rage, and -prices for this article soon reached absurd figures. When Chrysogon, -Sulla’s wealthy freedman, was bidding at an auction for a silver -_autepsa_ (a plate warmer), people standing outside the auction room -imagined he was buying a farm from the high sum he offered. - -As might be expected, high prices tempted brainless parvenus. There -were many in Rome like that Demasippus of whom Horace said, “_Insanit -veteres statuas Demasippus emendo_” (_Sat._, 3), the type of a snobbish -visionary and sham art-seeker who bought roughly carved statues, -supplying their defects with his fancy, and who, in speaking of his -historical pieces, stated that to be admitted into his very choicest -collection a basin must at least have served Sisyphus, son of Æolus, as -a foot-bath! - -Next to this foolish type of collector of art Rome possessed a great -many other characters, who, like those of to-day, might be classified -as odd specimens of art lovers. - -“Isn’t Euctus a bore with his historical silver?” asks Martial, adding -that he would rather eat off the common earthenware of Saguntus than -hear all the gabble concerning Euctus’ table-silver. “Think of it! His -cups belonged to Laomedon, king of Troy. And, mind, to obtain these -rarities Apollo played upon his lyre and destroyed the wall of the city -by inducing the stones to follow him by his music.” But concerning this -odd type of collector Martial merits quotation. “Now, what do you think -of this vase?” asks Euctus of his table companions. “Well, it belonged -to old Nestor himself. Do you see that part all worn away, there where -the dove is? It was reduced to that state by the hand of the king of -Pylos.” Then showing one of those mixing bowls that Latins called -_crater_, “This was the cause of the battle between the ferocious -Rheucus and the Lapithæ.” Naturally every cup has its particular -history. “This is the very cup used by the sons of Eacus when offering -most generous wine to their friend--That is the cup from which Dido -drank to the health of Bythias when she offered him that supper in -Phrygia.” Finally, when he has bored his guests to death, Euctus offers -them, in the cup from which Pyramus used to drink, “wine as young as -Astyanax.” - -Trimalcho is so well known that we are dispensed from a detailed -illustration. Petronius must have drawn from life this capital -character of his _Satyricon_. Like Euctus, Trimalcho extols the -historical merits of his articles of virtu; he has the same mania for -inviting people to his table and forcing them to admire his rarities. -He talks very much in the same manner as the type quoted by Martial. -Thus he informs his guests that his Corinthian vases are the best and -most genuine in existence, because they were made at his order by a -workman named Corinth. As a side explanation of this remark, fearing -that the guest might suppose he did not know the historical origin of -the metal, he adds: “Yes, yes, I know all about it. Don’t take me for -an ignoramus. I know the origin of this metal perfectly well. It was at -the capture of Troy, when Hannibal, a shrewd brigand by the way, threw -on to a burning pyre all the statues of gold and silver and bronze. The -mixture of the metals produced the alloy from which goldsmiths have -made plates, vases and figures. From this, of course, comes the name -of Corinth to designate this mix-up of three metals, which, of course, -is no more any of the three!” Trimalcho also possesses a cup with a -bas-relief representing Cassandra cutting her children’s throats. Not -content with this gorgeous historical blunder, and forgetting that he -is talking of the bas-relief of a cup, Trimalcho adds as an artistic -comment that the bodies of Cassandra’s children are so life-like that -one might suspect they had been cast from nature. - -Continuing our comparison with Euctus we may add that Trimalcho also -possesses a rare pitcher with a bas-relief representing Dædalus putting -Niobe inside the wooden horse of Troy! When he has finished maiming -history, and the guests have patiently listened to his fantastic tales, -like a true parvenu, Trimalcho never fails to add, “Mind, it is all -massive precious metal, it is all my very own as you see, and not to be -sold at any price.” - -Except for the wording, a trifling difference--the word “expensive” -would play a conspicuous part with the Trimalcho of to-day, decorated, -be it understood, with “precious,” “rare,” “unique” and all the rest of -the arch-superlatives of modern idioms--such collectors have not been -lost to our day. - -But there are other types worth quoting. They will certainly help us -to understand the part played by art imitations and forgery among the -Romans, and how the existence of fraud was in some way justified, that -in the end the one chiefly responsible for the existence of faking was -the collector himself. This understanding will be greatly aided by a -glimpse at the _septæ_, antiquity or simple bric-à-brac shops, that -were grouped together in certain streets of ancient Rome like they are -nowadays. - -Like to-day, too, sales of art were effected by auctions or by private -dealing, the latter in shops or through the usual go-between, the -so-called _courtier_ of our time. - -Public auctions were announced by placards or a simple writing on the -walls. An idea of what these announcements were like is given by the -following one from Plautus’ Menœchme: - -“Within seven days, in the morning, sale of Menœchme. There will be -sold slaves, furniture, houses, farms. Every article bought must be -paid for at the time of buying.” - -As in our days, an exhibition of the goods preceded the auction. These -shows were held in appropriate rooms adorned with porticos, called -_atria auctionaria_. In speaking of such exhibitions and commenting -upon some special one, Cicero remarks, _Auctionis vero miserabilis -adspectus_ (Phil., II, 29). - -Curiously enough the auction sales of the Urbs were provided with an -employé whose function seems to have survived in the public sales -of Paris. The Latin _præco_ is something like the French _crieur_ -whose office it is at public auctions to extol and praise the objects -offered for sale. It must be said that the _præco_, however, was not -only a simple _crieur_ but at times a sort of director of the sale, -thus combining the functions of _commissaire priseur_, _expert_ and -_crieur_, but it was certainly in the latter function that his ability -best contributed to the success of the sale. Some of these employés -must have enriched themselves like regular _commissaires priseurs_. -Horace (I. Ep., 7) describes one of these _crieurs_ as indulging in -luxury, making money easily and scattering it like water, allowing -himself every kind of pleasure and yielding tremendously to fashion. A -curious description, suggesting that this Vulteius Menas of Horace must -have had the lucky career of some of the Parisian auction employés and -cannot have been indifferent to that form of gay self-indulgence that -Parisians call: _Faire la bombe_. - -Speaking of auctions and the way Romans disposed of their goods to the -highest bidder, it is worth while to refer to what Suetonius tells us -happened at the sale held by Caligula, who being short of money thought -fit one day to put up to auction everything in the royal palace that -was either useless or considered out of fashion, _quidquid instrumenti -veteris aulæ erat_. According to Suetonius not only was the Emperor -himself present at the auction, but he put prices on the various -objects, bidding on them as well. An old prætor, Aponius Saturninus, -became sleepy during the sale, and in dozing kept on nodding his head. -Caligula noticed it, and told the auctioneer not to lose sight of that -buyer and to put up the price each time Saturninus nodded. When the old -man finally awoke he realized that without knowing it he had bought at -the Imperial auction about £80,000 worth of goods (Cal., 39). - -Pliny relates an amusing story, which shows that then, as now, the -auctioneer was allowed to group objects. - -“At a sale,” he says, “Theonius, the _crieur_, made a single lot of -a fine bronze candelabra, and a slave named Clesippus, humpbacked -and extremely ugly. The courtesan Gegania bought the lot for 50,000 -sesterces (about £400). The same night at supper she showed her -acquisitions, exhibiting the naked slave to the gibes of the guests. -Then yielding to a freakish passion, made of him her lover and heir. -Clesippus thus became extremely wealthy and worshipped the candelabra -with a devotion as though it were his god” (XXXIV, 6). - -As stated above, other sales generally took place in various parts of -Rome where antiquaries and bric-à-brac dealers had assembled their -shops. A great many of these merchants had gathered in the Via Sacra or -the _Septa_ of the _Villa Publica_, or _Septa Julia_. - -Those parts of Roman streets called _Septæ_, where antiquaries and -bric-à-brac dealers had their dens, were the amateur’s fool’s paradise -and trap, and very likely they were as inviting and picturesque as -similar places in modern European towns to-day. - -These shops and shows, it is said, offered real rarities at times, such -as bronzes of Ægina by Myron, Delos bronzes by Polycletus, genuine -rarities in Corinthian bronze, marvels in chiselling signed by Boethus -or Mys. The _septæ_ not only exhibited artistic pieces but also sham -rarities that had won public appreciation in a moment of fashion. Among -these was a certain kind of candelabra shaped like a tree with one or -more branches. Concerning these candelabras which were almost made to -supplant the more artistic ones by a fad, Pliny remarks, “_Arborum -mala ferentium modo lucentes_” (like trees bearing shining apples), -and states with caustic humour that although their name bore a common -etymology with the word _candela_ (candle), a cheap means of lighting, -they were sold at prices equivalent to the yearly appointment of a -military tribune (Plin., XXXIV, 8). - -Speaking of candelabras, it may be stated that the finest ever seen -in Rome belonged to Verres, being part of the vast plunder of Sicily -he accumulated when stationed there by Rome as proconsul. This fact -prompted the sarcastic remark in Cicero’s indictment of the proconsul, -that Verres had in his _triclinium_ a candelabra casting light where -darkness would have been more appropriate. This rich candelabra must -have been of a statuesque style, the kind Lucretius describes:-- - - Si non aurea sunt juvenum simulacra per ædes - Lampadas igniferas manibus retinentia dextris (II, 24). - (Figures of youths holding lighted lamps in their right hands.) - -Naturally it was not only a single speciality, valued through fashion -or fad, that was to be found on the market, it was a regular emporium -of antiquities in art, and of all kinds of bric-à-brac. Besides -murrhines, tables of citrus and other specialities there were paintings -of all schools and sizes, down to miniatures, an art not unknown to the -Romans. There were also sculpture, ceramics, fine pieces of Rhegium -and Cumæ, Maltese tapestries, Oriental embroideries, etc. In fact, -mixed with a good deal that was dubious, these places also offered fine -treasures, as Martial says:-- - - Hic ubi Roma suas aurea vexit opes. - (Here where golden Rome brought her treasure.) - -It is easy to understand that the people moving in this _milieu_ were -not dissimilar from those who indulge in articles of virtu in our -enlightened times, or who are somewhat of a victim to the collector -passion. Such a _milieu_, not to be found in Athens where the passion -for art was genuine and essential, was quite consistent in Rome where -improvised Crœsuses and rich parvenus abounded; parvenus who, like -many of the collectors of our times, took to buying objects of art as -a fad or hobby. This type of collector is easily recognized and in its -grotesqueness is not essentially different from some of our modern -society. - -It is true that Rome also produced many genuine lovers of art, many -first-rate connoisseurs and collectors such as Agrippa, magnificent -collectors of the calibre of Cæsar, keen, intelligent, lovers of art, -as greedy as unscrupulous, such as Sulla, Verres and Mark Antony, but -as in America to-day, the magnitude of quickly-made fortunes, the -impetus of a passion suddenly aroused without any previous preparation, -produced only a few types of the true collector. As in America now, for -one Quincy Shaw, how many a--Trimalcho and Euctus. - -Needless to say, the art market generally follows the inclination of -the client, it tries to meet his taste, whims and fads, it may be -scrupulous or unscrupulous according to circumstances and, particularly -in art and antiques, these circumstances chiefly depend upon the great -despotic ruler of all markets, the client. - -Thus in the _septæ_, side by side with Firminius, Clodius and -Gratianus, dealers enjoying an undisputed reputation in the -_sigillaria_ (image market) and other quarters where antiquary shops -were gathered, there were to be noted types like the Milonius of whom -Martial says:-- - -“Rare stuffs, chiselled silver, cloaks, togas, precious stones, there -is nothing you don’t sell, Milo, and your clients invariably carry -their acquisitions away with them! After all your wife is the best -article in your emporium, always bought and never taken away from your -shop” (VII-XII, 102). - -The whole gamut of oddities with which the collecting mania abounds -were really to be found in the _septæ_. - -There was the particular collector who has no eyes but for one certain -thing, no enthusiasm but for the objects specializing his particular -hobby, as Horace remarks in his “Satires” about people who have either -the passion for silver pieces or bronzes: - - Hunc capit argenti splendor, stupet Albius are. - (This one the glitter of silver holds, Albius stands dumb before - bronze.) - -Seneca informs us that in his time there was an amateur with the hobby -of collecting rusty fragments, another who had gone so crazy over small -vases of Corinthian bronze that he spent his days handling the pieces -of his collection, taking them down from the shelves, putting them back -again and continually arranging and rearranging them (De Brev. Vit., -XII). - -Martial tells us of a man who made a collection of pieces of amber -containing fossilized insects, and of another collector who boasted -that he had a fragment of the ship _Argo_ among the rare pieces of his -collection. There was also Clarinus, a debauchee, according to Martial, -who vaunted himself upon possessing samples of all the goldsmith’s art -of his time. “But,” remarks Martial, “this man’s silver cannot be pure!” - -Another type noted by Martial makes one realize that there is a species -of collector that will never die. Of “Paullus” Martial, observes: “... -his friends, like his paintings and his antiques: all for show” (XII, -69). - -_Codrus_, quoted by Juvenal, is the needy collector. He keeps his -books “in an old basket where mice allow themselves the luxury of -nibbling the works of divine Greece.” He sleeps “on a pallet shorter -than his little wife.” His collection and furniture are all in -his bedroom, the only room he has for living and sleeping in, and -conspicuous are six cups, a small _cantarium_ on a console with a -figure of Chiron the Centaur below it (III). - -_Eros_ is another type, that of the mournful collector. This is the way -Martial describes this not unusual type:-- - -“Eros weeps every time he comes across some fine murrhine of jasper or -a finely marked table of citrus. He sighs and sighs from the bottom -of his heart, for he is not rich enough to buy all the objects of the -_septa_.” And here Martial comments, “How many are like Eros without -showing it, and how many banter him for his tears and sighs and yet in -their hearts feel like him!” (X, 80). - -_Mamurra_, another type handed down to us by the inexhaustible Martial, -never misses a day without visiting the _septa_. “Spends hours in -gadding about, reviews the rows of young slaves which he devours -with the eye of a critic, not, if you please, the common ones but -the choicest samples, those that are not on show to every one, not -to common people like us,” adds Martial. “When he has had enough of -this show, he goes to examine the furniture; there he discovers some -rich tables (_orbes_, round tables) hidden under some covering; then -he orders that some pieces of ivory furniture he wishes to examine be -taken down from the highest spot; afterwards he passes on to examine -a _hexaclinon_, a couch used in the _triclinium_, with six places, -veneered with tortoise-shell, and measures it four times. What a pity -it is not big enough to match his citrus table! A minute later he goes -to smell a bronze: Does it really smell of the Corinthian alloy? Of -course he is ready to criticize even your statues, O Polycletus! Then -those two rock crystals are not pure, some are a trifle nebulous, -others are marred by slight imperfections. Ah! here’s a murrhine. He -orders about a dozen to be put aside. He goes to handle some old -cups as if he would weigh the merit of each one, more especially that -of Mentor. He goes to count the emeralds on a golden vase, and the -enormous pearls we see dangling together on the ears of our elegant -ladies. Afterwards he goes to look everywhere on every side for real -sardonyx; his speciality is to collect large and rare pieces of jasper. -Finally, about the eleventh hour of the day, Mamurra is completely -exhausted, he must go home. He buys for an _as_ (less than three -farthings) two bowls and takes them with him” (IX, 59). - -_Tongilius_ is the ponderous, important collector. He goes through the -places where the antiques are sold in an over-sized palanquin and with -his cortège and train of followers upsets everybody and everything. -Juvenal, by whom his character is handed down to us, remarks rather -sarcastically: - - Spondet enim Tyrio stlataria purpura filo, - Et tamen est illis hoc utile (_Sat._ VII). - -_Licinius_ is the type of the lunatic lover of art. He has a fine -collection, is wealthy and can buy the most expensive objects of virtu, -but he is far from happy. His mania is the fear that his rarities -may be stolen or become the prey of fire. He keeps hoards of slaves -watching his precious curios, night and day. “At night,” says Juvenal, -“a cohort of guardians sits up with buckets of water ready to hand in -case of emergencies; the poor man is in continual fear for his statues, -his amber figures, his ivory and tortoise-shell veneered furniture.” - -Naturally, in contrast to the foolish type of collector who seems to -have kindled the verve of Roman satirists, the true amateur was to be -found, and most select collections of art were known in Rome. Among -these also the city afforded all the types of the true collector, the -selfish one who never showed his collection to anyone, and the man who -gathered objects of art chiefly to share the enjoyment of them with -others. Some of these latter wished the public to have the benefit of -their purchases, and adorned porticoes and public places with their -collections. - -According to Statius, _Vindex_ is the real connoisseur. “Who can -compete with him,” remarks the poet in his _Silvæ_, lib. IV, “who -possesses so sober an eye? He is deeply versed in the technical -procedure of all the artists of antiquity, and when a work bears no -signature he can decide at sight to which master it belongs. He will -point you out a bronze that has cost the learned Myron many a day’s -and night’s work, the marble to which Praxiteles’ untiring chisel has -given life, the ivory polished by the hand of Phidias, the bronzes of -Polycletus which seem to breathe life on coming out of the furnace, he -can see the artistic line, the true mark of all authentic Apelles.” - - - - -CHAPTER III - -RAPACIOUS ROMAN COLLECTORS - - Some collectors’ hobbies--Sulla idolized statuette--Verres the - most rapacious of Roman art collectors--Mark Antony and his - speedy methods--Cicero as an art lover--Pompey the unselfish - art lover--Julius Cæsar. - - -Shrewd and impassive connoisseurs like Sulla also had their hobbies -and fancies. Sulla’s particular fancy was a little statue of Apollo he -had pillaged from the temple of Delphi. This statue was more to him -than all the rest of the precious things forming his unique collection. -From this little god, called by Winckelmann “Sulla’s private travelling -god,” he never separated. He used to kiss it devoutly and seems to have -consulted it in great emergencies. At times he used to carry it in his -breast, says Plutarch. We may note by the way that this Apollo was -not considered by connoisseurs the best piece of Sulla’s collection, -the real gem was his Hercules, a work by Lysippus. The story of this -Hercules is told by Martial and Statius, who inform us that it measured -a little less than a Roman foot, about nine inches. Notwithstanding its -modest dimensions the statuette was modelled with such grandeur and -majestic sentiment as to cause Statius to comment, “_parvusque videri, -sentirique ingens_” (small in appearance, but immense in effect). It -represented Hercules in a smilingly serene attitude, seated on a rock, -holding a club in his right hand and in the other a cup. It was in -fact one of those statuettes which Romans called by the Greek word -_epitrapezios_, and which were placed on dining-tables as the _genius -loci_ of the repast. - -The history of this gem of Sulla’s collection is uncommon, and its -vicissitudes most remarkable. The statue was originally a gift made -by Lysippus to Alexander the Great. This sovereign and conqueror was -so attached to Lysippus’ present that he carried the statue with him -wherever he went. When dying he indulged in a touching adieu to the -cherished statuette. - -After Alexander, the little Hercules fell into the hands of another -conqueror, Hannibal. It is not known how he came to be the possessor -of Lysippus’ work, but it may be explained by the fact that Hannibal, -being a collector of art and somewhat of a connoisseur and, above -all, as Cornelius Nepos states, a great admirer of Greek art, was a -keen-eyed hunter after rarities in art. However, be that as it may, -Hannibal seems to have been possessed by the same fancy as Alexander, -for he carried the little statue with him on all his peregrinations, -and even took it to Bithynia, where, as history informs us, he -destroyed himself by poison. At his death the Hercules passed, in all -probability, into the hands of Prusias at whose court Hannibal died. - -A century later the statue reappeared in Sulla’s collection. Very -likely it came into Sulla’s possession as a present from King -Nicomedes, who owed gratitude to Sulla for the restitution of the -throne of Bithynia. - -After Sulla’s death it is difficult to locate this precious statue -of his famous collection. Presumably it passed from one collector to -another, and never left Rome. “Perhaps,” says Statius, “it found its -place in more than one Imperial collection.” The statue reappears -officially, however, under Domitian. At this time it is in the -possession of the above-quoted Vindex, a Gaul living in Rome, a friend -of Martial and Statius and one of the best art connoisseurs of his time. - -At Vindex’s death the statuette disappears again, and no mention of it -has ever been made since by any writer. What may the fate have been of -this _chef-d’œuvre_ of Lysippus which passed from one collection to -another for more than four centuries? - -Among greedy lovers of art, with a connoisseur’s eye as good as his -soul was unscrupulous, Verres takes the prize. He had learned the -rapacious trade of art looting under Sulla. Later on, not being -powerful enough nor daring to go to the length of the Dictator by -placing reluctant amateurs on the list of proscribed, he studiously -sought to gain his end by all forms of violence and vexatious methods. -When in Sicily as proconsul, he actually despoiled and denuded every -temple in the island. - -“I defy you,” says Cicero in his indictment of Verres, “to find now in -Sicily, this rich province, so old, with opulent families and cities, a -single silver vase, a bronze of Corinth or Delos, one single precious -stone or pearl, a single work in gold or ivory, a single bronze, marble -or ivory statue; I defy you to find a single painting, a tapestry, that -Verres has not been after, examined and, if pleasing to him, pillaged.” - -As for private property, when he heard of a citizen possessing some -object that excited his cupidity, to Verres all means of extortion -seemed good, including torture and fustigation. His passion was of -such an uncontrollable nature that even when invited to dinner by -his friends he could not resist scraping with his knife the fine -bas-reliefs of the silver plates and hiding them in the folds of his -toga. Yet this greedy, unscrupulous amateur, whom Cicero mercilessly -indicted in his _In Verrem_, was such a lover of the objects of his -collection that he faced death rather than give up some fine vases of -Corinthian bronze which Mark Antony had demanded from him as a forced -gift. - -Mark Antony, who followed Sulla’s methods in forming one of the finest -of collections, was, like his violent predecessors, a type of collector -which finds no counterpart in our times. His fine library had cost many -victims, his taste being rather eclectic, there seems to have been no -security in Rome for any kind of amateur who happened to possess rare -and interesting curios. Nonius was proscribed because he refused to -part with a rare opal, a precious stone of the size of a hazelnut. -“What an obstinate man, that Nonius,” remarks Pliny (XXXVII, 21) most -candidly, “to be so attached to an object for which he was proscribed! -Animals are certainly wiser when they abandon to the hunter that part -of their body for which they are being chased.” - -Mark Antony was not so good a connoisseur as Verres, but having no less -a passion for collecting art and being no less unscrupulous and more in -a position to use violence without the risk of being accused before the -Roman citizens, as happened to Verres in the end, there was no limit -to his schemes. After the battle of Pharsalia he managed to seize all -Pompey’s artistic property, as well as his furniture and gardens, and -after Cæsar’s murder Antony, to whom we owe one of the finest orations -ever conceived, the one he delivered before the dead body of his -friend, lost no time in plundering Cæsar’s property and transporting -to his gardens all the objects of art Cæsar had left to the people of -Rome. The information comes from Cicero with these words: “The statues -and pictures which with his gardens Cæsar bequeathed to the people, he -(Antony) carried off partly to his garden at Pompeii, partly to his -country-house.” - -Speaking of this collection, it is believed that the colossal Jupiter -now in the Louvre Museum not only belonged to Mark Antony, but was the -work of Myron which the Triumvir had stolen from Samos. Should this be -so, the pedigree of this statue is one of the few that can be actually -traced through the centuries. Brought to Rome by Mark Antony, this -Jupiter was later placed in the Capitol by Augustus. The fine statue -was then passed from one emperor to another, to sink into the general -oblivion of art at the end of the Roman Empire. It reappears in Rome -in the sixteenth century. It was then in the possession of Marguerite -of Antioch, Duchess of Camerino. The statue was greatly mutilated, -having lost both legs and arms. The Duchess presented what remained of -this famous Jupiter to Perronet de Granvelle. Subsequently cardinal -and minister of Charles V, on his retirement to his native country, -Perronet de Granvelle took the Jupiter to Besançon and placed it in the -garden of his castle. When Louis XIV took Besançon, the magistrates -of the city offered the French monarch what he might otherwise have -taken, the statue of Jupiter. Transferred from Besançon to Versailles, -this magnificent statue which by rare chance had escaped serious damage -during the barbarian ages finally met two authentic barbarians in the -artists charged with its restoration. To clean off the old patina from -the statue--think of it--Girardon had a layer of marble taken off -with the chisel, and Drouilly, not perceiving that the god had been -formerly in a sitting posture, or more probably not choosing to notice -the fact as not appealing to his artistic conception, made the Jupiter -a standing statue by adjusting and cutting the parts otherwise in the -way for this kind of adaptation. The only part of the statue that does -not seem to have suffered any damage is the head. - -Even Brutus and Cassius appear not to have been indifferent to -the collector passion. Brutus, more especially, used to devote to -the collecting of art the less agitated moments of his troubled -life. The gem of his collection was considered to be a bronze by -Strongylion. Pliny tells us that this statue of Brutus was called -“the young Philippian,” _Strongylion fecit puerum, quem amando Brutus -Philippiensis cognomine suo illustravit_ (XXXIV, 19). - -Cicero may be quoted as a type of the inconsistent art collector. A man -of dubious artistic taste and snobbish tendencies but who becomes a -true art lover when he specializes in that part of art collecting more -closely in keeping with his studies. Thus in his letter to Atticus he -reveals his love of books and old Greek works, and how fond he was of -good bindings, etc. As a collector of art Cicero leaves one doubtful as -to his taste and connoisseurship, qualities to which he seems to lay -claim in more than one of his speeches. When he writes to his friend -Atticus, his good counsellor, the man charged to buy art for him, he -does not express himself either as a real lover of art or a genuine -connoisseur. “Buy me anything that is suited for the decoration of my -Tusculum,” he writes to Atticus. “_Hermathena_ might be an excellent -ornament for my Academy, _Hermes_ are placed now in all Gymnasia.... I -have built exedras according to the latest fashion. I should like to -put paintings there as an ornament,” etc. - -In _Paradoxa_, a collection of philosophical thoughts called Socratic -in style by Cicero, in which he says he has called a spade a spade, -_Socratica longeque verissima_, Cicero has the courage to write the -following paragraph in defence of Carneades, who maintained that a head -of a Faun had been found in the raw marble of a quarry at Chios:-- - -“One calls the thing imaginary, a freak of chance, just as if marble -could not contain the forms of all kinds of heads, even those of -Praxiteles. It is a fact that these heads are made by taking away the -superfluous marble, and in modelling them even a Praxiteles does not -add anything of his own, because when much marble has been taken away -one reaches the real form, and we see the accomplished work which was -there before. This is what may have happened in the quarry of Chios.” - -The gamut of art collectors would not be complete without quoting a -few samples of worthy art lovers who either understood art, like the -Greeks, as a means of public enjoyment, or in some way showed genuine -and most praiseworthy qualities as true collectors of art. - -It is doubtful whether the great Pompey really felt any pleasure in -collecting art pieces, or whether he simply did it to ingratiate -himself with the public. But as a matter of fact his attitude towards -the enjoyment of art was certainly of a most unselfish character. -Though he very sumptuously embellished his gardens on the Janiculum, -this was nothing compared with the public buildings he enriched with -rare statues, paintings, etc. His theatre was a magnificent emporium of -art of which we possess some samples in the colossal Melpomene of the -Louvre Museum and the bronze Hercules excavated under Pius IX, now one -of the finest pieces of the Vatican collection. Both these statues were -found buried on the spot where once the monumental theatre of Pompey -had stood. - -But the artistic glories of this theatre were perhaps even surpassed -by the interminable portico Pompey constructed and adorned for the -benefit of the public. This spot, which was called the Promenade of -Pompeius, became one of the fashionable walks of Rome. - -“You disdain,” asks Propertius of his lady love, “the shady colonnades -of Pompey’s portico, its magnificent tapestries and the fine avenue of -leafy plane-trees?” (IV, 8). And in another place Cynthia forbids her -paramour this promenade with the words: “I prohibit you ever to strut -in your best fineries in that promenade.” - -Pliny (XXXV, 9), says that Pompey had some famous paintings in his -galleries and seems to have been more especially struck by a work -by Polygnotus, representing “a man on a ladder,” and a landscape -by Pausias. Curiously enough the characteristics that seem to have -attracted Pliny in the two works do not point to the noted writer as -a great art critic. He says that the remarkable side of Polygnotus’ -painting was that the beholder could not tell whether the man on the -ladder was ascending or descending, and that the main characteristic of -Pausias’ work consisted in two black oxen outlined on a dark landscape. - -Cæsar, who showed himself to be a better connoisseur than his rival -Pompey, and who, being of a more refined nature, would not, as did -Pompey, have indulged in the gratification of parading the chlamys of -Alexander the Great in a triumphal car drawn by four elephants, spent -considerable sums on the embellishment of Rome with art. He also, like -many collectors of art, had his hobbies, carrying with him through his -various campaigns an endless number of precious mosaic tables, and -always keeping in his tent a fine work of a Greek artist, a statue of -Venus, with whom he claimed relationship. Though he showed eclectic -taste in his gifts to the town and temples, he was in private, like a -true connoisseur and refined lover of art, somewhat of a specialist, -being extremely fond of cameos and cut stones. Of these he had six -distinct collections that held the admiration of all the connoisseurs -of the city. - -He was, however, not only a passionate seeker after antiques, most -boldly acquiring precious stones, curiosities, statues, pictures by -old masters (_gemmas_, _tereumata_, _signa_, _tabulas operis antiqui -animosissime comparasse_), as Suetonius tells us, but also the -ever-ready patron of modern art. In this character he paid 80 talents -(about £16,000) for a painting by Timonacus. Damophilus and Gorgas, -painters, sculptors and decorators, worked for him to embellish the -Arena he built in Rome, an edifice capable of holding 2500 spectators. -Many artists worked at his Forum, a monument to his name for which he -paid a sum equivalent to twenty million liras for the ground alone. -Meanwhile he was also busy embellishing other cities of Italy, Gaul, -Spain, Greece, and even Asia. Suetonius states that Cæsar sent a -company of artists and workers to rebuild destroyed Corinth and to -replace its statues on their pedestals. - -Being a most unselfish kind of lover of art, Cæsar was one of the few -who did not yield to the momentary fashion that led patricians to send -their art pieces out of Rome, to embellish and decorate their country -houses and magnificent villas. - -This peculiar fashion that exiled so many fine statues from Rome, leads -us to speak of another noble type of collector, Marcus Agrippa, who, -like Cæsar, not only set a good example by keeping all his treasures -of art in Rome, mostly for the enjoyment of the public, but protested -against the new custom, and held meetings and lectures to dissuade -wealthy Romans from sending away from the city their _chef-d’œuvres_. - -Such was the spirit characterizing Agrippa as a lover of art. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -ROME AS AN ART EMPORIUM - - Rome an art emporium--Every rich man is more or less a collector-- - Chrysogon, Sulla’s freedman, competes with patricians--Scaurus’ - extravagant display--The type of a crack collector as described - by Petronius Arbiter--The Roman palaces have special rooms for - art gatherings--The Pinacotheca, the Library, the Exhedra, - etc., according to the rules of Vitruvius--Fashion creates new - distinctions in the appreciation of art and curios--The craze - for Corinthian bronze and the classification of bronze “patine” - --The hobby of murrhines and citrus tables. - - -We do not know how many private collections there were in Rome when -the collectomania finally took the city by storm. A list of Roman -collectors in the fashion of the modern work (_Ritz-Pacot_) would -be most interesting and enlightening. However, judging from the -statues and the public buildings we know to have been replete with -objects of art, we gather that as an emporium of art Rome must have -attained a magnitude unequalled in past or present times. Why this -great collection of art did not transform the Romans into the most -artistic people the world has ever seen, is a mystery only to be -solved by hypothesis. Either the Romans were innately refractory to -the refinements of true art, or, like to all _nouveaux riches_, the -field of art merely afforded room for faddists, hobbyists and fashion -seekers, and, only as sporadic cases, a few real lovers of good art. -However this may be, without discussing the causes, the effect was -certainly gigantic: art from every land found its way to Rome, which -by force of circumstances thus became a monumental synthesis of art. -Even at the time of Constantine, Rome counted 10 basilicas, 11 forums, -11 thermes, 18 aqueducts, 8 bridges, 37 city gates, 29 military roads -leading to all parts of the known world, 2 arenas, 8 theatres, 2 -circuses, 37 triumphal arches, 5 obelisks, 2 colossal statues, 22 -equestrian statues, 423 temples with statues of the gods--eighty of -these being in solid gold and seventy-seven in ivory. - -It is easy to understand that the above statistics only give a faint -idea of the magnificence of Rome, for the 423 streets and 1790 private -palaces noted in the same statistics as existing in Rome at the time -of Constantine were in a measure respectively open-air museums and -repositories of private collections of art, as no patrician mansion, -according to Vitruvius, was complete without a place where paintings -and objects of art could be exhibited with advantage. - -Cicero allows us a peep at the collections and gorgeous palaces owned -by notable Romans as well as their style of living. In his oratio (_Pro -Roscio Amerino_) he speaks of Chrysogon in these words: - -“Look at Chrysogon when he comes down from his fine mansion on the -Palatine! He owns a charming villa, where he goes to rest, just at the -gates of Rome. He also owns extensive domains, all magnificent and all -near the city. His palace overflows with vases of Delos and Corinthian -bronze. He keeps there the famous _authepsa_ bought by him some time -ago at such a price that on hearing the auctioneer’s voice repeat -the bid, the passers-by imagined a farm was being offered for sale. -What shall we say of his chiselled silver? his precious stuffs? his -paintings? statues? marbles? How many of such things do you think he -owns? Just imagine what has been pillaged from so many opulent families -in times of trouble and rapine; and all for the repletion of one single -palace.” - -When one thinks that this Chrysogon, Sulla’s freedman, had the chance -to amass such an accumulation of art, it is not difficult to imagine -the artistic wealth that must have been acquired by Scaurus, the -terrible Sulla’s unscrupulous son-in-law, the embezzler, the deplored -and deplorable Roman Ædile whom Cicero defended before the tribunal -with the inconsistency of his easy eloquence. - -According to Pliny (XXXVI), Scaurus not only owned one of the most -magnificent palaces on the Palatine, but had his mansion crowded with -rare things in true Roman fashion. With a Sulla for father-in-law, a -Metella, the purchaser of proscribed citizens’ goods, for mother, a -Scaurus, the _magna pars_ of the Senate and Marius’ former friend and -helper in the spoliation of provinces, for father, he can have had no -difficulty, as Pliny informs us, in gathering the unequalled treasures -that were stored in his palace. The wonders of the treasures of his -art emporium are all the more easily explained, too, when we consider -that he not only inherited a large fortune, but more than doubled it by -speculations. - -To give some idea of his fatuous munificence, we may state that -this Roman multi-millionaire built, for one month’s performance, a -theatre in the city, to hold eighty thousand spectators, and adorned -the edifice with three thousand statues and three hundred and sixty -columns. Among the precious things of Scaurus’ collection were a great -number of paintings by Pausias, works intended by the artist for -his native town of Sycione, if the Romans had had milder methods of -collecting art. - -Even those Romans, and they were many, who were not considered -collectors in the proper sense, owned fine works of art. The Servilius, -who had large gardens on the Palatine near the present Porta San -Paolo, had what a modern connoisseur might call a few extra pieces. -There was a Triptolemus, a Flora and a Ceres by Praxiteles, a fine -Vesta with two Vestals by Scopas and an Apollo by Calamis. It may be -mentioned, by the way, that it was to this famous garden Nero retired -on the day preceding his death, it was here in the Servilian mansion -that he was abandoned by his servants, parasites and courtiers, here -that he wandered desolate and despondent before resorting to flight. -On the spot formerly occupied by the Servilian gardens a mosaic was -discovered, now in San Giovanni in Laterano, representing an unswept -floor with the remains of a luxurious dinner. One might fancy this -mosaic to have belonged to one of those Roman Triclinia and their -noted orgies, or, having the imagination of Ampere, the historian, -to the place where Servilia had supped with her lover, Julius Cæsar. -History tells us that this matron, the mother of Brutus, was of the -pure blood--one might use the modern expression, blue blood--of the -_gens_ Servilia. - -For the sake of the colour, we cannot refrain from giving the -description of a true collector of art as related in all its suggestive -reality in the _Satyricon_, the only known fiction of Roman times, a -work which, though fiction, seems close to nature and a most faithful -interpretation of the artistic merits and oddities of Roman life. - -“I entered the Pinacotheca, where marvels of all kinds were gathered. -There were works by Zeuxis which seemed to have triumphed over all -the affronts of age, sketches by Prothogenes that appeared to dispute -merits with nature herself, works that I did not dare to touch but with -a sort of religious fear. There were some monochromes by Apelles which -moved me to holy reverence. What delicacy of touch and what precision -of drawing in the figures! Ah! the painter of the very soul of things. -Here on the wings of an eagle a god raising himself higher than the -air; there innocent Hylas repulsing a lascivious Naiad; further on -Apollo cursing his murderous hand....” - -At a certain moment the owner of the collection, apparently, arrives. -He is of a type not yet extinct: the man who lives for his collection, -the man so engrossed in his cherished objects as to forget and neglect -other pleasures in life, social obligations, etc. - -“A white-haired old man arrived,” the author of the _Satyricon_ goes -on to relate, “his tormented expression seemed to herald grandeur. His -garments were of that neglected character which is often distinctive of -literary people who have not been spoilt by wealth.... - -“I thought of questioning him. He was more of a connoisseur than myself -in the epochs of the paintings and their subjects; some of the latter -incomprehensible to me. ‘What is the reason,’ I asked him while we -were speaking of painting, ‘for the weakening, the great decadence of -the fine arts nowadays; more especially of painting which seems to have -disappeared and to have left no trace of past glory?’ He answered, ‘The -passion for money, that is the cause of the great change. Years ago -when merit, though left to starve, was glorified and appreciated, art -flourished.... Then, only to mention sculpture, Lysippus was perishing -of hunger at the feet of the very statue he was intent upon perfecting; -Myron, that marvellous artist who could cast in bronze the life of men -and animals, Myron was so poor that at his death no one was to be found -to accept his inheritance. We of our time, given over to orgies, wine -and women, have no energy left to study the fine art pieces under our -very eyes. We prefer to abuse and slander antiquity. Only vice nowadays -finds great masters and pupils!... Do you believe that in our day any -go to the temple to pray for the health of their body? Before all else, -even before reaching the threshold of the temple, the one will promise -an offering to the gods if his rich relation dies and makes him his -heir, the other, if he discovers a treasure, and another if he shall -achieve the dispersal of his third million in health and safety.... -And are you surprised that painting languishes, when in the eyes of -every man an ingot of gold is a masterpiece that cannot be equalled by -anything that Apelles, Phidias and all the crack-brained Greeks have -been able to produce.’” - -[Illustration: - - Photo] [Alinari - -MARCUS AURELIUS. - -A XVIth Century copy by L. Del Duca of the equestrian statue in Rome -(Campidoglio).] - -With the growth of fashion, a collection of art became the necessary -complement of a wealthy mansion. The need then arose to give this -collection the noblest place in the palace, a room apart to enhance -its importance. This new view brought about a new architectural -distribution of the Roman patrician mansion, not only on account of the -family life and obligations of a wealthy class of citizens, but because -the well-to-do Roman had obligations towards art and antiquity. In the -Roman mansion we thus find first the _atrium_, a large hall open to -friends, clients and visitors at large. The _peristyle_ is the second -courtyard, and is reserved for the family. In the _atrium_ the -domestic gods were generally placed and records concerning the family, -including genealogical trees (_stemmata_). - -With time these _atria_ became regular museums, as they were excellent -places for decoration and the display of art, being the open central -part of the house girded by a colonnade. - -An idea of the importance of these _atria_ may be gathered from that -of Scaurus’ palace, which had thirty-eight columns 12½ yards high, -made of the same kinds of rare marble that faced the walls--Egyptian -green, old yellow or Oriental alabaster, African marble and other rare -kinds brought from Syria and Numidia. Scaurus’ _atrium_ appears to have -been hung round with tapestries, embroidered with gold, illustrating -mythological scenes. Alternating with these rare tapestries were -_panopliæ_ and family portraits. - -Though perhaps the favourite spot, the _atrium_ was not the only -place for the artistic display of the Romans. Their palaces also -contained _Oeci_, magnificent galleries used for receptions, and the -_Exhedræ_, which were rooms for conversation, generally of a more sober -decoration. In the _Triclinia_ there were kept works in precious metals -and the finest pieces of furniture. There was also the _Sacrarium_, a -private shrine where precious pieces of art were often hidden. Verres -found his famous _canephoros_ (basket-bearers) by Polycletus, the Cupid -of Praxiteles and the Hercules of Myron in the _sacrarium_ of Heius of -Messina. - -There was also a room in Roman mansions set apart for the library, and -some had special nooks for such collections as gems and cameos. The -place where the best paintings were shown was called the _Pinacotheca_, -and was always built towards the north so that the light from the -windows should be without much variation, and above all because a -northern exposure left no chance for the sun’s rays to enter and spoil -the effect of the painting. - -The Roman collector of books very often went in for elegant bindings -and all the showy and decorative side of a library. Seneca deplores -the fact that while every elegant house in Rome contained a library, -many of these collections of books were simply for show. Too many -collectors, not dissimilar in this from our bibliomaniacs of to-day, -had quantities of works they did not care to read. “What is the use -of having so many thousand volumes,” cries Seneca, “the lifetime of -their owners would hardly suffice to read the titles of the works.... -There is a man with scarcely the literary knowledge of a serf, and -he is buying volumes, not to read them, but as an ornament for his -dining-room! There is another who is proud of his library only because -it is in cedar and ivory; he has the mania of buying books that no one -looks for. He is always gaping among his volumes, which he has bought -solely for their titles. Lazy people, who never read, are likely to be -found with complete collections of the works of orators or historians, -books upon books. One could really forgive this mania if it had -originated in a real passion for reading, but all these fine works, the -great creations of divine genius, works ornamented with the portraits -of their authors, do but serve to decorate the walls” (Tranq., IX). - -A large library was the desire of Horace. He wrote to Lellius: - -“Do you know my daily prayer?--Great Gods! let me keep the little I -own, less if it is your pleasure; let me live according to my choice -the days your indulgence has granted me; let me have plenty of books, -one year’s income in advance that I may not be obliged to live day by -day from hand to mouth.... As regards the peace of my heart and my -happiness, that is my affair” (_Sat._, II, 6). - -Such contrarieties have a genuine echo in our society where the -bibliomaniac is rarely a literary man or even slightly interested in -literature. Bibliomaniacs collected volumes for the most part either -because some of them were considered rare, and therefore advertised -the high price paid for them, or because they might serve as a -decorative show, but the collecting of general art and curios, with -a few exceptions, appears to have been vacuous and freakish. Even -specialization, which is held to be progress in modern times, but as a -matter of fact more often merely represents the triumph of erudition -over art and taste, exercised in Rome the momentary tyranny of fashion. - -An example of this specialization is given us by the craze in Rome for -Corinthian bronze. Without entering into a discussion about the legend -of its origin, and simply hinting that there are strong proofs that the -alloy existed long before the siege of Corinth, we are safe in saying -that the craze in Rome for Corinthian bronze was one of those freaks -of fashion that has had, perhaps, no echo in all the after-history of -“collectomania.” Every amateur was at that time bound to have at least -one vase of the coveted metal. According to Pliny (XXXIV, 1, 2, 3) in -his time this metal was equal to gold in value. In order to obtain two -vases of this precious metal Mark Antony ordered the assassination of -the owner, and it must be borne in mind that Mark Antony was accused -of using golden vessels for the lowest services of his household. -Octavianus, supposed to be a collector of mild passions and a man who -certainly did give up all such hobbies on becoming emperor, was also -very fond of the fashionable metal--_corinthiorum præcupidus_--and did -not scruple to adopt the methods of Sulla and Mark Antony to gratify -his ultra-fashionable taste. - -Times were then ripe for all forms of degeneration. Connoisseurs, -like those of to-day, began to discuss _patina_. As it required years -for Corinthian bronze to assume the proper patina--_Nobilis ærugo_, -Horace calls it--it was natural that this alloy should have the -preference over all other kinds of bronze. But there were gradations -of colour even in this metal and value was discriminated according to -the quality of the _patina_. Of these _patinæ_ the Roman collector -recognized five different kinds. Apart from these varying degrees of -merit, the connoisseur, Pliny tells us, could tell the quality of the -alloy from its weight and determine the excellency of the _patina_ by -its smell. - -Another craze in Rome that greatly fostered imitation and forgery was -that of murrhines, cups of a mysterious material which was more valued -than any other rare stone or rock crystal, though a cup of the latter, -according to Pliny (XXXVII), easily fetched 150,000 sesterces, an -amount equivalent to £1200. As a rule, always according to Pliny, for -one of these cups a bigger price was paid than for a slave. - -If the Romans, unlike the Americans, had no detectives at festivals and -banquets, they certainly took precautions to guarantee the safety of -the treasures displayed and to guard against the possible greed of some -guest. - -“Whereas Virro drinks from pateras of beryl,” remarks Juvenal, speaking -to a parasite, “no one would trust you with even a simple golden cup, -or, if perchance they do let you use one, be sure a guardian near you -has previously counted the precious stones studding it and follows with -his eye the movements of your fingers and your sharp nails.” - -One can really not refrain from giving this gorgeous patch of Roman -colour as Juvenal himself puts it:-- - - ... Ipse capaces - Heliadum crustas et inæquales beryllo - Virro tenet phialas: tibi non committitur aurum; - Vel, si quando datur, custos affixus ibidem, - Qui numeret gemmas unguesque observet acutos (V. 38). - -One may be sure that the man charged with watching was likely to do -his duty with the utmost solicitude. Carelessness in handling these -precious pieces that were used to decorate Roman tables was not easily -overlooked. An anecdote will illustrate this. Vedius Pollio, a Roman -nobleman, possessed one of the most esteemed collections of these -crystals. One day when Augustus was dining at this favourite’s house, -a slave broke one of the precious crystal cups. Vedius immediately -ordered the slave to be thrown alive into the pond of lampreys. -Disgusted at such an order, Augustus not only made a freedman of the -slave but ordered that Vedius’ whole collection of crystals should be -broken before his eyes and thrown into the pond of lampreys. - -But as we have said above, the craze for murrhines surpassed the craze -for the precious crystal, though comparing the two, we are bound to -add, with no artistic justification. - -What these murrhines were made of is not exactly known. Some of the -scholars of our day believe they were artificial, a mixture of clay -with myrrh, hence, perhaps, the name. Winkelmann is inclined to -think they were made of a kind of agate, and Mariette and de Caylus -respectively believe them to have been mother-of-pearl, or fluor-spar, -or porcelain. - -In further illustration of the peculiar substance of the murrhines we -quote from Pliny: - -“The material of the murrhines is in blocks no larger than an ordinary -glass, and a stratum no thicker than the marble of a small console. -There is no real splendour in this material, but instead of splendour -what one might call brilliancy. What gives the murrhines their price is -the variety of their tints, the colour of the veining, either purple -or pure white, sometimes shading off into nuances, reaching in some -species the hue of blazing purple. The white samples shade into roseate -or milky tones. Some amateurs are fond of freakish accidentalities -or reflex iridescent changes like the rainbow, others prefer opaque -effects. Transparency and pale hues are considered defects, as also -opaque grains inside even if they do not alter the surface, like -tumours, spreading in the human body. The quality of the odour helps to -set the price on the stuff” (XXXVII, 8). - -It is to be noted that while this rather vague description of Pliny’s -would seem on the one hand to point to the agate or any fluor-spar, the -addition of the odour tends to destroy this hypothesis. - -In any case murrhines became the rage of the Roman collector, and the -fashion being, as usual, imperative, no one was considered elegant or -correct who did not own at least one sample of the precious cups. One -of these cups which, according to Pliny’s estimate, could not contain -more than a measure of liquid, less than half a gallon, had cost the -large sum of 70 talents (£15,400). Adding that the cup had belonged to -a consul, and that the edge of it was nibbled, Pliny remarks that “such -damage is the reason of the increased price, there is not in all Rome a -murrhine which can boast of a more illustrious origin” (XXXVII, 7). - -This consul, who loved his cup so much as to nibble it on putting it to -his lips, this collector, whose name is unknown to us, used up all his -patrimony on his hobby of collecting murrhines. He possessed so many -of them, Pliny adds, that “one might have filled with them the private -theatre that Nero had constructed in his gardens on the other bank of -the Tiber.” - -Perhaps one of the most esteemed murrhines was that which was -considered the gem of Petronius’ collection. He had paid 300 talents -(£66,000) for it. Knowing how much Nero coveted this precious cup -and wishing to baffle his plans, before destroying himself Petronius -ordered his slaves to break it to pieces, so that it should not fall -into the hands of the man he detested. - -A rival craze in Rome to that of murrhines was the passion for tables -of _citrus_. Here too there is uncertainty as to the nature of this -rare wood called _citrus_. Apparently it grew at the foot of Mount -Atlas in Africa, and was in all probability a _thuja_. To obtain the -proper grain it was felled at the root and cut into planks of a length -to furnish the board of the table. - -Pliny seems to think that Cicero--the snob collector--set the -example of extravagance in these tables. The one he bought at the fancy -price of 4000 English sovereigns was still in existence in Pliny’s time -and went under the name of the _Ciceroniana_. Cicero’s price, however, -was surpassed by Asinius Gallus and Cethegus, the former paying -1,100,000 sesterces for his citrus table and the latter 1,400,000 -sesterces. Yet according to Cicero, the citrus table that Verres had -placed in his triclinium was the finest and most valuable Rome had ever -seen. - -Needless to add that in this article, too, collectors had their -preferences, that there was citrus and citrus, that the precious tables -were valued according to the grain of the wood and the _patina_. There -were four qualities among the most appreciated. The _tigrines_, the -_pantherines_ and the _pavonines_ were those tables of which the grain -and knots of the wood resembled the coats of the two animals in the -case of the two first, whereas the wood of the last showed knots like -the eyes of a peacock’s tail. The fourth quality was called _apiates_, -for in these tables the wood looked like a mass of dark seeds, or more -accurately a swarm of bees--hence the name. - -The collectomania and thirst for display must have not only favoured -the trade in spurious pieces of cheap imitation but, have caused in -the chaos of tastes at times an equal confusion in general reasoning. -Thus wise men and philosophers appear to have indulged in--what shall -we say?--rather amateurish considerations, indicating the reasoning -powers of a dilettante. Cicero at one time gibes at collectors and at -another boasts of being a collector himself. Seneca, the wise Seneca, -the cool-headed philosopher, was no better. Forgetting that his -triclinium was adorned with five hundred fine, tripod-like tables with -ivory feet, he writes as a comment: - -“I like a simple table with nothing remarkable about its grain, one -that is not celebrated in the city for having belonged to a succession -of lovers of fashion.” And then “... material considerations to which a -pure soul mindful of its origin should give no weight.” - -At one time fashion demanded that citrus should be used in veneering, -an art in which the Romans were extremely skilful, using all kinds -of rare woods, ivory and tortoise-shell. Furniture veneered with -tortoise-shell, especially, fetched an extremely high price and was -in considerable vogue for a time. The fact was sufficient to prompt -Seneca to this odd comment: “Is it possible that people are so ready to -pay most extravagant prices for the shell of such an unclean and lazy -animal!” - -The prices paid for art were only too often created by fashion, as -shown by the artistic _milieu_ of Rome we have been trying to outline, -and yet the characters we have passed in review in our reconstruction -of the past do not seem altogether dissimilar from some of our -present-day lovers of art. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -INCREASE OF FAKING IN ROME - - Increase of Faking--Imitation precious stones--Cameos--Restorers - and copyists. - - -It is evident that in a society like that of Rome and an artistic -_milieu_ such as we have tried to depict, comprising a few good -collectors among a whole hoard of fools setting up as full-fledged -connoisseurs, deception and fakery must have been rampant. The large -profits promised by a trade in sham art must have helped to perfect -those enslaved Greeks in methods of taking an artistic revenge upon -their oppressors. Romans, especially in art matters, must have -seemed to them mere parvenus. The practised eclectic qualities and -adaptability of those _græculi delirantes_ (crazy paltry Greeks), so -active in Rome, must have helped matters. In time there was nothing -they could not produce for the benefit of their patrons, and often -to such perfection as to deceive even keen-eyed connoisseurs. As a -consequence, already in Rome the imitation of art and curios produced -a certain perplexed feeling even among people who claimed to be -acquainted with the business of buying art and antiques. Pliny, who -was somewhat of a connoisseur, more especially in bronzes, writes -to a friend that he has bought a charming statuette of Corinthian -bronze, and in confessing that he likes it, “no matter whether modern -or antique,” seems to reveal the cautious attitude of a man who does -not wish to be caught in error, a fear and uncertainty that very able -forgers had created in Rome. - -Beyond a few hints and gibes about certain collectors and art lovers -and a few comments of Pliny and others we have no detailed account -of the part that imitation and faking played in Rome, but it is to -be presumed that the latter especially found numerous and ever-ready -clients, and that it was able and prosperous beyond the dreams of -modern art duping. - -According to Pliny the favourite article, the one to which fakers and -forgers gave their utmost care and attention, was the article that was -in vogue at the moment and therefore promised the biggest return. Thus -murrhines did not escape this fate, they were imitated with obsidian. -Pliny also adds that all kinds of precious stones were imitated in -Rome, not only by coloured glass but also by a selection of stones -that, though rare, were of less value comparatively than the types they -imitated. - -The most esteemed kinds of sardonyx were counterfeited by joining -various pieces of the cheaper jaspers or onyx, cleverly alternating -red, white and black, and joining the pieces in such a manner that -it was most difficult, Pliny tells us, for a connoisseur to detect a -fraud. The same writer, who gives valuable hints on the imitation of -precious stones, says that in his time there were even books from which -one could learn the art of counterfeiting precious stones, that all of -them could be imitated, topaz, lapis lazuli, and amethyst; that amber -could be coloured, obsidian used to counterfeit hyacinths, sapphires, -etc. Speaking of the sardonyx, more especially, Pliny says, “no fraud -brings so much money as this.” - -In this line there were also other kinds of fraud. One of the most -profitable was the imitation of precious stones with paste ones. There -are some imitation cameos that are a puzzle even to-day. Commenting -upon this fraud, Winkelmann benevolently points out that we owe to -this unscrupulous commerce of false cameos the preservation of the -casts of some precious originals now lost. The marvellous part of these -imitation cameos is that the faker was not only able to imitate the -plain stone of the original but all its characteristic veining and -peculiarities. - -With regard to bronzes and other metal works it is to be presumed that -not only could the _Nobilis ærugo_ of Horace be easily counterfeited, -as it is to-day, but the work as well. Pliny the Younger gives us -valuable hints about the perplexity that fakery had generated among the -connoisseurs of his time. - -The Greek artists in particular showed themselves most versatile, -they reproduced in Rome the most esteemed originals and could to a -certain extent imitate the most appreciated types of art. Zenodorus, -for example, copied for Germanicus a cup by Calamis in such perfect -imitation of the chiselling that the copy could not be told from the -original. - -Fraudulent masterpieces of painting and sculpture, often with the -forged signature of some great artist, as at present times, were -already on the market in Cicero’s time. His “_Odi falsas inscriptiones -statuarum alienarum_” is eloquent enough. - -Phœdrus seems to complete Cicero’s information about Roman art faking. - -“It is in this way,” he says, speaking of faked paintings and -sculpture, “that some of our artists can realize better prices for -their work: by carving the name of Praxiteles on a modern marble, the -name of Scopas on a bronze statue, that of Myron on a silver-piece, and -by putting the signature of Zeuxis to a modern painting.” - -We do not intend to confound fakers with honest restorers of works -of art, but in Roman times, as is often the case in our own, faking -learned no small lesson from the deft hand of the restorer. The same -may be said for imitators and copyists who even in ancient Rome -followed their trade openly with no intention of cheating. Copyists in -particular were very active and their work was certainly appreciated by -a certain class of citizens. The fact is proved by the numerous copies -of Greek masterpieces that have been unearthed in Rome and elsewhere. -When an original was not to be had, a copy was often ordered. Lucullus -sent an artist expressly to Athens to make a copy for him of a work by -Pausias, the portrait of Glycera, the artist’s lady love. - -Restorers of works of art were, in Rome as elsewhere, the nearest -relatives of fakers; their ability to imitate antiquity must have -proved a great temptation, and the enormous sums paid for certain -objects, and the gross ignorance of some of the buyers, must have paved -the way to more than one passage from honesty to dishonesty. - -There were many restorers’ workshops in Rome, and one has been -discovered near the Forum, where apparently new limbs and heads were -provided for damaged statues. Many an antique statue has come down to -us already repaired. Evander Aulanius, says Pliny (XXXVI, 5), restored -the head of Diana, in the temple of Apollo, on the Palatine. Like -modern restorers, their forefathers of Rome had not always the delicate -hand needed for such operations. When the Prætor Julius ordered the -cleaning of the paintings in the temple of Apollo it was done in such a -rough manner that all the charm of the works disappeared. A fact that -may have induced some good connoisseur to advise leaving untouched the -Venus Anadyomene of Apelles, the masterpiece placed by Cæsar in the -temple of that goddess, and to let it be damaged by age rather than -allow the sacrilegious hand of a restorer to maim the divine painting -of the Greek artist. - -From what we have been perusing we may conclude that the Roman -artistic world was not entirely different from the artistic world of -to-day. Certainly the city must have been of a magnificence of which -no conception is given by its grandiose ruins. But the artistic life, -and the narrow path of the collector, were somewhat similar to those -of to-day. Some of the characters we have quoted would seem to be -alive to-day, a change of name and a _milieu_ of more modern colouring -and they would provide ground for an action for libel. We feel quite -familiar, in fact, with the characters described by Seneca. Even to-day -the world possesses collectors of rusty nails and other worthless -objects--mere cult of fetishism. We feel no less acquainted with -some of the other types to whom Martial pays his attention. The man -who gathers ants fossilized in amber, the collector of relics who -glories in owning a fragment of the Argonauts’ ship, might both be -alive to-day. So might Lycinius the demented, Codrus the penurious and -dissatisfied, Eros the enthusiast and dreamer. They still exist and -are well represented in their various shades of foolishness down to -that Mamurra who used to upset all the shops of the Roman antiquaries -without buying a single thing. Would you resuscitate Tongilius to our -modern society just substitute a bright motor-car for his rich and -cumbersome _lectica_ and, for a certainty, the name of some modern -collector of art, some up-to-date Mæcenas, will come to your mind. - -Of course, though Mr. Cook had not yet alighted to relieve itinerant -humanity from many troubles, tourists existed even at the time when -Rome did not possess the modern type of traveller. According to Titus -Livius many foreigners used to visit the temples of _Porta Capena_, -regular museums of art. The tourists of that time followed a routine, -as we can gather from Pliny and other writers. They were taken to -the Palatine, to the Via Sacra to admire the temple of Apollo with -its peristyle of fifty-two columns, adorned by the simulacra of the -Danaides and fifty equestrian statues, one of the finest sights in Rome -and which inspired Horace with an ode. This temple of Luni marble with -ivory doors, surmounted by a quadriga in gilded bronze carrying the -god, was also a museum, containing among other things a fine collection -of gems, and a room lined with silver in which the Sibylline Books were -kept. The _Domus Aurea_, the paintings of Apelles exhibited in the -Forum of Augustus, the temple of Venus, one of the finest emporiums -of art, that of Ceres which contained the celebrated “Bacchus” of -Aristides of Thebes, the “Marsias” in the temple of Concord, and in the -Capitol the “Theseus” of Zeuxis, in Pompey’s portico the “Soldier” by -Polygnotus, in the temple of Peace the “Hero” by Timante and another -famous work by Protogenes. - -There were of course foolish tourists who, like to-day, insisted -on being fed with more or less authentic anecdotes of relics of an -impossible character, who believed the unbelievable. Thus, according -to Procopius, who evidently believed the genuineness of the relic, -many tourists went to see the boat, still moored in the river, from -which Æneas had landed in Italy, etc. This kind of tourist must have -inspired Lucian with the comment that Greek guides in Rome might have -starved but for the nonsense and legends with which they enriched their -descriptions of the city. “But what of that,” remarks Lucian, “visitors -like to hear such things, and do not seem interested in the truth even -if offered to them free of charge.” - -The revival of the past needed this slight touch to show that the -artistic world of two thousand years ago was not, after all, dissimilar -to that of our enlightened days. - -Need we repeat that the phenomenon of art faking for the benefit of -foolish lovers of art generally appears when the passion for collecting -takes that Byzantine attitude which makes it ripe for decay and -degeneration, when mania, fashion and snobbery chiefly hold the ground -instead of taste and genuine love of art, in fact when the parvenus or -the lunatic submerge the intelligent collector. It follows consequently -that the decline of Collectomania heralds the decline of Forgery. The -latter, its errand over with the cessation of the demand for antiques -and curios, disappears to await a fresh chance. But the fake-festival -and carnival will revive, phœnix-like, with the awakening of a new -artistic world--just as though faking at certain moments answered to -a sore need of society. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -DECADENCE OF ART AND CONSEQUENT CHANGES - - Decadence of art and consequent change in the artistic _milieu_-- - Byzantine art--Its new views do not seem to favour old ways-- - Art patronage and collectomania tend to disappear--The medieval - period--Character of the collections--No imitators but a few - forgers. - - -The change affecting the world with the decadence of the Roman Empire -was logically bound to stamp the successive course of art with the -inevitable downfall of past glory. With the Christian era a new society -had arisen and also a new art, entirely symbolic, no more satisfied -with the early plagarisms, apparently lisping a new tongue but ready to -dispel all pagan sentiment in art, to establish the elements of a new -expression and purpose more in harmony with the reborn civilization. -With an art that Taine considers “after five centuries to be unable -to represent man except seated or standing erect,” symbolic and -calligraphic at the same time, there seemed to be no room for amateurs -and collectors of the old type. - -There may have been sporadic cases, though Constantine’s severe censure -of all the cults of the past doubtlessly made it a daring act at that -time to profess worship for old traditions in art. Collectomania very -likely became a thing of the past. There must have been dealers in -art and antiques, as we can gather from the Digest, and transactions -between artists and clients, as can be seen from a clause of the -Justinian laws, but nothing like there were in the ancient Roman world -that had been dispersed by the new civilization. - -This clause Justinian was forced to add to a law on artistic property, -as judges had so lost all sense of art appreciation that in a dispute -between a painter and the man who had furnished the board on which the -work was painted, they decided that the painting belonged to the one -who owned the board. Justinian was forced to do justice by stating that -if a quarrel arose between the artist and the one who furnished the -board the owner of the work was the artist, as the value of the board -could not be compared with the artistic one. “Think,” he concludes, “of -comparing the value of the work of Apelles or Parrhasius with the price -of a board of very small value.” - -The time for lovers of art, for private speculations and the all but -consequent faking, and all the characteristic figures of an art market -had disappeared. - -In the early medieval period there seems to have been no scope for -faking and forgery. The collector, if the type then existing is -entitled to the name, was like nothing that had been seen before or -has since appeared. The objects treasured generally had more intrinsic -value than real artistic merit. A collection represented a simple form -of banking, a sound and good investment taking the place of what the -French call “personal property.” - -With such views, goldsmiths’ work, studded and ornamented with precious -stones, or rich embroideries in gold, naturally had the preference. -Articles of virtu then had a solid value, and while suitable for -princely display, could be turned into money at any moment. The craze -for manuscripts, rare penmanship, and early illuminated parchments may -represent an exception, but only, apparently, as such objects--apart -from their rarity, skill and supreme patience in miniature work--were -of such an established value as to be regarded like precious gems. - -The medieval collections of art and precious things give a true -expression of those unsafe and uncertain times and were in harmony -with the erratic career of the monarchs and potentates whose peculiar -mode of life often necessitated the packing of the whole museum into -a coffer and dragging it with them in their pilgrimages, wars, etc. -This not only in some way explains the preference given to goldsmiths’ -work but the fact that the dimensions of sculpture had to be reduced, -and painting, when not for church decoration, was mostly restricted to -miniatures, illumination, and designs for tapestries and embroideries. - -Clovis, the “Most Christian King,” as Pope Anastasius called him, is -supposed to have been an eager collector of rare and precious objects. -Tradition claims that a saint one day broke one of his rarest cups of -jasper all studded with precious stones, and seeing Clovis’ sorrow at -such a loss, picked up the fragments and praying over them, performed -a miracle, handing to the monarch the cup restored to one piece as -before. Clotaire, the son of Clovis, had in his mansion at Braine a -secret room with chests full of jewellery and precious vases. - -Chilperic had a real ambition to collect rare objects of virtu. For -this purpose he sent everywhere for all that might be worthy of his -collection. Gregory of Tours tells us that he had a Jew as adviser, a -man called Priseus. - -It is said that when Chilperic exhibited at Nogent-sur-Marne the -presents offered him by the Emperor Tiberius II, to show that they -did not surpass in splendour the best pieces of his own treasure, -he exhibited close to them one of his precious cups, a golden vase -studded with rare stones and weighing fifty pounds. Twenty years -later, between 560 and 580, Saint Radegond, the daughter of the king -of Thuringia, received the poet and canon Fortunatus in her convent -of Poitiers and gave him a dinner with the table covered in roses and -the richest ornamented silver plates and precious jasper cups. Such a -treat inspired the poet with one of his fine Latin poems. Dagobert was -not only an enlightened collector of precious things but so extremely -fond of artistic “vaisselle” that when Sisinande, a Gothic king, wished -to induce the Frankish monarch to join him in his political schemes he -promised Dagobert a fine gold plate weighing five pounds “and more -precious still for the beauty of the workmanship.” - -After a long lapse of time, in which the only museums of the art of -the time seem to have been the churches, under Charlemagne and his -successors private collections of treasures, art and fine pieces of -work again seem to acquire importance. The Bibliothèque Nationale of -Paris owns an _Évangéliaire_ of rare artistic value, illuminated by a -monk named Godescal of the year 781. - -The Bible and Psalter of Charles the Bald are said to have been the -work of the monks of Saint-Martin de Tours, and are considered a marvel -of illumination. Together with these books, now kept in the Librairie -Nationale of Paris, Charles presented to the Church of Saint Denis a -famous cup known in his time as Ptolemy’s cup, a fine work carved from -a piece of precious sardonyx. In the will of this monarch’s brother, -the Marquis of Friuli, a document dated 870, there is, among other -legacies, the enumeration of arms studded with precious stones, clothes -in silk and gold embroideries, silver vases and ivory cups, finely -chiselled, and a library in which among other notable works are the -writings of Saint Basil, Saint Isidore and Saint Cyprian. From this -time forward a collection of rare things and precious jewels is quite a -necessary apanage of kings and princes, but as we have said, it mostly -consisted of small objects in which art almost invariably seems to -have played a secondary rôle, and in considering the art it is often -hard to know whether to admire more the miniaturist’s patience or his -workmanship. - -Later on the cult of pagan art seems to have been revived by the -Emperor Frederick II, the son of Barbarossa, but even at this time the -case is somewhat of an exception. - -Under patrons of art who were as a rule absolute monarchs or iron -rulers and all-powerful princes, fakery would have played a dangerous -and most sorrowful part, nor was there any inducement to indulge in -any of the trickery that had characterized the world of lovers of art -during the Roman decadence. A risky game at any time, it might have -entailed one of those exemplary punishments which characterized the -ferocious Middle Ages. - -Coin counterfeiting was naturally the least artistic form of deceit, -and being a less hazardous venture seems to have tempted ability in -all ages. It represents a link between more proficient periods of art -swindling. - -Some of these early fakers certainly planted the seed from which sprang -the arch-deceivers and clever medallists of the Renaissance. - - There lies Romena, where I falsified - The alloy that is with the Baptist stamped - For which on earth I left my body burned. - -These words Dante puts into the mouth of Mastro Adamo da Brescia, a -skilful counterfeiter of coins whom he met in hell. Adamo was burned at -the stake near the castle of Romena in the Casentino, for having cast, -by order of the Count of Romena, the golden florin of the Florentine -Republic. - -About this time counterfeit coining tempted the most diverse classes of -people. It had a long list of devotees, including even a king of France -who honoured the Republic of Florence with not a few of his swindling -specimens of the golden florin. Marostica, a village in the Venetian -domains, challenged and defeated the powerful Republic of the lagoon by -flooding the Venetian market with the most deceptive samples of false -coinage. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD - - Initiation of the Renaissance period--Newly born passion for - the antique--The Mæcenas and the collector--Plagiarians, - imitators and fakers--Cola di Rienzi, archæologist--A - collection of the fourteenth century--Artists, writers and - travellers hunting for antiques--Niccoli, the Medicis, Cardinal - Scarampi and others--The Medici collection dispersed by the - Florentine mob. - - -The Renaissance fakers of art have a somewhat nobler pedigree when -compared with those of other epochs. The early artists from whom they -sprang were not actual imitators of the Greeks and Romans, but were -inspired by them to reproduce that pagan expression which had deeply -affected their artistic temperament. Were these artists doing it purely -for art’s sake, or had they the hope that their work might pass as -antique? The answer to this is perhaps to be deduced from the character -of the age not yet fully ripe for artistic deception. The sentiment -for, and cult of, the antique were certainly growing during this early -part of the Renaissance; they did not come in a sudden burst, but had -been gradually developing in the previous years. - -As a matter of fact, already in the transitional period which prepared -the highest artistic accomplishment of the Renaissance, collections and -collectors were becoming not only eclectic in taste, but seem to have -been guided by a real artistic fondness for the art of the past. It -is no more a question of solid silver and jewels, but of statues and -paintings. Catalogues no longer read like that of Charles VI of France: -“Inventoire des joyaux, vaiselle d’or et d’argent estant au Louvre et -en la Bastille à Paris appartenent à feu le roy Charles,” followed by -a monotonous enumeration of jewels, _vaiselle_, etc., but are like that -of the Medici collection, and include all the most varied expressions -of art--sculpture, paintings, medals, carving, cameos, rare jewels, -etc. - -In the early part of the 14th century we know that Cola di Rienzi, the -Roman Tribune, collected inscriptions. One of his biographers tells -us that Cola “occupied himself every day with inscriptions cut into -marble, which were to be found round Rome. No one could decipher the -ancient epitaphs like him. He translated all the ancient writings -and gave the right interpretation to these marbles.” It was between -the years 1344-47 that Cola compiled a work on Roman inscriptions, -re-edited a century later by Signorili in his _Descriptio urbis Romæ_. - -Oliver Forza, or Forzetta, who flourished about the year 1335, -seems to have owned the first complete collection of which we have -notice. Forzetta was a wealthy citizen of Treviso. We know that in -the above year of 1335 he came to Venice to buy several pieces for -his collection, manuscripts of the works of Seneca, Ovid, Sallust, -Cicero, Titus, Livius, etc., goldsmiths’ work, fifty medals that had -been promised him by a certain Simon, crystals, bronzes, four statues -in marble, others representing lions, horses, nude figures, etc. The -latter seem to have belonged to an earlier collector named Perenzolo. - -To point out that even outside Italy taste had changed at the beginning -of the 15th century, we may quote the following description handed down -to us by Guillebert de Metz. It gives a full account of the collection -of Jacques Duchie, a Parisian, and indicates that at this early time -Paris must have possessed more than one of these collections of art and -curios. - -“The house of master Duchie in the rue des Prouvelles,” says Guillebert -de Metz, “the door of which is carved with marvellous artistry; in the -courtyard there were peacocks and diverse fancy birds. The first hall -is adorned with diverse pictures and instructive texts fixed to and -hung on the walls. Another hall filled with all manner of instruments, -harps, organs, viols, guitars, psalters, and others, upon all of which -the said master Jacques knew how to play. Another hall was furnished -with chess tables and other diverse kinds of games, great in number. -_Item_, a beautiful chapel where there were stands to place books -upon, marvellously wrought, which had been sent from diverse places -far and near, to the right and to the left. _Item_, a study the walls -of which were covered with precious stones and with spices of sweet -odour. _Item_, several other rooms richly furnished with beds and with -ingeniously carved tables and adorned with rich hangings and cloth of -gold. _Item_, in another lofty room were a great number of cross-bows, -some of which were painted with beautiful figures. Here were standards, -banners, pennons, bows, pikes, swords, lances, battle-axes, iron and -lead armour, _pavais_, shields, bucklers, cannon and other engines, -with arms in abundance, and, briefly, there were also all manner of -war implements. _Item_, there was a window of wonderful workmanship, -through which you put a hollow iron mask through which you could look -out and speak to those outside, if occasion arose, without making -yourself known. _Item_, above the whole house was a square room with -windows on every side from which one could overlook the town. And when -it came to eating, food and drink were sent up by a pulley, because -it would have been too high up to carry. And above the pinnacles of -the house were beautiful gilt figures. This master Jacques Duchie was -a handsome man ‘_de honneste hebit_’ and very distinguished; he kept -well-mannered and well-trained servants of pleasing countenance, among -whom was a master carpenter who was constantly at work at the mansion.” - -But Italy at the early part of this century was far more advanced. -There was no question here of collectors of dubious taste or odd fancy -for the simply curious; on the contrary we are confronted by real -connoisseurs and genuine lovers of art, intelligent and eager hunters -after all sorts of articles of virtu of past art; and also enlightened -art patrons who were munificent toward their contemporary painters, -sculptors and literary men. - -Taste had changed, and some tendencies merely outlined at the time when -religion seemed to absorb all the activities of art, were now in full -growth. That which in the art of the Cosmati appeared to be a Byzantine -aping Roman art, all that seemed plagiarism of this classic art in -Nicola Pisano, takes an interestingly different course with Donatello, -Brunellesco, and all of those artists whom a wrong convention calls -the forerunners of the Renaissance instead of calling them the real -creators of that great artistic movement. - -The passion for the antique was reviving. It was no longer a question -of sporadic cases but rather of a wide-spreading taste. Roman art was -in the air. Besides Rienzi, this cult of antique memories had already -claimed his friend Petrarch and the learned Dondi, a physician from -Padua, who visited Rome in the year 1375 to crown a long course of -study devoted to the antique. In a letter addressed to his friend -Guglielmo da Cremona, Giovanni proclaims the superiority of antique art -and is certain that modern artists will be the first to recognize the -fact and learn from it. Poor and hard-working, Dondi regrets that his -profession, his ailing patients, take so much of his time. But for the -profession, “I would rise as high as the stars,” he naively declares. - -Ciriaco d’Ancona, another great eager collector and intelligent -hunter after fine things, visits the Orient and Greece in search of -manuscripts and relics of art; Francesco Squarcione comes from the -East, bringing to his native Padua fine Greek works, and is perhaps the -first artist to devote himself to antiques, just as Niccolo Niccoli, a -Florentine lover of art, represents at this time the learned amateur of -taste. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo:_ _Alinari_ - -DIOMEDES WITH THE PALLADIUM. - -An imitation of the antique by Donatello’s School (?) and a free copy -of Niccoli’s cameo, a Greek work. Palazzo Riccordi, Florence.] - -Niccoli is really one of the finest types of collectors. Born at a time -when Florence demanded that each citizen should belong to one or other -of the factions that kept civil war alive in the city, he nevertheless -managed to keep free from all civil strife. His house was the temple -of art and of neutrality. A friend of the powerful and wealthy Medicis, -who by the way trusted to his infallible eye as a connoisseur whenever -rare things were offered, Niccoli never took advantage of this unusual -position, but kept himself far from all ambition and was possessed -by the sole desire to collect art, study old manuscripts, and be an -ever-obliging helper to students. The friends and admirers who came in -flocks for advice, to borrow his rare manuscripts, or to visit his fine -emporium of art, were always well received. Niccolo Niccoli was born in -the year 1363. The son of a rich Florentine merchant he was forced in -his youth to give all his activities to commerce. Liberated from the -tie of a profession for which he had no call, he finally gave himself -to his cherished study of art and literature, attending the lessons -of Luigi Marsigli and Emanuele Chrysoloras. His studies were thus the -stepping-stone to the collecting of antiquities. In the year 1414 his -fame had already extended beyond the city walls. The Chancellor of the -city of Padua addressed him in a letter as “_clarissimus vetustatis -cultor_.” Notwithstanding his great wealth, such was his passion that -but for the discreet help of the Medici, the powerful Cosimo and his -brother Lorenzo, who became Niccoli’s benevolent bankers, on more -than one occasion this enlightened amateur might have been forced -to sell his precious collection, or at least do that which is most -hateful to the true lover of art, sell the best that years of patient -work had gathered together. What is most surprising is the fact that -Niccoli managed to make one of the finest collections of art of his -day almost without leaving his native city. We know of him as going -once to Padua to secure a rare manuscript of Petrarch, and later on -as accompanying his friend and protector, Cosimo Medici, to Verona, -a trip the latter undertook in the year 1420. With Cosimo again he -visited Rome, to be horrified at the mutilation inflicted upon the -Eternal City by barbarians of all ages and denominations. Yet without -moving from his native city, keen-eyed Niccoli managed to search the -world with the help of agents and friends--some of them, no doubt, -the practised servants of the Medicis. There was hardly a rare thing -discovered, no matter where, but the fact came to Niccoli’s ears, and -the “find” generally found its way to this enlightened Florentine’s -collection. Once he even had the fortune to discover a fine sample -of Greek art in Florence, a few steps from the door of his house. It -was the well-known cameo which he attributed to Polycletus and which -was afterwards so often reproduced by the artists of the Renaissance. -Niccoli discovered this rare piece of chalcedony hanging round the -neck of a street urchin. He asked him who his father was and found him -to be a poor workman. He went to see him, and to the man’s surprise -offered for the stone the round sum of 5 golden ducats. It is curious -to trace the migrations of Niccoli’s “calcedonio,” as the piece was -called later. When Cardinal Scarampi--the Patriarch of Aquileia and -the most passionate collector of his time--came to Florence, he went -to visit Niccoli and his collection. There he became so enamoured of -the “calcedonio” that he proposed to buy it. Niccoli, who could hardly -refuse the favour to the powerful and influential Cardinal, consented -to part with the rare piece for 200 ducats. Later on the “calcedonio” -entered the collection of Pope Paul II, to pass finally to that of -Lorenzo il Magnifico. In an inventory belonging to the Medici family -the gem is valued at 1500 golden florins. - -Not dissimilar from certain modern and older types of collectors, -Niccoli was what might be called a strange character. While spending -large sums of money on his articles of virtu, he was almost -parsimonious in his household, although he liked to drink from rare -cups and set his table most richly with all sorts of precious vases. -One of his peculiarities was always to be dressed in pink. He had an -endless wardrobe of these rosy-hued garments and was as preoccupied -with them as he was with the rare objects of his collection. These -and other oddities were naturally the subject of gibes and sarcasm -from friends and unfriendly humanists, but Niccoli never answered -one written line, content to retaliate with his witty and cutting -tongue. He certainly had the best of it in this curious duel, for he -forced Aurispa and Filelfe to leave the town, and also, perhaps not -through his sarcastic tongue alone but through some Medicean intrigue, -compelled his enemies, Emanuel Chrysoloras, his former teacher, and -Guarino to make themselves very scarce in the city. - -Niccolo Niccoli’s name brings us straight to that of his protectors, -the Medicis, the family who as collectors of art and fosterers of -literature and philosophy surpassed every one of their age. - -Cardinal Scarampi’s collection, that of Pietro Barbe, afterwards Paul -II, and even the most complete of all, that of Niccoli, become rather -minor stars when compared with the artistic treasures gathered by the -Medicis for generations. This illustrious Florentine family seems to -have been for centuries nothing but a succession of patrons of the fine -arts. - -“No art collection,” says Eugene Müntz in his _Les Collections des -Médicis_, “has more deeply influenced the art of the Renaissance, no -collection has passed through more trials than the one of this family. -Ten generations of enthusiastic amateurs have given themselves to its -enrichment; the greatest artists, Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrocchio, the -two Lippi, Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and -Raphael have sought inspiration and models in the Medici collection. -This while, by an unaccountable contradiction, all the revolutions that -troubled the city of Florence seem to have continually threatened the -existence of such an inestimable gathering.” - -To be convinced of the extreme importance of the Medici collection -one has but to reflect that what now remains of it in the Florentine -museums or in well-known private hands is only the smallest part of -those past treasures, which has managed to survive the pillage of the -collection in the year 1494, when Piero Medici fled and the Medici -palace was sacked by the populace and the remaining effects sold -and dispersed by order of the Commune. What was later recovered by -the family was only a small part of the collection. An idea of the -magnitude of the Medici museum of art can be gained by perusing the -accurate inventories still remaining in the Florentine archives, the -list of the objects left by Cosimo the Elder to his son Piero and the -catalogue of the collection belonging to Lorenzo il Magnifico, and -finally the account of their money. - -A brief study of the character of the two most important collectors of -the Medici family, Cosimo and Lorenzo il Magnifico, will enable us to -judge of the quality and tendencies of the amateur of the Renaissance. - -The characteristics of the time in which Cosimo lived and the fact that -he had spent a long period in exile, a misfortune brought upon him by -jealousy, gave his inclinations as an amateur a different course from -what they might otherwise have had. Thus, while on the one hand Cosimo -never lost a chance to help artists and to acquire fine works of art, -he was shrewd enough to do so without ostentation, to avoid arousing -enmity from adversaries. But for this peculiar feeling Cosimo’s palace, -the present Palazzo Riccardi, one of the most sumptuous monuments of -Florence, might have been still more imposing, displaying greater -architectural wealth. It is known that Brunelleschi’s project was -privately preferred by Cosimo, but he did not dare to arouse old -jealousies by too sumptuous a display. Michelozzo’s design was chosen -as the more modest of the two and thus better fitted for the “bourgeois -prince” of Florence. Notwithstanding the necessity for caution even in -liberality, Cosimo encouraged Poggio Bracciolini and many others in -their intelligent search for manuscripts and rare parchments. He had -Niccoli as an invaluable adviser and helper, and left to his son Piero -one of the finest collections of antiques. - -His grandson, Lorenzo il Magnifico, was more free-handed. Times had -changed, the Medici family, though without heraldic title, was now -master of the city, and the splendours of a man of taste, such as -Lorenzo, and his prodigal inclinations, knew no restraint whatever. -The difference between Cosimo and Lorenzo lay perhaps in the fact -that the former could not do half what he might have done. Comparing -Niccoli and Lorenzo, one might say that the former tallied more with -the modern interpretation of the word collector, while the latter, as -being far too eclectic a lover of all sorts of artistic expression, was -more cut out for the part of an enlightened Mæcenas, a prince-amateur -and a generous patron of art and literature. One can hardly even -imagine the Magnifico classifying his cameos as did Niccoli, or giving -a semi-scientific and rational order to his objects of virtu, but, -running on the same lines as Cosimo, Lorenzo invested in the rôle -of patron of art and lover of the antique, in which he displayed -such magnificence as to fully deserve his appellation. Such was the -character of these two Medicis, stated by contemporaries as being more -greedy for fame than money. An estimation fully justified, especially -in the case of Lorenzo, who in his _Ricordi_ notes that his father -and grandfather spent 663,755 florins in the space of thirty years -and rejoices in the fact. The sum quoted amounts to rather more than -a million francs; how many modern heirs would feel like Lorenzo il -Magnifico? - -Like Niccoli and Cosimo, Lorenzo possessed the excellent quality, most -uncommon in a collector, of letting friends and admirers have full -benefit of his collection. More than the gratification of an egotistic -desire to possess rare and beautiful things, he saw in his artistic -pursuits a great means of education and a help to the artists of his -time. - -According to the taste of his age, Lorenzo was very partial to Greek -and Roman art, to all that concerned past civilization. A page of -Plato or the beautiful form of a Greek marble aroused in him feelings -of emotion more than any modern expression. Not only did he fill his -palace with fine pieces of sculpture but his villas also appear to have -been replete with them. - -“He was bursting with joy,” Valori, one of his contemporaries tells us, -“when he received the bust of Plato sent him by Girolamo Roscio.” - -This passion for the antique, however, did not prevent Lorenzo from -encouraging the artists of his own time or from taking a deep interest -in their art. Eclectic in taste, as a collector he nevertheless had -some preferences. In a letter to his son Giulio, the future Leo X, on -his promotion to the Cardinalate, he gives advice as to the kind of art -which is most in keeping with ecclesiastical taste, but as a matter -of fact epitomizes his own penchant as a collector of art. Urging his -son to give preference to antique statuary, he discourages him from -becoming a collector of jewels, tapestries and embroideries. “Love in -preference,” he recommends, “fine antique things and books”--_qualche -gentilezza di cose antiche_. - -Lorenzo the Magnificent seems to stand apart from the lovers of art -of his time not only on account of his culture and intelligence, his -broad eclectic views and genuine cult of every expression of beauty, -but as being a rare type of the grand seigneur, æsthete and humanist. -Paul II is a passionate collector of art, but more a scholar than an -artist, with him knowledge is supreme; Cardinal Scarampi is, as Ciriaco -D’Ancona calls him, an archæologist, and Niccoli, as an eager and -intelligent searcher of objects, would make a good type of antiquary of -our day, but Lorenzo displays interest in every kind of elevated human -expression; his character seems to conform to his noble motto, _Nul ne -sait qui n’essaye_ (nobody knows who does not try). - -His reputation as a connoisseur and expert in art spread afar. Princes -and monarchs asked his advice. Lorenzo is not only prodigal in this -respect, but also in the artistic things of his collection which he -sends as presents. To Mathias Corvinus he sent a bust by Verrocchio, to -the Count of Madaloni of Naples a fine horse’s head--now in the museum -of that city--a rare piece of work which until lately was taken for -Greek but is now attributed to Donatello. The Duke of Calabria asks -him for an architect, and he sends him one; in the year 1488 he sends -to Ferdinand, king of Naples, a fine plan of a palace by Giuliano da -Sangallo, and later he introduces Leonardo da Vinci to Lodovico il -Moro, Filippino Lippi to Cardinal Carafa, Sansovino to the king of -Portugal. In connection with odd requests that came to Lorenzo from -princes and monarchs there is a queer one from Louis XI. The French -king asks the Magnificent to lend him for a while the miraculous ring -of the Florentine patron saint, San Zanobi, pledging himself to restore -the ring to the owners--very likely the Girolami of Florence--and -begging Lorenzo to tell him how and in what way it must be worn to -perform the miracle, cure his gout and restore him to health. - -Through his love of art and his munificence towards artists Lorenzo -became practically bankrupt, and certainly had no scruples about using -public funds for his private purposes. Not that he was fond of personal -display, on the contrary he detested outlays that had no public utility -or did not foster some progress. - -Rinuccini, another of his contemporaries, tells us of Lorenzo’s -indifference to personal luxury and of his dislike for society -functions. “All the things that in olden days,” says Rinuccini, “gave -grace and reputation to the citizens; like weddings, dances and fêtes -and handsome clothes, he condemned them all and did away with them -through his example and his words.” - -A detailed description of his character as a collector and the quality -of his passion is not so eloquent of Lorenzo’s particular penchant as -his _Ricordi_. Take, for instance, these words concerning his mission -to Rome at the elevation to the Holy See of Cardinal Della Rovere. “In -the month of September, 1471, I was sent as ambassador to attend the -coronation of Pope Sixtus. I was the recipient of many honours in Rome -and brought back from the city two antique busts, the portraits of -Augustus and Agrippa, given to me by the Pope. I also brought with me -the carved cup of chalcedony and many cameos and medals.” - -It must be said that in forming his collection the Magnifico never lost -sight of Rome and its treasures. He had many agents in the Eternal -City excavating and looking for antiques to add to his collection. -His intercourse with these accomplices, the ruses employed, the adroit -management of influential prelates opposed to Lorenzo’s schemes, and -grieved that rare things should leave Rome, form an interesting chapter -of diplomacy. - -Glyptography was given preference in Lorenzo’s collection. Some of -his cameos and engraved precious stones are now the rarest things in -our modern museums. Then came a fine collection of coins and medals, -23,000 pieces in all, and another of Etruscan vases. His statues, which -Verrocchio and other artists were often charged to repair, filled to -overflowing his palazzo in Florence and his villas. - -To his assistance came not only special agents, but friends as well. -A magnificent vase was obtained by Lorenzo from Venice, and it was -through the mediation of his literary friend Politiano that the rare -find got into the Magnifico’s collection. Politiano writes from Venice -to his friend and patron on June 20th, 1491, that Messer Zaccharia has -just received from Greece _una terra cotta antiquissima_ and that he -believes it to be worthy of Lorenzo’s collection. Antonio Yvane writing -to Donato Acciaioli says that a little statue of Hercules has been -found at Luni, and that it and other antiques excavated are to be sent -to Lorenzo. - -One of his agents sent him a marble statue with an Etruscan -inscription; from Siena, Lorenzo receives a bust that sends him into -raptures, and he immediately wishes to buy it. To give an idea of his -appreciation and willingness to pay whatever it might be worth, we -quote part of his letter dated May 15th, 1490, addressed to Andrea -da Foiano then at Siena. “Ser Andrea, I received your letter last -night, and with it the head which you sent me and which, on account -of its being fine and having much of the antique beauty, I would most -willingly buy from him who owns it, if he will part with it for what it -is worth.” - -Though there is no document to support the fact, this bust is possibly -the one that P. della Valle says was sent from Siena to Lorenzo, -representing a head of Jupiter, of such a character that beheld from -one side it had a benign expression, and from the other a terrifying -one. Naples also contributed its share to the Medicean collection, -from whence arrive the portraits of Faustina and Scipio Africanus, a -fine bust of Hadrian and a sleeping Cupid. These last two statues were -conveyed to him by Giuliano da Sangallo, who under Lorenzo’s directions -had asked them of the king of Naples. - -As a collector and type of antiquary not disdaining a good bargain, -and perhaps influenced by the lineage of shrewd bankers, from which -he sprang, Lorenzo made more than one good stroke of business. From -Pope Sixtus IV he managed to buy the artistic treasure of the Holy See -at such a ridiculous price as to arouse protests from the Pontifical -accountants. The deal, which was carried through by Lorenzo’s uncle, -Giovanni Tornabuoni, caused a scandal that only the Pope’s authority -managed to silence, and the Medici collection became enriched by many -fine pieces. Among them, the so-called “Tazza Farnese,” now one of -the finest pieces of the Naples Museum, to which the inventory of the -collection gives a value of 10,000 ducats, and the rare Greek work -known as the “Rape of the Palladium,” rated by the same inventory at -the sum of 1500 ducats. This celebrated cameo had formerly belonged to -Niccoli. Donatello copied it for one of his medallions of the Medici -palace. There were other dealings between the Medici and the Holy See, -but we fail to know how advantageous they may have been for either -side. In the year 1460 the Medici sold a piece of tapestry to Pope Pius -II for the not inconsiderable sum of 1200 golden ducats, and later on, -through the above-quoted agent, Giovanni Tornabuoni, in the year 1484 -several yards of common tapestry were sold to the Pope by the Medicis. - -We have spoken at greater length of Lorenzo il Magnifico as he appears -to us to symbolize the type of Mæcenas and collector of his epoch, -but all Italian princes were more or less art lovers and collectors -at that time, as well as being shrewd bargain drivers on occasion. -As an example of this, one is led straight to Isabella d’Este and -her hard dealings with Mantegna. Intelligent, keen-eyed and a good -connoisseur, Isabella had set her heart on a _Faustina antica_ in the -possession of the Paduan painter, but did not wish to pay the price -demanded by the artist. Negotiations were carried on for quite a time. -Knowing Mantegna’s straightened circumstances, Isabella coolly and -almost cruelly waited the favourable moment to take best advantage of -the artist’s distressing situation. Pressed by all sorts of needs, -the aged artist finally decides to part with his best antique, the -portrait of Faustina, a work of art he adored. Conscious of having -served the house of Gonzaga most faithfully and knowing Isabella’s -intelligence and admiration for his bust of “Faustina antica,” as he -calls it, he determined to offer her the work for a hundred ducats. In -his letter dated from Mantua, January 13th, 1506, he tells Isabella -all his troubles and how hard it is for him to part with his cherished -bust, but also how glad he would be if she will take it, or as he says: -“Since I have to deprive myself of it, I would rather you had it than -any other Lord or Lady in the world.” To this pitiful letter, ending -with the touching appeal: “I recommend myself to your Excellency many -and many times,” Isabella replies later by sending one of her agents, -whose letter to her is full of an astute spirit of bargaining and runs -as follows: - -“In compliance with what your Signoria writes me, I will call to-morrow -morning on Messer Andrea Mantegna and will act as shrewdly as possible -about the Faustina (_farò l’opera con più destro e acconcio modo -saperò_) and will inform your Excellency of the result at once. -Giovanni Calandra Mantua, July 14th, 1506.” - -A second letter from Giovanni Calandra informs Isabella that the artist -is obdurate as to the price. That though he is in extreme need he hates -to part with his _Faustina di marmo antica_ and asks pardon for the -refusal, that he hopes to find his price with Monsignor Vescovo di -Gonzaga, who has the reputation, Calandra states, to be keen on these -things. Dealings through the agent go on, till one day the latter -announces to the Marchesa Isabella Gonzaga that she has become the -possessor of the _Faustina antica_, which is already shipped to her -(_Mando per burchiello a posta la Faustina a S.V._), provided she -agrees to the price; if not the agent begs that the bust may be sent -back, in accordance with his promise given to the painter, should the -price not be agreed upon (_acciò possi disobbligar la fede data a -M. Andrea Mantegna_). Negotiations between Isabella Gonzaga and the -penurious artist who had covered with glory the prince he had served -and had decorated with magnificent frescoes the room of Isabella’s -mansion, lasted from January 13th, 1506, to August 2nd of the same year. - -These are but a few incidents of the day. All Italy was collecting. -Excitement over antiques had now become a mania, and this is perhaps -the best justification for imitators to have turned into fakers. - -At this period art collecting ranged from its highest votaries, Lorenzo -Medici, the Duke of Urbino, Este, Gonzaga, Sforza, Arragona, down to -common citizens who were earnest and intelligent collectors. - -One thing to be noted in this epoch is the total absence of the -parvenu collector so fully represented in the Roman period. There -may be an occasional case of snobbery, like that of Cardinal di San -Giorgio, who refused to keep in his house an excellent imitation of -Michelangelo, because, though having deceived him and many others, it -was not actually genuine, although far better than some of the rubbish -of his collection which contained indiscriminatingly anything that had -been unearthed in Rome, but a Tongilius, a Euctus, and above all a -Trimalcho, do not seem to have existed in the Renaissance period. If -they did, they were surely minor characters and quite outside the world -of real amateurs. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -IMITATION, PLAGIARISM AND FAKING - - The artists’ passion for the antique--Brunelleschi, Donatello and - their followers--Florence, the School of Padua, Venice-- - Imitation, plagiarism and faking--The plaquettes and their - curious transformations of some Greek and Roman originals--The - character of the imitations and that of the intended victims. - - -There is no occasion here to lose oneself in arguments as to whether -the artist was the primal cause of the awakening of the taste for the -antique, or whether it was a mere synthetic translation of a sentiment -already awakened through complex causes, the main one being, perhaps, -classic literature. Classicism, lately developed into an entirely pagan -æsthetic sentiment, a combination of Philhellenic and Latin tendencies, -may as well have influenced art as life in general--a sentiment -that at the moment of its maturity aroused anathematic protest from -Savonarola and a momentary reaction of pietism. However, the preaching -of the friar and his colossal bonfire of art treasures in Piazza della -Signoria were mere incidents in the course of Florentine tendencies of -art. The _Piagnoni_ in Florence may have converted Botticelli and a -few other artists, but the pagan sentiment was not dispelled. For the -artist of the last part of the XVth century San Giorgio and Perseus -were, if not identical, to be treated with the same artistic sentiment. - -The real evolution, in our opinion, begins with Brunelleschi and -Donatello. In the year 1404 these two artists undertook a journey -to Rome. For the progress of art this is a memorable date. The real -influence of Greek and Roman art on the artistic movement immediately -preceding the Renaissance begins at that date. It is undeniable that -even before this time mythological subjects had become familiar to both -painters and sculptors, artists preceding Donatello and Brunelleschi, -such as Piero di Giovanni Tedesco, Nicolo di Piero Lamberti (called -_il Pela_) and even Nanni and Antonio di Banco, show slight traces of -Roman art at times--even to the way of working the marble, as in -the ornaments of the north door of the Duomo in Florence, by Giovanni -Tedesco--but they are faint and uncertain traits, leaving one -undecided whether they be attributable to Roman influence or a mere -inheritance from the Romanesque blunt-edged way of working marble. - -The years spent in Rome by Donatello and Brunelleschi seem to have -moulded the style of these two artists entirely anew, particularly -that of the former. The citizens of Rome were more or less surprised -at the persistency with which the two artists endeavoured to unearth -fragments of old statues, and supposing them to be animated by a mere -mercenary hope, that of finding some treasure, they called the two -students _quelli del tesoro_ (treasure-seekers). It is undeniably true -that however profitable their search for old coins and marble relics, -their copies and study of ancient art were in their sum total more -valuable than the solid gold they brought back with them to Florence. -The results are plainly visible in Brunelleschi’s architecture and -Donatello’s sculpture, and the influence that their art exercised over -their contemporaries and followers. - -As we have said, after his sojourn in Rome, Donatello, particularly, -seems to have immersed his art in a bath of past paganism. His art is -no fakery, nor is it sheer plagiarism of the antique, but it is all -permeated with Greek and Roman reminiscences, and comes at times so -close to the Græco-Roman art that it misleads connoisseurs. Speaking -of Donatello’s art Louis Courajod, a well-known connoisseur, observes: -“He entered so deeply into the spirit of antiquity, that some of his -restorations of statues are very puzzling, and it is difficult to -distinguish his handiwork from that of the original.” - -In fact the famous horse’s head of the Naples Museum was catalogued -as a Greek bronze before it was recently attributed to Donatello or -his school. No one can fail to draw a comparison between Donatello’s -_puttino_ and the “Infant with the Goose,” a typical example of -Græco-Roman art. - -One of the first to be affected by the new sentiment in art was Lorenzo -Ghiberti. As a matter of fact Ghiberti not only became enamoured of the -antique, but was seized by the passion of collecting the best antiques -in marble and bronze. You may be sure that collectors of this calibre, -unlike the Roman samples, talked very little of patina and a great -deal of form, that their enthusiasm was of a higher alloy even than -that of present-day collectors, who are rarely artists or even real -lovers of art. Polycletus and Lysippus were Ghiberti’s idols, and Greek -art his worship; for the era of Imperial Rome he had no enthusiasm. -His cult for the Greek went so far as to induce him to reckon time by -the Olympiads in his chronology. Instead of telling us that a certain -artist died when Martin V was pope, or in the year so and so, Ghiberti -states amazingly that the event took place in the 438th Olympiad! It -is not surprising that an artist like Ghiberti, and such a lover of -Greek art as he was, should be able to classify Greek art at sight, to -discriminate it from dubious Roman products and all the art that so -closely resembles certain Greek periods. - -That the worship of pagan art was practised by artists with no risk -to themselves may be explained by the circumstance that the time of -religious intolerance had passed. Intolerance, comprehensible perhaps -in the early times of Constantine, when it was a crime for an artist to -go to the forms of the past, had gradually sunk into tradition by the -dawn of the new era which paved the way to the Renaissance in art and -to humanistic tendencies, the most tolerant and unprejudiced period of -past civilization. - -Lovers of art in this period appear to possess a certain refinement of -feeling that the Romans did not have, they stand more as friends to -the artist, esteem him more, and thus their pursuit has a wider scope. -Even Ghiberti, with all the restrictions placed on his taste by his -infatuation for the antique, was, according to Vasari who describes his -collection, no narrow specialist in the so much praised modern meaning -of the word, namely, a collector who may be useful to the history of -art and to knowledge at large, but who does not as a rule possess a -spark of love for art or artistic feeling. - -As is often the case to-day, the heirs of these old collectors were -at times more greedy for money than a reputation for art. Many fine -collections were scattered to the four winds, which was also the -fate meted out to Ghiberti’s collection by his relatives and heirs. -Fortunately a few pieces of this stupendous collection have been saved: -a fine torso of a Satyr can now be seen in the Uffizi. There are other -pieces too that have come down to us, but the finest works, those -attributed to Polycletus, among them a rare ornamented vase, are now -lost. - -The new artistic feeling perpetuated itself in architecture from -Brunelleschi to Alberti. The latter built for Malatesta what purported -to be a church, but which is in fact nothing but a temple to Love, -which the tyrant of Rimini erected and dedicated to the memory of -his lady-love, Isotta Atti. The revolution in sculpture effected -by Donatello seems to be felt in Padua and Venice. Imitations of -all sorts, and probably faked antiques, date from this time. It is -difficult to decide whether Donatello’s genuine pagan sentiment, his -second artistic nature, was solely due to his passion or to a desire -to accommodate the general taste for the antique; Italian artists are -far too versatile. However that may be, he was no faker; the art of -the faker flourished when imitators had lost all artistic personality, -becoming mere craftsmen catering as usual to a momentary mania. Then -was the time one saw Filarete indulging in most absurd medals and -portraits of dubious, very dubious, historical correctness; Riccio in -Padua fabricating and flooding the market with charming little bronzes -in which the imitation is so evident that it brings up the question as -to what the art of Andrea Briesco (called _il Riccio_) might have been, -had he chanced to be born at another epoch. Vellano also alternates -fine pieces of work with little bronzes that must have been in great -vogue with collectors of antiques. It is to be noted that the mania -is not confined to Italy, it takes that country by storm because of -its tremendous artistic activity and the fact that in art it is the -foremost country of the time; but others were affected too. France -is the first as being the nearest tributary to Italian supremacy in -art. There are many examples of what we have said, but perhaps one of -the most eloquent is the decoration of the castle of Gaillon, where -there are some medallions with portraits of Roman emperors of a most -mystifying character. Though the work of Italians of the end of the -Quattrocento they were classified as antique (_antiqualles_) only a few -years later, at the beginning of the sixteenth century. - -An evident proof that Quattrocento imitations were not always directed -by artistic fancy, but rather by the love of gain by means of fraud and -fakery, is given by the fact that some of the statuettes imitating the -antique were cast with broken limbs. - -The Ambras collection of Vienna has one of these curious specimens--a -charming figure, a female nude. This piece has evidently been cast -without arms, the clay model having been mutilated before the form -was taken for the cast. In the Prado of Madrid there is also a bronze -statue of the Renaissance, possibly a cast from the antique, the -peculiarity of which is that the arms have been added afterwards, as -though in restoration. The metal of the arms is of a different alloy -and the modelling of these parts purports to be of a much later date -than the rest of the statue. - -The first pieces to show a positive character of fakery are imitations -of old coins and medals. Then small bronzes called _plaquettes_, often -_pastiches_ of antique models, when not actually reproductions from old -cameos. - -The Renaissance has also produced many bronze statuettes that seem to -have had no other purpose than to take in the amateur--to gratify his -demand for antiques by launching spurious products upon the market. -The artists responsible for them represent what might be styled the -aristocracy of fakers; there is nothing banal about them, their work is -generally good, so much so that these imitations have now acquired a -value _per se_. - -Antonio Pollaiolo, the Florentine sculptor, is one of the most charming -imitators of the antique. The Flute Player of the National Museum -of Florence is perhaps one of the most convincing examples of this -statement. Hercules and Antæus is also a remarkable work by this -artist, though the other is superior on account of its simplicity. -Of the Flute Player there are copies of the same period in the Cluny -Museum and at Avignon. Curiously enough this statuette tempted even the -pencil of Raphael, who reproduced it in a sketch-book now kept in the -Academy of Venice. - -As soon as he had left the goldsmith’s shop, Andrea del Verrocchio -started the early period of his activity in his new career as a -sculptor, and made his way, according to Vasari, by casting small -figures in bronze. We know very little of these small statuettes of -Verrocchio’s, beyond attribution, but, Vasari says, Verrocchio was -tempted to make them while in Rome, because he saw how appreciated -were antique statuettes, so much so that even fragments fetched fancy -prices. Being an excellent craftsman with the chisel, and skilled -in the casting of metals, Verrocchio would seem to have been fully -equipped for catering to the demand of the amateurs of his time. - -Vellano, in his imitations of the antique, seems at times to have even -been tempted to counterfeit Egyptian art. His art in imitating is -eclectic and most versatile. - -[Illustration: IMITATIONS OF THE ANTIQUE. - -By Moderno, XVIth Century.] - -Andrea Briesco seems to possess the brusque touch of some antique -sculptors combined with the mania of Roman foppishness in -over-draping his statuettes. They are invariably arrayed in gorgeous -consular armour, elaborate togas, imperial sandals, and have, as a -remarkable contrast, wild, vulgar faces in complete disharmony with -the rich decoration of the costumes. However, when this artist models -horses or simple nude figures he gets closer to the originals and is -evidently an excellent and dangerous imitator. The bronzes of the -Paduan school that may, with more or less certainty, be attributed to -Riccio, are endless and in some of them the intention of faking is -evident. - -Jacopo Sansovino, the presumed author of the bronze statuette of -Meleager of the Pourtales collection in Berlin, does not seem to take -the trouble to disguise the origin of his plagium. - -Michelangelo was too great a personality as an artist and too highly -gifted to be tempted to hide his genius and waste his fine energies on -imitation of the antique. Yet the story of his Sleeping Cupid, sold in -Rome as an antique, is very instructive. Though well known it serves -admirably to illustrate the character of the amateurs contemporary to -the great sculptor. The anecdote casts a certain justified suspicion -that the collectors of the Renaissance and early sixteenth century must -have been duped on a larger scale than we are led to suppose from the -scanty information we possess on the subject. - -Vasari informs us that Michelangelo sculptured from a piece of marble -a life-sized sleeping Cupid, that in this work he had imitated the -antique to a surprising extent; so much so that when the work was shown -to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici the latter advised the sculptor -to send the work to Rome and sell it as an antique, as “by this means -he could obtain a far better price.” According to Vasari, the Cupid, -marvellously arranged and coloured like an old piece of sculpture, was -taken to Rome, buried in a vineyard and then “discovered” and sold as -an antique to Cardinal San Giorgio, who paid 200 ducats for the work (a -ducat was worth about 9s.). Vasari adds that the person who had acted -as go-between in the affair tried to cheat Michelangelo by saying -that the Cardinal had only paid him 30 _scudi_ (a scudi was worth -about 4s.), and he then comments on the Cardinal’s poor taste in not -giving the Cupid due consideration after he had discovered that it was -modern. He says: “Not recognizing the merit of the work, which consists -in perfection, wherein the moderns are as good as the ancients,” -the Cardinal did not know how lucky he was to own a genuine work by -Michelangelo in the place of heaven knows what poor product of some -modest master of antiquity. - -Condivi repeats the story, which has given ample food for popular fancy -and folklore, adding that the irate Cardinal caused the man to be -arrested and, giving him back the Cupid, claimed and received the sum -paid for it. - -The fact that Michelangelo, who went to Rome in the year 1496, wrote -in July, 1496, to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici that he had paid -a visit to the Cardinal di San Giorgio, shows that the prelate did not -bear the artist a grudge for the joke. In this letter Michelangelo -tells Lorenzo Medici that he has tried in vain to get the Cupid back -from Baldassarre Milanese, the dealer and go-between in the affair of -the Cardinal, but seeing that the man is obstinate in his refusal to -give back the statue he has been advised to use Cardinal San Giorgio’s -authority. - -Condivi says that in some unknown way this statue passed into the hands -of Duke Valentino, and finally became the property of the Marchioness -of Mantua, who owned it at the time Condivi, the historian and -Michelangelo’s pupil, was writing. - -After the small statuettes, Roman busts are a source of some excellent -imitations. Of these works, both in marble and bronze, many museums -possess good examples. The Uffizi Gallery has two or three good ones; -besides these the many restored busts and statues of this same Gallery -speak of the characteristic pliability and plagiarism in art of the -Renaissance. A fine bust in bronze of a hypothetical Roman emperor, -formerly in the collection of Baron Davillier, is now in the Louvre -Museum. It is evidently the work of an artist of the versatile and -prolific Paduan school. - -This very school of Padua, strengthened by the advent of Vittore -Camelio, Cavino, de Bassiano, and other capable fakers of art--we -feel we need not scruple to use the word in association with these -names--is chiefly responsible for those coins, medals and small -bronzes that it would be naive to say were made solely for the sake of -imitating. - -The imitations of bas-reliefs prepared perhaps the popularity of those -small bronze bas-reliefs called _plaquettes_ which seem to have meant -so much to the collector of the time. We even find the angelic Mino, -the last Renaissance artist who should have attempted to paganize -his sweetly ascetic art, trying his hand at these marble bas-reliefs -of Roman emperors, re-edited for the benefit of amateurs. These -bas-reliefs already seem to have inveigled artists into palming them -off with fantastic tales, giving them what might be called a shampoo -of history. In the Brunswick Museum there is a bas-relief in marble, -evidently aping antique art, representing an Aristotle in an absurd -pointed headgear and with the following inscription:-- - - ΑΡΙΣΤΟΤΕΛΗΣ - Ο ΑΡΙΣΤΟΣ ΤΟΝ (sic) - ΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΩΝ - -A replica of this bronze belonged to Charles Timbal’s collection, and -is now in the possession of Monsieur Gustave Dreyfus; a third, with an -identical inscription, is kept in the Modena Museum; a fourth is in the -Correr Museum of Venice; and, finally, a fifth sample of this fantastic -Aristotle is in the National Museum, the Bargello of Florence. - -It is certain that there was a companion-piece to this Aristotle, the -portrait of Plato, which has come down to us in material other than -bronze, but which must have once been the pendant of the Aristotle, as -there are clay reproductions of both portraits, the Aristotle being -identical to the ones already quoted. Of Plato there are several -bas-reliefs in marble, one in the Bavarian Museum of Munich, another in -the Museum of Arezzo, and another in the Prado. In the latter museum -there is also an Aristotle in marble with its freakish head-covering, -long hair and a long beard; of Plato there are two marble bas-reliefs, -two medallions. In the larger one there is the inscription:-- - - ΠΛΑΤΩΝΟΣ ΑΘΗΝΑΙΟΥ - -A curious fact to be noticed is that of these two portraits Aristotle’s -must have caught public fancy more than that of his philosophical -companion. Not only because of the numerous reproductions of the one -original but because it must have been popular already in the time of -Louis XII, being reproduced in clay in a medallion of the castle of -Alluye at Blois. In this race for popularity in a foreign country and -from a spurious origin, Plato seems to have lost nearly half a century, -as we find a reproduction in the castle of Ecouen about the middle of -the sixteenth century, which landed finally in the Museum of French -Monuments, where Baltard renamed it as the portrait of Jean Bullant. No -strange transition when one considers that a cast of the original Plato -was, for quite a long time, shown in the Louvre as the portrait of -Philibert Delorme. - -The Louvre has a queer marble medallion, a work of the beginning of the -sixteenth century, of a Roman _Imperator Caldusius_, and a medallion of -Cato is now in the Museum of Beauvais. - -When Vespasiano da Bisticci tells us that Niccoli “had in his house -an infinite number of medals in bronze and silver and gold, and many -antique brass figures, and many marble heads, and other valuable -things,” we can believe that they were genuine, but when it is a -question of a later collection of old marble heads, bas-reliefs and -medals, we wonder how many an Emperor Caldusius it contained. - -This curious trade in and mania for _pastiche_ was assisted, it must -be added, by the tremendous skill that the artists of all periods of -the Renaissance seem to have possessed in moulding, recasting, and -composing one piece from two or three originals. - -We know that Verrocchio used to make plaster casts of living people, -and the custom of making bust portraits and medallions from death -masks was quite common in the Quattrocento and later. Such post-mortem -reproductions were often ably disguised by the modelling stick, while -at other times they showed only too plainly their ghastly origin. - -A regular riot of fakery, combined with the most fantastic -metamorphoses of Greek and Roman originals, existed for the benefit -of crazy numismatists, greedy collectors of medals and amateurs with -a fancy for small bronze bas-reliefs. In the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries the imitation of coins was most varied; some are quite -excellent reproductions of the antique ones, others again show the art -and style of the artist and his period but faintly disguised. Some of -these latter are at any rate charming works of art. The coins, medals -and small bronzes seem to emphasize the Renaissance mania for the -antique. Now, for instance, after giving the portrait of Adam, Eve, -Noah and Ham, Shem and Japhet, the _Promptuarium iconum insigniorum -a seculo hominum_, published in Lyons by Guillaume Reville (1553), -gives other engravings purporting to be authentic portraits of various -personages of antiquity. As a matter of fact many of these portraits -are copied from old medals that were circulating at the time, the work -of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Mr. Courajod, the former -curator of the Louvre Museum, was able to prove this by finding some -of the medals from which the portraits of the _Promptuarium iconum_ -had been copied. These portray Antigone, the lieutenant of Alexander -the Great, the king of Phrygia, Lysimachus, king of Thrace. The first, -an Italian bronze of the fifteenth century, is characteristic for the -effort made by the artist to counterfeit the Oriental style he may have -noticed, perhaps, in other coins of the time. - -But, as we have said, where the fancy of the faker really ran riot -was in those small bronzes of various origin and still more various -purpose, nowadays called _plaquettes_. These bronzes were sometimes -cast from the form of an old cameo, at others they imitated or aped a -like origin, and whether they may have been used as buttons, pommels -of the hilts of swords, or simply been demanded by collectors, they -were for the most part imitations of the antique. In these works the -metamorphoses of the original are at times so numerous and so absurd as -to puzzle the modern collector and cause him to speculate on the acumen -of some of the connoisseurs of the past. With some of these small -bronzes the metamorphosis is not in the form but in the inscription -that sometimes accompanies the _plaquette_, but on other occasions the -subject and the figures are considerably altered. As an example of -the former we may quote the supposed portrait of Julius Cæsar of the -Courajod collection. In this case the _plaquette_ bears the inscription -“IVLLIVS C. . PP . PM.”, which has caused the wrong naming of this -bas-relief, for an identical _plaquette_, formerly in the collection of -Mr. Bardini of Florence, seems to indicate that it must be a question -of Cicero. The second inscription runs thus, “M. TVLLIVS .C.P.P.P.M.” - -As for the second method, the alteration of the form and subject of -a _plaquette_, the fancy displayed by the makers borders upon the -grotesque. - -To begin with a mild form of metamorphosis, let us follow the subject -of Apollo and Marsyas in its transformation from the original cameo -that was in the collection of Lorenzo il Magnifico and, according to -Muntz, is now in the Naples Museum, together with many others from the -same collection. In this cameo the god is on the right, playing the -lyre held in his left hand, Marsyas to the left has his hands tied -behind him, between the two figures kneels Olympus (a pupil of Marsyas) -interceding for his doomed master. - -The supposed original in the Naples Museum bears but one inscription, -“LAVR MED.,” evidently standing for Lorenzo Medici, but Ghiberti tells -us that on this cornelian “around the said figures were _antique_ -letters spelling the name of Nero.” There is nothing strange in this, -nor in the presupposition that the cameo had been Nero’s private seal, -as one knows he was fond of playing the lyre, but what casts some doubt -on the authenticity of the Naples cornelian stone is the fact that the -Berlin Museum possesses a bronze _plaquette_, evidently a reproduction -from some antique cameo, with the inscription to which Ghiberti -alludes, “NERO-AVGVSTVS-GERMANICVS-P-M-TR-P-IMP-PP-.” The cornelian -stone kept in the Naples Museum has no inscription and for this reason -is supposed by some to be a reproduction from the original ordered by -Lorenzo Medici. The _plaquette_ of the Berlin collection is thought to -be cast from the original Greek cornelian stone, though there are other -reproductions in various museums, one for instance in the Louvre very -similar to the one of Berlin, another in the collection of Courajod, -with the inscription, “PRUDENTIA. PURITAS. TERTIOM. QVOD. IGNORO.” -Mr. Courajod also owned two more copies of this subject, one similar -to the one of the Louvre with the addition of a border, the other of -larger dimensions with the figure resting on a ground in the form of -a crescent. A bas-relief of this subject, used as an ornament of the -pommel of a sword hilt and very similar to the other _plaquettes_ was -in the Davillier collection. N. Schlifer and Giovanni Boldu (1457) -treated the favourite subject with a certain plagiarism of the Greek -model. In Boldu’s bas-relief Apollo is in the usual attitude, but the -other figure has disappeared. - -There are many other _plaquettes_, with small variations, in private -collections. There is also a _plaquette_ of this subject in the Dreyfus -collection, in which Apollo has become a woman and Marsyas is playing -the flute. - -Evidently the subject must not only have been popular among collectors -but must have caught the fancy of artists as the composition of Apollo -and Marsyas is reproduced in a bas-relief of a fine door formerly in -Cremona and now in the Louvre Museum. The one at Naples is repeated -almost identically in a cornelian of the _Cabinet des Medailles_, in -a portrait of a young girl, attributed to Botticelli, in the Staedel -Museum of Frankfurt; on the frontispiece of a work executed for Mathias -Corvinus; on a frontispiece of the Sforziade, that rare work kept in -the library of the Riccardi in Florence; on a majolica dish of the -fifteenth century, now in the Correr Museum in Venice. There is a -plagiarism of this subject in a work by Raphael in the Vatican. - -The following examples, however, are perhaps more typical of an -intentional transformation, a somewhat reversed case and an exception -to the rule in this sort of faking, namely a Christian subject turned -into a pagan one for the benefit of the fifteenth-century amateurs. -There still exist in San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome, two bas-reliefs -representing two incidents in the life of the saint who has given the -church its name, one when he is arrested and put to prison, the other -when he is chained in his cell and liberated by the angels. The two -bas-reliefs, wrongly attributed to Pollaiolo, were ordered from some -Roman artist in the year 1477 by Sixtus IV, then a simple cardinal. -Of each of these bas-reliefs there is a modified reproduction, one in -the Louvre and the other in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the -modifications of both are such as to make people believe them to be -pagan subjects and antique work. In the reproduction kept in the Louvre -the transformation of the subject without much alteration of the work -is so evident that we can see how easily old collectors were taken in -by these curious pieces of _truquage_. Of a more naive, but no less -efficient character is the transformation inflicted upon the bas-relief -of Kensington. Here in order to transform the miraculous liberation of -Saint Peter into the freeing of a Roman senator it has sufficed to clip -the angel’s wings, both inside the prison--the work being divided -into two different moments of the action--and where the saints usher -the apostle into the street. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_: _Alinari_ - -MARSYAS - -An excellent work by Pollajolo after the antique.] - -There is no reason to disbelieve the supposition that this piece of -faking was perpetrated to cater for the mania of the art lover of -the time. As a matter of fact the Louvre bas-relief was considered -an antique till but recently, and that of the Victoria and Albert -Museum, which entered the collection wrongly labelled as the work -of Ghiberti, was believed, before 1863, when it was acquired by the -Museum, to be a work of the classic Græco-Roman period. As for over -three centuries they have passed as genuine work of the Roman Empire, -it is not reasonable to suppose that the amateurs of the time were -wiser than the succeeding generations of connoisseurs who believed the -work to be antique. This fact is eloquently brought out in the case of -the work preserved in the Louvre, as this bas-relief was not hidden but -has quite a long and well-established pedigree. Among other migrations -we can trace it to Malmaison in a sort of select collection of objects -coming from Italy. Edme Durand bought it as an antique and in the -belief that it was antique kept it in his collection. The Louvre Museum -also bought it for an antique and for quite a long time classified it -in the catalogue (N. 280) as an Etruscan bronze. - -It would take too long to trace all the transformations of small -bronzes made for the benefit of the fifteenth and sixteenth-century -amateurs, the many reproductions with changes. Of the metamorphoses to -which _plaquettes_ were subject we can mention another curious example -in which a Crucifixion has become a Rape of the Sabines, and as a case -in which a popular subject has caused many reproductions, we quote -the Palladium of the Niccoli collection which has been reproduced by -Donatello, Nicolo Florentino, etc. The statue of Marcus Aurelius also -seems to have been a cherished subject for small statuettes from that -by Filarete given to Piero Medici in the year 1465 to reproductions of -the seventeenth century. - -Of all the workmen of that fertile period running between the fifteenth -and sixteenth centuries, Moderno was the most active and versatile. -There is hardly a mythological subject that has not been treated by -him. His imitation of the antique is at times quite convincing, more -especially that belonging to the early period of his career. Later on -when he enters into what might be styled his matured sixteenth-century -temperament, he seems to suffer from the same trouble as the imitators -of the first third of the said century, namely, over-polish and -mannerism, which must in fact have been considered an improvement in -imitation. Valerio Belli, a sculptor and famous cutter of precious -stones and rock crystal, was quite justified in reproducing the subject -of his own carving in the small bronze bas-reliefs that now play such -an important part in modern collections of _plaquettes_, and which in -times gone by must have been the delight also of past collectors. They -often bore his signature, which speaks eloquently for the fact that -there was no intention to dupe anyone. - -There were also other artists who evidently had a hand in faking -antiques. They belong more or less to various schools, but chiefly -to those of Padua and Venice. The Paduan school is in this respect -fortified by the names of Vittore Camelio, Cavino, Bassiano. Almost -every bronze founder is associated with an imitator of the antique, -either a maker of statuettes, inkstands, perfume vases, or _plaquettes_ -of various sizes and use. Thus for a second time Italy became a -gorgeous market of imitation, very often in itself such good art as -to be worthier than the art counterfeited. One of the last of these -imitators was Tiziano Aspetti, to whom, rightly or wrongly, small -bronzes of private collections are attributed. - -From the Anonimo Morelliano one gathers that there was a period in -which a gentleman could hardly afford to do without a little collection -of antiques. “The bronze figurines are modern by various masters and -are derived from the antique,” remarks this Anonimo of Morelli, as -though explaining that there were some collectors perfectly satisfied -with this and perhaps the silent accomplices of a fine piece of -faking. The Anonimo tells us that there were many such pieces in -the collections of either ignorant or accommodating collectors and -art lovers, in the house of Marco Bonavido of Padua, and that of a -rich merchant of the same city, the sculptor Alviso; in Venice, in -the collections of Odoni and Zuanno Ram. They are often mingled with -genuine antiques, which fact causes the Anonimo, who evidently thinks -himself either a connoisseur or a well-informed chronicler, to say -here and there, “the many bronze figurines are modern,” or “the many -medals are of modern bronze,” or “the medals are most of them antique.” -Precious confessions, as one can see. - -We know but vaguely of imitations in painting, but an assembly of such -versatile artists can hardly have refrained from imitating the work -of some master. Besides, the very teacher at the head of a school did -not seem to resent it even if a pupil signed the name of his master. -But as regards imitating the antique, there were hardly any samples to -imitate. The grotesques of the old Roman ruins may have suggested to -more than one artist a new type of decoration; but this plagiarism, -if it can be called so, though not without influence on fifteenth and -sixteenth-century art, found no practical issue with fakers. - -There is, however, an incident in which a piece of faking saved to -Florence a masterpiece of Raphael. It is related by Vasari in Andrea -del Sarto’s life. According to Vasari when Frederick II, Duke of -Mantua, came to Florence he greatly admired the portrait of Pope Leo -X, the magnificent painting now hanging in the Gallery of the Pitti -Palace in Florence. His admiration turned to such greedy desire of -possession that when he reached Rome he begged the then all-powerful -Clement VII to procure it for him. The Pope agreed to the Duke’s -request and ordered Ottaviano Medici, then residing in Florence, -to have the painting packed and sent to Mantua to Duke Frederick. -Ottaviano Medici, a lover of art and a Florentine, hating to deprive -his city of such a work, was yet not inclined to resist the wish of the -Pope and resorted to a ruse. He informed the Pope that the painting -should be sent to the Duke, according to His Holiness’ orders, as -soon as the frame had been repaired. The Duke of Mantua was also -informed that the frame needed regilding and that the painting should -be shipped as soon as the repairs were finished. With this excuse -Ottaviano Medici gained the necessary time and ordered from Andrea -del Sarto an exact copy of Raphael’s work, a copy that all experts -would mistake for the original. The work was done to such perfection -that even Ottaviano Medici, who was an art connoisseur, could not tell -the original from the copy: the pseudo-Raphael was sent off, the Duke -was duped and one of the finest portraits by Raphael was saved to -Florence. In Vasari there are comments here and there which lead us to -think that many others may have been duped by the versatility of the -fifteenth and sixteenth-century painters. We know that Bellini’s pupils -finished three-quarters of some of the great Venetian master’s works, -that Calchar imitated Titian so closely as to be taken for the great -Vecelli, but we do not know to what extent lovers of art of the time -may have been duped. - -As for sculpture, we may close this study by quoting what Vasari writes -in the life of Vellano. “So great is the power of counterfeiting with -love and care any object, that, more often than not, if the style of -one of these arts of ours be well imitated by those who delight in the -work of whoever it be, the thing that imitates so closely resembles the -thing imitated, that no difference can be detected, except by the most -experienced eye.” - -Of Ghiberti, a collector and versatile sculptor, Vasari tells that “he -took much pleasure in imitating the dies of ancient coins and medals.” -Which comment amply justifies the observation that the learned Milanesi -adds to the life of Valerio Belli, who at times, according to Vasari, -forgot to add his signature, and was extremely clever in counterfeiting -antiques, from which ability “he derived very great benefit.” - -“Antique medals,” says Milanesi, “were very much in demand about this -time, consequently forgers and imitators abounded; they had in fact -multiplied to great numbers and fostered the art of counterfeiting to -its highest perfection.” - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -COLLECTORS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY - - Collectors of the sixteenth century--Character of the time and the - artist’s attitude towards the antique--Cellini restores antique - statues--New Roman masterpiece discovered in Rome--Decadence - of art--A protest of Raphael against daily destructions of - Roman relics--First laws prohibiting exportation of Roman finds - --Barbaric attitude of a Barberini--First law against the - exportation of painting masterpieces. - - -As we have already observed, centuries in art cannot be separated -like horses in stable-boxes. There are periods between one change and -another, transitional times that make it impossible to fix any date -whatsoever. Thus we may say, without stating a date, that the sixteenth -century not only felt the benefit of the Quattrocento for a certain -time, but was itself actually Quattrocento for a score of years or -more. The men of the past had not vanished; Riccio, for instance, one -of the most active imitators of the antique, died in 1533. But when -the sixteenth century began to outline its own character, the cult of -art, art patronage and the passion for collecting fine things are seen -to have taken another turn. The Cinquecento has of course magnificent -patrons of art, and almost every prince collects something or other. -Life is still imbued with partiality for the antique. - -Lorenzino Medici in playing Brutus and actually killing his cousin, -Duke Alexander Medici, is reconstructing an old heroic attitude in -his learned, pagan mind; Filippo Strozzi--or whoever planned his -suicide--makes one think of some hero of Plutarch when he is found -dead, apparently by his own hand, with a line of Virgil, _Exoriare -aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultur_ (may an avenger arise from my -bones), written in his own blood at his side. Painting still deals -with subjects from Roman history and so does sculpture, but artists -have lost all comprehension of them, a fact still more evident -with regard to Biblical subjects. In support of this statement it -is sufficient to quote the painting of Paolo Veronese, now in the -Academy at Venice, representing Jesus in the house of Levi, one of the -artist’s masterpieces, in which Christ is in the company of--Venetian -gentlemen of the sixteenth century; but if in this painting disregard -for the Oriental side of the scene is carried to an extreme, it must -be said that Titian and Tintoretto, and a great many other painters -of the time, were no better. This trait, which certainly originated -in the good period of the Renaissance and which we now find in its -full development, indicates that in its more significant and ripest -expression the Cinquecento is the logical decline of a past triumph in -art, the victim, as it were, of tradition--of tradition and a few -artistic personalities, such as Raphael and Michelangelo, who turned -a new leaf in art, awakened a new feeling, a new overpowering school. -Michelangelo, especially, with his fascinating and inimitable style -draws a legion of followers, fostering an art that during the great -sculptor’s life already is ripe for decadence. - -Enlightened collectors abound in this period, their collections -increase daily, but are they really lovers of art as their predecessors -were, are they worshippers of the antique like the bygone collectors? -This is what we ask. In the sixteenth century when art is a tradition -of the far past, on the one hand, and on the other, almost a tradition -of the recent past, life seems to have taken the selfsame attitude: -people are not real lovers of art, but are so merely by tradition. -Every well-bred gentleman of the Cinquecento was obliged to have -the air of understanding art. Machiavelli might have added an -interesting chapter to his _Principe_ to demonstrate how important -it was for a prince to be interested in art, even though, perchance, -utterly indifferent to it in reality. When giving instructions in -his _Cortegiano_, as to what a gentleman of his time ought to know, -Castiglione adds that he must learn to paint. “Even if this art affords -you no pleasure,” advises Castiglione, “it will give you a better -understanding of things, and a clearer appreciation of the excellency -of ancient and modern statues, vases, monuments, medals, cameos, -carvings, and other such objects.” - -In a word, ably or otherwise, with natural disposition or not, it -was part of good breeding for a gentleman of the sixteenth century -to be interested in art and play the connoisseur. It is from this -that the Cinquecento suffers. The patent prince-patron of art, the -stock gentleman-collector abounds, the genuine lover of art is rare. -A prince’s house or that of a simple person of good standing was -considered incomplete if without a collection of some sort. Yet while -the artists of the sixteenth century had certainly derived no small -benefit from their predecessors’ passion for the antique, they had -become far too individual, far too engrossed in their own art to be -susceptible to the art of the past. Michelangelo, the artist who -lived practically through both centuries, the sculptor whose genius, -tremendous and over-individual, was nevertheless responsible for the -decadence of sculpture, is a good example of this. He can, like many -another Italian artist, show his versatility and skill by imitating an -art other than his own, as he did with the Sleeping Cupid that deceived -Cardinal San Giorgio, but when the artist is genuine and gives his -own artistic temperament full play, craft and virtuosity disappear, -reminiscence is impossible. Even when the subject and peculiar quality -of the work suggest imitation and turn thought to the antique, -Michelangelo remains true to his own grand soul. His Brutus exemplifies -the point. It was a Roman subject of classical times, and Michelangelo -might easily have been infected by the history of the past and the -forms he had admired when interested in the excavation of ancient -statues in Rome. Yet his Brutus is more Dantesque in its tragic lines -than Roman. - -Cellini, to illustrate another aspect, is a different case. He can -repair antiquities for his patron, Cosimo Medici, fairly well, but -he, also, is too highly individual to make an excellent imitation of -the antique. He tells us that he consented to repair his illustrious -patron’s Ganymede because it was a fine Greek work, and, prone as he -is to self-praise, he tells how stupendously he can do it; but he does -not like such work, he calls it _arte da Ciabattini_ (cobbler-work). -The fact, however, is that he is too much alive to his time, has too -strong an expression of his own art to be skilful in imitations. In -fact it happened that he had to try his hand at a portrait of Cosimo -I, in the guise of a Roman emperor. The portrait of the Grand Duke of -Tuscany will never deceive any art simpleton, in spite of its elaborate -cuirass fit for Augustus. Cellini is too delightfully cinquecentesque. -The same may be said of him as a medallist. Yet in some of Cellini’s -work, especially his medals, the idea of imitating the Romans must have -been in his mind, and no doubt he was convinced of his success. Yet he -belonged to the group that by their personality influenced others, and -when trying his hand at imitation quite congenial to his own artistic -temperament he makes something that is at least three-quarters Cellini. - -These artists nevertheless admire the art of the past, though with -no danger of infection. Michelangelo is entranced when the _Laocoön_ -is discovered in a vineyard near the Thermæ of Titus, and goes with -his friend Sangallo to see that the precious statue be carefully -unearthed. Partly for the sake of gain, and partly, maybe, for the love -of art, Cellini often goes to the Roman Campagna to see what “certain -Lombard yokels” have uncovered in their daily spading of the soil. -Raphael protests, in a famous document addressed to Leo X, against the -continual destruction of Roman relics. His words are worth repeating. -After declaring that the Goths and Vandals have not done so much damage -to Rome as his contemporaries, Raphael concludes by saying that far -too many popes have allowed Roman edifices to be ruined simply by -permitting the excavation of _pozzolana_ (clay) from the ground upon -which their foundations rest, that statues and marble ornaments are -daily burned in ovens and turned into mortar, that Rome, in fact--the -Rome of Raphael’s time--is built with naught but mortar made from old -statues, the sacred marbles of past glories. - -Characteristic also is the fact that this country sees the first -protective laws against the exportation of antique art. This would seem -to indicate the consideration in which relics of past art were held in -Rome. Judging by the way it was applied, however, even this act serves -to show that there was no more genuine a passion for old and precious -antiques in the Cinquecento than in the century before. The Roman -laws of the sixteenth century are severe, meting out punishments to -all and sundry daring to carry the produce of excavations beyond the -Papal domains; but otherwise destruction goes on gaily, there seems -to be no discrimination as to what ought to be saved from the doom of -destruction and what is not worth keeping. So while edict after edict -is promulgated in order to safeguard the excavation of statues in -Rome and elsewhere, edicts often full of old-fashioned magniloquence, -“Prohibition concerning the exportation of marble or metal statues, -figures, antiquities and suchlike,” the best buildings in Rome were -allowed to fall into utter ruin without a protest. This state of -things reached the climax of absurdity in the seventeenth century when -Urban VIII, of the Barberini family, declared the Coliseum a public -quarry, where the citizens might go for the stones they needed for new -constructions--an act still commemorated in the protest of all lovers -of art with the proverbial pun, _Quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt -Barberini_ (What barbarians did not do, the Barberini did). - -From this curious inconsistency in the appreciation of art even -Tuscany, the cradle of the Renaissance, is not immune. A Medicean -law intended, like the Roman one, to prevent the exportation of -masterpieces and rare works of art, makes no mention of precious relics -of Roman or Etruscan origin, nor even of the fine pieces of sculpture -that were often excavated, but considers only the paintings of certain -artists of the past school of the Renaissance and those of other -contemporary artists, as being worth keeping, so the law declares, -for the glory and dignity of Florence. The regulations are given in a -second decree, along with a list of the names of the artists concerned, -dead and living. Their work must not be taken out of Tuscany. The list -is very instructive, for it passes over some of the best artists, -such as Botticelli, Credi, the Pollaiolos and others, and prohibits -the export of the work of artists that are either unknown to us or -are of such mediocrity that it is surprising their work should have -been esteemed above the average of their day. The following is one -of these lists, the first that was made. 1. Michelangelo Buonarroti. -2. Raffaelo da Urbino. 3. Andrea del Sarto. 4. Mecherino (?). 5. Il -Rosso Fiorentino. 6. Leonardo da Vinci. 7. Il Franciabigio. 8. Perino -del Vaga. 9. Jacopo da Puntormo. 10. Tiziano. 11. Francesco Salviati. -12. Angelo Bronzino. 13. Daniello da Volterra. 14. Fra Bartolommeo di -San Marco (Della Porta). 15. Fra Bast. Del Piombo. 16. Filippo di Fra -Filippo. 17. Antonio da Correggio. 18. Il Parmigianino. - -Without insisting upon a comment that might appear paradoxical, what -kind of collectors of art can be expected from people who place in -the same list of merit Leonardo, Michelangelo, Titian, with Cecchin -Salviati, Perino del Vaga, to say nothing of the now forgotten -Mecherino, a painter whose well-deserved oblivion saves us from judging -his poor work. In another list other names are added. They are no less -grotesque--Santi di Tito Ligozzi, Jacopo da Empoli, etc, in far too -good company. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -COLLECTING IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND - - Passion for collecting art travels to France--The Florentine - Republic and the fate of a statuette by Michelangelo--Italy - supplies antiques to France and other countries--The fair - of Frankfurt--A famous sale--In England the passion for - collecting art and curios may have originated in France. - - -While the passion in Italy for collections of art still goes on -enriching museums more through the impetus of the past than from a -genuine cult, and produces occasionally, together with many illustrious -patrons of contemporary art, some old type of collector fond of the -antique with the characteristic greed for all kinds of rarities, -France, and later almost every other nation of Europe, awakens to the -passion for art and curios. It is no longer a question of monarchs -and princes, as was the case in Italy, nobles and the bourgeois as -well come to the fore. Even at the beginning of the sixteenth century, -France may quote the names of Grolier and Robertet, both financiers -employed at Court, both lovers of fine things. The former is a -specialist in rare editions and fine bindings, the latter a keen-eyed, -eclectic collector, as may be gathered from the inventory of his -excellent collection kept in his castle of Bury. - -It must be said, however, that Italy still remains a sort of El Dorado -of fine art and the inexhaustible mine to which collectors come for -their finds. The French had discovered this fact from the time they -came to Italy with Charles VIII. Later on Grolier visits Italy and -takes back with him some of its treasures. When he has no opportunity -to come to Italy himself, his friends and agents continue the search -for him; they know his taste and his speciality and are very alert -in the hunt for fine and rare editions. Robertet bargained with the -Florentine Republic to exchange his political influence for a statuette -by Michelangelo. The Republic had great interest in remaining friends -with the French monarch and accepted the bargain, and as the statuette -had been left unfinished by Michelangelo, who had moved to Rome by -this time, Benedetto da Rovezzano is charged to finish the work and -cast it. This statuette of a David was placed by Robertet in the _cour -d’honneur_ of his castle and afterwards, in the year 1633, removed -to the castle of Villeroy, and it is now lost. Only a design of this -statue, by the great Michelangelo, is now in the Louvre Museum, and -from this we can gather how the statue looked. - -What was not bought was carried away from Italy after the fashion of -the old Roman conquerors. In the year 1527 a ship arrived at Valencia -loaded with artistic and valuable booty from the famous “Sack of -Rome.” Curiously enough, considering the age, the Spanish municipal -authorities of Valencia did not grant the vessel permission to unload -her cargo. This fact, quoted by Baron Davillier in his _Histoire des -faïences hispano-moresques_, is commented on by Edmond Bonnaffé, a -French collector of our times, thus: “I love to think that the captain -changed his course and found more hospitable municipalities on the -French coast.” - -The rich artistic booty promised by Italy made it almost obligatory -for an orthodox French amateur to undertake a journey to Italy. It is -surprising that the _Voyages de Montaigne en Allemande et en Italie_, -1580-81, makes no allusion to this fad and contains very few comments -on art. However rich Montaigne’s work may be in valuable observations -on the life of the time, we should nevertheless have desired him to -have a touch of the art lover in him, a leaning to the artistic and -beautiful, and we would willingly have exchanged a few words with him -on the art and collections of art in the Italy of his day, instead of -his long, detailed descriptions of his cures and his eternal search for -medicinal springs, etc. - -An important annual meeting, one that the true collector was likely -to visit, was the fair of Frankfurt. According to H. Estienne this -must have been one of the most frequented art markets of Europe. -Italy, says Estienne, contributed all kinds of antiques, faiences, old -medals, books and brocades; Germany furnished wrought iron and artistic -prints, Flanders sent tapestry, Milan its fine arms, Venice goods from -the East. Estienne also states that Spain used to send to this fair -American products, weapons, costumes, shells and silver-work. - -It was not a market exclusively for the genuine, as copies and -imitations were to be found there for the economical or the foolish, -easily duped amateur. Above all there were those deplorable casts from -fine originals that have ever since deceived so many collectors and -which so enraged the good Palissy, who laments the fact and stigmatizes -it with the saying that it cheapens and offends sculpture, “_mespris en -la sculpture à cause de la meulerie_.” - -This glimpse of the creation of a market of antique art and -bric-à-bracs of high quality would not be complete without some typical -sale of a famous collection. Among others that took place towards the -end of the sixteenth century, we may quote a notable one, the sale of -Claude Gouffier (“Seigneir de Boisy,” duc de Reannes and Grand-Écuyer -de France), an intelligent gentleman who, with his mother Hélène de -Hargest-Genlis, is responsible for one of the finest types of French -pottery, the faience d’Oiron. Besides spending considerable sums of -money on the factory of this ware, Gouffier was such a liberal patron -of art and artists that he ruined himself in the gratification of -his noble passion. At his death the creditors seized upon his rare -collections and _objets de virtu_ and put them up to auction. This -sale was not only the artistic event of the day but, perhaps, the -most important sale of the second half of the sixteenth century. All -Paris of the time seems to have been there. Plates, paintings, works -of art, bibelots, _toute la curiosité_, passed mercilessly under the -hammer of the auctioneer--which by the way was not a hammer, a -usage originating in England, but as a rule a _barguette_, a small -rod, with which the auctioneer struck a metal bowl. Nothing was spared -by the creditors, even the wearing apparel and furs of the deceased -were offered to the highest bidder. Of these, strange to say, the Duke -d’Aumule (Claude de Lorrain, third son of Claude, first Duc de Guise) -bought a second-hand _manteau de cerimonie_ with the evident intention -of wearing it at Court. By a curious coincidence, this sale took -place only twenty-five days after the tragic night of St. Bartholomew -(September, 18th, 1572), an event that did not prevent Catherine de -Médicis from appearing at the sale with her ladies-in-waiting, to -dispute with other buyers the spoils of the deceased gentleman. - -One of the conspicuous buyers at this auction was a Florentine living -in Paris, Luigi Ghiacceti, called by the Frenchmen _le seigneur -d’Adjacet_ or _d’Adjoute_. Beside “_ung harnois d’homme d’armes -complect, gravé et dorré à moresque_” he bought many other things, the -portrait of Henry II and also “sixty pictures painted in oils.” This -Florentine was not only an esteemed collector of his time, but a man -of taste who had built one of the finest mansions in Paris, which he -showed to visitors, together with his fine museum, “for a sou,” so says -Sauval, the chronicler quoted above. - -While France appears to have been the first country to follow Italy -in the artistic movement, about this time, as we have said, all -European nations had more or less perfected their taste and acquired -the love for art collecting. The English invasion of France is perhaps -responsible for the awakening of this passion in England. Warton -(_Hist. of Poetry_, II, 254) is of the opinion that after the battle -of Cressy (1346) the victorious army brought home such treasures that -there was not a family in England, modest though it might be, that did -not own some part of the precious booty, furniture, furs, silk stuffs, -tapestries, silver and gold works, etc., the pillage of the French -cities. - -More than two centuries later, part of this artistic booty may have -come back to France. Gilles Corrozet tells us that on the Mégisserie, -the quay constructed by Francis I, where artistic sales usually took -place, “in the year one thousand five hundred and fifty, in the month -of August, there were publicly sold in the Mégisserie several images, -altar-pieces, paintings and other church ornaments, which had been -brought and saved from the churches of England.” - -Imitation and faking do not seem to find suitable patrons at this time. -Collectors are cold and methodical, and a well-established commerce -in antiques, an abundance of objects offered for sale, seem to have -precluded a demand for other fakes than those of the past, and a few -clumsy imitations. The imitations of this period are hardly convincing. -Restorers of the antique were without skill, which fact plainly tells -that their patrons were not excessively particular. They were satisfied -with a Roman bust, repaired by a sculptor who does not give himself the -trouble to disguise his own art. - -About the time of which we are speaking, that is to say when the merits -and demerits of the sixteenth century had delineated themselves and had -reached the summit of the curve that anticipates decline, the work of -Michelangelo, Raphael and a few others--if there were any others of -that calibre--produced their natural effect. To be a sculptor meant -to copy all the defects of Michelangelo, to indulge in over-ripe forms, -turgid muscles and exuberance in general; to be a painter did not -mean so much servility because Raphael’s influence was less extended, -but very few escaped imitating or recalling the painting of the fine -master of Urbino, more especially as the public was naturally attached -to Raphaelite traditions. This was so much the case that not only was -Giulio Romano accepted, and a legion of other painters who aimed more -or less successfully to imitate Raphael, but later the honour that -should have belonged to Raphael was given to Sogliani simply because he -had deceived the public by his craft and virtuosity, winning the name -of Raphael reincarnated. In our opinion, part of the energy that was -keenly given in olden times to the imitation of the antique was now -bestowed on “faking.” - -It is true that France was coming to the fore about the middle of -the sixteenth century with indisputable superiority in art, while -Italy turns to inevitable decadence. France had had a “school of -Fontainebleau” disposed to exercise the tyranny of genius, but Rosso -was not Raphael, and the Italian influence, though of great benefit -to the French school, was, after all, a mere passing incident in -the course of art in that country. Yet it is surprising that even -in France, at a moment when the mania for collecting art was on the -increase, the collector does not seem to have been either victimized or -annoyed by faking. - -It must be said though, with Edmond Bonnaffé, that “the French buyers -were regarded somewhat as novices, and everyone did his best to exploit -them.” - -The French art lover, with all his progress and enlightenment, was -at this time naive, and easily exploited by trickery. It is easy to -imagine that if faking did not become as rampant as before, it must -have been because it did not pay as formerly. - -Yet H. Estienne remarks on this subject: - -“To-day the world is full of buyers of old lumber (_antiquailles_), at -whose expense many rogues are prospering. For so little do they know -how to distinguish the antique from the modern, that no sooner do they -hear the word which so often makes them dip their fingers into their -purse, etc.” - -By this remark, even without other documents, one is entitled to -conclude that even at this period, which seems to have been less -given than the others to imitation and faking, victims existed and -were ready, like the novice or the unwise to-day, to pay fancy prices -supported by a name. - -Although ranking second in the movement of art--France, England -and Germany have risen up and improved their taste, indulging in the -true patronage of art--Italy is still the inexhaustible source of -antiques, in spite of the fact that the decadence afflicting the -country had destroyed the real love of art in the collector. Italian -villas and palaces are replete with paintings, the best often in -garrets, the bad art of the time in full honour in the important -rooms. The Barocco, with its gorgeous errors and few merits, is about -to prepare the funeral of Italian art. The seventeenth century is -approaching. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -MAZARIN AS A COLLECTOR - - Collectors of the seventeenth century in France--Louis XIII - --Richelieu--Mazarin and his advisers--Louis XIV as an - art lover--Vaillant’s strange case--Sanson, the hangman, - collecting pictures--The second collection of Cardinal Mazarin - --Its partial destruction through the Cardinal’s nephew--The - _medailles insolentes_ under Louis XIV--Epigrams on collectors - --Duke of Orleans’ ill-fated collection. - - -We must now give our attention to France as the most prominent country -in all that concerns collections of art, because the same conditions -appear here that are vanishing from Italy. In the seventeenth century -Paris had a well-established market of antiquities, authentic and -spurious masterpieces, articles of virtu, etc.; there were also -collectors of all types, dealers and the whole assemblage of wise and -foolish, honest and dishonest, peculiar to the commerce when it finds -its proper market. - -Broadly speaking, in the seventeenth century every Parisian seems to -have been a collector of something or other. Painting as a rule is -given the preference. - -It is about this time that Italy, however rich through the daily -excavation of antique works of sculpture, no longer seemed to suffice -to the greedy demand of France. Peiresse sent his emissaries to Mount -Athos, Syria and Africa in search of finds, Tavernier, Thévenet, -Lucas, Chardin and Gallant scoured the world in quest of antiquities -and rarities both for themselves and for the King of France. Vaillant, -one of the most efficient of these hunters, went to the East, sent by -Louis XIV, who too has joined the ring of collectors and in a kingly -way played the rôle of art amateur. On his return journey Vaillant was -caught by pirates, but managing to escape embarked for Europe. On the -way to France the vessel for the second time met the corsairs. They -were seen in the distance and were expected to attack at any moment. -The ship was able to escape, but fearing to be caught again and of -losing the valuable collection of coins and medals he was bringing to -Europe, Vaillant swallowed twenty of the best pieces in order to save -them from any possible danger of being taken. This odd story, with -its consequences, is related in detail by M. Weiss in his _Biographie -Universelle_, with such French frankness as to forbid any attempt at -translation. - -Besides monarchs, the princes, noblemen and simple middle class of -all conditions seemed to be collectors at this period. The passion -for collecting numbers names such as Richelieu and Mazarin, among -antiquaries, amateurs and dealers were Jabach and others. The number -and importance of art collections, as well as of intelligent art -lovers in France during the seventeenth century, can be gathered from -the many publications on this century. They are many, and most of the -contemporary ones are quite documentary and important for the number -of collectors they mention. We may quote among them the _Itinerarium -Galliæ_, 1612, by Just Zinzerling, a German signing himself Jodocus -Sincerus, Abraham Golnitz’s _Ulysses Belgico-Gallico_, a work written -in 1631 dealing with the collections of medals and painting that -the author found in France during his journey. There is also the -_Voyage pour l’instruction et la commodité tant des François que des -Étrangers_, printed in 1639 and reprinted by Verdier, with interesting -additions, in the year 1687. John Evelyn, the English diarist, visited -France in the year 1643 and gave an account of many collections of art -and their cabinets, which was partially republished in the _Voyage de -Lister_, in an edition of the year 1878. We can enumerate further the -_Traité des plus belles bibliothèques_, published for the first time -in 1644 by Père Louis-Jacob, the librarian of Cardinal de Retz and -of President Du Harlay; the _Liste anonyme des curieux des diverses -villes_, etc. - -In these works thousands of names of collectors of art, whether -specialists or not, are mentioned, not only those residing in Paris but -in all towns of the provinces. - -Collectomania was becoming epidemic! - -The list of seventeenth-century collectors of art has the odd honour -of including the name of Charles Sanson, the hangman of Paris, and -great-grandfather of the celebrated Sanson, the executioner of the -_hautes œuvres_ at the time of the French Revolution. According -to information given by Grammont, who related to the French king -his adventure with Sanson, the man who had been nominated public -executioner in Paris by a decision of Parliament dated August 11th, -1688, possibly the first Sanson to enter the undesirable profession, -this man was not only a collector of paintings but also a specialist; -and logically so. Grammont relates how he was one day hunting for -paintings at the fair of Saint Germain, when he came across Sanson with -Forest, a painter and art dealer. The hangman was haggling over the -price of a few works he wished to add to his collection. One of the -canvasses represented a wife mercilessly scourging her husband, another -was the portrait of M. Tardieu, the deceased “Lieutenant Criminel,” a -man Sanson had known very well and to whom he owed a certain gratitude, -because, as he remarked to Grammont, when living he had made him hang -and torture so many people that his skill and efficiency were gained -through the work done in M. Tardieu’s time. A third painting he finally -decided to buy represented Japanese torturing several missionaries to -death. He candidly declared that “spectacles of this kind appeared -charming to him” and that he intended to hang the painting in his -bedroom. - -A characteristic of the latter part of the seventeenth century is -not only the many sales of collections of art in France, England and -elsewhere, but the appearance for the first time of printed catalogues, -prepared either for the sale or as a simple illustrative document of -certain collections. The first printed catalogue of France bears the -title, _Roole des medailles et autre antiquitez du cabinet de Monsieur -Duperier, gentilhomme d’Aix_, and after this many collectors follow the -example. Even the learned Marolles is tempted to give to the public his -_Catalogue de livres d’estampes et de figures de taille douce_. - -To complete the characteristics of the revived market of antiques and -articles of virtu in France, now exuberant in its various expressions, -we may note the advent of the so-called _amateur marchand_. The -“private dealer,” a gentleman with a collection who deals secretly -in antiques and at the same time plays the grand seigneur scorning -commerce, has been perfected since, and the modern one is perhaps more -intelligent, shrewder, more the grand seigneur, but less frank and -far more dangerous. It may be said, by the way, that the art critic -has not yet put in an appearance as a disguised dealer, the wardrobe -of the ambiguous trade not having yet supplied the mask. There was no -representative at this time of the type of Pietro Aretino--why not -call him one of this species--who in the sixteenth century extolled -paintings for artists in exchange for paintings and sold his literary -eulogies to princes and monarchs. - -One of the most characteristic collectors of the epoch is, perhaps, -Mazarin, a merchant and intriguer on the one side, and on the other a -passionate collector and an epic type of the lover of art. - -A brief sketch of his life and of the vicissitudes of his collections -of art are worth giving. Mazarin, in a way, so thoroughly impersonates -his time, that to portray him as a collector helps to throw light on -the _milieu_ in which he lived. History handed Mazarin down to us as a -politician and capital intriguer, etc., but only few know of him as a -lover of art. - -As a collector Mazarin recalls the shrewdest kind of the old Roman -type. The times are changed and the old ways of Sulla and Mark Antony -no longer possible. Violence and proscription lists would not be -tolerated, but without the extreme methods of a Roman proconsul, -Mazarin possesses the cunning of a Verres. Like the latter he also -finds things by instinct and has the unbounded passion of a true -collector. We are uncertain at times whether Mazarin, who was without -doubt one of the most appreciative collectors of his day, possessed -that rare sixth sense that goes under the name of the collector’s -touch, but he was nevertheless a man of taste and an art lover of -unusual promptitude in the use of the ability of others. Like many a -genuine and greedy collector of Roman times, Mazarin was persistent and -obdurate in the carrying through of the most complex and discouraging -plans in order to secure objects for his collection. In Rome once he -saw a painting of Correggio, the _Sposalizio_. It belonged to Cardinal -Barberini, who had made up his mind never to part with the masterpiece. -To become possessed of it Mazarin made use of a ruse. He asked Anne of -Austria to demand the painting from Cardinal Barberini, knowing that -stubborn as the Cardinal might be he would not refuse a favour to the -Queen of France. In fact, Barberini came to Paris himself to present -the painting to Anne of Austria. The epilogue of this _mazarinade_ -is related by Brienne as follows: “To do proper honour to the gift, -the Queen hung the picture in her bedroom in the presence of Cardinal -Barberini, but hardly had he left (_il n’eut pas le dos tourné_) than -she took the painting and gave it to Mazarin.” Brienne ends his account -with the observation that Mazarin “had conducted this lengthy intrigue -to get possession of a picture.” Considering that intriguing was second -nature with Mazarin we must say that Correggio’s _Sposalizio_ was worth -the trouble of such a _mazarinade_. - -As a collector of art, bric-à-brac and precious things generally, -Cardinal Mazarin had an unusually lucky career. Contrary to the rule -that exacts a very high price for experience in collecting, Mazarin -seems to have been favoured by fortune from the very first; as for -scruples, if they are known to a few connoisseurs he knew none. - -He was scarcely known. His profession--if his occupation may be so -called--was to move between Rome and Paris, to play to a certain -extent the part of a courier between the two cities, the _navette_ -(weaver’s shuttle) between the Roman State and its intriguers in Paris. -During this period of his life Mazarin used to land in the French -capital at the house of the Chavignys, where he often arrived “covered -all over with dirt” (_tout crotté_). - -Passing Monferrato on one of his journeys he bought a rosary, the beads -of which were supposed to be glass, but were in fact precious stones, -emeralds, sapphires, rubies and diamonds. The rosary Mazarin bought for -a mere song was sold in Paris for ten thousand ducats. - -His reputation as an excellent bric-à-brac hunter, with a fine eye -for works of art, reached Richelieu and this secured to Mazarin the -protection of the omnipotent Cardinal; the rest is known. - -Mazarin really remained a “private dealer” all his life, a fact that -his opponents could not forget. More than one _mazarinade_ alludes to -the Cardinal’s dealings. - -Even when writing to potentates or diplomats on the most important -political schemes, Mazarin never lost sight of his hobby. In his letter -to Cardinal Grimaldi on the importance of watching our “affairs in -Italy” he reminds him, by the way, to be on the look out for good books -and good paintings, etc. - -Through a well-organized network of agents and political friends he -received objects for his collection almost daily. Chiefly from Rome, -Florence and other cities of Italy, statues, paintings, furniture -arrived in a continual stream at the Cardinal’s palace. His library -numbered twelve thousand volumes in a very short time. - -The _Fronde_, however, is no longer satisfied with gibing the Cardinal -with _mazarinades_ on his buying of books without being able to read -them. His opponents, antagonistic to the Cardinal’s policy, finally -rose up boldly against him. Mazarin was obliged to fly from Paris. By a -decree of Parliament his goods were seized and sold. Whatever criticism -may be passed on the Cardinal’s shady policy, the destruction of his -collection and library is an unpardonable sin and an artistic loss. - -Mazarin does not seem to have been discouraged by this unexpected -_contretemps_. Learning that Jabach was going to London to be present -at the sale of the collection of Charles I, he asked him to buy -paintings for him, and through this friend was able to secure for a new -gallery the Venus by Titian, the Antiope and the Marsyas by Correggio, -the Deluge by Carracci, as well as tapestries of inestimable value. - -Two years later Mazarin triumphantly entered Paris again, was -reinstated in his former power, and started a new library, while -reconstituting his dispersed gallery; and when he died his collection -contained, according to an inventory of the year 1661, 546 pictures, -of which 283 were of the Italian school, 77 German or Dutch, 77 French -and 109 of various schools. The Italian school included names such -as Raphael, Titian, Correggio, Tintoretto, Solario, Guido Reni, the -Carracci, Domenichino, Bassano, Albani, etc. - -Many of these works are now in the Louvre Museum and nearly all his -statues, 350 in number, have also passed to the Louvre and are now kept -in the _Galérie des Antiques_. - -The inventory also informs us that the Cardinal left twenty-one -cabinets, some in ebony, others veneered with tortoise-shell and ivory, -and a large quantity of marble tables and Venetian glass, chandeliers -in rock crystal, and irons in silver or gilded. - -The precious stones were valued at 387,014 francs, the silver of the -chapel at 25,995, the plates in silver, gold or gilded (761 pieces) at -347,972, etc. The same inventory also notes 411 fine pieces of tapestry -estimated at 632,000, perhaps what a single piece of the best would -cost nowadays, but an enormous sum considering the time. There were -also 46 Persian rugs of unusual length, 21 complete “ameublements” in -velvet, satin, gold embroidered silk, etc. - -The library included 50,000 volumes and 400 manuscripts. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo]_ _[Alinari_ - -THE SPINARIO. - -A cherished Roman subject of the imitators of the XVth and XVIth -Centuries. Several museums have similar imitations. There is a fine -original in Naples Museum.] - -Brienne, who was a collector himself on a smaller scale, and who filled -at the time the position of secretary to the Cardinal, relates -with a certain pathos the last moments of this frantic art collector, -and how during his last illness he grieved to leave his cherished -masterpieces. - -“I was walking,” says Brienne, “in the small gallery in which is the -woollen tapestry representing Scipio--the Cardinal did not possess a -finer one. By the noise of his slippers I heard him coming, shuffling -along like a suffering man or a convalescent. I hid myself behind -the tapestry and heard him say, ‘I must leave all this!’ Being very -weak he stopped at every step, leaning first to one side and then to -the other; gazing at the various objects of his collection, and in a -voice that came from his heart, he kept on repeating ‘I must leave all -this!’ Then turning his head to another side--‘and also that! What -trouble I had to buy all these things. How can I leave them without -regret?--I shall not be able to see them where I am going.’ I gave -a sigh, I could not help it, and he heard me. ‘Who is there?’ ‘It is -I, Monseigneur----’ ‘Come here,’ he said to me in a doleful tone. He -was nude, only covered with his _robe de chambre de camelot_ lined -with _petit-gris_. He said, ‘Give me your hand, I am so weak; I can -hardly bear it----’ Then returning to his first idea, ‘Do you see, -my friend, that fine painting by Correggio, that Venus by Titian and -that incomparable Deluge by Carracci--I know that you too love and -understand painting. Alas, my dear friend, I must leave all this. -Good-bye, dear paintings that I have loved so much, that have cost me -so high a price!’” (Brienne, _Memoires_, II, XIV). - -These three paintings, Correggio’s Sposalizio, Titian’s Venus, and -Carracci’s work, are now in the Louvre Museum. - -“_Que j’ai tant aimés et qui m’ont tant couté!_” The second part of the -sad exclamation would indeed seem to belong to this shrewd adventurer, -but those not knowing to what lengths the passion for collecting can -go, would hardly imagine that a man of Mazarin’s temperament could -love, really love, anything on earth but power and intrigue. - -As a most remarkable contrast to this passionate love for beautiful -things, Destiny ordained that the greater part of the Cardinal’s -statues and paintings should fall into the hands of his nephew and -heir, Armand-Charles de la Porte, Duc de la Meilleraye, the husband -of Mazarin’s niece, Hortense Mancini. This nephew, who on becoming -the Cardinal’s heir was allowed to take his uncle’s name and titles, -was bigoted to the last degree. Idiotically deprived of all artistic -sense he thought it his duty to destroy the art collection, to purge -the world of the offence offered to morality by nude sculpture, to rid -society of the Cardinal’s paintings with their shocking mythological -subjects. Saint-Evremont relates how this fanatic iconoclast left his -mansion at Vincennes one day with the deliberate intention to destroy -the fine gallery left to him by the Cardinal, and how on his arrival in -Paris he entered the place where it was kept and taking a hammer out -of a mason’s hand proceeded to smash statue after statue and destroy -paintings. But the statues and works of art were altogether too many -to be destroyed single-handed, so he armed half a dozen servants with -hammers and ordered them to help him in his artistic hecatomb. It was -indeed fortunate that upon the Cardinal’s death Louis XIV made up his -mind to buy some of the best paintings, and that some of the statues -had also been taken away from this strange curator of Mazarin’s museum, -or there would be very little left to-day of one of the most famous -collections of Paris. Some of the statues now in the Louvre still show -this fanatic nobleman’s abuse of the hammer, more especially the one -bearing the title “Le Génie du repos eternel.” - -The monarchs of this time bought paintings, statues and fine things, -sharing enthusiasm with private citizens. However, they played their -part well and the attitude of the art lover gave them a finishing -touch. Yet in less dangerous and despotic an age the pen of a Molière -might have tried its caustic ability on some of these types. Louis XIII -is, after all, but a mild art lover, at least so he appears by the side -of Marie de Médicis who learned the part of Mæcenas at the court of -Tuscany. He collects arms and had a _cabinet_ of choice weapons, among -other curios, his _grosse Vitri_, a carbine of rare merit left him by -Vitri. We know of this collection of Louis XIII because it is recorded -that when Concini, the Florentine intriguer whom Marie de Médicis -had created Maréchal d’Ancre, was killed in the court of the Louvre, -“the king, who was in his _cabinet des armes_, heard the noise of the -pistols.” Anne of Austria, his wife, one of the few women to detest -roses and who could not even bear to see this magnificent Queen of -Flowers painted in a picture, had a passion for fine book-bindings, and -Monsieur Gaston d’Orléans sported medals and also rare books. - -As for Louis XIV, the best-staged king of his time, he was apparently -ready to buy anything that would add magnificence to his court and be -in keeping with his rôle of Roi Soleil. - -Notwithstanding his more or less decorative magnificence, however, -this monarch was at times a hard bargainer, and like Isabella d’Este, -knew how to take advantage of needy or impecunious clients. His -transactions with Jabach to buy from him the finest art collection in -France are scandalous, nor can these transactions be solely attributed -to Colbert, who was for a long time the go-between in this affair. -Jabach was a German by birth and Parisian by election, a rich banker, -the director of the _Compagnie des Indes Orientales_, intelligent and a -most passioned art collector. With great care and expense he had formed -the finest collection of his time. Later, through business reverses, -his unbounded liberality to artists and the extravagant prices he paid -for his masterpieces, Jabach finally found himself forced to part -with his collection, and entered into negotiations with Louis XIV -who knew its immense value. Dealings dragged on for a long time, and -every day Jabach was more pressed by his creditors. Notwithstanding -his necessitous condition he rebelled at the absurd price offered and -wrote to Colbert to beg the king to treat him “as a Christian, and -not as a Moor.” Finally Louis XIV, the Roi Soleil, though in this -affair a planet certainly that did not shine in generosity, gained his -point and for the absurdly paltry sum of 200,000 livres became the -owner of the renowned Jabach collection, composed of no fewer than 101 -paintings, a great many of them masterpieces, and 5542 drawings. It is -sufficient to say that in this Jabach collection were works by Leonardo -da Vinci, the Saint John, the “Concert champêtre” by Giorgione--one -of the few authentic works of this master--the Entombment of Christ, -the Pilgrims of Emmaus and the Mistress of Titian by Titian, all of -which now belong to the Louvre Museum. - -With a king who played the connoisseur and collected objects of art and -virtu, no gentleman of the French court would acknowledge indifference -towards art, or be without a certain hobby of his own, collecting some -one thing in particular, being in fact what is generally defined as a -specialist. - -Speaking of “La Mode” in his _Les Charactères_, La Bruyère lashes the -collecting craze of his time without mercy. His Chapter XIII treats -of fads and fashions, and in it he tells of the ridiculous freaks of -collectors and cleverly points out how utterly deprived of genuine -meaning were the artistic pursuits of such amateurs. - -Nevertheless, with its good sides and its bad, the epidemic spread, and -not only in France, but in other countries as well. We will, however, -confine our study of this epoch to France as for the purposes of this -brief résumé of the collecting craze France was ahead of the other -countries, and thus by the side of the wise and genuine lover of art, -possessed all the other degrees of Collectomania. - -Though conforming to fashion, every one has his own views on the -matter, so that there are dreamers and speculators on all kinds of -antiques, but painting is given the preference. - -“Pictures are bullion,” writes the fat Coulanges to his cold-blooded -and well-behaved cousin, Mme. de Sévigné, “you can sell them at twice -their price whenever you like.” In fact during one of his journeys -to Italy, Coulanges, who had caught the collecting fever, made a -considerable sum of money in buying and selling pictures, so much money -that it spoilt his taste for, as a chroniclist says, “The treasure, -which he saw piled up at the Hotel de Guise awoke in him more expensive -tastes.” His wife, Marie-Angelique du Gue-Bagnol, collected _raretés -curieuses_. Mme. de Sévigné tells us of her delight when she saw in her -cousin’s house a looking-glass that had been owned by Queen Marguerite. - -At this epoch the art and curio market comprised all sorts of odd -characters and, as might be expected, the subject gave ample food to -writers and chroniclers for skits. La Bruyère is not alone in making -sport of the obsessed art collector and crazy curio-hunter. From -Molière to the Italian Goldoni the antiquary and his victim are capital -subjects. Poetry also contributes its sarcasm. In France some of the -minor and justly obscure poets are very useful in the reconstruction of -our _milieu_. There are even chronicles written in verse. - -For instance, Marie-Thérèse, the wife of Louis XIV, goes to see -Caterine Henriette Bellier de Beauvais, the first lady of the -bedchamber of the queen dowager Anne of Austria, a lady who is -evidently collecting art. The poetical chronicle at once informs the -public that:-- - - Mercredi, notre auguste Reine - Fut chez madame de Beauvais - Pour de son aimable palais - Voir les merveilles étonnantes - Et raretés surprenantes.... - -We will spare the reader the description of the collection given in a -sort of litany of praise, a sequence of lines like the following:-- - - Tant de belles orfevreries - Tant d’éclatantes pierreries - - * * * * * - - Tant de vases si précieux, - Tant de bustes et tant d’images, etc. - -Le Maisel Prieur des Roches is crazy for books, and like a true -bibliomaniac he never reads his books, which are generally bought for -the title, etc. This of course is more than enough for his introduction -into one of these rhyming chronicles, called _Rymaille_:-- - - Les livres Des Roches en belle couverture, - Mais leur Maistre n’en donne Science ny Lecture. - -Paintings being given the preference, they are also the cherished -subject for verse. Impassioned specialists who collect the works of a -single artist and spend a lifetime in doing it are a capital subject. -There is also an Arcadia among art collectors, worthy of the eighteenth -century, a regular Arcadia with pseudo-names, etc. One of these rhymed -chronicles records the various names assumed by the collectors and -amateurs of the Arcadia. As we have said, many of these collectors of -paintings are specialists possessed of the hobby of collecting the -works of a single master. Poussin is at one time the most fashionable, -and while the Poussinists are among the most impassioned in proclaiming -the merits of their artist, there are also other “ists.” Gamarre, Sieur -de Creze, lieutenant des chasses, is apparently at the head of the -Poussinists. His Arcadian name is Pantolme. - -The widow of Lescot--the jeweller who was one of Mazarin’s advisers and -was sent by the Cardinal to Spain in search of fine things--collects -paintings, but happens to be a Rubenist. However, in due time she -is converted by Pantolme (Gamarre) to the Poussinist persuasion and -deserts the Flemish art of Rubens and starts a new collection as a -Poussinist. She is called Irene in the _Banquet des Curieux_. - -It would take long to go over all the pleasantries of the curio-hunters -of this time. Bizot, named Lubin in the _Banquet des Curieux_, is a -type of collector we have already introduced:-- - - Lubin, amateur d’antiquailles, - De livres anciens et de vielles médailles, - Philosophe sans jugement, - Curieux sans raisonnement,... - - * * * * * - - -Other odd characters have escaped record in rhyme. A Sieur Basin de -Limeville of Blois is a well-known collector of medals. He spent his -whole life in buying nothing but medals. Yet no one ever saw his -collection; as soon as they were bought the medals were put away in his -cabinet, declares an informant of the time. His cabinet is provided -with an iron door and a lock with a key of most complex make. At his -death the heir tried to open the door but the key refused to open, -there being some special handling beside the difficulty of the lock. -The man who had made the key was dead and the case was so hopeless that -the heir was forced to enter Sieur de Limeville’s cabinet through an -opening in the wall. Inside the cabinet there was found among a mass of -cobwebs a dirty sack filled with the precious medals, the collection to -which the deceased had given his whole life. - -La Bruyère tells of a man who spent all his years hunting for a bad -etching of Callot. He knew the work was the poorest ever done by the -artist, that it was not worth the trouble, but he nevertheless gave his -whole time and activity to the search for that etching because it was -the only work of Callot that he did not possess. - -Jacob Spoon, a doctor of medicine and an intelligent but odd individual -who died in the year 1685, declares that in his native city of Lyons -every one is collecting something or other. Then, and perhaps as a -physician he was in a position to know, he says that collecting is a -disease, contagious though not fatal. - -There is no need of special documents to say that faking must have -worked with a certain ease in such a world. Brienne tells us that when -Cardinal Mazarin received objects from Italy, Jabach and Magnard were -charged to examine them and very often more than one piece of faking -was discovered, very successful counterfeits (_Memoires de Brienne_, -Chap. IX). - -There is no instance to my knowledge of any sentence passed by tribunal -upon fakers at this time when everything seems to have been decided by -the almighty, power of Louis XIV or the ever-ready Parliament. - -Yet the police of Louis XIV seem to have one interest in the collecting -of art. They must watch that the books, prints and paintings, -etc., offered for sale contain nothing immoral or what we should -call nowadays subversive. By this duty the police of Louis XIV -become specialists, going in chiefly for medals. In the year 1696 -Pontchartrain wrote to M. de la Reynie “to send a man to watch the sale -of Abbé Bizot and be on the look out for the _médailles insolentes_ of -the said _cabinet_.” After other injunctions, he then adds: “It is His -Majesty’s wish that the medals incurring suppression should be put into -a sack, this to be sealed and taken to the mint....” - -It is clear from this that over and above interest in bad coins and -faked medals the police of the _Roi Soleil_ were on the look out for a -particular historical coin bearing some unfriendly allusion to the King -of France, and their earnest efforts to suppress it had naturally made -it so rare that it kindled the ambition of numismatists and collectors -at large. - -The eighteenth century might be called the period of sales of art -collections. Everywhere auctions were held of well-known collections; -in Holland alone we can register 185 catalogues of art sales from 1700 -to 1750. This may be called a sort of record, however, as France in the -same period of time counts only thirty catalogues. Following the art -sales in Paris we find that from 1751 to 1760 an average of four sale -catalogues a year is reached. From 1761 to 1770 the average increases -to thirteen; from 1771 to 1775 to twenty-eight, and from 1776 to 1785 -to forty-two each year. This is the climax; at this point art sales -were social functions and the auction room a place where society met. -Collections are dispersed and new ones formed, and the transference of -masterpieces from one collection to another through the auction room -acquires unusual rapidity. Such a state of affairs inspires Thibaudeau -with the following reflection. (Thibaudeau. _Préface du Trésor de la -Curiosité._) - -“It is like a game of shuttlecock in which the bourgeoisie and nobility -throw masterpieces to each other and with such swiftness that one -really does not know to whom they belong.” - -The eighteenth century, from the very beginning, numbers collectors -such as Crozat, who had a palace in Rue Richelieu and a collection -of 19,000 drawings, 400 paintings and 1400 cameos, etc., Comtesse -de Verrue and Baudelet. The Duke of Orleans’ gallery includes 478 -paintings, of which three were by Leonardo da Vinci, 15 by Raphael, 31 -by Titian, 19 by Paul Veronese, 10 by Correggio, 12 by Poussin, and -many others of the Dutch, Spanish and other schools. - -This collection of the Duke of Orleans, one of the finest in France -after that of Cardinal Mazarin, seems to have been pursued by the -same ill-luck as the latter. The Regent’s son, with deplorable -prudery, destroyed all the paintings with nude figures; as for the -rest of the collection, it was sold later to some English amateurs by -Philippe-Egalité. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -SOME NOTABLE FRENCH COLLECTORS - - Speculation, financial disasters--Many collections change hands-- - Fakers busy for newly-enriched collectors--Voltaire plays the - silent partner to art and curio dealers--Wonderful unearthings - of Dr. Huber--Collectors of the time: Mme. Pompadour, Cardinal - Soubise, Malesherbes and others--Interspace of the Revolution - --Napoleon revives some of the speedy methods of the Romans-- - Italian museums and galleries plundered by his Imperial agents. - - -From this early period we enter that of the art sales, which, as we -have already said, seem characteristic of the eighteenth century. -Financial disasters and speculations disperse more than one fortune -and usher new-comers into the world of finance. This is the time when -masterpieces begin to change hands so rapidly. The spirit of collecting -is superceded by that of commerce, and faking appears under new forms, -those with no other trickery beyond what commerce with its intrigue and -deceit can supply. - -“All amateurs,” writes a contemporary in the _Chronique Scandaleuse_, -“are now mixed up with _brocantage_ (bric-à-brac). There is not a -collector who does not sell or exchange (_troque_), either on account -of unstable taste, or for the sake of gain, or to retaliate his own bad -bargain upon some one greener than himself.” - -Even Voltaire, between an epigram and a satire, found himself -implicated in _brocantage_, only, more shrewd than Cicero, he saved -appearances by an associate, the Abbé Moussinot, he remaining the -sleeping partner. - -Voltaire’s name and his banter over natural history and explanations -of geological phenomena--Buffon, the author of a Natural History -that Voltaire called “not at all natural,” was one of his victims, -he having replied to Buffon’s learned hypothesis with regard to some -sea-shells found on the summit of the Alps that the shells might have -been lost by pilgrims on their way to Rome--recalls to our mind -an eighteenth-century successful piece of faking and practical joke -played on an erudite collector, Dr. Louis Huber of Würtzburg. In the -year 1727 two doctors of the town prepared a surprise for Huber, a -surprise by which his collection of fossils was to be enriched by some -extraordinary specimens. Speculating on the enthusiasm and good faith -of the learned doctor and impassioned collector, the two accomplices -fabricated fossils of fantastic animals and the most impossible shells. -The imitations were generally modelled in clay with the addition -of a hardening substance. Incredible as it may sound, some of them -represented ants and bees of the most heroic proportions, crabs of new -line and shape, etc. These were carefully buried in ground of suitable -character where Prof. Huber had been seen to excavate. - -The rest is easily divined. What is not easy to understand, however, -is the fact that after having made several of these most incredible -discoveries Dr. Huber thought fit to publish a work, consisting of -a hundred folios, written in Latin and issued under the auspices of -Professor Béranger. The book, which was dedicated to the Bishop of -Franconia, had twenty-two illustrations reproducing with extreme -exactitude Dr. Louis Huber’s fantastic antediluvian find. - -But this is not all. The learned Faculty of Science of Würtzburg -assembled to honour Dr. Huber and the doyen of the Faculty pronounced a -speech in praise of his discovery. - -What followed can be easily deduced. Only his good faith saved -the deceived collector from the sore experiences of a modern sham -discoverer of the North Pole. - -The curio world, however, still counts some good art lovers and serious -collectors, such as Gersaint, Basant, whom the Duc de Choiseul used to -call _le marechal de Saxe de la curiosité_ on account of his daring and -successful inroads on the art market, where, by the way, though no -blood is shed no less strategy is needed than on the battlefield. There -are other names worth quoting in this century of decadence, Gloomy -and his friend Remy, painter and dealer in pictures and other curios, -Julliot, Langlier, Paillet, Regnault-Delalande, Pierre Lebrun and his -son, J. B. Lebrun, who married the famous artist Mlle. Vigëe, and owned -the well-known _Salle Lebrun_, often used for celebrated sales. - -Other names might be quoted, La Marquise de Pompadour, Cardinal -Soubise, Girardot de Prefond, Fontette, Malesherbes, Marquis de Paulmy, -etc.--then, the Revolution comes, the _ancien régime_ disappears and -with it the dainty furniture, foppish dress, and the supremacy of an -art market which with all its oddities were such perhaps as had never -been seen since the time of the orgy of curio-hunting of Ancient Rome. -This supremacy, deprived of many of its idiosyncrasies, temporarily -crossed the Channel and went to England accompanied by many of the -treasures that dealers and refugees managed to save from the cataclysm -of 1779. - -Napoleon may be quoted as an exceptional art collector--if ever such -a name can belong to a man utterly deprived of a sense of art but -shrewd enough to understand the mighty support given to sovereigns by -art--for in the process of time the man formed more than one art -collection by methods that in their drastic character greatly resembled -those adopted by Roman generals and proconsuls. - -This statement is eloquently supported by facts and numbers. Here is a -laconic writing of Napoleon in which he informs the Directory of his -first artistic “finds” in Italy. Speaking of his agents, he states: - -“They have already seized: fifteen paintings from Parma, twenty from -Modena, twenty-five from Milan, forty from Bologna, ten from Ferrara.” - -This is, of course, his first experiment as a novice collector. Other -things were to follow, the Medici Venus from Florence, the Roman -Horses from Venice, and all the best works of art from the Italian -museums, and these but foster more eclectic desires in this strange -art lover, who while preoccupied with the problem of transporting -heavy statues from Rome and harvesting antiques and Renaissance work, -indiscriminately orders to be taken to France with the artistic booty -the votive pen that Justus Lipsius left to the sanctuary of Loretto and -the votive image left by Montaigne to the same sanctuary. The anecdote -of Lucius Mummius of ignorant memory is here repeated in a way, for -the officials acting under Napoleon’s orders have nothing to say about -Montaigne’s ex-voto, but when it comes to the pen of Lipsius these -worthies gleefully remark: “_La plume de Juste Lipse qui avoit été -estimée cinq huitièmes, c’est trouvée peser six huitièmes_” (the pen of -Juste Lipse which was supposed to weigh five-eighths, has been found to -weigh six-eighths). - -From the Revolution to the time of Napoleon’s dominion is the period in -which the passion for art collecting is least felt. Faking, of course, -is an art that does not pay and thus has no _raison d’être_. Yet faking -passes from the field of art to that of real life, the new Republic -apes Roman customs. David the artist is faked into a Tribune while -busy painting Romans that seem to have been brought out of a hot-house -and he sketches semi-Roman costumes for the new officials of the -Republic, garments that with all the foppishness of the “old regime” -had Roman Consular swords, Imperial chlamys (mantle), faked buskins or -ornamented cothurnus (boots worn by tragedians). It is this faking of -life that feels the need even to alter the calendar, changing the Roman -etymology of the names of the months into more resounding Latinesque -appellations. At home in this staged drama of life, Napoleon, the -friend of Talma and David, continues the grandiose faking with a sort -of complex etiquette and a veneer of aristocracy, which makes one -sadly think of the truth of the words pronounced by Courier on General -Bonaparte’s elevation to the throne: He aspires to descend. - -Yet even in this peculiar and rather negative world the chronicle of -the _curieux_ may contain some glorious names, and these no doubt -prepared at the beginning of the nineteenth century the return of -the cult of art in France, the reappearance of devoted collectors and -enlightened amateurs. We may then name successively art lovers and -intelligent collectors such as Lenoir, Du Sommerville and Sauvageot, -Revoil Willemin. And after them artists, collectors and dealers of the -calibre of Mlle. Delaunay, Escudier, Montfort, Roussel, Beurdeley, -Henry Grandjean, Mannheim, the first of a dynasty of honest and -intelligent dealers; then almost in our own times Baron Davilliers, -Bonnaffé, Emile Peyre and others. But art collecting is now no longer -an accentuated characteristic of France nor of England, Germany and -other European countries which have a tradition and have come to the -fore, but other new and powerful States have joined the contest, cast -new types of collectors and created a new psychology in the art world -which will form the second part of this book. - - - - -PART II - -THE COLLECTOR AND THE FAKER - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -COLLECTORS AND COLLECTIONS - - Collectors and collections--Various kinds--Meaning of the - word _curieux_--Various types of collectors: the artist, - the scholar, the eclectic and the specialist--A large class - of collectors as defined by La Bruyère--The ultra-modern - collector--The art and curio market--The three stages of the - collector’s career--The collector’s touch--The elasticity of - prices and an opinion of C. T. Yerkes--Gersaint’s advice and - Schlegel’s opinion--A Latin saying re-edited by Edmond Bonnaffé. - - -“_La collection c’est l’homme_,” a well-known French lover of art and -first-rate connoisseur used to say. Nowadays this transformation of -Buffon’s threadbare saying is only partially true. It would, perhaps, -be more correct to put it in the past tense, as a new type of virtuoso -has arisen. A collector of the most recent brand prefers to buy -collections “ready-made.” Such collections all gathered in good order -in the houses of these new collectors speak very eloquently of the -owner’s financial power, but say nothing of his taste, ability, or love -for the artistically fine and beautiful. - -However, this being somewhat of a recent change brought about by casual -circumstances with hardly any claim as an artistic phenomenon, this -study can be confined for the present to that normal period, barely -past, when the art and curio collector was really a “collector” and -above all a lover of art as well as a passionate hunter after fine -things. From the study of this semi-past world of art it will be easy -to proceed to a comparative analysis of the up-to-date one, to the -new species of collector who in no way comes under the definition “_La -collection c’est l’homme_.” - -In the foregoing review of collectors and collections, it has mostly -been a question of art collectors, with only incidental reference to -other kinds of art lovers. Curios, however, imply many other things. -The French word _curieux_, which has often been used for lack of a -better expression, has a wider meaning. The word _curieux_, which -might be translated by the English word “curious,” without losing -much of its meaning, may have originated in the Latin _curiosis_, -though it is doubtful whether the Romans ever applied this word to -connoisseurs of art or other collectors. The fact that the artistic -world was then divided into lovers of the beautiful and faddists or -fools, that erudites had not yet appeared, may have rendered new words -of definitions useless. When speaking of his friend Statius as a -connoisseur and virtuoso, Pliny uses the Greek word φιλόαλος (friend of -the beautiful), a word that might really be used to define the true and -genuine collector. - -The French word _curieux_ appears for the first time in a dictionary -by Robert Estienne (1531) and is defined _ung homme curieux d’avoir ou -sçavoir choses antiques_ but later on, presumably from its probable -Italian origin, the word acquires a wider sense, a sense that -even finds an echo in Shakespeare, and so also the old meaning of -_gentilezza_ as used by Lorenzo Medici has a resonance, according to -Lacroix du Maine, in the French _gentillesses ou gentilles curiositez_. - -[Illustration: A CHILD. - -By Ferrante Zampini.] - -[Illustration: SAN GIOVANNI. - -By Ferrante Zampini.] - -Notwithstanding this limitation, for many the word _curieux_ has -the widest meaning and includes all kinds of collectors. Trevoux’ -definition “_res singulares, eximiæ raræ_” with Millin’s broadening -comment “_tout ce qui peut piquer la curiosité par la singularité des -formes ou des usages_” (all that may excite curiosity in strangeness -of form or use), is the proper one, regardless of Mme. de Genlis, -who as late as 1818 goes back to the old meaning and includes under -_curiosité_ the entirely scientific Natural History collections. - -It must be said that the distinction between scientific and artistic -pursuits is not always clearly defined. Science mingles with art with -undisputed right, and scientific pursuits at times have artistic -interest. The two seem either to alternate their rights or share them -in the fields that lie between. - -In the artistic field, or rather in that which tallies with Millin’s -definition of _la curiosité_ there are two quite typical classes even -though they cannot be separated by a sharp line of delimitation on -account of linking subdivisions. The one includes the art collector -alone and the searcher for the beautiful, the other those gathering the -rest, things which for “strangeness of form or use” present a certain -interest to the collector. - -There is no doubt that those of the first class possess the -impulsiveness that generally characterizes intuitive and non-learned -experience in art, and those of the second combine artistic and -scientific interests. The one has a tendency to consider and value -objects in a different manner from the other: the artistic temperament -has a penchant for synthesis, the scientific is inclined towards -analytic methods. - -While the collector of the first class has a direct purpose--the -search for what is artistically fine, the other is less absolute, -and for him objects have what may be called a relative value, the -value of the series. In collecting coins or medals, the latter more -especially, art plays an undisputed part, but science claims the right -of classification, thus placing a relative value of no secondary -importance. As a consequence, for instance, a medallist is likely to -speak of the rare in place of the fine, or at times use one word for -the other. It may be that in the eyes of a numismatist a sample of -inferior art acquires great value through its rarity and through the -place that it may occupy in the series of his collection. - -There are some collections consequently in which the best artistic -samples are forced to play a secondary part, the object of the -collection being classification, just as shells, minerals and other -purely scientific gatherings would be arranged. - -This peculiar tyranny of science may even find scope for action in -expressions of art, where science and erudition should have no claim. -In museums of painting and sculpture the history of art demands that -the objects should be classified according to epochs, schools, etc. -The man intent upon such classification often becomes so engrossed -in this one scientific side as to grow indifferent to those artistic -considerations which give the painter and the real lover of art the -joy art is intended to give. Even connoisseurship is often too tainted -by erudition, and the curators of museums are very rarely æsthetes. At -the sight of a fine work of art, a connoisseur is very often so intent -upon discovering the name of its author, the probable school and the -epoch--all forms of classification--that he forgets he is before a -work of art, that is to say, an expression of human sentiment, which -whether good or bad was created solely to arouse artistic emotion in -the beholder. The artist, while creating it, had certainly not in mind -the history of art and all its erudite paraphernalia. - -There are two other distinctions in art collecting, distinctions so -closely allied to the above classes that they share the respective -characteristics in a very similar manner. They are represented by the -eclectic collector and the specialist, two distinct orders both useful -in a way, both belonging to the artistic sphere. The eclectic is well -defined by Gersaint as “an amateur whose passion presupposes taste -and sentiment”; the other, the specialist--generally regarded as -having perfected his taste by dropping his initial eclecticism--is a -collector who has restricted the field of his activity by grafting, so -to speak, the purity of his artistic penchant on something that tends -to diminish the broad outlook of an eclectic lover of art, and this in -order to enlarge the possibilities of research and information. Thus -although the specialist has very often passed through an initial period -of eclectic wandering, when he becomes a specialist he is very apt -to forget his past enthusiasm for anything but his chosen speciality. -Show a fine Limoges enamel to a collector of medals or a medal to a -collector of enamels and you will realize the truth of the statement. -Of course he will understand the beauty of the work--though not -invariably--but he will take no interest in it. While having -perfected his taste in some single branch of art, the specialist has -unquestionably atrophied all artistic qualities in other directions. -This theory naturally becomes more or less elastic according to the -genre and the character of the art lover. A man who is a specialist on -certain epochs is hardly a specialist in the true sense, but rather -an eclectic who has restricted his pursuits so as to reconstruct in -his mind the whole artistic expression of a certain age: the medallist -and such like collectors have not such a wide scope and their pursuits -generally come to be characterized by method, order and a whole Indian -file of historic and erudite considerations. The _tout ensemble_ of an -eclectic’s house presents a very decorative appearance, that of the -specialist does not always, being mostly encumbered with glass cabinets -or pieces of furniture with shelves adapted to his speciality. The -eclectic collector will often speak of the beauty of a certain find -from a purely artistic point of view, the specialist will grow poetic -over the perfect cast, patina, etc. The specialist in medals will often -show you two or three specimens of the same medal only distinguished -by the colour of the patina or differences of no artistic value, and -chronological considerations weigh with numismatists. The specialist -must therefore frequently recur to scientific methods. - -In Paris there is a loose belief that an art lover who is an eclectic -reveals a somewhat provincial sentiment, and that to be characterized -as a true Parisian one must be a specialist in some one thing. This -belief naturally implies that the specialist has refined his taste -and acquired distinction from the grossness and obtuseness with -which eclecticism is libelled. Yet this is hardly true, the best -French collectors, such as Davilliers, Piot and others, were always -enlightened eclectics in their various pursuits though having a bent -towards specialization. - -Nevertheless, we repeat that distinctions cannot be made with -mathematical precision. The difference between artist and erudite, -eclectic and specialist would seem to have been well defined only by -Bonnaffé in his characteristic saying: “The first throws himself upon -his knees before Beauty; the other asks her for her passports.” - -Neither of the two methods ensures infallibility. The artistic -collector, a lover at first sight, may be deceived by an imitation -possessing character and general effect sufficient to pass in his -eyes for an original; the erudite with his brain in the place of his -heart, who demands “passports” before making up his mind, may be duped -by a forged “passport,” by an imitation, that is to say, in which the -details are respected even to the sacrifice of the totality which so -greatly appeals to artists. - -There is one more kind of art and curio collector, perhaps the most -numerous of all. They have been well defined by La Bruyère more than -two hundred years ago. This particular type of art lover is on the -look out not for what he really loves but for that which affords him -gratifications other than those art is intended to give. - -“It is not an amusement,” says the author of _Les Caractères_ in his -chapter on Fashion, “but a passion often so violent that it lags behind -love and ambition only as regards the paltriness of its object.” - -Passing then from the description of the effect to the cause, La -Bruyère proceeds: - -“_La curiosité_ is a taste for what one possesses and what others do -not possess, an attachment to whatever is the vogue or the fashion; it -is not a passion felt generally for rare and fashionable things, but -only for some special thing that is rare and above all in fashion.” - -To this last category, with a few slight modifications, belongs the -type of collector who might be called ultra-modern to distinguish -him from his modern confrères of yesterday, a type that can lay no -claim whatever to the definition “_La collection c’est l’homme_,” -because he never troubles himself to hunt for works of art or curios, -never experiences the joys of discovery, experiences nothing perhaps, -but being cheated by dealers, friends and experts. The ultra-modern -collector is, of course, amply supplied with money, and relies chiefly -on his cheque-book. He is always far from the spot where he might learn -wisdom, yet not so far as to be beyond the pale of the deceit and -trickery of the market of _la curiosité_. - -This latest variation carries one direct to the modern American type -of collector. Not because the type does not exist in other countries, -but because America has furnished the champion specimens who through -the magnitude of their speculations in art- and curio-hunting have -stamped the type. Yet even in America, where art lovers like the late -Quincy Shaw, Stanford White, H. Walters, etc., have been known, the -ultra-modern type represents a very recent and astonishing novelty. - -One conversation on art with this modern collector is generally -sufficient to reveal all absence of real passion. These greedy buyers -of works of art and curios have often hardly the time to give even -a glance at their glamorous purchases. They have certainly not the -enjoyment that other collectors have. When they show their collections, -a common way of soliciting admiration is to recount the unreasonable -and extravagant prices paid. - -What are they after? What is their main object in ransacking old Europe -for artistic masterpieces to be carried off by the sheer force of money? - -Lovesque says one is a connoisseur by study, an art lover by taste, and -a _curieux_ by vanity, to which Imbert wisely adds: “or speculation.” - -Making every possible exception, vanity and speculation still appear to -rule alternately the ultra-modern collector. - -We do not deny that many of them may be animated by the noble desire -to leave their collections to their countries, but yet on closer -study the attraction for the greater number of them seems to be -either a modification of their financial interests, namely, sport -and speculation combined, or an inclination to spend money lavishly, -everything being too easily possible by reason of their great money -power. In a humorous toast at an American dinner, Stanley, the -explorer, said that a citizen of the United States is never at rest -till he has found something that he actually cannot afford to buy. The -definition fits the millionaire art collector with more correctness and -exactitude. In this field he shows himself a regular blasé of buying -possibilities--and his passion for art and curios may to some extent -bring him out of his torpidity by the extra magnitude of the investment. - -As Bernard Shaw says, a millionaire can buy fifty motor-cars but can -only drive one at a time. He can buy food for a whole city but has -only one stomach to digest it, secure all the seats in the theatre -but can only occupy one, etc. But to own a work by Michelangelo or -Raphael is a different tale; it affords one the sensation of owning and -driving a hundred or more motor-cars all at the same time in a sort -of modern--ultra-modern--triumphal march of glory to the up-to-date -Olympus of the privileged, where fame is highly seasoned with -self-advertisement, and superlatives the daily ingredient of reputation. - -For others the modern whim of collecting works of art may represent a -diversion from business, or a way in which “to astonish the natives.” -From this type we come to the old forms of foolishness, the Trimalchos, -Euctuses and Paulluses, etc., who have changed the ancient palanquin -carried by slaves for a brightly coloured motor of sixty or ninety -horse-power. - -One reason why this modern type of collector is so commonly deceived -is because he generally lives in a sort of fool’s paradise of art -trumpery separated from the real art market by a little understood -feeling of aristocratic pride. The art collector of olden times used -to mingle with dealers, learn from them where and what to buy, tramping -from place to place, the former El Dorado of the “find.” The modern -species would consider it beneath him to have anything to do with -common dealers or to attend a public sale even for the sake of interest -in art. How can they gain experience? They may engage an expert. No -doubt a good expert can assist them, but the real collector carries his -experience in his pocket, for the expert, like the gendarmes of the -well-known French operetta, arrives always too late. - -Sometimes a legion of experts are not able to save one from deception. -A well-known American collector on a visit to Italy with his small -court of experts was once offered in Florence a crystal cup supposed -to have been cut by Valerio Vicentino. With the full approval of the -experts the cup was bought for the not inconsiderable sum of four -thousand dollars. The handsome find turned out to be the work of a -faker practising in the North of Italy and the whole scheme planned by -a non-Florentine dealer. - -The fancy prices paid for antiques to-day and the peculiar -idiosyncrasies of this new species of collector have quite logically -somewhat changed the character of the commerce, have given another -tonality to the _milieu_ in which the art lover moves. It must be -admitted that the trade in antiques and curios is now far less -interesting than formerly. The antiquary and dealer of yore were most -interesting and characteristic. Their business could be defined by the -Horatian adage, _Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci_ (he wins -the praise of all who mingles the useful with the pleasant), for while -they had a keen eye to business, they also possessed the passion and -intelligent understanding of art. The real antiquary hardly exists -to-day, at best he is represented by some old champion, the solitary -survivor of a past generation. The modern variety, even the most -enlightened, is nothing but an ordinary dealer. It is no exaggeration -to say that traders and antiquaries like old Manheim and the rest -whose intelligent criticism and learning was of such assistance to the -collector are no more. The vulgar jobbery of the dealer of to-day may -eventually find its justification in the commonplace, unintelligent -and gross clientele upon which it practises. With few exceptions, the -ability of this pseudo-antiquary of to-day is more the ability of a -common jobber than of an intelligent man. The trade has lost to a great -extent the old artistic savour, bluff has succeeded capability. The -new strategy is based upon knowing before others when some new Crœsus -has become a votary of art, upon getting in touch with him before he -has lost his money or his illusions; it relies also upon what the -French call “puffing what he has to sell,” and a keen insight into the -client’s weak side, the ability to fan his pride and ambition. - -Of course, as stated above, there are happy exceptions, merchants still -honouring the trade who deal with absolute rectitude, and would be -ashamed to resort to the aforesaid indirect methods to conclude a sale, -but nevertheless “the gods are departing” and the erstwhile dealer plus -antiquary, this interesting figure once afforded by the art and curio -market, has vanished. - -To whatever order a collector may belong--exception being made for -the ultra-modern type who, generally speaking, has in our opinion -hardly any claim to the title of art collector or even simple -curio-hunter--there generally exists a preparatory stage in his -career. No matter how the mania or passion has been caught, there are -three stages in its course that can very rarely be suppressed. - -The genesis of the passion is seldom spontaneous, there is generally an -infective cause that helps the development of the fever for antiques -and curios. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_] [_Alinari_ - -ATHLETE. - -Imitation of Roman Work by an unknown artist of the 15th Century. It is -attributed to Pollajolo.] - -“I believe,” says Major H. Bing Hall in his book _The Adventures of a -Bric-à-brac Hunter_, “my friend Mrs. Haggleton’s taste for collecting -the plate of Queen Anne’s era originated in the fact of her aunt -having left her a teapot of that admirable period of the goldsmith’s -art in England. The teapot inspired an ardent desire to possess -other articles of the same style. The lady mildly commenced with -salt-spoons, and became in due course the proud owner of mustard-pots, -salt-cellars, and one large piece of sideboard plate, which from the -day she purchased it to that of her death every night faithfully -accompanied her to her bedroom. My old bachelor friend Croker, again, -began collecting Wedgwood because some one had told him he possessed a -very fine specimen; while to my certain knowledge he was as ignorant of -its value and exquisite design as his own footman could have been.” - -There are naturally worthier causes, far higher and more pleasing -motives to lead a man of refined taste to become a real practical -collector--or dreamer according to circumstances--but the genesis -above-quoted, to which might be added the having of a collector among -friends or relations, is the most common. - -One thing is certain, when the passion is genuine and consequently -gives proof of being of a character that promises success and -satisfaction, there is no cure for it, it becomes chronic almost -invariably. - -The first stage upon which the collector or simple bric-à-brac hunter -is likely to enter might be called the rosy period of his career. He is -generally inclined to optimism, he dreams of nothing but masterpieces -and astonishing finds, to such an extent that he sees _chefs-d’œuvre_ -everywhere. If he owns capital, this is of course his most perilous -period; if he has no capital, everything depends upon his wisdom, his -credit, or the possibility of borrowing money. Naturally we are only -referring to the most acute cases, temperaments vary, and the infection -may be more or less dangerous according to the disposition of the -individual. - -Curiously enough, in this Collectomania fever, the first time what -might be called a chill is taken, improvement sets in, convalescence -perhaps. Chills in the purchasing of curios and antiques often mean an -awakening of suspicion of being cheated. - -A very bad chill, ague in fact, is usually experienced with the first -bad bargain, when, ignorant of possible dangers, one considers oneself -a full-fledged connoisseur and adds to one’s private collection -a pseudo-masterpiece, realizing too late that the purse has been -considerably lightened by a round sum paid for--rubbish. There is -hardly a more sudden and effectual method of learning wisdom. Some -learn at once, others are obdurate and need a whole sequence of -misadventures before realizing that they have been cheated, or becoming -aware that they themselves are chiefly responsible for being cheated. - -These latter over-cheated ones, more especially, either abandon the -amusement in a moment of despondency or, if they persist, enter upon -the second stage of preparatory training, a stage mostly characterized -by scepticism and distrust. At this moment you might offer the neophyte -a genuine Titian for a mere song and, blinded by fear, he is likely to -believe it a copy; offer him the most authentic medal by Pisanello, -the very one he desired, and he will hesitate. Hesitation and -colour-blindness are metaphorically the main characteristics at this -time. - -There is, however, a good-natured type who oscillates, pendulum-like, -between one stage and another, from enthusiasm to depression. - -Emerging from this second stage of semi-despondency, the neophyte is -in all probability regaining a certain equilibrium and realizes above -all that the buying of antiquities and curios is no easy matter to be -handled by the first new-comer, even though well-stocked with money. -This is a salient point in real progress, and from this time each year -will add experience and connoisseurship. If the art lover possesses the -so-called collector’s touch, it is at this particular stage he will -discover that such a gift without study and practice does not lead to -infallibility. - -Speaking of this quality which every beginner believes himself to -possess, it cannot be denied that there are people who do have a -certain happy intuition of things, an almost miraculous sixth sense, -fully testifying to the existence of what the English call the -collector’s touch and the French name _le flair_, but, alas! it is so -very rare. Think of it, rhabdomancy in art! - -An amateur’s education is in most cases slow and by no means an easy -conquest. There are no books that can teach him the practical side, the -safe and important side. Book-learning is certainly of great assistance -as secondary matter and completely subordinated to the education of the -eye. Some of the best art connoisseurs, those of the surest touch, come -from an ignorant class of workers, such as the celebrated Couvreur of -Paris or the Milanese Basilini, a former carter who was often consulted -by Morelli, the Italian art critic and inventor of the analytical -method, a connoisseur of undisputed merit. - -An antiquary of repute and art dealer of the old school claims that -the perfecting of the eye resembles the focussing of a photographic -apparatus, with the difference that in photography one can learn how to -focus with almost mathematical precision, whereas in connoisseurship it -is a continual focussing for when what looks like a supreme conquest is -reached, the eye becomes still more perfect and exacting. - -Similar progress characterizes the proper valuation of prices, the most -elastic side of the trade. - -It must be remembered that as soon as an object leaves the shop to -enter the collection of a collector of repute, it increases in value, -because it is presumed to be genuine and choice, having been selected -by an art lover of cultivated taste. Then, too, away from the chaos of -the shop and in a good light a work of art shows at its best. - -In every branch of commerce there are shops and shops, Piccadilly and -Cheapside mean the same also in the world of curio and bric-à-brac. - -In conclusion, apart from the pleasure afforded by the pursuit of fine -objects, there is hardly a better way for a collector to invest his -money, provided he knows how to do it; and there is no worse business, -none so unreliable and hastily ruinous as curio hunting if one is not -a true and real hunter. - -What to buy as safe investments is told by Gersaint, a dealer and -connoisseur of the eighteenth century. He says that “by sticking to -what is beautiful and fine one has the satisfaction of becoming the -possessor of things that are always valuable and pleasing. I dare say -that going in for the _beautiful_ diminishes the probabilities of being -duped, as often happens to those who are content with the mediocre or -are tempted by low prices. It is very rare that a first-rate work of -art does not realize at least the price paid for it. The mediocre is -likely to lead to a loss.” - -This advice, however, tacitly presupposes the collector to be able to -tell the fine from the mediocre, to be, in a word, either an artist or -a connoisseur. - -With this part of connoisseurship we propose to deal in another chapter -at the end of this work. At present we would state that the safest -thing for an art and curio collector to do, whatever his ambition, is -to become acquainted with the various ways of the peculiar _milieu_ -into which he is about to enter, to train his eye as much as possible, -to be diffident at first and to have a passionate love for his -interesting pursuit. - -It will then be for the collector a source of no common enjoyment and -a most pleasing occupation, an occupation somewhat justifying the -following lyricism of Schlegel: - -“There is no more potent antidote to low sensuality than the adoration -of the beautiful. - -“All the higher arts of design are essentially chaste without respect -to the object. - -“They purify the thoughts as tragedy purifies the passions. Their -accidental effects are not worth consideration; there are souls to whom -even a vestal body is not holy.” - -As the reverse to the ideal side let us warn the neophyte that the -supreme joy of art-hunting is often embittered by the jealousy of -colleagues, and that benevolence in the environment in which the -collector moves is as rare as the ceramics of Henry II and the -painting of Michelangelo; so much so that Edmond Bonnaffé was fully -justified in re-editing an old Latin saying into:-- - -“_Homo homini lupus, fæmina fæminæ lupior, curiosus curioso -lupissimus_” (A man against man is like a wolf, woman against woman -still more so, but most of all is curio-hunter against curio-hunter.) - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE COLLECTOR’S FRIENDS AND ENEMIES - - Curio-trading--The collector’s friends, semi-friends and enemies - --The antiquary, the so-called private dealer, the dealer, - bric-à-brac vendor and others of the species--Art critics and - experts--_Courtiers_ and other go-betweens. - - -Madame Rolland writes in her famous _Memoirs_ that one of her greatest -objections to a certain suitor was the fact that he was a trader. “In -commerce,” said this brilliant victim of the French Revolution, “one -is supposed to buy at a low figure and sell at an exaggerated price, a -scheme usually demanding the aid of lies.” - -Leaving with Mme Rolland the responsibility of such an assertion, -it is quite safe to say that the trade in antiques, the flourishing -commerce in curios, is a trade, if ever there was one, in which objects -are bought cheap and sold at a high price, with a stock of lies as a -necessary asset. - -Naturally the statement does not imply that every dealer is a confirmed -liar, ready to take advantage of the incautious and unskilled novice -through misrepresentation. Yet even at its best the character of -the trade in our day is such that it is difficult to score success -without--what shall we say?--flavouring opportunity with fantastic -tales, without firing the client’s enthusiasm with some form of -mirage, namely, tricking his good faith to entice him within the orbit -of--faith. - -Point out to a buyer, for instance, the different parts of an object -that have been skilfully restored, and nine times out of ten the -customer will drop the whole business. - -It is incredible the amount of stuff even a good art lover will -swallow, if properly offered by a person he trusts, just as it is -incredible to see how the enhancing of merits with--grey lies, will -help the conclusion of a good round piece of business. One must have -had a glimpse at the make-up, have taken a peep behind the scenes to -become aware that the more imposing the transaction, the more diverting -and genial is the comedy played before the customer, who, at first a -spectator, in due time will be called in most cases to take his part in -the play, the part of the duped. - -There are methods to work up public enthusiasm greatly resembling those -adopted by the scheming capitalist in the Stock Exchange. - -An English curio dealer of unquestionably high repute realized large -profits on Dresden china by the artful way he put before the public an -article apparently out of fashion with collectors of ceramics. For two -or three years he bought all the Meissen ware within reach until he had -accumulated a large quantity at extremely low figures. Then he began -sending pieces to noted auction sales, where he invariably sent agents -to buy them in after running the objects up to an extravagant price. -This trick gradually built up a reputation for Meissen china, some -noted collector began to take an interest in it, others followed in his -wake. When Meissen ware became the rage and prices were accordingly -high, the shrewd dealer got rid of his stock at an astonishing profit. - -Nothing absolutely dishonest, one may observe. Yet without stopping -to ask whether the action comes within Mme. Rolland’s hyperbolic -conception of honesty, it cannot be denied that in the fine art and -curio trade what might be defined as the staging part is the most -important, even if it finds its greatest justification in clients who -follow one another in taste like so many sheep. - -The trade in curios may be more specifically outlined by the study of -the dramatis personæ taking part in it. It will then be seen that the -artifice practised by the London antiquary of good repute is rather an -anodyne form of misrepresentation. Such trade tricks differ from the -commonplace ones characterizing unclean dealing in other branches of -commerce; there is a smack of genius about them which might at times -plead for the pardon that Draconian laws accorded to well-thought-out -and talented forms of theft. A picture of the clever plots and amusing -intrigues planned to the detriment of the modern collector would demand -the pen of a Molière. Only the illustrator of Monsieur Tartuffe could -give the proper colouring to such inconceivable plays. - -These plays are hardly new, however. They have been constantly acted -and re-acted with creditable success and enlivening innovations. -Formerly fools alone were the victims, rarely real collectors. To-day -it is different, with the advent of the new type old distinctions have -disappeared. - -Some among the many art collectors are intelligent in their work, -and far from being beginners. They are outsiders, however. Let them -look within the penetralia, into the mysteries, the hidden secrets of -the trade so carefully concealed from them, and they will learn how -little exaggeration there is in the saying that a large portion of the -business in antiques and curios is tainted with fraud, charlatanism, -etc., and that even some of the best collectors of our time have been -deceived to such an extent that they live surrounded by their objects -of virtu as in a sham El Dorado. - -One of the late Rothschilds, a man known traditionally and _de facto_ -as a connoisseur, a type of genuine collector, used to say that all the -objects of his collection were, like Cæsar’s wife, above suspicion. -Yet by the side of the finest masterpieces there were some in that -collection which were, metaphorically speaking, wives that Cæsar would -certainly have repudiated. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_] [_Reali_ - -THE BATTESIMO. - -A Bas-relief by Sig. Natali, of Florence, bought by the Louvre as work -of Verrocchio. Sig. Natali, a fine imitator of the Quattrocento, like -Sig. Zampini, sells his products as genuine modern work even if the -connoisseurs decide to believe them antique.] - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_] [_Alinari_ - -BACCHUS. - -By DONATELLO.] - -“I would no more admit forgeries to my collection than I would allow my -wife to wear paste diamonds,” was the boast of a well-known collector -of bronzes in Paris to a party of connoisseurs lunching with him. “But -excuse me,” retorted a moralizing friend who was dying to reveal -the truth to the “great specialist,” “no one is safe nowadays. There,” -pointing to a bronze figure, “that is, what shall I say? a paste -diamond! That object is a fake. I can tell you where it was cast. It -was offered me very likely by the same fellow that must have palmed it -off on you....” There was no trial, however, because the great bronze -specialist recovered his money from the dealer--but, alas! not his -unblemished reputation. - -Such stories are not strange when it is considered that museums are -regularly infested by forgeries and spurious objects and that these -have been admitted to public collections with the full approbation of -learned curators and clever specialists. It is easy to estimate how -rampant and keen faking must be now that incredible prices are paid for -articles of virtu. - -How the antiquary, the dealer, the go-between and other characters in -this world of deception may prove to be, according to circumstances, -the friend or the enemy of the curio collectors, is readily understood. -Discrimination, sometimes too late, will teach who is a helper and who -not. - -The antiquary is generally a dealer who has no shop, but keeps objects -of art in his tastefully furnished house, allowing his private show to -be visited only by whom he chooses. He is as it were the aristocrat of -the trade, the one who is presumed to ask and get the highest prices. -This select dealer’s success is according to his ability, integrity -or the reputation for trustworthiness he enjoys among collectors. We -would repeat that the “private dealer” belongs to this high branch of -the trade without any definite division. Very often he is a disguised -trader with the grand air of a gentleman--an air that has to be paid -for by the client, who is less likely in such a sphere to attempt to -drive the hard bargain that is peculiar to the humble bric-à-brac shops. - -The best and most reliable antiquaries and private dealers must -logically be reckoned among the friends of the art lover. The latter is -likely to pay them astonishing prices, but he also pays for security. -He knows that the dealer’s experience is absolutely at his service, and -that if by mischance an object is not what it has been represented to -be, the honest dealer will make it good. - -To end with a brief classification, it may be noted that there are -dealers whose shops have private rooms in the rear where trade can be -carried on in the same way as with a dealer who has no shop. From this -double-faced form we pass to the real shopkeeper, the vaster class -ranging from the vendor who can afford to fill his window with the -choicest samples down to the modest curio shop, the benevolent harbour -of the humbler modes of expressing art. - -With the exception of the unassuming curio shop, which is still -unchanged though less replete with interesting things and quite -denuded of tempting “finds,” the disappearance in the dealer of his -former artistic sentiment has fomented in the trade the spirit of -association. Trusts and alliances have been formed by big firms, though -the advantage to the amateur is to be doubted. At one time such a thing -was very uncommon, if not impossible, being apparently prevented by the -dealer’s originality and artistic temperament. - -“_Monsieur, je ne suis pas le gendarme de la curiosité_,” old Manheim -used to say to the novice showing him objects not purchased from his -gallery. This was the old attitude of the trade. We do not mean that -all behaved like Manheim in refusing to play the part of “policeman of -curio-dealing,” others may have taken the opportunity to run down an -article sold by a neighbour, but there was no probability of an object -passing from one firm to another in search of better success, or going -from Paris to London and vice versa to find the proper atmosphere -or the suitable kind of knavery. Psychologically speaking this is -speculating on a faddism similar to that which induces the Parisian -dandy to send his shirts to London to be ironed, and at the same time -suggests an inverted game to the London snob who may believe that -Parisian starch is without an equal for shirt fronts. - -The spirit of association and a perfected knowledge of the -idiosyncrasies of the modern buyer have led to the discovery that -some objects show to better advantage in Paris and that others gain -in the sombre grey atmosphere of London, that each background has -its peculiar value and may be turned to account respectively in the -realization of higher figures. There are even special cases when to -fetch the best price an object must be sent to its birthplace where -the freakish or immature client’s fancy may be tickled to advantage. -The whole of this complex game in modern curio-dealing may be summed -up in the single maxim: “Find the vulnerable spot, the Achilles’ heel -of your client, and you are safe.” It must be added that the Achilles’ -heel of the modern collector may be of a more complex anatomy but is -of more extended proportions than that of the Greek hero. As soon as -a star of first magnitude bursts forth upon the financial sky to rise -upon the artistic one, all the forces of the latter quickly learn -dynamic precision, the extent of possibilities. Whether erratic or not, -the orbit of the new star will be studied throughout its course with -astronomical exactitude. To continue the metaphorical image it may be -added that should the new star prove to be of solar magnitude a whole -planetary system of cupidity and greedy desire will soon be formed -within its golden rays. - -From now forward it is of this shady brilliancy of the planetary system -of the curio world that we intend to speak. The honest dealer needs -neither our praise nor defence, he can take care of himself, and the -esteem he enjoys plainly divides him from the sphere upon which we are -entering, the precinct of an art and curio inferno which might bear -Dante’s superscription: “Through me is the way to the city dolent.” - -As the main principle of curio-dealing is to buy at a low figure and -sell at the highest price possible, it is evident that when this -apophthegm falls into the hands of the unscrupulous, the art of buying -and selling takes on most Machiavellian hues. - -The infrequency of good bargains, which are becoming rarer every -day, has lately fostered the activity of competition, making the art -of buying a shrewd, unscrupulous game, in which the dealer, with his -numerous emissaries, is prepared, Proteus-like, to invest himself with -every imaginable part. - -If an object cannot be secured in a direct manner, the dealer will -indulge in side-play, called in the Italian argot of the trade, _di -mattonella_. When dealers are not admitted and it is important that -the object should be inspected before the conclusion of a business -transaction, the antiquary or shopkeeper, namely the buyer, is -generally careful to hide his professional quality. He is often -introduced as a foreign casual visitor interested in art. - -If the pretended foreigner does not succeed in obtaining the object -because the owner, perhaps a gentleman, has demanded a big price, then -other characters, the decoys in the play, may be put upon the stage to -say that the object is not worth the price, that it has been injured in -restoration, etc. Sometimes the pseudo-foreigner assumes the part of a -novice naively confessing that he is not versed in antiques, but should -Professor So-and-so give a favourable opinion he would willingly remit -the price. The rest is left to the sham professor. - -Of the self-disguising tendency of a noted Italian antiquary when in -search for the ever-rarer good bargains, the following amusing story is -told. - -A noble family of Pisa were induced, by financial circumstances, to -part with some of their valuable works of art and made the condition -that no antiquary or dealer was to be mixed up in the transaction. -A certain Florentine antiquary noted for craft and trickery, in -particular, was to be excluded. - -The said antiquary got wind of the unusual opportunity and managed to -visit the palace in the guise of a stranger. He saw a certain work of -art and a bargain was struck with Count Z., the head of the family, -to the satisfaction of them both. As the antiquary was about to leave -the nobleman said, confidentially, “Don’t let anyone know about this -affair, nor that I am selling things. I have a particular objection to -dealers, above all to a certain intriguer and thief----” Here he named -the very man he was addressing. - -When bargains are made on the plan of exchanging one object for -another, they are no less disastrous for the unwary and ignorant owner. -There are Madonnas by good Renaissance artists that countrymen and -villagers have gladly bartered for cheap modern chromo-like paintings -worth only a few francs, old artistic stuccos and bas-reliefs secured -for some cheap piece of plaster-cast, pieces of old damask exchanged by -ignorant priests for a few yards of brand-new shining satinette. - -Even such exchanges necessitate at times certain wiles, such as stories -by “go-betweens,” garbed as monks or priests, posing as benevolent -friends of the church or some other meek character. - -A philodramatic society, owning a small theatre, once used a piece -of fine Flemish tapestry as a drop curtain. Dark and unattractive -to the untrained eye, the curtain was hung for lack of a better. It -was objectionably heavy to raise or lower. To make things easier and -lighter, a Mæcenas of the dramatic art offered to exchange the old -clumsy curtain for a new one painted in the most approved style. The -proposal was accepted with enthusiasm, and after some time it was -casually found out by one of the actors that their former curtain had -been sold in Paris to a French collector for a sum that would have -built the needy society a palatial theatre. - -If a dealer does not succeed in securing a work of art he is apt -to spoil all chances for others by what is known as _mettere il -bavaglino_, that is, metaphorically, to tie a bib round the neck of the -object. The game is played by enthusiastically praising the article -that it has not been possible to acquire. - -When a certain kind of dealer finds that his offer has not been -accepted he becomes artful, admitting that he has tendered all he is -able to give, but that he honestly recognizes the article to be worth -more. Proceedings now evolve much as follows: “How much do you think -it is really worth?” asks the owner with legitimate curiosity. “A -dealer richer than myself might pay so and so, but then an outsider, of -course....” Here the trickster is not likely to estimate the work but -will vaguely convey an idea of its immense value by telling of recent -sales where millions have been paid for works of art. The result is -that the owner loses all balance as regards the value of his object, -and in all probability will never sell it for the simple reason that -he raises the price every time the sum demanded is reached. A doctor -in Lucca who possessed a passable Maestro Giorgio, a ceramic piece -that may have been worth ten thousand francs, was unacquainted with -its value and would have been willing to sell it for five francs. He -received an offer of fifty francs for it, and thinking it generous -for a cracked bit of earthenware, became suspicious. Very soon the -dealer bid a thousand francs, then gradually worked up to three -thousand, the price he had made up his mind not to pass. Then when the -“bib” was properly bound round the article he boldly offered fifty -thousand--naturally intending to turn it all into a joke should the -offer be accepted in good faith. The castle-builder died dreaming of -millions, of course before having parted with his dish. The heir sold -it for a moderate sum, so moderate a one that it might have raised a -posthumous protest from the dead doctor. - -In like manner, but this time by way of a joke, an antiquary persuaded -a countryman that a brass dish he owned, for which he had refused the -few francs that it was worth, was priceless, that there was gold in the -alloy and that the chiselling was a lost process in the art of working -brass. The specimen was _rarissimo_, he said. As a finishing touch and -to give it a flavour of Boccaccio-like humour, he occasionally sent -friends to play the part of anxious buyers, offering higher and higher -sums. Gradually dealers entered into the spirit of the joke and on -passing the village never failed to offer a few hundred francs more for -the now celebrated dish. - -This trick is also called _inchiodare un oggetto_ (to nail down an -object), and is variously denominated in the different provinces of -Italy, the curio-dealers’ argot varying according to district. The -slang peculiar to the trade has not a wide vocabulary, but comprises -a few phrases and words by which the initiated can express an opinion -upon some special thing or the artistic value of a certain object -without being understood by the outsider. For instance, the word -_musica_ is indicative of faked objects, not as a single word but -set in a colloquial phrase. A dealer who wants his aide-de-camp or -go-between to know that the object in question is modern and not worth -wasting time over, yet would convey this opinion in the presence of -the proprietor without letting him understand, is likely to warn his -colleague in some such a way as this, “Before I forget it, remind me -to buy that piece of music,” or any other phrase in which music comes -in naturally. To state that a price is too high, that there is no -margin for business, or maybe even risk, the dealer will use the word -_bagnarsi_ (to get wet). It may also be merely hinted as, for instance, -“Have you your umbrella?” if it should be raining, or in good weather, -“No need for umbrellas.” Rather than containing a wealth of words the -jargon is fanciful and pliable, forming a sort of summary esperanto -which with a few words furnish the freemasonry of the trade with -multiform expressions. - -The complementary characters to which we have alluded in our bird’s-eye -view of the curio market are liable to exchange their functions -according to the moral principles directing their actions, and in -this peculiar chameleon-like attitude change colour and hide, from -friendship to enmity, assisting the collector in his pursuit, namely, -of helping the dealer to dupe him. In broad terms they include art -critics, experts, go-betweens and many metamorphoses of the most -variegated agents. To these forces must be added the silent help -that is generally operative in favour of the dealer. These are drawn -from the multiform and numerous guilds of the restorer, and from -the questionable side of the trade, namely, fakers, assumed owners, -noblemen or pseudo-noblemen willing to lend paternity and pedigree -to works of art, smugglers and other degenerate forms of criminal and -semi-criminal activity. - -Speaking of the friends and enemies of the collector whose co-operation -is more or less openly apparent and of a less mysterious character, -it may be said that the art critic and expert once represented two -entirely distinct forms of interest in art. A certain recent evolution -of the art critic tends to intermingle the two groups. - -The art critic of years ago was, as a rule, either a literary man -who had a notion that he knew all about art by simple instinct, or a -scholar who, having studied the historical part of art, imagined that -this knowledge was more than sufficient to label him a connoisseur. - -The victims of this misunderstanding were not only the art critics -themselves but museums and public institutions trusting to their -knowledge of art and giving them posts as curators or advisers, thus -throwing their gates wide open to faking--as erudition without eye or -experience seems to possess that deceitful form of suggestion which so -rarely affects the cold, keen intuition of the real connoisseur. - -That scientists fall an easy prey to suggestion and are prone to daring -or misleading hypotheses in art or archæology is beyond question. It is -perhaps in the nature of their analytical work to tend to remain purely -and simply analytical. - -Numerous and interesting anecdotes could be repeated. - -A case of archæological suggestive fancy is told by Paul Eudel. -A piece of pottery was brought to a member of the _Académie des -Inscriptions_ as it bore a rather cryptic sequence of letters that -had proved puzzling to other authorities. The pot with the letters in -question, M. J. D. D., had been excavated near Dijon. As soon as the -_Academicien_ saw the letters he had no hesitation in pronouncing it to -be a Roman vase, a small amphora used as an ex-voto. The letters, he -said, represented the initials of the Latin invocation:-- - - MAGNO JOVE DEORUM DEO. - -Being a question of a votive offering, nothing would be more consistent -than the words, “To the great Jupiter, the god of gods.” Unfortunately -such a splendid piece of inductive learning was shattered when an -ordinary art dealer examined the jar and declared it to be anything but -ancient, a mustard-pot in fact, the initials meaning - - MOUTARDE JAUNE DE DIJON. - -For a considerable time an inscription found on a worm-eaten piece of -a sign-board puzzled the world of erudites. The inscription, evidently -the work of a jester, ran thus:-- - - I.C.I.................E.........S. - T.L..............E..C.H.........E. - M...................I.N......D..E. - S.A................N..E.........S. - -Needless to say many explanations of the obliterated letters were -prompted by the learned suggestive fancy of professors, and many -interesting reconstructions of the ancient inscription were given. The -riddle, however, was not solved till some one perfectly unacquainted -with the art of reading old inscriptions happened to read the letters -straight off without regard to spacing, furnishing the following true -explanation:-- - - ICI EST LE CHEMIN DES ANES. - -This is the way for asses! has since become a byword in lampooning -blind erudition. - -Though art was not in question here, the anecdote nevertheless -illustrates a tendency of inductive science, a mania, namely, for -hypothesis and explanations which in the case of art often encourages -the blunders of auto-suggestion. A great distinction between practical -and learned opinion is that the former rarely gives at first sight -the name of the author of a painting or statuary, whereas the latter -almost invariably baptizes works of art. Hardly has a learned art -critic cast his eye upon a work and out pops the name of the artist, -the school, etc. Let him talk and you will soon discover that his -conclusions are not based chiefly on the perfected comparative work of -his eye, but upon notions that book-reading has massed in his head. He -will refer to the now almost prohibited and threadbare authority of -Vasari--what would an art critic do without Vasari either to abuse -or quote--saying that such and such an artist painted so and so, and -speak of the influences of masters and schools, go through a list of -quotations from Crowe and Cavalcaselle down to more modern writers, -display any amount of borrowed wisdom but no originality; finally, -through lack of a trained eye, he will grow poetic and enthusiastic -impartially before a genuine work or a faked masterpiece. - -Were not curio dealers a rather close-mouthed guild, they might divulge -some interesting incidents with regard to this subject, and prove that -though the case is uncommon there are in this trade not only fakers of -great masters but master fakers of public opinion as well. - -Of the expert, Henry Rochefort says: - -“At first this name _expert_ appears to awake in us the majestic idea -of science and authority. A dangerous opinion to entertain.” - -As a matter of fact there is no control, for, as Rochefort goes on to -remark: “Who can prevent a citizen from calling himself, for instance, -an expert in pictures?” - -The dangerous vagueness of the profession, the facility with which the -title is acquired, together with the multitudinous offices it fills, -make of the expert a perilous companion at times. - -There is no doubt that when the magniloquence of the title is -justified, through unquestionable ability, supported by a reputation of -untainted honesty, the expert may be of the greatest and most valuable -assistance a collector can desire. His ability must then be paid for -at what it is worth. But even when highly paid it is cheap compared -with the blunders the expert is likely to save the collector--those -costly blunders that are so often an integral part of the commencement -of the career. - -On the other hand, what an ignorant expert, in his supreme disdain -for learning, is capable of saying when tendering information, is -incredible. - -Rochefort has made an amusing collection of blunders by experts when -called upon to pronounce an opinion on matters in which practice -counts for nothing. The anecdotes were gathered by the French writer -in the public auction rooms of Paris where the expert has an official -function. Here he is prepared to furnish details and useful hints -regarding the objects put up for sale, to enhance their importance. - -A collector confided to the care of an expert, Monsieur F----, -a painting of a religious subject representing a scene from the -Apocalypse. Giving this information, the owner asked the expert to put -the painting up to auction at the first important sale. - -According to arrangement, Monsieur F---- included the work among -other canvasses at a public sale and printed in the catalogue as a -description of the subject: _Tableau de sainteté d’après l’Apocalypse_ -(Sacred picture after Apocalypse). - -“_D’après l’Apocalypse?!_” questioned some one when the work was -offered for sale. To which the unabashed expert promptly replied: - -“Yes, sir, Apocalypse; a German painter not very well known in Paris -but highly esteemed abroad.” - -Another such catalogue, the product of a no less imaginative expert, -announced a canvas on sale to be the portrait of Louis XV by Velasquez! -A figure of a woman washing dishes, attributed by the expert to Rubens -on account of the exuberant rotundity of the model, needed perhaps a -further justification for this daring attribution, for it was decorated -with the following astonishing comment: “Portrait of Rubens’ wife.” (It -is generally known that Rubens married his cook.) - -The recent mania of the collector to possess masterpieces has turned -the expert to a most versatile form of activity in order to please -this exacting fancy of the buyer. A painting becomes “of the school” -of this or that artist when it is really too bad to bear even the -uncompromising qualification, “attributed to so-and-so.” - -It is difficult to tell when a man ceases to be an expert and becomes -invested with the part of _courtier_, because in keeping with the -general character of the various functions of the curio world, there -is no definite and plain delineation between the one capacity and the -other. The _courtier_ is naturally supposed to know all about the -trade, to possess the necessary elements for appreciation of artistic -value and to make others appreciate it. His chief mission, however, -is to smooth over business difficulties that might arise between the -seller and the buyer. As may be logically expected, the metamorphoses -of this personage are infinite and may be useful or not to the -collector according to circumstances. In conclusion, the go-between is -not only often a necessary complement but may at times be used to great -advantage. The difficulty lies in knowing how to choose the right sort. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -IMITATORS AND FAKERS - - The dealer’s silent partners--The important and interesting guild - of restorers--The imitator an unwilling accomplice--On the - shady side of silent activity--Again the faker--The patrician - who supplies the pedigrees--The smuggler and his ways--The - “black band”--Wise tactics. - - -We now enter the department of the curio dealer’s silent helpers, the -manifold activities assembled under the broad if not indefinite name -of restorer. A brief glimpse into this part of the trade will lead us -to another artistic division, that of the imitator, and these two last -classes of an unquestionable character will serve admirably to herald -and usher into that deeper, darker stratum of the commerce in which the -faker represents the principal character. - -That the restorer should be called the curio dealer’s silent partner -is quite correct as a true definition. The day one of these mute -confidants should feel inclined to boast, he would find no mercy from -the dealer and no gratitude from the duped or disappointed collector -whose eyes he had opened by revealing the truth. - -This was fully exemplified by a clever restorer of paintings, employed -by an Italian antiquary at forty francs a day--no mean pay--on -account of his unusual ability in the imitation and restoration of -works by Botticelli more especially, as well as for other _pastiches_. -Thinking to start a profitable business of his own as an art restorer -and that his merits would be valued _per se_, he disclosed the secret -of the made-up Botticellis to a rich collector and let out that he -himself to all practical purposes had painted the gem of the gallery. -He was promptly discharged by his employer and the collector to whom -he had told the truth became his worst enemy. - -The activity of the restorer is naturally multifarious, many-sided as -is the trade in curios. His methods will be better explained when art -faking is described. The procedure in imitating, restoring and faking -is more or less identical, though in faking it is more synthetically -perfect than when limited to restoring various articles of virtu. There -are people who consider restoration a blessing, others the reverse, -a regular curse; particularly in the case of works of art of no mean -merit. - -Without doubt the restoring of works of art has at times greatly -contributed to their preservation, and more than one masterpiece has -come down to us, thanks solely to some clever restorer who at the -right time prevented its complete ruin. This is the good side of the -profession, but as for its reverse, the art of restoring has, through -the ignorance of workers, greatly damaged well-known works of art -by the repainting or obliterating of different parts, often helping -deception by embellishing bad art into deceitful good art. In this way -the art of restoring has proved a bridge to fakery. - -Restoration at its best and in the true artistic spirit never consents -to falsify any part of the work. Lies, even in art, no matter how well -they may be told, remain lies. - -Artistically and ethically speaking the operations of the restorer -should be confined to work intended to save a work of art from the -ravages of time. These operations are many, most varied and not -at all easy. They demand long practice, a deft hand, patience and -skill as well. The process of restoration may mean, for instance, -the transference of the layer of paint from a rotted panel to a new -one or to canvas, the consolidation of a ceiling painting or other -deteriorating forms, revarnishing and, to a certain extent, cleaning. - -In sculpture orthodox restorations appear to be of a more limited -character, being chiefly confined to collecting broken pieces and -surface cleaning. Of course the repairing of limbs and missing parts -has its importance if done with great artistic discrimination. - -According to responsible art critics the restoration of paintings may -consist of repainting the missing and obliterated parts and that of -sculpture in the replacing of lost fragments only when decorative parts -are concerned, important for the better comprehension of the whole but -not expressing any marked characteristic of the artist. - -When in the service of the antiquary, the art of restoring has no such -scruples or limitations. As a matter of fact its limits then rest with -such restrictions as the dealer’s conscience may impose, and it must -be confessed that this is rather a narrow and at the same time very -elastic boundary. The different views as to restoration are epitomized -by the curious distinction made by connoisseurs and dealers, when -judging between the two cleverest restorers of Italy. The upshot is: If -you have a painting that needs repairing and you wish to restore it to -its former state go to Cavenaghi, but if perchance you are interested -to sell it go to--the other one. - -Disproportion and overdoing in restoration turns this very legitimate -art at times into sheer faking. A bust of a Roman emperor, for example, -that may have been found headless and which the restorer completes into -a Julius Cæsar by copying the head of the great Roman dictator from -another statue, represents a form of faking. Yet, were our programme -one of disclosing the names of saints and sinners instead of that of -pointing out sins, we could designate more than one dealer of good -repute who sincerely thinks, we may assume, that his form of daring and -attractive restoration cannot be called faking. - -Another rather questionable form of restoration is that of composing, -say furniture or any other ornamental goods, from old bits or fragments -taken from various rotten objects. There is no doubt that a tasteful -artificer can do effective work by composing a table out of two or -three broken ones, but nowadays such is the abuse of the method that -we are only surprised that the trick is not more easily discovered. -Some of these gross and hastily put together compositions of uneducated -dealers must count upon clients not only ignorant, but utterly deprived -of good taste. The faking qualities of this method are proved, for as -soon as the buyer knows of the admixture he refuses to buy the object. -Yet such trickery is generally admitted in the trade. - -There is, perhaps, a justification for this method of restoring -antiques when the character of the article is decorative, as in certain -pieces of furniture, marble or stone work, such as chimney-pieces, -ornamented doors and so forth. Yet even in such cases honesty would -seem to claim that the buyer be warned as to the extent of the -restoration. - -Nevertheless the temptation to keep the secret must be great, -considering how rarely such patchwork is discovered even by experts, -and how easily it calls forth the praise and enthusiasm of art critics. - -Another form of restoration of a most questionable character, as the -decorative nature of the object cannot be claimed as an excuse, is -that, by which a painting is transformed or embellished by repainting -large missing portions more or less fantastically, or by supplying the -artistic quality that is wanting. Such work is either done by totally -repainting the missing parts, or by veiling and repainting here and -there, so as to give the work the attractiveness of a masterpiece. - -Naturally in the vast field covered by the questionable genius of this -deceptive art, limits are set by the greater or lesser capacity of the -restorer, just as the quality of the restoration determines whether he -is to be called a professional repairer of paintings or a faker. - -It is incredible what an amount of work is executed nowadays intended -to give a coquettish character to a daub, or to enhance the value of a -fairly good painting. Even many masterpieces sold in recent times have -been to our knowledge decorated with fantastic backgrounds of castles -and quaint landscapes, and mottoes and coats-of-arms have been added to -portraits. A barrel of alcohol--spirit, it is known, dissolves fresh -varnish and modern retouching--would accomplish wonders with famous -masterpieces of recent acquisition and cause many a disillusionment to -the curators of museums. - -As regards the juggling of poor or deficient works of what is generally -called a school, into a _trompe-l’œil_, making one believe it to be -a painting by the master of the said school, should Italian export -officials be inclined to make public what is intended to remain -private, many an astonishing _coup de théâtre_ would reveal the true -nature of supposed masterpieces bought by unwary collectors as genuine -_chefs-d’œuvre_. - -A member of the board of exportation explained to the author, how it -happens, that the officials are frequently led into the penetralia -of the make-up of a pseudo-masterpiece. Sometimes the work is done -so well that it would deceive the very officials and experts of the -export bureau. In this case the antiquary, who has sold the painting -and is desirous that it should reach its destination without hindrance -from the export office, pays a visit to the inspector and shows him -a photograph of the supposed masterpiece, as it appeared before its -coquettish restoration. After this graphic proof the office has nothing -more to say and permission to export is granted. The members of the -Commission do not consider themselves to be responsible to collectors. -But they do demand documents as guarantees, and two photos, one taken -before restoration and one after, are generally exacted and kept in -the office. One of the Commission showed us some of these photographs, -two in number for each object, before and after the restoration. One -could hardly believe the miracles accomplished in this line. Botticini -easily becomes a Botticelli after a few caresses by a clever hand, -and we know cases in which a mediocre work by Ridolfo Ghirlandaio -has been turned into a Raphael. These photographs are exacted by the -inspectors as a protection from any possible accusation from the -central department located in Rome. When the Press gives an elaborate -account of some American having captured a masterpiece, giving facts -and details and the reproduction of the _chef-d’œuvre_, adding that -it comes from Italy, when London art magazines go into ecstasies over -some newly-acquired find, and wonder how the Italian Government came to -allow such a magnificent “find” to slip through its fingers and cross -the frontier, the Central Office in Rome naturally becomes alarmed -and demands an explanation from the local office responsible for the -exportation permit. As a convincing answer the two photographs are then -sent to Rome, with the consequence that the case is dismissed. The -various export offices, whose chief duty it is to impede the exodus of -fine works of art, do not consider themselves under any obligation to -prevent sham masterpieces from leaving Italy. - -The imitator, a type to figure later as a help to the better -understanding of the faker, occasionally becomes an involuntary or -accidental accomplice in deception. His complete equipment, his -excellent work, which but for his rectitude and scruples might turn him -into a formidable faker, are frequently exploited by others, who, on -coming into possession of some of his good imitations launch them upon -the collector world, just as they might any species of faked works of -art. Many of the noted bastard masterpieces in museums are the work -of imitators that have been palmed off by tricky dealers without the -consent or knowledge of the artist, and it has often been the latter -who has helped in the discovery of the fraud. - -There are also cases when simple plagiarism or chance similarity has -been turned to advantage by shrewd people. The fact that Trouillebert’s -painting greatly resembled Corot, was sufficient to give corrupt -dealers the chance to pass off Trouillebert’s landscapes as works -by the famous French master. This was done, of course, in spite of -Trouillebert’s protests, who never thought of imitating Corot. - -It is curious when some work of a clever imitator or genial faker -falls in the course of time into the hands of the restorer to be -repaired--there are circumstances in which modern paintings may -need repair. Something still more extraordinary happened to a clever -restorer and imitator living in Siena who received from England one of -his own paintings--one of his first imitations of Lorenzetti--obviously -damaged and entrusted to him for restoration. - -There are other characters which will form the subject of a more -particular study. These individuals belong to the shady side of the -commerce and have no redeeming points whatever. They comprise fakers, -forgers, smugglers, deceivers at large, and the whole clan included in -the vague and broad term “the black band,” as some collectors call them. - -The faker is the _Deus ex machina_ in the most varied kinds of -deception. Fakers are not only those who furnish spurious works of -art and well-imitated articles of virtu, but also those who help in -any form or manner to dispose of sham objects. Thus the parts played -by masquerading aristocrats, lending their names and swearing to -heirlooms, the debased patricians helping to build the reputation of an -artistic product, are forms of faking, as well as others which aim at -cheating or deflecting public opinion or a genuine appreciation--forms -of faking that will be more clearly outlined when degenerate varieties -of art sales are described. - -One of the most clandestine helpers of art and curio-dealing and one -who is in close contact with the dark side of the commerce is the -smuggler, a genuine specialist not resembling other smugglers but with -characteristics of his own worth notice. - -Needless to say smuggling has no _raison d’être_ in such countries -as have no custom laws to regulate the export of artistic goods nor -put duty upon their entrance within the precinct of the State. It is -also obvious that the dual form of such legislation, laws to prevent -exportation, and importation dues, has produced two corresponding kinds -of smuggling, the one aiming to baffle prohibitive laws on exportation, -and the other trying to undervalue artistic goods generally taxed _ad -valorem_. - -Italy being the classical country of art treasures which have been -exploited for centuries, and the first to issue laws and penalties on -the subject, it is naturally ahead in the cryptic art of smuggling. -The high tariff of the United States, but recently abolished, and the -incredible prices paid by the citizens for antiques and works of art in -general, make it the country best adapted to illustrate the branch of -smuggling which aims at avoiding Custom House dues. - -When reading old and modern laws promulgated against illicit -exportation of works of art, one cannot help wondering how such daring -still exists, and how there should still be people willing to brave -the severity of these laws. The Medicis, it is known, prescribed -punishments in the second half of the sixteenth century; the Papal laws -that followed were if anything even more Draconian, to say nothing of -the iron laws of the former kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the severest -of them all. Modern governments may not impose prison and galley so -freely upon the culprit, but they are no less hard on the transgressor. -Money fines are certainly exceedingly heavy, they amount at times to -large fortunes. - -The present laws on the export of art from Italy have a preventive -character which the old regulations had not. Every owner of a work of -art is himself eventually responsible, and is bound to bring it before -the inspectors of the Export Office, who after close examination give -or withhold permission to pass the frontier. When permission is granted -there is a tax to be paid averaging between 5 per cent and 20 per cent -_ad valorem_, according to the inspector’s estimate, and should the -object leave the country after permission has been refused, the owner -is held responsible and may be called before the tribunal to answer for -his action and to pay damages. - -An Italian adage runs: _Fatta la legge trovato l’inganno_, which in a -free translation may be rendered: Make a law and the means of evasion -are found. - -This is somewhat the fate of the protective laws regarding art in -Italy, the more stringent and circumspect they are the law-breaker -apparently becomes correspondingly bolder and more astute. - -The way in which Italian authorities have been hoodwinked at times, -points to the magnitude attained by the shrewd activity of the -law-breakers, and to how their art has almost been turned into a -science, even calling in the aid of psychology--in this case a deep -study of the faulty idiosyncrasies of the officials. - -A few skirmishes between the two parties concerned will serve to -demonstrate the variety of the _modus operandi_ adopted by the -law-breakers and their final success over an easily conquered opponent. - -In the case of a painting of unusual artistic value, a work that has -not been put upon the prohibited list of the official catalogue, and -the reproduction of which is unknown to the authorities, but which -might, nevertheless, by its good qualities catch even the generally -inexperienced eye of the inspectors--mostly art critics of the -literary species--the work is transformed into a daub without -damage to the painting or change to any essential part. The process -is exactly the reverse of that helping a poor painting by clever -restoration and additions. Here it is a question of reducing a good -work to an apparently bad one, obtainable chiefly by veiling the good -qualities of the work, altering good drawing by cleverly introducing -offensive disproportion of limbs, etc. There is a difference, however, -between the work intended to embellish a painting and that aiming to -do the reverse. The former, with the idea of facilitating the sale, -is permanent, the latter is only temporary, just to get permission to -export. This latter work must be executed in such a way that it can be -washed out without damage to the work after the painting has safely -crossed the frontier. For this operation a coat of glue is generally -given as a preparation, then the modifications are painted in with -tempera on the layer of glue, which is easily dissolved in water, -together with the retouching when the work is to be restored to its -original state. - -Similar treatment is also given to statues, busts and bas-reliefs, more -especially when of material that allows the addition of parts that can -be removed afterwards without damage to the original. How well the work -is done and how successful it proves is hardly credible. Security lies -in the fact that should a question be raised afterwards when the work -has been sold to some noted collector outside the country, nothing -can be said or done, as permission has been granted and there is no -pictorial proof that the work had been done for the occasion. - -Naturally this method is not of daily or common occurrence, nor, as we -have stated, can it be applied to well-known works the photographs of -which could be obtained to contradict evidence. - -Sometimes more is undertaken than retouching or apparently maiming the -artistic qualities of a work. One antiquary who intended to send off -a painting that might be detained at the Export Office, pasted paper -over the picture, and then after the usual coat of glue painted in -tempera a very mediocre landscape. With this he obtained the export -permit and packed his work as prescribed by law before the eyes of the -authorities, after which the case was sealed by them and safely sent on -its way to the frontier. - -Leaving the endless tricks which might be grouped more or less with -the above we will take up other curious ways of eliciting permission, -methods showing the deceiver to be as good an observer of human nature -as he is a true psychologist. - -A noted bric-à-brac dealer entered the Export Office bringing a Della -Robbia with him. According to custom when official inspection is -sought, the bas-relief was packed ready for the permit and seal of the -office. Taking off the lid of the case, the dealer handed the documents -to the inspector to be signed. - -“You must take us for fools,” said the latter, struck by the beauty -of the work. “Do you really think we allow such works to leave the -country?” - -“Well, don’t say anything and I’ll explain things--look here.” - -The bas-relief was taken from the case and with a pocketknife the -dealer scraped a piece of plaster from the apparently aged back, -showing not only freshly baked clay but the mark of a well-known modern -factory of ceramics. - -“Modern! I confess I should never have thought it.” - -“Keep our secret,” pleaded the bric-à-brac dealer. “You see they go to -America.” - -Satisfied that his professional honour was safe with the dealer, who -would naturally not expose the blunder, and not considering it within -the sphere of his activity to see that Americans were not fooled as -he himself had been, the inspector granted permission, provided the -documents should be honestly endorsed by the declaration “modern.” - -Later on the dealer presented himself with a similar work. The case was -hardly opened when the same inspector exclaimed, “Oh these Americans! -Another cuckoo.” - -“Well, as you stop the genuine we have to content ourselves with -sending off imitations,” observed the dealer with intentional flattery. - -“They seem to prosper,” laughed the inspector, signing the papers and -sealing the case for expedition. - -Needless to explain, this time it was a genuine Della Robbia, sent off -with all the requisite legal papers, and labelled by the man of law as -a modern work. - -Some years ago an antiquary of Rome, the owner of a statue of fine -Greek workmanship, knew that if the work should be presented to the -Export Office, permission would be refused. The statue had been -excavated in three separate parts and subsequently recomposed, and it -was thought wise to take it apart again and send it off in that state. -The head, the finest piece, was taken across the frontier as luggage by -a tourist, the torso was sent out of Rome to get the permission from -the office of another city, and the legs were the only part to leave -the capital with free and unsuspecting permission from the Central -Office. - -A marble statue, now in the Museum of Art in Berlin, a work of heroic -proportions, passed the frontier in two parts, each piece packed in -separate trunks such as are used by ladies. The statue had been sawn -in two along the line of the drapery in such a way that when the two -parts were united the join could hardly attract attention. That the -great weight should not arouse suspicion the two marble blocks were -hollowed out and thus considerably lightened. The two parts of the -statue were first conveyed to Paris, that haven of smuggled goods, -where they were reunited and the reconstructed statue was finally -sent to its destination. Though cleverly put together the joint is -noticeable to an experienced eye upon close inspection. One wonders -whether the authorities of the Museum ever discovered that their fine -specimen of Roman Renaissance, which had been bought in a single piece -in Italy, with the assurance that it was the dealer’s affair to get it -to Berlin, had been delivered in two patched pieces almost as hollow as -a plaster-cast. - -Another curious form of smuggling, which must be classed among the -suggestive methods, consists of perturbing and influencing the opinion -of the Export Office employé or, if necessary, that of his immediate -superior, very often the curator of a museum or the highest authority -on artistic matters in the province. - -This sort of innuendo is accomplished in several ways. Sometimes a -confrère will drop into the office as if by accident when the case is -there ready for examination, and on seeing the object will exclaim, -“That awful thing, sold at last!” - -He will naturally be asked to explain what he knows about it. He may -say that it was offered to him, but that he had refused it because -repainted and restored by so-and-so. He is likely to conclude by -saying, “Ask the man who restored ----” of course, another confederate. - -Though it may appear naïve and clumsy to the outsider, this latter -method has been known to work extremely well. It is only to be -expected, too, when the depth and calibre of Italian official wisdom -on art matters is taken into consideration, the post of inspector -being filled chiefly by scribblers or art critics, seeking Government -employment; or perhaps they may be students fresh from a recently -instituted university course on art, their main equipment being -historical studies. There is no question but that they are excellently -informed, so far as art erudition is concerned, but they lack -experience, and the trouble is that the chief requisite in an office -such as the Export Office is a long experienced and sure eye, with a -thorough knowledge of the trade in curios, and its peculiar resources -in deceit. One word of doubt let fall at the right moment works wonders -when dealing with people whose lack of practical knowledge is so -appalling. - -We recall the case of an inspector who felt uncertain as to the -artistic value of a painting and finally resorted to the experience -of his immediate superior, the curator of a museum and a well-known -art writer. On examining the work the latter pronounced it to be a -good specimen of the Ferrara school, and declared that permission -could not be granted. The owner and would-be exporter, an antiquary -in great favour, called on the curator, who had had the painting -transferred to his own private room with a view to making a careful -examination. He directed the curator’s attention to the repainted and -repaired condition of the work. Persuaded finally that the painting was -nothing but a shocking piece of modern restoration the curator granted -permission. A friend who was present and noticed the dealer’s satisfied -smile, asked him afterwards whether the work was really so bad as he -had represented to the curator. - -“Not a single retouch,” was the answer, “most genuine.” - -“But you convinced him. You pointed out the restored parts.” - -“Yes, suggestion is one of our most formidable weapons,” assented the -antiquary, doubling his crafty smile. “Yes. Suggestion is one of our -best accomplices.” - -Although recognizing that many of the employés of the Export Office -are quite unfitted for their difficult task, through their particular -form of education, we are ready to admit that to decide almost at -sight, what may safely leave the country and what must be retained, is -no easy affair. Imitations at times are so perfect that even the most -experienced eye, without mature and well-pondered examination of the -object, is apt to be duped. - -Some years ago one of the sons of Professor Costantini, a well-informed -antiquary of Florence, made a copy of an Antonello de Messina that -was in his father’s collection. The copy was undertaken to oblige an -English friend, and being painted on an old worm-eaten panel of wood, -so cleverly imitated the original as to be mistaken for it. When the -work was to be exported the official refused his permission on the -ground that it was by a great master and must consequently remain in -Italy. However, as the young artist insisted in his declaration that -it was a copy made by himself, appeal was made to the curator of the -Uffizi Gallery of Florence, Professor Ridolfi. The latter confirmed the -inspector’s verdict, reiterating the prohibiting injunction, and a sort -of consultation was held, with the aid of Professor Supino, curator of -the National Museum, Professor Elia Volpi, a highly esteemed antiquary -of Florence, and a German artist, acting restorer of paintings at the -Uffizi Gallery. They unanimously declared the work to be old. Some -attributed it to Antonello himself, others to his school, there was no -suspicion of modernism. The whole affair was afterwards settled as it -should have been from the first. Professor Costantini invited Professor -Ridolfi and the others to see the original painting at his house. - -When the high tariff on imported works of art and curios was still in -force in the United States, smugglers relied chiefly on undervaluation, -as orthodox smuggling, namely introduction into the country without any -payment of duty, was hardly possible under the vigilance of Argus-eyed -Custom House officials. Thus the grand art of smuggling works of art -and antiques of repute, always pliable to circumstances, relied mainly -upon the ignorance of the so-called appraisers. At first a legal -estimate enclosed with the documents accompanying the goods from their -place of departure was sufficient and very rarely discussed. Gradually -the United States Custom House agents grew suspicious, and to support -the low valuation it became necessary to adjust the objects, in very -much the same way as was done to obtain export permission, from the -Italian office. - -One of the tricks practised in the case of furniture is to take off all -ornamental and carved parts by disjointing or sawing and then polishing -or in some way adjusting the place left bare. The ornaments are sent -separately to be replaced when the piece of furniture is safely beyond -the reach of the Custom House laws. - -Custom House officials all the world over are generally reckoned by -trained smugglers to be very poor judges of art. They consider them -capable of making a great fuss over the wrong article and letting -the dutiable ones slip through their fingers. Something of this kind -happened at the Custom House of Bercy, Paris, where, with no intention -of smuggling or deceiving the officials, Dazzi, an Italian dealer, came -to pay duty in a sort of topsy-turvy way. Together with other things, -Dazzi was importing into France a box of modern bronzes, imitating -objects of Pompeiian excavation and coated with an indecent patina, -green as a lizard’s skin, and a piece of seventeenth-century silk -damask, which according to French law should have been duty free as -only antique goods of the eighteenth century and onwards pay. After -a long confabulation the appraiser of the Custom House decided that -being, as he thought, of modern fabric, the damask must pay duty -and that the bronzes, supposed by him to be two thousand years old, -might enter free of duty. Dazzi saw that this queer exchange was to -his advantage and submitted to the strange verdict without further -observation. - -In Italy, the law on exportation, intended to prevent the exodus of -fine works of art, is often turned to advantage by sharp dealers who -manage to have their mediocre goods detained at the Export Office, and -when exportation has been finally permitted make use of the momentary -detention to enhance the merits of the object exported. - -This trick has been practised to such an extent that, particularly in -America, it is not unusual to hear an amateur extol some bit of rubbish -with the remark, “It was stopped by the Italian inspectors, but my man -managed to get it through by greasing the paw----” - -An imitation of the work of Bellano, a bas-relief in clay, was in -custody at the Export Office and afterwards allowed to pass, being -recognized as modern. This was quite enough to advertise the work as -excellent, so excellent that it was held up at the Italian Export -Office. The bas-relief is now shown in the collection of a New York -amateur, and the romantic tale of the refused permit adds flavour and -draws particular attention to the masterpiece, and yet----! - -This is more or less the dark side of the traffic in curios and the -various questionable forces that many collectors call “the black band.” -As will be shown later, the “black band” is a Parisian expression, -denoting a more restricted field of activity. - -How is the beginner to cope with such odds? To become acquainted -with the peculiar _milieu_ to be avoided in the commerce of antiques -requires time, to learn to detect restorations and repairs, we mean -undue repairs, is an art in itself that demands considerable experience. - -To sum up, while striving daily to become more efficient, relying as -little as possible on the help of others, or knowing how to choose the -right sort of aid, it is most important to be circumspect, to assume in -principle that the beginner is likely to be duped at the start, and to -believe that there is more wisdom than people are ready to think in the -advice of Paul Eudel, _Soyez athées en objets d’art_ (Be sceptical in -art objects!). - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -THE ARTISTIC QUALITIES OF IMITATORS - - Sculptors--A few notable examples--Bastianini’s art and the - adventures of his Girolamo Benivieni--A modern imitation of - Renaissance art entered at a Munich museum as a genuine antique - --The sculptor’s art and method--The Verrocchio, Robbia and - Co., Ltd.--Signor Natali’s art and Signor Bonafedi’s patina-- - Various methods of would-be makers of old masters--Painting - --The Sienese imitative school--Mr. Salting’s experience-- - Professor Ezio Marzi’s imitation of the Flemish school--Stone - and ornamental work--Professor Orlandini’s art--Iron work-- - Weapons, etc. - - -From the point of view of art, the creator of “finds,” the imitator of -masterpieces, and faker of sham “_chefs-d’œuvre_” are not attractive -personalities. The value of their art--if it deserves so noble a -title--is likely to vanish as soon as the scheme is detected and to -leave us with something of the disillusionment experienced when viewing -a set of stage scenery by broad daylight. - -The simple imitator, the man who honestly declares his work to be -modern, though of a higher moral standard than his comrade the forger, -is no more likely to win our admiration. The difference between the -two, artistically speaking, is that the one is apt to irritate us -from the first, the other only after we have been “taken in,” the -first cheats himself alone when he believes his patchwork to be good -art, the second is ready to deceive any and everyone who credits his -artistic lies. High above these two classes, however, stand a few -gifted beings who seem to have actually imbibed the artistic qualities -of Renaissance art to such an extent as to have attained a new and -genuine personality--modern in date but old and faithful to the past in -creative conception. In this case, imitation becoming creative, as we -have said, it rises to the rank of real art. - -Up to the present, since Bastianini’s excellent work was first -launched, many of the imitators who followed and who have successfully -duped museums and art lovers, belong to the commonplace order. Their -success is chiefly due to the deficiency and lack of practice among -curators, collectors and connoisseurs at large. - -The more recent imitations that have deceived some of the most -experienced eyes in Florence, Munich and Paris have revealed the names -of two sculptors, Zampini and Natali, who apart from their imitative -ability may, like Bastianini, be studied and admired _per se_. - -Both these artists have some points in common with the sculptor who -puzzled all the French connoisseurs of the Second Empire. Both, like -Bastianini and other good and honest imitators, have made the fortunes -of others, not their own; like him, too, have sold their products as -modern, only to realize that as soon as believed antique they reached -fabulous figures. - -The portrait bust of Girolamo Benivieni--for which Bastianini -received 350 francs--was finally sold to the Louvre for 14,000 -francs. Before landing in the Paris Museum it had passed through the -hands of Freppa--a Florentine antiquary--Nolives, a connoisseur who -travelled in Italy in search of “finds,” and Nieuwerkerque, Princess -Mathilde Bonaparte’s all-powerful protégé, who was responsible for its -acquisition by the Museum. - -This classic piece of fakery is worth recalling in all its details, -together with the stir succeeding Bastianini’s declaration of himself -as the author of the Benivieni bust and the humiliating figure cut -by the officially recognized connoisseurs and art critics after the -_dénouement_. - -Contrary to the general mode adopted by imitators and fakers of copying -the various parts here and there from Renaissance work, welding them -into a would-be _tout ensemble_ of originality, Bastianini had so -imbibed the character of the fifteenth century that he was able to -work without immediate suggestions other than the influence of the -recollections and skill he had acquired by copying from good old models -in his preparatory period. Thus the work was done straight from nature, -the model chosen being an old man nicknamed the _Priore_, employed in -a cigar factory. When the clay was still fresh, struck by the unusual -Renaissance style of the bust, someone suggested the name by which it -was finally christened, and Bastianini inscribed the words: HIER^{MUS} -BENIVIENI. - -The name of Girolamo Benivieni, Savonarola’s poet friend, was in -keeping with the austere features of the portrait, and the modest -employé of the Florentine cigar factory well represented one of the -most illustrious types of Republican Florence. - -When Nolives exhibited Bastianini’s work in 1867 as a specimen of -Renaissance sculpture at the Retrospective Art Show of the Palais des -Champs Élysées, an influential art critic wrote: - -“We have not known Benivieni, but are prepared to swear that this -portrait must be extremely like him. Who is the artist that modelled -it? We are almost tempted to label the work with a string of names from -the glorious period of Florentine art.” - -Noting, incidentally, that the art critic’s temptation to go through -a long litany of names by way of attribution is simply delightful, we -may state that the illustrious writer was not the only one to be caught -and duped by Bastianini’s capital work. The supposititious Girolamo -Benivieni had turned the heads of all the art intellectuals of Paris. - -Later on, when Nolive’s collection was put up to auction the bust was -acquired, as we have already stated, by Nieuwerkerque for the sum of -13,600 francs and was finally placed in the Louvre Museum. - -It is said that, believing the bust to be antique, Nolives wrote -to Bastianini bantering him upon his gross error in letting such a -stupendous “find” slip from his hands. - -Finally the name of Bastianini as the author of the bust leaked out. -Admiration began to cool, opinions as to the genuineness of the work -were divided and a long polemic over the case ensued. - -When Bastianini, up to then an obscure Florentine artist, finally -declared in a letter sent to the _Diritto_, an Italian newspaper, that -he himself was the author of the Benivieni, he was supposed to be an -imposter. - -Among others to contest Bastianini’s assertion was the talented -sculptor Lequesne, who went so far as to call the Florentine artist a -liar, maintaining that the men who could mould clay into such forms -as that of the bust were no more of this world, having long since -disappeared. At the end of his invective against the Florentine -sculptor, M. Lequesne swore that should Bastianini be able to prove -himself to be the sculptor of the Benivieni, he himself would be -willing to serve such a sculptor, if only to mix his clay. - -It would be tedious to follow the long and spicy polemic from which -Bastianini was perforce to issue triumphantly. Pamphlets and articles -were written on both sides, Bastianini himself taking part in the -controversy and showing himself to be a wit worthy of those old -Florentines whom Dante designates as having a “_spirito bizzarro_.” - -Irrefutable proofs--the first plaster-cast of the head which had -been kept by the sculptor, witnesses who had seen Bastianini at -work, the assurance of the model and his true resemblance to the -pseudo-Benivieni--cut short all possibility of further discussion. The -actual author of the Renaissance bust that had puzzled the learned -public of the French capital, was beyond all doubt Bastianini. - -Naturally this was not Bastianini’s first essay. In the year 1864 a -bust by him, an effigy of Savonarola, had been exhibited at the Palazzo -Riccardi in Florence. This work, too, was taken for antique. Vincenzo -Capponi, a Florentine dealer, secured it for 640 francs and sold it for -ten thousand. Another work, a charming type of Florentine youth, a girl -singing, was sold to M. Édouard André of Paris. - -[Illustration: RESURRECTION. - -By Signor Ferrante Zampini, bought at Munich as work of the XVth -Century. Zampini was a clever Italian artist, who possessed the rare -gift of imitating Renaissance work. He never deceived anyone with his -imitations, but his work passing through several hands eventually -deceived the connoisseurs of the Munich Gallery.] - -[Illustration: PIETÀ. - -By Sig. Ferrante Zampini.] - -Bastianini’s imitations are of such excellency that they are now held -in high esteem by collectors and are bought by museums at extremely -handsome prices. The Victoria and Albert Museum has one of the most -complete collections of Bastianini’s art, where the whole range of this -genial imitator of the Renaissance can be seen almost _au complet_. - -Signor Ferrante Zampini, whose imitations deceived the museum of Munich -and many good connoisseurs and specialists, worked with different -methods. - -The Pietà--the large lunette which together with other works deceived -the art authorities of Munich so completely--had passed in Florence -from the studio of Ferrante Zampini to the well-known atelier of Signor -Bonafedi, a painter of uncommon talent whose ability in colouring -and in giving a proper patina to clay is unrivalled. This work was -afterwards sold (for the sum of 1200 francs), as modern, to Professor -Paolini, a violinist, who also sold it for modern to a German, and -finally, through a string of collectors, the Pietà landed in the Munich -Museum for 14,000 francs. - -It is said that the discovery of its modern authorship was due to a -successful antiquary of Florence, a collector who has sharpened his -natural alertness after a sad experience when he bought a bronze by a -living German artist as Quattrocento work, and who is in a position to -know more than one _histoire_ through a regular network of informants. -On this occasion his informant, it seems, was close to hand in the -person of his packer. - -As for other antiquaries who had had no forewarning from kind -informants, they have been more or less taken in by Signor Zampini’s -works which have appeared now and then on the market since the year -1904. Less exception seems to have been taken to the work of the other -modern imitator, Signor Natali. His imitations, made previously to -his best one, bought by the Louvre Museum, appear to have travelled -very far; some of them are still in undisturbed enjoyment of honour as -Renaissance work in private collections. - -Ferrante Zampini’s first work was a portrait of a lady, a finely -executed head evidently made under the direct impression of those busts -attributed to Laurana, those that Courajod insisted upon calling death -masks. This piece, however, had no fortune in the world of antiques, -it travelled from place to place, and finally, as faithful as a -carrier-pigeon, returned to the man who had bought it from the sculptor. - -A strikingly fine clay head followed. It closely resembled the portrait -of Colleoni, though giving the general of the Venetian Republic a more -aged appearance than that of the equestrian statue in Venice: it was -readily bought as a Verrocchio. - -Since then Zampini has produced several works of his peculiar art. -Although they have realized large sums of money his own gains were but -small. - -A curious proof of Zampini’s excellence in imitating the Quattrocento -is given by the following incident. A French collector bought from -a Florentine dealer a genuine piece of Renaissance, and a work by -Zampini. After taking the two purchases to Paris the collector sent -back the _real_ article as a fake, keeping the Zampini bust as a -recognized authentic object of art. A Munich princess possesses one of -the finest works of our sculptor which still defies all evidence--even -now after the Munich disclosures have enlightened the Bavarian -connoisseurs. - -Professor X. of Florence, a connoisseur whose ability is beyond -question and whose experience is highly esteemed among art lovers, -bought a clay bust by Zampini, believing it to be work of the -fourteenth century. Some time after he had transferred the object -to his collection the clay began to peel off and show signs of the -progressive scaling usually called _sbullettare_.[1] - - [1] “Sbullettare” signifies the scaling of terra-cotta by - which it becomes full of little holes, as though pitted by - small-pox. The word is derived from _bulletta_ (a nail or - tack), the poor victim looking as though nails had been - roughly drawn out. - -Zampini, it must be said, often uses Impruneta clay (that used by della -Robbia), and he was not aware that to prevent scaling--a phenomenon -that may set in months after the work is baked--this peculiar earth -must be moistened as soon as it leaves the oven. Had this been done the -work would have been saved that curious scaling which in the end told -the truth about the bust. But for this unforeseen circumstance the work -might still be playing its part in the world of antiques. - -Professor X., however, knew that antique busts are not liable to -suffer from this peculiar kind of small-pox and called the go-between -who had helped in the conclusion of the business and a friend who had -shared his admiration and to them he confided his suspicions. The -bust then disappeared for some time. Later, however, the same friend -of Professor X. who had admired the bust before it began to scale, -was called in to admire it again in the collection of Professor Y., -another noted connoisseur, who had bought it as antique. For reasons -of his own, possibly so as not to spoil the new owner’s pleasure, the -friend did not reveal the secret of the make-up. But Impruneta clay -seemed determined the truth should become manifest to all, in spite -of circumstances. Within a few days the work that had already been -attributed to Verrocchio by the new owner, began to peel once more, and -the secret of its modern date was revealed a second time. Professor Y., -who is an honest dealer and a connoisseur of such ability as to be able -to afford a blunder without loss of a well-deserved reputation, laughed -at the clever joke played upon him and buried the Verrocchio in his -cellar--the Erebus to which all honest antiquaries relegate their bad -bargains. - -The bas-relief which has been bought by the Louvre at a larger figure -than any other recent acquisition of this nature, is the work of a -young sculptor, Natali, a Florentine who has lately emerged as a clever -imitator of the Renaissance. The newspapers have already spoken of the -last part played by the supposed Verrocchio in the Museum, and the -magnificent sum paid for it. What is not generally known is that the -curator’s eyes were opened--wisdom and knowledge are often wakened -in this way!--by an anonymous letter written from an aggrieved -would-be partner in the affair who had been, as it were, “cut off with -a shilling” in the handsome transaction. - - * * * * * - -Though Bastianini, Zampini and Natali seem to exploit a common field -and to work with identical aims, they so essentially differ in the -quality and character of their work as to deserve a brief comparison. - -Bastianini, who flourished when connoisseurship was yet without the -powerful aid of photography, appears in some way at a disadvantage when -compared with the others, and this although his qualities as a modern -sculptor, even though academic, were perhaps of a more solid character -than theirs. - -Apart from his Benivieni, his Savonarola bust and a few heads of aged -people in which the sculptor reveals his best and strongest qualities -as an imitator of the Quattrocento, his work is of a perplexed and, -consequently, weaker nature. We very much doubt whether some of his -female heads now in the Victoria and Albert Museum could deceive in -these days even a mediocre connoisseur. - -In Bastianini’s minor works one is likely to find the explanation -of this curious artistic temperament--he was a lover of modern life -and prided himself upon cooking macaroni fit to make a Neapolitan -blush, he claimed to be the best ball player (_giocatore di pallone_) -of his day and could pass from modern art to antique imitations -with a facility that astonishes us. In his less important works an -oscillating mind is evident, swinging like a pendulum between modern -and antique art. It is clear that the two artistic personalities -worked alternately in Bastianini’s mind, leaving no deep or permanent -impression. This artist’s imitations, consequently, bear every symptom -of immediate suggestion--fugitive impressions cleverly caught and -blended into a surprisingly harmonious whole, thanks to his uncommon -skill in modelling. It is this happy _tout ensemble_ (summing up of -qualities and circumstances) that raised the artist above the level -of the obvious imitator, more especially when modelling certain -heads the character of which would seem to tally with the original -impression--some early souvenir or first work in copying maybe--he had -received from the masters of the Renaissance. - -With Ferrante Zampini the artistic evolution is somewhat reversed. -A man of taciturn disposition, inclined to dream and of mystic -tendencies, he must have cogitated, loved and longingly caressed his -idea before giving it form. Rebelling against any academic yoke it was -not long before he began an intercourse of sentiment with the work of -the past, questioning those old masters as to the reason why their -sentiment should clash with scholastic tuition. He must have actually -saturated his mind with old forms before taking up the modelling stick. -To see him working without a model, without a suggestion even to aid -his creation, made one almost believe that through some mesmeric power -the soul of an old master had passed into his own, and that he was -enjoying at the moment all the glorious freedom of irresponsibility. - -Thus while Bastianini worked in a well-lighted studio, filled with -plaster-casts of the creations of Verrocchio, Pollajuolo and other -great masters, Zampini models in a small room, working in the faintest -of lights, surrounded by bare grey walls. With blinds almost drawn, -this sculptor holds that he can dominate the masses with security and -be in closer touch with his vision. Perhaps the great unity of his work -really is due in part to this unusual method of modelling, a method -which, while it permits him to detect errors of mass, and to correct -the general lines of composition, at the same time harmonizes into a -happy ensemble the characteristics of the older style he imitates. - -It may be said also that while Bastianini rarely attempted compositions -in bas-relief, confining his main work of imitation to heads, Zampini -boldly attacks the difficulties of large bas-reliefs and grouped -figures. Though Zampini’s works vaguely suggest reminiscences--either -in composition or in form--this sculptor must be credited with an -unusual power of synthesis, and we are not surprised that the Munich -authorities were deceived by his art. - -Natali’s workmanship is of a different nature. This young artist--the -author of the Baptism, the lunette bought by the Louvre as a work of -Verrocchio--shows great versatility even when not imitating the old -masters, and he is, above all, a virtuoso--a true product of Latin -facility. - -But it must be added that while the lunette of the Louvre shows -happy composition, with charming details here and there in its -interpretation, it does not possess the intimate qualities, the -essential unity, of Zampini’s work. The latter may be taken for -Verrocchio or not, according to the ability or appreciation of the -critic; but Natali’s lunette might be modernized as “Verrocchio and -Co.,” or (since in the angels the manner of Andrea Robbia alternates -with Verrocchio) we might even go a step further and describe the -composite result as “Verrocchio, Robbia and Co., Ltd.” - -Not only because Natali occupies a room in Bonafedi’s studio, and -appears to work under this artist’s supervision--at least it was so -when we had occasion to study the work of this excellent imitator--but -direct from the work in the lunette of the Baptism one feels inclined -to look on this young artist as endowed with the defects and good -qualities of a painter indulging in plastic work. The composition, for -instance, harmonious and rich, with a happy suggestion of light and -shade, lacks the directness of form peculiar to sculptors, and the -modelling shows here and there--and this even considering the task the -artist has imposed upon himself of imitating Quattrocento work--the -flatness and dryness of a painter who models without plastic insight or -preoccupation. These characteristics, these pictorial qualities which -are not to be seen in Signor Natali’s modern work, are perhaps the -disguise with which he sometimes veils his touch--the touch of a modern -sculptor. Though admiring this excellent imitation, we must say we are -surprised at the fact that it was not sooner detected as modern work. - -From Bonafedi, a painter possessing great facility in execution and -uncommon versatility as an imitator, the mere association of ideas -easily leads one to the Siena imitators who have for years held the -privilege of being the strongest imitators of early Quattrocento work. -Joni and others have, unwittingly, deceived more than one connoisseur. -One of these Sienese products was bought by Mr. Salting for twenty -thousand lire. - -There is no doubt that the imitation bought by Mr. Salting as work of -the old Sienese school is one of the best that modern Siena has ever -produced. Yet anyone already acquainted with that kind of work, and who -had seen at least one specimen out of the many that have met with good -success among unguarded collectors, would not have found it difficult -to detect the first-rate imitation that so triumphantly entered the -Salting collection. It is said that Mr. Salting got his money back, and -the painting was returned to the dealer; a remarkable occurrence and a -proof of good faith, as usually when the collector finds he has been -duped and is not disposed to keep it quiet, the vendor is either not to -be found or he has taken prudent measures and good care to be on the -safe side legally. - -In our opinion the drawing of the Sienese imitator is too caligraphic, -it reproduces too closely, namely, the forms of well-known originals, -and this while the composition is not always free from plagiarisms that -are too easily recognizable. Some of the later artists of Florence, and -elsewhere, have broadened the technique, appearing less servile because -better versed in the qualities of the old masters, and through this -deeper insight their work is more convincing and synthetic. - -One of these characteristic workers is Professor Ezio Marzi of -Florence, an imitator of the Dutch school, who has never sold his -panels as antique, but whose work, it is said, through others, has -penetrated into more than one collection, where it is held to be -genuine and above suspicion. His Teniers, now honoured as such, are -many, and if Marzi instead of being stationary in Florence like most of -his compatriots who, generally speaking, never travel, should indulge -in one of those erratic trips of which Americans are so fond, visiting -collections here and there, he would have good cause to laugh in his -sleeve. - -Like many of his Italian brothers of the brush, Ezio Marzi has eclectic -tendencies and a most versatile workmanship. But what places him apart -from his confrères who also imitate the art of the past, is the fact -that when he chooses to be Ezio Marzi in his painting, that is to -say to paint something of his own, giving a true expression of his -own personality, he can do so without infection from reminiscences -of his workmanship as an imitator. In a word, Marzi is a painter of -mark, extremely original and fully temperamental--a rare thing -among imitators of other people’s art. As regards his plagiaristic -indulgences, he has tried the most varied and dissimilar schools of the -past, successfully too. His preference, however, for Dutch or Flemish -art has finally prevailed. Possibly at his first essays Marzi was -the obvious sort of imitator, servile to direct suggestion of form, -disguising artistic thefts from old masters by the usual well-matched -mosaic, but now this inevitable preparatory period is dismissed and -surpassed. When imitating Teniers this artist is really composing Dutch -scenes without a scrap of suggestion in his studio. - -[Illustration: PORTRAIT. - -An imitation of Dutch School by Prof. Ezio Marzi an Italian artist, -who does his work with no apparent sense of plagiarism, but who is so -versatile in Dutch School that but for his honest dealing he might -prove a danger to amateurs.] - -While Marzi affords us a good type of the imitator in painting and -Bastianini and Zampini show us the best possibilities of assumed -characters in sculpture, Professor Orlandini of Florence imitates -Quattrocento ornamental sculpture with capital results. We can repeat -here the same comment passed on Marzi’s art: his works, too, are sold -as modern, but, alas, how many ornamental chimneypieces and would-be -aged _lavabos_ now decorating rooms, are Orlandini’s work, although -ostentatiously shown as pure productions of the Renaissance. Not so -pure, though, always, for Professor Orlandini is at times forced to -fall in with the customer’s ambition and thus allows himself to give -full play to over-ornamentation, producing a sort of Quattrocento _usus -Americanus_. - -Still, when left to his own artistic bent we know of no one who can -turn out of the Fiesole stone an aristocratic-looking chimneypiece more -closely resembling the work of Desiderio da Settignano. - -As a brief observation it may be added that Professor Orlandini is a -sculptor of the old school who deals chiefly with hard materials. This -fact greatly contributes to give his art that stern sobriety of line -that is a characteristic mark of the Renaissance artist. - -In the present flood of imitations it has been urged that honest -artists should put their signatures to their modern antiques, thus -preventing the danger represented by imitations when launched on -the market by able imposters. There are a few who do sign their -productions, but we must say such an act does not win the deserved -success. The buyer seems to demand a certain amount of illusion which -would inevitably be destroyed by a signature in full sight. Besides, -supposing that to prevent any possible fakery all imitators should -decide to sign their work, what guarantee would such a movement -represent? Nothing is easier to erase than a signature on a painting, -and so far as a sculptor is concerned it is a baby trick to cover the -artist’s mark. - -Commerce has its risks, risks placing an elective stigma on any -enterprise, rendering it more difficult and eliminating the incapable. -In our artistic _milieu_ such risks are doubled, thus while -“imitation,” and its black sister “faking,” represent a formidable -danger, they also, through the said magnified risk, confer upon the -elect ones, the true connoisseurs, the exclusiveness of an aristocratic -caste. - -And yet, unlike the beginner, these superior beings who have in a way -learned through experience how to cope with dangerous odds repeat with -Bonnaffé: - -“Do not trust the collector who never makes a mistake. The strongest is -he who makes the fewest mistakes.” - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -FAKERS, FORGERS AND THE LAW - - Faking and fakers--Views of art forgers--Too great a - productiveness aids the exposure of fakers--The chink in - the armour of silence and mystery--Collector’s view of the - dangerous trade in counterfeited objects--Laws and tribunals-- - Grotesque cases in court--M. Chasles’ autographs--A collector - who lacks a Rameses--The faker for gain and the one for fun-- - Some moral considerations on fabricators of modern antiques. - - -Moral considerations apart, the faker of objects for collections is -far more interesting a personage than some of his duped victims. -His artistic personality separates him from the commoner class, the -peculiarity of his trade, while not redeeming the disreputableness of -his conduct, confers upon him the poetical nimbus of art and mystery, -just as an undefined feeling of heroism or chivalry may, to an -imaginative mind, turn an old-fashioned brigand into a classical type -of buccaneer. - -These mute workers, who actually earn their money by false pretences, -deluding and deceiving with callous energy in what a commercial mind -might call “their line of business,” are not infrequently people of -scruples and probity in all other respects, men to whom credit might be -given with safety. - -As we have stated before, the collector is partially responsible if -excellent imitators sometimes turn into fakers. Ask the forger how it -was that he became such, and nine times out of ten you will either -hear that he was tired of seeing others make indecent profits out of -his work, or that he was prompted by the consideration that there were -fools ready to pay ten times the value of his work, provided he did not -claim authorship, and would pretend his work was antique. Curiously -enough, when questioned about the beginning of their fraudulent -profession, some will speak of their transition from honesty to -dishonesty with the reticence of a woman gone astray; others, perhaps -the larger number, are boastful and inclined to glory in the success -accorded to their fakes. - -La Rochefoucauld has written in his _Maximes_ that it is easier -to deceive oneself than others. The vaunting class of fakers have -somewhat reversed the terms of this saying, their common tenet being -that it is easier to cheat others than to cheat oneself. This maxim, -however, gives the faker undue confidence and a too prolific activity -in creating sham masterpieces, and eventually contributes to the -exposure of his fraud and the final ruin of what he considers, and what -has proved to be, a most remunerative business. Many discoveries of -falsified _chefs-d’œuvre_ are due to over-productiveness of the faker. -His self-confidence augmenting his activity to alarming proportions, it -naturally increases the probability of discovery. - -However, the faker is perforce a close-mouthed fellow, always on -his guard and very rarely taken, as one might say, by surprise. -Nevertheless he too possesses what might be called in fanciful metaphor -the Achilles’ vulnerable spot where his silence may be attacked: it is -his pride that must be tickled. - -It was an aim of mine in the past to trace forgery in art to its -origin. Not exactly as a hobby but in the belief that in these days it -is important to know how works of art are imitated and faked, that it -is part of modern connoisseurship in fact. To-day one must learn how to -detect forgeries just as one must learn how to admire genuine art. - -Forgery museums, intelligently organized, would be far more -interesting--and more original--to-day than the various galleries of -fine arts. - -On more than one occasion after having traced the forger, the above -system of flattering his vanity has extorted an unexpected confidence. -To give an instance: some time ago the Italian market began to be -infested by good imitations of bronze figures of the type of the Paduan -school. An antiquary, from whom I have the story, traced the forger -to Modena and called upon the fellow whom he held in suspicion. At -first he had no clue, but finally, becoming friendly, he happened to -surprise a confession from him under the following circumstances. It -must be noted that a faker will talk freely on the subject of forgery, -never presuming to be discovered and always as an outsider. Speaking of -imitations, the antiquary expressed his surprise at the sure modelling -and most convincing patina of some recent imitations he had seen. -He explained that the imitation was really so good that he himself -had been deceived by a small group representing a nymph and satyr. -Circumstances alone had saved him at the last moment from being taken -in and giving his opinion by attributing the bronze to Andrea Briosco. -The piece to be sure was convincing enough to pass for one of the best -works Briosco ever conceived. It was really worth the extravagant sums -collectors are willing to pay for Briosco’s piece, called _il Riccio_, -even though it was modern. - -“Perhaps it was worth it,” remarked the artist with the characteristic -rebellious accent peculiar to successful fakers. - -This first burst of self-pride, properly nourished by the other with -eulogies of the great artist who had modelled the group, drew forth the -desired disclosure. When the antiquary remarked: - -“That group ought to bring a big price. If collectors were not, -generally speaking, so utterly deprived of true artistic sense, if they -were not----” - -“Such a pack of fools and snobs,” interrupted the artist. - -The chink in the armour of silence was now discovered. Though -without giving a hint as to his craft or the recipe of his wonderful -patina, upon promise of silence with regard to his name, he proudly -acknowledged authorship of the bronze group supposed to be of the -school of Padua, and finally offered to show other pieces ready to -enter the world of fakes, finished and ready to go and play the part -of masterpieces of the Renaissance. - -When the artist was asked how he managed to dispose of his faked goods, -he averred that that part of the business belonged to the dealer. A -specialist like himself, he said, had nothing to do with that side. The -only compact he had made was with his own conscience, being perfectly -aware that he was handsomely paid and that his agent realized three -times as much. - -According to him, even museums were buying spurious works of art, and -labelling them with pompous attributions, knowing all the while that -they were not authentic. - -We quote this as a mere incident to show the view and supercilious -attitude taken by the faker with regard to his art. - -Incidentally and from the same source came the information that -some well-imitated octagonal tables that had fetched high prices in -the antique furniture market as real Quattrocento work were made in -Bologna, and that the old patina and blunt corners were acquired by -real use, the tables being lent for a time to cheap restaurants and -the shops of sausage-dealers. The bronze faker of Modena possessed -one of these tables which showed a casual knife cut and the abuse of -age. To make the piece more handsomely suggestive, upon the top of the -table there had been roughly scratched with a nail a square of the -geometrical lines of the old game of “Filetto.” One could easily work -up one’s fancy before that perpetrated abuse and imagine crowds of -lansquesnets or inveterate dice-throwers. - -When asked why he did not put his signature to such excellent work as -his, that it would certainly be valued on its own merits, he shook -his head and repeated the refrain so often heard from successful -fakers that the time of the old-fashioned intelligent and art-loving -collectors had passed, that collecting was nowadays nothing but a -fad, that the modern collector is only a pretender. In proof of his -assertion he referred to the then recent incident. - -“See what happened to Donatello’s _puttino_ in London.” - -For those who may have forgotten the incident, we will recall how a -little bronze statue by Donatello was vainly offered for sale to the -London dealers. This statue was missing from the baptistery of San -Francesco of Siena. The statuette represented a _puttino_ (boy) and, -hardly a foot high, had been stolen from the church at Siena in the -beginning of the nineteenth century. It mysteriously found its way to -London, where it was in all probability buried and forgotten in some -private collection for three-score years or more. When the forgotten -statue suddenly emerged from its nook of oblivion it was offered for -sale simply as an old bronze, but being taken for a modern imitation -it fetched no decent price. A Bond Street specialist refused it at two -thousand francs. The Donatello was finally bought for 12,000 francs by -the Berlin Museum, this being about the fiftieth part of its present -value. - -It is curious to hear the various opinions entertained by collectors -and art lovers concerning faking and its alarming and increasing -success. An old collector who had, no doubt like so many of his -colleagues, learned his lesson through being duped, unhesitatingly -declared that faking is a grand art with a reason for existence as it -seems to meet a real need of society, the need of being, as it were, -deluded and cheated by elegance. Queer ethics answering to the Latin -saying: _Vulgus vult decipi, ergo decipiatur_ (The crowd likes to be -deceived, let it be deceived!). - -A former curator of the Victoria and Albert Museum used to pay due -tribute to the art of good imitators and fakers, who had succeeded in -deceiving the vigilant eye of the guardians of museums, by stating -that imitations are really too good to be mistaken for antiques, much -better, indeed, than some of the examples of the art they would falsify. - -The really experienced collector is inclined to look upon faking as -a huge joke to be played on greenhorns and the inexperienced, even -although some of the silent torpedoes of faking do triumphantly succeed -in hitting people who are iron-clad with knowledge. - -Novices take two opposite views of the matter. One class is positively -ashamed of having been “taken in,” and hides the fact by concealing -the proof of his ignorance in a dark corner of the house; the other, -viewing the deception in a more business-like way, has recourse to the -courts with more or less happy results. The latter class is naturally -inclined to favour the greatest possible severity of the law. - -In some of the cases in which the tribunals are called upon to pass -judgment, one is inclined to wonder whether in pronouncing a severe -sentence on the culprit, the magistrates do not feel like laughing up -their sleeve at the supine foolishness of the plaintiff. - -The case of M. Chasles, a celebrated and highly esteemed mathematician -and member of the Paris _Institut_, furnishes us with proof of how a -man can be great in his own speciality, yet likely to be taken in under -peculiar and rather astonishing circumstances. - -Monsieur Chasles had apparently taken to autograph-hunting, one of the -most dangerous pursuits a mere _dilettante_ can dream of. His career at -the beginning was perhaps that of any other neophyte, and except for -the astonishing sequence, might belong to the trite record of daily -happenings on the unsafe side of curio-hunting. - -The celebrated mathematician had hardly gathered his first autographs -when to his misfortune he met with a certain Vrain-Lucas, an imposter -whose talent fitted to perfection the over-trusting mathematician. - -But for the documentary evidence of the trial (quoted by Paul Eudel -in his book, _Le Truquage_), it would be utterly incredible that -anyone, particularly a learned man, could be gulled to such an extent. -Yet on the 16th of February, 1869, Monsieur Chasles appeared before -the Paris Court of Justice as a plaintiff, and the public discussion -of the case--which ended in the condemnation of the defendant, -Vrain-Lucas, to two years’ imprisonment and a fine of 500 francs with -costs--clearly divulged how the eminent professor had been the victim -of _le sieur_ Vrain-Lucas, a semi-learned man of unquestionable talent -and a stupendous and fertile power of invention. For the total sum of -140,000 francs he had sold to his client would-be authentic autographs -and pretended indisputable original manuscripts--really the most -extraordinary pieces a collector ever dreamt of! - -Among other things there was included: a private letter of Alexander -the Great addressed to Aristotle; a letter of Cleopatra to Julius -Cæsar, informing the Roman Dictator that their son “Cesarion” was -getting on very well; a missive of Lazarus to St. Peter; also a lengthy -epistle addressed to Lazarus by Mary Magdalen. It should be added -that the letters were written in French and in what might be styled -an eighteenth-century jargon, that Alexander addressed Aristotle as -_Mon Ami_ and Cleopatra scribbled to Cæsar: _Notre fils Cesarion va -bien_. Lazarus, no less a scholar in the Gallic idiom, and to whom, -maybe, a miraculous resurrection had prompted a new personality, writes -to St. Peter in the spirit of a rhetorician and a prig, speaking of -Cicero’s oratory and Cæsar’s writings, getting excited and anathematic -on Druidic rites and their cruel habit _de sacrifier des hommes -saulœvaiges_. - -Mary Magdalen, who begins her letter with a _mon très aimé frère -Lazarus, ce que me mandez de Petrus l’apostre de notre doux Jesus_, -is supposed to be writing from Marseilles and thus would appear to be -the only one out of the many who can logically indulge in French, the -_jargon-bouillabaisse_ that Vrain-Lucas lent to the gallant array of -his personages. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_] [_Alinari_ - -CHILD. - -By Donatello, whose taste in statuary was chiefly formed in Rome.] - -After such a practical joke played on the excellent good faith of -M. Chasles, some of the other autographs seem tame. The package, -however, also contained scraps jotted down by Alcibiades and Pericles, -a full confession of Judas Iscariot’s crime written by himself to -Mary Magdalen before passing the rope round his neck; a letter of -Pontius Pilate addressed to Tiberius expressing his sorrow for the -death of Christ. Other astounding pieces of this now famous collection -were: a passport signed by Vercingetorix, a poem of Abelard and some -love-letters addressed by Laura to Petrarch, as well as many other -historical documents down to a manuscript of Pascal and an exchange -of letters between the French scientist and Newton on the laws of -gravitation, the Frenchman claiming the discovery as his own. - -The latter manuscript caused a memorable polemic between the savants -of London and Paris, a regular tournament of clever arguing among the -scholars of the two countries, which finally led to the discovery of -the huge fraud of which M. Chasles was the assigned but unresigned -victim. - -The chance way the imposture was exposed makes one wonder how it -was possible for the case to have the honour of serious discussion -among scientists. Among other historical blunders is the supposition -that Newton could have exchanged letters with Pascal on the laws of -gravitation. The former being but nine years old when Pascal died, he -had certainly not yet given his mind to the observations bringing about -his marvellous discovery. Further, as an example of gravitation, Pascal -relates that he has noticed how in a cup of coffee the bubbles are -attracted toward the edge of the receptacle. It is known that coffee -was imported into France some nine years after the death of the great -French philosopher and mathematician. - -Leaving the man who does really artistic work we are now introduced to -the majority of the class, mere fabricators of artistic _pastiches_, -which notwithstanding complete absence of meritorious qualities are -nevertheless effective decoys for unwary art lovers. - -To this legion belong, of course, the most mediocre painters and -sculptors, those whose chief cunning lies in the transference of age -to their modern fabrications. They are guided in their work mostly by -a considerable amount of practice in restoring old paintings, marbles, -stuccoes, and so forth. - -There is also a peculiar type of impostor who plays his tricks solely -for the fun of it, a curious type who for the joy of having cheated -some one, will deny himself the pleasure of revealing his name and -glory in his success. - -To this stamp must have belonged M. A. Maillet, a distinguished -chemist who in 1864 took the trouble to publish a book on antediluvian -excavations, for no other purpose evidently than to fool scholars -given to that particular study. Needless to say the volume met with -astonishing success. Among reproductions of genuine antediluvian -relics, the eminent chemist interspersed his writing with spurious and -fantastic illustrations of pretended finds of his own invention. They -consisted of carved bones with figures, symbols and mysterious writings. - -To say that no polemic or learned appreciation of the volume followed -its publication would be to slander the too easily kindled enthusiasm -of learned specialists. As usual the polemic revealed the true -character of the volume, but before reaching its conclusion there was -more than one reputation sullied and more than one scientist who lost -caste. The perplexity and chaotic confusion caused by the publication -was felt by M. A. Maillet to be ample recompense for his labour and -expense. - -The jovial faker, who is out solely for the fun of making game of -some one, is no modern invention. Notably in Italy it is not uncommon -to find a Greek or Latin inscription, traced centuries ago, with no -apparent purpose than that of puzzling posterity, or putting historians -off the scent. This would seem to be a still more remarkable form of -faking, as the author not only derives no profit whatever from his -trouble, but is not at all likely to be present to enjoy the result of -his dupery. - -Even among these mysterious helpers of the trade in curios--those who -work for their living--they are rarely deprived of that facetious -spirit that gives them a relish for some brilliant case of deception. -Their joy is not wholly permeated by venal considerations. - -There is no question but that some fakers go to work like true -sportsmen. Hearing them boast, or describe some of their successful -comedies in which they have been author, actor and manager all in one, -it is not difficult to deduce that the only genuine thing to spur their -imagination and activity is the desire to cheat any and everybody -willing to be convinced by them or their work. - -The chief characteristics of some of these comedies, which often -necessitate the help of the faker’s bosom friend, the dealer or -go-between, are pluck and an uncommon knowledge of the psychology of -collectors. In more than one instance psychology would appear to have -actually made the impossible become possible. - -The story of the forged Rameses is still floating as a tradition in the -gossipy world of antiquities in Paris. In his work, _Le Truquage_, Paul -Eudel relates the anecdote in all its amusing detail. - -A Parisian collector was, it seems, the happy owner of the most -complete collection of Egyptian fine art objects. Not a specimen was -missing apparently. But, as Eudel observes, “Is a collector ever ready -to call his collection complete?” A collection is like a literary work -which never seems to go beyond the “preface,” and there is no limit to -it. - -The collector in question had, however, set his limit, deciding that -his collection might be considered complete as soon as he had secured -one of those serene-looking, colossal Egyptian statues with which -to ornament and complete the courtyard of the mansion housing his -collection. - -To be rich, to have a fixed desire and to blazen forth one’s particular -hobby is a dangerous combination of ingredients in the world of -curio-dealing, especially with the ever-ready and active faker close to -hand. - -To gratify this collector’s hobby an informant turned up one day to -report that near Thebes a splendid statue of heroic proportions had -been discovered. It was said to be the effigy of a Rameses in all its -impassive beauty. Having knowledge of the collector’s penchant the -informant’s agent in Egypt had kept back the secret of the discovery. -In this way the collector was given the first refusal, the statue was -all ready to be shipped, the whole at the reasonable price of a hundred -thousand francs. - -As usual the proposal was accompanied with convincing documents, -stamped letters, descriptive memoranda and so forth. Within view of a -long-desired ornament, the collector was easily induced to take part -in the transaction to be carried on with the usual secrecy, upon the -condition that the statue should be taken straight to his house on its -arrival, and in such a way as to preclude all knowledge on the part of -others. - -Anyone unacquainted with the psychology of collectors--something -that never happens to fakers--might be inclined to imagine that -the schemer would try to hasten the conclusion of the business so -elaborately planned, for fear the buyer might change his mind or have -his eyes opened in some way. But our man knew that the collector -would speak to no one, lest he might lose the rare chance offered -him, and also that the longer the delay, the more obstacles met with -or surmounted, the keener would he become to possess the exceptional -“find.” - -Finally, when the arrival of the statue was announced and it reached -the Paris railway station in due time, the collector, suspicious and -afraid like all true art lovers, insisted that it should be conveyed to -his house by night. - -After so much picturesque mystery the _dénouement_ came, as usual, too -late and in the most banal manner. The fraud was exposed on the very -day of the exhibition, and the enraged collector started an energetic -search for the culprits, but the birds had flown--he only found the -empty cage, namely the atelier in a neighbouring street where his -Rameses had been given birth. The debris of the would-be Oriental -granite still strewed the floor. - -“_Sic transit_----” - -The faker and the forger are not prone to repentance. Vrain-Lucas, who -had made himself notorious by cheating M. Chasles, had hardly regained -his liberty after serving his term before he was again called to answer -for another fraud. For a poor provincial priest he had falsified a -whole genealogical tree. - -Paul Eudel relates of one Oriental faker who proved himself as -impenitent as resourceful. Clever and gifted with the peculiar -shrewdness of the Oriental, he made his first _coup_ by selling to the -German Emperor some Moabite pottery which had certainly never been on -the shores of the Jordan nor on the coast of the Dead Sea. This clever -piece of trickery was recently discovered by the eminent Orientalist M. -Clermont-Ganneau. - -Back in Jerusalem and silent for a time, he next appeared in Europe -offering the savants a most astonishing relic. Quite unabashed by the -exposure of the Moabite pottery, he went straight to Berlin to offer -some old passages of the Bible of most authentic character. They were -written on narrow strips of leather supposed to have been found on a -mummy. - -Scholars examined the precious relics with care and silently concluded -to decline to enter into the bargain. The precious document, though -evidently forged, had been falsified on a piece of very old leather, -the only part unquestionably aged. - -The surprising part was that the culprit was not at all discouraged by -the first collapse of his scheme but went to London, where he offered -his Biblical find to the British Museum for the trifling sum of a -million pounds sterling. - -The plan very nearly succeeded. Daily papers became excited over the -discovery of the rare Moabite manuscript, a document dating from at -least the eighth or ninth century before Christ. - -The learned Dr. Ginsburg, who set himself to the task of deciphering -the obscure and indistinct characters of the worn-out leather strips, -recognized in them a fragment of the fifth book of the Pentateuch. When -M. Clermont-Ganneau came to examine the document he declared it for -many reasons to be a daring forgery. - -Apart from the fact that the strips could not have enwrapped a -mummy, as neither Hebrews nor Phœnicians had the custom of embalming -their dead, the leather said to have been found in Palestine could -hardly have withstood for so long the action of a damp climate. Such -preservation would only be possible in the dry climate of the desert -or some one of the favoured parts of Egypt. - -It was discovered at the same time that the strips of the famous -manuscript had been cut from a piece of leather some two centuries -old--the erased original characters still being traceable--upon which -the Biblical fragments had been copied in the Moabite alphabet. - -The artist with a vaster range and wider scope for duping is, without -doubt, the one working on artistic frauds, as the proportion stands -at one collector of manuscripts to a thousand art collectors. It is -immaterial to him whether he meets specialists or eclectics in this -large field--they are all good game. The facility with which he is -thus able to dispose of his wares makes him still more refractory -to reform. Silent, often obscure, always mysterious, he claims for -his activity what must appear to him a noble justification: he -paradoxically believes himself to be a real factor of his client’s -happiness. But for him some of the collectors would find it -tremendously difficult to possess masterpieces, and if they die happy -without realizing that they have been fooled, where is the difference? - -After all, in this fool’s paradise they are happy and undisturbed--so -very few realize either that they have been totally duped by a fake or -partially cheated by over-restoration. Most of the modern collectors -too often resemble that type of art lover: - - ... Qui croit tenir les pommes d’Hesperides - Et presse tendrement un navet sur son coeur.[2] - - [2] - - .. : Who thinks he holds the apples of the Hesperides - Whilst pressing tenderly a turnip to his heart. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THE FAKED ATMOSPHERE AND PUBLIC SALES - - The art of producing a faked atmosphere--Private sales of faked - objects of art--Real and spurious noblemen as elements in - creating the desired atmosphere for an antique--The various - and endless possibilities in private dealing--Public sales-- - Auction sales--Various characters among frequenters of public - sales--_La Bande Noire_--The trick of the sale catalogue as a - proof of authenticity, etc.--The part played in public sales by - Peter Funk and the transformations of this helpful personage. - - -In most cases the art forger is provided with an indispensable -accessory in the person of a co-worker who helps to dispose of the -artist’s questionable product advantageously. This may be done by one -agent or by many, according to circumstances, but the spirit of the -mission is always the same, to steep faking, namely, in another kind -of fakery, no less illusive and delusive, the deception that serves -to misguide judgment through false information about some particular -object of art, or to create a misleading suggestion around the work -of art offered for sale. The trick might be termed “producing a faked -atmosphere,” in plain words the creation of a false atmosphere of -genuineness is an additional fakery to the success of a faked object -of art or curio, and it is a most multiform species of imposture and a -very dangerous adjunct to the already deceptive trade. So multifarious -is the deception practised that an attempt to classify it in its -diversity would probably fail to illustrate in full the metamorphoses -of this supplement to the art of faking. - -As this support to faking is chiefly concerned with the sale of objects -of art, our investigation can be broadly divided according to the kind -of sale, private or public, the latter generally taking the form of an -auction. - -In private sales the limit is not so much set by the seller’s -conscience as his inventive powers, and his more or less fertile -imagination. His method relies mainly on the power of suggestion -brought about by false information or, as we have said, by the -silent misleading glamour of a pseudo-environment. The former works -principally with the decoy of invented documents calculated to lend -certain objects an appearance of historical worth, or wrongly to -magnify their artistic importance. It is not always the documents that -are fitted to the faked art, sometimes the case is reversed and the -artist creates work to fit a genuine document. The same is done with -signatures, more especially in painting and sculpture. - -There are all kinds of specialists in the world of faking who can -imitate artists’ signatures, marks and so forth, but, alas, it is -not said that to a genuine signature our versatile and imaginative -artist cannot supply a genial piece of fraud the only genuine part -of which is represented by the signature. This is often performed -by painting over works that have been defaced, either partially or -completely, and yet by some chance still bear the artist’s signature in -one corner--generally the least abused spot of a painting whether on -canvas or panel. The same trick is carried out with equal facility in -sculpture. To illustrate what at first sight would seem more complex -than fitting a painting to a signature, it is sufficient to recall the -false Clodion group, sold in perfectly good faith by M. Maillet du -Boullay to Mme. Boiss, also a dealer, whose experience, like that of -many others, had a noisy sequel in Court. - -M. Maillet du Boullay had bought the clay group some years previously. -The subject, a satyr with a nymph, was of the kind that the French -call _un peu leste_. For five years Mme. Boiss found no buyer. It was -after this long period of actual possession that she discovered the -clay statuette to be not by Clodion but in all probability the work -of a noted faker of Clodions, Lebroc, and that a small bit bearing -the signature and date, both by the hand of Clodion, had been cleverly -inserted at the side of the group. The line of the join had been -concealed by colour and patina. - -The purchase money, however, was not refunded as the Court accepted the -theory advanced by M. Senard, acting for M. Boullay, that Mme. Boiss -had after all enjoyed the possession of the group for five years and -had perhaps put forward her claim because she had not been able to sell -it on account of its objectionable character. - -In the cases when the documents are the original ones and the work of -art is not, the artist naturally creates his work in accordance with -the indications given in the documents. The occurrence is not common, -but it has nevertheless taken place. We have heard of a man ordering -a portrait to be painted to fit a detailed description of one of his -ancestors given in an old letter. The Florentine “Prioristi” and old -diaries can well be used for the purposes of such suggestion. An old -family chronicle recorded a marriage with some detail, sufficient at -any rate to inspire an art counterfeiter to model a small bas-relief -representing the scene. When the work was suitably coated with old -patina, put into a sixteenth-century frame and an old worm-eaten board -fastened to the back, the authentic document was carefully pasted on as -proof of genuineness. - -Possible combinations of this sort of scheme are endless and can be -applied to almost every expression of curio-dealing. - -What we have styled “faking the _milieu_,” in order to enhance -the value of a genuine article or to give additional effect to a -falsified one, trades upon the fact that a collector prefers to buy -from a private house rather than a shop. This often appeals to him as -convincing proof that the article is genuine, and it also appears to -confer a higher value by comparison with the surroundings in a shop. - -To humour this peculiar trait in the collector, environments have -been faked as well as objects of art, and in the evil grand art we -are illustrating they furnish to-day more often than not the proper -dignity which aids highly profitable sales effected through private -transaction. - -When a work leaves the faker’s hands there are many ways in which -to give birth to the false and illusive dignity designed to lend -importance and an air of genuineness. One of the simplest methods is -to provide the work with a respectable passport in the person of a -patrician, real or faked, according to opportunities. This decoy is -prepared, of course, to swear that the object has been in his family -for centuries. When the mansion is really old and the family of ancient -lineage, success is practically assured. How a man of noble birth can -lend his name to such deception can only be explained by a form of -degeneracy which, unfortunately, is not extremely rare in our times. It -is known to be practised with both genuine works and with forgeries. -In the former case it helps the command of an extravagant price, that -would never be reached in a shop or through the hands of a dealer; -in the latter, working through suggestion, it serves to dispel any -lingering doubt from the buyer’s mind. When it appears difficult to -bring off the deal, in the case of forgery, the object is taken to the -country by preference and placed in some old villa or mansion with -the connivance of a genuine nobleman, who will receive a secret visit -from the purchaser--all acts in the antiquarian world, it must be -remembered, savour of mystery and secrecy--and play the dignified -part of a member of a time-honoured family who collected works of art -in years past. A sham nobleman may also give himself out as Count -So-and-so and safely act the part for a day or even a few hours. It -must be borne in mind that this course of working by suggestion is very -dangerous to the purchaser; by its silent and convincing method art -antiquaries of skill and veteran connoisseurs have been deceived. - -Another application of this deceptive scheme, that relies on a -favourable environment to help fraud, is the sending of counterfeit -objects to remote country places supposed to be unexplored. This also -is based upon a psychological peculiarity of some collectors, who still -hope and believe that there are yet unsearched regions in the world of -antiques, oases that have escaped the ever-vigilant eye of the trader. -As a matter of fact if anything like neglected corners exist where -one may hope for a “find,” they are in large cities, such as Paris or -London, particularly the latter, where even Italian antiquaries go -at times to hunt for what it would be hopeless to seek in their own -country. - -Be it understood, the above two ways of disposing in private of -pretended genuine antiquities are likely to be combined. The nobleman -who charitably houses the masterpiece that the amateur is after, -completes the stage-like effect of the hatched environment, with sham -documents, etc. - -Among public sales it is, as we have said, the auction sale that -offers the greatest possibilities to those who falsify an “atmosphere” -to put the client on the wrong track so profitable to the faker. As -may readily be seen, a false environment and any tampering with the -elements that go to the formation of a right opinion as regards an -_objet d’art_, invariably lead not only to the acquisition of the wrong -thing but to the payment of an exorbitant price for its worthlessness. - -Much that is amusing and that would bring home this point could be -written on public sales. Enough to fill a bulky volume could be culled -from what has taken place at the _atrium auctionarium_ to the modern -Hotel Drouot or the historical sale-room still extant and busy in -London. - -Cicero tells us that one of the first auctions to be held in Rome was -the sale of property that Sulla had seized from proscribed Romans. He -also tells us with his usual rhetorical emphasis that all Pompey’s -property was put up to auction and disposed of to the highest bidder -by “the _præco’s_ lacerating voice.” This great sale included a large -portion of Mithradates’ treasure, the catalogue of which cost thirty -days’ work to the Roman officials who took the objects in charge. “At -this sale,” adds Cicero with redoubled emphasis, “Rome forgot her state -of slavery and freely broke into tears.” It may be, but Mark Antony, to -be sure, took advantage of this supposed public emotion and had all -the valuable lots knocked down to himself at ridiculously low figures. -Some of them, it is said, were never paid for at all by this audacious -triumvir. - -Another famous auction sale in Rome was that of Juba, king of Numidia, -who left his treasure to Rome in the time of Tiberius. Caligula was his -own auctioneer, and in this way disposed of furniture in his imperial -palace that he considered out of fashion. His example was followed by -Marcus Aurelius who sold in the public square dedicated to Trajan the -jewels and other precious objects forming part of Hadrian’s private -effects. In order to pay his troops, Pertinax put up to public auction -all Commodus’ property, a most confused medley of imperial effects, -an _omnium gatherum_ ranging from the deceased emperor’s gorgeous -robes to the gladitorial array he used in the circus, and from his -court jester to his slaves. Perhaps the most remarkable part of the -sale was Commodus’ original and interesting collection of coaches, an -odd assemblage that should have been capable of stirring even Julius -Cæsar’s blasé mind, who, it is said used to attend sales in quest -of emotion. They afforded him a certain stimulation, for Suetonius -speaks of him as rather a rash and unwise bidder. Caligula’s coaches -were of all kinds and shapes, there were some for summer with complex -contrivances to shelter from the sun and cool the air by means of -ventilators, and some for winter devised in such a way as to give -protection from cold winds. Others were fitted with a device that would -now be called a speedometer, a contrivance for measuring the distance -covered by the vehicle. - -The mania for sales went so far with the Romans that at the death of -Pertinax, the empire itself was put up to auction and knocked down to -the highest bidder, Didius Julianus. - -Although not so complex as the modern houses of public sale, the Roman -_atrium auctionarium_ was not simplicity itself. The original auction -sales of the Romans consisted of the disposal of war spoils to the -highest bidder, in the open air on the battlefield or in a square of -some conquered city. In order to indicate the spot where the sale was -to take place a lance was driven into the ground. The name of _sub -hasta_ was therefore given to these rudimentary auction sales, which is -the etymology of the Italian word _asta_, still used for auctions. The -_tabulæ auctionariæ_, giving daily notice of the number and description -of objects offered for sale, were in some way the forerunners of -the modern catalogue, just as the _præco_ must be considered as the -ancestor of the auctioneer or, maybe, the _crieur_. There were also -amanuenses who wrote down prices and purchaser’s name as each lot was -sold. - -Martial tells of a curious incident at an auction in which a girl -slave was offered for sale. When the bidding failed to elicit a higher -offer, Gellianus, the celebrated auctioneer, ended his eulogy of the -beauty of the human merchandize by giving the young slave a couple of -kisses. “What happened?” says Martial in conclusion. “A buyer who had -just made a bid of 600 sesterces on the girl, immediately withdrew his -offer.” Times are changed. It is no longer a question of selling slaves -in our modern _atrium auctionarium_, but the auction room itself has -nevertheless remained about the same, a great place of interest, an -assemblage of types such as old Tongilius, Licinius and Paullus who, -revived and modernized, gather in our sale-rooms, elbowing the crowds -of bidders, among whom are shrewd, clever buyers, true, impassioned -collectors, cool and self-possessed customers. - -The auction room is no less freakish than in olden times. There may be, -in fact, reason in the refusal to bid for young slaves that the buyer -considers defiled by the kisses of the auctioneer, even if he were a -Gellianus, the man _à la mode_; but we can find none, for instance, in -what happened some years ago at the celebrated Castellani sale in Rome. -On account of Castellani’s high reputation among collectors and the -fine things offered, this sale gathered to Rome a cosmopolitan crowd of -connoisseurs. While a fine Cafaggiolo vase was under the hammer, the -employé who was exhibiting it to the public dropped it and it broke to -pieces. At the moment of the accident the object had just been sold -to the last bidder, who naturally enough, immediately declared his -offer cancelled, as he had made a bid on a sound vase and not a heap of -debris. The auctioneer then proposed to put the fragments of the vase -up to auction and a fresh start was made. Strange to say the second -bidding reached a higher figure than the vase had fetched when offered -to the public intact and in all its faultless beauty. But for the -consideration that the second sale may have tempted some who regretted -that they had let slip the chance to bid on the fine Cafaggiolo, one -would be inclined to deduce that in the world of curios an object -acquires more worth the more it is damaged. - -It is true that while a broken china vase is practically worthless, a -piece of faience does not lose value by being broken and put together -again, if it does not actually rise in value, as in the case of the -Castellani Cafaggiolo. - -Though to an outsider, the auction room may doubtlessly appear very -simple in mechanism, it is rather a complex affair; its atmosphere has -engendered any amount of side speculation. This is the more marked in -such sale-rooms as have, by reason of the importance of the sales held -in them, in a way fertilized, as it were, every kind of speculation. -Rochefort, whose passion for bric-à-brac took him to the Hotel Drouot -almost daily, has a good deal to say on this subject. In his amusing -book on auction sales in the celebrated Parisian sale-room--a book, -by the way, which is now almost out of print--the witty Frenchman -deals at length with the odd characters and silent speculations that -have, all unnoticed and unmolested, grafted themselves upon the popular -institution of the Rue Drouot and other auction sale rooms. - -As for the types of frequenters, they are of all kinds and the most -nondescript character. First comes the collector in all his most -interesting and amusing personifications. Rochefort divides the -amateurs hanging about auction rooms into three distinct classes, which -he subdivides into _genres_ and _sous-genres_, to use the writer’s own -terms. - -According to Rochefort’s classification, the first class consists, -broadly speaking, of persons who pay more for an object than it is -worth; the second is composed of collectors who generally buy a thing -for what it is worth; the third and last comprises those who pay less -for a thing than it is worth. Rochefort aptly observes that the three -divisions resemble the classes of a school, the students passing from -the lowest to each of the more advanced classes. - -The collectors of the first group, all freshmen without exception, -are separated by Rochefort into sincere art lovers and mere -_poseurs_. Speaking of the sincerity of collectors and premising that -sincerity does not always imply an intelligent knowledge of art, -Rochefort wittily remarks: “There are people who with the greatest -self-confidence buy a daub for a Titian.” - -“Suffice it to say,” adds the writer, “that at the sale of M. -Patureau’s collection, a Virgin of the Flemish school, possibly a -Eckhout or Govært Flinck, was sold for a Murillo at the price of -45,500 francs.” In this foolish acquisition insincerity is out of the -question, _poseurs_, snobs and the like rarely carry their foppishly -garbed insincerity to the length of paying such high prices for mere -parade. - -In reference to real connoisseurs, to quote Rochefort again, who was -certainly most well informed on the subject, he says that they are so -rare that it is scarcely worth while to speak of them. - -The most genuine living exponent of the species is already a fake among -faking: becoming, namely, the owner of expensive curios not for art’s -sake but chiefly in order to be able to ask his friends: “By the way, -have you seen my collection?” or “the last masterpiece I have bought,” -etc. - -The _poseur_, however, in his flippant and manifold attitudes, may be -certain that schemes of deception are multiform and always a match for -any incarnation of this type. He is the prey, and there are all kinds -of snares waiting for him, just as there are many ways of catching -birds. - -A collector who does not belong to the general class of collectors -is the private dealer, who all too often joins forces with the “black -band” of the sale-rooms. - -Among the buyers at the Hotel Drouot, there are to be found, says -Rochefort, all manner of originals. Take for instance the _maquilleur_, -who is a regular godsend to restorers of paintings. The _maquilleur_ -is a purchaser of paintings who can never bring himself to leave a -canvas in the state he bought it. If it is the portrait of an old -woman, he is sure to take the work to a restorer to see if the wrinkles -can possibly be smoothed out, if it is a landscape he invariably has -changes to suggest. When the canvas has been duly _maquillé_ he often -takes it back to the auction room to try his chances with some novice. -By the side of this character is the “cleaner,” the man who insists -upon cleaning every painting that falls into his hands. On coming into -his possession the work may be as bright and fresh as the varnish of a -newly painted motor-car, it makes no difference, he will clean it all -the same. - -“Cleaning spells death to pictures, just as spinach spells death to -butter,” wisely says the French writer in conclusion, laying down a -humorous aphorism implying that to clean paintings practically means to -ruin them. - -The very antithesis of the cleaner is the defiler of pictures. -Diametrically opposed to the former, who worships soap, dye and other -cleansing materials, he no sooner becomes the owner of a painting than -he proceeds, as he says, to confer the proper age upon the work, by a -coat of dirt, the would-be patina of age, which he ennobles and honours -with various names: harmonizing, toning, etc. - -Curious as it may sound, from among all the queer legion of auction -room questionables, this member is less dangerous to art than many -others, especially his pendant, the cleaner. This is readily understood -when one considers that a skilled hand may remove any artificial -patina, which is frequently separated from the pigment of the painting -by a hard layer of old varnish, without any serious damage to the work -of art, while the cleaning of an old painting proves more or less -ruinous to its artistic qualities. In fact, the use of strong chemical -means either to remove aged dirt or centennial varnish brings away -some of the colour as well. The damage done by cleaning with spirits, -or other strong methods, is exceedingly great to some of the Dutch -paintings, finished to a great extent by veiling with delicate layers -of transparent pigment diluted in varnish. Venetian works, the colours -of which do not always withstand the dissolvent properties of reagents, -suffer irreparably from cleaning. - -According to the author of _Les Petits Mystères de l’Hôtel des Ventes_ -it is by no means impossible that the manipulations of these two art -fiends may bring it about that a work be bought and cleaned by the -cleaner, then put on sale again and bought by a defiler, to reappear at -the auction room covered with fresh but soiled and old-looking patina. - -These two characters, like the _maquilleur_, are chiefly hobbyists -and rarely associate. There are other oddities, such as restorers, -providers of documents, simple intriguers and unscrupulous business -men who club together. One of their common schemes is to create -pseudo-collections, supposed to have belonged to some noted person. -Such collections are often composed only a few days before the auction -sale and labelled as the property of Conte X. or Baron D., or styled -anonymously, as having belonged to a “well-known collector,” or more -often uncompromising initials designate the pseudo-owner of the works -of art put up to auction. - -The profits to be gained by commending one’s own goods and running -down those in competition with them is accountable for other strange -professions that flourish in the stuffy atmosphere of auction rooms. -The competition between genuine collections belonging to genuine -collectors and these faked ones impels the schemer to extol the -importance of the latter, which has doubled and disciplined the -activities of many strange helpers and queer professions. - -One of the most important personages of this unnumbered company of -frauds is the _ereinteur_. He is, as the French word indicates, a -man whose part in the business is to hang about auction rooms, and -run down works from which he has nothing to gain, or, impersonating -the character of a disinterested outsider, to praise works the sale -of which will bring him profit, whether directly or indirectly. This -defamer or praiser of works of art according to orders, puts himself -in the way of possible clients, makes their acquaintance, and cleverly -manages to influence their opinion as though incidentally. He may pass -himself off as a simple art lover, a dealer, or any other suitable -character. It must be added that the _ereinteur_ is not always so venal -as to sell his praises or defamation, he is not always what might be -called professional. There exist a number of people who slander merely -for its own sake, urged either by jealousy, evil disposition or a -tendency to gossip. - -At important auction sales this over-courteous personage is far more -dangerous than the man who does his work systematically and as a -profession, likely to be spotted by the public. - -One of these art slanderers came very near inflicting a deadly blow to -the successful sale of a Donatello bronze put up to auction in London -at a well-known art sale-room. On the day the objects were on view, the -work--which by the way belonged to an Italian antiquary who enjoys the -reputation of being one of the best of connoisseurs--was much admired -by English art lovers and possible buyers. A French art writer and -connoisseur posed before the bronze and remarked that it was a clever -fake, possibly an imitation of the eighteenth century. The comment -passed from mouth to mouth, and as the French critic was known to -understand the Italian Renaissance, those present expressed doubts as -to its authenticity. To counteract this unexpected check the antiquary -hurriedly threw himself into a cab and visited the most serious -frequenters of the auction room during the few hours preceding the sale -and thus had time to convince them. A new atmosphere soon prevailed -and the Donatello reached the record price of £6000. It was afterwards -discovered that the French critic had had a quarrel with the Italian -antiquary, hence the spiteful comment. - -Some of these misrepresenters are not content with going about the -sale-room in search of opportunities to injure by running down a work -or praising rubbish to the disadvantage of good things. They pass -judgment, favourable or the reverse, at the very moment a certain -object is offered for sale, an act which, strictly speaking, is against -the law--but the hidden practices of auction room intriguers are more -or less baffling to protective laws, like all the worthy members of -the “black band,” whose chief purpose in attending auction sales is to -promote what is called the “knock-out.” This is a scheme of combined -forces to hamper the natural course of bidding and to oblige the unwary -to renounce competition or to pay an exaggerated price. - -In its simplest and most schematic form the knock-out works as follows. -A certain number of dealers, go-betweens or other promiscuous plotters, -band together in a secret society for the purpose of discouraging -buyers not belonging to their set. Though secret because of the law, -the society is in fact notorious among many of the regular frequenters -of auction rooms as being both imperious and obnoxious. - -This is not only carried on in Paris but in other cities too, where -auction sale parasites manage to evade regulations and escape the -vigilant eye of the law. - -By this system the way is opened to any member of the society to “cure” -an outsider of ambition or hope to buy advantageously at a sale. If -X., a new-comer, offers for some object its value, or even a trifle -more, he will nevertheless lose the object or be forced to bid to a -foolish figure, as one of the conspirators will bid against him and if -he happens to be obstinate he will pay dearly, but if by mischance the -object is left to his opponent after the fever of bidding has inflated -the price, the society makes good the loss sustained by its member. - -Dividing the money losses among the members of the society, -considerably lessens the loss of the bidder who has run the price up -to an extravagant figure, in order to “punish” some one they consider -an invader. - -The division of “damages” is generally effected as follows: After the -sale all the objects bought by the partners are put up to auction a -second time among the members of the society. At this second sale the -goods are likely to be disposed of at their real commercial value. If, -as is sometimes the case, the total returns of this second sale are -inferior to those of the auction room, the difference, paid to keep in -force the rule of “punishing,” is jointly borne by the co-operators, -and thus the cost of this “chastisement” game amounts to a small tax -that each partner of the “black band” very willingly pays. The “black -band,” as it is called in Paris, is so powerful that many not belonging -to the society often consent to deal with the members. Sometimes they -ask one of them to buy on their behalf. There may, of course, be a -trifling commission to pay, a certain percentage, but in the end it -comes considerably cheaper. Such transactions are naturally against -the disposition of the laws on auction sales, and are invariably made -without the consent or knowledge of the directors of the sale-room, -and it must be understood that if discovered there may be repression -and an unexpected and brusque recall to the strict observance of the -law. Hence the fluctuating success of such societies, which, however, -notwithstanding the trammels of regulations, appear to prosper. - -One way of faking reputations, as it might be called, by which an -object is sold at a higher price than it would reach under ordinary -conditions, is to list it in the catalogue of a forthcoming sale of -some noted collection. The “faked reputation” here consists in the -fact that the name and reputation of the collector who had formed the -collection bestows lustre upon the object inserted in the sale. This -illegal proceeding, which well-known and reputable sale-rooms will not -countenance, has occasioned endless lawsuits with the usual uncertain -results, as the illegitimacy of the object is not always easy to prove. - -Another method of faking the reputation of a certain work of art is -the following. Suppose a dealer possesses a very mediocre picture of -little value and wishes to have documentary proof that the work has -cost him a good price, instead of a low sum, he has only to send the -painting to the auction room and ask his comrades to run the bidding -up to a certain figure, then by buying in his own property and paying -the percentage due to the auctioneer he withdraws the picture with the -receipt, the document he desired. By this trick, when an opportunity -presents itself to sell the work, he is able to produce what looks like -a convincing proof of his honesty and square dealing. “You see, sir, -I am going to be very candid and sincere with you. Here, let me show -you what I myself paid for this painting,” he will say, and show the -receipt of the public auction sale. - -Not infrequently the responsibility of the attribution is left to the -owner of the work of art, by which means _objets d’art_ are often -christened with names of a most fantastic paternity. This is easily -done; take for instance a canvas that might or might not be righteously -baptized “School of Leonardo.” The work is presented by the owner to -be sold by auction and declared as a Leonardo da Vinci, and in the -catalogue it will naturally be put down to Leonardo. When the owner -goes to buy in his own canvas, he has, of course, no interest to run -the price up to a fancy figure, his sole aim is to be able to show to -some future buyer a catalogue with the attribution printed--and, -curiously enough, printed attributions would appear to carry undisputed -weight! It is nevertheless a bait only for greenhorns, with whom its -effect rarely fails. - -To prevent objects put up to auction from being knocked down at an -unreasonably low figure it is an accepted system to place a reserve -price upon them, to write down when consigning the goods, namely, a -certain sum representing the lowest figure at which the object may be -sold. The auctioneer keeps this price _in pectore_, on his private -list, that is to say. When the article is put up for sale it is either -offered straight away for the price quoted or the latter is led up to -by by-bidding. If this proves to be impossible, the object is bought in -and the owner has merely a slight percentage to pay on the last bid and -can withdraw his property. Thus while an auction sale always presents -hazards, the reserve price is a guarantee against the risks of flagging -moments. The room may chance to be deserted of its best public through -unforeseen circumstances, enthusiasm may suddenly cool unaccountably, -and for these and other reasons a reserve price is therefore a -legitimate defence. - -Strange to say, even this honest and recognized safeguard has been -turned to cunning abuse. The principle of the reserve price, at least, -has brought into being that questionable personage nicknamed in English -auction rooms Peter Funk, a most undesirable “faker of situations.” - -The fact that the reserve price given to the auctioneer is often -disclosed to interested collectors, and that it may be divulged by -auction-room clerks and so become known, induced collectors with -_objets de virtu_ on sale to send friends or agents secretly, in order -to run up the bidding to a certain figure. The name long since given to -this complacent, secret partner shamming the art buyer is Peter Funk. - -“Funkism,” if one may be allowed to coin a neologism, certainly has -its right to existence and originated in the legitimate desire to -protect objects from falling at ridiculous prices in depressed moments -of the sale, but it has now become a regular curse, especially at -first-class auctions, where by reason of the great interests at stake, -the system can be worked to its full magnitude and no expense spared. -As an example--and one that to our knowledge worked greatly to the -advantage of the seller and not at all to that of the buyer, from -whom “funkism” robs all chance of the “fair play” which should be -the dominant note in auctions--we may quote the sale of an Italian -collection at Christie’s at which, certainly without the knowledge or -even suspicion of the auctioneers, Peter Funk played havoc under every -form and guise. To make sure that the keen-eyed collectors should not -discover the pseudo-collectors, the latter were all imported from the -Continent and given strict injunctions to buy at the stated price, -to bid without comment and to indulge in none but commonplaces in -conversation with the public, the dealer employing them knowing how -impossible it is for a non-collector or a feigned art lover to say -three words about a work of art, without giving himself away. A good -appearance, natural bidding without emphasis or theatrical pose, an -occasional “yes” or “may-be” or “hem” when questioned, and a whole -string of uncompromising banalities, these are the stock-in-trade of an -improvised Peter Funk, who may not be so capable as the professional -one but has the advantage of being less easily detected. - -A clever Peter Funk knows the right moment to run up a price, judging -from his competitor’s enthusiasm up to what sum he can safely bid -before abandoning the game, and by counting on his opponent’s rashness -and impulsiveness runs him up to bids which he afterwards regrets. -Risky as it is, rarely does an object remain in the hands of Peter -Funk, and if it does, the owner will supply him with the money and -withdraw the article, paying the auctioneer’s dues, a comparatively -modest percentage. - -These combined forces in the auction room secretly working as a -sequence of traps caused a well-known French collector to propose as -an inscription to be put over the door of one of these dangerous dens: -“_Ici il y a des pièges à loups_.” - -It is not meant by this that all auction rooms are infested by -brigands, who leave no chance for fair-play, and that all who ever -enter them come out regretting the attempt to buy by a system that -appeals to the public for its square dealing. Not at all, the best -artistic investments are often made at public sales, but rarely, alas, -by the inexperienced novice who has but a limited knowledge of art, and -is besides wholly unfamiliar with the ways of auction rooms. - -This double form of ignorance needs the warning that there are traps, -so that coolness and wisdom may enter the brain of the enthusiastic -beginner, two necessary items in gaining experience at a reasonable -price. - - - - -PART III - -THE FAKED ARTICLE - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -THE MAKE-UP OF FAKED ANTIQUES - - Paintings, drawings, etchings, etc.--How the art of faking - necessarily borrows technique and experience from the restorer-- - Old and modern ways of imitating the technique of painting--New - pictures on old canvases and old paintings repainted and doctored - --Suggestions for imitating the preparation of panel or canvas - --Imitating characteristic paintings in impasto--Veiling and - varnishing--Imitating the cracking of varnish--Old drawings - --Technique of the proper abuse to give an appearance of age to - drawings--Etchings--Fresh margins to old prints, etc. - - -Opinions as to the restoration of objects of art are of a most varied -character; more especially in the case of painting, an art of rather -complex technique. The various opinions about the restoration of -paintings may, however, be classified into three distinct categories. -One might be said to be entirely in favour of the process, one entirely -discountenancing it, and between them one which is permissible as it -has to do only with mechanical methods calculated to reinforce pigment, -or the canvas or panel, and is not concerned with what might be called -the artistic side of the art, such as retouching or filling in the -missing parts of a painting. - -Speaking of certain restorations of his time, even Vasari remarks -in the Life of Luca Signorelli, that “it would be far better for -a masterpiece to remain ruined by time than to have it ruined by -retouching by an inferior hand.” - -Baldinucci tells us how Guido Reni objected to the retouching of old -paintings, more especially the work of good masters, and that he -invariably refused to do it himself, no matter how much a client was -disposed to offer for the work. - -Milizia, the architect and writer, says that to retouch an old -painting, particularly a fine work of art, is to pave the way for -future and wider destruction, as in the course of time the retouching -will show itself and then another act of barbarity will have to be -perpetrated. - -According to the opinion of a well-known Florentine antiquary and -famous restorer of paintings for the American market, a picture has -nothing to gain from the hand of the restorer. On the contrary, his -opinion is that: “As soon as a restorer lays hands on a painting he -ruins it.” - -The class we have placed between the two extremes, the one using a -certain discrimination, accepting such methods as are intended merely -to preserve the work without encroaching upon its artistic merits, -such as furnishing a fresh panel or canvas to a painting, removing -old and deteriorated varnish, etc., being the wise one is, of course, -represented by the minority. - -Needless to say, the main forces of the class supporting restoration in -its extreme form are drawn from the ranks of restorers or authors of -works teaching the grand art of resuscitating masterpieces, such men as -Merimée, Vergnaud, Prange, Deon, Forni and Secco Suardo. The latter, in -fact, does not hesitate to call restoration a magic art and depicts the -restorer as a regular miracle-worker. - -We do not propose in this chapter to follow the various methods of -restoring paintings according to the character of the work, fresco, -tempera or oil, but simply to indicate some of the restoration -processes that are useful to fakers in deceiving inexperienced -collectors. - -In the case of faking up an old painting of weak or defective -character, into the delusive suggestion of a work of good quality, the -process consists principally of bringing the form into proper shape by -veiling and toning the crude parts of the colouring. This work, the -success of which chiefly depends upon the skill and versatility of the -forger, is generally effected by first removing the old varnish with a -solvent. There are many kinds of solvents which can be used, according -to the quality of the varnish, the most common, however, is alcohol. It -must be very pure, containing the minimum of water. Ordinary alcohol -is likely to produce opaque, white patches, a phenomenon called by the -French restorer _chanci_, and very difficult to obliterate once it has -appeared. Being one of the strongest solvents and of dangerous and too -rapid action at times, the alcohol is generally mixed with turpentine -to the proportion of half-and-half to start with. Then, according to -the greater or lesser solubility of the varnish, the proportion of -alcohol is gradually increased. This mixture, called _la mista_ by -Italian antiquaries, may be substituted, as we have said, by various -solvents--potash, soda, ammonia, etc.--according to the nature or -hardness of the varnish to be dissolved. Some restorers also resort -to mechanical methods to remove old varnish. These methods, too, are -various. If the varnish is hard it can be cracked by pressure from -the thumb, a long operation requiring no small amount of patience -and skill. If it possesses sufficient elasticity to withstand this -process, it is generally removed with a steel blade in the form of an -eraser. The latter operation is not only very difficult but very slow, -particularly when the painting possesses artistic qualities that must -not be impaired by the removal of the varnish. - -This first operation successfully accomplished, the artist steps in and -proceeds to help the work, say of such and such a school, to resemble -the painting of the master of this school as much as possible. The -process is naturally executed by the aid of a more or less complete -collection of photographs of the work of the master the faker intends -to imitate. The retouching may follow the most varied methods. To -take the most common case, that of oil painting, the new work can be -carried out with oil colours previously kept on blotting-paper to -drain off the oil which is then substituted with turpentine to give -the colours their lost fluidity; it may also be effected with tempera -colours or with colours the fluid element of which consists only of -varnish. The use of tempera is preferred by restorers because, although -it presents the extreme difficulty of changing hue when varnished and -consequently demands no little experience to judge the requisite hue -or tone, still once laid down it is not likely to change with time as -oil retouching on old paintings generally does. The mixing of colour -with varnish alone has the advantage of keeping the proper tone from -beginning to end. This method is extremely useful not only in the -painting of missing parts but also to veil and tone what has been -painted in tempera if this is not entirely harmonious with the rest -after varnishing. Needless to add, those colours the fluid part of -which is supplied by varnish are unalterable as they do not contain any -oil whatever. One of the difficulties in handling these pigments is the -lack of fluidity, hence turpentine may be added with advantage. - -However, as the above methods of retouching are not proof against -chemical tests, alcohol being the proper solvent with which to do away -with added touches to old paintings which have been done with either -oil or varnish colours, the shrewder fakers either mix amber varnish -with the colours or give the fresh touches a solid coating of this -varnish, which when well prepared is supposed to be insoluble and not -easily acted upon by solvents. Although more than one special work on -the art of restoring gives recipes for the preparation of this varnish, -in practice very few know how to prepare it in the proper way. - -We have here presupposed that the picture was in good order, that -there were no missing parts of importance, or rather that, with panel -or canvas unimpaired, the work only required to be retouched by the -artist, a rare case, as when the paint has vanished the preparation of -the panel or canvas has generally vanished with it, on account of its -adhesiveness. - -We do not propose to give the various recipes for the plaster dressing -forming the preparation of the panel or canvas. They are different -according to time and country and can be found in special works on -painting. Under ordinary conditions it is very easy to substitute the -missing preparation, just as it is easy to give it the proper surface -either by pumice or skilled coating with the brush, but in the case of -a painting on canvas it is very seldom that there are not big holes -right through it. The first operation in such cases is to recanvas the -work, to line it, namely, with another canvas which is pasted to the -old one and flattened with an iron till perfectly dry. The missing part -must then be filled in, imitating the weave of the canvas on which -the work is painted. No easy matter this, as the different weaves of -canvases are as characteristic as signatures: no two are ever alike. -The new canvas showing through the hole is therefore either covered -with a patch of canvas taken from some comer of the painting to be -restored, or it is given the same appearance by pressing a piece of -the old canvas upon the fresh preparation of the part missing, thus -moulding the texture of the threads. This must be done skilfully in -such a way that the parallel lines of the threads match. There are -some clever fakers who imitate the old canvas by strokes of a hard -brush upon the fresh preparation of the new pieces, reproducing the -characteristics of the canvas by actually copying from the original -part. - -When a painting is finished there are various methods by which an -appearance of age may be given or restored to it. From asphalt to -liquorice hundreds of things are used, either dissolved in turpentine -or water, glue, albumen, etc. Veiling with varnish, coloured with the -proper pigment, generally gives the finishing touch. - -The imitation of old and cracked varnish is simple enough. First one -must give the canvas a coat of diluted glue, then varnish before the -glue is quite dry. As the underlayer of glue dries quickly and has -a shrinking capacity disproportionate to that of the varnish, it is -easy to understand that the result will be a cracking of the varnish. -A close or a coarse network of cracks is obtained by increasing or -decreasing the inequality of shrinkage between the two layers, or by -hastening or retarding the drying of the upper layer by artificial -means. Although comparatively easy, these operations nevertheless -demand no little experience to be crowned with due success. - -If a painting has been repainted only in the parts that were missing, -and the old varnish has not been removed from the rest of the picture, -it is a question of not only giving the varnish of the new spots cracks -like the old varnish, but these must imitate as closely as possible -those of the original part of the painting. In such cases a needle is -used to make the cracks on the newly varnished parts. When the grooves -have been made in the varnish they are filled in with water and colour -or soot to give them the desired appearance of age. - -Such, roughly, is the method mostly in use for oil paintings. With -the necessary variations, and the use of the proper medium, the same -method also answers for tempera. It is rare that frescoes are imitated -or retouched, but in such cases fresh cheese is used as the vehicle -for the colour, and when dry it not only acquires the quality of -insolubility but also the opaque hue of the fresco. - -As far as technique is concerned, the imitator does not find it easy to -imitate the work of those artists who paint in impasto, that is to say -with a thick layer of pigment, the consequent characteristic strokes -of the brush requiring no little experience for reproduction in all -their force, character and characteristics. Through long study and -practice some finally succeed in imitating the work of such painters as -Rembrandt or Frans Hals, but such cases are extremely rare. Forni, who -has written a work on the restoration of paintings, suggests a method -of imitating impasto painting with its characteristic brush strokes -which, in our view, can only be applied in the case of repairing a -part missing in some old painting. Forni’s method consists of first -reproducing the peculiarities of the brush strokes in a plaster -composition closely resembling that of the preparation of the canvas, -and then giving the proper colouring. According to Forni this method -has the advantage of giving the impression of a frank and vigorous -style of painting such as is usual with the impasto technique, and yet -it has been achieved slowly and patiently. - -One of the side-businesses of picture faking is the providing of -suitable signatures. When one considers that paintings generally bear -the artist’s signature, more especially in recent times, it would be -strange if this branch of the shady trade did not number specialists -who can imitate signatures to perfection, as well as reproduce artists’ -special monograms. - -It is easy to understand how old drawings and sketches may be imitated. -Just as in the case of faking a painting, the artist tries first to -become familiar with the work he wishes to imitate. It is then usually -executed on old paper and when finished soaked in dirty water, dried -and scoured with pumice to give it the apparent abuse of age. Some -imitators, however, do not give themselves the trouble to find the -proper paper, and it is not unusual to see imitations on modern paper, -or would-be sixteenth-century, work on paper bearing the mill-mark -of two or three centuries later. But these of course are the gross -imitations only intended to dupe the most naïve of beginners. - -Prints are also imitated, and nowadays to perfection with the help of -mechanical aids, when they have to reproduce an excellent original. -The ageing process is the same as that used for drawings. There is one -difference between them to be noted, it is that in the case of old -prints or etchings the presence or absence of the margin counts for -much. An etching with its original paper margin is far more valuable -than one that has been cut to fit a frame or for any other purpose. -Hence one particular branch of faking of the prints is to refurnish -paper margins to those specimens that have lost them. The work is more -or less successful according to the skill of the faker, but is usually -effected in the following manner: The etching is cut all round the edge -reasonably near the printed part, then a large piece of old paper is -cut to fit the etching as a frame and the two edges are brought and -held together for some time by a paper lining at the back. The crack -of the join between the old etching and the new margin is filled in -with paste of the same composition as the paper and smoothed even by a -mechanical process. It is of course needless to add that such a method -is not likely to take in a true collector, but the faker knows that -foolish clients are sometimes numerous and his best supporters. - -Miniature work is easy to imitate, not only on account of its -technique, in which originality has a comparatively small rôle to play, -but because it needs hardly any patina or ageing. - -Pastels and water colours, more especially the latter, appear to be -a little out of the forger’s line. Yet pastel, with its peculiar -technique, affords possibilities for faking. - -Copies of noted originals have not escaped the speculative spirit of -the counterfeiter. They are generally sold as contemporary copies or -antique copies, and they seem to command higher prices, even if an old -copy is at times far inferior to a modern one. - -In the faking of modern, or semi-modern art, the technique intended to -confer age and venerability to the work finds no place. In such cases, -it is easy to understand, the main craft lies in imitating the style of -the master counterfeited. - -Speaking of such imitations, we may note that fakers contemporary with -the artist are perhaps the most dangerous to the neophyte, and as -imitations have always existed more or less, and are by no means only -the product of the greed of modern fakers and dealers, a collector -is often taken in by a false Corot or a false Rousseau, in which the -only legitimate thing is perhaps the date, the forgery having been -perpetrated during the master’s lifetime. - -Naturally, the imitation is not always made for the purpose of -cheating, but almost always with the hope of becoming as popular as a -certain master by imitating his style. It is very often the work of -pupils, as in the case of the Watteau imitations by Lancret and Pater. - -It is known that the work of Paul Potter has been imitated by Klomp, -that Jacob van Huysum has counterfeited the work of Breughel and of -Wouwermans, that Constantin Netscher made plenty of money copying -Vandyke Charles I portraits, and that Teniers the Younger sold false -Titians. - -To go back to prints and etchings before closing this chapter one must -make a distinction between old imitations and modern ones. A good -connoisseur is never at a loss to detect signs of counterfeit, but -there is an essential difference of criterion needed in judging old -imitations of etchings and modern imitations. In old prints involuntary -discrepancies are sure to occur as they have been reproduced by hand, -and the connoisseur must therefore be acquainted with them. These -variations are more or less known to experts, whereas in the case of a -modern purely mechanical reproduction, a magnifying glass and technical -experience are the chief requirements. Marco Dente’s reproduction of -Marcantonio’s work and the copies of Callot’s etchings by some of his -pupils are examples of the imperfections of old imitations, details -having been omitted. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -FAKED SCULPTURE, BAS-RELIEFS AND BRONZES - - Faked sculpture--Clay work--The false Tanagras--Imitation of - Renaissance work--Bas-reliefs and busts--Baked clay and - _stucco-duro_--The Clodions--Bronzes--The importance of - patina--The patina of Pompeiian bronzes and excavated bronzes - --Renaissance patina and that of later times--Gilded bronzes - --Marble work and its general colouring--Sculpture in wood and - ivory--The Ceroplastica. - - -We must repeat that in sculpture also, faking borrows largely from the -art of restoring. Indeed it is no exaggeration to say that nearly all -branches of the faker’s art turn for help to the restorer’s methods. -And here again, as in painting, we are also immediately confronted -by two forms of trickery; one is the creation of a modern object in -imitation of the antique so as to deceive the collector, and the other -the reconstruction of some fantastic piece of forgery from an inferior -object, or one greatly damaged by over-restoration. To speak of -over-restoration is in such cases to use a euphemism. We can offer an -example showing how this over-restoration of objects is nothing but a -form of faking highly flavoured with different varieties of deception. -A rich American bought a marble statue some years ago representing a -famous Roman empress. It was bought not only because the Roman art -appealed to him but as the portrait of that particular Roman empress. -As a matter of fact, the whole statue had been faked by the addition -of new portions to a headless, limbless torso, which was the only -genuinely antique part. We must say, however, that the new head given -to the half-faked statue was extremely well done. It had been copied -from a well-known model and except that the patina of the marble was -not so perfect as might have been expected from a great master in -trickery, the most experienced collector might have been deceived. - -Clay work is perhaps the most popular form of plastic art among the -fakers of antiques. As it has the special advantage of being made from -casts of originals, it does not present any real technical difficulty, -and it demands no expensive additions and may be given colour and -patina with comparative ease. Of course many of these advantages are -also shared by bronzes, stucco, and all productions worked from an -original model in clay or any other plastic substance, such as wax, -pastiline, etc. - -Tanagra figurines undoubtedly hold the first place in the large class -of faked clay work. There has been an uninterrupted succession of -forgers in this line from the time Tanagra work first came into fashion -with collectors, to the stock imitations now sold in Paris and still -bought for genuine Tanagras by over-naïve collectors. The old Baron -Rothschild, who had a fine collection of Tanagra figurines and no small -experience as a connoisseur, used to say that when it is a question of -a Tanagra one must see it excavated, and even that nowadays is hardly a -guarantee of genuineness. - -The imitations are generally cast from good originals, and as the clay -shrinks considerably in drying and baking, the imitation is usually -smaller than the original and can therefore easily be detected when -confronted with a genuine piece. - -Some of the more advanced imitators have somewhat obviated this -difference of dimension by mechanical methods of expanding moulds, -but the work in such cases is not so perfect as otherwise and what is -gained on the one hand, namely, a dimension identical to that of the -original, is lost on the other, as methods of taking over-sized moulds -from originals are generally imperfect. - -A flourishing product of the Italian market are bas-reliefs and clay -busts in imitation of Renaissance work. - -When not the work of clever artists who model direct from the clay, -having studied and mastered the old style, it is the product of -miserable mechanical deception aided by ability to disguise its -patchwork nature, the trickery and general sleight-of-hand of the wily -art of faking. - -In the case of bas-reliefs they are often composed of different parts -belonging to different originals, sometimes originals unknown to -connoisseurs and art critics. This method has been applied to the -imitation of Renaissance terra-cotta busts. A bust bought at a high -figure from a Venetian antiquary many years ago and believed to be -genuine Quattrocento work was afterwards discovered to have been made -from the cast taken from the face of a recumbent figure on a tomb in -the church of San Pietro e Paolo, to which had been added the back -part of another bust, the whole finally set upon a pair of shoulders -cast from another original of the period. The monument from which the -face had been moulded was so high up on the wall of the church of San -Pietro e Paolo that no one knew of the existence of this original and -the other parts of the faked object had also been taken from little -known originals. The fraud was discovered in Paris some time after the -bust had entered a noted collection, a lawsuit ensued and the collector -eventually recovered the money he had paid. - -Italian art of the fifteenth century has produced many clay -bas-reliefs, apparently from one and the same original and yet -presenting slight differences, additions and modifications evidently -made after the clay had left the mould but when it was still fresh. -This fact has greatly incited the fancy of Italian forgers and largely -contributed to the confusion of art critics and the duping of more -than one collector. These bas-reliefs represent sacred subjects for -the most part, and sometimes it is not merely a question of putting a -rose in the Madonna’s hand or a little bird into those of the Infant -Jesus, in order to lay claim to due originality, but the modifications -are so radical that the whole appearance of the work is changed. It -is generally done as follows. A good plaster-mould is made from a -good original, and a clay reproduction formed from this mould, which -is then modified and changed while still fresh. Should the work to be -divested of its original character represent, say, a Madonna and Child, -the artist may proceed to alter its size by modifying the border; -then, to transform the subject, he may make an addition on one side, -of the heads of the ox and ass, taken of course from another original. -To change the pose of the Madonna the clay is generally cut behind -the head and neck with a fine wire and then the position of the head -can be altered at pleasure; from being erect, for instance, it can be -inclined, or vice versa. By the same method, and no small amount of -skill, arms and hands can be given new attitudes, etc. The final result -is a work which passes as an original among foolish art lovers who -collect series. - -_Stucco duro_ imitations are produced by almost identical methods. -These compositions are generally made of plaster, which hardens as -it dries after being poured into a mould. When the original is to be -modified a first model of clay or some other soft modelling material is -indispensable, of course, and from this a mould is then taken for the -casting of the _stucco duro_. - -To colour and give a patina either to baked clay or stucco is -comparatively easy. The colouring is given with tempera colours, the -patina with tinted water, for which tobacco, soot, etc., may be used, -applied with smoky and greasy hands. A coat of benzine in which a small -quantity of wax has been dissolved is finally laid on with a brush and -the whole polished with a brush or wool. - -As we have said, however, fakers are especially partial to clay work. -It requires little outlay, the finished work can be fired at small -expense, the colouring and patina can be given “at home,” not needing -the special light of a studio, etc. Not only in the case of Renaissance -work has this method been the favoured one but in other types of -art forgery, the eighteenth-century terra-cottas, for instance, the -lovely work of Clodion, Falconnet, Marin, etc. Paris is glutted with -imitations of Clodion’s clay groups. Some of them are sufficiently good -to puzzle the best connoisseurs. As we have seen, a pseudo-Clodion sold -years ago in perfect good faith by M. Du Boullay to Mme. Boiss caused a -complicated lawsuit and many inconclusive discussions among art critics -and connoisseurs of the calibre of Eugène Guillaume, Chapu, Millet, -Carrier Belleuse, and specialists on Clodion’s work such as Thiacourt. -It was finally established that the bit bearing Clodion’s name was -authentic and had been inset in a group of much later date, a spurious -original, but even this was not absolutely proved and simply offered as -the most acceptable hypothesis. As Paul Eudel remarks, to decide the -matter, “Clodion would have to raise the stone of his sepulchre and to -rise from his tomb in order to supply an irrefutable solution.” - -The initial process for faking antique bronzes is very similar to -that used in clay and stucco forgeries. By initial process we mean, -of course, the way the mould is made for casting the bronze. When -the pseudo original has been modelled in clay, the form of it is -naturally taken to obtain a matrix of some harder material, and from -this matrix is taken the mould that is used for the cast. There is -also another system of casting bronzes greatly in vogue among fakers, -more especially for small objects, which is called _cire perdu_. It is -a simplified method, consisting of modelling the object in wax, then -taking its mould, which is emptied by melting the wax. The details of -these two methods of casting bronze, the ordinary casting and the _cire -perdu_ process, can be found in any technical work on bronze casting -and need not be repeated here. - -The patina of bronzes presents a difficulty in addition to the artistic -difficulties of creating a convincing pseudo-original, difficulties -common to clay, stucco, and, in fact, all faked sculpture. Patina, the -_nobilis ærugo_ of Horace, is the peculiar oxidization acquired by -bronze with age. For the connoisseur, the patina is not only a part of -the artistic _tout ensemble_ of a bronze object--so much so that -there are collectors more impressed by the beauty of the patina than by -the artistic value of the piece--but it is the chief indication of -the authenticity of the work. - -According to Pliny, great importance was attached to the _nobilis -ærugo_ by the Roman connoisseurs also, especially in the case of the -famous Corinthian bronze. This metal was classified into five qualities -by the Roman amateur according to five different hues or patinas -depending upon the proportion of gold and silver in the alloy. Roman -art lovers made a regular study of bronze patina and of the composition -of the bronze of art objects. The components of this knowledge were -not only gathered from the appearance of a certain bronze, but by its -relative weight and the odour of the metal. That the odour of an alloy -should have been made a test to judge of its component parts is very -possible as the smell of bronze and brass is essentially different, -and there is no reason why a practised Roman nose should not have -distinguished slight differences according to the proportion of the -various metals in the alloy. - -One reason, apart from artistic motives, why the collector gives the -patina so much consideration is, as we have said, because the patina -nowadays is one of the safest guides in buying antique bronzes. Whilst -the artistic qualities of certain objects may be reproduced with -skill or trickery, patina of a really genuine and entirely convincing -appearance is supposed to be beyond the faker’s art. Our own and other -people’s experience leads us to doubt this, but such, as a matter of -fact, is the common belief among collectors. Faked patina, it is true, -is less transparent and duller than the genuine, and it can easily be -detected by shininess at the points and sharp edges of a bronze where -it is difficult to fix the imitation patina, but, we would repeat, -there are bronzes in Naples and some of the cities of Northern Italy -that have deceived the best connoisseurs, and samples may be seen in -nearly all the important museums of Europe and America. Almost all -works treating specially of metal casting give various methods for -obtaining a proper patina according to the different hues one may -wish to give the bronze. Yet modern methods of colouring and oxidizing -bronze do not seem to satisfy the antiquary and, in consequence, the -faker of antique bronzes. All modern mechanical methods produce fine -colouring without brilliancy, colouring that does not seem to possess -the vibrant quality of old patina, oxidation that appears to be too -superficial to show the depth of colouring peculiar to patina obtained -by the slow process of age. To obtain such an effect the faker resorts -to the most varied and out-of-the-way methods, and when possible tries -to hasten the slow oxidation of age by greasing and smoking the object, -putting it in damp places and treating it with acids. Often the most -varied methods are used in conjunction or alternately with a patience -and persistence worthy of a more honourable cause, but practised with -ever-greater keenness, alas, with the promise of much gain. Some of the -most successful patinas are obtained not only by duly working at the -colouring and oxidation of the metal, but by composing the alloy in -such a way as to favour the production of a convincing patina later on. - -Naturally, the differences of the patina of old bronzes depend not -only upon the various conditions to which the work may have been -exposed through age, but also upon the colouring or kind of artificial -oxidation that may have been given it upon leaving the foundry. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_ _Alinari_ - -AN IMITATION OF ROMAN WORK. - -Latest part of XIVth Century] - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_ _Alinari_ - -AN IMITATION OF 16TH CENTURY WORK.] - -Thus whilst an antique bronze brought up from the bottom of the sea may -have the peculiar patina of age acquired under these special conditions -and another statue exposed only to atmospheric oxidation may show -the different hue belonging to the effect of air, there are bronzes -which have been coloured upon leaving the foundry, and even when age -has given brilliance to the patina they bear the characteristics -differentiating the school or artist. The most difficult to imitate are -the excavated Greek, Roman or Etruscan bronzes, especially when the -humidity of the soil or some peculiar condition has produced a kind of -patina possessing the appearance of enamel. Among the artificial -hues of Renaissance bronze, the brownish tint of the Paduan school is -characteristic, and worthy of note are some of the blackish specimens -of Venetian bronze, as well as the whole emporium of samples of the -versatile Florentine school. Some of these patinæ are reproduced -fairly well, and now that Gianbologna and his school are beginning to -be appreciated, we would state that faking is successfully studied to -produce the reddish patina of some of the not always exquisite but yet -invariably interesting little bronzes of Tacca Susini Francavilla and -others. - -It was once believed by some collectors that gilded bronze could not -be imitated, that the galvanoplastic method was as recognizable as any -false and badly made coin. We doubt this, for we fail to see why the -old system of gilding with mercury could not be applied to imitations. -It is somewhat slower and more expensive, but the profit, as usual, -makes it worth while in the eyes of the faker. Gilding is certainly -imitated to perfection on modern pieces purporting to be the work of -French artists of the eighteenth century and some of the counterfeits -of Gutierrez’ and Caffieri’s work have even the varnish that was at one -time considered inimitable. - -The great progress made in imitating patina, has rendered the -collecting of bronzes one of the most dangerous branches the collector -can choose. - -In the case of marble, stone or other hard material that has to be -chiselled, the faker generally starts his work along the lines of -the sculptor, that is to say, he models the original in clay, casts -it in plaster and transfers it to the marble by the usual methods. -Then when this artistic part has been accomplished successfully, the -marble or stone must be given the appearance of antiquity and the -patina belonging to age. This is generally effected by two distinct -operations, one relating to the form, the other to the colour and -the whole peculiar harmonization of tone and polish called patina. -As regards the form, modern sculpture being somewhat too precise -and sharp-edged, the chief aim of the operation is to destroy these -qualities, as well as to confer upon the object the abuse that is -supposed to be traced upon an antique during its long pilgrimage -through the ages. The marble is therefore skilfully chipped here -and there with mallet and chisel, sand and acid are applied to dull -the over-sharp tooling, and sometimes to cause corrosion, etc. The -principle accepted, it is easy to understand that ways of ageing -sculpture are multiplied, and vary according to the illusion the faker -intends to convey. The fact that old Greek and Roman work is not -identical with Renaissance productions in appearance, as the former -are generally excavated while the latter come down to us through a -long succession of owners, is sufficient to show that there are slight -differences which must be taken into consideration. - -For colouring marble and stone, a general tone is usually given at -first which is intended to destroy the crudeness of the new material, -especially in the case of marble. One of the most common ways is to -wash the object with water containing a certain quantity of green -vitriol. When applied before the stone has lost its permeability, this -solution penetrates deeply, particularly in marble, and the colouring -is not easily destroyed or washed out by long exposure to atmospheric -action. Some use nitrate of silver also when a different hue is to be -given, but the solution mentioned first, which confers the proper ivory -tone to the marble, is the most common. Naturally, a tone given by -these means is too uniform and monotonous to be taken for the colouring -of old age, so the artist calls his talent and experience into play to -produce the desired variation; there is, in fact, no other teaching but -experience and taste. It is to be noted that in the colouring of stone, -and particularly marble, the artist has an almost complete palette at -his disposal, for in this branch chemistry supplies nearly every hue -possible. - -We may remark by the way that the art of colouring marble was already -well understood in the days of ancient Greece, and it is a fact -that more than one statue of that period shows signs of colouring -wonderfully preserved through the ages. In Italy, where marble -dyeing is still a flourishing art, it is done with very few colours: -verdigris, gamboge, dragon’s-blood, cochineal, redwood and logwood. - -Nearly all vegetable dyes are suitable, and many coal-tar colours, -if properly used, give a very fast and beautiful colour to marble. -It is essential for the solution of all dyes to be made with alcohol -or ether, and only such anilines may be employed as are soluble in -fat. Some solutions may be applied direct to the marble, whatever its -temperature; others require the heating of the marble, to increase its -permeability and consequent faculty of imbibing the colouring solution. -The quality and condition of the marble must also be taken into -consideration. If the marble has not been polished properly, or has -been touched with greasy hands, a patchy effect or stains will result. - -Rubbing with flannel and the moderate use of encaustic, give the -finishing touches, when the character of the patina requires the shiny -effect so often seen in old marbles. - -Objects sculptured in wood represent no change of technique for the -forger of antiques as far as the carving is concerned. The forger’s -ability to imitate the work of an old master is purely artistic, and -cannot, of course, be achieved by any special method; but the art of -giving the object a convincing appearance of age is fairly mechanical, -depending upon the use of alkali, permanganate of potash and other -substances. The process being somewhat complex and common, as a matter -of fact, to all kinds of wood carving, it will be given in detail -when imitation antique furniture and the methods of producing it are -described; faked furniture being, perhaps, one of the most productive -branches of the obscure trade of counterfeit antiques. Sometimes -artistic figures or bas-reliefs in wood are either coloured or gilded. -In the case of polychromatic work, the wood is generally coated with a -plaster preparation to receive the colour, and the technique for ageing -or giving a patina is that already described for stucco or clay work; -in the case of gilding, the appearance of age is given to the new gold -by colour veiling, also liquorice juice and burnt paper are used with -advantage applied to the gold with a soft brush. - -Ivory work too, which represents one of the most dangerous fields to -neophytic enterprise, requires no special technique in counterfeiting -as far as the artistic creation is concerned. It must also be tempting -to the carver as a material, for certain naïve effects of primitive -art seem aided by the essential qualities of the ivory, its fibrous -constitution in particular. One may safely say that there is nowadays -hardly a single genuine Byzantine Christ; there are, however, plenty on -the market of course. - -The old cracks of antique ivory are very easily imitated. There is -more than one method for producing them, the most common is to plunge -the piece into boiling water and then dry quickly before a fire. -The operation can of course be repeated until the desired effect is -attained. Here also smoke and tobacco-juice can perform miracles. -Sometimes ivory pieces are placed in a fermenting heap of fertilizer or -wet hay. The methods are, in fact, most varied, and an inventive spirit -seems of great assistance to the faker in devising new schemes every -day. - -We now come to the last class of this chapter, ceroplastics, which -includes all forms of modelled wax, small bas-reliefs supposed to have -been the originals of _plaquettes_, little family portraits in coloured -wax, etc. In this branch, patina and complicated methods to attain an -appearance of age hardly come into consideration, a mere touch of the -hand is at times sufficient to stain the wax, and work of this kind -takes the colouring so readily after it is modelled that no craft -is needed in imitating old wax work, provided the artist is able to -imitate the antique handiwork. Besides, wax portraits have been for the -most part kept under glass and have come down to us as fresh as though -made yesterday, not only those of a century or two ago but also those -that have reached a most respectable centennial age. Wax work is one of -the easiest to imitate and one of the most difficult to detect when -imitated. We are therefore inclined to advise the freshman collector to -abstain from buying this kind of work, unless irrefutable documentary -evidence is offered in the shape of a well-authenticated pedigree of -the work. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -FAKED POTTERY - - Faked pottery--Old unglazed types--Artistic and scientific - interest in pottery--Oriental glazed pottery--Greek and - Etruscan half-glazed vases--Faience and its various types-- - Italian factories, Cafaggiolo, Urbino, etc.--Iridescent glazes, - Hispano-Moresque, Deruta and Gubbio--French pottery--Faked - Palissy and imitations of Henri II--Other types of French - faience--China, the old and modern composition of china-- - Various ways of faking china of good marks--Half-faked pieces - --Blunders in marks--Glasses and enamels. - - -Pottery presents one of the richest and most varied fields for -imitation and faking. The endless types and specialities of this class -seem to have spurred the versatile genius of the imitator. - -Broadly speaking, and age apart, pottery may be divided into two -classes: one in which glazing does not appear, and one in which this -important element of ceramics lends an entirely different character to -the product. - -The first class more especially, if not exclusively, may be grouped -into two types according to character: those that interest the -scientist in particular, and those that come more into the domain of -the artist and art lover. It is of course understood that there is no -definite line of demarcation between the two. - -Faking, however, with a great spirit of impartiality, makes no -distinctions and is ready to meet its clients on the scientific or -artistic field, and fully prepared to accommodate the scientist with an -artistic bent or the artist possessing the learned propensities of the -historian. - -Thus Mexican idols and Peruvian pottery, as well as the productions -of savage tribes, are imitated and copied with the same interest as -the unglazed vases of Samos, Greek clay urns and Roman lamps. What -regulates the increase of the forger’s activities and spurs his genius -is, as we have said, the demand for an article and its price. - -There is nothing surprising then in the fact that some rather -indifferent types of pottery of savage tribes, or incomplete aboriginal -specimens, should have been faked as though they presented the interest -of a _chef-d’œuvre_. Not altogether of this class, but certainly of -limited interest so far as art is concerned, are the Mexican articles -which have been among the most exploited by those who know that these -kinds of relics are in great demand by scientists as well as collectors -who have a passion for specialities. - -In the Exhibition of 1878, a group of scientists put the incautious -upon their guard by exhibiting a whole series of faked Mexican idols, -pottery and so forth. But as the articles, especially at that time, -were in great vogue, the warning was not sufficient for specialists and -collectors, and the show of faked Mexican art proved such a success -that it stirred the honesty or cynicism, we hardly know which, of -a Parisian dealer who conceived the notion to advertise his wares: -“Forgeries of Mexican idols, 5-25 francs.” - -Unglazed Oriental and Græco-Roman pottery, with its fine forms and -decorative character, has not only proved an attraction to the -collector but very tempting to the faker who finds no great difficulty -in imitating it. The way to render such pottery antique-looking is -easy. Acids may play their part here too, but they are hardly necessary -as the porous nature of the clay makes it able to absorb any kind of -hue, tone and dirt if buried in specially prepared ground or in a bed -of fertilizer. - -Curiously enough from one point of view, the imitation of this early -art generally flourishes on the very spot where the originals are -excavated, and still more odd is it that on more than one occasion -those duped were the very ones supposed to be good connoisseurs and -who took direct interest in the excavations. Thus it is that there -is an abundance of faked Samos, Rhodes and other specimens, in -collections now housed in museums. A superficial inspection of the -Cesnola collection in the Metropolitan Museum of New York, ought to be -sufficient to prove that even connoisseurs as good as Cesnola, are not -quite safe in this speciality against the trickery of modern imitators. - -With Greek, Campanian or Etruscan pottery that bears a peculiar polish -or glazing the nature of which is still a mystery to ceramists the -case is somewhat different; good imitations are rare. Naturally there -cannot be included among convincing imitations those upon which a lead -glaze has been used, as such imitations are covered with a thick layer -of shining glaze and are only intended for veriest neophytes who have -presumably never seen an original. Successful imitations are either -finished with a very thin and non-shining glaze or an encaustic polish. -To ascertain whether encaustic has been used, one has only to rub the -piece with a cloth soaked in benzine, which will soon turn it opaque. - -In the pottery museum of Sèvres there is an interesting series of -faked Greek and Etruscan vases, urns, etc. It comprises some good -specimens of the work of Touchard, an imitator flourishing about the -year 1835, other pieces by the Giustiniani of Naples, and some of the -most successful fakes of this particular kind of pottery, the pieces -by Krieg from the Rheinzabern factory. These pieces were sold to the -Sèvres Museum as genuine, by a Bavarian, in the year 1837. - -We are told that a good method in imitating Etruscan pottery is to work -with _engobe_, adding a well-ground _frit_ to the _barbotine_ that -contains the elements of a glaze. To our knowledge all imitations of -this kind are wanting in appearance and it is safe to assert that they -could hardly receive serious consideration from a true connoisseur. - -As regards glazed Oriental ceramics, there are to be noted some -good imitations of Persian work and, above all, imitations of the -characteristic pottery of Rhodes. Factories for these ceramics are -almost everywhere. Perhaps the best imitations come from a factory in -Paris. Imitations from this factory have succeeded in deceiving more -than one connoisseur. A well-known curator of a Berlin museum bought -one of these samples as genuine, paying eighty pounds for it, and an -antiquary of Florence, quite a specialist in ceramics, very nearly -committed the same mistake, but by good luck he was warned by a friend -who had been taught by hard experience that this Oriental pottery is a -product of very Western origin. Curiously enough the manufacturers do -not sell their produce for anything but imitations; however, through -the usual frauds in which the market in antiques abounds, these pieces -are evidently palmed off on unwary collectors outside France. Oriental -pottery is usually so well preserved, thanks to its hard glaze, that -the faker is spared all complicated processes to give the piece an -appearance of age. - -The glazed work of Hispano-Moresque pottery presents a more or less -successful field to imitators. The lustrous glaze of various hues does -not seem to offer difficulties to the modern ceramist, who has learned -how to use the mysterious co-operation of smoke in the so-called muffle -glaze. Yet when confronted with originals, which are becoming rarer and -rarer in the market every day, the best of imitations leaves room for -meditation as the genuine is usually a very uncomfortable neighbour to -the counterfeit. - -The Italian Renaissance with its various and interesting types has -yielded a fine crop of imitations. In fact plagiarism was already -rampant when the old factories, now extinct, were in full activity. -Thus on more than one occasion Faenza has copied Cafaggiolo, and the -models of Urbino, Pesaro and Casteldurante are often interchanged, -while the factory of Savona seems to have blended its unmistakable -individuality with the models of all the most successful factories. -Cafaggiolo, Gubbio and Derutha are perhaps the types of old Italian -pottery to which the faker has given preference. There are some modern -imitations of Cafaggiolo made by a ceramist of Florence so well done -that they have deceived the best connoisseurs of Paris and Berlin. But -for the fact that we have pledged ourselves to point out the sins -and not the sinners or their victims, we could enumerate a rather -interesting list of illustrious victims to this clever imitator of -Cafaggiolo, who is still at work in Florence and more dangerous every -day by reason of the perfecting of his deceitful art. - -There are also old imitations of Cafaggiolo, made by the Sicilian -factory of Caltagirone, and if one thing surprises us more than another -it is that good collectors should buy this type freely as genuine. They -are apparently blind to the grossness of the imitation and above all -to its dark, dirty blue which has nothing in common with the beautiful -colour of a genuine Cafaggiolo. - -Another cherished type offering great enticement to the Italian faker, -even though not imitated successfully enough to take in the real -expert, is the work of Della Robbia. Imitations of this work, copies -from good originals and honestly sold as such, are to be seen at one of -the most important potteries of Florence, Cantagalli, a firm of almost -historical reputation. Being intended to be sold as reproductions, -copies or imitations, no patina is given to these. - -It is not only in Italy that Italian faience has been freely imitated -but also in other countries, particularly France. Among the successful -imitators we may quote Joseph Devers, who made such good imitations of -Italian faience that he had the honour to sell some of his specimens -to the Sèvres Museum in 1851. Looking now at these imitations of Della -Robbia, made so successfully by Devers in 1851, one wonders how they -could have been taken for genuine by experienced connoisseurs. - -The lustre work of Maestro Giorgio Andreoli and Derutha has been -imitated by many factories, but, notwithstanding the efforts put forth -and the progress made in discovering the secret of lustrous glazing, -the imitations, especially of Maestro Giorgio, are deficient. In the -Gubbio work of the best epoch a special firing must have been used, -especially for the red hue, which is so original and characteristic -that it seems to defy imitation. That the Maestro Giorgios must have -been glazed at a low temperature, at any rate for the production of the -iridescent effect of the colours, may be concluded from an incident -that occurred in Gubbio years ago. On the spot where Maestro Giorgio -is supposed to have had his furnace for firing his masterpieces, some -debris of fine Gubbio work was found. By chance a woman put one of -these pieces that had apparently not received the last firing for the -iridescent hue into the warming pan with which she was warming her -hands, and the moderate heat of the ashes was sufficient to produce the -iridescent effect. Imitators of this kind of work use various methods, -but one of the most common is muffled glaze, specially prepared and -aided by smoke which envelopes the piece when incandescent and the -glaze about to melt. - -In France the hard-glazed work of Palissy was naturally an incentive to -the imitator’s versatile aptitude, and later on to the faker’s. Being -as esteemed for his work, as ill-treated for his religious convictions, -Palissy had many imitators in his own time, mostly among his pupils or -enthusiastic followers. However, Palissy died in the Bastille without -revealing the secret of his glaze or the composition of his clay, so -even his followers could only grope in the dark, to use the expression -by which Palissy defined his long and arduous research, before he -discovered the secret of his marvellous pottery. Perhaps because -plagiarists are, after all, always plagiarists, the fact remains that -none of the sixteenth and seventeenth-century imitators reached the -level of the master. - -However, false Palissys are legion now. They are of all kinds and the -originals being now practically off the market, museums, as usual, -abounding in pseudo-Palissys, so a comparison with an original is not -always possible. - -Apart from his immediate followers, Palissy was copied and imitated -at Avon near Fontainebleau in the seventeenth century during Louis -XIII reign. Demmin, a real authority on Palissy ceramics, mentions -many false Palissys now in museums, some of them regular _pastiches_, -suggested from well-known prints of a later date than Palissy. -According to Demmin, some of these pieces are in the Victoria and -Albert Museum, the motives of the composition, old-fashioned gardens, -being taken from engravings in the style of Lenotre, possibly dating -between 1603 and 1638. - -In modern times there are to be noted imitations by Alfred Corplet, -a restorer of pottery who filled the market after the year 1852 with -passable imitations, sold as such, of Palissy work. For a long time -he had been a restorer of broken and damaged Palissy work and thus he -had had opportunity to study the work of the master closely, and at -one time his imitations fetched high prices. A. M. Pull also imitated -Palissy work about the year 1878, as well as Barbizet Brothers, of -whom a _plat à reptiles_ is kept in the Sèvres Museum. Some firms even -reproduce sea-fish which are never found on genuine Palissys, as the -master only moulded such animals and fish as he found in the environs -of Paris. - -There are many fakers who still love to imitate the work of Palissy, -and if we may give advice to the inexperienced collector we would say: -“Don’t go after Palissys nowadays, as a find in this line is almost an -impossibility; good originals are either kept in well-known collections -or jealously guarded in museums.” - -Henry II faience, the technique of which is as much a mystery as -Bernard Palissy’s glaze, has also been imitated, but, with the -exception of a few specimens, the imitations are so coarse that they -could hardly be dangerous even to the neophyte who had perchance some -slight acquaintance with originals. As in the case of Palissy, however, -Henry II ceramics do not abound on the market and such a thing as a -find is not to be hoped for. - -More common are the imitations of Rouen, Moustiers, down to the -ceramics of the Revolution. The latter were at one time in such demand -that a very commercial type was produced which can be imitated, of -course, with ease. In this field also, therefore, do not get excited -too quickly over some truculent subject with the conspicuous date -of the Terror. Naturally among these subjects, the _assiettes au -confesseur_ and _à la guillotine_, depicting the execution of Louis -XVI, are too tempting to forgers not to be given a certain preference -among the faked pottery of the Revolution. - -We would point out, further, that the pottery of all parts of the world -has invariably been faked or imitated, as soon as a promise of success -was presented to the imitator and of gain to the faker, but it is not -the purpose of this work to make a long exposition of the countless -types of faking, which would considerably increase its bulk and risk -monotony by an endless list of names and almost identical facts with -the usual dramatis personæ--the cheater and the cheated. - -To give an appearance of age to pottery, especially glazed pottery, -there are various methods, as we have already said. - -Sometimes it is not only a question of determining whether an object is -genuine or not, but as pottery is apt to be one of the most restored -articles of antiquity offered to the collector, the art lover must -be acquainted with the means of detecting which parts of a piece of -pottery have been restored, often over-restored. There are two ways of -restoring pottery where parts are missing. One is to make the missing -part in clay, bake it, and glaze and colour it to imitate the genuine -part of the object. When this is done the new part is cemented to the -old, and the piece is supposed to have been only broken and mended, a -fact which does not lessen the value of the object in the eyes of the -collector so much as incompleteness would. As this operation is an -extremely difficult one which only a few specialists can perform--there -is a Florentine ceramist who does it to perfection--and very expensive -as well, only really fine pieces of pottery are restored in this way as -a rule. Ordinary pieces are repaired as follows. The fragments of the -object are carefully cemented together and the missing parts are then -supplied with plaster. Some use plaster mixed with glue, others some -similar composition, in fact any soft substance will do if it will -harden after it has been modelled and properly shaped. When the missing -parts have been filled in and carefully polished with sand-paper, they -are prepared for oil paint with a light coating of a weak solution of -glue. After this the artist paints in the missing pattern with oil -colours and a brush, copying from the original parts of the object. -This finished, the glaze is imitated by a coat of varnish. - -Incredible as it may sound, in the hands of a clever artist this rather -clumsy method produces an almost complete illusion. It is, however, -easy to ascertain what parts have been repaired. The new parts are -warmer to the touch than the glazed pottery, and they will also smell -of turpentine or oil paint. Should an old mending have lost all smell, -the heat of the hand is sufficient to revive it. Place your finger for -a time on the part you suspect, and then smell it and you will be able -to detect whether the part has been repainted with oil colours. A piece -repaired by the other method is naturally more difficult to detect; an -experienced eye, however, will notice some slight differences in colour -and form between the old and the new parts, and sometimes the join is -not quite perfect, a defect that is often remedied by filling in the -crack with a mastic imitating the glazed ground of the piece. This -rarely occurs, however, as a good repairer can generally calculate to a -nicety the shrinkage of the part to be added and makes such a neat and -perfect fit that only an experienced eye can detect it. - -In the case of a purely modern imitation, the faker’s art consists, -as usual, in giving the piece a convincing appearance of age, once -the actual making has been performed. This is generally effected by -exposure to apparent ill-usage, by greasing and smoking the object, -then cleaning it and repeating the operation over and over again till -the dirt has penetrated into all the cracks, or by burying it in a -manure-heap and letting it remain till it has lost all freshness. There -are also chemical ways by which the glaze is eaten and its composition -altered. It is a fact that fluoric acid readily eats the glaze just -as it dissolves glass, and under certain circumstances the lead in -the glaze under the form of silicate changes under the action of -hydrosulphuric acid. - -Cracks or a regular network of _craquelage_ are generally produced -on new ceramics by the same principle as they are obtained on oil -paintings, namely, by producing artificially a difference in the -shrinkage capacity of two superimposed layers. In oil painting it is -the layer of pigment and of varnish, in the case of pottery the two -layers are represented by the baked clay and the glaze. If the clay -has a smaller shrinkage than the glaze, in the second firing of the -piece to melt the glaze, the latter will dry in a network of cracks -like those on Chinese or Japanese vases, which are reproduced by this -method. Reversing the game, the glaze peels off here and there in -drying and produces the imperfections sometimes desired on imitations -of old and damaged pottery. - -An artificial disproportion between the shrinkage of the clay and -the glaze is usually obtained by modifying the quality of either the -one or the other. Does the clay shrink more in the firing than is -desired, the ceramist generally mixes it with non-shrinking elements -such as powdered brick, or even another kind of clay which he knows -must shrink less on account of its composition, although it may not -be suitable in colour and quality. By this same modification of the -composition the shrinkage of the glaze is increased or diminished. -Glazes are generally composed of a combination of silex, furnished by -sand, and oxide of lead with the addition of some flux such as borax. -With an increased quantity of silex in the composition of the glaze the -shrinkage capacity is diminished. Consequently a predominance of the -other elements, lead, flux, etc., produces the opposite effect, namely, -giving the glaze a greater shrinkage capacity. Some workmen prefer to -modify the quality of the clay to obtain the desired _craquelage_, -others find it more practical to modify the glaze. - -A full account of faked china would probably fill a bulky volume. It -may be taken for granted that every kind of artistic china worth -imitating has tempted the faker, with disastrous results to the unwary -collector. We have mentioned some of the most noted forgeries of -faience, merely to show what a happy hunting-ground ceramics have been -to the faker of all times, and with china this is doubly the case. From -the early attempts of Bottger, those rare specimens of rare china, down -to almost modern samples of Sèvres there has been a long succession of -types that have kept generations of fakers and imitators incessantly -busy. - - * * * * * - -Curiously enough and with no intention of cheating, as far as china -is concerned, noted factories have themselves greatly added to -the confusion between originals and copies by becoming their own -plagiarists, as it were, by imitating old kinds. Thus the Meissen -factory now puts upon the market types of old Dresden very satisfactory -to people not intimately familiar with the fine old models of -the factory. The same has been done at Sèvres, Doccia and other -factories. Then, too, in some cases the plagiarism is furnished with -distinguishing marks that have increased the confusion--for the -neophyte collector, be it understood. - -It is well known, for instance, that before closing its doors towards -the end of the eighteenth century, the Capodimonte factory sold all -the models of the factory to Ginori’s noted china works at Doccia, and -together with the models the right to use the N surmounted by a crown -which was the Capodimonte factory mark. Ginori’s factory has ever since -reproduced imitation Capodimonte with the mark of the Royal Neapolitan -factory. Of course the pieces may be sold by the firm as Ginori ware -and not as Capodimonte, but once on the market they are sure to come -into the possession of some unscrupulous dealer who will palm them off -as Capodimonte. - -A good connoisseur, however, can tell, almost at sight, the real -Capodimonte from the ones Ginori’s factory has been turning out for -more than a century. The latter are not so fine in form or colour, -and although made from the same mould are not so well finished and -retouched as the real Capodimonte. - -Apart from this, a large contribution to imitations of highly reputed -china is made by smaller factories that find it convenient and -profitable to copy pieces of celebrated marks. Some of these factories -even go so far as to imitate the mark, rendering the deception perfect. - -There is another form of deceit in the market for artistic china, -peculiar to this particular branch. Many factories are in the habit -of disposing of such artistic pieces as are not considered altogether -up to the reputation of the factory. These pieces are often bought by -clever workmen who embellish them with skill and patience, and then -sell them profitably. If the mark is missing it is added with muffled -colours. To obviate this irregularity some of the best factories either -erase the mark on the wheel, or cut certain lines in the glaze which -indicate that the piece is genuine but not recognized by the factory -as up to its standard of artistic value. Of course even a moderately -expert collector knows the indelible sign made over the genuine mark, -but there, nevertheless, seem to be people who buy such pieces under -the impression that they are genuine first-rate Dresden, whereas no -other claim can be made than that the white background and the mark are -authentic, both baked _a gran fuoco_ as the decoration is generally -muffled work and can be executed by any skilled workman who has built -a muffle in his own house. Nowadays defective pieces are destroyed by -reputable firms; but years ago they were not only sold off, but even -given to the very factory men, who took them home, decorated them and -put them on the market as genuine pieces. Some of these curious fakes -are naturally almost as good as the genuine article, being at times -the work of the same artist and the defect of the first firing is not -always visible as a slight curve in a dish, or a tiny speck in the -glaze of a vase, is a sufficient blemish for the piece to be thrown -aside by the factory. - -Where the faker does not always display his usual sharpness is in -the falsification of marks of noted factories. He is apt to make -gross mistakes by copying a mark from an original without knowing the -historical characteristics of the marks of certain factories, their -peculiarities and eventual changes. Take, for instance, the Sèvres -mark. It is known that instead of dating the pieces in figures, the -Sèvres factory began in the year 1753 to mark the pieces with an -A between the entwined initials of the King’s name, and that each -successive year was marked by the French alphabet till the letter Z was -reached in 1776, after which the alphabet was repeated again, doubling -each letter, thus:-- - - 1753 A - 1776 Z - 1777 AA - 1793 ZZ - -It is, however, not unusual to see a faked piece of Sèvres imitating -the work of the end of the eighteenth century wrongly marked as to -date, the faker having evidently copied the mark from an original, -unaware that it represented a date as well. This incredible ignorance -can only be explained by the fact that many of these clever imitators, -are artists altogether unacquainted with any information outside their -imitative art. There are also other difficulties in the imitation of -Sèvres and its marks, more especially the pieces of the above series, -of which the faker appears to be unaware. Beside the factory mark, in -the alphabet series particularly, there is always the special mark of -the artist who did the decoration. These marks are generally not very -conspicuous, initials, dots, lines, etc., and belong to specialists, -miniature portrait painters, landscapists or simple decorators. By -copying the old marks mechanically without knowing the information -carried by the artist’s initials or marks, the faker is liable to -attribute a piece of faked landscape painting to a portraitist and vice -versa. Errors of this kind are more common than is generally supposed. - -In faked china there is no question of patina or devices by which to -confer an appearance of age to the piece, nor of artificial breakages -for, by a freak of connoisseurship and contrary to faience, repaired -china has lost in a great many cases all artistic and monetary value. - -We now turn to glassware and enamels as bearing a certain affinity in -the domain of faked art and antiquities with the glazed pottery already -illustrated. - -The museum of Saint-Germain contains specimens of faked Roman glass -with iridescent effect produced by the queer scheme of sticking fish -scales to one side, which as every one knows are iridescent. A most -naïve form of faking to which later progress in the grand and artistic -profession of duping unwise collectors hardly renders it necessary for -imitators to have recourse. - -Phœnician glass, the little scent bottles, the so-called lachrymatories -or tear-bottles, furnish a large source of profit to the faker. They -do not command high prices, and appeal to the less fastidious class of -collectors, tourists, and are sure of finding purchasers. Interment in -earth or manure gives the desired iridescent quality to the glass in -time. - -From these antique types we will proceed to others of more recent times -which demand more care and skill to imitate, not so much on account -of the art as the peculiar defects of certain kinds. While Cologne -distinguishes herself with imitations of specimens of old glass, the -so-called product of excavation, and other cities of Germany reproduce -old national types, Italy has revived old Murano with a certain amount -of success, as well as various kinds of Quattrocento and later samples. - -These imitations are not always made with the intention to deceive and -their success depends upon the class of collector. He who has perfected -his taste finds that although they may approximate to the old originals -materially, artistically they are wanting. The excess of precision that -belongs to modern reproductions somewhat lessens the artistic effect -and forms one of the salient differences between old and new. - -But these after all are not dangerous, they represent the cabotage on -the sea of deceit; there are also fine pieces of real artistic value -that are imitated by artists of every nation such as old Bohemian -_chefs-d’œuvre_, Murano chandeliers, the latter sometimes composed of -old and modern parts. - -Cut glass is another branch in which the skilful imitator has -triumphed. The work of Valerio Belli and others is so well imitated -that even the best connoisseurs are deceived. - -With regard to enamels we would repeat the usual refrain, do not buy -them until you know whence they come, and until you have traced at -least two or three centuries of well-authenticated pedigree. - -There are ordinary imitations in the antique market which are quite -easily distinguished, but there are others, regular _chefs-d’œuvre_ -of art and craft, that defy and have, in fact, defied experience and -knowledge. - -Not all imitations are by Laudin or Noailher, whose work may be of -interest to the accommodating taste of lovers of imitations, but there -are products of a higher grade, unfortunately for collectors and -museums, and these are not sold as imitations, but good round sums have -been paid for them and they have, in a way, ruined the reputation of -more than one collector and expert. - -The technique of the work is identical with that of the past, and -the process for giving an appearance of age very much resembles that -already described in this chapter, though there are some fakers -who claim to have found a patina that cannot be dissolved, being -incorporated with the enamel as a glaze obtained in the second firing. -The many lawsuits and summonses at the Courts with respect to the -buying and selling of counterfeit enamels, are ample proof that faking -is rampant also, in this interesting branch of art collecting. - -It suffices to say that among the illustrious victims of faked enamels -there is to be included the elder Baron Rothschild, or _le Baron -Alphonse_ as he was briefly called among antiquaries. - -The first of his bad experiences in faked enamel was revealed to the -wealthy Baron by Mr. Mannheim, one of the finest and most honest -connoisseurs of Paris, then taking his first steps in the traffic -with antiques. From the first, Mannheim had an excellent eye and he -discovered that a place of honour was being given to a false piece in -Baron Alphonse’s rare series of choicest enamels. At first he did not -dare to reveal the secret, but after having gained the certitude that -not only the one piece, but others also, of the collection were more or -less clever fakes, he took the opportunity to speak that was offered -one day by the Baron’s praise of this fine piece of enamel. - -At first the Baron was of course obstinate in his unbelief, but upon -a final test and the opinion of other experts, Mannheim’s good eye -finally triumphed. The _chef-d’œuvre_ and other spurious pieces for -which the multi-millionaire had paid a fortune disappeared from the -collection. - -Long after the above experience with which Mannheim’s name was -connected, Rothschild bought an altar-piece of immense value and great -artistic merit. This fine enamel had been sold to the Baron by a London -dealer, who had evidently bought the piece as an antique and did not -scruple to sell the rarity to his best client for one million lire. - -Having been told by his dealer that the enamel had originally come -from Vienna, Baron Rothschild one day pointed it out to an Austrian -attaché, his guest, commenting upon its beauty and his own good fortune -in having it in his possession. He concluded by expressing his surprise -that Austria should let such a fine work of art cross the frontier. -The attaché said nothing in the presence of the other guests, and only -whispered to his host “I will come to-morrow to tell you what I think -of your find!” The next day, in fact, he returned and revealed to the -Baron how he had been deceived in what he thought to be a precious -original, as it was nothing but a copy of a well-known altar-piece -preserved in Vienna. He was even able to name the man who had made the -copy of the precious enamel, a certain Werninger who had secretly made -a reproduction while restoring the original. - -The Baron claimed and obtained his million from the London dealer, -whose good faith in this affair was beyond question, and a warrant was -issued against Mr. Werninger. The dealer did not recover the price he -had paid but Mr. Werninger was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment, -ample time in which to meditate upon the reprehensible side of his -alluring art. - -As usual we must conclude the illustration of this particular branch -of the trade with a warning, for if Baron Rothschild had to regret the -acquisition of expensive enamels, and he is not the only conspicuous -connoisseur to do so, what is the fate likely to overtake the first -exploits of a neophyte in the field! If not assisted by a first-rate -expert, the freshman had better not meddle with enamels for a long -time, but assuage his passion by going and admiring well-known and -authentic pieces in famous museums. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -METAL FAKES - - Metal work--The bronze family: brass, copper, and their various - colours and patinæ--Beaten iron work--Arms and armour-- - Artificial rust and chemical oxidation--When the imitators of - arms and armour used steel and when iron--Cast iron pieces-- - Chemical tests--Difficulties in the connoisseurship of arms - and the story of three shields--Old and modern imitations-- - Silver work--Its colour and oxidization--Why artistic pieces - in precious metal are in danger of being destroyed--Fashion one - of the dangers of silver plate--How far reliance may be placed - in marks--Gold work--The tiara of Saitafernes--Jewels and - their extreme rarity--Imitations and forgeries of all ages-- - Advice to the non-initiated in the art of buying jewels. - - -When speaking in another part of this work about the methods of -conferring an appearance of age to newly cast bronze, we remarked that -the faker’s best accomplice in the ageing process was chemistry. The -colouring and bronzing of metals in fact is usually accomplished by one -of two methods, by the action of chemicals or by the application of -bronze powders rendered impalpable and used as a pigment. - -The latter method is mostly used in modern industrial art, but has, -nevertheless, been applied in imitating antiques and in disguising -mended parts, etc. It is often used with success in the case of -imitations of excavated objects which generally have a bluish-green -patina. This may be imitated to deceive the eye of the beginner only, -by the application of green-bronze lacquer of a dull lustre, or of -green varnish. The green of the bronze colour is best prepared by -mixing Frankfort black with chrome yellow. - -These are, however, but cheap and not always convincing expedients, -the real way to give tone and colour to bronze and other metals is by -resort to chemistry. - -A brown colour on bronze, for instance, may be obtained by preparing a -sand bath large enough to contain the article to be bronzed. When the -object has been cleansed from all grease by dipping in boiling potash -lye, it is treated with white vinegar. After this preliminary operation -the object is wiped thoroughly dry and then rubbed with a linen rag -moistened with hydrochloric acid. When this coating is perfectly dry--a -quarter of an hour is sufficient--the article must be heated in the -sand bath until it has acquired a bluish tint, and a final rubbing with -a linen rag soaked in olive oil will change the blue colour to brown. - -Recipes and processes are endless and so rich in hues that almost any -tone may be obtained. To any interested in this branch of imitating old -metals we can but suggest the excellent book, _The Metal Worker’s Handy -Book_, edited by William T. Brannt. - -As we have said, there are many methods by which to give the proper -patina to metals, and a good deal of mystery, some fakers and imitators -claiming to be in possession of unrevealed secrets. - -When exposed to the air for a long time, copper and bronze acquire a -fine brown or green patina which, as every collector knows, greatly -enhances the merits of an artistic piece in these two metals. A perfect -imitation of the result of a long process of time is not an easy -matter, in fact an almost impossible task. - -Formerly the patina of a bronze was in a way the final test of -authenticity, but nowadays there are modern imitations of so deceptive -a character that the best connoisseurs are taken in. - -One of the best known methods by which old patina is imitated on -copper and bronze, is to follow as closely as possible the process -by which the genuine patina is produced. Thus the action of rain, -interment, immersion in some permeating substance that will generate -hydrosulphuric acid are called into service by those willing to wait -a comparatively long time for the desired effects. Others accelerate -the above process by increasing the proportion of the natural conducive -elements. The objects are also treated with water containing ammonia, -carbonic acid, etc., exposed to the intense and direct action of vapour -or vaporized acid in order to produce those basic salts that form a -certain patina. - -To obtain the malachite kind of patina that generally characterizes -objects found in the ground, the imitator generally brushes the metal -over with a very weak solution of cupric nitrate to which a small -quantity of common salt in solution may be added. When completely dry -it is again brushed over with a liquid consisting of one hundred parts -of weak vinegar, five of sal-ammoniac and one of oxalic acid, and the -application is repeated after the first has dried. In about a week’s -time the metal will have acquired a green-brown colour that may be -polished with encaustic if the patina is to have a shiny appearance. - -Such is the leitmotiv, more or less, of the processes for obtaining -the green or brown-green patinæ. Some dip the object in cupric acid -and then place it in a room in which an excess of carbonic acid is -produced, by others preference is given to one or the other element -according to the tone and colour desired. - -Brass articles are coated with green patina by a solution containing -150 parts of vinegar to which has been added ten parts of copper -dissolved in twenty of nitric acid. An application of this liquid is -generally made on the object. - -The brown patina usually characterizing old medals is obtained in many -ways. One is by heating the medal at the flame of a spirit lamp and -then brushing it with graphite. To colour a number of medals at the -same time, some imitators dissolve thirty parts of verdigris and thirty -parts of sal-ammoniac in ten of water, adding water to the solution -till a precipitate is no longer formed. Then the medals are placed in a -shallow dish without touching one another and the boiling solution is -poured over them. The medals are allowed to remain in the solution till -they have acquired the desired tint, which should be a fine brown. - -Green or bluish patinæ may also be given to bronze or copper by -triturated copper carbonate used as a paint with a pale spirit varnish, -shellac or sandarac, and applied with a brush. - -Verdigris generally gives a bluish tint and crystallized verdigris a -pale green tint. The two tones can be mingled to obtain some special -hue. - -Iron work is perhaps one of the easiest to imitate and give an -appearance of antiquity. As far as the actual work is concerned, -it rests entirely upon the skill and artistic taste of the worker. -Patina on iron is either caused simply by rust or by a slow process -of oxidation which confers a rich, dark tone to iron. There is also a -special patina seen on iron that has been under water for a long time, -but this is rare in imitations and very difficult to obtain. - -The rusty coating on iron can be produced by almost any preparation -capable of oxidizing the surface or transforming it into basic salt -provided a red colour results, as with nitric or hydrochloric acid, for -instance. - -The brown patina is often obtained by oiling the piece and exposing it -to the direct action of flame. The two methods may be alternated and -the corrosion of the acid here and there adds character to the piece. -Methods are so various, however, that the way to obtain a convincing -patina is perhaps contained in the dictum of an Italian antiquary: “To -inflict upon the object that is to be turned into an antique every -possible indignity and abuse.” - -The patina in imitations of old iron work is so well reproduced -nowadays that even experts are unable to distinguish the real from the -unreal with certainty, so much so that more than one has had recourse -to an analysis of the composition of the iron in order to decide -whether the object were modern or antique. - -[Illustration: LAMP DESIGNED BY PROFESSOR ORLANDINI, Jun.] - -[Illustration: MANTEL-PIECE. - -By Prof. Orlandini, an honest imitator of the Renaissance, who is -responsible for many fine pieces of ornamental work and many good -restorations of antique works.] - -This justifies the verdict of Moreau, an expert and celebrated artist -in iron, who when called upon to decide whether a certain artistic key -exhibited at the Paris World Exhibition of 1878 were really of ancient -workmanship, replied that he could not tell unless he were allowed -to break the key and examine the grain of iron. - -Italy is one of the countries where the imitation of old iron is -traditional. In olden times it was the work of Caparra and other -artists of the Renaissance that were imitated, nowadays old models are -reproduced for the benefit of the tourist, and some are conceived in -the old style with extreme perfection for those collectors who go in -for originals and who buy this modern work as genuine _chefs-d’œuvre_ -of the Quattrocento and Cinquecento. - -Florence, Venice, and the town of Urbino furnish the Italian market -with the best imitations of old candelabra, andirons, gates, lamps, -and keys; in fact everything that is likely to attract the tourist or -please the collector. - -Nearly every country possesses good imitators of artistic old iron, -which is perhaps due to the fact that such imitations do not require -any great artistic ability, nor is the coat of rust on modern iron a -matter incurring expense or complicated methods. The most difficult in -this field are the imitations of arms of all kinds, which require a -skilful workman and often a finished artist in iron work. - -In this particular branch of faking it is not only a question of -reproducing old weapons of a national character, but the forger -frequently turns his attention to imitating arms of exotic type. We all -know that Constantinople is the place _par excellence_ for imitations -of old Oriental arms and armour, but very few are aware that when -they buy an Oriental poignard or Turkish gun ornamented with passages -from the Koran in Africa, for instance, they are buying goods made -in Germany. As a matter of fact, however, German factories supply -Oriental maritime markets with all their fine arms. We still recollect -the amazement of an American tourist who on returning from a fair near -Tangiers showed the hotel-keeper his find, a fine Morocco knife with -a carved scabbard in brass, and was told that it was German. As he -persisted in his incredulity, the hotel-keeper showed him the mate of -his bargain, which had been presented to him by the German commercial -traveller who had lodged in his hotel. - -As usual, collectors of the genre being diverse as to taste and calibre -as connoisseurs, the accommodating faker has goods to suit the varied -scale of his clients, or rather there are fakers of arms and armour -like the Venetian rubbish which is for easily pleased greenhorns, and -others producing fine goods for the man of exquisite taste such as -the product of Vienna, Belgium, France, and sundry Italian artists of -forged steel. We have purposely made a distinction by saying sundry -Italian artists, because while the imitation of arms in other countries -assumes the character of factory work of extremely good quality, in -Italy the artist who forges steel, chisels it and imitates old weapons, -is usually a solitary worker in his own home, a fact that makes him -far more dangerous to the collector. These artists are often simply -imitators of the old style whose work is sold by others as antique. -One of them used to live in Lucca whose imitations of old daggers -_cinquedee_ or _lingue di bove_ have become famous. Another in a town -of Northern Italy, imitates Negroli and Milanese work with uncommon -success. - -Many of these artists, who imitated and copied old damascened work -to perfection, with no thought of cheating, have executed fine work -that can stand upon its own merits so to say. Such, for instance, is -the work of Zuloaga, the father of the painter of that name, and of -another Spaniard of repute in the artistic world, Mariano Fortuny. -This excellent painter was also a first-rate chiseller and good artist -in damascened work. He imitated the Moresque style to perfection. At -the sale that took place after his death, one of his productions, a -damascened sword, fetched the price of 15,000 francs, and was sold with -no other recommendation than that of being a modern imitation of the -antique by Mariano Fortuny. - -In a letter written to the well-known amateur Baron Davillier, Fortuny -speaks of a flourishing factory near his studio in which excellent -imitations of armour were made, chiefly repoussé shields. It may be -taken for granted that if such a judge as Fortuny called the imitation -of this Roman work excellent, some of them are at present enriching -well-known collections. - -There is a scarcity of genuine pieces on the market, in fact hardly a -single fine Cinquecento sword or halberd is to be seen in shops now or -is for sale. The few still obtainable are poor specimens as a rule, and -this fact ought to put the neophyte on his guard when he is offered -some gorgeously ornamented sword, pike, ranseur or partisan lavishly -chased and gilded. - - * * * * * - -Some years ago an elegant lady was asked why the fair sex preferred to -dress elaborately rather than in the stylish simplicity of tailor-made -gowns, to which she replied, “Perhaps because it is less expensive.” In -a way the fine plain swords and unornamented pieces of armour are more -difficult to fake; they would seem to demand the same eye for form as -a perfectly cut, well-fitting, simple tailor-made gown. This combined -with the collector’s cheap taste in arms may be the reason why the -faker gives preference to imitations loaded with chased or damascened -ornamentation, and enriched with gilding and elaborate arabesques. - -The rarity of imitations of fine weapons characterized by elegant -lines, simplicity and sobriety of ornament, suggested to the author -some years ago the solution to a difficult problem propounded by Baron -Nathaniel Rothschild. - -When called to Baron Rothschild’s magnificent mansion in Vienna, I -found this rich and sagacious collector had received two fine swords -that were being offered for sale. One was simplicity itself, the other -over-ornamented and lavishly gilded on blade and hilt. - -“Which do you advise me to buy? I must decide between the two.” - -To be frank, they both looked genuine to me, but the Baron’s question -roused a suspicion in my mind that one of the two swords was a forgery. - -“I should buy this one,” I answered, pointing to the sword almost -deprived of ornament. - -“You have a good eye,” complimented the Baron. “The other sword is an -imitation, one of the most admirable I have ever seen.” - -My discernment, however, was merely based on the accepted aphorism that -the combination in art of simplicity and extreme elegance is difficult -to imitate, otherwise who knows but what I might not have selected the -faked sword. - -It must be added here, that an imitation can very rarely bear close -comparison with a genuine piece. The proximity of the genuine article -is always rather disastrous to the fake, and never more so than in the -case of arms and armour. This may be accounted for by the difference in -the modern methods of working and ornamenting steel. These methods not -only produce a difference in the raw and worked steel that connoisseurs -claim to distinguish, but the ornamentation itself is wrought by other -means. Engraved ornaments, especially on pieces that do not aim to -deceive first-rate connoisseurs, are rarely done by the old method but -preferably by acids. - -Damascening, such as is rarely done now even in the East, was a skilful -and complicated operation by which steel blades and armour were inlaid -with gold or silver ornamentations. The designs were first cut deep -into the steel with a burin, then the gold or silver was beaten in -with a hammer, not only until the surface was smooth, but until the -inset was securely worked into and held by all the irregularities of -the groove. Such work is now imitated by gilding over a rather shallow -groove obtained by the action of nitric acid. The sombre shine of old -steel is generally reproduced by a thin coat of _encaustic_. The sum -total of these differences, together with a certain loss of artistic -sense in the art, are the causes perhaps of the disastrous effect upon -fakery of a close proximity with genuineness, as above noted. - -This, of course, is in common cases, for, as we have said, there are -sporadic workers in steel who produce pieces that baffle the best -connoisseurs--as an artistic object cannot always be tested by -breaking it and examining the texture of the metal, which would be the -safest method at present. - -Here again we are forced to advise the new-comer in the field of -connoisseurship during his search for arms in his first enthusiastic -stage, to use more than one grain of salt with what he hears, and -several pounds of scepticism when he comes across what would seem to be -a real find. For over thirty years arms, we mean fine specimens, have -practically disappeared from the market. Pistols, guns and weapons of -a late epoch may still be seen, but not swords of the Quattrocento and -early Cinquecento. - -Also in this field the semi-faked article has the usual luck of -fetching a good price with the majority of collectors. Plain old -pistols are often embellished with all kinds of most seductive -additions. Mottoes are engraved or inlaid in silver on blades -originally simple but deprived of the elegant simplicity to which we -have already alluded. - -These, however, are the cheap articles of the trade; but the story -of three shields, a well-known incident still recounted among Paris -collectors, offers ample proof that there are also in this field -imitations that defy the best connoisseurs, as we have already said, -and gladly repeat, in order to render our warning to the novice all the -more emphatic. - -One of these skilled imitators flourished several years ago in Italy’s -chief rival in antiquities and faking. We refer, of course, to Spain. - -The first of the three identical shields, all of which came to Paris, -was palmed off on Mr. Didier-Petit, an excellent connoisseur, who -paid the good round sum of £400 for this fine piece of imitation. It -was repoussé work with a mythological subject in the centre, “Jove -fulminating the Titans.” The person to be struck down really, however, -was poor Mr. Didier-Petit, rather than the Titans, for on realizing -that he had been fooled he died of grief or apoplexy, brought on -by his disillusion, and wounded pride as a connoisseur. Under the -auctioneer’s hammer at a subsequent sale, the famous shield fetched £20. - -The second, of identical make, was very nearly passed off on Baron -Davillier, perhaps the most esteemed connoisseur of his time. Baron -Davillier was offered the rare piece in Spain. He was struck at first -by its beauty and appearance of authenticity as well as the plausible -story by which the owner explained his possession of such a valuable -object. The bargain was struck at £320 and, happy over his piece of -good luck, Baron Davillier, like a true collector, hastened to convey -his find safely to his home in Paris. Noticing at the Custom House -that the official treated his precious find with indifference, he -became suspicious, and his suspicion of having been cheated grew to -certainty before the end of the journey. It would take long to recount -the circumstances by which Baron Davillier recovered his £320, suffice -it to say that he did recover them and the Spaniard replaced the faked -shield in the panoply from whence the Baron had taken it down, swearing -all the time that it was genuine even though the Baron had seen another -like it, that there might be twins among articles of virtu, etc. - -But there was still the third of the shield triplet fated to come to -Paris, bought by the well-known expert called, or rather nicknamed, -Couvreur. Curiously enough, this third expert from one and the same -city was also a specialist in arms, as Baron Davillier might have -been considered, had his immense knowledge not conferred upon him the -character of a specialist in almost every branch of connoisseurship. - -[Illustration: PLAQUETTES OF VARIOUS ARTISTS. - -Imitations of Roman work.] - -Where did Couvreur buy this third shield? From the very man who tried -to cheat Baron Davillier. It appears it was not the same shield as -the Baron’s, though of identical workmanship, for there were trifling -differences between it and the fake No. 2 to reach Paris. Couvreur had -paid a fine price for his find, £800. He never recovered his money and -created a scandal by presenting the piece for exhibition at the World’s -Show of 1878, insulting the judges upon their refusal to place it among -the genuine pieces. Thus he lived and died maintaining that all who -believed the piece to be a fake were fools. - -This story only goes to prove that in every branch of imitation or -faking there exist some artists of unusual talent able almost to -attain perfection. Those who remember the story of the famous Gladius -Rogieri quoted by Paul Eudel in his amusing book, _Le Truquage_, and -all the discussion held in Court over this supposed sword of the -valiant King Robert of Sicily, are aware how a good connoisseur such -as M. Basilewski and a well-informed dealer like M. Nolivos can be -taken in by a fine piece of faking, and how a legion of experts may -give contrary evidence as to the authenticity of an object. And if -this could happen in Paris, one of the most enlightened cities as to -connoisseurship, and among a coterie of specialists, it may be imagined -what possibilities for deception are offered by America, that El Dorado -of fakers. - -While speaking of first-rate imitations by fakers conscientious enough -to use steel, we may add that there are successful imitations in which -iron and cast iron have been substituted for the orthodox metal for -weapons. - -The learned Demmin declares that “the casting which forgery has made -it very difficult to recognize” is a source of no little embarrassment -to collectors. He suggests that when there is a suspicion that a piece -is cast, an unimportant part of it should be filed and, as usual, the -texture of the material be examined. If under the magnifying glass the -grain appears coarser and very shiny, the piece has been cast. To tell -iron from steel Demmin suggests that a drop of sulphuric acid diluted -with water should be applied. If the action of this liquid turns the -metal black it is steel, if a greenish mark is made that can be easily -washed away with water, then it is iron. The black stain is produced on -steel because the acid eats into the iron and not the carbon contained -in the composition of steel. - -Before closing the topic of arms and armour, we may observe that -marks on these pieces, whether engraved or impressed, are hardly a -guarantee, as marks can be as easily imitated on these articles as -on any other kind of artistic imitation. In the case of weapons they -have even been imitated by workers contemporary with the artist they -fraudently copy, in order to take advantage of the high reputation of -certain marks. The work of a Missaglia, Domenico or Filippo Negroli, -however, is not only attested by the stamped name or _sigla_ but by the -inimitable sum total of their art. Many imitators have made a great -study of copying impressed marks, but have neglected or failed to copy -the individual characteristics that bear witness to an artist as much -as his signature. - -In the imitation and faking of ancient art in its various branches, -the methods and the results all differ so little that we fear to grow -monotonous in this brief sketch of the questionable trade when now -entering another class of metal work, that of silver and gold. - -The precious metals require no recipe for patinæ, as patinæ play -no part. This is especially so in the case of gold, but as naïve -collectors of all branches of art present the same idiosyncrasies, -it is evident that the general trend of trickery in the human comedy -is more or less identical, when allowance is made for the different -materials peculiar to each particular art. Indeed the whole matter -might be reduced to a simple equation with no unknown quantity, namely -a fool on one side and on the other a fraud which works out to a -positive and disastrous result for the former. - -In the case of silver, although there is not exactly a question of -patina properly so-called, there is certainly a question of colouring -or oxidizing, for old silver, as everyone knows, never keeps the -brightly shining appearance of a new piece. It rather improves with -time by the acquisition of a low, pleasing tonality which has a most -favourable effect, a sort of pleasing light and shade, which the flat -negative shininess of a new piece rarely possesses. - -In England the conservatism of the upper classes has preserved some -really genuine silver articles with duly authenticated pedigree. In -France the spirit of the Revolution may be responsible to a certain -extent for the scarcity of rich pieces of artistic silver, only long -before the _ruit hora_ of the Revolution various circumstances had -rendered the life of artistic silver precarious, risks to which all -artistic objects in precious metals are liable. Many fine pieces of -silver, in fact, were coined into money during Louis XIV’s time, when -the State became a financial wreck under the glorious reign of the -_Roi Soleil_. Changing fashion and taste also, combined with the fact -that the silver was for use and not collections, contributed to the -destruction of old types of silver-plate to make way for new ones more -in keeping with the new forms dictated by fashion or altered taste. -To the combined effect of financial distress and changing taste Italy -also owes the destruction of old silver that would otherwise have come -down to us intact, just as nowadays plated silver is likely to pass -undisturbed from one generation to another. - -It is not uncommon in Italy, to hear that some aristocratic family had -ancient silver melted down a few years ago, to make new and commonplace -table spoons and forks. A lady from Siena who did this for a whim, kept -one piece of the old silver service and was much astonished to learn -later that this one piece alone would have fetched a sum sufficient to -buy the coveted new set of table silver. In Italy, and more especially -in Tuscany, the heavy taxes levied by Napoleon during the occupation -forced many Florentine families to get rid of their silver-plate. As -a matter of fact in Italy and elsewhere fine pieces are very rare -nowadays. Yet a few years ago fickle fashion helped several people of -good taste to form excellent collections, gatherings of artistic pieces -that the art lover would seek in vain to-day. That was the happy time, -when old-fashioned and yet artistic silver was hardly reckoned above -the intrinsic value of the metal it contained. Fifty or so years ago -it was not uncommon for one of the few collectors of artistic silver -to come across some artistic beauty offered at so much a gramme, -generally a very moderate figure slightly above the current price of -the metal or at times at the actual value of the silver. To quote one -instance out of many. In 1855, at the sale held after the death of -Mlle. Mazencourt, some particularly fine flambeaux and other pieces of -silver were sold at the price of 20 centimes a gramme. Such conditions -explain how Baron Pichon, a collector of taste, was able to buy for the -moderate sum of 300 francs an artistic bowl which was sold at his death -for 14,000 francs, a price that could easily be surpassed nowadays. - -Unfortunately for the true collector, not only has old silver become -fashionable, but it has become fashionable to be a collector of -artistic silver, and thus real connoisseurship and ignorant greedy -wealth have started the usual competition that inevitably creates an -artificial standard of values, all too apt to generate faking. Faked -silver, in fact, came at once triumphantly to the front in forms of all -kinds, entirely new pieces successfully parading as old, were launched -upon the market as well as plain old pieces decked out with the heavy -ornamentation likely to suit the taste of the parvenu. There was also -the usual piecemeal of different authentic parts, joined together more -or less harmoniously by modern work, in fact all that the faker’s -genius and versatility is able to produce. - -Silver marks, which on genuine pieces guarantee the quality of the -metal and the authenticity of the piece as the work of a certain -artist, factory or mint, can, unfortunately, be imitated with success. -In fact the faker who is a good psychologist and knows that the -neophyte amateur relies largely upon his knowledge of marks, generally -expends great care upon the imitation of the various hall-marks. - -Though, as we have already said, silver has no patina properly -so-called, there is the tone and colour which has to be imitated. To -dull silver--to give it, we mean, the leaden-brownish colour acquired -by age--a mixture with sulphur or chlorine is used. A solution of -pentasulphide of potassium--the liver of sulphur of the shops--is -generally used. Liver of sulphur is prepared by thoroughly mixing and -heating together two parts of well-dried potash and one of sulphur -powder. This mixture also takes effect on cupriferous silver, but the -result is not so fine. A velvety black is obtained by dipping the -article into a solution of mercurous nitrate previous to oxidization. -This method is used when a half polish is to be given to the silver, -leaving the dark tones in the grooves. Another method consists of -dipping the article into chlorine water, a solution of chloride of -lime, or into _eau de Javelle_. Special works on metals also give many -other methods and it is for the imitator to chose the best adapted -for the particular case and to use his artistic criterion to obtain a -convincing effect. - -Passing on to gold, more especially in jewellery, we may say that -imitators and fakers have wrought havoc by filling the market with -spurious products. Imitation in this branch ranges from copying the -old art of working gold, of which the famous tiara of Saitaphernes, -bought by the Louvre, is one of the most striking examples, to the -small piece of jewellery with imitated enamels or more or less genuine -stones. In this line there is something to suit all tastes, from the -eager connoisseur, difficult to please, still on the look out for -the marvellous jewellery of the Rennaissance and early sixteenth -century, to the less exclusive, satisfied with later epochs down to the -eighteenth century. - -There is no way of helping the neophyte to collect jewellery, not only -because fine old pieces are extremely rare, but because no advice or -theoretical hints can help the discernment of the genuine article, only -sound and well-tested experience, gained often at great cost, is of any -real avail. - -In this branch also there are imitations that are entirely new and -others, like the above-said tiara, that have become such by the -preponderance of restored parts, or because the latter are the most -important artistically speaking. In the tiara of Saitaphernes the -genuine part, if genuine, is the upper portion of the domed tiara, -which is said to have been an ancient drinking cup reversed and placed -at the top of the tiara. - -Many well-imitated rings are really old worn-out rings used for the -circle, to show that they have been used, on which the artistic setting -of the jewel or other ornamental part has been soldered. - -In conclusion, when you would buy old jewellery buy as if it were -modern and pay the price of imitations, then if by some rare chance you -are mistaken you will experience the unique pleasure of possessing a -“find,” but never reverse the process, for if you buy an ancient piece -of jewellery you will certainly realize in due time that it is really -modern. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS - - Carved wood--Artistic furniture--Wood staining and patina-- - The merits of elbow-grease--Painted and lacquered furniture - --Veneer and inlaid work--Musical instruments--Imitations - and fakers of musical instruments--Connoisseurship of musical - instruments twofold--Attribution and labels--Some good - imitators--The violin as example--The restoration and odd - adventures of well-known musical instruments--Legends and - anecdotes that help--Analysis of form and of sound--Rossini’s - saying. - - -The finest pieces of faked furniture are very rarely entirely new, -sometimes they are old pieces to which rich ornaments have been added; -at other times, and this is the most common occurrence, they are put -together from fragments belonging to two, three, or even four different -pieces, the parts and debris, in fact, of old broken furniture. There -is also the entirely new fake imitating old furniture, but this is -rarely as convincing as the other which is the really dangerous type -even for an experienced collector. - -Impressed by the great amount of faked furniture glutting the Paris -market, Paul Eudel says, “in principle there is no more such a thing as -antique furniture. All that is sold is false or terribly repaired.” - -In Italy, that inexhaustible mine of past art, it is still possible to -find genuine pieces, provided, of course, that the collector does not -insist upon having those first-rate pieces now belonging to museums or -collections formed several years ago. There are, however, in Italy, as -in every other country, modern productions of antique furniture for the -novices in the collector’s career. This furniture may be carved out -of old pieces of wood or ordinary wood. In both cases it is generally -necessary to give an old colouring to the wood, for which there are a -variety of methods according to the desired effect, tone, colour, etc. -Many use walnut-juice, others permanganate of potash, and still others -the more drastic system of burning the surface of the wood with acid. -The old way of imitating worm-holes was to use buckshot, a ridiculous -method which nevertheless had its vogue and apparently satisfied the -gross eye of some collectors. Nowadays worm-holes are made with an -instrument that imitates them to perfection, although they do not go so -deep as the genuine ones, and this difference, by the way, is one of -the tests to tell real worm-holes from spurious ones. As new furniture -that imitates old is generally too sharp-edged and neatly finished, -it is usually subjected to a regular course of ill-treatment. French -dealers call this process “_aviler un meuble_,” and it consists of -pounding with heavy sticks, rubbing with sand-paper, pumice, etc. - -The finishing touch, that peculiar polished surface characterizing -ancient furniture, is usually given by friction with wool after a -slight coating of benzine in which a little wax has been dissolved. -The less wax used and the more elbow-grease, the more will the polish -resemble that of real old furniture and the more difficult does it -become to detect the deceit. If much wax has been used the scratch of -a needle is sufficient to reveal even the thinnest layer, but if it is -so imperceptible as to stand this test it is very difficult to tell -the real from the imitation. The polished parts of an old piece of -furniture are not casual but the result of long use. Prominent parts -are naturally, therefore, the ones to get so polished rather than other -parts. - -I remember witnessing a curious sight one day when admitted to the -sanctum of a well-known antiquary. Half a dozen stools had been -repaired, most generously repaired, a new patina had been given and -now they were to receive the last touches, the polished parts that add -such charm to old furniture. The workman who had half finished the job -kept passing and repassing close to the stools which he had arranged in -a row, rubbing his legs against each one. I asked him the meaning of -the performance and he answered that as there were no sharp edges on -the lower part of those sixteenth-century walnut stools, he wanted to -find out where and to what extent they would be most polished by use. -Not having a genuine stool from which to copy, he had resorted to this -means so as to make no mistake. I very nearly asked him if he thought -everyone was the same height and had the same length of leg. But as -the work proceeded I gathered from the practical application of his -method, better than I could have done from any explanation, that he was -endeavouring to get a mere hint, where to begin to rub with his pad, in -order to produce that vague patch of hollows one notices sometimes in -church benches. - -The same patience is necessary in making imitation worm-holes, which -are so cunningly distributed, so convincingly worked in their erratic -manner of piercing wood as to suggest to Edmond Bonnaffé the fine bit -of sarcasm: “_Des vers savants chargés de fouiller le bois neuf à la -demande_.” - -That piecemeal kind of furniture, the parts of which are unquestionably -antique but of various origins, being the remains of more than one -piece of furniture--_l’assemblage_, as the French call it--may -prove a danger to the best connoisseurs if done well and with taste. In -certain respects the piece is genuinely antique, but not exactly as the -collector understands the word, hence its fraudulency entitles it to be -classified among fakes. It is incredible what an industrious antiquary -is able to do in the way of piecing furniture together. This consists -not merely of finding a top for table-legs, or legs for a table-top, -but there is no limit to the invention of this piecemeal furniture. -A wooden door may furnish the back of a throne when well matched -with a rich old coffer; the gilded ornamentation of an altar may be -transformed into the head of a Louis XV bed, and so on. In the same way -a simple piece of furniture may be enriched by attaching ornaments, -coats of arms, etc. The whole is invariably toned and harmonized by -means of one of the above-mentioned methods. - -Naturally, ignorance of style sometimes leads some fakers to extremely -amusing blunders, but it must be confessed the cases are rare, and -this piecemeal furniture has been palmed off on too many connoisseurs, -and graces too many well-reputed collections to be dismissed with a -smile of incredulity. Were antiquaries more disposed to talk or less -indulgent towards the conceit of collectors, it might be learnt that -all the rich furniture sold during the last twenty years to museums and -collectors belongs to this composite order. - -A special branch of the imitation of antique furniture is inlaid work, -the French _marqueterie_ and Italian _tarsia_, by which designs are -traced upon the surface by inlaying wood, ivory or metal. There are -various epochs and styles of inlaid furniture. One may begin with the -geometrical patterns of the Trecento or the _cappuccino_ of about the -same time and later, and gradually pass through the many styles and -methods to the complex ornamentation of Buhl’s work. - -The early work, including the _cappuccino_, a peculiar inlaid ivory -work with geometric patterns, is very well imitated in Italy where -restorers of this kind of furniture generally turn into good imitators, -and become at times impenitent fakers of the most fantastic would-be -old style. Skill in inlaying wood and ivory according to different -epochs and the ordinary collector’s love of ornamented furniture have -suggested to some imitators the most absurd combinations of styles, a -riot of incongruity and incompatibility. It is not rare to see fine -chairs that would otherwise be tasteful but for the heavy ornamentation -of inlaid wood or ivory arabesques, grotesques, etc. The outrage of -having a fifteenth-century, inlaid after the style and designs of at -least a century later, is not uncommonly excused by the explanation -that it appeals to the tawdry taste of customers and that the article -commands a higher price by the addition of the heavy incongruous -ornamentation. - -This peculiar form of degeneration in taste, the passion for excessive -ornamentation, is also what often mars the imitations of seventeenth- -and eighteenth-century painted furniture, imitations of the Venetian -style especially being generally very carelessly finished but -overcharged with gilding and cheap bits of painted ornamentation. - -French imitations in this line are not so debased as some Italian, but -like them they are not very convincing, as it is almost impossible to -imitate the French eighteenth-century gilding, and the carving of this -epoch shows such neatness and is so clean cut that the gilded parts -assume an appearance of metal, a quality that the modern industry of -antiques does not find convenient or is unable to imitate. The French -Buhl also is often imitated with celluloid instead of tortoise-shell -and can only succeed in attracting the very easily satisfied collector. -This is the case with some other cheap imitations overcharged with -ordinary gilded bronze. By the side of these specimens, however, French -art also counts some excellent imitations done by real artists, which -if not successful in deceiving experienced collectors are nevertheless -regular _chefs-d’œuvre_ in the art of imitating the finest and richest -pieces of the Louis XV and Louis XVI styles. - -The simplicity and purity of line that characterized English styles -from the end of the seventeenth century to the best period of the next, -helped to keep the imitators of this country within bounds. Their fancy -in any case was less inventive and less disastrously enterprising than -that of the cheap imitators of Italian furniture. - -Before leaving the subject, we may say that many of the walnut panels -in furniture, which appear to be so elaborately carved, are not carved -at all but burnt into the desired patterns. The process consists of -making a good cast iron matrix from a fine bas-relief, then heating -it and pressing it upon the wood by a special procedure by which all -the superfluous wood is burnt away and the rest takes the shape of the -mould. This method not only gives the wood the desired form in perfect -imitation of carving, but the burning stains it to a fine brown tone -very much resembling old wood, after which an application of oil or -encaustic is sufficient to give it a semblance of patina. - -In another part of this book we have noted that in Bologna more -especially imitations of old tables are placed for a time in cheap -restaurants where, through grease, dirt and rough wear and tear, they -acquire that fine patina so highly esteemed in ancient wood. Such -pieces are not only found in towns but are housed here and there about -the country, sometimes in old palaces and villas, or else in out of the -way nooks. The former system gives the alluring sensation of buying -something really worth while, and at first hand, from its historical -owner; the latter that a real find has been discovered, that find which -is the eternal _fata Morgana_ of freshman collectors. - -Imitations of musical instruments vary according to the style of the -instrument and its musical quality. In some fakes the musical quality -is of minor importance to a certain extent, the artistic properties -and ornamentation being the chief consideration with the collector. In -other instruments the quality of the tone is of importance, so that -though the form may not be neglected, the faker must bear in mind that -his imitation will have to stand a double test: it must satisfy the ear -and stand the examination of an experienced eye. - -The first class includes collectively such instruments as are no longer -in use and are highly ornamented with carving, inlaid work or gilding -such as lutes, archilutes, harps, virginals, spinets, etc.; the second -comprises instruments still in use such as violins, ’cellos, etc. The -ornamental, strange and obsolete instruments are the ones that fakers -chiefly furnish to the ordinary trade. - -Naturally the trade in imitating instruments for the mere curio hunter -and non-musical collector, is not so remunerative as other branches of -the shady art of faking. The number of collectors in this branch is -comparatively restricted, many of them talented and not easily duped as -is the case in all branches not enjoying popularity. The tourist would -rather go home with a painting or faked bronze of Naples or elsewhere, -than carry an instrument he cannot play, which will probably be an -encumbrance and dust-catcher in the small rooms of big cities. On the -other hand, however, there is nothing complicated about this branch of -faking. It is usually an easy matter for a guitar or mandoline maker -to invest in the small amount of material needed, and to turn his hand -to the work. It must also be taken into account that these workers -are very often repairers of ancient instruments whereby they learn to -make their imitations technically correct, though this is by no means -always the case. We have, indeed, seen appalling exceptions, pianos -of an early period transformed into spinets, lutes with grotesque and -impossible finger-boards, etc. Some careless and certainly unmusical -imitators go so far as to make instruments that could never be played, -and even put common wire instead of gut strings, which makes one wonder -what kind of collector it can be who delights in such delusions. - -Our intention is to deal only with the artistic side of musical -instruments, so we lay no claim to real connoisseurship of musical -instruments, more especially as regards the family of stringed -instruments which finds its best and most complete expression in the -violin. Yet the fact that the great discoveries have generally been -made by ignorant men like Tarisio, not necessarily fine musicians, -goes to show that connoisseurship of form has its importance, greatly -resembling after all, the connoisseurship of other branches in its -summing up of various analyses into a final synthesis of form and -character. True, in a good violin there is rarely any ornamentation, or -if there is, it still more rarely furnishes a clue; but although all -is entrusted to simplicity of line and form in its most aristocratic -and elemental expression, there still seems to be enough to tell of the -“touch of a vanished hand.” - -“How interesting,” justly remarks Olga Racster, “it is to observe an -expert spelling out the name of an old fiddle by the aid of this ‘touch -of a vanished hand.’ How eagerly he seeks it and finds it with the help -of that alphabet which lies concealed in the colour, shape, height and -curves of an old violin.” - -Together with the difficulty of faking instruments the synthesis of -connoisseurship in this line could not be better expressed. As for -the quality of the tone, the expert relies purely and simply upon -his ear, no book or hints of a practical character can assist the -expert to perfect his ear. All depends upon natural disposition and -the experience of a well-trained organ in this most important part of -connoisseurship of musical instruments. - -When Rossini was asked what is required to make a good singer, he -said: “Three things, voice, voice, voice.” The quotation fits here for -the chief requirement of a good connoisseur of musical instruments as -regards their musical quality consists of a triply good ear. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -VELVETS, TAPESTRIES AND BOOKS - - Olla Podrida: Genuine and faked antique stuffs--The peculiar - knowledge necessary to an expert on stuffs--The difficulty - in imitating Renaissance velvet--Collectors of costumes-- - Collections of dolls--Tapestries--Repairs and faked parts - or qualities--Book collecting--Two kinds of book collectors - --The faking of editions and rare bindings--The extended and - ambitious activity of the art of faking--Faked aerolites! - - -Assembling in this chapter a variety of objects under the title of -minor branches of art collecting, we do not use the term artistically, -but merely because these branches apparently attract fewer art lovers -than the others, and the activity of the faker is more restricted in -their case. In many of these branches, too, the art of collecting -and connoisseurship is reduced to technical knowledge and artistic -sentiment plays a very secondary part. - -If there is any one branch of collecting in which it is necessary -to be a specialist to ensure success, that branch is unquestionably -antique stuffs. Artistic sentiment and good taste are of comparatively -slight assistance compared with technical knowledge, and they may even -at times produce two dangerous psychological elements only too often -responsible for collectors’ blunders: enthusiasm and suggestion. The -technician with knowledge of the different qualities of materials, -with an eye for the various peculiarities of the weave and colour, -and sound information as to the character of the various patterns, -etc., is doubtlessly the best equipped as a connoisseur of stuffs. -This may sound absurd to the outsider, especially to artists, whom -we have ourselves found to be over-confident as to their qualities, -their pictorial eye, their full acquaintance with form. Yet too many -of these artists, not being collectors or experts, have bought modern -goods as antique, old furniture re-covered with modern brocade that no -expert would for a moment have taken as being of the same date as the -furniture. We refer, of course, to those modern imitations generally -the easiest to detect, however artfully they have been coloured and -aged to give them the appearance of genuine antiquity. - -The detection of modern products offers no difficulty to the expert. -They may look extremely convincing to the uninitiated or beginner, as -they possess what may be termed a general impression of antiquity, -but to the trained eye of the expert there are too many essential -differences; and they lack, above all, a character that in the case of -a large quantity of stuff and not a mere sample, is inimitable. For -the Jaquard machine is not the old weaving loom, the material used -is produced with greater care and precision which gives the fabric a -different look even when the coarseness of ancient textiles has been -imitated, the colours are different and so is the chemical process for -dyeing the thread, etc. The sum total of these elementary differences -with which the art of imitation cannot cope, is what reveals to the -expert almost at sight the antiquity or modernity of the product. In -conclusion, with the exception of some rare samples of small pieces, -the modern imitation of ancient stuffs is but a successful optical -illusion. - -Imitations that count at least a century of age, on the contrary, prove -dangerous puzzles to experts and connoisseurs of this speciality, -these imitations having been made in almost exactly the same way as -the originals, before weaving machines were invented, and when the -thread was spun and dyed in the simple old way before aniline dyes had -furnished beautiful but most unstable colours. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo_] [_Alinari_ - -EUROPA ON THE BULL. - -By Andrea Brioschi called “Il Riccio.” Imitation of the Antique, Padua -School.] - -In France, under Louis XIII, Renaissance patterns were admirably -copied, as well as those of the sixteenth century. The reproduction of -old designs is not confined to Italy and France alone. In nearly every -country there have been imitators of the best samples of ancient -stuffs, damasks, brocades and velvets. - -As regards imitation, the more complex the pattern in design and -colouring, the easier it can be reproduced with success. In fact plain -velvet is the most difficult to imitate. No one, not even in the past, -has ever reproduced the fine velvets of the Quattrocento and early -Cinquecento with complete success. - -Methods of ageing modern stuffs which have not the advantage of the -genuine hues of age of old imitations, greatly resemble in general -lines those adopted to give an appearance of age to other objects. -If the colouring is crude and too new looking, the stuff is exposed -to atmospheric action, rain, dew and sunshine. Needless to add, this -treatment must be followed with care and discrimination otherwise the -fabric may be reduced to a rag as well as to an appearance of age. -To harmonize the colours and give them a more faded look, some put -the goods into a bath of slightly tinted liquid, thus obtaining on -the fabric what in painting is termed velatura. Others put the liquid -into an atomizer and steam it on to the stuff. This process has the -advantage of giving alternate hues without any sharp delimitation -between them. - -These methods, however, by which the artist can display variation, are -not convenient or possible in the case of large quantities of fabric, -nor is the result convincing in the proximity of the original. One does -not need to be an expert, in fact, to see the difference between the -old and the new on a piece of furniture or in a room where imitations -have been used to supply what was lacking. - -To make imitations more convincing, more especially in the case of -small pieces, some antiquaries stitch on bands before discolouring -the stuff, which are afterwards taken off leaving parts with fresher -colours, as often happens in really antique pieces that have belonged -to ecclesiastical copes, etc. - -Strict order having been dispensed with in this chapter, and as, after -all, fabrics are involved, we may here touch upon the subject of dress -and past costumes. The rarity of such collections depends not only -upon the fact that the roomy space of a museum is indispensable for -their display but largely upon the scarcity of past century costumes. -This branch of collecting is very useful to the history of fashion and -national costumes, but it must be considered that to be of interest to -the collector a dress must be at least forty years old, and very few -garments attain that age nowadays. Either they are altered to conform -to fashion, or unpicked or given away until they have run through the -scale of society and end in rags. The rarity of the genuine article -appears to correspond with the rarity of collectors of this line, -and there is therefore no question of fakes, unless one should take -seriously certain comic incidents and consider as a collector the -simpleton who buys the cast-off costumes of an elegant fancy dress ball -as genuine articles, those poor imitations, with no pretence at being -anything else, of Henry IV, Marie Antoinette, and other historical -garments. - -Having mentioned the subject of costumes, we may speak of another -kind of collection that is also very useful to the history of past -usages and fashions, that of dolls and toys of past centuries. Dolls -and children’s toys are not an invention of to-day. It is safe to say -that their existence can be traced almost as far as the history of -civilization. The Romans used to bury dolls and toys with the bodies of -their little ones or place them in the funereal urn, a usage that has -preserved for us specimens of these tiny objects that have drawn smiles -from young lips closed and sealed centuries ago. Together with these -relics are other images that illustrate the history of costumes like -the dolls, the statuettes offered to temples and churches as ex-votos -and those used in the construction of the old _presepio_ (birth of -Christ scene), the Christmas Eve representations of the Bethlehem -scene. These wooden dolls and statuettes are not only artistic in -themselves, but are dressed in stuffs of their epoch very often cut in -the fashion of the time. - -Some of these collections have really been excellent commentaries on -the history of fashion and domestic customs of past ages. Among the few -important collections we may quote as an example that of Mme. Agar, -exhibited by this celebrated French artist several years ago in the -Palais de l’Industrie now demolished. Mme. Agar’s collection was very -complete and illustrative of fashion and life in Holland centuries ago. -The collection had originally belonged to the infant princess, the -daughter of William of Orange and Nassau. Not only was it extremely -artistic, containing several interiors of Dutch houses with inmates -and accurate details suggesting a painting by Terburg or Teniers, but -it represented all kinds of expression of seventeenth-century Dutch -life. Mme. Agar came into possession of this fine collection under the -following circumstances. Returning from one of her artistic tours in -Belgium she visited the city of Ghent and found the collection in the -hands of a gentleman to whom she had been introduced upon her arrival. -She offered to buy it, but the owner refused all offers declaring that -he did not wish to part with the precious collection. However, after -having heard Mme. Agar at the theatre one evening, he was so taken by -her art that he wrote to the actress the very same night, “Come to -fetch my toys. I offer them to you, they are yours.” - -There is no question of fakes in this branch either. The difficulty -in finding old stuffs and linen with which to garb the figures is -sufficient to discourage the trade, especially when one remembers how -few customers the imitator could hope to attract. - -The art of tapestry weaving is the most complete of the class. Although -technique may play its part in constituting expert knowledge, it is -certainly subordinate to the artistic qualities necessary to perfect -connoisseurship. - -Faking plays no part in this field, at least not the conspicuous -part that it plays in painting and other artistic products likely to -attract rich amateurs. This is easily understood when one takes into -consideration the time, patience and money needful to the making of -tapestry; it costs something like eighty pounds a square yard. The -imitator also knows that it would be a waste of time and money to -fake old tapestries as any expert can tell modern work from old. The -apparatus has hardly undergone any essential change it is true, but -the materials are so different from formerly that fairly tolerable -imitations can only be given in the case of repairs to old pieces. On -account of the great cost of modern tapestry the few existing factories -either belong to the State or potentates, or they are supported by -the lavish encouragement of some modern Mæcenas. As we have said, the -difference between the work of modern and ancient tapestry does not lie -in a difference of process, unchanged in essentials since the Egyptian -dynasties, but rather in the impossibility of obtaining materials like -the old ones. - -Although some unscrupulous dealers do palm off over-repaired pieces of -tapestry on foolish novices, the repair of tapestry is no faking after -all, for the decorative character of the fabric fully justifies the -mending and restoration of missing parts and, unlike painting, the work -does not bear an individual imprint. It is our duty, however, to warn -the neophyte that repairs are very seldom pointed out by dealers and -that it is absolutely necessary for the collector to train his eye in -order to be able to detect the modern parts from the old and to know -how much must be bought as antique and how much as modern. This is not -so difficult as it may appear. The modern parts are worked in with the -needle and although the threads have generally been specially dyed, -as the usual colours now on sale are very rarely suitable, there is a -slight difference in the final effect. Nothing to offend the eye, even -when closely examined, but enough to warn the expert of the size of -the repaired piece. Sometimes the repairer of tapestries uses a method -which in our opinion comes under the head of faking. This consists of -re-colouring faded parts with water-colours or tempera. Some of this -touching up is really cleverly done, at other times it is so clumsy -that one wonders how even a novice can be taken in. If there is any -suspicion that the tapestry has been coloured, a practical test is the -displacement of the threads with a needle as the fresh colours are -generally laid on with a brush and never penetrate between the threads -where the old faded colour is visible. Incredible as it may seem, some -tapestries are touched up with pastel. This was sometimes done even in -the eighteenth century to disguise defects and crudeness of tone and -now it is practised to deceive the eye by making a better match between -the old and the new parts. Of course pastel work is easily detected -if one is allowed to rub the part, but this is not always feasible, -especially at public sales where the tapestry is hung on the wall, -sometimes very high up, on purpose to defy close inspection. There -is also a method of fixing the pastel retouch with an atomizer and a -certain liquid sold in Paris, but even these means are not so effective -as milk and tempera, and hard rubbing with a white cloth will always -reveal the deception when pastel has been used. - -Rugs, particularly Oriental rugs, belong in a way to the same family -as tapestry and may be classified with it. There is this difference, -however: being less complicated in character and for the most part -adorned only with geometrical patterns and rudimentary arabesques, -rugs are imitated with greater facility. Things do not change so -quickly in the East as in Western countries, and there the old weaving -apparatus is still in use and materials are only just beginning to be -imported from Europe. A large field is thus opened up to imitation, -and to a certain extent to faking also. It is nevertheless hard -to deceive experts and specialists. Keen-eyed and accustomed to -distinguish between different kinds, and to judge of age, they are -also able to detect modern frauds. But, alas, good experts are rare -and conceited collectors abound, and for this reason fraud is rampant -and remunerative, even in this field. Those buying rugs for the -sake of having a collection and not to furnish their houses with a -comfortable and highly artistic luxury are advised to place themselves -in the hands of an expert. It will save time and trouble. An eclectic -collector, however gifted, will rarely consent to go deeply into this -branch, as the mastery of it implies great sacrifice of time and the -boredom of learning a difficult language, things that prove no obstacle -to the passionate lover of the speciality, but tedious and irksome to -the general art lover. - -Following an erratic course in this chapter, we will now pass on to -books, manuscripts and autographs, a branch with many devotees and -all kinds of collectors, in which trickery and faking find an almost -incredibly large sphere of action. - -Book collectors are of two kinds, the one who prizes the work for the -rarity of the edition, and the other who is attracted by the binding. -The former is the true book collector, the latter is really only a -collector of rare and artistic bindings. The two preferences do not -mutually exclude one another, of course, and when found together offer -the most complete kind of book collector. - -It might be imagined that imitations in this branch would be confined -to such pieces as only require the faker’s shrewdness and imitative -skill and not the great amount of work and money demanded by the -reproduction of a whole edition, but this is not the case. As soon as -fashion--sovereign and despotic in this department also, taste and -art being secondary--sets a value on what is called a rare edition, -false ones find that the work pays and imitations are thrown upon the -market at once. About the end of the eighteenth century a speciality -was made in Lyons of reproducing all the rare editions of Racine’s -works, while Rouen acquired a certain notoriety in faking old volumes -of Molière with every detail carefully and accurately copied--quality -of the paper, the type, decorative initials, tailpieces, etc. That the -labour was worth the trouble and expense is amply proved by the high -prices that some original editions have fetched. The first edition of -Molière’s works, dated 1669, was sold in Paris for 15,000 francs. At M. -Guy Pellion’s sale separate works bearing various dates were sold--_Le -Tartufe_, 1669, for 2200 francs, _Le Misanthrope_ for 1220 francs, -and few volumes below this price. Fashion having set extravagant -prices--the original edition of Molière’s works was sold at 70 to 100 -francs apiece at Bertin’s sale, 1885--old incomplete editions have been -completed, and for the late-comers not in time for this half-genuine -article, full and first-class imitations are provided. - -Missing pages of rare volumes, incunabula or precious, highly prized -editions, are often supplied by the most skilful pen and ink work. -It is surprising to see how well the clever calligraphic artist can -imitate the printed characters, and how carefully and faithfully the -missing pages are copied from some complete edition. In a damaged -edition it is generally the frontispiece that is missing or the -ornamental title on the first page. Some of the latter are true works -of art and require most artistic penmanship for their reproduction. -The illusion is, nevertheless, often complete. Paul Eudel tells an -amusing story of an expert who had not noticed that one of the pages -of a certain work was a clever piece of penmanship added later, but to -whom the secret was revealed by circumstantial evidence which saved him -from being cheated. The work was so admirably done that the expert had -not detected it to be pen work, till he happened to notice a worm-hole -in the parchment of that page whereas the preceding and following pages -bore no hole. As it was impossible for a worm to reach a page in the -middle of the book without boring through the others, he surmised that -the hole must have been there when the page was done, that the page was -a later addition in fact. Once suspicious, it is easy to ascertain the -truth. A closer examination showed M. Pourquet, such was the name of -the expert, that the page in question was hand work, and not print. - -It is true that nowadays, by means of photo-mechanical reproductions -old books, characters and illustrations can be imitated to perfection, -and there are also mills that can supply all sorts of old-fashioned -paper to order, as near as possible to a given sample. Experts claim, -however, that such fakes are only dangerous for the inexperienced -collector, that a magnifying glass reveals the action of the acid in -a sort of scalloped edge to the ink lines, and that, although well -imitated, the paper has a different grain when closely examined, etc. -But it is, of course, understood that fakes are not as a rule intended -to baffle the skill of the expert but rather to take advantage of the -inexperienced. - -The expert who gives his attention chiefly to the bindings of the books -needs to be more of an artist than the other. We know that editions, -too, have their elegancy, forms and tasteful simplicity needing, as it -were, an artistically trained eye to enjoy their beauty and appreciate -their value, but compared with bookbinding their artistic quality -seems to be of a more restricted kind. In bookbinding, art in all its -decorative eloquence appears to claim full rights. There are bindings -of past centuries--more especially in Paris, where bookbinding has -always been a grand art--that are really _chefs-d’œuvre_. As usual -it is the unwary who in this branch also pays the highest tribute to -fakery. - -From the Grolier bindings down to the last specimens of the eighteenth -century, imitation has a wide field of action for its versatility, but -according to experts the most exploited period is that running from the -early years of the seventeenth century to the end of the eighteenth, -one of the most difficult to imitate and yet one of the most -profitable. There are, of course, various ways of faking old bindings. -Many have tried to fake the whole, beginning with the fabrication of -the ornaments cut in iron which are used to stamp the gilt ornaments -on leather or parchment. In the opinion of the connoisseurs of Paris, -where these imitations appear to find their best market, they are -far from convincing, being only intended for such as seek a certain -decorative quality without pretending to be experts or collectors. -Specialists say there are imitations of a far more dangerous character, -those composed of various genuinely antique parts, those relying upon -some authentic element in the process of making, and original bindings -fitted to other books which thus embellished and enriched fetch higher -prices. The first of the above operations knows no limits but those -set by the material, it may be a question of using old leather or -aged parchment, or of using old labels, or of taking advantage of the -characteristic coloured lining papers that modern industry reproduces -fairly well. Here we have, in fact, the usual composite style with -which a fanciful binding is made or a book put together out of various -elements that are perfectly genuine, but belong to different sources. - -The second manner of faking in decorating the cover of a book is to use -some old iron stamps for the impress on the leather of the binding. -Some of these old implements that have escaped destruction are now used -to advantage, especially to stamp decorative coats of arms on imitation -antique bindings, so that the buyer should think the books have come -straight from the former library of a nobleman. The faker has used this -trick successfully with Americans particularly. In this way the stamps -of the _Sacré de Louis XV_, which are, apparently, still in existence, -have been used as a decoy on fine bindings, as well as that of the -Rohan-Chabot family coat of arms perpetuating the supposition that -books belonging to that illustrious family are still on the market. The -third method is called in French _rembotage_ and consists, as we have -said, of transferring covers from one book to another. There are some -good editions that have lost their covers and some worthless books with -fine bindings--fakery repairs this injustice of fate by transferring -the good binding to the more meritorious book, a simple act of justice -invariably rewarded in the world of fakery by the large sum that can be -asked for the edition thus treated. - -There are naturally many ways to discover the bindings that have in -one way or other received the paternal and not at all disinterested -caress of the faker, but the best and safest way--shall we ever tire -of repeating it--is to train one’s eye to that helpful synthesis -of judgment called experience. Newly coloured and patinated leather -does not stand rubbing with a damp cloth like the old does, modern -gilding and modern stamping imitating antique designs are heavier and -less clean cut as well as not so rich--qualities best understood by -comparing modern work with the old, for although the differences are -slight they are, nevertheless, plain to the experienced eye accustomed -to comparing old and new. Even _rembotage_, the most difficult to -detect, may be found out by examining the way one part is joined -to the other, the peculiarities of the work, etc. All that can be -said, however, to put the neophyte on his guard who may imagine that -hints from books or special works on the subject are sufficient to -assist him, is: Go slow, and if you are really anxious to have a good -collection and prepared to pay good prices, in the beginning ask the -man who knows for his help--_Experto crede_. - -It is obvious that no artistic temperament, taste or knowledge of -art is necessary in order to become a collector of autographs. This -class of collector, who may boast an uninterrupted line from scholars -to specialists, has neither the assistance nor complicity of art. -Consequently the faker, who inevitably follows suit, must have a -knowledge of history in order to avoid historical blunders, he must -be acquainted with particulars connected with the personage whose -autograph is to be forged, and above all must be an expert imitator -of other people’s hand-writing, in fact in him the art of forging -signatures must be brought to the highest perfection, for here -documents are to be forged, a succession of calligraphic characters and -idiosyncrasies far more difficult of execution than a mere signature on -a false cheque. - -The aptitude of a bank clerk gives promise of a good expert in this -subject. Studies of various papers according to epoch is not of such -assistance here to the expert as in the case of books, for there is -still plenty of old-fashioned paper on the market, enough of it at -least to bear a few lines from a celebrated man, the chief quality -needed is experience gained by comparing originals with forgeries, or -better still such familiarity with a given man’s hand-writing that -its genuineness can be judged at sight, as a bank clerk does with a -signature. - -There are some artists also in this class, but not only is it rarer, -but their work deals less with autographs properly so-called than old -documents mostly on parchment with illuminations, etc. - -Stamp-collecting hardly comes within our sphere, and represents -rather a minor department of connoisseurship. Several books have been -written on the subject, many with valuable hints as to prices and with -reproductions of the best samples, etc. We would warn our readers who -may perchance be interested, that every stamp of value has been faked, -that, strange to say, some of these fifty-year-old fakes fetch handsome -prices and flourishing factories have been established to supply not -only the rare specimens already acknowledged as such, but to produce -at a few hours’ notice any sample despotic fashion may suddenly raise -to the rank of a rarity. Art plays so small a part that the way to -become an expert on the subject is to become an--expert. Beyond this, -which is only in appearance an _idem per idem_, there is very little -to be done. Experience consists of being familiar with the original, -the kind of paper used, the colours, peculiarities and also defects, -particularly the defects, as when the stamps were printed that are now -rare, the art of printing was in its infancy compared with our times. - -There is no occasion to speak of minor fancy collections that, as -usual, form links between the true collector and the man with a mania. -Even in these minor branches there may be more than one interesting -collection, such, for instance, as that of General Vandamme who left -his relatives no fewer than sixty thousand pipes, and Baron Oscar -de Watterville’s and others. Art plays no great part in these minor -expressions of curio-collecting and science also occupies but a limited -field. One axiom may be given, however, which holds good for all -classes of collecting, whether artistic, scientific, or anything else, -and that is that as soon as the prices of certain articles come under -the nomenclature of fancy prices, through fashion or merit, the faker -is ready to hand. - -In the Paris world of fakers, a larger world than the outsider may -imagine, an amusing anecdote is told. Learning the high prices paid by -astronomers for bolides, an inveterate faker called upon a well-known -chemist to propose a partnership for the production of imitations of -meteorites. Even if an invention, the anecdote gives the full size of -the faker’s spirit of enterprise. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -SUMMING UP - - -With some show of reason Swift affirmed that all sublunary happiness -consists in being _well deceived_. - -We are perfectly aware that this book does not support Swift’s ethics -of happiness, for while agreeing that the English satirist’s theory -may hold good on a great many occasions, we claim an exception for -collectors as a class. In the world of art, art lovers and collectors, -to be well deceived means to be living in a fool’s paradise, a most -costly dwelling which promises no eternal joy. On the contrary, the -happiness derived from being well deceived in this case is generally -not only of very short duration but inflicts smarting wounds to pride -and pocket. - -In the world at large there seems to exist a certain benevolence -towards deluded ones, which makes it at times possible for the well -deceived to be the only one of his entourage unaware that he has -been duped. In the world of collectors such a thing is almost an -impossibility for, to quote a well-known French art lover: “After -pictures by Michelangelo and specimens of Medici ware, the rarest thing -to find with collectors is kindliness.” - -The same art lover assures us that in this peculiar world not only -is kindliness (_bienveillance_) rare, but the opposite sentiment has -been developed almost to the point of genius. Collectors, especially -first-rate collectors who have finally emerged into fame through the -complex resultant of a good eye, shrewdness and extreme skill in -fencing with strong competitors, have a regular talent for flavouring -bitter pills for deceived friends and comrades with troublesome -innuendoes and smarting disclosures, for, as the above-quoted -connoisseur declares, they have a way of praising with “praise that -exasperates and with homicidal compliments,” and there is a type of -collector who knows his repertory by heart, a man who is a “_toreador -raffiné--il massacre artistement_.” - -What the neophyte can do to avoid being “artistically” massacred, as -the French connoisseur puts it semi-euphemistically, is difficult to -say. Books and special treatises may explain the nature of the deceit, -point out the dangers awaiting him and show how traps are laid and how -they work, but to pretend to become a truly safe buyer on the security -of knowledge gathered from books and manuals would be like attempting -the ascent of some dangerous peak on the strength of wisdom drawn from -works on Alpine climbing. - -The rudiments of the art do not concern so much the knowledge of how -to buy as of how not to buy, how to resist, namely, the first impulse, -which in an inexperienced art lover proves to be one of the worst -dangers. The slow, prudent method must be learnt of not listening to -first impulses till the first impulses are supported by something -better than the innate conceit of a beginner. We know, of course, that -there may be occasions when even a beginner may have cause to regret -not having listened to a first impulse, but such a thing is further -from the general rule than the beginner claims, and in any case it pays -in the long run to let a good chance slip rather than risk becoming the -possessor of some expensive would-be _chef-d’œuvre_. - -In addition, during the early stages in particular, a certain amount -of scepticism must temper a too ready belief in what the dealer has to -say or show, in support of his assertion. There will come a time when -experience will help the collector to detect more easily than at first -alluring, suggestive information, etc. - -Naturally it is not all dealers who are on the watch to take advantage -of the beginner. On the contrary, there are more honest dealers in -the antique market than one would think, but the trouble is that the -dishonest ones seem to be to the fore, to be ever there ready to -confront the inexperienced novice, and their noisy deceits become -far more known than good, honest dealing, causing perplexity in some -collectors so that it may be they disbelieve the man who is telling the -truth and give credence to the liar, who being a perfect master in the -art of misrepresentation, seems to be honesty itself. - -Here, too, the determination to be rather sceptical as to documents, -letters, pedigrees and mercantile evidence may lead the beginner to -miss some good opportunity, but the case is rare and such losses -are as a rule amply covered in the summing up of the total cost of -apprenticeship, through not having paid for experience the extravagant -price usually demanded. In due time the art lover’s ability to discern -between dealing and dealing will be sharpened, and he will be able to -defend himself better. - -This merely concerns dealing and experience in distinguishing the -genuine from the fake. But even supposing perfection has been attained -in this part, the fact does not necessarily imply qualification as -a connoisseur, collector, expert or even simple lover of art. A -collection may be composed of genuine articles and yet be a poor -one, utterly devoid of artistic merit or even commercial value of -importance. To have paid a high price is no guarantee of merit. There -are, as a matter of fact, perfectly genuine paintings for which -extravagant fancy prices have been paid, but which in the eyes of a -true connoisseur are not worth the nail they hang on. - -It is almost impossible to conceive that experience in distinguishing -the genuine from the false should be acquired without the attainment of -some artistic progress prompting discrimination between poor art and -mediocre, and mediocre art and fine art, yet this artistic side is the -most difficult to develop to that perfection and semi-intuition of the -beautiful, so necessary to the real and first-rate connoisseur. - -By what method this artistic side may be perfected in the collector -is still more difficult to tell, for in this direction experience -only counts to a certain extent. In fact as regards this artistic -education of the connoisseur we are inclined to repeat with Taine, in -his _Philosophie de l’Art_: “Precepts? Well, two might be given: first -to be born with genius--that is your parents’ affair, not mine; -second to work a good deal to bring it out, and that is not my business -either.” - -Here too, then, actual methods are out of the question. They are, -perforce, of such a general character as to be no more use than telling -a blind man to keep in the middle of the road because there are ditches -on either side. It is, further, not uncommon for contrary systems to -lead to equally happy results according to the person employing them. -One antiquary when undecided as to the genuineness of a painting used -to have a photograph of it taken, for, he said, he could easily detect -the traits of forgery on seeing the work in black and white with all -colours eliminated, or, to put it in his own words: The faked side -sweats out. Another connoisseur held exactly the contrary theory, -declaring that he could tell nothing from photos but needed the colours -to help to detect the genuineness or fraud of the painting. Perhaps the -former had an artistic temperament based chiefly upon the charm of form -while the latter was what in art is termed a colourist. - -In addition, at times another misleading cause may be added which comes -under the form of intervening suggestion and may put even a highly -gifted artistic temperament off the scent. - -Perhaps an example will best illustrate this peculiar interference, -which is not only of a circumstantial order, as we have seen in another -part of this book, but may be the result of an unconscious _parti pris_. - -Some years ago when Mr. Stanford White imported works of art and -antiques for his millionaire patrons, a Mr. X., who owned a fine -mansion on Fifth Avenue, very much admired an early fifteenth century -single andiron that was among the imported goods. He wished, however, -to have a pair. The suggestion that a modern copy should be made from -the only remaining original at first disgusted him, for everyone knows -how easily American collectors buy imitations for originals and how -disgusted they are if the dealer honestly says that a certain work is -an imitation. On being assured that the imitation should be perfect, -the new piece was finally ordered and the antiquary arranged for an -artistically exact copy of the ancient andiron to be made in Italy. -However, possibly because not wishing to be suspected of concocting -“modern antiques,” or for some other reason, the Italian firm sent -a perfect copy of the original in a brand new condition, suggesting -that a certain Italian artist living in New York should give it the -proper patina as he was fully initiated in the cryptic art of making -new objects look as old as might be desired. The art critic chosen to -come and judge of the final result of the work was, as the artist knew, -rather distrustful of Italians and their tricks, as he put it. - -The Italian artist did the work as well as it could be done, and -knowing that it was going to be judged side by side with the original, -the hardest test that can be inflicted upon an imitation, he managed -to cheat the art critic by being excessively frank and honest, taking -advantage of his prejudice against Italians and a probable momentary -mental attitude. The two pieces were shown in the artist’s atelier, the -imitation being placed by the artist in the full light and the original -in the most benevolent corner, far from the window in a half-shade. The -first thought that passed through the art critic’s brain as he entered -the studio was that the “tricky Italian” had put the imitation where -the light was less strong and the shade more benevolently helpful. - -“Very good,” he remarked, “but of course even when not in the full -light an imitation is always an imitation.” - -“But that is the original,” replied the artist, for to make his -positive assertion the more definite the critic had been pointing to -the wrong piece. - -A stony silence followed. - -The story ends here and we do not know whether the critic ever forgave -the artist his honest trick. Knowing that the art critic was a real -connoisseur, a good exception to the class, we are quite sure that his -judgment was perverted by the preconceived notion that the Italian had -placed the imitation in the shade and thus had hardly let his artistic -temperament and knowledge of art come into play in forming an opinion, -or rather the opinion was already formed, and too quickly expressed, -by a semi-subconscious process of reasoning that had nothing in common -with art judgment. - -So many are the special cases, and so little the assistance generally -given to new-comers, that the safest method in conclusion is to have -no actual method, to watch and study one’s own temperament, value the -first results objectively, to be ready to learn as much as possible -from experience under whatever form it comes and finally, like in so -many cases of human life and possibilities, to work out one’s own -salvation. - -In this way, even if not called to the Olympus of the elect, the art -lover will certainly reduce his bad bargains to a minimum--bad bargains -in the way of buying the wrong things as far as the genuineness of the -article is concerned as well as with regard to its artistic worth. With -this he must rest satisfied for, as we gladly repeat once more with the -Nestor of French connoisseurs: “Beware of the collector who never makes -a mistake; the strongest is he who makes the fewest mistakes.” - - * * * * * - -As we have seen, the genus _curieux_ (curio-hunter) comprises a most -complex and multiform assembly of types. From the distant ages of Roman -dominion down to our times, collectomania has produced characters -graduated in originality from the grotesque to the tragic, the false to -the genuine, the sordid or wicked like Mark Antony and Verres to noble -representatives like Julius Cæsar, Augustus and Agrippa. - -Curiously enough the noble type of collector and the usefulness of -his mission have generally escaped the observation of writers of all -ages. They seem to have been quicker to see the grotesque side of -collectomania than its utility. Martial, Juvenal, Pliny, Seneca and -others are not dissimilar in their remarks from--say, Molière and La -Bruyère. - -So strong is the inclination to place the types in a grotesque setting, -to make them the target of witty sallies, that they very often mistake -oddities for signs of idiocy, idiosyncrasies and peculiarities for -craziness, and, carrying their analysis no further, they let loose the -vein of their satire on people whose passion for collecting has been of -extreme use to the intellectual world, greatly assisting progress and -the civilization of humanity. - -“Just like a donkey beholding a lyre,” gibes an old Greek epigram -in allusion to collectors who, while buying eagerly, give so little -time, or none at all, to the enjoyment of the artistic merits of their -acquisitions. Addressing one of his contemporaries who had a passion -for collecting manuscripts and volumes but no inclination to read -them, Lucian remarks: “Why so many literary works? Do you collect them -in order to lie on the learned thoughts of others, or to paste the -parchment of the volumes to your skin? With it all you will not become -a jot more learned; a monkey is always a monkey, even though covered -with gilded garments.” - -To follow up the special case of book-collecting to which Lucian’s -remark casually leads us, the same sentiment as that of the Greek -writer was entertained centuries later by Petrarch and Robert Estienne. -The former was a poet and bibliophile, the latter a famous printer, -author of the _Thesauros linguæ latinæ_. The two did not spare satires -on the mere collector of books. - -A like attitude is taken towards Mazarin by a mediocre poet of La -Fronde, who reproaches the Cardinal with collecting books without -reading them; the same reproach that contemporary writers make to -Magliabechi, a passionate collector of rare editions who never went -further in a book than the title-page. Yet, to confine ourselves -to these alone, to Mazarin is due one of the finest libraries of -Paris which still bears his name, and by his careful, patient work, -Magliabechi was the founder of the Magliabechiana, now the National -Library of Florence, a marvel and model of historical character to -other more modern institutions of the kind. These two persistent and -passionate book collectors have certainly contributed more to science -and its progress than many of those scholars who made fun of their -hobby. - -It must be taken into consideration that collecting, after all, is a -passion, at times a deep and firmly rooted one, and that passion, like -love, in its most exalted expression does not represent normality, but -while on the one hand presenting qualities of an intuitive character, -can be coupled with oddities and idiosyncrasies, frequently the -inevitable heritage of originality. - -Hannibal who stored his money in the hollow of the bronze statues of -his collection, Sulla who put to death citizens to seize their rare -pieces of art, and Julius Cæsar who travelled with his cherished -objects of virtu, are known to us as collectors mostly through their -peculiarities, the amusing anecdotal side of a passion, certain to be -exploited by a writer, be he chronicler or historian. - -Yet, to go back to the unjustified and indiscriminating spirit of -satirists, both of ancient and more recent times, which tends to -consider the collector a maniac or fool, many a Greek and Roman -_chef-d’œuvre_ of art has nevertheless been spared to our admiration by -the patient persistence and art-loving care of collectors. - -It would, indeed, be interesting to follow the passage of some of the -most noted specimens of past art. If one could trace the true history -of each one of these objects in all its details, it would perhaps give -us the history of the collecting passion together with tangible proof -of its merits and utility. - -It would, indeed, not only be interesting but also instructive to know -the vicissitudes of some of the works of art that have come down to -us. The few hints existing as to the lineage of owners of some of the -most famous pieces of Greek and Roman art, certainly promise interest -even though marred at times by the fact that much of the information -rests upon the vague authority of tradition, or is strongly doubted by -modern criticism. - -“We owe, it is more than possible, the Venus of the Hermitage to -Cæsar; the well-known ‘Whetter’ has almost certainly been saved to -our admiration by Lucullus, just as Cicero may be thanked for the -‘Demosthenes’ and the collecting passion of Sallust has handed down -to us the ‘Faun,’ the ‘Hermaphrodite’ and the ‘Vase’ of the Villa -Borghese.” - -These remarks of a well-known French collector who mainly notes -works contained in the Louvre Museum might be extended to many other -collections, especially those of Rome, where several of the works of -art have old historical records of undisputed character. - -From the Renaissance down to our own days the pedigrees of celebrated -works of art are not only surer, but present at times a less -interrupted line of descent. With such it is not uncommon to find a -rare object pass from one collector to another, receiving the same care -and consideration as though passing from father to son as a cherished -heirloom--and it is, in fact, passing from one to another member of -the same family, the family bound by an identical burning passion, that -of collecting. - -As to the essence of this passion, so often confounded with mania--a -mistake calling forth the following comment from a French collector: -“... _confondre la ‘manie’ avec la curiosité, c’est prendre l’hysterie -pour l’amour, ‘la Belle Helenè’ pour l’Iliade_”--we should like to -quote Gersaint, one of the few men who as art dealer and collector in -one, what might be styled private dealer in modern phrase, impersonated -the passion, as we have said, in its highest expression among the many -collectors of the eighteenth century. It must be understood, of course, -that Gersaint, one of these maniacs in, say, La Bruyère’s opinion, -was a representative of those passionate collectors who subordinate -every other passion of mankind to the one they have made the sole aim -of their lives. “... A _curieux_,” says this unilateral lover but not -hobbyist collector, “has the advantage of not falling an easy prey to -the many passions so familiar to the human family: the _curiosité_ -fills all the empty spaces of his leisure moments. Entertained by his -cherished possessions, he has time only for working at the advance -of his _curiosité_, and his cabinet becomes the centre of all his -pleasures, and the seat of all his passions.” - -The outsider and half-way-insider will agree that this is a trifle too -much; but, after all, the great collectors who have left to the museums -of their countries fortunes that would have been lost but for their -intense passion--treasures of art left by the ignorant to the doom -of decay--have all felt, more or less, the burning passion described -by Gersaint, in the passage quoted which goes on to assert that a true -paradise awaits the perfect collector, who is never bored, and never -the prey of spleen. - -Without discussing the promises held out by Gersaint, as the perfect -collector is, to our knowledge, rare, let us state that our book -does not hope to urge any reader on to the perfection that ushers -into Gersaint’s bliss, but if the brief glimpse we have given of -Collectomania with its pleasures and dangers should convince some -really passionate lover of art that collecting has a nobler aim than -that of mere pleasure, if we should discourage a Tongilius or Paullus, -or if this work should scare some modern Clarinus and do away with a -noisy, useless up-to-date Trimalchus, we shall feel that the purpose of -the book has been justified to some extent. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Adamo da Brescia, counterfeiter of coins, 67 - - _Adventures of a Bric-à-brac Hunter_, - 144 - - Agar’s, Mme., collection of dolls, 291 - - Agesilas, 21 - - Aglæphon, 25 - - Agrippa as an art lover, 31 - - Alberti, 86 - - Alcohol as a solvent, 227 - - Alexander the Great, 37 - - Alluye, castle of, 92 - - Altar piece, Rothschild’s faked, 262 - - _Amateur marchand_, the, 117 - - Amber varnish, 228 - - Ambras collection, the, 87 - - American collector, the, 141 - - Andirons, story of the, 305 - - Andrea da Foiano, 79 - - Andrea del Sarto, 99 - - Andreoli, Maestro Giorgio, 250 - - Anne of Austria, 123 - - Anonimo Morelliano, the, 98 - - Antiquary, old and modern, the, 143, 153 - - Antique, passion for the, 71 - - Antiques, the collection of, in Italy, 82 - - Apelles, 20 - - Apollo and Marsyas, 94 - - Apollo, Sulla’s statue of, 36 - - Apollo, temple of, at Delphi, 23, 61 - - Apollo, the golden, 18 - - Aponius Saturninus, prætor, 29 - - Archæological suggestion, 160 - - Aretino, Pietro, 117 - - Aristotle, 18 - - Aristotle, bas-relief of, 91 - - Armour, faked, 269 - - Arms, the imitation of, 267 - - Art collecting, spread of, in Europe, 110 - - Art critic, the, 160 - - Art, influence of Greek and Roman, 83 - - Art in Rome, 20 - - Art museums in Rome, 61 - - Art sales, 128 - - Artist and erudite, 140 - - Artistic war booty, 21 - - Artists as connoisseurs, 288 - - Artists at Rome, status of, 20 - - Aspetti, Tiziano, 98 - - Athens, 18 - - _Atria auctionaria_, 28, 212 - - _Atrium_, the, 48 - - Atticus, 40 - - Auction room, atmosphere of the, 214 - - Augustus and Vedius Pollio, 52 - - Autographs, forged, 200, 298 - - - Baldinucci, 225 - - Barberini, Cardinal, 118 - - Barbizet Brothers, 252 - - _Barguette_, la, 110 - - Barocco, the, 113 - - Bas-reliefs, bronze, 91, 235 - - Basant, 131 - - Basilini, 147 - - Bastianini, 182, 188 - - Belli, Valerio, 98, 100 - - Bellini, 100 - - Beniviene, Girolamo, Bastianini’s bust of, 183 - - Biblical subjects, 102 - - Bibliomaniacs, Roman, 50 - - _Biographie Universelle_ of M. Weiss, 115 - - Bisticci, V. da, 92 - - “Black Band,” the, 171, 180, 219 - - Boethus, 30 - - Boiss, Mme., 209 - - Bolides, faking, 300 - - Bonafedi, Signor, 185 - - Bonnaffé, Edmond, 108, 112, 149, 193 - - Bookbindings, 296 - - Book collectors, Roman, 49 - - Books, 294 - - Bracciolini, Poggio, 75 - - Brass articles, patina for, 265 - - Bric-à-brac, 130 - - Bric-à-brac shops in Rome, 29 - - Brienne, 119 - - Briesco, Andrea, 87, 88 - - Bronze and other metals, to give tone and colour to, 264 - - Bronzes, 30, 89, 238 - - Brunelleschi, 75, 83 - - Brunellesco, 71 - - Brunswick Museum, the, 91 - - Brutus as a collector, 40 - - Brutus of Michelangelo, 103 - - Buffon, 131 - - Bullant, Jean, 92 - - - Cafaggiolo, 249 - - Calamis, 46, 59 - - “Calcedonio,” Niccoli’s, 73 - - Calchar, 100 - - Caligula, 29 - - Caligula as an auctioneer, 212 - - Callot’s bad etching, 127 - - Camelio, Vittore, 91 - - Cameos, counterfeit, 58 - - Candelabras, 30 - - Canvas for restoring paintings, 229 - - Capodimonte factory, the, 256 - - _Cappuccino_, 282 - - Cardinal di San Giorgio, 82, 89 - - Carncades, 41 - - Carracci, “The Deluge” by, 120 - - Castellani sale, the, 213 - - Castiglione, 103 - - Catalogues, first printed, 116 - - Cathegus, 25 - - Catherine de Medici, 110 - - Cavenaghi, 167 - - Cavino, 91 - - Cellini, 103 - - Ceroplastics, 244 - - Cesnola collection, 248 - - Charles the Bald, Bible and Psalter of, 66 - - Charles VI, catalogue of, 68 - - Chasles, M., 199 - - Cheese as a vehicle for colour, 230 - - Chemistry’s aid to faking, 263 - - Chilperic, a collector, 65 - - Christian and pagan subjects, 96 - - Christianity and art, 63 - - _Chronique Scandaleuse_, 130 - - Chrysogon, 25 - - Chrysoloras, Emanuele, 72 - - Claywork fakes, 235 - - Cicero and Art, 19; - imitation and fraud, 24; - pubilc auctions, 28; - a collector of doubtful taste, 40, 41; - Chrysogon, 45; - _citrus_ tables, 54; - public sales, 211 - - Cinquecento art, 102; velvet, 289 - - Cinquecento collectors, 102 - - Ciriaco d’Ancona, 71 - - _Citrus_ or _thuja_, 54; - qualities, 55 - - _Citrus_ tables, craze for, 25, 54 - - Clarinus, 32 - - Classification, 138 - - “Cleaning,” 216 - - Client and art market, 31 - - Clodion’s clay groups, 208, 238 - - Clodius, 31 - - Clotaire, a collector, 65 - - Clovis, a collector, 65 - - _Craquelage_, on pottery, 255 - - Cressy, influence of the battle of, 110 - - _Crieur_, the, 28 - - Crozat, 129 - - Coaches, Commodus’ collection of, 212 - - Codrus, the needy collector, 32 - - Coin counterfeiting, 67, 92 - - Cola di Rienzi, 69 - - Collection, a form of banking, 64 - - Collector, the: the home of the, 18; - and satirists, 32; - types of, 34; - rapacious, 37, 38; - ultra-modern, 141 - - Collectors and collections, 135 - - Collector’s touch, the, 146 - - Colouring marble, 242 - - Commerce and art collecting, 130 - - Commodus’ effects, sale of, 212 - - Concini, 123 - - Condivi, 90 - - Connoisseurship and erudition, 138 - - Conquerors as collectors of art treasures, 22 - - Constantine, 18, 63 - - Constantinople and Oriental arms, 267 - - Copyists in Rome, 59; Greek, 59 - - Corinthian bronze, 30, 51, 239 - - Cornelius Nepos’ statuette of Hercules, 37 - - Corplet, Alfred, 252 - - Correggio, the Marsyas and the Antiope by, 119 - - Correr Museum, 91 - - Corvinus, Mathias, 96 - - Cosimo I, 104 - - Costantini, Prof., 178 - - Costumes and dress, 290 - - Coulanges, 124 - - Counterfeit coining, 67 - - Counterfeiting, imitation, and forgery in Rome, 58 - - Courajod, Louis, 84, 92 - - Courtier, the, in Rome, 28; modern, 164 - - Couvreur, 147 - - _Curieux_, meaning of, 136 - - Custom House officials, 179 - - Cut glass, 260 - - - Dagobert, 65 - - Damascening, 270 - - Damophilus, 21, 43 - - David, statuette by Michelangelo, 108 - - Davillier collection, the, 90, 95, 108, 140 - - Dazzi, the Italian dealer, 179 - - d’Aunale, Duc, 110 - - de Bassiano, 91 - - d’Este, Isabella, 80 - - de Genlis, Mme., 136 - - de la Porte, Armand-Charles, 120 - - de Limeville, Sieur, 127 - - de Sévigné, Mme., 125 - - d’Oiron, faience, 109 - - Dealers, traders and shopkeepers, 154 - - Death masks, 92 - - Deceptive surroundings, 210 - - Della Robbia, imitations of, 250 - - Delorme, Philibert, 92 - - Delphi, 17 - - Demasippus, 25 - - Demmin, 251, 273 - - Derutha, 249 - - Devers, Joseph, 250 - - di Banco, Antonio, 84 - - _di mattonella_, 156 - - Didius Julianus, 212 - - Dolls and toys, 290 - - Donatello, 71, 83, 84, 86 - - Donatello’s _puttino_, 197 - - Dondi, 71 - - Dreyfus, G., 91 - - Drouot, Hotel, 214 - - Duchie, Jacques, collection of, 69 - - Dyes for marble, 243 - - - Eclectic and specialist, 138, 140 - - Ecouen, castle of, 92 - - _Electrum_, Helen’s cup of, 18 - - Enamels, faked, 259, 260 - - England, rise of the passion for collecting in, 110 - - English furniture, 283 - - Ennius, 22 - - _Epitrapezios_, the, 36 - - _Ereinteur_, the, 217 - - Eros, the tearful collector, 33 - - Estienne, H., 109, 112 - - Estienne, R., dictionary of, 136 - - Etchings, margins for, 232 - - Etruscan pottery, 248 - - Eudel, Paul, 180, 199, 203, 238, 273, 278, 295 - - Evander Aulanius, 60 - - _Évangéliaire_, a rare, 66 - - Evelyn, John, 115 - - Ex-voto objects, 290 - - _Exhedra_, 49 - - Expert, the, 162 - - - Fabius Maximus, 19 - - “Fabius Pictor,” 20 - - Faked atmosphere, the, 207 - - Faked reputation, the, 220 - - Faker, the, 194 - - Faker, the jovial, 202 - - Fakers, the aristocracy of, 88 - - “Faking the _milieu_,” 209 - - Faking in Rome, 27, 57 - - “Faustina antica,” Mantegna’s, 81 - - Filarete, 86 - - Firminius, 31 - - Florence, National Museum, 91 - - Flute player, the, 88 - - Fontainebleau, school of, 112 - - Forgeries, 153 - - Forni, 230 - - Fortunatus, 65 - - Fortuny, Mariano, 268 - - Forzetta, Oliver, 69 - - France and art collecting, 107 - - France, art in, 112 - - France, seventeenth-century art in, 114 - - Frankfurt, fair of, 109 - - Frederick II, Duke of Mantua, 66, 99 - - Freppa, 182 - - Friuli, Marquis of, 66 - - _Fronde_, the, 119 - - Fulvius Nobilior, 21 - - Furniture, faking, 167, 279 - - - Gaillon, castle of, 87 - - Gegania and Clesippus, 29 - - Gellianus the auctioneer, 213 - - German-made arms, 267 - - Gersaint, 131, 148, 309 - - Ghiacceti, Luigi, 110 - - Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 85, 94, 100 - - Gilded bronze, 241 - - Gilles Corrozet, 111 - - Ginori’s china works, 256 - - Ginsburg, Dr., 205 - - Giovanni Tornabuoni, 80 - - Girardon, 40 - - Giuliano da Sangallo, 80 - - Giustiniani, 248 - - Gladius Rogieri, the, 273 - - Glass, faked, 259 - - Glazes for pottery, 255 - - Glyptography, 79 - - Go-between, the, 164 - - Godescal, monk, 66 - - Gold products, spurious, 277 - - Gorgas, 21, 43 - - Gouffier, Claude, 109 - - Græco-Roman pottery, 247 - - _Græeculi delirantes_, 20 - - Gratianus, 31 - - Greek copyists, 59 - - Greeks, the, as art collectors, 17 - - Green-bronze lacquer for metal, 263 - - Green or brown-green patina, 265 - - Green patina, 266 - - Grolier, 107 - - Gubbio, 249 - - Guillebert de Metz, 69 - - Gymnasium of the Areopagus, 17 - - - Hall, Major H. Bing, 144 - - Hannibal, 37 - - Hercules and Antæus, 88 - - Hercules of Lysippus, 19 - - “Hercules Musagetes,” 22 - - Hercules, statuette of, 36 - - Heius of Messina, 49 - - Henry II faience, 252 - - Hispano-Moresque pottery, 249 - - Holland, collections in, 128 - - Horace, 25; - the _crieur_, 28, 32; - book collecting, 50; - patina, 51 - - Huber, Dr. L., 131 - - - Imbert, 141 - - Imitation and fraud in Rome, 24 - - Imitations, contemporaneous, 232 - - Imitations by noted factories, 256 - - Imitator, the, 170 - - Imitators and copyists, 59 - - Impasto painting, 230 - - _Imperator Caldusius_, 92 - - Impruneta clay, 187 - - Inlaid work on furniture, 282 - - Inscriptions, 93 - - Iron work, 266 - - Isotta Atti, 86 - - Italian artists, versatility of, 86 - - Italy, collections in, in the fifteenth century, 70 - - Italy, exportation laws, 179 - - Italian faience, imitations of, 250 - - _Itinerarium Galliæ_, by Just Zinzerling, 115 - - Ivory work, 244 - - - Jabach, the dealer, 115, 123 - - Jests, 160 - - Jewellery, old, 278 - - Juba, King of Numidia, 212 - - Julius Cæsar, 21, 31; - a specialist, 42 - - Julius, Prætor, 60 - - Jupiter, colossal statue of, in the Louvre, 39 - - Jupiter, head of, 79 - - Jupiter Olympicus, temple of, 21 - - Jupiter, temple of, in Elis, 23 - - Justinian, digest of, 63 - - Juvenal, Codrus, 33; - Tongilius, 34; - Licinius, 34; - precious goblets, 52 - - - Krieg, 248 - - - La Bruyère, 124, 140 - - La Rochefoucauld, 195 - - Lamberti, Nicolo di Piero, 84 - - _Laocoön_, the, 104 - - Laws against exportation, 172 - - Lebroc, 209 - - Lequesne, M., 184 - - _Les Collections des Medicis_, 74 - - Lescot, 126 - - Libraries at Athens, 18 - - Licinius the nervous collector, 34 - - _Liste anonyme des curieux_, 115 - - Livy, 61 - - Lorenzo, il Magnifico, 75, 77, 78 - - Louis XI and the miraculous ring, 78 - - Louis XIII as a collector, 122 - - Louis XIV as a collector, 39, 123 - - Louvre, the, 40, 41, 92, 96, 120, 122, 187 - - Lovesque, 141 - - Lucian, on Roman tourist guides, 62, 307 - - Lucretius, candelabra, 30 - - Lucullus, 60 - - Lustre work, 250 - - Lyndon, Minerva’s temple at, 18 - - Lysippus, statue of Hercules, by, 36 - - - Machiavelli, 102 - - Magliabechi, 307 - - Maillet, M. A., 201 - - Malachite, kind of patina, 265 - - Malatesta’s temple of love, 86 - - Manheim, connoisseur, 54, 261 - - Mantegna and Isabella d’Este, 81 - - _Maquilleur_, the, 216 - - Marcellus, 19 - - Marcus Agrippa, 43 - - Marcus Aurelius as an auctioneer, 212 - - Marcus Aurelius, statuette of, 97 - - Marguerite of Antioch, 39 - - Mark Antony as a collector, 22, 31; - rapacity, 38, 39; - Corinthian bronze, 51 - - Marks of noted pottery factories, 258 - - Marks on steel, 274 - - Marostica, 67 - - Marsigli, Luigi, 72 - - Martial, 26; - the _septæ_, 31; - Milonius, 32; - Clarinus and Paullus, 32; - Eros and Mamurra, 33; - statuette of Hercules, 36, 213 - - Marzi, Ezio, Prof., 191 - - Mazarin as a collector, 115, 117, 120 - - Mecherino, 106 - - _Médailles insolentes_, 128 - - Medals, forgers and imitators of antique, 100 - - Medals, patina for old, 265 - - Medici collection, fate of the, 74 - - Medicis, the, 72; - Piero, 75; - Cosimo, 75, 104; - Giulio, 77; - Ottaviano, 99; - Alexander, 101; - Lorenzino, 101 - - Mediæval collections, 64 - - Mégisserie, the, 111 - - Meissen china, booming, 151 - - Meleager, statuette of, 89 - - Melpomene, colossal, in the Louvre, 41 - - _Memoires de Brienne_, 127 - - _Mettere il bavaglino_, 157 - - Mexican idols, 246 - - Michelangelo, 89, 102, 103, 111 - - Michelangelo’s David, 108 - - Michelozzo, 75 - - Milanesi, 100 - - Milizia, 226 - - Millin, 136 - - Milonius, 32 - - Miniature work, 232 - - Miniatures in Rome, 30 - - Mino, 91 - - Minor collections, 299 - - Moabite pottery, forged, 205 - - Modena Museum, 91 - - Moderno, 97 - - Molière’s works, 294 - - Montaigne, 108 - - Moreau, artist in iron, 266 - - Morelli, 147 - - Mosaic, a Roman, 46 - - Muffled glaze, 251 - - Mummius, L., 19 - - Munich Museum, the, 185 - - Murrhines, 52 - - Murrhines, prices paid for, 25 - - Museum of Arezzo, 92 - - Museum of French monuments, 92 - - Museum of Munich, 92 - - Museums and forgeries, 153 - - Musical instruments, 284 - - Mustard pot, find of a, 161 - - Myron, 39 - - Mys, bronzes of, 30 - - - Napoleon as an art collector, 132 - - Natali’s imitations, 182, 185, 190 - - National Museum, Florence, 91 - - Nero, 18, 46 - - Newton and Pascal, 201 - - Niccoli, Niccolo, 71, 92 - - Nicomedes, King, 37 - - Nieuwerkerque, 182 - - Nolives, 182 - - Nonius, 38 - - Numismatists, 92 - - - Octavianus, a collector of Corinthian bronze, 51 - - _Oeci_, 49 - - Orlandini, Prof., 192 - - Orleans, Duke of, 129 - - Oriental pottery, 247, 249 - - Oriental weapons, 267 - - Over-restoration, 234 - - - Paduan School, 91, 196 - - Pagan art, the worship of, 85 - - Painting, imitations in, 99 - - Painting, transformed, 168 - - Paintings, restoring, 225 - - Palazzo, Riccardi, the, 75 - - Palissy, 251 - - Palladium, Niccoli’s, 97 - - Paolo Veronese, 102 - - Paris, art sales in, 128 - - Parvenu collector, the, 82 - - Pascal and Newton, 201 - - Pasiteles, 21 - - Pastels and water colours, 232 - - Patinæ, 51; - bronze, 238; - marble, 241 - - Paul Potter, 232 - - Paullus, 32 - - Pausias, 42 - - Perenzolo, 69 - - Peristyle, the, 48 - - Perronet de Granvelle, 39 - - Pertinax, public auction by, 212 - - Peruvian pottery, 246, 248 - - “Peter Funk,” 222 - - Petrarch, 71 - - Petronius’ collection of Murrhines, 54 - - Petronius and art, 20, 26 - - Phœdrus, on faking, 59 - - Phidias, 20 - - Philippe-Egalité, 129 - - Photographing pseudo-masterpieces, 169 - - Pietà, Zampini’s, 185 - - Pinacotheca of the Acropolis, the, 49, 71 - - Piot, 140 - - _Plaquettes_, 88, 91, 93 - - Plato, portrait of, 91 - - Plautus (“Menœchme”), 28 - - Pliny, 18; - Gegania and Clesippus, 29; - candelabra, 30; - Nonius, 38; - the “Young Philippian,” 40; - Polygnotus and Pausias, 42; - Scaurus, 46; - Corinthian bronze, 51; - patina, 51; - Murrhines, 52; - _citrus_ tables, 54; - as a connoisseur in bronze, 57; - counterfeit Sardonyx, 58; - Evander Aulanius, 60; - Pliny, the younger, on faking, 59 - - Plutarch, “Sulla’s private travelling god,” 36 - - Police of Louis XIV, 128 - - Polish of faked furniture, the, 280 - - Politiano, 79 - - Pollaiodo, Antonio, 88 - - Polycletus, 24; - bronzes, 30; - cameo, 73 - - Polygnotus, 42 - - Pompey, a generous collector, 41 - - Pontchartrain, 128 - - Pope Leo X, portrait of, 99 - - Pope Sixtus IV and the Medicis, 80 - - Pottery, faked, 247, 253, 254 - - Pourquet, M., 295 - - Poustales collection, the, 89 - - _Præco_, the, 28, 213 - - Prado of Madrid, the, 87, 92 - - Praxiteles, 46 - - Precious stones, imitation of, 58 - - Prices and values, 147 - - Prints and drawings, faking old, 231 - - “Prioristi,” Florentine, 209 - - Private collections at Rome, beginning of, 22 - - Procopius, 62 - - Promenade of Pompey, 42 - - Propertius and Cynthia, 42 - - Protective laws, 105, 172 - - Psychology of collectors, the, 203 - - Ptolemy’s cup, 66 - - Public auctions in Rome, 28 - - Public sales, 211 - - - Quattrocento imitations, 87; - velvets, 289 - - Quintilian, 24 - - - Racine’s works, 294 - - Radegond, St., 65 - - Raester, Olga, 285 - - Rameses, the forged, 203 - - Renaissance fakers of art, 68 - - Restorers and fakers, 59, 165 - - Restorers’ workshops in Rome, 60 - - Restoring paintings, 226 - - Retouching, 225 - - Reville’s _Promptuarium_, 92 - - Revolution, ceramics of the French, 252 - - Revolution, French, influence of the, 132 - - Rhodes’ pottery, 248 - - Riccio, bronzes of, 87, 101 - - Richelieu as a collector, 115 - - _Ricordi_ of Lorenzo Medici, 78 - - Ridolfi, Prof., 178 - - Rienzi, 71 - - Rinuccini, 78 - - Rochefort, Henri, 162, 214 - - Rolland, Mme., 150 - - Roman busts, imitations of, 90 - - Roman house, the, 48, 49 - - Roman, the, not a lover of art, 18 - - Romano, Giulio, 111 - - Rome: the home of the collectors, 18; - development of art, 21; - beginnings of private collection, 22; - fictitious art and fraud, 24; - freakish prices, 25; - _septæ_, 28; - public auctions, 28; - an emporium of art, 44; - Roman house, 48; - faking and copying, 59; - artistic life, 60 - - Rosary, Mazarin’s valuable, 119 - - Rossini, 286 - - Rothschilds, the, 152, 235, 260, 269 - - Rovertet, 107 - - Rugs, Oriental, 293 - - - _Sacrarium_, the, 49 - - St. Martin de Tours, monk of, 66 - - Saitaphernes, tiara of, 277 - - Sales of art collections, 128 - - Sales and auctions, 208 - - _Salle Lebrun_, the, 132 - - Salting collection, the, 191 - - Sanson, Charles, the executioner, a collector, 116 - - Sansovino, Jacopo, 89 - - Sardonyx, counterfeited, 58 - - Satire, on collecting, 125 - - _Satyricon_, the, 47 - - Sauval, 110 - - Savonarola, 83 - - _Sbullettare_, 186n. - - Scaling of terra-cotta, 186 - - Scarampi, Cardinal, 73, 74 - - Scaurus, 45; - his atrium, 49 - - Scientific and artistic pursuits, 137 - - Scopas, 46 - - Seneca and art, 20; - collectors, 32; - bibliomaniacs, 50; - veneered furniture, 55 - - _Septæ_, the, 28, 29 - - Servilia, 47 - - Servilius, 46 - - Sèvres, museum at, 248 - - Shaw, Bernard, 142 - - Shaw, Quincy, 31, 141 - - Shields, story of the three, 271 - - Siena imitators, 191 - - _Sigillaria_, the, 31 - - Signatures and monograms, 193, 208, 231 - - Signorili, _Descriptio urbia Romæ_ of, 69 - - Silver, artistic, during the French Revolution, 275 - - Silver, colour and tone of, 276 - - Silver marks, 276 - - Silver work, 274 - - Silver, wrought, rage for, in Rome, 25 - - Sisinande, 56 - - Sixteenth-century art, 101 - - Slang, art dealers’, 159 - - Sleeping Cupid, the, 89 - - Smuggler, the, 171 - - Sogliani, 111 - - Solvents used in restoring pictures, 227 - - Specialist, the, 138 - - Spoon, Jacob, 127 - - _Sposalizio_, Correggio’s, 118 - - Squarcione, Francesco, 71 - - Staedel Museum, the, 96 - - Stamp-collecting, 299 - - Stanley, H. M., 142 - - Statues, 35, 36, 37 - - _Stemmata_, 49 - - Strongylion, bronze by, 40 - - Strozzi, Filippo, 101 - - _Stucco duro_ imitations, 237 - - Suetonius, 29; - Cæsar, 43, 212 - - Suggestion, influence of, 177 - - Sulla, 22, 31, 36 - - Supino, Prof., 178 - - Symbolic art, 63 - - - _Tabulæ auctionariæ_, 213 - - Tanagras, faked, 235 - - Tane’s _Philosophie de l’Art_, 304 - - Tapestries, 49, 291 - - Tardieu and Sanson, 116 - - “Tazza Famese,” the, 80 - - Tedesco, Piero di Giovanni, 84 - - Tempera, use of, in restoring, 228 - - Temples as museums of art treasures, 18 - - Textile material, antique and modern, 288 - - Theophrastus, 18 - - Thibaudau, _Trésor de la Curiosité_, 128 - - Tiberius, II, 65 - - Timonacus, 43 - - Tintoretto, 102 - - Titian, 102, 120 - - Tongilius, the important collector, 34 - - Tortoise-shell as veneer, 55 - - Touchard, 248 - - Tourists in ancient Rome, 61 - - Trade and art, 150 - - _Traité des plus belles bibliothèques_, 115 - - Transferring bookbindings, 297 - - Trevoux, 136 - - Trimalcho, 26 - - _Triclinia_, 49 - - Trouillebert, 170 - - Tuscany, protective laws in, 106 - - - Uffizi Gallery, the, 90 - - _Ulysses Belgico-Gallico_, Golnitz’s, 115 - - Urban VIII and the Coliseum, 105 - - - Vaillant, 114 - - Valentino, Duke, 90 - - Valerius Maximus, 20 - - Varnish, imitating old and cracked, 229 - - Vasari, 86, 88, 89, 99, 225 - - Vedius Pollio and Augustus, 52 - - Vellano, bronzes of, 87, 88 - - Vellano, Vasari’s life of, 100 - - Velleius Paterculus, 19 - - Velvets, quattrocento and cinquecento, 289 - - Veneering in Rome, 55 - - Venetian works, effect of cleaning on, 217 - - Venus Anadyomene of Apelles, 60 - - Verres, the greedy collector, 22, 30, 31, 37 - - Verrocchio, Andrea del, 88-92 - - “Verrocchio and Co.,” 190 - - Vicentino, Valerio, 143 - - Victoria and Albert Museum, 96, 185, 188 - - Vindex, the real connoisseur, 35, 37 - - Virgil, 101 - - Vitruvius, 20; - private palaces, 45 - - Volpi, Elia, Prof., 178 - - Voltaire, 130 - - _Voyage pour l’Instruction_, Verdier’s, 115 - - _Voyage de Lister_, 115 - - _Voyage de Montaigne_, 108 - - Vrain-Lucas, 199 - - Vulteius Medas, 28 - - - “Wall breakers” at Athens, 18 - - Walters, H., 141 - - Warton, 110 - - Weapons, faked, 267 - - Wax work, 244 - - “Way for Asses, The,” 161 - - White, Stanford, 141, 304 - - Winckelmann, 36, 53, 58 - - Wood carving, colouring, 243 - - Worm-holes in furniture, imitation, 281 - - - “Young Philippian,” the, 40 - - - Zampini, Ferrante, 182, 185, 198 - - Zenodonis, a copyist, 59 - - - Printed in Great Britain at - _The Mayflower Press, Plymouth_. William Brendon & Son, Ltd. - - 1921 - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -The spelling and accent marks in non-English text were not checked for -accuracy. - -Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references. - -Page 26: Missing opening quotation marks added before “Think of it!” -and before “Well, it belonged to”. - -Page 110: “Duke d’Aumule” is listed on page 313 of the Index as -“d’Aunale, Duc”. The common spelling today is “d’Aumale”. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Gentle Art of Faking, by Riccardo Nobili - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GENTLE ART OF FAKING *** - -***** This file should be named 53638-0.txt or 53638-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/6/3/53638/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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