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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War - -Author: Wilfred Trotter - -Release Date: November 5, 2016 [EBook #53453] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSTINCTS OF THE HERD *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team, with -RichardW, at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced -from images generously made available by The Internet -Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div id="dcover"> -<img id="coverpage" - src="images/cover.jpg" width="600" height="800" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="dfront section"> -<h1 class="h1thisbook">INSTINCTS OF - THE HERD IN PEACE AND WAR</h1> - -<div class="fsz7">BY</div> - -<div class="fsz3">W. TROTTER</div> - -<div class="fsz5 padtopa">T. FISHER UNWIN LTD</div> - -<div class="fsz5">LONDON: ADELPHI TERRACE</div> -</div><!--dfront--> - -<div class="dfront section"> -<ul class="nowrap fsz7"> -<li class="pleft"> - <span class="spnfr"><i>February, 1916</i></span> - <i>First Published</i></li> -<li class="pleft"> - <span class="spnfr"><i>March, 1917</i></span> - <i>Second Impression</i></li> -<li class="pleft"> - <span class="spnfr"><i>July, 1917</i></span> - <i>Third Impression</i></li> -<li class="pleft"> - <span class="spnfr"><i>November, 1919</i></span> - <i>Second Edition</i></li> -<li class="pleft"> - <span class="spnfr"><i>March, 1920</i></span> - <i>Fifth Impression</i></li> -<li class="pleft"> - <span class="spnfr"><i>February, 1921</i></span> - <i>Sixth Impression</i></li> -</ul> -<div class="fsz7 padtopa">(<i>All rights reserved</i>)</div> -</div><!--dfront--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="h2nobreak" id="p005">PREFACE</h2></div> - -<p class="pfirst">The -first two essays in this book were written some -ten years ago and published in the <i>Sociological -Review</i> in 1908 and 1909. They had formed a -single paper, but it was found necessary to publish -in two instalments at an interval of six months, -and to cut down to a considerable extent the total -bulk.</p> - -<p>It was lately suggested to me that as the numbers -of the review in which the two essays appeared -were out of print, the fact that the subject concerned -was not without some current interest might justify -a republication. It was not possible to do this -without trying to embody such fruits as there -might be of ten years’ further speculation and -some attempt to apply to present affairs the principles -which had been sketched out.</p> - -<p>The new comment very soon surpassed by far -in bulk the original text, and constitutes, in fact, all -but a comparatively few pages of this book. This -rather minute record is made here not because it -has any interest of its own, but especially to point -out that I have been engaged in trying to apply -to the affairs of to-day principles which had taken -shape ten years ago. I point this out not in order -<span class="xxpn" id="p006">{6}</span> -to claim any gift of foresight in having suggested -so long ago reasons for regarding the stability of -civilization as unsuspectedly slight, but because it -is notorious that the atmosphere of a great war -is unfavourable to free speculation. If the principles -upon which my argument is based had been -evolved during the present times, the reader would -have had special reason to suspect their validity, -however plausible they might seem in the refracting -air of national emergency.</p> - -<p>The general purpose of this book is to suggest -that the science of psychology is not the mass of -dreary and indefinite generalities of which it sometimes -perhaps seems to be made up; to suggest that, -especially when studied in relation to other branches -of biology, it is capable of becoming a guide in -the actual affairs of life and of giving an understanding -of the human mind such as may enable -us in a practical and useful way to foretell some -of the course of human behaviour. The present -state of public affairs gives an excellent chance -for testing the truth of this suggestion, and adds -to the interest of the experiment the strong incentive -of an urgent national peril.</p> - -<p>If this war is becoming, as it obviously is, daily -more and more completely a contest of moral forces, -some really deep understanding of the nature and -sources of national morale must be at least as -important a source of strength as the technical -knowledge of the military engineer and the maker -of cannon. One is apt to suppose that the chief -function of a sound morale is the maintenance of -<span class="xxpn" id="p007">{7}</span> -a high courage and resolution through the ups and -downs of warfare. In a nation whose actual independence -and existence are threatened from without -such qualities may be taken for granted and may -be present when the general moral forces are -seriously disordered. A satisfactory morale gives -something much more difficult to attain. It gives -smoothness of working, energy and enterprise to the -whole national machine, while from the individual -it ensures the maximal outflow of effort with a -minimal interference from such egoistic passions -as anxiety, impatience, and discontent. A practical -psychology would define these functions and indicate -means by which they are to be called into activity.</p> - -<p>The more we consider the conduct of government -in warfare the clearer does it become that every -act of authority produces effects in two distinct -fields—that of its primary function as directed more -or less immediately against the enemy, and that of -its secondary action upon the morale of the nation. -The first of these two constituents possesses the -uncertainty of all military enterprises, and its success -or failure cannot be foretold; the influence of the -second constituent is susceptible of definition and -foresight and need never be wholly ambiguous to -any but the ignorant or the indifferent.</p> - -<p>The relative importance of the military and the -moral factors in any act or enterprise varies much, -but it may be asserted that while the moral factor -may sometimes be enormously the more important, -it is never wholly absent. This constant and -admittedly significant factor in all acts of -<span class="xxpn" id="p008">{8}</span> -government is usually awarded an attention so thoroughly -inexpert and perfunctory, as to justify the feeling -that the customary belief in its importance is no -more than a conventional expression.</p> - -<p>The method I have used is frankly speculative, -and I make no apology for it because the facts are -open to the observation of all and available for -confirmation or disproof. I have tried to point out -a way; I have tried not to exhort or persuade -to the use of it—these are matters outside my -province. -<span class="spndate"><i>November, 1915.</i></span></p> - -<h2 class="h2nobreak">PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION</h2> - -<p class="pfirst">A few -errors in the text of the First Edition have -been corrected, and a sentence which had caused -misunderstanding has been omitted. No other -change has been made. A Postscript has been -added in order to point out some of the directions -in which the psychological inquiry made during -the war gave a practical foresight that was confirmed -by the course of events, and in order to -examine the remarkable situation in which society -now finds itself.</p> - -<p>In the Preface to the First Edition I ventured to -suggest that some effective knowledge of the mind -might be of value to a nation at war; I take this -opportunity of suggesting that such knowledge -might be not less useful to a tired nation seeking -peace. At the same time it should perhaps be added -that this book is concerned wholly with the examination -of principles, is professedly speculative in -methods and conclusions, and is quite without -pretensions to advise upon the conduct of affairs. -<span class="spndate"><i>August, 1919.</i></span></p> - -<div class="section"> -<ul class="dfront"><li class="ltrspca"> -<h2 class="h2nobreak" id="p009">CONTENTS</h2> -<ul> -<li class="fsz6 ltrspca"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p005">5</a></span> - <span class="smcap">P<b>REFACE</b></span></li> - -<li class="fsz6 ltrspca"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p008">8</a></span> - <span class="smcap">P<b>REFACE</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">TO</span> - <span class="smcap">S<b>ECOND</b></span> - <span class="smcap">E<b>DITION</b></span></li> - -<li class="ltrspca">HERD INSTINCT AND ITS BEARING - ON THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CIVILIZED MAN -<ul class="ulina"> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p011">11</a></span> - INTRODUCTION</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p015">15</a></span> - PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF INSTINCT</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p018">18</a></span> - BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF GREGARIOUSNESS</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p023">23</a></span> - MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREGARIOUS ANIMAL</li> -</ul></li> - -<li class="ltrspca">SOCIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HERD INSTINCT -<ul class="ulina"> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p060">60</a></span> - GREGARIOUSNESS AND THE FUTURE OF MAN</li></ul></li> - -<li class="ltrspca">SPECULATIONS UPON THE HUMAN MIND IN 1915 -<ul class="ulina"> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p066">66</a></span> - MAN’S PLACE IN NATURE AND NATURE’S PLACE IN MAN</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p069">69</a></span> - COMMENTS ON AN OBJECTIVE SYSTEM OF HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p091">91</a></span> - SOME PRINCIPLES OF A BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p101">101</a></span> - THE BIOLOGY OF GREGARIOUSNESS</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p112">112</a></span> - CHARACTERS OF THE GREGARIOUS ANIMAL DISPLAYED BY MAN</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p120">120</a></span> - SOME PECULIARITIES OF THE SOCIAL HABIT IN MAN</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p132">132</a></span> - IMPERFECTIONS OF THE SOCIAL HABIT IN MAN</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p139">139</a></span> - GREGARIOUS SPECIES AT WAR</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p156">156</a></span> - ENGLAND AGAINST GERMANY—GERMANY</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p201">201</a></span> - ENGLAND AGAINST GERMANY—ENGLAND</li> -</ul></li> - -<li class="ltrspca">POSTSCRIPT OF 1919 -<ul class="ulina"> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p214">214</a></span> - PREJUDICE IN TIME OF WAR</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p224">224</a></span> - PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTICIPATIONS</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p235">235</a></span> - AFTER THE WAR</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p241">241</a></span> - THE INSTABILITY OF CIVILIZATION</li> -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p251">251</a></span> - SOME CHARACTERS OF A RATIONAL STATECRAFT</li> -</ul></li> - -<li class="fsz6"><span class="spnfr"><a href="#p261">261</a></span> - <span class="smcap">I<b>NDEX</b></span></li> -</ul></li></ul></div><!--section for the page break--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div id="p011">INSTINCTS - OF THE HERD IN PEACE AND WAR</div> - -<h2 class="h2nobreak">HERD INSTINCT AND ITS BEARING ON -THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CIVILIZED MAN</h2> - -<h3>I. <span class="smcap">I<b>NTRODUCTION</b></span></h3> -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p class="pfirst">Few -subjects have led to discussion so animated and -prolonged as has the definition of the science of -sociology. It is therefore necessary, as it is hoped -that this essay may be capable of sociological applications, -that the writer should define the sense in -which he uses the term. By calling it a science is, -of course, denoted the view that sociology is a -body of knowledge derived from experience of its -material and co-ordinated so that it shall be useful -in forecasting and, if possible, directing the future -behaviour of that material. This material is man in -society of associated man.</p> - -<p>Sociology, therefore, is obviously but another -name for psychology, in the widest sense, for, that -is to say, a psychology which can include all the -phenomena of the mind without the exception even -of the most complex, and is essentially practical in a -fuller sense than any orthodox psychology which has -yet appeared.</p> - -<p>Sociology has, of course, often been described -as social psychology and has been regarded as -differing from ordinary psychology in being -<span class="xxpn" id="p012">{12}</span> -concerned with those forms of mental activity which -man displays in his social relations, the assumption -being made that society brings to light a special -series of mental aptitudes with which ordinary psychology, -dealing as it does essentially with the individual, -is not mainly concerned. It may be stated -at once that it is a principal thesis of this essay that -this attitude is a fallacious one, and has been responsible -for the comparative sterility of the -psychological method in sociology. The two fields—the -social and the individual—are regarded here -as absolutely continuous; all human psychology, it -is contended, must be the psychology of associated -man, since man as a solitary animal is unknown to -us, and every individual must present the characteristic -reactions of the social animal if such exist. The -only difference between the two branches of the -science lies in the fact that ordinary psychology -makes no claim to be practical in the sense of -conferring useful foresight; whereas sociology does -profess to deal with the complex, unsimplified -problems of ordinary life, ordinary life being, by a -biological necessity, social life. If, therefore, -sociology is to be defined as psychology, it would -be better to call it practical or applied psychology -than social psychology.</p> - -<p>The first effect of the complete acceptance of -this point of view is to render very obvious the -difficulty and immensity of the task of sociology; -indeed, the possibility of such a science is sometimes -denied. For example, at an early meeting of -the Sociological Society, Professor Karl Pearson expressed -the opinion that the birth of the science of -sociology must await the obstetrical genius of some -one man of the calibre of Darwin or Pasteur. At a -later meeting Mr. H. G. Wells went farther, and -maintained that as a science sociology not only does -not but cannot exist. -<span class="xxpn" id="p013">{13}</span></p> - -<p>Such scepticism appears in general to be based -upon the idea that a practical psychology in the -sense already defined is impossible. According to -some this is because the human will introduces -into conduct an element necessarily incommensurable, -which will always render the behaviour of -man subject to the occurrence of true variety and -therefore beyond the reach of scientific generalization; -according to another and a more deterministic -school, human conduct, while not theoretically liable -to true variety in the philosophic sense or to the -intrusion of the will as a first cause, is in fact so -complex that no reduction of it to a complete system -of generalizations will be possible until science in -general has made very great progress beyond its -present position. Both views lead in practice to -attitudes of equal pessimism towards sociology.</p> - -<p>The observable complexity of human conduct is, -undoubtedly, very great and discouraging. The -problem of generalizing from it presents, however, -one important peculiarity, which is not very evident at -first sight. It is that as observers we are constantly -pursued by man’s own account of his -behaviour; that of a given act our observation is -always more or less mixed with a knowledge, derived -from our own feelings, of how it seems to -the author of the act, and it is much more difficult -than is often supposed to disentangle and allow for -the influence of this factor. Each of us has the -strongest conviction that his conduct and beliefs -are fundamentally individual and reasonable and in -essence independent of external causation, and each -is ready to furnish a series of explanations of his -conduct consistent with these principles. These explanations, -moreover, are the ones which will occur -spontaneously to the observer watching the conduct -of his fellows.</p> - -<p>It is suggested here that the sense of the -<span class="xxpn" id="p014">{14}</span> -unimaginable complexity and variability of human -affairs is derived less than is generally supposed -from direct observation and more from this second -factor of introspectual interpretation which may be -called a kind of anthropomorphism. A reaction -against this in human psychology is no less necessary -therefore than was in comparative psychology the -similar movements the extremer developments of -which are associated with the names of Bethe, Beer, -Uexküll and Nuel. It is contended that it is this -anthropomorphism in the general attitude of psychologists -which, by disguising the observable -uniformities of human conduct, has rendered so slow -the establishment of a really practical psychology. -Little as the subject has been studied from the point -of view of a thorough-going objectivism, yet even -now certain generalizations summarising some of the -ranges of human belief and conduct might already be -formulated. Such an inquiry, however, is not the -purpose of this essay, and these considerations have -been advanced, in the first place, to suggest that -theory indicates that the problem of sociology is not -so hopelessly difficult as it at first appears, and -secondly, as a justification for an examination of -certain aspects of human conduct by the deductive -method. The writer would contend that while that -method is admittedly dangerous when used as a substitute -for a kind of investigation in which deductive -processes are reduced to a minimum, yet it has its -special field of usefulness in cases where the significance -of previously accumulated facts has been misinterpreted, -or where the exacter methods have -proved unavailing through the investigator having -been without indications of precisely what facts were -likely to be the most fruitful subject for measurement. -This essay, then, will be an attempt to obtain -by a deductive consideration of conduct some -guidance for the application of those methods of -<span class="xxpn" id="p015">{15}</span> -measurement and co-ordination of facts upon which -all true science is based.</p> - -<p>A very little consideration of the problem of -conduct makes it plain that it is in the region of -feeling, using the term in its broadest sense, that the -key is to be sought. Feeling has relations to instinct -as obvious and fundamental as are the analogies -between intellectual processes and reflex action; it -is with the consideration of instinct, therefore, that -this paper must now be occupied.</p> - -<div class="section"><h3>II. -<span class="smcap">P<b>SYCHOLOGICAL</b></span> -<span class="smcap">A<b>SPECTS</b></span> -<span class="smmaj">OF</span> -<span class="smcap">I<b>NSTINCT.</b></span></h3> -</div> - -<p>Many years ago, in a famous chapter of his Text -Book of Psychology, William James analysed and -established with a quite final delicacy and precision -the way in which instinct appears to introspection. -He showed that the impulse of an instinct reveals -itself as an axiomatically obvious proposition, as -something which is so clearly “sense” that any idea -of discussing its basis is foolish or -wicked.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc1" href="#fn1">1</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn1" href="#afnanc1">1</a> -Not one man in a billion, when taking his -dinner, ever thinks of utility. He eats because the food tastes good -and makes him want more. If you ask him why he should want to eat more -of what tastes like that, instead of revering you as a philosopher -he will probably laugh at you for a fool. The connexion between the -savoury sensation and the act it awakens is for him absolute and -<i>selbstverständlich</i>, an “<i>a priori</i> synthesis” of the most perfect -sort needing no proof but its own evidence. . . . To the -metaphysician alone can such questions occur as: Why do we smile, when -pleased, and not scowl? Why are we unable to talk to a crowd as to a -single friend? Why does a particular maiden turn our wits so upside -down? The common man can only say, “<i>Of course</i> we smile, <i>of course</i> -our heart palpitates at the sight of the crowd, <i>of course</i> we love the -maiden, that beautiful soul clad in that perfect form, so palpably and -flagrantly made from all eternity to be loved” (W. James, “Principles -of Psychology” vol. ii. p. 386).</p></div> - -<p>When we recognize that decisions due to instinct -come into the mind in a form so characteristic and -easily identifiable we are encouraged at once to ask -<span class="xxpn" id="p016">{16}</span> -whether all decisions having this form must be -looked upon as essentially of instinctive origin. -Inquiry, however, reveals the fact that the bulk of -opinion based upon assumptions having these introspectual -characters is so vast that any answer but -a negative one would seem totally incompatible with -current conceptions of the nature of human -thought.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc2" href="#fn2">2</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn2" href="#afnanc2">2</a> -This introspectual quality of the “<i>a priori</i> synthesis -of the most perfect sort” is found, for example, in the assumptions -upon which is based the bulk of opinion in matters of Church and State, -the family, justice, probity, honour, purity, crime, and so forth. -Yet clearly we cannot say that there is a specific instinct concerned -with each of these subjects, for that, to say the least, would be to -postulate an unimaginable multiplicity of instincts, for the most part -wholly without any conceivable biological usefulness. For example, -there are considerable difficulties in imagining an instinct for making -people Wesleyans or Roman Catholics, or an instinct for making people -regard British family life as the highest product of civilization, -yet there can be no question that these positions are based upon -assumptions having all the characters described by James as belonging -to the impulses of instinct.</p></div> - -<p>Many attempts have been made to explain the -behaviour of man as dictated by instinct. He is, -in fact, moved by the promptings of such obvious -instincts as self-preservation, nutrition, and sex -enough to render the enterprise hopeful and its early -spoils enticing. So much can so easily be generalized -under these three impulses that the temptation to -declare that all human behaviour could be resumed -under them was irresistible. These early triumphs -of materialism soon, however, began to be troubled -by doubt. Man, in spite of his obvious duty to the -contrary, would continue so often not to preserve -himself, not to nourish himself and to prove resistant -to the blandishments of sex, that the attempt to -squeeze his behaviour into these three categories -began to involve an increasingly obvious and finally -intolerable amount of pushing and pulling, as well -as so much pretence that he was altogether “in,” -<span class="xxpn" id="p017">{17}</span> -when, quite plainly, so large a part of him remained -“out,” that the enterprise had to be given up, and -it was once more discovered that man escaped and -must always escape any complete generalization by -science.</p> - -<p>A more obvious inference would have been that -there was some other instinct which had not been -taken into account, some impulse, perhaps, which -would have no very evident object as regarded the -individual, but would chiefly appear as modifying -the other instincts and leading to new combinations -in which the primitive instinctive impulse was unrecognizable -as such. A mechanism such as this -very evidently would produce a series of actions -in which uniformity might be very difficult to recognize -by direct observation, but in which it would -be very obvious if the characters of this unknown -“x” were available.</p> - -<p>Now, it is a striking fact that amongst animals -there are some whose conduct can be generalized -very readily in the categories of self-preservation, -nutrition, and sex, while there are others whose -conduct cannot be thus summarized. The behaviour -of the tiger and the cat is simple, and easily -comprehensible, presenting no unassimilable anomalies, -whereas that of the dog, with his conscience, -his humour, his terror of loneliness, his capacity for -devotion to a brutal master, or that of the bee, with -her selfless devotion to the hive, furnishes phenomena -which no sophistry can assimilate without the aid -of a fourth instinct. But little examination will -show that the animals whose conduct it is difficult -to generalize under the three primitive instinctive -categories are gregarious. If then it can be shown -that gregariousness is of a biological significance -approaching in importance that of the other instincts, -we may expect to find in it the source of these -anomalies of conduct, and if we can also show -<span class="xxpn" id="p018">{18}</span> -that man is gregarious, we may look to it for the -definition of the unknown “x” which might account -for the complexity of human behaviour.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3>III. <span class="smcap">B<b>IOLOGICAL</b></span> - <span class="smcap">S<b>IGNIFICANCE</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUSNESS.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>The animal kingdom presents two relatively -sudden and very striking advances in complexity -and in the size of the unit upon which natural selection -acts unmodified. These advances consist in the -aggregation of units which were previously independent -and exposed to the full normal action of -natural selection, and the two instances are, of course, -the passage from the unicellular to the multicellular, -and from the solitary to the social.</p> - -<p>It is obvious that in the multicellular organism -individual cells lose some of the capacities of the -unicellular—reproductive capacity is regulated and -limited, nutrition is no longer possible in the old -simple way and response to stimuli comes only in -certain channels. In return for these sacrifices we -may say, metaphorically, that the action of natural -selection is withdrawn from within the commune. -Unfitness of a given cell or group of cells can be -eliminated only through its effect upon the whole -organism. The latter is less sensitive to the vagaries -of a single cell than is the organism of which -the single cell is the whole. It would seem, therefore, -that there is now allowed a greater range of -variability for the individual cells, and perhaps, -therefore, an increased richness of the material to -be selected from. Variations, moreover, which were -not immediately favourable would now have a -chance of surviving.</p> - -<p>Looked at in this way, multicellularity presents -itself as an escape from the rigour of natural selection, -which for the unicellular organism had narrowed -<span class="xxpn" id="p019">{19}</span> -competition to so desperate a struggle that any -variation outside the straitest limits was fatal, for -even though it might be favourable in one respect, -it would, in so small a kingdom, involve a loss in -another. The only way, therefore, for further advantageous -elaboration to occur was by the enlargement -of the competing unit. Various species of -multicellular organisms might in time be supposed -in turn to reach the limit of their powers. Competition -would be at its maximum, smaller and smaller -variations would be capable of producing serious -results. In the species where these conditions prevail -an enlargement of the unit is imminent if progress -is to occur. It is no longer possible by increases -of physical complexity and the apparently inevitable -sequence is the appearance of gregariousness. The -necessity and inevitableness of the change are shown -by its scattered development in very widely separated -regions (for example, in insects and in mammals) -just as, we may suspect, multicellularity appeared.</p> - -<p>Gregariousness seems frequently to be regarded -as a somewhat superficial character, scarcely deserving, -as it were, the name of an instinct, advantageous -it is true, but not of fundamental importance or -likely to be deeply ingrained in the inheritance of -the species. This attitude may be due to the fact -that among mammals at any rate the appearance -of gregariousness has not been accompanied by any -very gross physical changes which are obviously -associated with -it.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc3" href="#fn3">3</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn3" href="#afnanc3">3</a> -Among gregarious insects there are of course physical -changes arising out of and closely dependent on the social -organization.</p></div> - -<p>To whatever it may be due, this method of regarding -the social habit is, in the opinion of the present -writer, not justified by the facts, and prevents the -attainment of conclusions of considerable fruitfulness.</p> - -<p>A study of bees and ants shows at once how -<span class="xxpn" id="p020">{20}</span> -fundamental the importance of gregariousness may -become. The individual in such communities is -completely incapable, often physically, of existing -apart from the community, and this fact at once -gives rise to the suspicion that even in communities -less closely knit than those of the ant and the bee, -the individual may in fact be more dependent on -communal life than appears at first sight.</p> - -<p>Another very striking piece of general evidence -of the significance of gregariousness as no mere -late acquirement is the remarkable coincidence of -its occurrence with that of exceptional grades of -intelligence or the possibility of very complex reactions -to environment. It can scarcely be regarded -as an unmeaning accident that the dog, the horse, -the ape, the elephant, and man are all social animals. -The instances of the bee and the ant are perhaps -the most amazing. Here the advantages of gregariousness -seem actually to outweigh the most -prodigious differences of structure, and we find a -condition which is often thought of as a mere habit, -capable of enabling the insect nervous system to -compete in the complexity of its power of adaptation -with that of the higher vertebrates.</p> - -<p>If it be granted that gregariousness is a phenomenon -of profound biological significance and one -likely therefore to be responsible for an important -group of instinctive impulses, the next step in our -argument is the discussion of the question as to -whether man is to be regarded as gregarious in -the full sense of the word, whether, that is to say, -the social habit may be expected to furnish him -with a mass of instinctive impulse as mysteriously -potent as the impulses of self-preservation, nutrition, -and sex. Can we look to the social instinct for an -explanation of some of the “<i>a priori</i> syntheses of -the most perfect sort needing no proof but their -own evidence,” which are not explained by the three -<span class="xxpn" id="p021">{21}</span> -primitive categories of instinct, and remain stumbling-blocks -in the way of generalizing the conduct of man?</p> - -<p>The conception of man as a gregarious animal is, -of course, extremely familiar; one frequently meets -with it in the writings of psychologists and sociologists, -and it has obtained a respectable currency -with the lay public. It has, indeed, become so -hackneyed that it is the first duty of a writer who -maintains the thesis that its significance is not even -yet fully understood, to show that the popular conception -of it has been far from exhaustive. As -used hitherto the idea seems to have had a certain -vagueness which greatly impaired its practical value. -It furnished an interesting analogy for some of the -behaviour of man, or was enunciated as a half serious -illustration by a writer who felt himself to be in -an exceptionally sardonic vein, but it was not at -all widely looked upon as a definite fact of biology -which must have consequences as precise and a -significance as ascertainable as the secretion of the -gastric juice or the refracting apparatus of the eye. -One of the most familiar attitudes was that which -regarded the social instinct as a late development. -The family was looked upon as the primitive unit; -from it developed the tribe, and by the spread of -family feeling to the tribe the social instinct arose. -It is interesting that the psychological attack upon -this position has been anticipated by sociologists -and anthropologists, and that it is already being -recognized that an undifferentiated horde rather than -the family must be regarded as the primitive basis -of human society.</p> - -<p>The most important consequence of this vague -way of regarding the social habit of man has been -that no exhaustive investigation of its psychological -corollaries has been carried out. When we see -the enormous effect in determining conduct that the -gregarious inheritance has in the bee, the ant, the -<span class="xxpn" id="p022">{22}</span> -horse, or the dog, it is quite plain that if the gregariousness -of man had been seriously regarded -as a definite fact a great amount of work would -have been done in determining precisely what -reactive tendencies it had marked out in man’s mind. -Unfortunately, the amount of precise work of this -kind has been very small.</p> - -<p>From the biological standpoint the probability of -gregariousness being a primitive and fundamental -quality in man seems to be considerable. As already -pointed out, like the other great enlargement of -the biological unit, but in a much more easily recognizable -degree, it would appear to have the effect of -enlarging the advantages of variation. Varieties not -immediately favourable, varieties departing widely -from the standard, varieties even unfavourable to -the individual may be supposed to be given by it -a chance of survival. Now the course of the development -of man seems to present many features incompatible -with its having proceeded amongst isolated -individuals exposed to the unmodified action of -natural selection. Changes so serious as the assumption -of the upright posture, the reduction in the -jaw and its musculature, the reduction in the acuity -of smell and hearing, demand, if the species is to -survive, either a delicacy of adjustment with the -compensatingly developing intelligence so minute as -to be almost inconceivable, or the existence of some -kind of protective enclosure, however imperfect, in -which the varying individuals were sheltered from -the direct influence of natural selection. The existence -of such a mechanism would compensate losses -of physical strength in the individual by the greatly -increased strength of the larger unit, of the unit, -that is to say, upon which natural selection still acts -unmodified.</p> - -<p>A realization, therefore, of this function of -gregariousness relieves us from the necessity of -<span class="xxpn" id="p023">{23}</span> -supposing that the double variations of diminishing -physical and increasing mental capacity always -occurred <i>pari passu</i>. The case for the primitiveness -of the social habit would seem to be still -further strengthened by a consideration of such -widely aberrant developments as speech and the -æsthetic activities, but a discussion of them here -would involve an unnecessary indulgence of biological -speculation.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3>IV. <span class="smcap">M<b>ENTAL</b></span> - <span class="smcap">C<b>HARACTERISTICS</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> <span class="smmaj">THE</span> - <span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUS</b></span> - <span class="smcap">A<b>NIMAL.</b></span></h3> - -<h4>(<i>a</i>) Current Views in Sociology and Psychology.</h4> -</div> -<p>If we now assume that gregariousness may be -regarded as a fundamental quality of man, it -remains to discuss the effects we may expect it -to have produced upon the structure of his mind. -It would be well, however, first, to attempt to form -some idea of how far investigation has already gone -in this direction. It is of course clear that no complete -review of all that has been said concerning a -conception so familiar can be attempted here, and, -even if it were possible, it would not be a profitable -enterprise, as the great bulk of writers have -not seen in the idea anything to justify a fundamental -examination of it. What will be done here, -therefore, will be to mention a few representative -writers who have dealt with the subject, and to -give in a summary way the characteristic features -of their exposition.</p> - -<p>As far as I am aware, the first person to point -out any of the less obvious biological significance -of gregariousness was Professor Karl -Pearson.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc4" href="#fn4">4</a> -<span class="xxpn" id="p024">{24}</span></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn4" href="#afnanc4">4</a> -Many references to the subject will be found in his published -works, for example in “The Grammar of Science,” in “National Life -from the Standpoint of Science,” and in “The Chances of Death.” -In the collection of Essays last named the essay entitled “Socialism -and Natural Selection” deals most fully with the subject.</p></div> - -<p>He called attention to the enlargement of the -selective unit effected by the appearance of gregariousness, -and to the fact that therefore within -the group the action of natural selection becomes -modified. This conception had, as is well known, -escaped the insight of Haeckel, of Spencer, and -of Huxley, and Pearson showed into what confusions -in their treatment of the problems of society these -three had been led by the -oversight.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc5" href="#fn5">5</a> For example -may be mentioned the famous antithesis of the -“cosmical” and the “ethical” processes expounded -in Huxley’s Romanes Lecture. It was quite definitely -indicated by Pearson that the so-called ethical -process, the appearance, that is to say, of altruism, -is to be regarded as a directly instinctive product -of gregariousness, and as natural, therefore, as any -other instinct.</p> - -<p>These very clear and valuable conceptions do not -seem, however, to have received from biologists the -attention they deserved, and as far as I am aware -their author has not continued further the examination -of the structure of the gregarious mind, -which would undoubtedly have yielded in his hands -further conclusions of equal value.</p> - -<p>We may next examine the attitude of a modern -sociologist. I have chosen for this purpose the -work of an American sociologist, Lester Ward, and -propose briefly to indicate his position as it may -be gathered from his book entitled “Pure -Sociology.”<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc6" href="#fn6">6</a> -<span class="xxpn" id="p025">{25}</span></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn5" href="#afnanc5">5</a> -“Socialism and Natural Selection” in “The Chances of Death.”</p></div> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn6" href="#afnanc6">6</a> -Lester F. Ward, “Pure Sociology: a Treatise on the Origin and -Spontaneous Development of Society.” New York: The Macmillan -Co. 1903. I do not venture to decide whether this work may be -regarded as representative of orthodox sociology, if there be such a -thing; I have made the choice because of the author’s capacity for -fresh and ingenious speculation and his obviously wide knowledge of -sociological literature.</p></div> - -<p>The task of summarizing the views of any -sociologist seems to me to be rendered difficult -by a certain vagueness in outline of the positions -laid down, a certain tendency for a description of -fact to run into an analogy, and an analogy to fade -into an illustration. It would be discourteous to -doubt that these tendencies are necessary to the -fruitful treatment of the material of sociology, but, -as they are very prominent in connection with the -subject of gregariousness, it is necessary to say that -one is fully conscious of the difficulties they give -rise to, and feels that they may have led one into -unintentional misrepresentation.</p> - -<p>With this proviso it may be stated that the -writings of Ward produce the feeling that he regards -gregariousness as furnishing but few precise and -primitive characteristics of the human mind. The -mechanisms through which group “instinct” acts -would seem to be to him largely rational processes, -and group instinct itself is regarded as a relatively -late development more or less closely associated -with a rational knowledge that it “pays.” For -example, he says: “For want of a better name, -I have characterized this social instinct, or instinct -of race safety, as religion, but not without clearly -perceiving that it constitutes the primordial -undifferentiated plasm out of which have subsequently -developed all the more important human -institutions. This . . . if it be not an instinct, -is at least the human homologue of animal instinct, -and served the same purpose <i>after the instincts -had chiefly disappeared</i>, and when the egotistic -reason would otherwise have rapidly carried the -race to destruction in its mad pursuit of pleasure -for its own -sake.”<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc7" href="#fn7">7</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn7" href="#afnanc7">7</a> -“Pure Sociology,” p. 134. Italics not in original. -Passages of a similar tendency will be found on pp. 200 and 556.</p></div> - -<p>That gregariousness has to be considered amongst -<span class="xxpn" id="p026">{26}</span> -the factors shaping the tendencies of the human -mind has long been recognized by the more -empirical psychologists. In the main, however, it -has been regarded as a quality perceptible only in -the characteristics of actual crowds—that is to say, -assemblies of persons being and acting in association. -This conception has served to evoke a certain -amount of valuable work in the observation of the -behaviour of -crowds.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc8" href="#fn8">8</a></p> - -<p>Owing, however, to the failure to investigate as -the more essential question the effects of gregariousness -in the mind of the normal individual man, -the theoretical side of crowd psychology has remained -incomplete and relatively sterile.</p> - -<p>There is, however, one exception, in the case of -the work of Boris Sidis. In a book entitled “The -Psychology of -Suggestion”<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc9" href="#fn9">9</a> he has described certain -psychical qualities as necessarily associated with -the social habit in the individual as in the crowd. -His position, therefore, demands some discussion. -The fundamental element in it is the conception -of the normal existence in the mind of a subconscious -self. This subconscious or subwaking self -is regarded as embodying the “lower” and more -obviously brutal qualities of man. It is irrational, -imitative, credulous, cowardly, cruel, and lacks all -individuality, will, and -self-control.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc10" href="#fn10">10</a> This personality -takes the place of the normal personality during -hypnosis and when the individual is one of an -active crowd, as, for example, in riots, panics, -lynchings, revivals, and so forth. -<span class="xxpn" id="p027">{27}</span></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn8" href="#afnanc8">8</a> -For example, the little book of Gustave Le Bon—“Psychologie -des Foules,” Paris: Felix Alcan—in which are formulated many -generalizations.</p></div> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn9" href="#afnanc9">9</a> -“The Psychology of Suggestion: a Research into the Subconscious -Nature of Man and Society,” by Boris Sidis, with an Introduction by -Prof. Wm. James. New York. 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn10" href="#afnanc10">10</a> -“Psychology of Suggestion,” p. 295.</p></div> - -<p>Of the two personalities—the subconscious and -the normal—the former alone is suggestible; the -successful operation of suggestion implies the recurrence, -however transient, of a disaggregation of -personality, and the emergence of the subwaking -self as the controlling mind (pp. 89 and 90). It -is this suggestibility of the subwaking self which -enables man to be a social animal. “Suggestibility -is the cement of the herd, the very soul of the -primitive social group. . . . Man is a social animal, -no doubt, but he is social because he is suggestible. -Suggestibility, however, requires disaggregation of -consciousness, hence society presupposes a cleavage -of the mind. Society and mental epidemics are -intimately related; for the social gregarious self -is the suggestible subconscious self” (p. 310).</p> - -<p>Judged from our present standpoint, the most -valuable feature of Sidis’s book is that it calls attention -to the undoubtedly intimate relation between -gregariousness and suggestibility. The mechanism, -however, by which he supposes suggestibility to -come into action is more open to criticism. The -conception of a permanent subconscious self is -one to which it is doubtful whether the evidence -compels -assent.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc11" href="#fn11">11</a> The essential difference, however, -which Sidis’s views present from those to be -developed below, lies in his regarding suggestibility -as being something which is liable to intrude -upon the normal mind as the result of a disaggregation -of consciousness, instead of as a necessary -quality of every normal mind, continually present, -and an inalienable accompaniment of human thought. -A careful reading of his book gives a very clear -impression that he looks upon suggestibility as a -<span class="xxpn" id="p028">{28}</span> -disreputable and disastrous legacy of the brute and -the savage, undesirable in civilized life, opposed -to the satisfactory development of the normal individuality, -and certainly in no way associated at its -origin with a quality so valuable as altruism. Moreover, -one gets the impression that he regards -suggestibility as being manifested chiefly, if not -solely, in crowds, in panics, revivals, and in conditions -generally in which the element of close -association is well marked.</p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn11" href="#afnanc11">11</a> -In this connexion the “Symposium on the Subconscious” in the -<i>Journal of Abnormal Psychology</i>, vol. ii. Nos. 1 and 2, is of much -interest. The discussion is contributed to by Münsterberg, Ribot -Jastrow, Pierre Janet, and Morton Prince.</p></div> - -<h4>(<i>b</i>) Deductive Considerations</h4> - -<p>The functions of the gregarious habit in a species -may broadly be defined as offensive or defensive, -or both. Whichever of these modes it has -assumed in the animal under consideration, it -will be correlated with effects which will be -divisible into two classes—the general characteristics -of the social animal, and the special characteristics -of the form of social habit possessed -by the given animal. The dog and the sheep -illustrate well the characteristics of the two simple -forms of gregariousness—offensive and defensive.</p> - -<h5>1. <i>Special Characteristics of the Gregarious Animal.</i></h5> - -<p>These need not be dealt with here, as they are -the qualities which for the most part have been -treated of by psychologists in such work as has -been done on the corollaries of gregariousness in -man. This is because they are qualities which are -most evident in man’s behaviour when he acts in -crowds, and are then evident as something temporarily -superadded to the possibilities of the isolated -individual. Hence it has come about that they -have been taken for the most part as constituting -the whole of man’s gregarious inheritance, while -the possibility that that inheritance might have -<span class="xxpn" id="p029">{29}</span> -equally important consequences for the individual -has been relatively neglected.</p> - -<h5>2. <i>General Characteristics of the Gregarious Animal.</i></h5> - -<p>The cardinal quality of the herd is homogeneity. -It is clear that the great advantage of the social habit -is to enable large numbers to act as one, whereby -in the case of the hunting gregarious animal strength -in pursuit and attack is at once increased to beyond -that of the creatures preyed -upon,<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc12" href="#fn12">12</a> and in protective -socialism the sensitiveness of the new unit to -alarms is greatly in excess of that of the individual -member of the flock.</p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn12" href="#afnanc12">12</a> -The wolf pack forms an organism, it is interesting to -note, stronger than the lion or the tiger; capable of compensating for -the loss of members; inexhaustible in pursuit, and therefore capable by -sheer strength of hunting down without wile or artifice the fleetest -animals; capable finally of consuming all the food it kills, and thus -possessing another considerable advantage over the large solitary -carnivora in not tending uselessly to exhaust its food supply. The -advantages of the social habit in carnivora is well shown by the -survival of wolves in civilized countries even to-day.</p></div> - -<p>To secure these advantages of homogeneity, it -is evident that the members of the herd must possess -sensitiveness to the behaviour of their fellows. The -individual isolated will be of no meaning, the individual -as part of the herd will be capable of -transmitting the most potent impulses. Each -member of the flock tending to follow its neighbour -and in turn to be followed, each is in some sense -capable of leadership; but no lead will be followed -that departs widely from normal behaviour. A lead -will be followed only from its resemblance to the -normal. If the leader go so far ahead as definitely -to cease to be in the herd, he will necessarily be -ignored.</p> - -<p>The original in conduct, that is to say resistiveness -to the voice of the herd, will be suppressed -<span class="xxpn" id="p030">{30}</span> -by natural selection; the wolf which does not -follow the impulses of the herd will be starved; -the sheep which does not respond to the flock will -be eaten.</p> - -<p>Again, not only will the individual be responsive -to impulses coming from the herd, but he will treat -the herd as his normal environment. The impulse -to be in and always to remain with the herd will have -the strongest instinctive weight. Anything which -tends to separate him from his fellows, as soon as -it becomes perceptible as such, will be strongly -resisted.</p> - -<p>So far, we have regarded the gregarious animal -objectively. We have seen that he behaves as if -the herd were the only environment in which he can -live, that he is especially sensitive to impulses -coming from the herd, and quite differently affected -by the behaviour of animals not in the herd. Let us -now try to estimate the mental aspects of these -impulses. Suppose a species in possession of -precisely the instinctive endowments which we have -been considering, to be also self-conscious, and let -us ask what will be the forms under which these -phenomena will present themselves in its mind. In -the first place, it is quite evident that impulses -derived from herd feeling will enter the mind with -the value of instincts—they will present themselves -as “<i>a priori</i> syntheses of the most perfect sort -needing no proof but their own evidence.” They -will not, however, it is important to remember, -necessarily always give this quality to the same -specific acts, but will show this great distinguishing -characteristic that they may give to <i>any opinion -whatever</i> the characters of instinctive belief, making -it into an “<i>a priori synthesis</i>”; so that we shall -expect to find acts which it would be absurd to look -upon as the results of specific instincts carried out -with all the enthusiasm of instinct, and displaying -<span class="xxpn" id="p031">{31}</span> -all the marks of instinctive behaviour. The failure -to recognize this appearance of herd impulse as a -tendency, as a power which can confer instinctive -sanctions on any part of the field of belief or action, -has prevented the social habit of man from attracting -as much of the attention of psychologists as it -might profitably have done.</p> - -<p>In interpreting into mental terms the consequences -of gregariousness, we may conveniently begin with -the simplest. The conscious individual will feel -an unanalysable primary sense of comfort in the -actual presence of his fellows, and a similar sense -of discomfort in their absence. It will be obvious -truth to him that it is not good for the man to be -alone. Loneliness will be a real terror, insurmountable -by reason.</p> - -<p>Again, certain conditions will become secondarily -associated with presence with, or absence from, the -herd. For example, take the sensations of heat -and cold. The latter is prevented in gregarious -animals by close crowding, and experienced in the -reverse condition; hence it comes to be connected -in the mind with separation, and so acquires -altogether unreasonable associations of harmfulness. -Similarly, the sensation of warmth is associated with -feelings of the secure and salutary. It has taken -medicine many thousands of years to begin to doubt -the validity of the popular conception of the harmfulness -of cold; yet to the psychologist such a -doubt is immediately -obvious.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc13" href="#fn13">13</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn13" href="#afnanc13">13</a> -Any one who has watched the behaviour of the dog and the cat -towards warmth and cold cannot have failed to notice the effect of the -gregarious habit on the former. The cat displays a moderate liking -for warmth, but also a decided indifference to cold, and will quietly -sit in the snow in a way which would be impossible to the dog.</p></div> - -<p>Slightly more complex manifestations of the same -tendency to homogeneity are seen in the desire for -identification with the herd in matters of opinion. -<span class="xxpn" id="p032">{32}</span> -Here we find the biological explanation of the ineradicable -impulse mankind has always displayed -towards segregation into classes. Each one of us -in his opinions and his conduct, in matters of dress, -amusement, religion, and politics, is compelled to -obtain the support of a class, of a herd within the -herd. The most eccentric in opinion or conduct -is, we may be sure, supported by the agreement -of a class, the smallness of which accounts for his -apparent eccentricity, and the preciousness of which -accounts for his fortitude in defying general opinion. -Again, anything which tends to emphasize difference -from the herd is unpleasant. In the individual mind -there will be an unanalysable dislike of the novel -in action or thought. It will be “wrong,” -“wicked,” “foolish,” “undesirable,” or as we say -“bad form,” according to varying circumstances -which we can already to some extent define.</p> - -<p>Manifestations relatively more simple are shown -in the dislike of being conspicuous, in shyness and -in stage fright. It is, however, sensitiveness to the -behaviour of the herd which has the most important -effects upon the structure of the mind of the gregarious -animal. This sensitiveness is closely -associated with the suggestibility of the gregarious -animal, and therefore with that of man. The effect -of it will clearly be to make acceptable those suggestions -which come from the herd, and those only. -It is of especial importance to note that this suggestibility -is not general, and that it is only herd suggestions -which are rendered acceptable by the action -of instinct. Man is, for example, notoriously -insensitive to the suggestions of experience. The -history of what is rather grandiosely called human -progress everywhere illustrates this. If we look -back upon the development of some such thing as -the steam-engine, we cannot fail to be struck by -the extreme obviousness of each advance, and how -<span class="xxpn" id="p033">{33}</span> -obstinately it was refused assimilation until the -machine almost invented itself.</p> - -<p>Again, of two suggestions, that which the more -perfectly embodies the voice of the herd is the -more acceptable. The chances an affirmation has of -being accepted could therefore be most satisfactorily -expressed in terms of the bulk of the herd by which -it is backed.</p> - -<p>It follows from the foregoing that anything which -dissociates a suggestion from the herd will tend to -ensure such a suggestion being rejected. For -example, an imperious command from an individual -known to be without authority is necessarily disregarded, -whereas the same person making the same -suggestion in an indirect way so as to link it up -with the voice of the herd will meet with success.</p> - -<p>It is unfortunate that in discussing these facts it -has been necessary to use the word “suggestibility,” -which has so thorough an implication of the -abnormal. If the biological explanation of suggestibility -here set forth be accepted, the latter must -necessarily be a normal quality of the human mind. -To believe must be an ineradicable natural bias -of man, or in other words an affirmation, positive -or negative, is more readily accepted than rejected, -unless its source is definitely dissociated from the -herd. Man is not, therefore, suggestible by fits -and starts, not merely in panics and in mobs, under -hypnosis, and so forth, but always, everywhere, and -under any circumstances. The capricious way in -which man reacts to different suggestions has been -attributed to variations in his suggestibility. This -in the opinion of the present writer is an incorrect -interpretation of the facts which are more satisfactorily -explained by regarding the variations as -due to the differing extent to which suggestions -are identified with the voice of the herd.</p> - -<p>Man’s resistiveness to certain suggestions, and -<span class="xxpn" id="p034">{34}</span> -especially to experience, as is seen so well in his -attitude to the new, becomes therefore but another -evidence of his suggestibility, since the new has -always to encounter the opposition of herd tradition.</p> - -<p>The apparent diminution in direct suggestibility -with advancing years, such as was demonstrated -in children by Binet, is in the case of the adult -familiar to all, and is there usually regarded as -evidence of a gradually advancing organic change -in the brain. It can be regarded, at least plausibly, -as being due to the fact that increase of years -must bring an increase in the accumulations of herd -suggestion, and so tend progressively to fix opinion.</p> - -<p>In the early days of the human race, the appearance -of the faculty of speech must have led to an -immediate increase in the extent to which the decrees -of the herd could be promulgated, and the field -to which they applied. Now the desire for certitude -is one of profound depth in the human mind, and -possibly a necessary property of any mind, and it -is very plausible to suppose that it led in these early -days to the whole field of life being covered by -pronouncements backed by the instinctive sanction -of the herd. The life of the individual would be -completely surrounded by sanctions of the most -tremendous kind. He would know what he might -and might not do, and what would happen if he -disobeyed. It would be immaterial if experience -confirmed these beliefs or not, because it would -have incomparably less weight than the voice of -the herd. Such a period is the only trace perceptible -by the biologist of the Golden Age fabled by the -poet, when things happened as they ought, and -hard facts had not begun to vex the soul of man. -In some such condition we still find the Central -Australian native. His whole life, to its minutest -detail, is ordained for him by the voice of the -herd, and he must not, under the most dreadful -<span class="xxpn" id="p035">{35}</span> -sanctions, step outside its elaborate order. It does -not matter to him that an infringement of the code -under his very eyes is not followed by judgment, -for with tribal suggestion so compactly organized, -such cases are in fact no difficulty, and do not -trouble his belief, just as in more civilized countries -apparent instances of malignity in the reigning deity -are not found to be inconsistent with his benevolence.</p> - -<p>Such must everywhere have been primitive human -conditions, and upon them reason intrudes as an -alien and hostile power, disturbing the perfection -of life, and causing an unending series of conflicts.</p> - -<p>Experience, as is shown by the whole history of -man, is met by resistance because it invariably encounters -decisions based upon instinctive belief, and -nowhere is this fact more clearly to be seen than -in the way in which the progress of science has -been made.</p> - -<p>In matters that really interest him, man cannot -support the suspense of judgment which science so -often has to enjoin. He is too anxious to feel -certain to have time to know. So that we see of -the sciences, mathematics appearing first, then astronomy, -then physics, then chemistry, then biology, -then psychology, then sociology—but always the new -field was grudged to the new method, and we still -have the denial to sociology of the name of science. -Nowadays, matters of national defence, of politics, -of religion, are still too important for knowledge, -and remain subjects for certitude; that is to say, in -them we still prefer the comfort of instinctive belief, -because we have not learnt adequately to value the -capacity to foretell.</p> - -<p>Direct observation of man reveals at once the -fact that a very considerable proportion of his beliefs -are non-rational to a degree which is immediately -obvious without any special examination, and with -<span class="xxpn" id="p036">{36}</span> -no special resources other than common knowledge. -If we examine the mental furniture of the average -man, we shall find it made up of a vast number of -judgments of a very precise kind upon subjects of -very great variety, complexity, and difficulty. He -will have fairly settled views upon the origin and -nature of the universe, and upon what he will probably -call its meaning; he will have conclusions -as to what is to happen to him at death and after, -as to what is and what should be the basis of -conduct. He will know how the country should -be governed, and why it is going to the dogs, why -this piece of legislation is good and that bad. -He will have strong views upon military and naval -strategy, the principles of taxation, the use of alcohol -and vaccination, the treatment of influenza, the prevention -of hydrophobia, upon municipal trading, the -teaching of Greek, upon what is permissible in art, -satisfactory in literature, and hopeful in science.</p> - -<p>The bulk of such opinions must necessarily be -without rational basis, since many of them are concerned -with problems admitted by the expert to be -still unsolved, while as to the rest it is clear that -the training and experience of no average man can -qualify him to have any opinion upon them at all. -The rational method adequately used would have told -him that on the great majority of these questions -there could be for him but one attitude—that of -suspended judgment.</p> - -<p>In view of the considerations that have been discussed -above, this wholesale acceptance of non-rational -belief must be looked upon as normal. The -mechanism by which it is effected demands some -examination, since it cannot be denied that the facts -conflict noticeably with popularly current views as to -the part taken by reason in the formation of opinion.</p> - -<p>It is clear at the outset that these beliefs are -invariably regarded by the holder as rational, and -<span class="xxpn" id="p037">{37}</span> -defended as such, while the position of one who -holds contrary views is held to be obviously unreasonable. -The religious man accuses the atheist -of being shallow and irrational, and is met by a -similar reply; to the Conservative, the amazing thing -about the Liberal is his incapacity to see reason and -accept the only possible solution of public problems. -Examination reveals the fact that the differences are -not due to the commission of the mere mechanical -fallacies of logic, since these are easily avoided, even -by the politician, and since there is no reason to -suppose that one party in such controversies is less -logical than the other. The difference is due rather -to the fundamental assumptions of the antagonists -being hostile, and these assumptions are derived -from herd suggestion; to the Liberal, certain basal -conceptions have acquired the quality of instinctive -truth, have become “<i>a priori</i> syntheses,” because -of the accumulated suggestions to which he has -been exposed, and a similar explanation applies to -the atheist, the Christian, and the Conservative. -Each, it is important to remember, finds in consequence -the rationality of his position flawless, and -is quite incapable of detecting in it the fallacies -which are obvious to his opponent, to whom that -particular series of assumptions has not been -rendered acceptable by herd suggestion.</p> - -<p>To continue further the analysis of non-rational -opinion, it should be observed that the mind rarely -leaves uncriticized the assumptions which are forced -on it by herd suggestion, the tendency being for it -to find more or less elaborately rationalized justifications -of them. This is in accordance with the -enormously exaggerated weight which is always -ascribed to reason in the formation of opinion and -conduct, as is very well seen, for example, in the -explanation of the existence of altruism as being -due to man seeing that it “pays.” -<span class="xxpn" id="p038">{38}</span></p> - -<p>It is of cardinal importance to recognize that in -this process of the rationalization of instinctive belief, -it is the belief which is the primary thing, while -the explanation, although masquerading as the cause -of the belief, as the chain of rational evidence -on which the belief is founded, is entirely secondary, -and but for the belief would never have been thought -of. Such rationalizations are often, in the case of -intelligent people, of extreme ingenuity, and may be -very misleading unless the true instinctive basis of -the given opinion or action is thoroughly understood.</p> - -<p>This mechanism enables the English lady, who, to -escape the stigma of having normal feet, subjects -them to a formidable degree of lateral compression, -to be aware of no logical inconsequence when she -subscribes to missions to teach the Chinese lady how -absurd it is to compress her feet longitudinally; -it enables the European lady who wears rings in her -ears to smile at the barbarism of the coloured lady -who wears her rings in her nose; it enables the -Englishman who is amused by the African chieftain’s -regard for the top hat as an essential piece of the -furniture of state to ignore the identity of his own -behaviour when he goes to church beneath the same -tremendous ensign.</p> - -<p>The objectivist finds himself compelled to regard -these and similar correspondences between the behaviour -of civilized and barbarous man as no mere -interesting coincidences, but as phenomena actually -and in the grossest way identical, but such an -attitude is possible only when the mechanism is -understood by which rationalization of these customs -is effected.</p> - -<p>The process of rationalization which has just been -illustrated by some of its simpler varieties is best -seen on the largest scale, and in the most elaborate -form, in the pseudosciences of political economy and -ethics. Both of these are occupied in deriving -<span class="xxpn" id="p039">{39}</span> -from eternal principles justifications for masses of -non-rational belief which are assumed to be permanent -merely because they exist. Hence the -notorious acrobatic feats of both in the face of any -considerable variation in herd belief.</p> - -<p>It would seem that the obstacles to rational thought -which have been pointed out in the foregoing discussion -have received much less attention than should -have been directed towards them. To maintain an -attitude of mind which could be called scientific in -any complete sense, it is of cardinal importance to -recognize that belief of affirmations sanctioned by -the herd is a normal mechanism of the human -mind, and goes on however much such affirmations -may be opposed by evidence, that reason cannot -enforce belief against herd suggestion, and finally -that totally false opinions may appear to the holder -of them to possess all the characters of rationally -verifiable truth, and may be justified by secondary -processes of rationalization which it may be impossible -directly to combat by argument.</p> - -<p>It should be noticed, however, that verifiable -truths may acquire the potency of herd suggestion, -so that the suggestibility of man does not necessarily -or always act against the advancement of -knowledge. For example, to the student of biology -the principles of Darwinism may acquire the force -of herd suggestion through being held by the -class which he most respects, is most in contact -with and the class which has therefore acquired -suggestionizing power with him. Propositions consistent -with these principles will now necessarily -be more acceptable to him, whatever the evidence -by which they are supported, than they would be -to one who had not been exposed to the same -influences. The opinion, in fact, may be hazarded -that the acceptance of any proposition is invariably -the resultant of suggestive influences, whether the -<span class="xxpn" id="p040">{40}</span> -proposition be true or false, and that the balance -of suggestion is usually on the side of the false, -because, education being what it is, the scientific -method—the method, that is to say, of experience—has -so little chance of acquiring suggestionizing -force.</p> - -<p>Thus far sensitiveness to the herd has been -discussed in relation to its effect upon intellectual -processes. Equally important effects are traceable -in feeling.</p> - -<p>It is obvious that when free communication is -possible by speech, the expressed approval or disapproval -of the herd will acquire the qualities of -identity or dissociation from the herd respectively. -To know that he is doing what would arouse the -disapproval of the herd will bring to the individual -the same profound sense of discomfort which would -accompany actual physical separation, while to know -that he is doing what the herd would approve will -give him the sense of rightness, of gusto, and of -stimulus which would accompany physical presence -in the herd and response to its mandates. In both -cases it is clear that no actual expression by the herd -is necessary to arouse the appropriate feelings, -which would come from within and have, in fact, -the qualities which are recognized in the dictates -of conscience. Conscience, then, and the feelings of -guilt and of duty are the peculiar possessions of -the gregarious animal. A dog and a cat caught in -the commission of an offence will both recognize -that punishment is coming; but the dog, moreover, -knows that he has done <i>wrong</i>, and he will come -to be punished, unwillingly it is true, and as if -dragged along by some power outside him, while the -cat’s sole impulse is to escape. The rational recognition -of the sequence of act and punishment is -equally clear to the gregarious and to the solitary -animal, but it is the former only who understands -<span class="xxpn" id="p041">{41}</span> -that he has committed a <i>crime</i>, who has, in fact, the -<i>sense of sin</i>. That this is the origin of what we -call conscience is confirmed by the characteristics -of the latter which are accessible to observation. -Any detailed examination of the phenomena of -conscience would lead too far to be admissible here. -Two facts, however, should be noticed. First, the -judgments of conscience vary in different circles, -and are dependent on local environments; secondly, -they are not advantageous to the species to the -slightest degree beyond the dicta of the morals -current in the circle in which they originate. These -facts—stated here in an extremely summary way—demonstrate -that conscience is an indirect result -of the gregarious instinct, and is in no sense derived -from a special instinct forcing men to consider -the good of the race rather than individual desires. -<span class="spndate">1908</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="h2nobreak" id="p042">SOCIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE -PSYCHOLOGY OF HERD INSTINCT</h2></div> - -<p class="pfirst">It -was shown in the previous essay that the -gregarious mental character is evident in man’s -behaviour, not only in crowds and other circumstances -of actual association, but also in his behaviour -as an individual, however isolated. The conclusions -were arrived at that man’s suggestibility is not -the abnormal casual phenomenon it is often supposed -to be, but a normal instinct present in every individual, -and that the apparent inconstancy of its -action is due to the common failure to recognize -the extent of the field over which suggestion acts; -that the only medium in which man’s mind can -function satisfactorily is the herd, which therefore -is not only the source of his opinions, his credulities, -his disbeliefs, and his weaknesses, but of -his altruism, his charity, his enthusiasms, and his -power.</p> - -<p>The subject of the psychological effects of herd -instinct is so wide that the discussion of it in the -former essay covered only a comparatively small -part of the field, and that in a very cursory way. -Such as it was, however, it cannot be further -amplified here, where an attempt will rather be -made to sketch some of the practical corollaries of -such generalizations as were laid down there.</p> - -<p>In the first place, it must be stated with emphasis -that deductive speculation of this sort finds its -principal value in opening up new possibilities for -<span class="xxpn" id="p043">{43}</span> -the application of a more exact method. Science is -measurement, but the deductive method may indicate -those things which can be most profitably measured.</p> - -<p>When the overwhelming importance of the suggestibility -of man is recognized our first effort should -be to obtain exact numerical expressions of it. This -is not the place to attempt any exposition of the -directions in which experiment should proceed; but -it may be stated that what we want to know is, -how much suggestion can do in the way of inducing -belief, and it may be guessed that we shall ultimately -be able to express the force of suggestion in terms -of the number of undifferentiated units of the herd -it represents. In the work that has already been -done, chiefly by Binet and by Sidis, the suggestive -force experimented with was relatively feeble, and -the effects consequently were rendered liable to -great disturbance from the spontaneous action of -other forces of suggestion already in the mind. -Sidis, for example, found that his subjects often -yielded to his suggestions out of “politeness”; -this source of difficulty was obviously due to his -use of pure individual suggestion, a variety which -theory shows to be weak or even directly resisted.</p> - -<p>The next feature of practical interest is connected -with the hypothesis, which we attempted in the -former article to demonstrate, that irrational belief -forms a large bulk of the furniture of the mind, -and is indistinguishable by the subject from rational -verifiable knowledge. It is obviously of cardinal -importance to be able to effect this distinction, for -it is the failure to do so which, while it is not -the cause of the slowness of advance in knowledge, -is the mechanism by which this delay is brought -about. Is there, then, we may ask, any discoverable -touchstone by which non-rational opinion may -be distinguished from rational? Non-rational judgments, -being the product of suggestion, will have -<span class="xxpn" id="p044">{44}</span> -the quality of instinctive opinion, or, as we may -call it, of belief in the strict sense. The essence -of this quality is obviousness; the truth held in -this way is one of James’s “<i>a priori</i> syntheses of -the most perfect sort”; to question it is to the -believer to carry scepticism to an insane degree, -and will be met by contempt, disapproval, or condemnation, -according to the nature of the belief in -question. When, therefore, we find ourselves entertaining -an opinion about the basis of which there -is a quality of feeling which tells us that to inquire -into it would be absurd, obviously unnecessary, unprofitable, -undesirable, bad form, or wicked, we may -know that that opinion is a non-rational one, and -probably, therefore, founded upon inadequate evidence.</p> - -<p>Opinions, on the other hand, which are acquired -as the result of experience alone do not possess this -quality of primary certitude. They are true in -the sense of being verifiable, but they are unaccompanied -by that profound feeling of truth which -belief possesses, and, therefore, we have no sense -of reluctance in admitting inquiry into them. That -heavy bodies tend to fall to the earth and that fire -burns fingers are truths verifiable and verified every -day, but we do not hold them with impassioned -certitude, and we do not resent or resist inquiry -into their basis; whereas in such a question as that -of the survival of death by human personality we -hold the favourable or the adverse view with a -quality of feeling entirely different, and of such -a kind that inquiry into the matter is looked upon -as disreputable by orthodox science and as wicked -by orthodox religion. In relation to this subject, it -may be remarked, we often see it very interestingly -shown that the holders of two diametrically opposed -opinions, one of which is certainly right, may both -show by their attitude that the belief is held -<span class="xxpn" id="p045">{45}</span> -instinctively and non-rationally, as, for example, -when an atheist and a Christian unite in repudiating -inquiry into the existence of the soul.</p> - -<p>A third practical corollary of a recognition of -the true gregariousness of man is the very obvious -one that it is not by any means necessary that -suggestion should always act on the side of unreason. -The despair of the reformer has always been the -irrationality of man, and latterly some have come -to regard the future as hopeless until we can breed -a rational species. Now, the trouble is not irrationality, -not a definite preference for unreason, but -suggestibility—that is, a capacity for accepting reason -or unreason if it comes from the proper source.</p> - -<p>This quality we have seen to be a direct consequence -of the social habit, of a single definite -instinct, that of gregariousness, the same instinct -which makes social life at all possible and altruism -a reality.</p> - -<p>It does not seem to have been fully understood -that if you attack suggestibility by selection—and -that is what you do if you breed for rationality—you -are attacking gregariousness, for there is at present -no adequate evidence that the gregarious instinct -is other than a simple character and one which -cannot be split up by the breeder. If, then, such -an effort in breeding were successful, we should -exchange the manageable unreason of man for the -inhuman rationality of the tiger.</p> - -<p>The solution would seem rather to lie in seeing to -it that suggestion always acts on the side of reason; -if rationality were once to become really respectable, -if we feared the entertaining of an unverifiable -opinion with the warmth with which we fear using -the wrong implement at the dinner table, if the -thought of holding a prejudice disgusted us as -does a foul disease, then the dangers of man’s -suggestibility would be turned into advantages. We -<span class="xxpn" id="p046">{46}</span> -have seen that suggestion already has begun to -act on the side of reason in some small part of the -life of the student of science, and it is possible that -a highly sanguine prophetic imagination might detect -here a germ of future changes.</p> - -<p>Again, a fourth corollary of gregariousness in man -is the fact expounded many years ago by Pearson -that human altruism is a natural instinctive product. -The obvious dependence of the evolution of altruism -upon increase in knowledge and inter-communication -has led to its being regarded as a late and a -conscious development—as something in the nature -of a judgment by the individual that it pays him -to be unselfish. This is an interesting rationalization -of the facts because in the sense in which “pay” -is meant it is so obviously false. Altruism does -not at present, and cannot, pay the individual in -anything but feeling, as theory declares it must. -It is clear, of course, that as long as altruism is -regarded as in the nature of a judgment, the fact -is overlooked that necessarily its only reward can -be in feeling. Man is altruistic because he must -be, not because reason recommends it, for herd -suggestion opposes any advance in altruism, and -when it can the herd executes the altruist, not of -course as such but as an innovator. This is a -remarkable instance of the protean character of the -gregarious instinct and the complexity it introduces -into human affairs, for we see one instinct producing -manifestations directly hostile to each other—prompting -to ever advancing developments of -altruism, while it necessarily leads to any new product -of advance being attacked. It shows, moreover, -as will be pointed out again later, that a -gregarious species rapidly developing a complex -society can be saved from inextricable confusion -only by the appearance of reason and the application -of it to life. -<span class="xxpn" id="p047">{47}</span></p> - -<p>When we remember the fearful repressing force -which society has always exercised on new forms -of altruism and how constantly the dungeon, the -scaffold, and the cross have been the reward of -the altruist, we are able to get some conception -of the force of the instinctive impulse which has -triumphantly defied these terrors, and to appreciate -in some slight degree how irresistible an enthusiasm -it might become if it were encouraged by -the unanimous voice of the herd.</p> - -<p>In conclusion we have to deal with one more consequence -of the social habit in man, a consequence -the discussion of which involves some speculation of -a necessarily quite tentative kind.</p> - -<p>If we look in a broad, general way at the four -instincts which bulk largely in man’s life, namely, -those of self-preservation, nutrition, sex, and the -herd, we shall see at once that there is a striking -difference between the mode of action of the first -three and that of the last. The first three, which -we may, for convenience and without prejudice, call -the primitive instincts, have in common the characteristic -of attaining their maximal activities only -over short periods and in special sets of circumstances, -and of being fundamentally pleasant to yield -to. They do not remain in action concurrently, but -when the circumstances are appropriate for the yielding -to one, the others automatically fall into the -background, and the governing impulse is absolute -master. Thus these instincts cannot be supposed -at all frequently to conflict amongst themselves, and -the animal possessing them alone, however highly -developed his consciousness might be, would lead -a life emotionally quite simple, for at any given -moment he would necessarily be doing what he -most wanted to do. We may, therefore, imagine -him to be endowed with the feelings of free-will -and reality to a superb degree, wholly unperplexed -by doubt and wholly secure in his unity of purpose. -<span class="xxpn" id="p048">{48}</span></p> - -<p>The appearance of the fourth instinct, however, -introduces a profound change, for this instinct has -the characteristic that it exercises a controlling -power upon the individual from without. In the -case of the solitary animal yielding to instinct the -act itself is pleasant, and the whole creature, as it -were body and soul, pours itself out in one smooth -concurrence of reaction. With the social animal -controlled by herd instinct it is not the actual deed -which is instinctively done, but the order to do it -which is instinctively obeyed. The deed, being -ordained from without, may actually be unpleasant, -and so be resisted from the individual side and -yet be forced instinctively into execution. The -instinctive act seems to have been too much -associated in current thought with the idea of -yielding to an impulse irresistibly pleasant to the -body, yet it is very obvious that herd instinct at -once introduces a mechanism by which the sanctions -of instinct are conferred upon acts by no means -necessarily acceptable to the body or mind. This, -of course, involves an enormous increase of the -range through which instinct can be made use of. -Its appearance marks the beginning of the multifarious -activities of man and of his stupendous -success as a species; but a spectator watching the -process at its outset, had he been interested in the -destiny of the race, might have felt a pang of -apprehension when he realized how momentous was -the divorce which had been accomplished between -instinct and individual desire. Instinctive acts are -still done because they are based on “<i>a priori</i> -syntheses of the most perfect sort,” but they are -no longer necessarily pleasant. Duty has first appeared -in the world, and with it the age-long conflict -which is described in the memorable words -of Paul: “I delight in the law of God after the -inward man; -but I see another law in my members -<span class="xxpn" id="p049">{49}</span> -warring against the law of my mind and bringing -me into captivity to the law of sin which is in -my members.”</p> - -<p>Into the features and consequences of this conflict -it is now necessary for us to probe a little -farther.</p> - -<p>The element of conflict in the normal life of all -inhabitants of a civilized state is so familiar that no -formal demonstration of its existence is necessary. -In childhood the process has begun. The child -receives from the herd the doctrines, let us say, -that truthfulness is the most valuable of all the -virtues, that honesty is the best policy, that to the -religious man death has no terrors, and that there -is in store a future life of perfect happiness and -delight. And yet experience tells him with persistence -that truthfulness as often as not brings him -punishment, that his dishonest playfellow has as -good if not a better time than he, that the religious -man shrinks from death with as great a terror as -the unbeliever, is as broken-hearted by bereavement, -and as determined to continue his hold upon -this imperfect life rather than trust himself to what -he declares to be the certainty of future bliss. To -the child, of course, experience has but little suggestive -force, and he is easily consoled by the perfunctory -rationalizations offered him as explanations by -his elders. Yet who of us is there who cannot -remember the vague feeling of dissatisfaction, the -obscure and elusive sense of something being wrong, -which is left by these and similar conflicts?</p> - -<p>When the world begins to open out before us -and experience to flow in with rapidly increasing -volume, the state of affairs necessarily becomes more -obvious. The mental unrest which we, with a certain -cynicism, regard as normal to adolescence is evidence -of the heavy handicap we lay upon the developing -mind in forcing it to attempt to assimilate with -<span class="xxpn" id="p050">{50}</span> -experience the dicta of herd suggestion. Moreover, -let us remember, to the adolescent experience is -no longer the shadowy and easily manipulable series -of dreams which it usually is to the child. It has -become touched with the warmth and reality of -instinctive feeling. The primitive instincts are now -fully developed and finding themselves balked at -every turn by herd suggestion; indeed, even products -of the latter are in conflict among themselves. -Not only sex, self-preservation, and nutrition are at -war with the pronouncements of the herd, but -altruism, the ideal of rationality, the desire for -power, the yearning for protection, and other feelings -which have acquired instinctive force from group -suggestion.</p> - -<p>The sufferings entailed by this condition are -commonplace knowledge, and there is scarcely a -novelist who has not dealt with them. It is around -matters of sex and of religion that the conflict is -most severe, and while it is no part of our purpose -to make any detailed survey of the condition, it -may be of interest to point out some of the more -obvious significances of this localization.</p> - -<p>Religion has always been to man an intensely -serious matter, and when we realize its biological -significance we can see that this is due to a deeply -ingrained need of his mind. The individual of -a gregarious species can never be truly independent -and self-sufficient. Natural selection has ensured -that as an individual he must have an abiding sense -of incompleteness, which, as thought develops in -complexity, will come to be more and more -abstractly expressed. This is the psychological germ -which expresses itself in the religious feelings, in -the desire for completion, for mystical union, for -incorporation with the infinite, which are all provided -for in Christianity and in all the successful sub-varieties -of Christianity which modern times have -<span class="xxpn" id="p051">{51}</span> -seen develop. This need seems with the increasing -complexity of society to become more and more -imperious, or rather to be satisfiable only by -more and more elaborately rationalized expressions. -The following is a representative passage from a -recent very popular book of mystical religion: -“The great central fact in human life, in your life -and in mine, is the coming into a conscious vital -realization of our oneness with the Infinite Life and -the opening of ourselves fully to this divine inflow.” -It is very interestingly shown here to what lengths -of rationalization may be forced the consequences -of that yearning in us which is identical with the -mechanism that binds the wolf to the pack, the sheep -to the flock, and to the dog makes the company -of his master like walking with God in the cool of -the evening.</p> - -<p>Did an opportunity offer, it would be interesting -to inquire into the relation of the same instinctive -impulse to the genesis of philosophy. Such an -attempt would, however, involve too great a -digression from the argument of this essay.</p> - -<p>That sex should be a chief field for the conflicts -we are discussing is comprehensible not only from -the immense strength of the impulse and the fact -that it is a mode of man’s activity which herd -suggestion has always tried to regulate, but also -because there is reason to believe that the sex -impulse becomes secondarily associated with another -instinctive feeling of great strength, namely, -altruism. We have seen already that altruism is -largely antagonized by herd tradition, and it is -plausible to suppose that the overwhelming rush -of this feeling which is usually associated with sex -feelings is not altogether sexual in quality, but -secondarily associated therewith as being the only -outlet through which it is allowed by the herd to -indulge manifestations of really passionate intensity. -<span class="xxpn" id="p052">{52}</span> -If this were so it would clearly be of great practical -importance should the rational method ever come -to be applied to the solution of the problems for -the sociologist and statesman which surround the -relations of the sexes.</p> - -<p>The conflicts which we are discussing are of -course by no means limited to the periods of childhood -and adolescence, but are frequently carried -over into adult life. To understand how the -apparent calm of normal adult life is attained, it is -necessary to consider the effects upon the mind of -these processes of contention.</p> - -<p>Let us consider the case of a person caught in one -of those dilemmas which society presents so -abundantly to its members—a man seized with a -passion for some individual forbidden to him by -the herd, or a man whose eyes have been opened to -the vision of the cruelty which everywhere lies close -below the surface of life, and yet has deeply -ingrained in him the doctrine of the herd that things, -on the whole, are fundamentally right, that the -universe is congruous with his moral feelings, that -the seeming cruelty is mercy and the apparent indifference -long-suffering. Now, what are the -possible developments in such a tormented soul?</p> - -<p>The conflict may end through the subsidence -of either antagonist. Years, other instincts, or -grosser passions may moderate the intensity of -ungratified love or take away the sharpness from -the sight of incomprehensible pain.</p> - -<p>Again, scepticism may detect the nature of the -herd suggestion and deprive it of its compelling -force.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, the problem may be shirked by the easy -mechanism of rationalization. The man may take -his forbidden pleasure and endow a chapel, persuading -himself that his is a special case, that at -any rate he is not as bad as X, or Y, or Z, who -<span class="xxpn" id="p053">{53}</span> -committed such and such enormities, that after all -there is Divine mercy, and he never beat his wife, -and was always regular with his subscriptions to -missions and the hospitals. Or, if his difficulty -is the ethical one, he will come to see how right -the herd view really is; that it is a very narrow -mind which cannot see the intrinsic excellence of -suffering; that the sheep and cattle we breed for -eating, the calf we bleed to death that its meat may -be white, the one baby out of four we kill in the -first year of life, that cancer, consumption, and -insanity and the growing river of blood which bathes -the feet of advancing mankind, all have their part -in the Increasing Purpose which is leading the race -ever upwards and onwards to a Divine consummation -of joy. Thus the conflict ceases, and the -man is content to watch the blood and the Purpose -go on increasing together and to put on flesh unperplexed -by the shallow and querulous scruples of -his youth.</p> - -<p>Of these three solutions that of scepticism is -unquestionably the least common, though the impression -that this is not the case is created by the -frequency of apparent scepticism, which, in fact, -merely masks the continuation of conflict in the -deeper strata of the mind. A man the subject of -such submerged conflict, though he may appear to -others, and, of course, to himself, to have reached -a secure and uncontested basis of stability, may, -after a period of apparently frictionless mental life, -betray by unmistakable evidence the fact that conflict -has continued disastrously below the surface.</p> - -<p>The solutions by indifference and by rationalization -or by a mixture of these two processes are -characteristic of the great class of normal, sensible, -reliable middle age, with its definite views, its -resiliency to the depressing influence of facts, and -its gift for forming the backbone of the State. In -<span class="xxpn" id="p054">{54}</span> -them herd suggestion shows its capacity to triumph -over experience, to delay the evolution of altruism, -and to obscure the existence and falsify the results of -the contest between personal and social desires. -That it is able to do so has the advantage of -establishing existing society with great firmness, but -it has also the consequence of entrusting the conduct -of the State and the attitude of it towards life to a -class which their very stability shows to possess -a certain relative incapacity to take experience -seriously, a certain relative insensibility to the value -of feeling and to suffering, and a decided preference -for herd tradition over all other sources of conduct.</p> - -<p>Early in history the bulk of mankind must have -been of this type, because experience, being still -relatively simple, would have but little suggestive -force, and would therefore readily be suppressed by -herd suggestion. There would be little or no mental -conflict, and such as there was would be readily -stilled by comparatively simple rationalizations. The -average man would then be happy, active, and -possessed of an inexhaustible fund of motive and -energy, capable of intense patriotism and even of -self-immolation for the herd. The nation consequently, -in an appropriate environment, would be -an expanding one and rendered ruthless and formidable -by an intense, unshakable conviction of its -divine mission. Its blindness towards the new in -experience would keep its patriots narrow and fierce, -its priests bigoted and bloodthirsty, its rulers -arrogant, reactionary, and over-confident. Should -chance ordain that there arose no great environmental -change rendering necessary great modifications, -such a nation would have a brilliant career of -conquest as has been so often demonstrated by -history.</p> - -<p>Amongst the first-class Powers to-day the mentally -stable are still the directing class, and their -<span class="xxpn" id="p055">{55}</span> -characteristic tone is discernible in national attitudes -towards experience, in national ideals and religions, -and in national morality. It is this possession of -the power of directing national opinion by a class -which is in essence relatively insensitive towards -new combinations of experience; this persistence -of a mental type which may have been adequate -in the simpler past, into a world where environments -are daily becoming more complex—it is this survival, -so to say, of the waggoner upon the footplate of -the express engine, which has made the modern -history of nations a series of such breathless adventures -and hairbreadth escapes. To those who -are able to view national affairs from an objective -standpoint, it is obvious that each of these escapes -might very easily have been a disaster, and that -sooner or later one of them must be such.</p> - -<p>Thus far we have seen that the conflict between -herd suggestion and experience is associated with -the appearance of the great mental type which is -commonly called normal. Whether or not it is in -fact to be regarded as such is comparatively unimportant -and obviously a question of statistics; -what is, however, of an importance impossible to -exaggerate is the fact that in this type of mind -personal satisfactoriness or adequacy, or, as we may -call it, mental comfort, is attained at the cost of an -attitude towards experience which greatly affects the -value to the species of the activities of minds of -this type. This mental stability, then, is to be regarded -as, in certain important directions, a loss; -and the nature of the loss resides in a limitation of -outlook, a relative intolerance of the new in thought, -and a consequent narrowing of the range of facts -over which satisfactory intellectual activity is -possible. We may, therefore, for convenience, refer -to this type as the resistive, a name which serves as -a reminder of the exceedingly important fact that, -<span class="xxpn" id="p056">{56}</span> -however “normal” the type may be, it is one which -falls far short of the possibilities of the human -mind.</p> - -<p>If we now turn to a consideration of the mental -characteristics of the constituents of society other -than those of the resistive type, we shall find a -common quality traceable, and another great type -capable of broad definition. We must at once, -however, guard ourselves against being misled by the -name “normal” as applied to the resistant into the -supposition that this type is in a numerical majority -in society. Intellectually unquestionably of inferior -value, there is good reason to suppose that in mere -numbers it has already passed its zenith, as may be -gathered from the note of panic which what is -called the increase of degeneracy is beginning to -excite.</p> - -<p>Outside the comfortable and possibly diminishing -ranks of the “normal,” society is everywhere -penetrated by a steadily increasing degree of what -we may call in the broadest possible way mental -instability. All observers of society, even the most -optimistic, are agreed that the prevalence of this -mental quality is increasing, while those who are -competent to trace its less obtrusive manifestations -find it to be very widespread.</p> - -<p>When the twenty years just past come to be -looked back upon from the distant future, it is -probable that their chief claim to interest will be -that they saw the birth of the science of abnormal -psychology. That science, inconspicuous as has -been its development, has already given us a few -generalizations of the first importance. Amongst -such, perhaps the most valuable is that which has -taught us that certain mental and physical manifestations -which have usually been regarded as -disease in the ordinary sense are due to the effects -upon the mind of the failure to assimilate the -<span class="xxpn" id="p057">{57}</span> -experience presented to it into a harmonious unitary -personality. We have seen that the stable-minded -deal with an unsatisfactory piece of experience by -rejecting its significance. In certain minds such -successful exclusion does not occur, and the unwelcome -experience persists as an irritant, so to -say, capable neither of assimilation nor rejection. -Abnormal psychology discloses the fact that such -minds are apt to develop the supposed diseases we -have just referred to, and the fact that these and -other manifestations of what we have called mental -instability are the consequences of mental conflict.</p> - -<p>Now, we have already seen that a gregarious -animal, unless his society is perfectly organized, -must be subject to lasting and fierce conflict between -experience and herd -suggestion.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc14" href="#fn14">14</a> It is natural, -therefore, to assume that the manifestations of -mental instability are not diseases of the individual -in the ordinary sense at all, but inevitable consequences -of man’s biological history and exact -measures of the stage now reached of his assimilation -into the gregarious life. The manifestations of -mental instability and disintegration were at first -supposed to be of comparatively rare occurrence -and limited to certain well-known “diseases,” but -they are coming to be recognized over a larger and -larger field, and in a great variety of phenomena.</p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn14" href="#afnanc14">14</a> -The word “experience” is used here in a special sense -that perhaps renders necessary a word or two of definition. The -experience meant is everything that comes to the individual, not only -his experience of events in the external world, but also his experience -of the instinctive and often egoistic impulses at work within his own -personality. 1915.</p></div> - -<p>Conditions which at first sight give rise to no -suspicion of being acquired injuries to the mind, -when they are looked at in the light of the facts we -have been considering, reveal themselves as being -scars inflicted by conflict as certainly as are some -<span class="xxpn" id="p058">{58}</span> -forms of insanity. Characteristics which pass as -vices, eccentricities, defects of temper, peculiarities -of disposition, come when critically examined to be -explicable as minor grades of defective mental -stability, although, on account of their great frequency, -they have been looked upon as normal, or at -any rate in the natural order of things.</p> - -<p>Few examples could be found to illustrate better -such conditions than alcoholism. Almost universally -regarded as either, on the one hand, a sin or vice, -or on the other hand, as a disease, there can be -little doubt that in fact it is essentially a response -to a psychological necessity. In the tragic conflict -between what he has been taught to desire and -what he is allowed to get, man has found in alcohol, -as he has found in certain other drugs, a sinister -but effective peacemaker, a means of securing, for -however short a time, some way out of the prison -house of reality back to the Golden Age. There -can be equally little doubt that it is but a comparatively -small proportion of the victims of conflict -who find a solace in alcohol, and the prevalence of -alcoholism and the punishments entailed by the use -of that dreadful remedy cannot fail to impress upon -us how great must be the number of those whose -need was just as great, but who were too ignorant, -too cowardly, or perhaps too brave to find a release -there.</p> - -<p>We have seen that mental instability must be -regarded as a condition extremely common, and produced -by the mental conflict forced upon man by -his sensitiveness to herd suggestion on the one hand -and to experience on the other. It remains for us -to estimate in some rough way the characteristics -of the unstable, in order that we may be able to -judge of their value or otherwise to the State and -the species. Such an estimate must necessarily be -exaggerated, over-sharp in its outlines, omitting -<span class="xxpn" id="p059">{59}</span> -much, and therefore in many respects false. The -most prominent characteristic in which the mentally -unstable contrast with the “normal” is what we -may vaguely call motive. They tend to be weak -in energy, and especially in persistence of energy. -Such weakness may translate itself into a vague -scepticism as to the value of things in general, -or into a definite defect of what is popularly called -will power, or into many other forms, but it is -always of the same fundamental significance, for -it is always the result of the thwarting of the -primary impulses to action resident in herd suggestion -by the influence of an experience which cannot -be disregarded. Such minds cannot be stimulated -for long by objects adequate to normal ambition; -they are apt to be sceptical in such matters as -patriotism, religion, politics, social success, but the -scepticism is incomplete, so that they are readily -won to new causes, new religions, new quacks, and -as readily fall away therefrom.</p> - -<p>We saw that the resistive gain in motive what -they lose in adaptability; we may add that in a -sense the unstable gain in adaptability what they -lose in motive. Thus we see society cleft by the -instinctive qualities of its members into two great -classes, each to a great extent possessing what the -other lacks, and each falling below the possibilities -of human personality. The effect of the gradual -increase of the unstable in society can be seen to -a certain extent in history. We can watch it through -the careers of the Jews and of the Romans. At -first, when the bulk of the citizens were of the -stable type, the nation was enterprising, energetic, -indomitable, but hard, inelastic, and fanatically convinced -of its Divine mission. The inevitable effect -of the expansion of experience which followed success -was that development of the unstable and sceptical -which ultimately allowed the nation, no longer -<span class="xxpn" id="p060">{60}</span> -believing in itself or its gods, to become the almost -passive prey of more stable peoples.</p> - -<p>In regard to the question of the fundamental -significance of the two great mental types found -in society, a tempting field for speculation at once -opens up, and many questions immediately arise -for discussion. Is, for example, the stable normal -type naturally in some special degree insensitive -to experience, and if so, is such a quality inborn or -acquired? Again, may the characteristics of the -members of this class be the result of an experience -relatively easily dealt with by rationalization -and exclusion? Then again, are the unstable naturally -hypersensitive to experience, or have they met -with an experience relatively difficult to assimilate? -Into the discussion of such questions we shall here -make no attempt to enter, but shall limit ourselves -to reiterating that these two types divide society -between them, that they both must be regarded as -seriously defective and as evidence that civilization -has not yet provided a medium in which the average -human mind can grow undeformed and to its full -stature.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUSNESS</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">AND</span> <span class="smmaj">THE</span> - <span class="smcap">F<b>UTURE</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smcap">M<b>AN.</b></span></h3> - -<p>Thus far we have attempted to apply biological -conceptions to man and society as they actually exist -at present. We may now, very shortly, inquire -whether or not the same method can yield some -hint as to the course which human development -will take in the future.</p> -</div> -<p>As we have already seen reason to believe, in -the course of organic development when the limits -of size and efficiency in the unicellular organism -were reached, the only possible access of advantage -to the competing organism was gained by the appearance -of combination. In the scale of the metazoa -<span class="xxpn" id="p061">{61}</span> -we see the advantages of combination and division -of labour being more and more made use of, until -the individual cells lose completely the power of -separate existence, and their functions come to be -useful only in the most indirect way and through the -organisms of which the cells are constituents. This -complete submergence of the cell in the organism -indicates the attainment of the maximum advantages -to be obtained from this particular access in -complexity, and it indicates to us the direction in -which development must proceed within the limits -which are produced by that other access of -complexity—gregariousness.</p> - -<p>The success and extent of such development clearly -depend on the relation of two series of activities in -the individual which may in the most general way -be described as the capacity for varied reaction -and the capacity for communication. The process -going on in the satisfactorily developing gregarious -animal is the moulding of the varied reactions of -the individual into functions beneficial to him only -indirectly through the welfare of the new unit—the -herd. This moulding process is a consequence -of the power of intercommunication amongst the -individual constituents of the new unit. Intercommunication -is thus seen to be of cardinal importance -to the gregarious, just as was the nervous system -to the multicellular.</p> - -<p>Moreover, in a given gregarious species the existence -of a highly developed power of reaction in -the individual with a proportionately less developed -capacity for communication will mean that the -species is not deriving the advantages it might -from the possession of gregariousness, while the full -advantages of the type will be attained only when -the two sets of activities are correspondingly strong.</p> - -<p>Here we may see perhaps the explanation of the -astounding success and completeness of -<span class="xxpn" id="p062">{62}</span> -gregariousness in bees and ants. Their cycle of development -was early complete because the possibilities -of reaction of the individual were so small, and -consequently the capacity for intercommunication -of the individual was relatively soon able to attain -a corresponding grade. The individual has become -as completely merged in the hive as the single -cell in the multicellular animal, and consequently -the whole of her activities is available for the uses -of the State. It is interesting to notice that, considered -from this aspect, the wonderful society of -the bee, with its perfect organization and its wonderful -adaptability and elasticity, owes its early -attainment of success to the smallness of the brain -power of the individual.</p> - -<p>For the mammals with their greater powers of -varied reaction the path to the consummation of -their possibilities must be longer, more painful, and -more dangerous, and this applies in an altogether -special degree to man.</p> - -<p>The enormous power of varied reaction possessed -by man must render necessary for his attainment -of the full advantages of the gregarious -habit a power of intercommunication of absolutely -unprecedented fineness. It is clear that scarcely a -hint of such power has yet appeared, and it is -equally obvious that it is this defect which gives -to society the characteristics which are the contempt -of the man of science and the disgust of -the humanitarian.</p> - -<p>We are now in a position to understand how -momentous is the question as to what society does -with the raw material of its minds to encourage -in them the potential capacity for intercommunication -which they undoubtedly by nature possess. To -that question there is but one answer. By providing -its members with a herd tradition which is constantly -at war with feeling and with experience, -<span class="xxpn" id="p063">{63}</span> -society, drives them inevitably into resistiveness on -the one hand, or into mental instability on the -other, conditions which have this in common, that -they tend to exaggerate that isolation of the individual -which is shown us by the intellect to be -unnatural and by the heart to be cruel.</p> - -<p>Another urgent question for the future is provided -by the steady increase, relative and absolute, -of the mentally unstable. The danger to the State -constituted by a large unstable class is already -generally recognized, but unfortunately realization -has so far only instigated a yet heavier blow at -the species. It is assumed that instability is a -primary quality, and therefore only to be dealt with -by breeding it out. With that indifference to the -mental side of life which is characteristic of the -mentally resistant class, the question as to the real -meaning of instability has been begged by the -invention of the disastrous word “degenerate.” The -simplicity of the idea has charmed modern speculation, -and the only difficulty in the whole problem -has come to be the decision as to the most expeditious -way of getting rid of this troublesome flaw -in an otherwise satisfactory world.</p> - -<p>The conception that the natural environment of -man must be modified if the body is to survive -has long been recognized, but the fact that the mind -is incomparably more delicate than the body has -scarcely been noticed at all. We assume that the -disorderly environment with which we surround the -mind has no effect, and are ingenuously surprised -when mental instability arises apparently from nowhere; -but although we know nothing of its origin -our temerity in applying the cure is in no sense -daunted.</p> - -<p>It has already been pointed out how dangerous -it would be to breed man for reason—that is, against -suggestibility. The idea is a fit companion for the -<span class="xxpn" id="p064">{64}</span> -device of breeding against “degeneracy.” The -“degenerate”—that is, the mentally unstable—have -demonstrated by the mere fact of instability that -they possess the quality of sensitiveness to feeling -and to experience, for it is this which has prevented -them from applying the remedy of rationalization or -exclusion when they have met with experience conflicting -with herd suggestion. There can be no -doubt as to the value to the State of such sensitiveness -were it developed in a congruous environment. -The “degeneracy,” therefore, which we see -developed as a secondary quality in these sensitive -minds is no evidence against the degenerate, but -an indictment of the disorderly environment which -has ruined them, just as the catchword associating -insanity and genius tells us nothing about genius -but a great deal about the situation into which it -has had the misfortune to be born.</p> - -<p>Sensitiveness to feeling and experience is undoubtedly -the necessary antecedent of any high -grade of that power of intercommunication which -we have seen to be necessary to the satisfactory -development of man. Such sensitiveness, however, -in society as it now is, inevitably leads merely to -mental instability. That such sensitiveness increases -with civilization is shown by the close association -between civilization and mental instability. There -is no lack, therefore, of the mental quality of all -others most necessary to the gregarious animal. -The pressing problem which in fact faces man in -the immediate future is how to readjust the mental -environment in such a way that sensitiveness may -develop and confer on man the enormous advantages -which it holds for him, without being transformed -from a blessing into the curse and menace -of instability. To the biologist it is quite clear -that this can be effected only by an extension of -the rational method to the whole field of experience, a -<span class="xxpn" id="p065">{65}</span> -process of the greatest difficulty, but one which must -be the next great variation in man’s development if -that development is to continue to be an evolution.</p> - -<p>Outside this possibility the imagination can see -nothing but grounds for pessimism. It needs but -little effort of foresight to realize that without some -totally revolutionary change in man’s attitude towards -the mind, even his very tenure of the earth -may come to be threatened. Recent developments -in the study of disease have shown us how blind and -fumbling have been our efforts against the attacks -of our immemorial enemies the unicellular organisms. -When we remember their capacities for variation -and our fixity, we can see that for the race effectually -and permanently to guard itself against even this -one danger are necessary that fineness and complexity -of organization, that rendering available of -the utmost capacity of its members, against which -the face of society seems at present to be so steadily -set. We see man to-day, instead of the frank and -courageous recognition of his status, the docile attention -to his biological history, the determination to -let nothing stand in the way of the security and -permanence of his future, which alone can establish -the safety and happiness of the race, substituting -blind confidence in his destiny, unclouded faith in -the essentially respectful attitude of the universe -towards his moral code, and a belief no less firm -that his traditions and laws and institutions necessarily -contain permanent qualities of reality. Living -as he does in a world where outside his race no -allowances are made for infirmity, and where -figments however beautiful never become facts, it -needs but little imagination to see how great are -the probabilities that after all man will prove but -one more of Nature’s failures, ignominously to be -swept from her work-table to make way for another -venture of her tireless curiosity and patience. -<span class="spndate">1909.</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="h2nobreak" id="p066">SPECULATIONS UPON - THE HUMAN MIND IN 1915</h2> - -<h3><span class="smcap">M<b>AN’S</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">PLACE</span> <span class="smmaj">IN</span> - <span class="smcap">N<b>ATURE</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">AND</span> - <span class="smcap">N<b>ATURE’S</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">PLACE</span> - <span class="smmaj">IN</span> - <span class="smcap">M<b>AN</b></span></h3></div> - -<p class="pfirst">As -the nineteenth century draws away into the past -and it is possible to get a comprehensive view of -the intellectual legacies it has left to its successor, -certain of its ideas stand out from the general mass -by reason of the greatness of their scale and scope. -Ideas of the first order of magnitude are from -their very greatness capable of full appreciation -only in a comparatively distant view. However -much they have been admired and studied by contemporary -thought, it is with the passage of time -only that all their proportions come gradually into -focus. The readjustments of thought as to what -used to be called man’s place in nature, which were -so characteristic a work of the latter half of the -nineteenth century, embodied an idea of this imperial -type which, fruitful as it has proved, has even now -yielded far less than its full harvest of truth.</p> - -<p>The conception of man as an animal, at first entertained -only in a narrow zoological sense, has gradually -extended in significance, and is now beginning -to be understood as a guiding principle in the study -of all the activities of the individual and the species. -In the early days such a conception was regarded -by non-scientific thought as degrading to man, and -as denying to him the possibility of moral progress -<span class="xxpn" id="p067">{67}</span> -and the reality of his higher æsthetic and emotional -capabilities; at the same time, men of science found -themselves compelled, however unwillingly, to deny -that the moral activities of man could be made -consistent with his status as an animal. It may -still be remembered how even the evolutionary enthusiasm -of Huxley was baffled by the incompatibility -he found to subsist between what he called -the ethical and the cosmical processes, and how -he stood bewildered by the sight of moral beauty -blossoming incorrigibly amidst the cruelty, lust, -and bloodshed of the world.</p> - -<p>The passage of time has tended more and more -to clear up these lingering confusions of an anthropocentric -biology, and thought is gradually gaining -courage to explore, not merely the body of man -but his mind and his moral capacities, in the knowledge -that these are not meaningless intrusions into -an otherwise orderly world, but are partakers in him -and his history just as are his vermiform appendix -and his stomach, and are elements in the complex -structure of the universe as respectably established -there, and as racy of that soil as the oldest saurian -or the newest gas.</p> - -<p>Man is thus not merely, as it were, rescued from -the inhuman loneliness which he had been taught -was his destiny and persuaded was his pride, but -he is relieved from perplexities and temptations which -had so long proved obstacles to his finding himself -and setting out valiantly on an upward path. Cut -off from his history and regarded as an exile into -a lower world, he can scarcely fail to be appalled -and crushed by the discrepancy between his lofty -pretensions and his lowly acts. If he but recognize -that he himself and his virtues and aspirations are -integral strands in the fabric of life, he will learn -that the great tissue of reality loses none of its -splendour by the fact that near by where the pattern -<span class="xxpn" id="p068">{68}</span> -glows with his courage and his pride it burns with -the radiance of the tiger, and over against his -intellect and his genius it mocks in the grotesques -of the ape.</p> - -<p>The development of an objective attitude towards -the status of man has had, perhaps, its most significant -effect in the influence it has exercised upon the -study of the human mind.</p> - -<p>The desire to understand the modes of action of -the mind, and to formulate about them generalizations -which shall be of practical value, has led to inquiries -being pursued along three distinct paths. These -several methods may be conveniently distinguished -as the primitive, the human, and the comparative.</p> - -<p>What I have called the primitive method of -psychological inquiry is also the obvious and natural -one. It takes man as it finds him, accepts his -mind for what it professes to be, and examines into -its processes by introspection of a direct and simple -kind. It is necessarily subject to the conditions -that the object of study is also the medium through -which the observations are made, and that there -is no objective standard by which the accuracy of -transmission through this medium can be estimated -and corrected. In the result the materials collected -are subjected to a very special and very stringent -kind of censorship. If an observation is acceptable -and satisfactory to the mind itself, it is reported as -true; if it contains material which is unwelcome -to the mind, it is reported as false; and in both -cases the failure is in no sense due to any conscious -dishonesty in the observing mind, but is a fallacy -necessarily inherent in the method. A fairly characteristic -product of inquiries of this type is the conception, -which seems so obvious to common sense, -that introspection does give access to all mental -processes, so that a conscious motive must be discoverable -for all the acts of the subject. Experience -<span class="xxpn" id="p069">{69}</span> -with more objective methods has shown that when -no motive is found for a given act or no motive -consistent with the mind’s pretensions as to itself, -there will always be a risk of a presentable one -being extemporized.</p> - -<p>Psychology of this primitive type—the naïve psychology -of common sense—is always necessarily -tainted with what may be called in a special sense -anthropomorphism; it tells us, that is to say, not -what man is but what he thinks and feels himself -to be. Judged by its fruits in enabling us to foretell -or to influence conduct, it is worthless. It has -been studied for thousands of years and infinite -ingenuities have been expended on it, and yet at -its best it can only tell us how the average man -thinks his mind works—a body of information not -sensibly superior in reality to the instructions of -a constitutional monarch addressed to an unruly -parliament. It has distracted thought with innumerable -falsifications, but in all its secular cultivation -has produced no body of generalizations of value in -the practical conduct of life.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">C<b>OMMENTS</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">ON</span> <span class="smmaj">AN</span> - <span class="smcap">O<b>BJECTIVE</b></span> - <span class="smcap">S<b>YSTEM</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smcap">H<b>UMAN</b> P<b>SYCHOLOGY</b></span></h3> - -<h4 class="h4center">I</h4> -</div> -<p>Until comparatively recent years the fact that what -was called psychology did not even pretend to be -of any practical value in affairs was tolerated by -its professors and regarded as more or less in the -nature of things. The science, therefore, outside a -small class of specialists was in very dismal reputation. -It had come to comprise two divergent -schools, one which busied itself with the apparatus -of the experimental physiologist and frankly studied -the physiology of the nervous system, the other -<span class="xxpn" id="p070">{70}</span> -which occupied itself with the faded abstractions of -logic and metaphysics, while both agreed in ignoring -the study of the mind. This comparative sterility -may in a broad way be traced back to the one -fundamental defect from which the science suffered—the -absence of an objective standard by which -the value of mental observations could be estimated. -Failing such a standard, any given mental -phenomenon might be as much a product of the -observing mind as of the mind observed, or the -varying degrees in which both of these factors contributed -might be inextricably mixed. Of late years -the much-needed objective standard has been sought -and to some extent found in two directions. What -I have called “human” psychology has found it -in the study of diseases of the mind. In states of -disease mental processes and mechanisms which had -eluded observation in the normal appear in an -exaggerated form which renders recognition less -difficult. The enlightenment coming from the -understanding of such pathological material has -made it possible to argue back to the less obtrusive -or more effectively concealed phenomena of the -normal and more or less to exclude the fallacies of -the observing mind, and, at any rate in part, to -dissipate the obscurity which for so long had successfully -hidden the actual mental phenomena -themselves.</p> - -<p>The most remarkable attack upon the problems -of psychology which has been made from the purely -human standpoint is that in which the rich genius -of Sigmund Freud was and still is the pioneer. -The school which his work has founded was concerned -at first wholly with the study of abnormal mental -states, and came into notice as a branch of medicine -finding the verification of its principles in the success -it laid claim to in the treatment of certain mental -diseases. It now regards itself as possessing a body -<span class="xxpn" id="p071">{71}</span> -of doctrine of general applicability to mental -phenomena, normal or abnormal. These principles -are the product of laborious and minute inquiries -into the working of the mind, rendered possible by -the use of a characteristic method known as psycho-analysis. -This method, which constitutes a definite -and elaborate technique of investigation, is looked -upon by those who practise it as the sole means -by which access can be obtained to the veritable -phenomena of the mind, and as rendering possible a -truly objective view of the facts. It is no part of -my purpose to examine the validity of psycho-analysis -as a scientific method. It is enough to notice that -the exponents of it completely repudiate the teachings -of what I have called “common-sense” -psychology, that they maintain that objectivity in -the collection and collation of psychical facts is -in no way to be obtained by the light of nature but -demands very special methods and precautions, and -that their claims to the possession of a truly objective -method appear to be open to verification or disproof -by actual experiment in the treatment of -disease. Whatever value, then, psycho-analysis may -ultimately prove to possess in solving the peculiar -difficulties of psychological research, the evolution -of it marks a very definite advance in principle and -shows that it is the product of a mind determined -by whatever effort to get to close quarters with -the facts.</p> - -<p>The body of doctrine enunciated by Freud concerns -us more directly than the peculiarities of his -method. Some very general and summary account -may therefore be attempted as illustrating the characteristics -of this vigorous, aggressive, and essentially -“human” school of research.</p> - -<p>The Freudian psychology regards the mind of -the adult as the outcome of a process of development -the stages of which are within limits, orderly -<span class="xxpn" id="p072">{72}</span> -and inevitable. The trend of this development in -each individual is determined by forces which are -capable of precise definition, and the final product -of it is capable of yielding to expert examination -clear evidence of the particular way in which these -forces have acted and interacted during the developmental -process. The mind of the adult, then, is -like the body in bearing traces which betray to -the skilled observer the events of its developmental -history. Inconspicuous and apparently insignificant -structures and peculiarities in the one no less than -in the other prove to have had a meaning and a -function in the past, however little significance their -final form may seem to possess, and thus the psychologist -is able to reconstruct the history of a given -subject’s mind, although the most important stages -of its development are hidden from direct observation -as effectively as is the prenatal growth of the -body.</p> - -<p>It seems to be a fundamental conception of the -Freudian system that the development of the mind -is accompanied and conditioned by mental conflict. -The infant is regarded as being impelled by instinctive -impulses which at first are solely egoistic. -From the earliest moments of its contact with the -world resistance to the full indulgence of these -impulses is encountered. With the growth and -intensification of such impulses, the resistance from -external interference—the beginnings of social -pressure—becomes more formidable, until at a quite -unexpectedly early age a veritable condition of -mental conflict is established—egoistic impulses -fatally pressing for indulgence regardless of their -acceptability to the environment, while environmental -influences bear equally heavily against any -indulgence unwelcome to surrounding standards of -discipline, taste, or morality.</p> - -<p>Of the two parties in this conflict—the instinctive -<span class="xxpn" id="p073">{73}</span> -impulse and the repressive force—the first, according -to Freud, is wholly the product of the sex -instinct. This instinct is conceived of as being -much more active and potent in the infant and -child than had been suspected by any previous investigator. -The normal sexual interest and activity -as manifested in the adult are developed out of the -sexual impulse of the child by a regular series -of modifications, which appear to be regarded as -due partly to a process of natural development and -partly to the influence of external repressive forces. -In the infant the instinct is egocentric and the object -of its interest is the individual’s own body; with -the increase of the mental field consequent on -enlarging experience the instinctive activity is externalized, -and its object of interest changes so that -the child acquires a specific inclination towards other -individuals without distinction of sex; finally, as -a last stage of development the instinctive inclination -is localized to members of the opposite sex. -This series of transformations is regarded as normal -by Freud, and as essential to the appearance of the -“normal” adult type. The evolution of this series -is sensitive to interference by outside influences, -and any disturbance of it either by way of anticipation -or delay will have profound effects upon -the ultimate character and temperament of the subject. -The psychical energy of an instinct so -important as that of sex is very great, and is not -dissipated by the forces of repression brought to -bear upon it, but transformed into activities ostensibly -quite different and directed into channels having -no obvious connection with their source. It is a -fundamental characteristic of the mind to be able -to accept these substitutes for the actual indulgence -of the instinct, and to enjoy a symbolical gratification -in manifestations which have no overt sexual significance. -When development proceeds normally the -<span class="xxpn" id="p074">{74}</span> -surplus energy of the sex instinct finds an outlet -in activities of social value—æsthetic, poetic, altruistic; -when development is interfered with the -outflow of energy is apt to result in definite disease -of the mind or in peculiarities of character scarcely -to be distinguished therefrom.</p> - -<p>Thus the mind of the adult, according to Freud, -in addition to activities which are conscious and -fully accessible to the subject, carries on activities -and holds memories which are unconscious and -totally inaccessible to the subject by any ordinary -method of introspection. Between these two fields -there is a barrier sedulously guarded by certain -repressive forces. The unconscious is the realm -of all the experiences, memories, impulses, and -inclinations which during the subject’s life have -been condemned by the standards of the conscious, -have proved incompatible with it and have therefore -been outlawed from it. This banishment in no way -deprives these excluded mental processes of their -energy, and they constantly influence the feelings -and behaviour of the subject. So strict, however, -is the guard between them and the conscious that -they are never allowed to pass the barrier between -one sphere and the other except in disguised and -fantastically distorted forms by which their true -meaning is closely concealed. It has been perhaps -Freud’s most remarkable thesis that dreams are -manifestations of this emergence of desires and -memories from the unconscious into the conscious -field. During sleep the repressing force which -guards the frontier between conscious and unconscious -is weakened. Even then, however, such ideas -as emerge into the conscious can do so only in a -worked up and distorted form, so that their significance -can be disengaged from the grotesque -jumble of the actual dream only by a minute inquiry -according to a difficult and highly technical method. -<span class="xxpn" id="p075">{75}</span> -By this method, however, is to be obtained a deep -insight into the otherwise irrecoverable emotional -history of the individual, the structure of his temperament, -and, if he is mentally abnormal, the -meaning of his symptoms.</p> - -<h4 class="h4center">II</h4> - -<p>The foregoing enumeration of the chief doctrines -of the Freudian psychology is intended to be no -more than a mere outline to serve as a basis -for certain comments which seem to be relevant -to the general argument of this essay. The point -of view from which this slight sketch is made, that -of an interested but detached observer, is naturally -somewhat different from that of the actual authorities -themselves. Here it is desired to get the broadest -possible view in the most general terms, and as -we have no concern with immediate problems of -practical therapeutics—which remain at least the -chief preoccupation of writers of the psycho-analytic -school—an effort has been made to avoid the use of -the rich and rather forbidding technical vocabulary -in which the writings of the school abound. -It may well be that this generalized method of -description has yielded an ill-proportioned or distorted -picture. The subject has proved to be so -much at the mercy of prejudice that the least impassioned -spectator, however completely he may believe -himself to be free from advocacy or detraction, is -far from being able to claim immunity from these -influences.</p> - -<p>Keeping constantly in mind this general caution, -which is at least as necessary in the field of criticism -as in that of mere description, we may pass on -to make certain comments on the psychology of -Freud which are relevant to the general argument -being followed out here. -<span class="xxpn" id="p076">{76}</span></p> - -<p>A discussion in any way detailed of this immense -subject is very obviously impossible here, but it is -desirable to say a few words as to the general -validity of Freud’s chief thesis. However much one -may be impressed by his power as a psychologist and -his almost fierce resolution to get at the actual -facts of mental processes, one can scarcely fail to -experience in reading Freud’s works that there is a -certain harshness in his grasp of facts and even -a trace of narrowness in his outlook which tend -to repel the least resistant mind and make one -feel that his guidance in many matters—perhaps -chiefly of detail—is open to suspicion. He seems to -have an inclination for the enumeration of absolute -rules, a confidence in his hypotheses which might -be called superb if that were not in science a term -of reproach, and a tendency to state his least acceptable -propositions with the heaviest emphasis as if -to force belief upon an unwilling and shrinking mind -were an especial gratification. All these traits of -manner—at the worst mere foibles of a distinguished -and successful investigator—appear to exercise some -considerable effect on the acceptance his writings -meet with, and are perhaps indications in which -direction, if he is open to fallacy, such might be -looked for.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless with regard to the main propositions -of his system there can be little doubt that their -<i>general validity</i> will be increasingly accepted. -Among such propositions must be put the conception -of the significance of mental conflict, the importance -of the emotional experiences of infancy and childhood -in the determination of character and the -causing of mental disease, and his conception of -the general structure of the mind as comprising -conscious and unconscious fields.</p> - -<p>The comments which I shall venture to make -upon the work of Freud will be such as are suggested -<span class="xxpn" id="p077">{77}</span> -by the biological point of view of which this essay -is intended to be an exposition. The standard of -interest upon which they are based will therefore -necessarily differ to some extent from that which -is usually adopted in writings of the psycho-analytic -school.</p> - -<p>To the biologist perhaps the most striking -characteristic of the work of this school is its -complete acceptance of what one may call the human -point of view. It seems to be satisfied that no -useful contribution to psychology is to be obtained -outside the limits of human feeling and behaviour, -and to feel no impatience to expand its inquiries -into a still larger field. It is not that the school -has failed to show an extremely vigorous movement -of expansion. Beginning as a mere province -of medicine, and while its foothold there was still -far from general recognition, it invaded the regions -of general psychology, of æsthetics, ethnology, the -study of folklore and myth, and indeed of all matters -in which it could find its essential material—the -records of human feeling and conduct. Beyond -the human species it has shown remarkably little of -this aggressive spirit, and it seems to feel no need -of bringing its principles into relation with what -little is known of the mental activities of the non-human -animals.</p> - -<p>The absence of any strong pressure in the -direction of establishing a correlation of all mental -phenomena, whether human or not, is not a matter -of merely theoretical interest. The actual practical -success to be obtained to-day in such an attempt -might possibly be insignificant and yet of great -value in moulding the whole attitude of mind of -the investigator towards matters lying wholly within -the sphere of human psychology. However much -one may be impressed by the greatness of the edifice -which Freud has built up and by the soundness of -<span class="xxpn" id="p078">{78}</span> -his architecture, one can scarcely fail, on coming -into it from the bracing atmosphere of the biological -sciences, to be oppressed by the odour of humanity -with which it is pervaded. One finds everywhere -a tendency to the acceptance of human standards -and even sometimes of human pretensions which -cannot fail to produce a certain uneasiness as to -the validity, if not of his doctrines, at any rate of -the forms in which they are expounded. The -quality I am trying to describe is extremely difficult -to express in concrete terms without exaggeration or -distortion. To those who have approached Freud’s -work solely by the path of medicine the idea that -it can give any one the feeling of a certain conventionality -of standard and outlook and of a certain -over-estimation of the objectivity of man’s moral -values will seem perhaps merely absurd. That this -is an impression which I have not been able altogether -to escape I record with a good deal of -hesitation and diffidence and without any wish to -lay stress upon it.</p> - -<p>Psycho-analytic psychology has grown up under -conditions which may very well have encouraged -the persistence of the human point of view. Originally -its whole activity was concentrated upon the -investigation and treatment of disease. Many of -its early disciples were those who had received -proof of its value in their own persons, those, that -is to say, who had been sufferers from their very -susceptibility to the influence of human standards. -The objective standard of validity by which the -system was judged was necessarily that of the -physician, namely the capacity to restore the -abnormal mind to the “normal.” Normal in this -sense is of course no more than a statistical expression -implying the condition of the average man. -It could scarcely fail, however, to acquire the -significance of “healthy.” -If once the statistically -<span class="xxpn" id="p079">{79}</span> -normal mind is accepted as being synonymous with -the psychologically healthy mind (that is, the mind -in which the full capacities are available for use), -a standard is set up which has a most fallacious -appearance of objectivity. The statistically normal -mind can be regarded only as a mind which has -responded in the usual way to the moulding and -deforming influence of its environment—that is, to -human standards of discipline, taste, and morality. -If it is to be looked upon as typically healthy also, -the current human standards of whose influence it is -a product must necessarily be accepted as qualified -to call forth the best in the developing mind they -mould. Writers of the psycho-analytic school seem -in general to make some such assumption as this.</p> - - -<h4 class="h4center">III</h4> - -<p>The conception of mental conflict is the central -feature of the Freudian system. Of its importance -and validity there can be no doubt. In a general -way the idea is familiar and even commonplace, -but Freud had developed it and shown how deeply -the principle penetrates the structure and development -of the mind from the earliest period and to -an extent quite unsuspected by earlier psychologists.</p> - -<p>From an early period of life the child finds the -gratification of its instinctive impulses checked or -even prevented by the pressure of its environment. -Conflict is thus set up between the two forces of -instinctive pressure within and social pressure from -without. Instinctive impulses which thus come into -conflict with the repressing force are not destroyed -but are deflected from their natural outlet, are -repressed within the mind and ultimately prevented -from rising into the conscious field at all except -in disguised or symbolic forms. To the adult his -childhood seems to have been altogether free from -<span class="xxpn" id="p080">{80}</span> -any kind of sexual activity or interest, not because, -as is generally supposed, such has never existed, but -because it proved incapable of persisting in the -conscious field and was suppressed into the unconscious -with the increase of the social repressing -forces. Similarly impulses experienced in adult life -which are for the same reason incompatible with -conscious recognition do not become conscious, but -live their life in the unconscious, though they may -exercise the profoundest influence on the happiness -and health of the subject.</p> - -<p>The work of Freud has been concentrated chiefly -upon the one party in these conflicts—the instinctive -impulse of which the only considerable one according -to him is the sexual. To the other party—the -repressing forces—he has given very much less -attention, and in them has found apparently much -less interest. By most writers of his school also -they seem to be taken very much as a matter of -course.</p> - -<p>When we consider, however, what they can -accomplish—how they can take the immensely -powerful instinct of sex and mould and deform its -prodigious mental energy—it is clear that the repressing -forces are no less important than the -antagonist with which they contend.</p> - -<p>It is desirable, perhaps, to discuss a little more -closely the nature of mental conflict, and especially -first to define the precise meaning of the conception.</p> - -<p>It may readily be granted that the young child’s -mind is wholly egocentric, though the proposition -is not without a certain element of assumption which -it is not wise altogether to ignore. He experiences -certain desires and impulses which he assumes with -the blandest unconsciousness of any other desires -but his own are there to be gratified. The failure -to gratify such an impulse may come about in several -ways, not all of which are equally significant in -<span class="xxpn" id="p081">{81}</span> -establishing mental conflict. The gratification may -be physically impossible. Here there is no basis for -internal conflict. The resistance is wholly external; -the whole child still desires its pleasure and its whole -resources, mental and physical, are directed to gain -the object. Mere failure may be painful and may -lead to an outburst of rage which possibly even -discharges some of the mental energy of the wish, -but the situation psychically is simple and the incident -tends of itself to go no farther.</p> - -<p>The gratification may prove to be physically -painful in itself. This seems to promise certain -elements of mental conflict in balancing the pleasure -of the gratification against the remembered pain -it involves. We are assuming that the pain is the -immediate consequence of the act, as when, for -example, a child makes the immemorial scientific -discovery that fire burns fingers. Such a direct -experience without the interposition of a second -person or the pointing of a moral does not in fact -involve any real mental conflict. The source of the -pain is external, its only emotional quality is that of -its simple unpleasantness, and this cannot, as it were, -enter into the child’s mind and divide it against -itself.</p> - -<p>True conflict, the conflict which moulds and -deforms, must be actually within the mind—must -be endopsychic to use a term invented by Freud, -though not used by him in this exact application. -In order that a desire may set up conflict it must be -thwarted, not by a plain impossibility or by a mere -physical pain, but by another impulse within the -mind antagonizing it. It seems clear that the -counter-impulse to be strong enough to contend -with an impulse having in it the energy of the sex -instinct must itself derive its force from some potent -instinctive mechanism. We cannot suppose that -the immense power of the sex impulse can be -<span class="xxpn" id="p082">{82}</span> -controlled, moulded, and directed by any influence -except such as have access to the stores of -psychical energy which the instinctive activities -alone possess.</p> - -<p>We are thus led to the proposition that the essence -of mental conflict is the antagonism of two impulses -which both have instinct behind them, and are both, -as it were, intimate constituents in the personality of -the subject. Thus only can the mind become, in -the worn but still infinitely appropriate metaphor, a -house divided against itself. The counter-impulses -to the developing sexual interest and activity of the -child are, as we have seen, the result of social -pressure—that is to say, the result of the influence of -the human environment. This influence is manifested, -not merely in direct precept, in warning, in -punishment, in expressions of disapproval or disgust, -but in the whole system of secrecy, of significant -silences, of suppressions, of nods and winks and -surreptitious signallings, of sudden causeless snubs -and patently lame explanations amid which such -sexual interest as the child possesses has to find a -<i>modus vivendi</i> and an intelligible meaning.</p> - -<p>Whence does this environmental pressure obtain -the power which enables it to exercise in the child’s -mind the regal functions of instinct? Clearly it can -do so only if the mind possesses a specific sensitiveness -to external opinion and the capacity to confer -on its precepts the sanction of instinctive force. -In the two earlier essays of this book I attempted -to show that the essential specific characteristic of -the mind of the gregarious animal is this very -capacity to confer upon herd opinion the psychical -energy of instinct. It is this sensitiveness, then, -which lays the child’s mind open to the influence -of his environment and endows for him the -mental attitude of that environment with all the -sanction of instinct. Thus do the repressing forces -<span class="xxpn" id="p083">{83}</span> -become actually constituent in the child’s personality, -and as much a part of his being as the egoistic -desires with which they are now able to contend on -equal terms.</p> - -<p>The specific sensitiveness of the gregarious mind -seems, then, to be a necessary condition for the -establishment of true mental conflict, and a character -which must be taken into account if we are to -develop a complete theory of the evolution of the -individual mind.</p> - -<p>Assuming the validity of the proposition that -there are two primary factors in the development of -the mind in each individual—the egoistic impulses -of the child and his specific sensitiveness to environing -influences—it may well be asked why it is -that the product, the “normal” adult mind, is so -uniform in its characters. It is true that this uniformity -may very easily be exaggerated, for in a -very considerable number of cases gross “abnormalities” -are the result of the process of development, -but, as I pointed out in an earlier essay, the -result on the whole is to produce two broadly -distinguishable types of mind—the unstable and the -stable—the latter on account of its numerical -superiority being also dignified as normal. A considerable -uniformity in the final products must -therefore be accepted. If, however, environmental -influences are an essential factor in the production -of this result, there seems no little difficulty in -accounting for the uniformity seeing that environments -vary so much from class to class, nation to -nation, and race to race. Where, we may ask, is the -constant in the environmental factors which the -uniformity of the outcome leads us to expect? -Assuming with Freud that of the egoistic impulses -of the child, the sexual alone seriously counts in the -formation of character, can it be shown that the -influences which surround the child are uniform -<span class="xxpn" id="p084">{84}</span> -in their general direction against this? At first -sight it would seem certainly not. Even in the same -country the variations in taste, reticence, modesty, -and morality towards matters of sex interest vary -greatly from class to class, and presumably are -accompanied by corresponding variations in the type -of influence exercised by the environment of the -child.</p> - -<p>Adequately to deal with this difficulty would involve -examining in detail the actual mental attitude -of the adult towards the young, especially in regard -to matters directly or indirectly touching upon -interests of sex. The subject is a difficult one, and if -we limit ourselves to the purely human standpoint, -ugly and depressing. The biologist, however, need -not confine himself to so cramped an outlook, and -by means of collecting his observations over a much -larger field is able to some extent to escape the -distorting effects of natural human prejudice. -Viewed in a broad way, it is neither surprising nor -portentous that there should naturally exist a strong -and persistent jealousy between the adult and the -young. Indeed, many of the superficial consequences -of this fact are mere commonplaces. -Throughout most of the lower animals the relation -is obvious and frankly manifested. Indeed, it may -be regarded as a more or less inevitable consequence -of any form of social life among animals. As such, -therefore, it may be expected to appear in some form -or other in the human mind. The manifestations of -it, however, will by no means necessarily take easily -recognizable forms. The social pressure to which -the mind is subject will tend to exclude such a -feeling from at any rate full consciousness, and such -manifestations as are allowed it will be in disguised -and distorted forms.</p> - -<p>It seems difficult to avoid the conclusion that -some dim and unrealized offshoot of such a jealousy -<span class="xxpn" id="p085">{85}</span> -between adult and young is responsible for the -unanimity with which man combines to suppress -and delay the development of any evidence of sexual -interest by the young. The intensity of the dislike -which is felt for admitting the young to share any -part of the knowledge of the adult about the -physiology of sex is well illustrated by the difficulty -parents feel in communicating to their children -some of the elementary facts which they may feel -very strongly it is their duty to impart. A parent -may find himself under these circumstances trying -to quiet his conscience with all sorts of excuses and -subterfuges while he postpones making the explanations -which duty and affection urge upon him as -necessary for the health and happiness of his child. -An unwillingness so strong and irrational as this -must have its root in subconscious processes charged -with strong feeling.</p> - -<p>The tendency to guard children from sexual knowledge -and experience seems to be truly universal -in civilized man and to surpass all differences of -morals, discipline, or taste. Amongst primitive -savages the principle has not acquired the altruistic -signification which civilized man has given it, but -operates as a definite exclusion to be overcome only -by solemn ceremonies of initiation and at the price -of submission to painful and sometimes mutilating -rites.</p> - -<p>The constancy of attitude of the adult towards -the young, which is thus seen to be so general, -evidently gives to the environmental influences which -surround the child a fundamental uniformity, and -as we have seen, the theory of the development of -the individual mind demands that such a uniformity -of environmental influence should be shown to be -in action.</p> - -<p>This is no place to follow out the practical consequences -of the fact that every adult necessarily -<span class="xxpn" id="p086">{86}</span> -possesses a primary bias in his attitude towards -the young, and a bias which is connected with -instinctive impulses of great mental energy. However -much this tendency is overlaid by moral -principles, by altruism, by natural affection, as long -as its true nature is unrecognized and excluded from -full consciousness its influence upon conduct must -be excessive and full of dangerous possibilities. To -it must ultimately be traced the scarcely veiled -distrust and dislike with which comparative youth is -always apt to be met where matters of importance are -concerned. The attitude of the adult and elderly -towards the enthusiasms of youth is stereotyped in -a way which can scarcely fail to strike the psychologist -as remarkable and illuminating in its commonplaceness. -The youthful revolutionary, who after -all is no more essentially absurd than the elderly -conservative, is commonly told by the latter that he -too at the same age felt the same aspirations, burnt -with the same zeal, and yearned with the same hope -until he learnt wisdom with experience—“as you -will have, my boy, by the time you are my age.” -To the psychologist the kindly contempt of such -pronouncements cannot conceal the pathetic jealousy -of declining power. Herd instinct, inevitably siding -with the majority and the ruling powers, has always -added its influence to the side of age and given a -very distinctly perceptible bias to history, proverbial -wisdom, and folklore against youth and confidence -and enterprise and in favour of age and caution, -the immemorial wisdom of the past, and even -the toothless mumblings of senile decay.</p> - -<p>Any comprehensive survey of modern civilized -life cannot fail to yield abundant instances of the -disproportionate influence in the conduct of affairs -which has been acquired by mere age. When we -remember how little in actual practice man proves -himself capable of the use of reason, how very little -<span class="xxpn" id="p087">{87}</span> -he actually does profit by experience though the -phrase is always in his mouth, it must be obvious -that there is some strong psychological reason for -the predominance of age, something which must be -determinative in its favour quite apart from its merits -and capacity when competing with youth. The -“monstrous regiment” of old men—and to the -biologist it is almost as “monstrous” as the -regiment of Mary Stuart was to poor indignant -Knox—extends into every branch of man’s activity. -We prefer old judges, old lawyers, old politicians, -old doctors, old generals, and when their functions -involve any immediacy of cause and effect and are -not merely concerned with abstractions, we contentedly -pay the price which the inelasticity of these -ripe minds is sometimes apt to incur.</p> - -<h4 class="h4center">IV</h4> - -<p>If the propositions already laid down prove to be -sound, we must regard the personality of the adult -as the resultant of three groups of forces to which -the mind from infancy onwards is subject; <i>first</i> -the egoistic instincts of the individual pressing for -gratification and possessing the intense mental -energy characteristic of instinctive processes, -<i>secondly</i> the specific sensitiveness to environmental -influences which the mind as that of a gregarious -animal necessarily possesses, a quality capable of -endowing outside influences with the energy of -instinct and, <i>thirdly</i> the environmental influences -which act upon the growing mind and are also -essentially determined in their intensity and uniformity -by instinctive mechanisms.</p> - -<p>The work of Freud has been directed mainly -to the elucidation of the processes included in the -first group—that is to say, to the study of the -primarily egoistic impulses and the modifications -<span class="xxpn" id="p088">{88}</span> -they develop under restraint. He has worked out, -in fact, a veritable embryology of the mind.</p> - -<p>The embryology of the body is to those who have -had no biological training far from being a -gratifying subject of contemplation. The stages -through which the body passes before reaching its -familiar form have a superficial aspect of ugly and -repulsive caricature with which only a knowledge -of the great compressed pageant of nature they -represent can reconcile the mind. The stages -through which, according to the doctrines of Freud, -the developing mind passes are not less repulsive -when judged from the purely human point of view -than are the phases of the body, which betray -its cousinship with the fish and the frog, the lemur -and the ape. The works of Nature give no support -to the social convention that to be truly respectable -one must always have been respectable. All her -most elaborate creations have “risen in the world” -and are descended in the direct line from creatures of -the mud and dust. It is characteristic of her method -to work with the humblest materials and to patch -and compromise at every step. Any given structure -of her making is thus not by any means necessarily -the best that could conceivably be contrived, but -a workable modification of something else, always -more or less conditioned in its functioning by the -limitations of the thing from which it was made.</p> - -<p>To the biologist, therefore, the fact that Freud’s -investigations of the development of the mind have -shown it passing through stages anything but gratifying -to self-esteem will not be either surprising -or a ground for disbelief. That Freud’s conclusions -are decidedly unpalatable when judged by a narrowly -human standard is very obvious to any one who is -at all familiar with the kind of criticism they have -received. It must be acknowledged, moreover, that -his methods of exposition have not always tended -<span class="xxpn" id="p089">{89}</span> -to disguise the nauseousness of the dose he attempts -to administer. Such matters, however, lie altogether -apart from the question whether his conclusions are -or are not just, though it is perhaps justifiable to -say that had these conclusions been immediately -acceptable, the fact would be presumptive evidence -that they were either not new or were false.</p> - -<p>The work of Freud embodies the most determined, -thorough, and scientific attempt which has been made -to penetrate the mysteries of the mind by the direct -human method of approach, making use of introspection—guided -and guarded, it is true, by an -elaborate technique—as its essential instrument. To -have shaped so awkward and fallacious an instrument -into an apparatus for which accuracy and fruitfulness -can be claimed is in itself a notable triumph of -psychological skill.</p> - -<p>The doctrines of Freud seem to be regarded by -his school as covering all the activities of the mind -and making a complete, though of course not necessarily -exhaustive, survey of the whole field. I have -already pointed out directions in which it appears -to me that inquiries by other methods than those -of the psycho-analytic school can be pursued with -success. Regarded in a broad way, the Freudian -body of doctrine which I have already ventured -to describe as essentially an embryology of the -mind gives one the impression of being mainly -descriptive and systematic rather than dynamic, if -one may with due caution use such words. It is -able to tell us how such and such a state of affairs -has arisen, what is its true significance, and to -describe in minute detail the factors into which it -can be analysed. When the question of acting upon -the mind is raised its resources seem less striking. -In this direction its chief activities have been in -the treatment of abnormal mental states, and these -are dealt with by a laborious process of analysis -<span class="xxpn" id="p090">{90}</span> -in which the subject’s whole mental development is -retraced, and the numerous significant experiences -which have become excluded from the conscious -field are brought back into it.</p> - -<p>When the unconscious processes which underlie -the symptoms have been assimilated to the conscious -life of the patient, the symptoms necessarily disappear, -and the patient’s mind gains or regains -the “normal” condition. However precious such -a cure may be to the patient, and however interesting -to the physician, its value to the species has to be -judged in relation to the value of the “normal” -to which the patient has been restored—that is, in -relation to the question as to whether any move, -however small, in the direction of an enlargement -of the human mind has been made. Until some -clearer evidence has been furnished of a capacity -for development in this direction the Freudian system -should, perhaps, be regarded as more notably a -psychology of knowledge than a psychology of -power.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to notice that in discussing the -mechanism of psycho-analysis in liberating the -“abnormal” patient from his symptoms, Freud -repeatedly lays stress on the fact that the efficient -factor in the process is not the actual introduction -of the suppressed experiences into the conscious field, -but the overcoming of the resistances to such an -endeavour. I have attempted to show that these -resistances or counter-impulses are of environmental -origin, and owe their strength to the specific sensitiveness -of the gregarious mind. Resistances of -similar type and identical origin are responsible for -the formation of the so-called normal type of mind. -It is a principal thesis of an earlier essay in this -book that this normal type is far from being psychologically -healthy, is far from rendering available -the full capacity of the mind for foresight and -<span class="xxpn" id="p091">{91}</span> -progress, and being in exclusive command of directing -power in the world, is a danger to civilization. -An investigation of the resistant forces that are -encountered by the developing mind is clearly, then, -a matter of the utmost importance. They are now -allowed to come into being haphazard, and while -they undoubtedly contain elements of social value -and necessary restraints, they are the products, not -of a courageous recognition of facts but of fears, -prejudices, and repressed instinctive impulses, and -are consolidated by ignorance, indolence, and tribal -custom.</p> - -<p>The interest of the psycho-analytic school has been -turned remarkably little into this field. The speculation -may be hazarded that in this direction it might -find the sources of a directer power over the human -mind, and at least some attenuation of that atmosphere -of the consulting-room and the mad-house -which does so much to detract from its pretensions -to be a psychological system of universal validity.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">S<b>OME</b></span> - <span class="smcap">P<b>RINCIPLES</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smmaj">A</span> - <span class="smcap">B<b>IOLOGICAL</b></span> - <span class="smcap">P<b>SYCHOLOGY.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>The third method by which it has been attempted -to attack the problems of psychology is that which -I have called the comparative. Its characteristic note -is a distrust of that attitude towards phenomena -which I have called the human point of view. -Man’s description and interpretation of his own -mental experience being so liable to distortion by -prejudice, by self-esteem, by his views as to his -own nature and powers, as well as so incomplete by -reason of his incapacity to reach by ordinary introspection -the deeper strata of his mind, it becomes -necessary to make action as far as possible the -subject of observation rather than speech, and to -regard it as a touchstone of motive more important -than the actor’s own views. The principle -<span class="xxpn" id="p092">{92}</span> -may be exemplified in a simple and concrete form. -If a given piece of human behaviour bears the -closest resemblance to behaviour which is characteristic -of the ape, the sheep, or the wolf, the -biologist in attempting to arrive at the actual cause -will ascribe an importance to this resemblance at -least no less than that he will give to any explanation -of the action as rational and deliberate which -may be furnished by the actor or by his own -intelligence.</p> - -<p>A second principle of the method will be by a -study of the whole range of animal life, and especially -of forms whose conduct presents obvious -resemblances to that of man, to discover what -instinctive impulses may be expected to operate in -him.</p> - -<p>A third principle will be to search for criteria, -whereby instinctive impulses or their derivatives -arising in the mind can be distinguished from -rational motives, or at any rate motives in which -the instinctive factor is minimal. Thus will be -furnished for the method the objective standard for -the judgment of mental observations which is the -one indispensable requirement in all psychological -inquiries.</p> - -<p>When it is known what types of instinctive -mechanisms are to be expected, and under what -aspects they will appear in the mind, it is possible -to press inquiry into many of the obscurer regions -of human behaviour and thought, and to arrive -at conclusions which, while they are in harmony -with the general body of biological science, have -the additional value of being immediately useful -in the conduct of affairs.</p> - -<p>At the very outset of such researches we are -met by an objection which illustrates how different -the biological conception of the mind is from that -current amongst those whose training has been -<span class="xxpn" id="p093">{93}</span> -literary and philosophic. The objection I am thinking -of is that of the ordinary intellectualist view of -man. According to this we must regard him as -essentially a rational creature, subject, it is true, -to certain feeble relics of instinctive impulsion, but -able to control such without any great expense of -will power, irrational at times in an amiable and -rather “nice” way, but fundamentally always independent, -responsible, and captain of his soul. Most -holders of this opinion will of course admit that -in a distant and vague enough past man must have -been much more definitely an instinctive being, but -they regard attempts to trace in modern man any -considerable residue of instinctive activities as a -tissue of fallacious and superficial analogies, based -upon a shallow materialism and an ignorance of -the great principles of philosophy or a crudeness -which cannot assimilate them.</p> - -<p>This objection is an expression of the very -characteristic way in which mankind over-estimates -the practical functioning of reason in his mind and -the influence of civilization on his development. In -an earlier essay I have tried to show to how great -an extent the average educated man is willing to -pronounce decided judgments, all of which he believes -himself to have arrived at by the exercise -of pure reason, upon the innumerable complex -questions of the day. Almost all of them concern -highly technical matters upon none of which has -he the slightest qualification to pronounce. This -characteristic, always obvious enough, has naturally -during the war shown the exaggeration so apt to -occur in all non-rational processes at a time of -general stress. It is not necessary to catalogue -the various public functions in regard to which -the common citizen finds himself in these days moved -to advise and exhort. They are numerous, and -for the most part highly technical. Generally the -<span class="xxpn" id="p094">{94}</span> -more technical a given matter is, the more vehement -and dogmatic is the counsel of the utterly uninstructed -counsellor. Even when the questions involved -are not especially such as can be dealt with -only by the expert, the fact that the essential data -are withheld from the public by the authorities -renders all this amateur statecraft and generalship -more than usually ridiculous. Nevertheless, those -who find the materials insufficient for dogmatism -and feel compelled to a suspense of judgment are -apt to fall under suspicion of the crime of failing -to “realize” the seriousness of the war. When it -is remembered that the duty of the civilian is in -no way concerned with these matters of high technique, -while he has very important functions to carry -out in maintaining the nation’s strength if he could -be brought to take an interest in them, it seems -scarcely possible to argue that such conduct is that -of a very highly rational being. In reality the -objective examination of man’s behaviour, if attention -is directed to the facts and not to what the -actors think of them, yields at once in every field -example after example of similar irrational features.</p> - -<p>When the influence of civilization is looked upon -as having rendered man’s instincts of altogether -secondary importance in modern life, it is plain -that such a conclusion involves a misconception of -the nature of instinct. This well-worn term has -come to have so vague a connotation that some -definition of it is necessary. The word “instinct” -is used here to denote inherited modes of reaction -to bodily need or external stimulus. It is difficult -to draw a sharp distinction between instinct and -mere reflex action, and an attempt to do so with -exact precision is of no particular value. In general -we may say that the reactions which should be -classed under the head of instinct are delayed (that -is, not necessarily carried out with fatal promptitude -<span class="xxpn" id="p095">{95}</span> -immediately upon the stimulus), complex (that is, -consist of acts rather than mere movements), and -may be accompanied by quite elaborate mental processes. -In a broad way also it may be said that -the mental accompaniments of an instinctive process -are for the most part matters of feeling. During -the growth of the need or stimulus there will be -a desire or inclination which may be quite intense, -and yet not definitely focused on any object that -is consciously realized; the act itself will be distinguished -to the actor by its rightness, obviousness, -necessity, or inevitableness, and the sequel -of the act will be satisfaction. This mere hint -of the psychical manifestations of instinctive activity -leaves quite out of account the complex effects which -may ensue when two instinctive impulses that have -come to be antagonistic reach the mind at the same -time. The actual amount of mental activity which -accompanies an instinctive process is very variable; -it may be quite small, and then the subject of it -is reduced to a mere automaton, possessed, as we -say, by an ungovernable passion such as panic, lust, -or rage; it may be quite large, and sometimes -the subject, deceived by his own rationalizations and -suppressions, may suppose himself to be a fully -rational being in undisputed possession of free will -and the mastery of his fate at the very moment -when he is showing himself to be a mere puppet -dancing to the strings which Nature, unimpressed -by his valiant airs, relentlessly and impassively pulls.</p> - -<p>The extent of the psychical accompaniments of -instinctive activity in civilized man should not, therefore, -be allowed to obscure the fact that the -instincts are tendencies deeply ingrained in the very -structure of his being. They are as necessarily -inherited, as much a part of himself, and as -essential a condition for the survival of himself -and his race, as are the vital organs of his body. -<span class="xxpn" id="p096">{96}</span> -Their persistence in him is established and enforced -by the effects of millions of years of selection, so -that it can scarcely be supposed that a few thousand -years of civilized life which have been accompanied -by no steady selection against any single instinct can -have had any effect whatever in weakening them. -The common expression that such an effect has been -produced is doubtless due to the great development -in civilized man of the mental accompaniments of -instinctive processes. These mental phenomena surround -the naked reality of the impulse with a -cloud of rationalized comment and illusory explanation. -The capacity which man possesses for free -and rational thought in matters untainted by instinctive -inclination is of course indubitable, but he -has not realized that there is no obvious mental -character attached to propositions having an -instinctive basis which should expose them to -suspicion. As a matter of fact, it is just those -fundamental propositions which owe their origin to -instinct which appear to the subject the most obvious, -the most axiomatic, and the least liable to doubt -by any one but an eccentric or a madman.</p> - -<p>It has been customary with certain authors—perhaps -especially such as have interested themselves -in sociological subjects—to ascribe quite a -large number of man’s activities to separate instincts. -Very little consideration of most of these propositions -shows that they are based upon too lax -a definition or a want of analysis, for most of the -activities referred to special instincts prove to be -derivatives of the great primal instincts which are -common to or very widely distributed over the -animal kingdom. Man and a very large number -of all animals inherit the capacity to respond to -physical need or emergency according to the -demands which we classify, as the three primary -instincts of self-preservation, nutrition, and -<span class="xxpn" id="p097">{97}</span> -reproduction. If a series of animals of increasing brain -power be examined, it will be found that a growth -of intelligence, while it does nothing to enfeeble -the instinctive impulse, modifies the appearances of -it by increasing the number of modes of reaction it -may use. Intelligence, that is to say, leaves its -possessor no less impelled by instinct than his -simpler ancestor, but endows him with the capacity -to respond in a larger variety of ways. The response -is now no longer directly and narrowly confined to -a single path, but may follow a number of indirect -and intricate ways; there is no reason, however, to -suppose that the impulse is any the weaker for that. -To mistake indirectness of response for enfeeblement -of impulse is a fundamental error to which all inquiry -into the psychology of instinct is liable.</p> - -<p>To man his big brain has given a maximal -power of various response which enables him to -indulge his instinctive impulses in indirect and -symbolic activities to a greater extent than any other -animal. It is for this reason that the instincts of -man are not always obvious in his conduct and -have come to be regarded by some as practically -no more than vestigial. Indirect modes of response -may indeed become so involved as to assume the -appearance of the negation of the very instincts -of which they are the expression. Thus it comes -to be no paradox to say that monks and nuns, -ascetics and martyrs, prove the strength of the great -primary instincts their existence seems to deny.</p> - -<p>Man and a certain number of other species widely -distributed throughout the animal kingdom show, -in addition to the instincts of self-preservation, -nutrition, and sex, specialized inherited modes of -response to the needs, not directly of the individual -but of the herd to which he belongs. These -responses, which are perfectly well marked and -characteristic, are those of the herd instinct. It is -<span class="xxpn" id="p098">{98}</span> -important to grasp clearly the relation of this instinct -to the individual. It must be understood that each -separate member of a gregarious species inherits -characters deeply rooted in his being which effectually -differentiate him from any non-gregarious -animal. These characters are such that in presence -of certain stimuli they will ensure his responding -in a specialized way which will be quite different -from the response of a solitary animal. The -response when examined will be found not necessarily -to favour the survival of the individual as -such, but to favour his survival as a member of -a herd. A very simple example will make this -plain. The dog and the cat are our two most -familiar examples of the social and the solitary -animal respectively. Their different attitudes towards -feeding must have been observed by all. -The cat takes her food leisurely, without great -appearance of appetite and in small amounts at a -time; the dog is voracious and will eat hurriedly -as much as he can get, growling anxiously if he -is approached. In doing so he is expressing a deeply -ingrained characteristic. His attitude towards food -was built up when he hunted in packs and to get a -share of the common kill had to snatch what came in -his way and gulp it down before it could be taken -from him. In slang which has a sound biological -basis we say he “wolfs” his food. When in -domestication his food supply is no longer limited -in the primitive way, his instinctive tendency persists; -he is typically greedy and will kill himself by overeating -if he is allowed to. Here we have a perfect -instance of an instinctive response being disadvantageous -to the survival of the individual as such, -and favouring his survival only as a member of a -herd. This example, trivial as it may seem, is -worthy of close study. It shows that the individual -of the gregarious species, as an individual and in -<span class="xxpn" id="p099">{99}</span> -isolation, possesses indelible marks of character -which effectually distinguish him from all solitary -animals.</p> - -<p>The same principle applies with equal force to -man. Whether he is alone or in company, a hermit -philosopher or a mere unit of a mob, his responses -will bear the same stamp of being regulated by the -existence and influence of his fellows.</p> - -<p>The foregoing considerations, elementary and -incomplete as they are, suggest that there is a -strong prima facie case for rejecting the common -conceptions that man is among animals the least -endowed with an inheritance of instinct, and that -civilization has produced in him profound modifications -in his primitive instinctive impulses. If the -conception which I have put forward be correct, -namely, that man is not at all less subject to -instinctive impulsions than any other animal but -disguises the fact from the observer and from -himself by the multiplicity of the lines of response -his mental capacity enables him to take, it should -follow that his conduct is much less truly variable -and much more open to generalization than has -generally been supposed. Should this be possible, -it would enable the biologist to study the actual -affairs of mankind in a really practical way, to -analyse the tendencies of social development, to -discover how deeply or superficially they were based -in the necessity of things, and above all, to foretell -their course. Thus might be founded a true science -of politics which would be of direct service to the -statesman.</p> - -<p>Many attempts have been made to apply biological -principles to the interpretation of history -and the guidance of statecraft, especially since the -popularization of the principles associated with the -name of Darwin. Such attempts have generally -been undertaken less in the spirit of the scientific -<span class="xxpn" id="p100">{100}</span> -investigator than in that of the politician; the -point of departure has been a political conviction -and not a biological truth; and as might be expected, -when there has been any conflict between political -conviction and biological truth it is the latter that -has had to give way. Work of this kind has brought -the method into deserved contempt by its crudity, -its obvious subservience to prejudice, and its pretentious -gestures of the doctrinaire. England has -not been without her examples of these scientific -politicians and historians, but they cannot be said -to have flourished here as they have in the more -scholastic air of Germany. The names of several -such are now notorious in this country and their -works are sufficiently familiar for it to be obvious -that their claims to scientific value do not admit of -discussion. It is not necessary to consider their -conclusions, they are condemned by their manner; -and however interesting their political vociferation -may be to fellow-patriots, it plainly has no meaning -whatsoever as science. In face of the spectacle -presented by these leather-lunged doctrinaires, it -needs some little hardihood to maintain that it is -possible profitably to apply biological principle to -the consideration of human affairs; nevertheless, that -is an essential thesis of this essay.</p> - -<p>In attempting to illuminate the records of history -by the principles of biology, an essential difficulty is -the difference of scale in time upon which these -two departments of knowledge work. Historical -events are confined within a few thousands of years, -the biological record covers many millions; it is -scarcely to be expected, therefore, that even a gross -movement on the cramped historical scale will be -capable of detection in the vast gulf of time the -biological series represents. A minor difficulty is -the fact that the data of history come to us through -a dense and reduplicated veil of human -<span class="xxpn" id="p101">{101}</span> -interpretation, whereas the biological facts are comparatively -free from this kind of obscuration. The former -obstacle is undoubtedly serious. It is to be -remarked, however, that there is strong reason to -suppose that the process of organic evolution has not -been and is not always infinitely slow and gradual. -It is more than suspected that, perhaps as the result -of slowly accumulated tendency or perhaps as the -result of a sudden variation of structure or capacity, -there have been periods of rapid change which -might have been perceptible to direct observation. -The infinitely long road still tending upwards comes -to where it branches and meets another path, tending -perhaps downwards or even upwards at a different -slope. May not the meeting or branching form, -as it were, a node in the infinite line, a resting -place for the eye, a point in the vast extension -capable of recognition by a finite mind and of -expression in terms of human affairs? It is the -belief of the writer that the human race stands -at such a nodal point to-day.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">T<b>HE</b></span> - <span class="smcap">B<b>IOLOGY</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUSNESS.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>In order to set forth the evidence on which is -based the conclusion that the present juncture of -affairs is not merely, as it very obviously is, a -meeting-place of epochs in the historical series, but -also marks a stage in the biological series which -will prove to have been a moment of destiny in the -evolution of the human species, it will be necessary -to inquire somewhat closely into the biological -meaning of the social habit in animals. In an earlier -essay certain speculations in the same subject were -indulged, and a certain amount of repetition will -be necessary. The point of view then taken up, -however, was different from that from which I shall -now attempt to review the facts. Then the main -<span class="xxpn" id="p102">{102}</span> -interest lay in an examination of the meaning of -gregariousness for the individual mind, and although -reasons enough were found for uneasiness at the -course of events, and at the instability of civilization -which any radical examination displayed, the -inquiry was not pursued under any immediate imminence -of disaster to the social fabric as it must -be now. Naturally, therefore, at the present time -certain aspects of the subject which before were -of no special relevance become of great importance -and demand close examination.</p> - -<p>In a general view of the social habit in animals -certain outstanding facts are readily to be observed. -It is of wide distribution and sporadic occurrence, it -varies much in the completeness of its development, -and there seems to be an inverse relation between -its completeness and the brain power of the animal -concerned.</p> - -<p>From the wideness of its distribution the social -habit may be supposed to represent a forward step -in complexity which comes about readily. It has -the appearance of being upon a path which species -have a natural tendency to follow, a line of evolution -which is perhaps rendered possible by constantly -occurring small variations common to all animals and -taken advantage of only under certain circumstances -of pressure or increase. It seems not to depend on -any sudden large variation of type, and such is not -necessary to account for it. It differs from many -other modifications which we know animal life to -have undergone in being immediately useful to the -species from its very beginning and in its least -perfect forms. Once started, however imperfectly, -the new habit will have a natural tendency to -progress towards fuller forms of sociality by reason -of special selective forces which it inevitably sets -going. The fact that it is valuable to the species -in which it develops even in its most larval forms, -<span class="xxpn" id="p103">{103}</span> -combined with its tendency to progress, no doubt -accounts for the wonderful series of all degrees -of gregariousness which the field of natural history -presents.</p> - -<p>I have pointed out elsewhere that the fundamental -biological meaning of gregariousness is that it allows -of an indefinite enlargement of the unit upon which -the undifferentiated influence of natural selection is -allowed to act, so that the individual merged in the -larger unit is shielded from the immediate effects -of natural selection and is exposed directly only to -the special form of selection which obtains within -the new unit.</p> - -<p>There seems little doubt that this sheltering of -the individual allows him to vary and to undergo -modifications with a freedom which would have -been dangerous to him as an isolated being, but is -safe under the new conditions and valuable to the -new unit of which he now is a part.</p> - -<p>In essence the significance of the passage from -the solitary to the gregarious seems to be closely -similar to that of the passage from the unicellular -to the multicellular organism—an enlargement of -the unit exposed to natural selection, a shielding of -the individual cell from that pressure, an endowment -of it with freedom to vary and specialize in safety.</p> - -<p>Nature has thus made two great experiments of -the same type, and if one be reasonably careful to -avoid arguing from analogy, it is possible to use -one case to illuminate the other by furnishing hints -as to what mechanisms may be looked for and in -what directions inquiry may profitably be pursued.</p> - -<p>The sporadic occurrence of gregariousness at -widely separated points of the animal field—in man -and sheep, in ant and elephant—inclines one to -suppose that multicellularity must have arisen also at -multiple points, and that the metazoa did not arise -from the protozoa by a single line of descent. It -<span class="xxpn" id="p104">{104}</span> -suggests also that there is some inherent property -in mobile living organisms that makes combination -of individuals into larger units a more or less inevitable -course of development under certain circumstances -and without any gross variation being -necessary to initiate it. The complex evolution -which multicellularity made possible, and perhaps -enforced, can scarcely fail to make one wonder -whether the gregarious animal has not entered upon -a path which must of necessity lead to increasing -complexity and co-ordination, to a more and more -stringent intensity of integration or to extinction.</p> - -<p>The varying degrees to which the social habit -has developed among different animals provide a -very interesting branch of study. The class of -insects is remarkable in furnishing an almost inexhaustible -variety of stages to which the instinct -is developed. Of these that reached by the humble -bee, with its small, weak families, is a familiar -example of a low grade; that of the wasp, with its -colonies large and strong, but unable to survive the -winter, is another of more developed type; while that -of the honey bee represents a very high grade of -development in which the instinct seems to have -completed its cycle and yielded to the hive the -maximum advantages of which it is capable. In -the honey bee, then, the social instinct may be said -to be complete.</p> - -<p>It is necessary to examine somewhat closely into -what is denoted by the completeness or otherwise -of the social habit in a given species.</p> - -<p>To return for a moment to the case of the -change from the unicellular to the multicellular, it -is obvious that in the new unit, to get the full -advantage of the change there must be specialization -involving both loss and gain to the individual cell; -one loses power of digestion and gains a special -sensitiveness to stimulation, another loses locomotion -<span class="xxpn" id="p105">{105}</span> -to gain digestion, and so forth in innumerable series -as the new unit becomes more complex. Inherent, -however, in the new mechanism is the need for -co-ordination if the advantages of specialization are -to be obtained. The necessity of a nervous system—if -progress is to be maintained—early becomes -obvious, and it is equally clear that the primary -function of the nervous system is to facilitate co-ordination. -Thus it would seem that the individual -cell incorporated in a larger unit must possess a -capacity for specialization, the ability to originate -new methods of activity, and a capacity for response—that -is, the ability to limit itself to action -co-ordinated suitably to the interests of the new -unit rather than to those that would have been its -own if it had been a free unit in itself. Specialization -and co-ordination will be the two necessary -conditions for success of the larger unit, and advance -in complexity will be possible as long only as these -two are unexhausted. Neither, of course, will be of -avail without the other. The richest specialization -will be of no good if it cannot be controlled to the -uses of the whole organism, and the most perfect -control of the individual cells will be incapable -of ensuring progress if it has no material of original -variation to work on.</p> - -<p>The analogy is helpful in the consideration of -the mechanisms brought into play by the social -habit. The community of the honey bee bears -a close resemblance to the body of a complex animal. -The capacity for actual structural specialization of -the individuals in the interests of the hive has -been remarkable and has gone far, while at the -same time co-ordination has been stringently enforced, -so that each individual is actually absorbed -into the community, expends all its activities therein, -and when excluded from it is almost as helpless -as a part of the naked flesh of an animal -<span class="xxpn" id="p106">{106}</span> -detached from its body. The hive may, in fact, -without any very undue stretch of fantasy, be -described as an animal of which all the individual -cells have retained the power of locomotion. When -one watches the flight of a swarm of bees its -unanimity and directness very easily produce the -illusion that one is witnessing the migration of -a single animal usually sedentary but at times -capable of undertaking journeys with a formidable -and successful energy. This new animal differs -from the other animals of the metazoa which it -has outdistanced in the race of evolution, not merely -in its immense power, energy, and flexibility, but -also in the almost startling fact that it has -recovered the gift of immortality which seemed to -have been lost with its protozoal ancestors.</p> - -<p>The extent to which the hive makes use of the -powers of its individuals is the measure of the -completeness with which the social habit is developed -in it. The worker bee has practically no activities -which are not directly devoted to the hive, and yet -she goes about her ceaseless tasks in a way that -never fails to impress the observer with its exuberant -energy and even its appearance of joyfulness. It -is thought that the average worker bee <i>works herself -to death</i> in about two months. That is a fact -which can scarcely fail to arouse, even in the least -imaginative, at any rate a moment of profound -contemplation.</p> - -<p>If we could suppose her to be conscious in the -human sense, we must imagine the bee to be -possessed by an enthusiasm for the hive more intense -than a mother’s devotion to her son, without personal -ambitions, or doubts or fears, and if we are to -judge by the imperfect experience man has yet -had of the same lofty passion, we must think of her -consciousness, insignificant spark as it is, as a little -fire ablaze with altruistic feeling. Doubtless, such -<span class="xxpn" id="p107">{107}</span> -an attribution of emotion to the bee is a quite -unjustified fallacy of anthropomorphism. Nevertheless, -it is not altogether valueless as a hint of what -social unity might effect in an animal of larger -mental life. There can be little doubt that the -perfection to which the communal life of the bee -has attained is dependent on the very smallness of -the mental development of which the individuals -are capable. Their capacity to assimilate experience -is necessarily from their structure, and is known -by experience to be, small and their path is marked -out so plainly by actual physical modifications that -the almost miraculous absorption of the worker in -the hive is after all perhaps natural enough. If she -were able to assimilate general experience on a larger -scale, to react freely and appropriately to stimuli -external to the hive, there can be little doubt that -the community would show a less concentrated -efficiency than it does to-day. The standing miracle -of the bee—her sensitiveness to the voice of the -hive and her capacity to communicate with her -fellows—would undoubtedly be less marvellously -perfect if she were not at the same time deaf to all -other voices.</p> - -<p>When we come to consider animals in which -the anatomist can recognize a brain and the -psychologist an individual mind, the types of gregariousness -we meet with are found to have lost -the magnificent intensity of the bee. This decline -in intensity seems to be due to the greatly increased -variety of reaction of which the individual is capable. -The gregarious mammalia are most of them -relatively intelligent, they are capable of assimilating -experience to a certain extent and have a -definite capacity for individual existence. In them -the social habit shows comparatively little tendency -to a gradual intensification, but is a more static -condition. Doubtless, there are other conditions -<span class="xxpn" id="p108">{108}</span> -which also limit it. For example, the slowness -of multiplication and fixity of structure in the -mammalia obviously deprive them of the possibility -of undergoing a continuous social integration as the -insects have. Be this as it may, we find in them the -social habit but little or scarcely at all expressed -in physical specialization but shown as a deeply -ingrained mental character which profoundly influences -their habits and their modes of reaction -to bodily and external impressions. Among the -mammalia other than man and possibly apes and -monkeys, gregariousness is found in two broadly -distinguishable types according to the function it subserves. -It may be either protective as in the sheep, -the deer, the ox, and the horse, or aggressive as in -the wolf and allied animals. In both forms it will -involve certain common types of capacity, while the -distinguishing characteristic of each will be a special -kind of reaction to certain stimuli. It is important -to understand that these peculiarities are possessed -by each individual of the larger unit, and will be -displayed by him in a characteristic way whether -he is in the company of his fellows or not. It is not -necessary to repeat here in any detail the characters -of the gregarious mammal. They have been dealt -with in an earlier essay, but it is desirable to emphasize -here certain features of exceptional importance -and some which were but little discussed before.</p> - -<p>The quite fundamental characteristic of the social -mammal, as of the bee, is sensitiveness to the voice -of his fellows. He must have the capacity to react -fatally and without hesitation to an impression -coming to him from the herd, and he must react -in a totally different way to impressions coming to -him from without. In the presence of danger -his first motion must be, not to fly or to attack as -the case may be, but to notify the herd. This -characteristic is beautifully demonstrated in the low -<span class="xxpn" id="p109">{109}</span> -growl a dog will give at the approach of a stranger. -This is obviously in no way part of the dog’s -programme of attack upon his enemy—when his -object is intimidation he bursts into barking—but -his first duty is to put the pack on its guard. -Similarly the start of the sheep is a notification -and precedes any motion of flight.</p> - -<p>In order that the individual shall be sensitive -in a special degree to the voice of the herd, he must -have developed in him an infallible capacity for -recognizing his fellow-members. In the lower -mammalia this seems almost exclusively a function -of the sense of smell, as is natural enough since -that sense is as a general rule highly developed in -them. The domestic dog shows admirably the -importance of the function of recognition in his -species. Comparatively few recognize even their -masters at any distance by sight or sound, while -obviously with their fellows they are practically -dependent on smell. The extent to which the ceremonial -of recognition has developed in the dog is, -of course, very familiar to every one. It shows -unmistakable evidence of the rudiments of social -organization, and is not the less illuminating to the -student of human society for having a bodily orientation -and technique which at first sight obscures -its resemblance to similar, and it is supposed more -dignified, mechanisms in man.</p> - -<p>Specialization fitting the animal for social life -is obviously in certain directions restrictive; that is, -it denies him certain capacities and immunities which -the solitary animal possesses; equally obviously is it -in certain directions expansive and does it confer -qualities on the social which the solitary does not -possess. Among qualities of restrictive specialization -are inability to live satisfactorily apart from the herd -or some substitute for it, the liability to loneliness, -a dependence on leadership, custom, and tradition, a -<span class="xxpn" id="p110">{110}</span> -credulity towards the dogmas of the herd and an -unbelief towards external experience, a standard of -conduct no longer determined by personal needs -but influenced by a power outside the ego—a conscience, -in fact, and a sense of sin—a weakness of -personal initiative and a distrust of its promptings. -Expansive specialization, on the other hand, gives the -gregarious animal the sense of power and security -in the herd, the capacity to respond to the call of -the herd with a maximum output of energy and -endurance, a deep-seated mental satisfaction in unity -with the herd, and a solution in it of personal doubts -and fears.</p> - -<p>All these characters can be traced in an animal -such as the dog. The mere statement of them, -necessarily in mental terms, involves the liability -to a certain inexactitude if it is not recognized that -no hypothesis as to the consciousness of the dog is -assumed but that the description in mental terms is -given because of its convenient brevity. An -objective description of the actual conduct on which -such summarized statements are founded would be -impossibly voluminous.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">The -advantage the new unit obtains by aggressive -gregariousness is chiefly its immense accession -of strength as a hunting and fighting organism. -Protective gregariousness confers on the flock or -herd advantages perhaps less obvious but certainly -not less important. A very valuable gain is the -increased efficiency of vigilance which is possible. -Such efficiency depends on the available number -of actual watchers and the exquisite sensitiveness -of the herd and all its members to the signals of -such sentries. No one can have watched a herd -of sheep for long without being impressed with -the delicacy with which a supposed danger is -detected, transmitted throughout the herd, and met -<span class="xxpn" id="p111">{111}</span> -by an appropriate movement. Another advantage -enjoyed by the new unit is a practical solution of -the difficulties incident upon the emotion of fear. -Fear is essentially an enfeebling passion, yet in the -sheep and such animals it is necessarily developed -to a high degree in the interests of safety. The -danger of this specialization is neutralized by the -implication of so large a part of the individual’s -personality in the herd and outside of himself. -Alarm becomes a passion, as it were, of the herd -rather than of the individual, and the appropriate -response by the individual is to an impulse received -from the herd and not directly from the actual -object of alarm. It seems to be in this way that the -paralysing emotion of fear is held back from the -individual, while its effect can reach him only as the -active and formidable passion of panic. The -gregarious herbivora are in fact timid but not fearful -animals. All the various mechanisms in which the -social habit shows itself apparently have as their -general function a maximal sensitiveness to danger -of the herd as a whole, combined with maintaining -with as little interruption as possible an atmosphere -of calm within the herd, so that the individual -members can occupy themselves in the serious -business of grazing. It must be doubted whether -a truly herbivorous animal of a solitary habit could -ever flourish when we remember how incessant must -be his industry in feeding if he is to be properly -nourished, and how much such an occupation will -be interfered with by the constant alarms he must be -subject to if he is to escape the attacks of carnivorous -enemies. The evidence suggests that protective gregariousness -is a more elaborate manifestation of -the social habit than the aggressive form. It is -clear that the security of the higher herbivora, such -as the ox and especially the horse and their allies, is -considerable in relation to the carnivora. One may -<span class="xxpn" id="p112">{112}</span> -permissibly perhaps indulge the speculation that in -the absence of man the horse possibly might have -developed a greater complexity of organization than -it has actually been able to attain; that the facts -should seem to contain this hint is a curious -testimony to the wonderful constructive imagination -of Swift.</p> - -<p>Setting aside such guesses and confining ourselves -to the facts, we may say in summary that we find the -infrahuman mammalia to present two distinctly -separable strains of the social habit. Both are of -great value to the species in which they appear, and -both are associated with certain fundamentally -similar types of reactive capacity which give a -general resemblance of character to all gregarious -animals. Of the two forms the protective is perhaps -capable of absorbing more fully the personality of -the individual than is the aggressive, but both seem -to have reached the limit of their intensification at a -grade far lower than that which has been attained -in the insects.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">C<b>HARACTERS</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smmaj">THE</span> - <span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUS</b></span> - <span class="smcap">A<b>NIMAL</b></span> - <span class="smcap">D<b>ISPLAYED BY </b>M<b>AN.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>When we come to consider man we find ourselves -faced at once by some of the most interesting -problems in the biology of the social habit. It is -probably not necessary now to labour the proof of -the fact that man is a gregarious animal in literal -fact, that he is as essentially gregarious as the -bee and the ant, the sheep, the ox, and the horse. -The tissue of characteristically gregarious reactions -which his conduct presents furnishes incontestable -proof of this thesis, which is thus an indispensable -clue to an inquiry into the intricate problems of -human society.</p> - -<p>It is desirable perhaps to enumerate in a summary -<span class="xxpn" id="p113">{113}</span> -way the more obvious gregarious characters which -man displays.</p> - -<p>1. He is intolerant and fearful of solitude, physical -or mental. This intolerance is the cause of the -mental fixity and intellectual incuriousness which, -to a remarkable degree for an animal with so -capacious a brain, he constantly displays. As is -well known, the resistance to a new idea is always -primarily a matter of prejudice, the development -of intellectual objections, just or otherwise, being -a secondary process in spite of the common delusion -to the contrary. This intimate dependence on the -herd is traceable not merely in matters physical -and intellectual, but also betrays itself in the deepest -recesses of personality as a sense of incompleteness -which compels the individual to reach out towards -some larger existence than his own, some encompassing -being in whom his perplexities may find -a solution and his longings peace. Physical loneliness -and intellectual isolation are effectually solaced -by the nearness and agreement of the herd. The -deeper personal necessities cannot be met—at any -rate, in such society as has so far been evolved—by -so superficial a union; the capacity for intercommunication -is still too feebly developed to bring -the individual into complete and soul-satisfying -harmony with his fellows, to convey from one to -another</p> - -<div id="dp113"> -<p>Thoughts hardly to be packed</p> -<p>Into a narrow act,</p> -<p>Fancies that broke through language and escaped.</p> -</div> - -<p class="pcontinue">Religious -feeling is therefore a character inherent -in the very structure of the human mind, and is the -expression of a need which must be recognized -by the biologist as neither superficial nor transitory. -It must be admitted that some philosophers and -<span class="xxpn" id="p114">{114}</span> -men of science have at times denied to the religious -impulses of man their true dignity and importance. -Impelled perhaps by a desire to close the circle -of a materialistic conception of the universe, they -have tended to belittle the significance of such -phenomena as they were unable to reconcile with -their principles and bring within the iron circle of -their doctrine. To deal with religion in this way -has not only been an outrage upon true scientific -method, but has always led to a strong reaction in -general opinion against any radical inquiry by -science into the deeper problems of man’s nature -and status. A large and energetic reaction of this -kind prevails to-day. There can be little doubt -that it was precipitated, if not provoked, by attempts -to force a harsh and dogmatic materialism into the -status of a general philosophy. As long as such a -system is compelled to ignore, to depreciate, or -to deny the reality of such manifestly important -phenomena as the altruistic emotions, the religious -needs and feelings, the experiences of awe and -wonder and beauty, the illumination of the mystic, -the rapture of the prophet, the unconquerable endurance -of the martyr, so long must it fail in its -claims to universality. It is therefore necessary to -lay down with the strongest emphasis the proposition -that the religious needs and feelings of man -are a direct and necessary manifestation of the -inheritance of instinct with which he is born, and -therefore deserve consideration as respectful and -observation as minute as any other biological -phenomenon.</p> - -<p>2. He is more sensitive to the voice of the herd -than to any other influence. It can inhibit or -stimulate his thought and conduct. It is the source -of his moral codes, of the sanctions of his ethics and -philosophy. It can endow him with energy, courage, -and endurance, and can as easily take these away. -<span class="xxpn" id="p115">{115}</span> -It can make him acquiese in his own punishment -and embrace his executioner, submit to poverty, -bow to tyranny, and sink without complaint under -starvation. Not merely can it make him accept -hardship and suffering unresistingly, but it can make -him accept as truth the explanation that his perfectly -preventable afflictions are sublimely just and gentle. -It is in this acme of the power of herd suggestion -that is perhaps the most absolutely incontestable -proof of the profoundly gregarious nature of man. -That a creature of strong appetites and luxurious -desires should come to tolerate uncomplainingly his -empty belly, his chattering teeth, his naked limbs, -and his hard bed is miracle enough. What are we -to say of a force which, when he is told by the full-fed -and well-warmed that his state is the more -blessed can make him answer, “How beautiful! -How true!” In the face of so effectual a negation, -not merely of experience and common sense but also -of actual hunger and privation, it is not possible to -set any limits to the power of the herd over the -individual.</p> - -<p>3. He is subject to the passions of the pack in -his mob violence and the passions of the herd in -his panics. These activities are by no means limited -to the outbursts of actual crowds, but are to be -seen equally clearly in the hue and cry of newspapers -and public after some notorious criminal or -scapegoat, and in the success of scaremongering by -the same agencies.</p> - -<p>4. He is remarkably susceptible to leadership. -This quality in man may very naturally be thought -to have a basis essentially rational rather than instinctive -if its manifestations are not regarded with -a special effort to attain an objective attitude. How -thoroughly reasonable it appears that a body of men -seeking a common object should put themselves -under the guidance of some strong and expert -<span class="xxpn" id="p116">{116}</span> -personality who can point out the path most profitably -to be pursued, who can hearten his followers -and bring all their various powers into a harmonious -pursuit of the common object. The rational basis -of the relation is, however, seen to be at any rate -open to discussion when we consider the qualities -in a leader upon which his authority so often rests, -for there can be little doubt that their appeal is -more generally to instinct than to reason. In ordinary -politics it must be admitted that the gift of -public speaking is of more decisive value than anything -else. If a man is fluent, dextrous, and ready -on the platform, he possesses the one indispensable -requisite for statesmanship; if in addition he has -the gift of moving deeply the emotions of his hearers, -his capacity for guiding the infinite complexities -of national life becomes undeniable. Experience -has shown that no exceptional degree of any other -capacity is necessary to make a successful leader. -There need be no specially arduous training, no great -weight of knowledge either of affairs or the human -heart, no receptiveness to new ideas, no outlook -into reality. Indeed, the mere absence of such seems -to be an advantage; for originality is apt to appear -to the people as flightiness, scepticism as feebleness, -caution as doubt of the great political principles -that may happen at the moment to be immutable. -The successful shepherd thinks like his sheep, and -can lead his flock only if he keeps no more than the -shortest distance in advance. He must remain, in -fact, recognizable as one of the flock, magnified -no doubt, louder, coarser, above all with more urgent -wants and ways of expression than the common -sheep, but in essence to their feeling of the same -flesh with them. In the human herd the necessity -of the leader bearing unmistakable marks of identification -is equally essential. Variations from the -normal standard in intellectual matters are tolerated -<span class="xxpn" id="p117">{117}</span> -if they are not very conspicuous, for man has never -yet taken reason very seriously, and can still look -upon intellectuality as not more than a peccadillo -if it is not paraded conspicuously; variations from -the moral standard are, however, of a much greater -significance as marks of identification, and when -they become obvious, can at once change a great -and successful leader into a stranger and an outcast, -however little they may seem to be relevant -to the adequate execution of his public work. If -a leader’s marks of identity with the herd are of -the right kind, the more they are paraded the better. -We like to see photographs of him nursing his -little grand-daughter, we like to know that he plays -golf badly, and rides the bicycle like our common -selves, we enjoy hearing of “pretty incidents” in -which he has given the blind crossing-sweeper a -penny or begged a glass of water at a wayside -cottage—and there are excellent biological reasons -for our gratification.</p> - -<p>In times of war leadership is not less obviously -based on instinct, though naturally, since the herd -is exposed to a special series of stresses, manifestations -of it are also somewhat special. A people -at war feels the need of direction much more intensely -than a people at peace, and as always they -want some one who appeals to their instinctive feeling -of being directed, comparatively regardless of whether -he is able in fact to direct. This instinctive feeling -inclines them to the choice of a man who presents -at any rate the appearance and manners of authority -and power rather than to one who possesses the -substance of capacity but is denied the shadow. -They have their conventional pictures of the desired -type—the strong, silent, relentless, the bold, outspoken, -hard, and energetic—but at all costs he -must be a “man,” a “leader who can lead,” a -shepherd, in fact, who, by his gesticulations and -<span class="xxpn" id="p118">{118}</span> -his shouts, leaves his flock in no doubt as to his -presence and his activity. It is touching to remember -how often a people in pursuit of this ideal has obtained -and accepted in response to its prayers nothing -but melodramatic bombast, impatience, rashness, and -foolish, boasting truculence; and to remember how -often a great statesman in his country’s need has -had to contend not merely with her foreign enemies, -but with those at home whose vociferous malignity -has declared his magnanimous composure to be -sluggishness, his cautious scepticism to be feebleness, -and his unostentatious resolution to be stupidity.</p> - -<p>5. His relations with his fellows are dependent -upon the recognition of him as a member of the -herd. It is important to the success of a gregarious -species that individuals should be able to move -freely within the large unit while strangers are excluded. -Mechanisms to secure such personal recognition -are therefore a characteristic feature of the -social habit. The primitive olfactory greeting -common to so many of the lower animals was doubtless -rendered impossible for man by his comparative -loss of the sense of smell long before it ceased to -accord with his pretensions, yet in a thriving active -species the function of recognition was as necessary -as ever. Recognition by vision could be of -only limited value, and it seems probable that speech -very early became the accepted medium. Possibly -the necessity to distinguish friend from foe was -one of the conditions which favoured the development -of articulate speech. Be this as it may, speech -at the present time retains strong evidence of the -survival in it of the function of herd recognition. -As is usual with instinctive activities in man, the -actual state of affairs is concealed by a deposit -of rationalized explanation which is apt to discourage -merely superficial inquiry. The function of conversation -is, it is to be supposed, ordinarily regarded -<span class="xxpn" id="p119">{119}</span> -as being the exchange of ideas and information. -Doubtless it has come to have such a function, but -an objective examination of ordinary conversation -shows that the actual conveyance of ideas takes -a very small part in it. As a rule the exchange -seems to consist of ideas which are necessarily -common to the two speakers, and are known to -be so by each. The process, however, is none -the less satisfactory for this; indeed, it seems even -to derive its satisfactoriness therefrom. The interchange -of the conventional lead and return is -obviously very far from being tedious or meaningless -to the interlocutors. They can, however, have -derived nothing from it but the confirmation to one -another of their sympathy and of the class or classes -to which they belong.</p> - -<p>Conversations of greeting are naturally particularly -rich in the exchange of purely ceremonial -remarks, ostensibly based on some subject like the -weather, in which there must necessarily be an -absolute community of knowledge. It is possible, -however, for a long conversation to be made up -entirely of similar elements, and to contain no trace -of any conveyance of new ideas; such intercourse -is probably that which on the whole is most satisfactory -to the “normal” man and leaves him more -comfortably stimulated than would originality or -brilliance, or any other manifestation of the strange -and therefore of the disreputable.</p> - -<p>Conversation between persons unknown to one -another is also—when satisfactory—apt to be rich -in the ritual of recognition. When one hears or -takes part in these elaborate evolutions, gingerly -proffering one after another of one’s marks of -identity, one’s views on the weather, on fresh air -and draughts, on the Government and on uric acid, -watching intently for the first low hint of a growl, -which will show one belongs to the wrong pack -<span class="xxpn" id="p120">{120}</span> -and must withdraw, it is impossible not to be -reminded of the similar manœuvres of the dog, and -to be thankful that Nature has provided us with a -less direct, though perhaps a more tedious, code.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">It may appear that we have been dealing here -with a far-fetched and laboured analogy, and making -much of a comparison of trivialities merely for the -sake of compromising, if that could be done, human -pretensions to reason. To show that the marvel -of human communion began, perhaps, as a very -humble function, and yet retains traces of its origin, -is in no way to minimize the value or dignity of -the more fully developed power. The capacity for -free intercommunication between individuals of the -species has meant so much in the evolution of man, -and will certainly come in the future to mean so -incalculably more, that it cannot be regarded as -anything less than a master element in the shaping -of his destiny.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">S<b>OME</b></span> - <span class="smcap">P<b>ECULIARITIES</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smmaj">THE</span> - <span class="smcap">S<b>OCIAL</b></span> - <span class="smcap">H<b>ABIT</b></span> - <span class="smcap"><b>IN </b>M<b>AN.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>It is apparent after very little consideration that -the extent of man’s individual mental development -is a factor which has produced many novel characters -in his manifestations of the social habit, and -has even concealed to a great extent the profound -influence this instinct has in regulating his conduct, -his thought, and his society.</p> - -<p>Large mental capacity in the individual, as we -have already seen, has the effect of providing a -wide freedom of response to instinctive impulses, -so that, while the individual is no less impelled by -instinct than a more primitive type, the manifestations -of these impulses in his conduct are very -varied, and his conduct loses the appearance of a -<span class="xxpn" id="p121">{121}</span> -narrow concentration on its instinctive object. It -needs only to pursue this reasoning to a further stage -to reach the conclusion that mental capacity, -while in no way limiting the impulsive power of -instinct, may, by providing an infinite number of -channels into which the impulse is free to flow, -actually prevent the impulse from attaining the goal -of its normal object. In the ascetic the sex instinct -is defeated, in the martyr that of self-preservation, -not because these instincts have been abolished, -but because the activity of the mind has found new -channels for them to flow in. As might be expected, -the much more labile herd instinct has been still -more subject to this deflection and dissipation without -its potential impulsive strength being in any -way impaired. It is this process which has enabled -primitive psychology so largely to ignore the fact -that man still is, as much as ever, endowed with -a heritage of instinct and incessantly subject to -its influence. Man’s mental capacity, again, has -enabled him as a species to flourish enormously, and -thereby to increase to a prodigious extent the size -of the unit in which the individual is merged. -The nation, if the term be used to describe every -organization under a completely independent, -supreme government, must be regarded as the -smallest unit on which natural selection now unrestrictedly -acts. Between such units there is free -competition, and the ultimate regulator of these -relations is physical force. This statement needs -the qualification that the delimitation between two -given units may be much sharper than that between -two others, so that in the first case the resort to -force is likely to occur readily, while in the second -case it will be brought about only by the very -ultimate necessity. The tendency to the enlargement -of the social unit has been going on with certain -temporary relapses throughout human history. -<span class="xxpn" id="p122">{122}</span> -Though repeatedly checked by the instability of -the larger units, it has always resumed its activity, -so that it should probably be regarded as a fundamental -biological drift the existence of which is a -factor which must always be taken into account in -dealing with the structure of human society.</p> - -<p>The gregarious mind shows certain characteristics -which throw some light on this phenomenon of the -progressively enlarging unit. The gregarious animal -is different from the solitary in the capacity to -become conscious in a special way of the existence -of other creatures. This specific consciousness of -his fellows carries with it a characteristic element -of communion with them. The individual knows -another individual of the same herd as a partaker -in an entity of which he himself is a part, so that -the second individual is in some way and to a certain -extent identical with himself and part of his own -personality. He is able to feel with the other and -share his pleasures and sufferings as if they were -an attenuated form of his own personal experiences. -The degree to which this assimilation of the interests -of another person is carried depends, in a general -way, on the extent of the intercommunication between -the two. In human society a man’s interest -in his fellows is distributed about him concentrically -according to a compound of various relations they -bear to him which we may call in a broad way their -nearness. The centrifugal fading of interest is seen -when we compare the man’s feeling towards one -near to him with his feeling towards one farther off. -He will be disposed, other things being equal, to -sympathize with a relative as against a fellow-townsman, -with a fellow-townsman as against a mere -inhabitant of the same county, with the latter as -against the rest of the country, with an Englishman -as against a European, with a European as against -an Asiatic, and so on until a limit is reached beyond -<span class="xxpn" id="p123">{123}</span> -which all human interest is lost. The distribution -of interest is of course never purely geographical, -but is modified by, for example, trade and professional -sympathy, and by special cases of intercommunication -which bring topographically distant -individuals into a closer grade of feeling than their -mere situation would demand. The essential principle, -however, is that the degree of sympathy with -a given individual varies directly with the amount -of intercommunication with him. The capacity to -assimilate the interests of another individual with -one’s own, to allow him, as it were, to partake in -one’s own personality, is what is called altruism, and -might equally well perhaps be called expansive -egoism. It is a characteristic of the gregarious -animal, and is a perfectly normal and necessary -development in him of his instinctive inheritance.</p> - -<p>Altruism is a quality the understanding of which -has been much obscured by its being regarded from -the purely human point of view. Judged from this -standpoint, it has been apt to appear as a breach -in the supposedly “immutable” laws of “Nature -red in tooth and claw,” as a virtue breathed into -man from some extra-human source, or as a weakness -which must be stamped out of any race which -is to be strong, expanding, and masterful. To the -biologist these views are equally false, superfluous, -and romantic. He is aware that altruism occurs only -in a medium specifically protected from the unqualified -influence of natural selection, that it is the -direct outcome of instinct, and that it is a source of -strength because it is a source of union.</p> - -<p>In recent times, freedom of travel, and the -development of the resources rendered available by -education, have increased the general mass of intercommunication -to an enormous extent. Side by -side with this, altruism has come more and more into -recognition as a supreme moral law. There is -<span class="xxpn" id="p124">{124}</span> -already a strong tendency to accept selfishness as -a test of sin, and consideration for others as a -test of virtue, and this has influenced even those who -by public profession are compelled to maintain that -right and wrong are to be defined only in terms of -an arbitrary extra-natural code.</p> - -<p>Throughout the incalculable ages of man’s existence -as a social animal, Nature has been hinting -to him in less and less ambiguous terms that altruism -must become the ultimate sanction of his moral -code. Her whispers have never gained more than -grudging and reluctant notice from the common -man, and from those intensified forms of the -common man, his pastors and masters. Only to the -alert senses of moral genius has the message been -at all intelligible, and when it has been interpreted -to the people it has always been received with -obloquy and derision, with persecution and martyrdom. -Thus, as so often happens in human society, -has one manifestation of herd instinct been met -and opposed by another.</p> - -<p>As intercommunication tends constantly to widen -the field of action of altruism, a point is reached -when the individual becomes capable of some kind -of sympathy, however attenuated, with beings outside -the limits of the biological unit within which -the primitive function of altruism lies. This extension -is perhaps possible only in man. In a creature -like the bee the rigidly limited mental capacity of -the individual and the closely organized society of -the hive combine to make the boundary of the hive -correspond closely with the uttermost limit of the -field over which altruism is active. The bee, capable -of great sympathy and understanding in regard to -her fellow-members of the hive, is utterly callous -and without understanding in regard to any creature -of external origin and existence. Man, however, -with his infinitely greater capacity for assimilating -<span class="xxpn" id="p125">{125}</span> -experience, has not been able to maintain the rigid -limitation of sympathy to the unit, the boundaries -of which tend to acquire a certain indefiniteness -not seen in any of the lower gregarious -types.</p> - -<p>Hence tends to appear a sense of international -justice, a vague feeling of being responsibly concerned -in all human affairs and by a natural consequence -the ideas and impulses denoted under the -term “pacifism.”</p> - -<p>One of the most natural and obvious consequences -of war is a hardening of the boundaries of the -social unit and a retraction of the vague feelings -towards international sympathy which are a characteristic -product of peace and intercommunication. -Thus it comes about that pacifism and internationalism -are in great disgrace at the present -time; they are regarded as the vapourings of cranky -windbags who have inevitably been punctured at -the first touch of the sword; they are, our political -philosophers tell us, but products of the miasm -of sentimental fallacy which tends to be bred in the -relaxing atmosphere of peace. Perhaps no general -expressions have been more common since the -beginning of the war, in the mouths of those who -have undertaken our instruction in the meaning of -events, than the propositions that pacifism is now -finally exploded and shown always to have been -nonsense, that war is and always will be an inevitable -necessity in human affairs as man is what is called -a fighting animal, and that not only is the abolition -of war an impossibility, but should the abolition -of it unhappily prove to be possible after all and -be accomplished, the result could only be degeneration -and disaster.</p> - -<p>Biological considerations would seem to suggest -that these generalizations contain a large element -of inexactitude. The doctrine of pacifism is -<span class="xxpn" id="p126">{126}</span> -a perfectly natural development, and ultimately -inevitable in an animal having an unlimited appetite -for experience and an indestructible inheritance of -social instinct. Like all moral discoveries made -in the haphazard, one-sided way which the lack of -co-ordination in human society forces upon its moral -pioneers, it has necessarily an appearance of crankiness, -of sentimentality, of an inaptitude for the grasp -of reality. This is normal and does not in the least -affect the value of the truth it contains. Legal -and religious torture were doubtless first attacked -by cranks; slavery was abolished by them. Advocacy -by such types does not therefore constitute -an argument of any weight against their doctrines, -which can adequately be judged only by some purely -objective standard. Judged by such a standard, -pacifism, as we have seen, appears to be a natural -development, and is directed towards a goal which -unless man’s nature undergoes a radical change will -probably be attained. That its attainment has so -far been foreseen only by a class of men possessing -more than the usual impracticability of the -minor prophet is hardly to be considered a relevant -fact.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">It is impossible to leave this subject without some -comment on the famous doctrine that war is a -biological necessity. Even if one knew nothing -of those who have enunciated this proposition, its -character would enable one to suspect it of being -the utterance of a soldier rather than a biologist. -There is about it a confidence that the vital effects -of war are simple and easy to define and a cheerful -contempt for the considerable biological difficulties -of the subject that remind one of the bracing military -atmosphere, in which a word of command is the -supreme fact, rather than that of the laboratory, -<span class="xxpn" id="p127">{127}</span> -where facts are the masters of all. It may be -supposed that even in the country of its birth the -doctrine seemed more transcendently true in times -of peace amid a proud and brilliant regime -than it does now after more than twelve months of -war. The whole conception is of a type to arouse -interest in its psychological origin rather than in a -serious discussion of its merits. It arose in a -military State abounding in prosperity and progress -of very recent growth, and based upon three short -wars which had come closely one after another and -formed an ascending series of brilliant success. In -such circumstances even grosser assumptions might -very well flourish and some such doctrine was a -perfectly natural product. The situation of the -warrior-biologist was in some way that of the -orthodox expounder of ethics or political economy—his -conclusions were ready-made for him; all he -had to do was to find the “reasons” for them. -War and war only had produced the best and -greatest and strongest State—indeed, the only State -worthy of the name; therefore war is the great -creative and sustaining force of States, or the -universe is a mere meaningless jumble of accidents. -If only wars would always conform to the original -Prussian pattern, as they did in the golden age -from 1864 to 1870—the unready adversary, the -few pleasantly strenuous weeks or months, the -thumping indemnity! That is the sort of biological -necessity one can understand. But twelve -months of agonizing, indecisive effort in Poland and -Russia and France, might have made the syllogism -a little less perfect, the new law of Nature not quite -so absolute.</p> - -<p>These matters, however, are quite apart from the -practical question whether war is a necessity to maintain -the efficiency and energy of nations and to -prevent them sinking into sloth and degeneracy. The -<span class="xxpn" id="p128">{128}</span> -problem may be stated in another form. When we -take a comprehensive survey of the natural history -of man—using that term to include the whole of his -capacities, activities, and needs, physical, intellectual, -moral—do we find that war is the indispensable -instrument whereby his survival and progress as -a species are maintained? We are assuming in this -statement that progress or increased elaboration is -to continue to be a necessary tendency in his course -by which his fate, through the action of inherited -needs, powers, and weaknesses, and of external -pressure is irrevocably conditioned. The assumption, -though commonly made, is by no means -obviously true. Some of the evidence justifying -it will be dealt with later; it will not be necessary -here to do more than note that we are for the -moment treating the doctrine of human progress -as a postulate.</p> - -<p>Man is unique among gregarious animals in the -size of the major unit upon which natural selection -and its supposedly chief instrument, war, is open to -act unchecked. There is no other animal in -which the size of the unit, however laxly held -together, has reached anything even remotely -approaching the inclusion of one-fifth or one-quarter -of the whole species. It is plain that a -mortal contest between two units of such a monstrous -size introduces an altogether new mechanism into -the hypothetical “struggle for existence” on which -the conception of the biological necessity of war -is founded. It is clear that that doctrine, if it is -to claim validity, must contemplate at any rate the -possibility of a war of extremity, even of something -like extermination, which shall implicate perhaps a -third of the whole human race. There is no parallel -in biology for progress being accomplished as the -result of a racial impoverishment so extreme, -even if it were accompanied by a closely specific -<span class="xxpn" id="p129">{129}</span> -selection instead of a mere indiscriminate destruction. -Progress is undoubtedly dependent mainly -on the material that is available for selection being -rich and varied. Any great reduction in the amount -and variety of what is to be regarded as the raw -material of elaboration necessarily must have as -an infallible effect, the arrest of progress. It may be -objected, however, that anything approaching extermination -could obviously not be possible in a war -between such immense units as those of modern man. -Nevertheless, the object of each of the two adversaries -would be to impose its will on the other, and to -destroy in it all that was especially individual, all -the types of activity and capacity which were the -most characteristic in its civilization and therefore -the cause of hostility. The effect of success in such -an endeavour would be an enormous impoverishment -of the variety of the race and a corresponding effect -on progress.</p> - -<p>To this line of speculation it may perhaps further -be objected that the question is not of the necessity -of war to the race as a whole, but to the individual -nation or major unit. The argument has been used -that when a nation is obviously the repository of -all the highest gifts and tendencies of civilization, -the race must in the end benefit, if this nation, by -force if necessary, imposes its will and its principles -on as much of the world as it can. To the biologist -the weakness of this proposition—apart from the -plain impossibility of a nation attaining an objective -estimate of the value of its own civilization—is that -it embodies a course of action which tends to the -spread of uniformity and to limit that variety of -material which is the fundamental quality essential -for progress. In certain cases of very gross discrepancy -between the value of two civilizations, it -is quite possible that the destruction of the simpler -by the more elaborate does not result in any great -<span class="xxpn" id="p130">{130}</span> -loss to the race through the suppression of valuable -varieties. Even this admission is, however, -open to debate, and it may well be doubted whether -in some ways the wholesale extermination of “inferior” -races has not denied to the species the -perpetuation of lines of variation which might have -been of great value.</p> - -<p>It seems remarkable that among gregarious -animals other than man direct conflict between major -units such as can lead to the suppression of the less -powerful is an inconspicuous phenomenon. They -are, it may be supposed, too busily engaged in maintaining -themselves against external enemies to have -any opportunities for fighting within the species. -Man’s complete conquest of the grosser enemies of -his race has allowed him leisure for turning his -restless pugnacity—a quality no longer fully occupied -upon his non-human environment—against his -own species. When the major units of humanity -were small the results of such conflict were not -perhaps very serious to the race as a whole, except -in prolonging the twilight stages of civilization. It -can scarcely be questioned that the organization -of a people for war tends to encourage unduly a -type of individual who is abnormally insensitive to -doubt, to curiosity, and to the development of original -thought. With the enlargement of the unit and the -accompanying increase in knowledge and resources, -war becomes much more seriously expensive to the -race. In the present war the immense size of the -units engaged and their comparative equality in -power have furnished a complete <i>reductio ad absurdum</i> -of the proposition that war in itself is -a good thing even for the individual nation. It -would seem, then, that in the original proposition -the word “war” must be qualified to mean a war -against a smaller and notably weaker adversary. -The German Empire was founded on such wars. -<span class="xxpn" id="p131">{131}</span> -The conception of the biological necessity of war -may fairly be expected to demonstrate its validity -in the fate of that Empire if such a demonstration -is ever to be possible. Every condition for a crucial -experiment was present: a brilliant inauguration in -the very atmosphere of military triumph, a conscious -realization of the value of the martial spirit, a determination -to keep the warrior ideal conspicuously -foremost with a people singularly able and willing -to accept it. If this is the way in which an ultimate -world-power is to be founded and maintained, -no single necessary factor is lacking. And yet -after a few years, in what should be the very first -youth of an Empire, we find it engaged against -a combination of Powers of fabulous strength, which, -by a miracle of diplomacy no one else could have -accomplished, it has united against itself. It is -an irrelevance to assert that this combination is the -result of malice, envy, treachery, barbarism; such -terms are by hypothesis not admissible. If the -system of Empire-building is not proof against those -very elementary enemies, any further examination -of it is of course purely academic. To withstand -those is just what the Empire is there for; if it -falls a victim to them, it fails in its first and simplest -function and displays a radical defect in its structure. -To the objectivist practice is the only test in human -affairs, and he will not allow his attention to be -distracted from what did happen by the most perfectly -logical demonstration of what ought to have -happened. It is the business of an Empire not to -encounter overwhelming enemies. Declaring itself -to be the most perfect example of its kind and -the foreordained heir of the world will remain no -more than a pleasant—and dangerous—indulgence, -and will not prevent it showing by its fate that -the fruits of perfection and the promise of permanence -are not demonstrated in the wholesale -<span class="xxpn" id="p132">{132}</span> -manufacture of enemies and in the combination of -them into an alliance of unparalleled strength.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">The doctrine of the biological necessity of war -may, then, be regarded as open to strong suspicion -on theoretical grounds of being contrary to the -evolutionary tendency already plainly marked out -for the human species. The fact that the nation -in which its truth was most generally accepted has -been led—and undoubtedly to some extent by it—into -a war which can scarcely fail to prove disastrous -suggests that in the practical field it is -equally fallacious. It may well, therefore, be -removed to the lumber-room of speculation and -stored among the other pseudo-scientific dogmas -of political “biologists”—the facile doctrines of -degeneracy, the pragmatic lecturings on national -characteristics, on Teutons and Celts, on Latins and -Slavs, on pure races and mixed races, and all the -other ethnological conceits with which the ignorant -have gulled the innocent so long.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">I<b>MPERFECTIONS</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smmaj">THE</span> - <span class="smcap">S<b>OCIAL</b></span> - <span class="smcap">H<b>ABIT</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">IN</span> - <span class="smcap">M<b>AN.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>The study of man as a gregarious animal has -not been pursued with the thoroughness and objectivity -it deserves and must receive if it is to yield -its full value in illuminating his status and in the -management of society. The explanation of this -comparative neglect is to be found in the complex -irregularity which obscures the social habit as manifested -by man. Thus it comes to be believed that -gregariousness is no longer a fully functional and -indispensable inheritance, but survives at the present -day merely in a vestigial form as an interesting -but quite unimportant relic of primitive activities. -We have already shown that man is ruled by instinctive -impulses just as imperative and just as -<span class="xxpn" id="p133">{133}</span> -characteristically social as those of any other gregarious -animal. A further argument that he is -to-day as actively and essentially a social animal -as ever is furnished by the fact that he suffers -from the disadvantages of such an animal to a -more marked degree perhaps than any other. In -physical matters he owes to his gregariousness and -its uncontrolled tendency to the formation of crowded -communities with enclosed dwellings, the seriousness -of many of his worst diseases, such as tuberculosis, -typhus, and plague; there is no evidence -that these diseases effect anything but an absolutely -indiscriminate destruction, killing the strong and -the weakly, the socially useful and the socially useless, -with equal readiness, so that they cannot be -regarded as even of the least selective value to -man. The only other animal which is well known -to suffer seriously from disease as a direct consequence -of its social habit is the honey bee—as -has been demonstrated by recent epidemics of -exterminating severity.</p> - -<p>In mental affairs, as I have tried to show, man -owes to the social habit his inveterate resistiveness -to new ideas, his submission to tradition and precedent, -and the very serious fact that governing -power in his communities tends to pass into the hands -of what I have called the stable-minded—a class -the members of which are characteristically insensitive -to experience, closed to the entry of new -ideas, and obsessed with the satisfactoriness of things -as they are. At the time when this corollary of -gregariousness was first pointed out—some ten years -ago—it was noted as a serious flaw in the stability -of civilization. The suggestion was made that as -long as the great expert tasks of government necessarily -gravitated into the hands of a class which -characteristically lacked the greater developments of -mental capacity and efficiency, the course of -<span class="xxpn" id="p134">{134}</span> -civilization must continue to be at the mercy of accident -and disaster. The present European war—doubtless -in the actual state of affairs a remedy no less -necessary because of its dreadfulness—is an example -on the greatest possible scale of the kind of price -the race has to pay for the way in which minds -and temperaments are selected by its society.</p> - -<p>When we see the great and serious drawbacks -which gregariousness has entailed on man, it cannot -but be supposed that that course of evolution has -been imposed upon him by a real and deep-seated -peculiarity of his nature—a fatal inheritance which -it is impossible for him to repudiate.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">When -we inquire why it is that the manifestations -of gregariousness in man are so ambiguous -that their biological significance has been to a great -extent overlooked, the answer seems to be furnished -by that capacity for various reaction which is the -result of his general mental development, and which -has tended almost equally to obscure his other instinctive -activities. It may be repeated once more -that in a creature such as the bee the narrow mental -capacity of the individual limits reaction to a few -and relatively simple courses, so that the dominance -of instinct in the species can to the attentive observer -never be long in doubt. In man the equal dominance -of instinct is obscured by the kaleidoscopic -variety of the reactions by which it is more or -less effectually satisfied.</p> - -<p>While to a superficial examination of society the -evidences of man’s gregarious inheritance are -ambiguous and trivial, to the closer scrutiny of the -biologist it soon becomes obvious that in society -as constituted to-day the advantageous mechanisms -rendered available by that inheritance are not being -made use of to anything approaching their full -possibilities. To such an extent is this the case -<span class="xxpn" id="p135">{135}</span> -that the situation of man as a species even is probably -a good deal more precarious than has usually -been supposed by those who have come to be in charge -of its destinies. The species is irrevocably committed -to a certain evolutionary path by the inheritance -of instinct it possesses. This course brings with -it inevitable and serious disadvantages as well as -enormously greater potential advantages. As long -as the spirit of the race is content to be submissive -to the former and indifferent to the discovery and -development of the latter, it can scarcely have a -bare certainty of survival and much less of progressive -enlargement of its powers.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">In the society of the bee two leading characteristics -are evident—an elaborate and exact specialization -of the individual, and a perfect absorption -of the interests of the individual in those of the hive; -these qualities seem to be the source of the unique -energy and power of the whole unit and of the -remarkable superiority of intelligence it possesses -over the individual member. It is a commonplace -of human affairs that combined action is almost -invariably less intelligent than individual action, a -fact which shows how very little the members of -the species are yet capable of combination and -co-ordination and how far inferior—on account, no -doubt, of his greater mental capacity—man is in this -respect to the bee.</p> - -<p>This combination of specialization and moral -homogeneity should be evident in human society -if it is taking advantage of its biological resources. -Both are, in fact, rather conspicuously absent.</p> - -<p>There is abundant specialization of a sort; but -it is inexact, lax, wasteful of energy, and often quite -useless through being on the one hand superfluous -or on the other incomplete. We have large -numbers of experts in the various branches of science -<span class="xxpn" id="p136">{136}</span> -and the arts, but we insist upon their adding to -the practice of their specialisms the difficult task -of earning their living in an open competitive -market. The result is that we tend to get at the -summit of our professions only those rare geniuses -who combine real specialist capacity with the arts -of the bagman. An enormous proportion of our -experts have to earn their living by teaching—an -exhausting and exacting art for which they are not -at all necessarily qualified, and one which demands -a great amount of time for the earning of a very -exiguous pittance.</p> - -<p>The teaching of our best schools, a task so -important that it should be entrusted to none but -those highly qualified by nature and instruction in -the art, is almost entirely in the hands of athletes and -grammarians of dead languages. We choose as -our governors amateurs of whom we demand fluency, -invincible prejudice, and a resolute blindness to dissentient -opinion. In commerce we allow ourselves -to be overrun by a multitude of small and mostly -inefficient traders struggling to make a living by -the supply of goods from the narrow and ageing -stocks which are all they can afford to keep. We -allow the supply of our foodstuffs to be largely -in the hands of those who cannot afford to be clean, -and submit out of mere indifference to being fed -on meat, bread, vegetables which have been for an -indefinite period at the mercy of dirty middlemen, -the dust and mud and flies of the street, and the -light-hearted thumbing errand-boy. We allow a -large proportion of our skilled workers to waste -skill and energy on the manufacture of things which -are neither useful nor beautiful, on elaborate -specialist valeting, cooking, gardening for those -who are their inferiors in social activity and -value.</p> - -<p>The moral homogeneity so plainly visible in the -<span class="xxpn" id="p137">{137}</span> -society of the bee is replaced in man by a segregation -into classes which tends always to obscure -the unity of the nation and often is directly -antagonistic to it. The readiness with which such -segregation occurs seems to be due to the invincible -strength of the gregarious impulse in the individual -man and to the immense size and strength of the -modern major unit of the species. It would appear -that in order that a given unit should develop the -highest degree of homogeneity within itself it must -be subject to direct pressure from without. A great -abundance of food supply and consequent relaxed -external pressure may in the bee lead to indiscriminate -swarming, while in man the size and -security of the modern State lead to a relaxation -of the closer grades of national unity—in the absence -of deliberate encouragement of it or of the stimulus -of war. The need of the individual for homogeneity -is none the less present, and the result is -segregation into classes which form, as it were, minor -herds in which homogeneity is maintained by the -external pressure of competition, of political or -religious differences and so forth. Naturally enough -such segregations have come to correspond in a -rough way with the various types of imperfect -specialization which exist. This tendency is clearly -of unfavourable effect on national unity, since it -tends to obscure the national value of specialization -and to give it a merely local and class significance. -Segregation in itself is always dangerous in that it -provides the individual with a substitute for the -true major unit—the nation—and in times when there -is an urgent need for national homogeneity may -prove to be a hostile force.</p> - -<p>It has been characteristic of the governing classes -to acquiesce in the fullest developments of segregation -and even to defend them by force and to -fail to realize in times of emergency that national -<span class="xxpn" id="p138">{138}</span> -homogeneity must always be a partial and weakly -passion as long as segregation actively persists.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">Class segregation has thus come to be regarded -as a necessary and inevitable part of the structure -of society. Telling as it does much more in the -favour of certain classes than others, it has come to -be defended by a whole series of legal and moral -principles invented for the purpose, and by arguments -that to objective examination are no more -than rationalized prejudice. The maintenance of -the social system—that is, of the segregation of -power and prestige, of ease and leisure, and the -corresponding segregations of labour, privation, and -poverty—depends upon an enormously elaborate -system of rationalization, tradition, and morals, and -upon almost innumerable indirect mechanisms -ranging from the drugging of society with alcohol -to the distortion of religious principle in the interests -of the established order. To the biologist the whole -immensely intricate system is a means for combating -the slow, almost imperceptible, pressure of Nature -in the direction of a true national homogeneity. -That this must be attained if human progress is to -continue is, and has long been, obvious. The further -fact that it can be attained only by a radical change -in the whole human attitude towards society is but -barely emerging from obscurity.</p> - -<p>The fact that even the immense external stimulus -of a great war now fails to overcome the embattled -forces of social segregation, and can bring about -only a very partial kind of national homogeneity in -a society where segregation is deeply ingrained, -seems to show that simple gregariousness has run its -course in man and has been defeated of its full -maturity by the disruptive power of man’s capacity -for varied reaction. No state of equilibrium can be -reached in a gregarious society short of complete -<span class="xxpn" id="p139">{139}</span> -homogeneity, so that, failing the emergence of some -new resource of Nature, it might be suspected that -man, as a species, has already begun to decline from -his meridian. Such a new principle is the conscious -direction of society by man, the refusal by him to -submit indefinitely to the dissipation of his energies -and the disappointment of his ideals in inco-ordination -and confusion. Thus would appear a function -for that individual mental capacity of man which -has so far, when limited to local and personal ends, -tended but to increase the social confusion.</p> - -<p>A step of evolution such as this would have consequences -as momentous as the first appearance of -the multicellular or of the gregarious animal. Man, -conscious as a species of his true status and destiny, -realizing the direction of the path to which he is -irrevocably committed by Nature, with a moral code -based on the unshakable natural foundation of -altruism, could begin to draw on those stores of -power which will be opened to him by a true combination, -and the rendering available in co-ordinated -action of the maximal energy of each individual.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUS</b></span> - <span class="smcap">S<b>PECIES</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">AT</span> - <span class="smcap">W<b>AR.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>The occurrence of war between nations renders -obvious certain manifestations of the social instinct -which are apt to escape notice at other times. So -marked is this that a certain faint interest in the -biology of gregariousness has been aroused during -the present war, and has led to some speculation -but no very radical examination of the facts or -explanation of their meaning. Expression, of course, -has been found for the usual view that primitive -instincts normally vestigial or dormant are aroused -into activity by the stress of war, and that there is -a process of rejuvenation of “lower” instincts at -the expense of “higher.” All such views, apart -<span class="xxpn" id="p140">{140}</span> -from their theoretical unsoundness, are uninteresting -because they are of no practical value.</p> - -<p>It will be convenient to mention some of the more -obvious psychological phenomena of a state of war -before dealing with the underlying instinctive processes -which produce them.</p> - -<p>The war that began in August 1914 was of a kind -peculiarly suitable to produce the most marked and -typical psychological effects. It had long been foreseen -as no more than a mere possibility of immense -disaster—of disaster so outrageous that by that very -fact it had come to be regarded with a passionate -incredulity. It had loomed before the people, at -any rate of England, as an event almost equivalent -to the ultimate overthrow of all things. It had been -led up to by years of doubt and anxiety, sometimes -rising to apprehension, sometimes lapsing into unbelief, -and culminating in an agonized period of -suspense, while the avalanche tottered and muttered -on its base before the final and still incredible -catastrophe. Such were the circumstances which -no doubt led to the actual outbreak producing a -remarkable series of typical psychological reactions.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">The first -feeling of the ordinary citizen was fear—an -immense, vague, aching anxiety, perhaps typically -vague and unfocused, but naturally tending soon to -localize itself in channels customary to the individual -and leading to fears for his future, his food supply, -his family, his trade, and so forth. Side by side -with fear there was a heightening of the normal -intolerance of isolation. Loneliness became an -urgently unpleasant feeling, and the individual -experienced an intense and active desire for the -company and even physical contact of his fellows. -In such company he was aware of a great accession -of confidence, courage, and moral power. It was -possible for an observant person to trace the actual -<span class="xxpn" id="p141">{141}</span> -influence of his circumstances upon his judgment, -and to notice that isolation tended to depress his -confidence while company fortified it. The necessity -for companionship was strong enough to break down -the distinctions of class, and dissipate the reserve -between strangers which is to some extent a -concomitant mechanism. The change in the customary -frigid atmosphere of the railway train, the -omnibus, and all such meeting-places was a most -interesting experience to the psychologist, and he -could scarcely fail to be struck by its obvious -biological meaning. Perhaps the most striking of -all these early phenomena was the strength and -vitality of rumour, probably because it afforded by -far the most startling evidence that some other and -stronger force than reason was at work in the formation -of opinion. It was, of course, in no sense an -unusual fact that non-rational opinion should be so -widespread; the new feature was that such opinion -should be able to spread so rapidly and become established -so firmly altogether regardless of the limits -within which a given opinion tends to remain localized -in times of peace. Non-rational opinion under -normal conditions is as a rule limited in its extent -by a very strict kind of segregation; the successful -rumours of the early periods of the war invaded -all classes and showed a capacity to overcome -prejudice, education, or scepticism. The observer, -clearly conscious as he might be of the mechanisms -at work, found himself irresistibly drawn to the -acceptance of the more popular beliefs; and even -the most convinced believer in the normal prevalence -of non-rational belief could scarcely have exaggerated -the actual state of affairs. Closely allied -with this accessibility to rumour was the readiness -with which suspicions of treachery and active -hostility grew and flourished about any one of even -foreign appearance or origin. It is not intended to -<span class="xxpn" id="p142">{142}</span> -attempt to discuss the origin and meaning of the -various types of fable which have been epidemic -in opinion; the fact we are concerned with here -is their immense vitality and power of growth.</p> - -<p>We may now turn to some consideration of the -psychological significance of these phenomena of -a state of war.</p> - -<p>The characteristic feature of a really dangerous -national struggle for existence is the intensity of the -stimulus it applies to the social instinct. It is -not that it arouses “dormant” or decayed instincts, -but simply that it applies maximal stimulation to -instinctive mechanisms which are more or less -constantly in action in normal times. In most of -his reactions as a gregarious animal in times of -peace, man is acting as a member of one or another -class upon which the stimulus acts. War acts upon -him as a member of the greater herd, the nation, -or, in other words, the true major unit. As I have -repeatedly pointed out, the cardinal mental characteristic -of the gregarious animal is his sensitiveness -to his fellow-members of the herd. Without them -his personality is, so to say, incomplete; only in relation -to them can he attain satisfaction and personal -stability. Corresponding with his dependence on -them is his openness towards them, his specific -accessibility to stimuli coming from the herd.</p> - -<p>A threat directed towards the whole herd is the -intensest stimulus to these potentialities, and the -individual reacts towards it in the most vigorous -way.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc15" href="#fn15">15</a> The first response is a thrill of alarm which -<span class="xxpn" id="p143">{143}</span> -passes through the herd from one member to another -with magic rapidity. It puts him on the alert, sets -him looking for guidance, prepares him to receive -commands, but above all draws him to the herd in -the first instinctive concentration against the enemy. -In the presence of this stimulus even such partial -and temporary isolation as was possible without it -becomes intolerable. The physical presence of the -herd, the actual contact and recognition of its -members, becomes indispensable. This is no mere -functionless desire, for re-embodiment in the herd -at once fortifies courage and fills the individual -with moral power, enthusiasm, and fortitude. The -meaning that mere physical contact with his fellows -still has for man is conclusively shown in the -use that has been made of attacks in close formation -in the German armies. It is perfectly clear -that a densely crowded formation has psychological -advantages in the face of danger, which enable -quite ordinary beings to perform what are in fact -prodigies of valour. Even undisciplined civil mobs -have, on occasion, proved wonderfully valorous, -though their absence of unity often causes their -enterprise to alternate with panic. A disciplined -mob—if one may use that word merely as a physical -expression, without any derogatory meaning—has -been shown in this war on innumerable occasions to -be capable of facing dangers the facing of which by -isolated individuals would be feats of fabulous -bravery. <span class="xxpn" id="p144">{144}</span></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn15" href="#afnanc15">15</a> -War in itself is by no means necessarily a maximal -stimulus to herd instinct if it does not involve a definite threat to -the whole herd. This fact is well shown in the course of the South -African War of 1899–1901. This war was not and was not regarded as -capable of becoming a direct threat to the life of the nation. There -was consequently no marked moral concentration of the people, no -massive energizing of the Government by a homogeneous nation, and -therefore -the conduct of the war was in general languid, timid, and pessimistic. -The morale of the people was as a whole bad; there was an -exaggerated hunger for good news, and an excessive satisfaction in -it; an exaggerated pessimism was excited by bad news, and public -fortitude was shaken by casualties which we should now regard as -insignificant. Correspondingly the activity and vitality of rumour -were enormously less than they have been in the present war. The -weaker stimulus is betrayed throughout the whole series of events by -the weakness of all the characteristic gregarious responses.</p></div> - -<p>The psychological significance of the enormous -activity of rumour in this war is fairly plain. That -rumours spread readily and are tenacious of -life is evidence of the sensitiveness to herd -opinion which is so characteristic of the social -instinct. The gravity of a threat to the herd is -shown by nothing better than by the activity of -rumour. The strong stimulus to herd instinct -produces the characteristic response in the individual -of a maximal sensitiveness to his fellows—to their -presence or absence, their alarms and braveries, -and in no less degree to their opinions. With -the establishment of this state of mind the spread -and survival of rumours become inevitable, and will -vary directly with the seriousness of the external -danger. Into the actual genesis of the individual -rumours and the meaning of their tendency to take -a stereotyped form we cannot enter here.</p> - -<p>The potency of rumour in bearing down rational -scepticism displays unmistakably the importance of -the instinctive processes on which it rests. It is -also one of the many evidences that homogeneity -within the herd is a deeply rooted necessity for -gregarious animals and is elaborately provided for -by characteristics of the gregarious mind.</p> - -<p>The establishment of homogeneity in the herd is -the basis of morale. From homogeneity proceed -moral power, enthusiasm, courage, endurance, enterprise, -and all the virtues of the warrior. The peace -of mind, happiness, and energy of the soldier come -from his feeling himself to be a member in a body -solidly united for a single purpose. The impulse -towards unity that was so pronounced and universal -at the beginning of the war was, then, a true and -sound instinctive movement of defence. It was -prepared to sacrifice all social distinctions and local -prejudices if it could liberate by doing so Nature’s -inexhaustible stores of moral power for the defence -<span class="xxpn" id="p145">{145}</span> -of the herd. Naturally enough its significance was -misunderstood, and a great deal of its beneficent -magic was wasted by the good intentions which -man is so touchingly ready to accept as a substitute -for knowledge. Even the functional value of unity -was, and still is, for the most part ignored. We -are told to weariness that the great objection to -disunion is that it encourages the enemy. According -to this view, apparent disunion is as serious as -real; whereas it must be perfectly obvious that -anything which leads our enemy to under-estimate -our strength, as does the belief that we are disunited -when we are not, is of much more service to us -than is neutralized by any more or less visionary -disservice we do ourselves by fortifying his morale. -The morale of a nation at war proceeds from within -itself, and the mere pharisaism and conceit that -come from the contemplation of another’s misfortunes -are of no moral value. Modern civilians -in general are much too self-conscious to conduct -the grave tragedy of war with the high, preoccupied -composure it demands. They are apt to think too -much of what sort of a figure they are making -before the world, to waste energy in superfluous -explanations of themselves, in flustered and voluble -attempts to make friends with bystanders, in posing -to the enemy, and imagining they can seriously -influence him by grimaces and gesticulations. As -a matter of fact, it must be confessed that if such -manœuvres could be conducted with a deliberate and -purposeful levity which few would now have the -fortitude to employ, there would be a certain satisfaction -to be obtained in this particular war by the -knowledge of our adversary conscientiously, perhaps -a little heavily, and with immense resources of -learning “investigating our psychology” upon -materials of a wholly fantastic kind. Such a design, -however, is very far from being the intention of -<span class="xxpn" id="p146">{146}</span> -our interpreters to the world, and as long as they -cannot keep the earnest and hysterical note out of -their exposition it were much better for us that -they were totally dumb.</p> - -<p>To the psychologist it is plain that the seriousness -of disunion is the discouragement to ourselves it -necessarily involves. In this lies its single and its -immense importance. Every note of disunion is -a loss of moral power of incalculable influence; -every evidence of union is an equally incalculable -gain of moral power. Both halves of this statement -deserve consideration, but the latter is incomparably -the more important. If disunion were -the more potent influence, a great deal might be -done for national morale by the forcible control of -opinion and expression. That, however, could yield -nothing positive, and we must rely upon voluntary -unity as the only source of all the higher developments -of moral power.</p> - -<p>It was towards this object that we dimly groped -when we felt in the early weeks of the war the -impulses of friendliness, tolerance, and goodwill -towards our fellow-citizens, and the readiness to -sacrifice what privileges the social system had -endowed us with in order to enjoy the power which a -perfect homogeneity of the herd would have given -us.</p> - -<p>A very small amount of conscious, authoritative -direction at that time, a very little actual sacrifice -of privilege at that psychological moment, a series -of small, carefully selected concessions none of which -need have been actually subversive of prescriptive -right, a slight relaxation in the vast inhumanity -of the social machine would have given the needed -readjustment out of which a true national homogeneity -would necessarily have grown.</p> - -<p>The psychological moment was allowed to pass, -and the country was spared the shock of seeing its -<span class="xxpn" id="p147">{147}</span> -moral strength, which should of course be left to -luck, fortified by the hand of science. The history -of England during the first fourteen months of the -war was thus left to pursue its characteristically -English course. The social system of class segregation -soon repented of its momentary softness and -resumed its customary rigidity. More than that, -it decided that, far from the war being a special -occasion which should penetrate with a transforming -influence the whole of society from top to bottom, -as the common people were at first inclined to -think, the proper pose before the enemy was to be -that it made no difference at all. We were to continue -imperturbably with the conduct of our business, -and to awe the Continent with a supreme exhibition -of British phlegm. The national consciousness of -the working-man was to be stimulated by his -continuing to supply us with our dividends, and -ours by continuing to receive them. It is not -necessary to pursue the history of this new substitute -for unity. It is open to doubt whether our enemies -were greatly appalled by the spectacle, or more so -than our friends; it is certain that the stimulant supplied -to the working-man proved to be inadequate -and had to be supplemented by others. . . .</p> - -<p>The problem of the function of the common -citizen in war was of course left unsolved. It was -accepted that if a man were unfit for service and -not a skilled worker, he himself was a mere dead -weight, and his intense longing for direct service, -of however humble a kind, a by-product of which -the State could make no use.</p> - -<p>That the working classes have to a certain extent -failed to develop a complete sense of national unity -is obvious enough. It is contended here that what -would have been easy in the early days of the war -and actually inexpensive to prescriptive right, has -steadily become more and more costly to effect -<span class="xxpn" id="p148">{148}</span> -and less and less efficiently done. We are already -faced with the possibility of having to make profound -changes in the social system to convince -the working-man effectually that his interests and -ours in this war are one.</p> - -<p>That a very large class of common citizens, -incapable of direct military work, has been left -morally derelict during all these agonizing months of -war has probably not been any less serious a fact, -although the recognition of it has not been forced -unavoidably on public notice. It must surely be -clear that in a nation engaged in an urgent -struggle for existence, the presence of a large class -who are as sensitive as any to the call of the herd, -and yet cannot respond in any active way, contains -very grave possibilities. The only response to that -relentless calling that can give peace is in service; -if that be denied, restlessness, uneasiness, and anxiety -must necessarily follow. To such a mental state are -very easily added impatience, discontent, exaggerated -fears, pessimism, and irritability. It must be -remembered that large numbers of such individuals -were persons of importance in peace time and retain -a great deal of their prestige under the social -system we have decided to maintain, although in -war time they are obviously without function. This -group of idle and flustered parasites has formed -a nucleus from which have proceeded some of -the many outbursts of disunion which have done so -much to prevent this country from developing her -resources with smoothness and continuity. It is -not suggested that these eruptions of discontent -are due to any kind of disloyalty; they are the -result of defective morale, and bear all the evidences -of coming from persons whose instinctive response -to the call of the herd has been frustrated and who, -therefore, lack the strength and composure of -those whose souls are uplifted by a satisfactory -<span class="xxpn" id="p149">{149}</span> -instinctive activity. Moral instability has been -characteristic of all the phenomena of disunion -we are now considering, such as recrudescences -of political animus, attacks on individual members -of the Government, outbursts of spy mania, -campaigns of incitement against aliens and -of blustering about reprisals. Similar though -less conspicuous manifestations are the delighted -circulation of rumours, the wild scandalmongering, -the eager dissemination of pessimistic inventions -which are the pleasure of the smaller amongst these -moral waifs. Of all the evidences of defective -morale, however, undoubtedly the most general has -yet to be mentioned, and that is the proffering of -technical advice and exhortation. If we are to judge -by what we read, there are few more urgent temptations -than this, and yet it is easy to see that there -are few enterprises which demand a more complete -abrogation of reason. It is almost always the case -that the subject of advice is one upon which all -detailed knowledge is withheld by the authorities. -This restriction of materials, however, seems generally -to be regarded by the volunteer critic as giving -him greater scope and freedom rather than as a -reason for silence or even modesty.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to notice in this connection what -those who have the ear of the public have conceived -to be their duty towards the nation and to try -to estimate its value from the point of view of -morale. It is clear that they have in general very -rightly understood that one of their prime functions -should be to keep the Government working in the -interests of the nation to the fullest stretch of its -energy and resources. Criticism is another function, -and advice and instruction a third which have also -been regarded as important.</p> - -<p>The third of these activities is, no doubt, that -which has been most abused and is least important. -<span class="xxpn" id="p150">{150}</span> -It tends on the one hand to get involved in technical -military matters and consequent absurdity, and on -the other hand, in civil matters, to fall back into -the bad old ways of politics. Criticism is obviously -a perfectly legitimate function, and one of value -as long as it keeps to the field of civil questions, -and can free itself of the moral failure of being -acrimonious in tone. In a government machine -engaged upon the largest of tasks there will always -be enough injustice and inhumanity, fraud and -foolishness to keep temperate critics beneficially -employed.</p> - -<p>It is in the matter of stimulating the energy -and resolution of the Government that the psychologist -might perhaps differ to some extent from the -popular guides of opinion. In getting work out -of a living organism it is necessary to determine -what is the most efficient stimulus. One can make -a man’s muscles contract by stimulating them with -an electric battery, but one can never get so -energetic a contraction with however strong a -current as can be got by the natural stimulus sent -out from the man’s brain. Rising to a more complex -level, we find that a man does not do work by -order so well or so thoroughly as he does work -that he desires to do voluntarily. The best way -to get our work done is to get the worker to want -to do it. The most urgent and potent of all stimuli, -then, are those that come from within the man’s -soul. It is plain, therefore, that the best way to -extract the maximum amount of work from members -of a Government—and it is to yield this, at whatever -cost to themselves, that they are there—is -not by the use of threats and objurgations, by talk -of impeachment or dismissal, or by hints of a day -of reckoning after the war, but by keeping their -souls full of a burning passion of service. Such -a supply of mental energy can issue only from a -<span class="xxpn" id="p151">{151}</span> -truly homogeneous herd, and it is therefore to the -production of such a homogeneity of feeling that -we come once more as the one unmistakable -responsibility of the civilian.</p> - -<p>We have seen reason to believe that there was -a comparatively favourable opportunity of establishing -such a national unity in the early phases of -the war, and that the attainment of the same result -at this late period is likely to be less easy and more -costly of disturbance to the social structure.</p> - -<p>The simplest basis of unity is equality, and this -has been an important factor in the unity which in -the past has produced the classically successful manifestations -of moral and military power, as for example -in the cases of Puritan England and Revolutionary -France. Such equality as obtained in these cases -was doubtless chiefly moral rather than material, -and it can scarcely be questioned that equality of -consideration and of fundamental moral estimation -is a far more efficient factor than would be equality -of material possessions. The fact that it is difficult -to persuade a man with thirty shillings a week that -he has as much to lose by the loss of national -independence as a man with thirty thousand a year, -is merely evidence that the imagination of the former -is somewhat restricted by his type of education, -and that we habitually attach an absurd moral significance -to material advantages. It seems certain -that it would still be possible to attain a very fair -approximation to a real moral equality without any -necessary disturbance of the extreme degree of -material inequality which our elaborate class segregation -has imposed upon us.</p> - -<p>A serious and practical attempt to secure a true -moral unity of the nation would render necessary -a general understanding that the state to be striven -for was something different, not only in degree -but also in quality, from anything which has yet -<span class="xxpn" id="p152">{152}</span> -been regarded as satisfactory. A mere intellectual -unanimity in the need for prosecuting the war with -all vigour, we may be said actually to possess, but -its moral value is not very great. A state of mind -directed more to the nation and less immediately -to the war is what is needed; the good soldier -absorbed in his regiment has little inclination to -concern himself with the way the war is going, -and the civilian should be similarly absorbed in -the nation. To attain this he must feel that he -belongs to the country and to his fellow-citizens, -and that it and they also belong to him. The -established social system sets itself steadily to deny -these propositions, and not so much by its abounding -material inequalities as by the moral inequalities -that correspond with them. The hierarchies of rank, -prestige, and consideration, at all times showing -serious inconsistencies with functional value, and in -war doing so more than ever, are denials of the -essential propositions of perfect citizenship, not, -curiously enough, through their arbitrary distribution -of wealth, comfort, and leisure, but through -their persistent, assured, and even unconscious -assumption that there exists a graduation of moral -values equally real and, to men of inferior station, -equally arbitrary. To a gregarious species at war -the only tolerable claim to any kind of superiority -must be based on leadership. Any other affectation -of superiority, whether it be based on prescriptive -right, on tradition, on custom, on wealth, -on birth, or on mere age, arrogance, or fussiness, -and not on real functional value to the State, is, -however much a matter of course it may seem, -however blandly it may be asserted or picturesquely -displayed, an obstacle to true national unity.</p> - -<p>Psychological considerations thus appear to indicate -a very plain duty for a large class of civilians -who have complained of and suffered patriotically -<span class="xxpn" id="p153">{153}</span> -from the fact that the Government has found nothing -for them to do. Let all those of superior and -assured station make it a point of honour and duty -to abrogate the privileges of consideration and -prestige with which they are arbitrarily endowed. -Let them persuade the common man that they also -are, in the face of national necessity, common men. -The searching test of war has shown that a proportion -of the population, serious enough in mere -numbers, but doubly serious in view of its power -and influence, has led an existence which may fairly -be described as in some degree parasitic. That -is to say, what they have drawn from the common -stock in wealth and prestige has been immensely -larger than what they have contributed of useful -activity in return. Now, in time of war, they have -still less to give proportionally to what they have -received. Their deplorably good bargain was in -no way of their making; no one has the slightest -right to attack their honour or good faith; they -are as patriotically minded as any class, and have -contributed their fighting men to the Army as generously -as the day labourer and the tradesman. It -is therefore not altogether impossible that they might -come to understand the immense opportunity that -is given them by fate to promote a true, deep, -and irresistibly potent national unity.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">A further contribution to the establishment of -a national unity of this truly Utopian degree might -come from a changed attitude of mind towards his -fellows in the individual. There would have to -be an increased kindliness, generosity, patience, and -tolerance in all his relations with others, a deliberate -attempt to conquer prejudice, irritability, -impatience, and self-assertiveness, a deliberate encouragement -of cheerfulness, composure, and fortitude. -All these would be tasks for the individual -<span class="xxpn" id="p154">{154}</span> -to carry out for himself alone; there would be no -campaign-making, no direct exhortation, no appeals. -Towards the Army and the Navy the central fact -of each man’s attitude would be the question, “Am -I worth dying for?” and his strongest effort would -be the attempt to make himself so.</p> - -<p>That question may perhaps make one wonder -why it has not been heard more often during the -war as a text of the Church. There is little doubt -that very many men whose feeling towards the -Church is in no way disrespectful or hostile are -conscious of a certain uneasiness in hearing her -vigorously defending the prosecution of the war -and demonstrating its righteousness. They feel, in -spite of however conclusive demonstrations to the -contrary, that there is a deep-seated inconsistency -between war for whatever object and the Sermon -on the Mount, and they cannot but remember, when -they are told that this is a holy war, that that also -the Germans say. They perhaps feel that the justification -of the war is, after all, a matter for politicians -and statesmen, and that the Church would be more -appropriately employed in making it as far as she -can a vehicle of good, rather than trying to justify -superfluously its existence. A people already awed -by the self-sacrifice of its armies may be supposed -to be capable of profiting by the exhortations of -a Church whose cardinal doctrine is concerned with -the responsibility that attaches to those for whose -sake life has voluntarily been given up. One cannot -imagine an institution more perfectly qualified by -its faith and its power to bring home to this people -the solemnity of the sanction under which they lie -to make themselves worthy of the price that is -still being unreservedly paid. If it were consciously -the determination of every citizen to make himself -worth dying for, who can doubt that a national -unity of the sublimest kind would be -within reach? <span class="xxpn" id="p155">{155}</span></p> - -<p>Of all the influences which tend to rob the citizen -of the sense of his birthright, perhaps one of the -strongest, and yet the most subtle, is that of -officialism. It seems inevitable that the enormously -complex public services which are necessary in the -modern State should set up a barrier between the -private citizen and the official, whereby the true -relation between them is obscured. The official -loses his grasp of the fact that the mechanism of -the State is established in the interests of the citizen; -the citizen comes to regard the State as a hostile -institution, against which he has to defend himself, -although it was made for his defence. It is a crime -for him to cheat the State in the matter of tax-paying, -it is no crime for the State to defraud -him in excessive charges. Considered in the light -of the fundamental relation of citizen and State, it -seems incredible that in a democratic country it is -possible for flourishing establishments to exist the -sole business of which is to save the private -individual from being defrauded by the tax-gathering -bureaucracy. This is but a single and rather -extreme example of the far-stretching segregation -effected by the official machine. The slighter kinds -of aloofness, of inhuman etiquette, of legalism and -senseless dignity, of indifference to the individual, -of devotion to formulæ and routine are no less -powerful agents in depriving the common man of -the sense of intimate reality in his citizenship which -might be so valuable a source of national unity. -If the official machine through its utmost parts were -animated by an even moderately human spirit and -used as a means of binding together the people, -instead of as an engine of moral disruption, it might -be of incalculable value in the strengthening of -morale. <span class="xxpn" id="p156">{156}</span></p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">E<b>NGLAND</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">AGAINST</span> - <span class="smcap">G<b>ERMANY—</b>G<b>ERMANY.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>In an earlier part of this book the statement was -made that the present juncture in human affairs -probably forms one of those rare nodes of circumstance -in which the making of an epoch in history -corresponds with a perceptible change in the secular -progress of biological evolution. It remains to -attempt some justification of this opinion.</p> - -<p>England and Germany face one another as perhaps -the two most typical antagonists of the war. It may -seem but a partial way of examining events if we -limit our consideration to them. Nevertheless, it is -in this duel that the material we are concerned -with is chiefly to be found, and it may be added -Germany herself has abundantly distinguished this -country as her typical foe—an instinctive judgment -not without value.</p> - -<p>By the end of September 1914 it had become -reasonably clear that the war would be one of -endurance, and the comparatively equal though -fluctuating strength of the two groups of adversaries -has since shown that in such endurance the main -factor will be the moral factor rather than the -material. An examination of the moral strength -of the two arch-enemies will therefore have the -interest of life and death behind it, as well as such -as may belong to the thesis which stands at the head -of this chapter.</p> - -<p>Germany affords a profoundly interesting study -for the biological psychologist, and it is very -important that we should not allow what clearness -of representation we can get into our picture of her -mind to be clouded by the heated atmosphere of -national feeling in which our work must be done. -As I have said elsewhere, it is merely to encourage -fallacy to allow oneself to believe that one is without -prejudices. The most one can do is to recognize -<span class="xxpn" id="p157">{157}</span> -what prejudices are likely to exist and liberally -to allow for them.</p> - -<p>If I were to say that at the present moment I can -induce myself to believe that it will ever be possible -for Europe to contain a strong Germany of the -current type and remain habitable by free peoples, -the apparent absence of national bias in the statement -would be a mere affectation, and by no means -an evidence of freedom from prejudice. I am -much more likely to get into reasonable relations -with the truth if I admit to myself, quite frankly, -my innermost conviction that the destruction of the -German Empire is an indispensable preliminary to -the making of a civilization tolerable by rational -beings. Having recognized the existence of that -belief as a necessary obstacle to complete freedom -of thought, it may be possible to allow for it and to -counteract what aberrations of judgment it may be -likely to produce.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">In making an attempt to estimate the relative -moral resources of England and Germany at the -present time it is necessary to consider them as -biological entities or major units of the human -species in the sense of that term we have already -repeatedly used. We shall have to examine the -evolutionary tendencies which each of these units -has shown, and if possible to decide how far they -have followed the lines of development which -psychological theory indicates to be those of healthy -and progressive development for a gregarious -animal.</p> - -<p>I have already tried to show that the acquirement -of the social habit by man—though in fact there is -reason to believe that the social habit preceded -and made possible his distinctively human characters—has -committed him to an evolutionary process -which is far from being completed yet, but which -<span class="xxpn" id="p158">{158}</span> -nevertheless must be carried out to its consummation -if he is to escape increasingly severe disadvantages -inherent in that biological type. In other words, the -gregarious habit in an animal of large individual -mental capacity is capable of becoming, and indeed -must become a handicap rather than a bounty unless -the society of the species undergoes a continuously -progressive co-ordination which will enable it to -attract and absorb the energy and activities of its -individual members. We have seen that in a species -such as man, owing to the freedom from the direct -action of natural selection within the major unit, the -individual’s capacity for varied reaction to his environment -has undergone an enormous development, -while at the same time the capacity for intercommunication—upon -which the co-ordination of the -major unit into a potent and frictionless mechanism -depends—has lagged far behind. The term “intercommunication” -is here used in the very widest -sense to indicate the ties that bind the individual -to his fellows and them to him. It is not a very -satisfactory word; but as might be expected in -attempting to express a series of functions so -complex and so unfamiliar to generalization, it is not -easy to find an exact expression ready made. -Another phrase applicable to a slightly different -aspect of the same function is “herd accessibility,” -which has the advantage of suggesting by its first -constituent the limitation, primitively at any rate, an -essential part of the capacities it is desired to denote. -The conception of herd accessibility includes the -specific sensitiveness of the individual to the -existence, presence, thought, and feelings of his -fellow-members of the major unit; the power he -possesses of reacting in an altruistic and social mode -to stimuli which would necessarily evoke a merely -egoistic response from a non-social animal—that is -to say, the power to deflect and modify egoistic -<span class="xxpn" id="p159">{159}</span> -impulses into a social form without emotional loss or -dissatisfaction; the capacity to derive from the impulses -of the herd a moral power in excess of any -similar energy he may be able to develop from -purely egoistic sources.</p> - -<p>Intercommunication, the development of which -of course depends upon herd-accessibility, enables -the herd to act as a single creature whose power -is greatly in excess of the sum of the powers of its -individual members.</p> - -<p>Intercommunication in the biological sense has, -however, never been systematically cultivated by -man, but has been allowed to develop haphazard -and subject to all the hostile influences which must -infest a society in which unregulated competition -and selection are allowed to prevail. The extravagance -of human life and labour, the indifference to -suffering, the harshness and the infinite class segregation -of human society are the result. The use of -what I have called conscious direction is apparently -the only means whereby this chaos can be converted -into organized structure.</p> - -<p>Outside the gregarious unit, the forms of organic -life at any given time seem to be to some considerable -extent determined by the fact that the pressure -of environmental conditions and of competition tends -to eliminate selectively the types which are comparatively -unsuited to the conditions in which they -find themselves. However much or little this process -of natural selection has decided the course which the -general evolutionary process has taken, there can -be no doubt that it is a condition of animal life, and -has an active influence. The suggestion may be -hazarded that under circumstances natural selection -tends rather to restrict variation instead of encouraging -it as it has sometimes been supposed to -do. When the external pressure is very severe it -might be supposed that anything like free variation -<span class="xxpn" id="p160">{160}</span> -would be a serious disadvantage to a species, and -if it persisted might result in actual extermination. -It is conceivable, therefore, that natural selection is -capable of favouring stable and non-progressive -types at the expense of the variable and possibly -“progressive,” if such a term can be applied to -species advancing towards extinction. Such a -possible fixative action of natural selection is suggested -by the fact that the appearance of mechanisms -whereby the individual is protected from the direct -action of natural selection seems to have led to an -outburst of variation. In the multicellular animal -the individual cells passing from under the direct -pressure of natural selection become variable, and -so capable of a very great specialization. In the -gregarious unit the same thing happens, the individual -member gaining freedom to vary and to -become specialized without the risk that would have -accompanied such an endowment in the solitary state.</p> - -<p>Within the gregarious unit, then, natural selection -in the strict sense is in abeyance, and the consequent -freedom has allowed of a rich variety among the -individual members. This variety provides the -material from which an elaborate and satisfactory -society might be constructed if there were any constant -and discriminating influence acting upon it. -Unfortunately, the forces at work in human society -to-day are not of this kind, but are irregular in -direction and fluctuating in strength, so that the -material richness which would have been so valuable, -had it been subject to a systematic and co-ordinate -selection, has merely contributed to the -confusion of the product. The actual mechanism -by which society, while it has grown in strength -and complexity, has also grown in confusion and -disorder, is that peculiarity of the gregarious mind -which automatically brings into the monopoly of -power the mental type which I have called the -<span class="xxpn" id="p161">{161}</span> -stable and common opinion calls normal. This -type supplies our most trusted politicians and officials, -our bishops and headmasters, our successful lawyers -and doctors, and all their trusty deputies, assistants, -retainers, and faithful servants. Mental stability is -their leading characteristic, they “know where they -stand” as we say, they have a confidence in the -reality of their aims and their position, an inaccessibility -to new and strange phenomena, a belief in -the established and customary, a capacity for ignoring -what they regard as the unpleasant, the undesirable, -and the improper, and a conviction that -on the whole a sound moral order is perceptible -in the universe and manifested in the progress of -civilization. Such characteristics are not in the least -inconsistent with the highest intellectual capacity, -great energy and perseverance as well as kindliness, -generosity, and patience, but they are in no way -redeemed in social value by them.</p> - -<p>In the year 1915 it is, unfortunately, in no way -necessary to enumerate evidences of the confusion, -the cruelty, the waste, and the weaknesses with -which human society, under the guidance of minds -of this type, has been brought to abound. Civilization -through all its secular development under -their rule has never acquired an organic unity of -structure; its defects have received no rational treatment, -but have been concealed, ignored, and denied; -instead of being drastically rebuilt, it has been kept -presentable by patches and buttresses, by paint, and -putty, and whitewash. The building was already -insecure, and now the storm has burst upon it, -threatens incontinently to collapse.</p> - -<p>The fact that European civilization, approaching -what appeared to be the very meridian of its strength, -could culminate in a disaster so frightful as the -present war is proof that its development was radically -unsound. This is by no means to say that -<span class="xxpn" id="p162">{162}</span> -the war could have been avoided by those immediately -concerned. That is almost certainly not the -case. The war was the consequence of inherent -defects in the evolution of civilized life; it was -the consequence of human progress being left to -chance, and to the interaction of the heterogeneous -influences which necessarily arise within a gregarious -unit whose individual members have a large power -of varied reaction. In such an atmosphere minds -essentially resistive alone can flourish and attain -to power, and they are by their very qualities incapable -of grasping the necessities of government -or translating them into action.</p> - -<p>The method of leaving the development of society -to the confused welter of forces which prevail within -it is now at last reduced to absurdity by the unmistakable -teaching of events, and the conscious direction -of man’s destiny is plainly indicated by Nature -as the only mechanism by which the social life of -so complex an animal can be guaranteed against -disaster and brought to yield its full possibilities.</p> - -<p>A gregarious unit informed by conscious direction -represents a biological mechanism of a wholly new -type, a stage of advance in the evolutionary process -capable of consolidating the supremacy of man -and carrying to its full extent the development of -his social instincts.</p> - -<p>Such a directing intelligence or group of intelligences -would take into account before all things -the biological character of man, would understand -that his condition is necessarily progressive along -the lines of his natural endowments or downward -to destruction. It would abandon the static view -of society as something merely to be maintained, -and adopt a more dynamic conception of statesmanship -as something active, progressive, and experimental, -reaching out towards new powers for human -activity and new conquests for the human will. -<span class="xxpn" id="p163">{163}</span> -It would discover what natural inclinations in man -must be indulged, and would make them respectable, -what inclinations in him must be controlled -for the advantage of the species, and make them -insignificant. It would cultivate intercommunication -and altruism on the one hand, and bravery, -boldness, pride, and enterprise on the other. It -would develop national unity to a communion of -interest and sympathy far closer than anything yet -dreamed of as possible, and by doing so would -endow the national unit with a self-control, fortitude, -and moral power which would make it so obviously -unconquerable that war would cease to be a possibility. -To a people magnanimous, self-possessed, -and open-eyed, unanimous in sentiment and aware -of its strength, the conquest of fellow-nations would -present its full futility. They would need for the -acceptable exercise of their powers some more difficult, -more daring, and newer task, something that -stretches the human will and the human intellect -to the limit of their capacity; the mere occupation -and re-occupation of the stale and blood-drenched -earth would be to them barbarians’ work; time -and space would be their quarry, destiny and the -human soul the lands they would invade; they -would sail their ships into the gulfs of the ether -and lay tribute upon the sun and stars.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">It is one of the features of the present crisis -that gives to it its biological significance, that one -of the antagonists—Germany—has discovered the -necessity and value of conscious direction of the -social unit. This is in itself an epoch-making event. -Like many other human discoveries of similar importance, -it has been incomplete, and it has not -been accompanied by the corresponding knowledge -of man and his natural history which alone could -have given it full fertility and permanent value. -<span class="xxpn" id="p164">{164}</span></p> - -<p>It seems to have been in no way a revelation of -genius, and, indeed, the absence of any great profundity -and scope of speculation is rather remarkable -in the minds of the numerous German political -philosophers. The idea would appear rather to have -been developed out of the circumstances of the -country, and to have been almost a habit before -it became a conception. At any rate, its appearance -was greatly favoured by the political conditions and -history of the region in which it arose. If this -had not been the case, it is scarcely conceivable -that the principle could have been accepted so readily -by the people, and in a form which was not without -its asperities and its hardships for them, or that -it could have been discovered without the necessary -biological corollaries which are indispensable to the -successful application of it.</p> - -<p>Germany in some ways resembles a son who has -been educated at home, and has taken up the -responsibilities of the adult, and become bound by -them without ever tasting the free intercourse of -the school and university. She has never tasted -the heady liquor of political liberty, she has had no -revolution, and the blood of no political martyrs -calls to her disturbingly from the ground. To -such innocent and premature gravity the reasonable -claims of what, after all, had to her the appearance -of no more than an anxiously paternal Government -could not fail to appeal.</p> - -<p>Explain it how we may, there can be no doubt -that to the German peoples the theoretical aspects -of life have long had a very special appeal. Generalizations -about national characteristics are notoriously -fallacious, but it seems that with a certain reserve -one may fairly say that there is a definite contrast -in this particular between the Germans and, let -us say, the English.</p> - -<p>To minds of a theoretical bias the appeal of a -<span class="xxpn" id="p165">{165}</span> -closely regulative type of Government, with all the -advantages of organization which it possesses, must -be very strong, and there is reason to believe that -this fact has had influence in reconciling the people -to the imposition upon it of the will of the Government.</p> - -<p>Between a docile and intelligent people and a -strong, autocratic, and intelligent Government the -possibilities of conscious national direction could -scarcely fail to become increasingly obvious and -to be increasingly developed. A further and -enormously potent factor in the progress of the -idea was an immense accession of national feeling, -derived from three almost bewilderingly successful -wars, accomplished at surprisingly small cost, -and culminating in a grandiose and no less successful -scheme of unification. Before rulers and people -an imperial destiny of unlimited scope, and allowing -of unbounded dreams, now inevitably opened -itself up. Alone, amongst the peoples of Europe, -Germany saw herself a nation with a career. No -longer disunited and denationalized, she had come -into her inheritance. The circumstances of her -rebirth were so splendid, the moral exaltation of -her new unity was so great that she could scarcely -but suppose that her state was the beginning of -a career of further and unimagined glories and -triumphs. There were not lacking enthusiastic and -prophetic voices to tell her she was right.</p> - -<p>The decade that followed the foundation of the -Empire was, perhaps, more pregnant with destiny -than that which preceded it, for it saw the final -determination of the path which Germany was to -follow. She had made the immense stride in the -biological scale of submitting herself to conscious -direction; would she also follow the path which -alone leads to a perfect concentration of national -life and a permanent moral stability? -<span class="xxpn" id="p166">{166}</span></p> - -<p>To a nation with a purpose and a consciously -realized destiny some principle of national unity -is indispensable. Some strand of feeling which all -can share, and in sharing which all can come into -communion with one another, will be the framework -on which is built up the structure of national -energy and effort.</p> - -<p>The reactions in which the social instinct manifests -itself are not all equally developed in the different -social species. It is true that there is a certain group -of characteristics common to all social animals; but -it is also found that in one example there is a special -development of one aspect of the instinct, while -another example will show a characteristic development -of a different aspect. Taking a broad survey -of all gregarious types, we are able to distinguish -three fairly distinct trends of evolution. We have -the aggressive gregariousness of the wolf and dog, -the protective gregariousness of the sheep and the -ox, and, differing from both these, we have the more -complex social structure of the bee and the ant, -which we may call socialized gregariousness. The -last-named is characterized by the complete absorption -of the individual in the major unit, and the -fact that the function of the social habit seems no -longer to be the simple one of mere attack or -defence, but rather the establishment of a State -which shall be, as a matter of course, strong in -defence and attack, but a great deal more than -this as well. The hive is no mere herd or pack, -but an elaborate mechanism for making use by -co-ordinate and unified action of the utmost powers -of the individual members. It is something which -appears to be a complete substitute for individual -existence, and as we have already said, seems like -a new creature rather than a congeries united for -some comparatively few and simple purposes. The -hive and the ant’s nest stand to the flock and the -<span class="xxpn" id="p167">{167}</span> -pack as the fully organized multicellular animal -stands to the primitive zooglœa which is its forerunner. -The wolf is united for attack, the sheep -is united for defence, but the bee is united for all -the activities and feelings of its life.</p> - -<p>Socialized gregariousness is the goal of man’s -development. A transcendental union with his -fellows is the destiny of the human individual, -and it is the attainment of this towards which the -constantly growing altruism of man is directed. -Poets and prophets have, at times, dimly seen this -inevitable trend of Nature, biology detects unmistakable -evidence of it, and explains the slowness of -advance, which has been the despair of those others, -by the variety and power of man’s mind, and -consoles us for the delay these qualities still cause -by the knowledge that they are guarantees of the -exactitude and completeness that the ultimate union -will attain.</p> - -<p>When a nation takes to itself the idea of conscious -direction, as by a fortunate combination of circumstances -Germany has been induced to do, it is -plain that some choice of a principle of national -unity will be its first and most important task. It -is plain, also, from the considerations we have just -laid down, that such a principle of national unity -must necessarily be a manifestation of the social -instinct, and that the choice is necessarily limited -to one of three types of social habit which -alone Nature has fitted gregarious animals to follow. -No nation has ever made a conscious choice amongst -these three types, but circumstances have led to -the adoption of one or another of them often enough -for history to furnish many suggestive instances.</p> - -<p>The more or less purely aggressive or protective -form has been adopted for the most part by -primitive peoples. The history of the natives of -North America and Australia furnishes examples of -<span class="xxpn" id="p168">{168}</span> -almost pure types of both. The aggressive type was -illustrated very fully by the peoples who profited -by the disintegration of the Roman Empire. These -northern barbarians showed in the most perfect form -the lupine type of society in action. The ideals -and feelings exemplified by their sagas are comprehensible -only when one understands the biological -significance of them. It was a society of wolves -marvellously indomitable in aggression but fitted for -no other activity in any corresponding degree, and -always liable to absorption by the peoples they -had conquered. They were physically brave beyond -belief, and made a religion of violence and brutality. -To fight was for them man’s supreme activity. They -were restless travellers and explorers, less out of -curiosity than in search of prey, and they irresistibly -overran Europe in the missionary zeal of the sword -and torch, each man asking nothing of Fate but, -after a career of unlimited outrage and destruction, -to die gloriously fighting. It is impossible not -to recognize the psychological identity of these -ideals with those which we might suppose a highly -developed breed of wolves to entertain.</p> - -<p>With all its startling energy, and all its magnificent -enterprise, the lupine type of society has not -proved capable of prolonged survival. Probably -its inherent weakness is the very limited scope -of interest it provides for active and progressive -minds, and the fact that it tends to engender a -steadily accumulating hostility in weaker but more -mentally progressive peoples to which it has no -correspondingly steady resistiveness to oppose.</p> - -<p>The history of the world has shown a gradual -elimination of the lupine type. It has recurred -sporadically at intervals, but has always been -suppressed. Modern civilization has shown a -constantly increasing manifestation of the socialized -type of gregariousness in spite of the complexities -<span class="xxpn" id="p169">{169}</span> -and disorders which the slowness of its development -towards completeness has involved. It may be -regarded now as the standard type which has been -established by countless experiments, as that which -alone can satisfy and absorb the moral as well as -the intellectual desires of modern man.</p> - -<p>From the point of view of the statesman desiring -to enforce an immediate and energetic national unity, -combined with an ideal of the State as destined -to expand into a larger and larger sphere, the -socialized type of gregarious evolution is extremely -unsatisfactory. Its course towards the production -of a truly organized State is slow, and perplexed -by a multitudinous confusion of voices and ideals; -its necessary development of altruism gives the -society it produces an aspect of sentimentality and -flabbiness; its tendency slowly to evolve towards -the moral equality of its members gives the State -an appearance of structural insecurity.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">If Germany was to be capable of a consistent -aggressive external policy as a primary aim, the -peculiarity of her circumstances rendered her unable -to seek national inspiration by any development -of the socialized type of instinctive response, because -that method can produce the necessary moral power -only through a true unity of its members, such as -implies a moral, if not a material, equality among -them. That the type is capable of yielding a -passion of aggressive nationalism is shown by the -early enterprise and conquests of the first French -Republic. But that outburst of power was attained -only because it was based on a true, though doubtless -imperfect, moral equality. Such a method was -necessarily forbidden to the German Empire by the -intense rigidity of its social segregation, with its -absolute differentiation between the aristocracy and -the common people. In such a society there could -<span class="xxpn" id="p170">{170}</span> -be no thought of permitting the faintest hint of -even moral equality.</p> - -<p>This is the reason, therefore, why the rulers of -Germany, of course in complete ignorance of how -significant was their choice, were compelled to -abandon the ideals of standard civilization, to relapse -upon the ideals of a more primitive type of -gregariousness, and to throw back their people into -the anachronism of a lupine society. In this connection -it is interesting to notice how persistently -the political philosophers of Germany have sought -their chief inspiration in the remote past, and in -times when the wolf society and the wolf ideals -were widespread and successful.</p> - -<p>It is not intended to imply that there was here -any conscious choice. It is remarkable enough that -the rulers of Germany recognized the need for -conscious direction of all the activities of a nation -which proposes for itself a career; it would have -been a miracle if they had understood the biological -significance of the differentiation of themselves from -other European peoples that they were to bring -about. To them it doubtless appeared merely that -they were discarding the effete and enfeebling -ideals which made other nations the fit victims of -their conquests. They may be supposed to have -determined to eradicate such germs of degeneracy -from themselves, to have seen that an ambitious -people must be strong and proud and hard, enterprising, -relentless, brave, and fierce, prepared to -believe in the glory of combat and conquest, in -the supreme moral greatness of the warrior, in force -as the touchstone of right, honour, justice, and truth. -Such changes in moral orientation seem harmless -enough, and it can scarcely be suspected that their -significance was patent to those who adopted them. -They were impressed upon the nation with all the -immense power of suggestion at the disposal of -<span class="xxpn" id="p171">{171}</span> -an organized State. The readiness with which they -were received and assimilated was more than could -be accounted for by even the power of the immense -machine of officials, historians, theologians, professors, -teachers, and newspapers by which they -were, in season and out of season, enforced. The -immense success that was attained owed much to -the fact that suggestion was following a natural, -instinctive path. The wolf in man, against which -civilization has been fighting for so long, is still -within call and ready to respond to incantations -much feebler than those the German State could -employ. The people were intoxicated with the glory -of their conquests and their imposing new confederation; -if we are to trust the reputation the -Prussian soldier has had for a hundred years, they -were perhaps already less advanced in humanity -than the other European peoples. The fact is unquestionable -that they followed their teachers with -enthusiasm.</p> - -<p>It may be well for us, before proceeding farther, -to define precisely the psychological hypothesis we -are advancing in explanation of the peculiarities of -the German national character as now manifested.</p> - -<p>Herd instinct is manifested in three distinct types, -the aggressive, the protective, and the socialized, -which are exemplified in Nature by the wolf, the -sheep, and the bee respectively. Either type can -confer the advantages of the social habit, but the -socialized is that upon which modern civilized man -has developed. It is maintained here that the -ambitious career consciously planned for Germany -by those who had taken command of her destinies, -and the maintenance at the same time of her social -system, were inconsistent with the further development -of gregariousness of the socialized type. New -ideals, new motives, and new sources of moral power -had therefore to be sought. They were found in a -<span class="xxpn" id="p172">{172}</span> -recrudescence of the aggressive type of gregariousness—in -a reappearance of the society of the wolf. -It is conceivable that those who provided Germany -with her new ideals thought themselves to be -exercising a free choice. The choice, however, -was forced upon them by Nature. They wanted -some of the characters of the wolf; they got them -all. One may imagine that those who have so -industriously inculcated the national gospel have -wondered at times that while it has been easy to -implant certain of the desired ideals, it has not been -possible to prevent the appearance of others which, -though not so desirable, belong to the same legacy -and must be taken up with it.</p> - -<p>Before examining the actual mental features of -Germany to-day, it may be desirable to consider <i>a -priori</i> what would be the mental characteristics of -an aggressive gregarious animal were he to be self-conscious -in the sense that man is.</p> - -<p>The functional value of herd instinct in the wolf -is to make the pack irresistible in attacking and -perpetually aggressive in spirit. The individual -must, therefore, be especially sensitive to the leadership -of the herd. The herd must be to him, not -merely as it is to the protectively gregarious animal, -a source of comfort, and stimulus, and general -guidance, but must be able to make him <i>do things</i> -however difficult, however dangerous, even however -senseless, and must make him yield an absolute, -immediate, and slavish obedience. The carrying -out of the commands of the herd must be in itself -an absolute satisfaction in which there can be no -consideration of self. Towards anything outside -the herd he will necessarily be arrogant, confident, -and inaccessible to the appeals of reason or feeling. -This tense bond of instinct, constantly keyed up to -the pitch of action, will give him a certain -simplicity of character and even ingenuousness, a -<span class="xxpn" id="p173">{173}</span> -coarseness and brutality in his dealings with others, -and a complete failure to understand any motive -unsanctioned by the pack. He will believe the -pack to be impregnable and irresistible, just and -good, and will readily ascribe to it any other attribute -which may take his fancy however ludicrously inappropriate.</p> - -<p>The strength of the wolf pack as a gregarious -unit is undoubtedly, in suitable circumstances, -enormous. This strength would seem to depend on -a continuous possibility of attack and action. How -far it can be maintained in inactivity and mere -defence is another matter. . . .</p> - -<p class="padtopb">Since the beginning of this war attracted a -really concentrated attention to the psychology of -the German people, it has been very obvious that -one of the most striking feelings amongst Englishmen -has been bewilderment. They have found an -indescribable strangeness in the utterances of almost -all German personages and newspapers, in their -diplomacy, in their friendliness to such as they wished -to propitiate, in their enmity to those they wished -to alarm and intimidate. This strange quality is -very difficult to define or even to attempt to describe, -and has very evidently perplexed almost all writers -on the war. The only thing one can be sure -of is that it is there. It shows itself at times as a -simplicity or even childishness, as a boorish cunning, -as an incredible ant-like activity, as a sudden blast -of maniacal boasting, a reckless savagery of -gloating in blood, a simple-minded sentimentality, -as outbursts of idolatry, not of the pallid, metaphorical, -modern type, but the full-blooded African -kind, with all the apparatus of idol and fetish and -tom-tom, and with it all a steady confidence that -these are the principles of civilization, of truth, of -justice, and of Christ. -<span class="xxpn" id="p174">{174}</span></p> - -<p>I have tried to put down at random some of the -factors in this curious impression as they occur -to the memory, but the mere enumeration of them -is not possible without risking the objective composure -of one’s attitude—an excellent incidental -evidence that the strangeness is a reality.</p> - -<p>The incomprehensibility to the English of the -whole trend of German feeling and expression suggests -that there is some deeply rooted instinctive -conflict of attitude between them. One may risk -the speculation that this conflict is between socialized -gregariousness and aggressive gregariousness. As -the result of the inculcation of national arrogance -and aggression, Germany has lapsed into a special -type of social instinct which has opened a gulf of -separation in feeling between her and other civilized -peoples. Such an effect is natural enough. Nothing -produces the sense of strangeness so much as -differences of instinctive reaction. A similar though -wider gap in instinctive reaction gives to us the -appearance of strangeness and queerness in the -behaviour of the cat as contrasted with the dog, -which is so much more nearly allied in feeling to -ourselves.</p> - -<p>If, then, we desire to get any insight into the -mind and moral power of Germany, we must begin -with the realization that the two peoples are separated -by a profound difference in instinctive feeling. -Nature has provided but few roads for gregarious -species to follow. Between the path England finds -herself in and that which Germany has chosen there -is a divergence which almost amounts to a specific -difference in the biological scale. In this, perhaps, -lies the cause of the desperate and unparalleled -ferocity of this war. It is a war not so much of -contending nations as of contending species. We -are not taking part in a mere war, but in one of -Nature’s august experiments. It is as if she had -<span class="xxpn" id="p175">{175}</span> -set herself to try out in her workshop the strength -of the socialized and the aggressive types. To -the socialized peoples she has entrusted the task -of proving that her old faith in cruelty and blood -is at last an anachronism. To try them, she has -given substance to the creation of a nightmare, and -they must destroy this werewolf or -die.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc16" href="#fn16">16</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn16" href="#afnanc16">16</a> -It may be noted that the members of the small group of -so-called “pro-German” writers and propagandists for the most part -make it a fundamental doctrine, either explicit or implicit, that -there is no psychological difference between the English and the -Germans. They seem to maintain that the latter are moved and are to -be influenced by exactly the same series of feelings and ideals as -the former, and show in reality no observable “strangeness” in their -expressions and emotions. By arguments based on this assumption very -striking conclusions are reached. All moral advancement has been the -work of unpopular minorities, the members of which have been branded -as cranks or criminals until time has justified their doctrine. Even -the greatest of such pioneers have not, however, been invariably right. -Their genius has usually been shown most clearly in matters with which -they have been most familiar, while in matters less intimately part of -their experience their judgments have often not stood the test of time -any better than those of smaller men. If therefore our “pro-Germans” -include amongst them men of moral genius, we may expect that such of -their psychological intuitions as deal with England are more likely -to prove true than those that deal with Germany. The importance of -this reservation lies in the probability that the chief psychological -problems connected with the origin and prosecution of this war relate -to the Germans rather than to the English.</p></div> - -<p>In attempting to estimate the actual phenomena of the German mind -at the present time, we must remember that our sources of knowledge -are subject to a rigid selection. Those of us who are unable to give -time to the regular reading of German publications must depend on -extracts which owe their appearance in our papers to some striking -characteristic which may be supposed to be pleasing to the prejudices -or hopes of the English reader. The main facts, however, are clear -enough to yield -<span class="xxpn" id="p176">{176}</span> valuable conclusions, if such are made on broad -lines without undue insistence on minor points.</p> - -<p>An intense but often ingenuous and even childish national arrogance -is a character that strikes one at once. It seems to be a serious and -often a solemn emotion impregnably armoured against the comic sense, -and expressed with a childlike confidence in its justness. It is -usually associated with a language of metaphor, which is almost always -florid and banal, and usually grandiose and strident. This fondness for -metaphor and inability to refer to common things by plain names affects -all classes, from Emperor to journalist, and gives an impression of -peculiar childishness. It reminds one of the primitive belief in the -transcendental reality and value of names.</p> - -<p>The national arrogance of the German is at the -same time peculiarly sensitive and peculiarly obtuse. -It is readily moved by praise or blame, though that -be the most perfunctory and this the most mild, but -it has no sense of a public opinion outside the pack. -It is easily aroused to rage by external criticism, -and when it finds its paroxysms make it ridiculous -to the spectator it cannot profit by the information -but becomes, if possible, more angry. It is quite -unable to understand that to be moved to rage by -an enemy is as much a proof of slavish automatism -as to be moved to fear by him. The really extraordinary -hatred for England is, quite apart from -the obvious association of its emotional basis with -fear, a most interesting phenomenon. The fact that -it was possible to organize so unanimous a howl -shows very clearly how fully the psychological -mechanisms of the wolf were in action. It is most -instructive to find eminent men of science and -philosophers bristling and baring their teeth with -the rest, and would be another proof, if such were -needed, of the infinite insecurity of the hold of -<span class="xxpn" id="p177">{177}</span> -reason in the most carefully cultivated minds when -it is opposed by strong herd -feeling.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc17" href="#fn17">17</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn17" href="#afnanc17">17</a> -I have not included in these pages actual quotations from German -authors illustrative of the national characteristics they so richly display. -Such material may be found in abundance in the many books -upon Germany which have appeared since the beginning of the war. -The inclusion of it here would therefore have been superfluous, and -would have tended perhaps to distract attention from the more general -aspects of the subject which are the main objects of this study. -During the process of final revision I am, however, tempted to add -a single illustration which happens just to have caught my eye as -being a representative and not at all an extreme example of the -national arrogance I refer to above. -</p> -<p> -In an article on “The German Mind” by Mr. John Buchan I find -the following quotations from a Professor Werner Sombart, of Berlin:― -</p> -<p> -“When the German stands leaning on his mighty sword, clad in steel -from his sole to his head, whatsoever will may, down below, dance -around his feet, and the intellectuals and the learned men of England, -France, Russia, and Italy may rail at him and throw mud. But -in his lofty repose he will not allow himself to be disturbed, and -he will reflect in the sense of his old ancestors in Europe: <i>Oderint -dum metuant</i>.” -</p> -<p> -“We must purge from our soul the last fragments of the old ideal of a -progressive development of humanity. . . . The ideal of humanity can -only be understood in its highest sense when it attains its highest and -richest development in particular noble nations. These for the time -being are the representatives of God’s thought on earth. Such were the -Jews. Such were the Greeks. And the chosen people of these centuries is -the German people. . . . Now we understand why other peoples pursue us -with their hatred. They do not understand us, but they are sensible of -our enormous spiritual superiority. So the Jews were hated in antiquity -because they were the representatives of God on earth” (“The German -Mind,” <i>Land and Water</i>, November 6, 1915).</p> - -<p>These passages are almost too good to be true, and give one some of the -pleasure of the collector who finds a perfect specimen. Here we have -the gusto in childish and banal metaphor, the conception of the brutal -conqueror’s state as permanently blissful—the colonizing principle -of Prussia—the naïve generalizations from history, the confident -assumption of any characteristic which appears desirable in morals or -religion, the impenetrable self-esteem, and I think we should add the -intense and honest conviction. -</p> -<p> -If we judge from the standpoint of our own feelings and ideals such -utterances as these, we cannot ignore the maniacal note in them, and -we seem forced to assume some actually lunatic condition in the German -people. Indeed, this is a conclusion which Mr. Buchan in the article -from which I quote does not hesitate definitely and persuasively to -draw. -</p> -<p> -When we remember, however, that the definition of insanity is -necessarily a statistical one, that in the last analysis we can but -say that a madman is a man who behaves differently from the great bulk -of his neighbours, we find that to describe a nation as mad—true as -it may be in a certain sense—leaves us without much addition to our -knowledge. In so far, however, as it impresses upon us the fact that -some of that nation’s mental processes are fundamentally different -from our own it is a useful conception. The statesman will do well to -carry the analysis a stage farther. The ravings of a maniac do not -help us much in forecasting his behaviour, the howlings of a pack of -wolves, equally irrational, equally harsh, even, in the original sense, -equally lunatic, betray to us with whom we have to deal, betray their -indispensable needs, their uncontrollable passions, the narrow path of -instinct in which they are held, enable us to foresee, and, -foreseeing, to lay our plans.</p></div> - -<p>It is important, however, not to judge the -functional value of these phenomena of herd arrogance -and herd irritability and convulsive rage from -the point of view of nations of the socialized -gregarious type such as ourselves. To us they would -be disturbants of judgment, and have no corresponding -emotional recompense. In the wolf pack, -however, they are indigenous, and represent a normal -mechanism for inciting national enthusiasm and -unity. The wolf, whose existence depends on the -daily exercise of pursuit and slaughter, cannot afford -<span class="xxpn" id="p178">{178}</span> -to be open to external appeals and criticisms, must -be supremely convinced of his superiority and that -whoever dies he must live, and must be easily stimulated -to the murderous rages by which he wins -his food.</p> - -<p>Another difficulty in the understanding of the -German mind is its behaviour with regard to influencing -non-German opinion. There can be no -doubt that it desires intensely to create impressions -<span class="xxpn" id="p179">{179}</span> -favourable to itself, not merely for the sake of -practical advantages in conducting the war, but also -because of the desire for sympathy. In considering -the latter motive it is important that one’s -attention should not be too much attracted by the -comic aspects of the searchings of heart, publicly -indulged by Germans, as to why they are not -regarded with a more general and sincere affection, -and of the answers which they themselves have -furnished to this portentous problem. That they -are too modest, too true, too self-obliterating, too -noble, too brave, and too kind are answers the -psychological significance of which should not be -altogether lost in laughter. That they are honest -expressions of belief cannot be doubted; indeed, -there is strong theoretical reason to accept them -as such, when we remember the -fabulous<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc18" href="#fn18">18</a> impenetrability -of lupine herd suggestion. In default of -such an explanation they seem to be utterly incomprehensible.</p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn18" href="#afnanc18">18</a> -The use of this adjective may perhaps call to mind how -often the wolf has appeared in fable in just this mood. Usually, -however, the fabulist—being of the unsympathetic socialized type—has -ascribed the poor creature’s yearnings to hypocrisy.</p></div> - -<p>In her negotiations with other peoples, and her -estimates of national character, Germany shows the -characteristic features of her psychological type in -a remarkable way. It appears to be a principal -thesis of hers that altruism is, for the purposes of -the statesman, non-existent, or if it exists is an -evidence of degeneracy and a source of weakness. -The motives upon which a nation acts are, according -to her, self-interest and fear, and in no particular -has her “strangeness” been more fully shown than -in the frank way in which she appeals to both, -either alternately or together.</p> - -<p>This disbelief in altruism, and over-valuation of -fear and self-interest, seem to be regarded by her -<span class="xxpn" id="p180">{180}</span> -as evidence of a fearless and thorough grasp of -biological truth, and are often fondly referred to -as “true German objectivity” or the German “sense -for reality.” How grossly, in fact, they conflict with -the biological theory of gregariousness is clear -enough. It is interesting that the German negotiators -have been almost uniformly unsuccessful in -imposing their wishes on States in which the -socialized type of gregariousness is highly developed—Italy, -the United States—and have succeeded with -barbarous peoples of the lupine type, with the Turk, -whose “objectivity” and appetite for massacre -remain ever fresh, patriarch among wolves as he is, -with Bulgaria, the wolf of the second Balkan War.</p> - -<p>There is strong reason to believe that defective -insight into the minds of others is one of the chief -disadvantages of the aggressive as compared with -the socialized type of gregariousness. This disadvantage -is so great, and yet so deeply inherent, -as to justify the belief that the type is the most -primitive of those now surviving, and that its -present resuscitation in man is a phenomenon which -will prove to be no more than transient.</p> - -<p>It would be of little value to enumerate the well-known -instances in which failure of insight, and -ignorance of the psychology of the herd, has been -misleading or disadvantageous to Germany. It is -relevant, however, to note the superb illustration -of psychological principle which is afforded by the -relations of Germany to England during the last -fifteen years. That England was the great obstacle -to indefinite expansion was clearly understood by -those whom the conception of a consciously directed -and overwhelmingly powerful German Empire had -inspired. I have tried to show how great a conception -this was, how truly in the line of natural -evolution, how it marks an epoch even on the biological -scale. Unfortunately for Germany, her social -<span class="xxpn" id="p181">{181}</span> -type was already fixed, with such advantages and -defects as it possessed, and amongst them the -immense defect of the lupine attitude towards an -enemy—the over-mastering temptation to intimidate -him rather than to understand, and to accept the easy -and dangerous suggestions of hostility in estimating -his strength.</p> - -<p>There is in the whole of human history perhaps -no more impressive example of the omnipotence -of instinct than that which is afforded by the -reactions of Germany towards England. An intelligent, -educated, organized people, directed consciously -towards a definite ambition, finds its path -blocked by an enemy in chief. Surely there are -two principles of action which should at once be -adopted: first, to estimate with complete objectivity -the true strength of the enemy, and to allow no -national prejudice, no liking for pleasant prophesying -to distort the truth, and secondly, to guard -against exasperating the enemy, lest the inevitable -conflict should ultimately be precipitated by her -at her moment.</p> - -<p>Both these principles the instinctive impulsions -to which Germany was liable compelled her to -violate. She allowed herself to accept opinions -of England’s strength, moral and physical, which -were pleasant rather than true. She listened eagerly -to political philosophers and historians—the most -celebrated of whom was, by an ominous coincidence, -deaf—who told her that the Empire of England -was founded in fraud and perpetuated in feebleness, -that it consisted of a mere loose congeries of disloyal -peoples who would fly asunder at the first touch of -“reality,” that it was rotten with insurgency, senile -decay and satiety, and would not and could not -fight. Even if these things had been a full statement -of the case, they must have been dangerous -doctrines. They were defective because the -<span class="xxpn" id="p182">{182}</span> -observers were unaware that they were studying -different instinctive reactions from their own, and -were, therefore, deaf to the notes which might have -put them on their guard.</p> - -<p>At the same time, Germany allowed herself to -indulge the equally pleasant expression of her -hostility with a freedom apparently unrestrained by -any knowledge that such indulgences cannot be -enjoyed for nothing. She produced in this country -a great deal of alarm, and a great deal of irritation, -an effect she no doubt regarded as gratifying, but -which made it quite certain that sooner or later -England would recognize her implacable enemy, -though, inarticulate as usual, she might not say -much about it. . . .</p> - -<p class="padtopb">Another feature of Germany’s social type, which -has an important bearing on her moral strength, -is the relation of the individual citizens to one -another. The individual of the wolf pack is of -necessity fierce, aggressive, and irritable, otherwise -he cannot adequately fulfil his part in the major -unit. Apparently it is beyond the power of Nature -to confine the ferocity of the wolf solely to the -external activities of the pack, as would obviously be -in many ways advantageous, and to a certain extent -therefore it affects the relations of members of -the pack to one another. This is seen very well -even in the habits of domesticated dogs, who are -apt to show more or less suppressed suspicion and -irritability towards one another even when well -acquainted, an irritability moreover which is apt -to blaze out into hostility on very slight provocation.</p> - -<p>Most external commentators on modern German -life have called attention to the harshness which is -apt to pervade social relations. They tell us of an -atmosphere of fierce competition, of ruthless -<span class="xxpn" id="p183">{183}</span> -scandalmongering and espionage, of insistence upon minute -distinctions of rank and title, of a rigid ceremonious -politeness which obviously has little relation to -courtesy, of a deliberate cultivation by superiors -of a domineering harshness towards their inferiors, -of habitual cruelty to animals, and indeed of the -conscious, deliberate encouragement of harshness -and hardness of manner and feeling as laudable -evidences of virility. The statistics of crime, the -manners of officials, the tone of newspapers, the -ferocious discipline of the Army, and the general -belief that personal honour is stained by endurance -and purified by brutality are similar phenomena.</p> - -<p>Nothing in this category, however, is more -illuminating than the treatment by Germany of -colonies and conquered territories. To the English -the normal method of treating a conquered country -is to obliterate, as soon as possible, every trace -of conquest, and to assimilate the inhabitants to -the other citizens of the empire by every possible -indulgence of liberty and self-government. It is, -therefore, difficult for him to believe that the German -actually likes to be reminded that a given province -has been conquered, and is not unwilling that a -certain amount of discontent and restiveness in the -inhabitants should give him opportunities of forcibly -exercising his dominion and resuscitating the glories -of conquest. Although this fact has no doubt been -demonstrated countless times, it was first displayed -unmistakably to the world in the famous Zabern -incident. Those who have studied the store of -psychological material furnished by that affair, the -trial and judgments which followed it, and the -ultimate verdict of the people thereon, cannot fail -to have reached the conclusion that here is exposed -in a crucial experiment a people which is either -totally incomprehensible, or is responding to the -calls of herd instinct by a series of reactions almost -<span class="xxpn" id="p184">{184}</span> -totally different from those we regard as normal. -When the biological key to the situation is discovered -the series of events otherwise bizarre to -the pitch of incredibility becomes not only intelligible -and consistent, but also inevitable.</p> - -<p>The differences in instinctive social type between -Germany and England are betrayed in many minor -peculiarities of behaviour that cannot be examined -or even enumerated here. Some of them are of -little importance in themselves, though all of them -are significant when the whole bulk of evidence -to which they contribute a share is considered. -Indeed, some of the less obviously important characteristics, -by the very nicety with which they fulfil -the conditions demanded by the biological necessities -of the case, have a very special value as evidence -in favour of the generalizations which I have -suggested. I permit myself an illustration of this -point. The use of war cries and shibboleths doubtless -seems in itself an insignificant subject enough, -yet I think an examination of it can be shown to -lead directly to the very central facts of the -international situation.</p> - -<p>Few phenomena have been more striking throughout -the war than the way in which the German -people have been able to take up certain cries—directed -mostly against England—and bring them -into hourly familiar and unanimous use. The phrase -“God punish England!” seems actually to have -attained a real and genuine currency, and to have -been used by all classes and all ages as a greeting -with a solemnity and gusto which are in no way the -less genuine for being, to our unsympathetic eyes, so -ludicrous. The famous “Hymn of Hate” had, no -doubt, a popularity equally wide, and was used with -a fervour which showed the same evidence of a -mystic satisfaction.</p> - -<p>Attempts have been made to impose upon England -<span class="xxpn" id="p185">{185}</span> -similar watchwords with the object of keeping some -of the direst events of the war before our eyes, and -fortifying the intensity and scope of our horror. -We have been adjured to “remember” Belgium, -Louvain, the <i>Lusitania</i>, and latterly the name of -an heroic and savagely murdered nurse. Horrible -as has been the crime to which we have been -recalled by each of these phrases, there has never -been the slightest sign that the memory of it could -acquire a general currency of quotation, and by that -mechanism become a stronger factor in unity -determination or endurance.</p> - -<p>An allied phenomenon which may perhaps be mentioned -here is the difference in attitude of the -German and the English soldier towards war songs. -To the German the war song is a serious matter; it -is for the most part a grave composition, exalted -in feeling, and thrilling with the love of country; -he is taught to sing it, and he sings it well, with -obvious and touching sincerity and with equally -obvious advantage to his morale.</p> - -<p>The attempt to introduce similar songs and a -similar attitude towards them to the use of the -English soldier has often been made, and exactly -as often lamentably failed. On the whole it has -been, perhaps, the most purely comic effort of the -impulse to mimic Germany which has been in favour -until of late with certain people of excellent aims -but inadequate biological knowledge. The English -soldier, consistently preferring the voice of Nature -to that of the most eminent doctrinaire, has, to the -scandal of his lyrical enemies, steadily drawn his -inspiration from the music-hall and the gutter, or -from his own rich store of flippant and ironic -realism.</p> - -<p>The biological meaning of these peculiarities -renders them intelligible and consistent with one -another. The predaceous social animals in attack -<span class="xxpn" id="p186">{186}</span> -or pursuit are particularly sensitive to the encouragement -afforded by one another’s voices. The pack -gives tongue because of the functional value of the -exercise, which is clearly of importance in keeping -individuals in contact with one another, and in -stimulating in each the due degree of aggressive -rage. That serious and narrow passion tends -naturally to concentrate itself upon some external -object or quarry, which becomes by the very fact an -object of hate to the exclusion of any other feeling, -whether of sympathy, self-possession, or a sense of -the ludicrous. The curious spectacle of Germans -greeting one another with “God punish England!” -and the appropriate response is therefore no accidental -or meaningless phenomenon, but a manifestation -of an instinctive necessity; and this explanation -is confirmed by the immensely wide currency of the -performance, and the almost simian gravity with -which it could be carried out. It succeeded because -it had a functional value, just as similar movements -in England have failed because they have had no -functional value, and could have none in a people of -the socialized type, with whom unity depends on a -different kind of bond.</p> - -<p>The wolf, then, is the father of the war song, -and it is among peoples of the lupine type alone that -the war song is used with real seriousness. Animals -of the socialized type are not dependent for their -morale upon the narrow intensities of aggressive -rage. Towards such manifestations of it as concerted -cries and war songs they feel no strong -instinctive impulsion, and are therefore able to -preserve a relatively objective attitude. Such -cryings of the pack, seeming thus to be mere -functionless automatisms, naturally enough come to -be regarded as patently absurd.</p> - -<p>Examples of behaviour illustrating these deep -differences of reaction are often to be met with in the -<span class="xxpn" id="p187">{187}</span> -stories of those who have described incidents of -the war. It is recorded that German soldiers in -trenches within hearing of the English, seeking to -exasperate and appal the latter, have sung in an -English version their fondly valued “Hymn of -Hate.” Whereupon the English, eagerly listening -and learning the words of the dreadful challenge, -have petrified their enemies by repeating it with -equal energy and gusto, dwelling no doubt with -the appreciation of experts upon the curses of their -native land.</p> - -<p>It would scarcely be possible to imagine a -more significant demonstration of the psychological -differences of the two social types.</p> - -<p>The peculiarities of a state of the wolfish type -are admirably suited to conditions of aggression and -conquest, and readily yield for those purposes a -maximal output of moral strength. As long as such -a nation is active and victorious in war, its moral -resources cannot fail, and it will be capable of -an indefinite amount of self-sacrifice, courage, and -energy. Take away from it, however, the opportunities -of continued aggression, interrupt the -succession of victories by a few heavy defeats, and -it must inevitably lose the perfection of its working -as an engine of moral power. The ultimate and -singular source of <i>inexhaustible</i> moral power in a -gregarious unit is the perfection of communion -amongst its individual members. As we have seen, -this source is undeveloped in units of the aggressive -type, and has been deliberately ignored by Germany. -As soon, if ever, as she has to submit to a few unmistakable -defeats in the field, as soon as, if it should -happen, all outlets for fresh aggression are closed, -she will become aware of how far she has staked -her moral resources on continuous success, and will -not be able for long to conceal her knowledge -from the world. -<span class="xxpn" id="p188">{188}</span></p> - -<p>That she herself has always been dimly aware -of the nature of her strength—though not perhaps -of her potential weakness—is shown by her steady -insistence upon the necessity of aggression, upon -maintaining the attack at whatever cost of life. This -is a principle she has steadily acted upon throughout -the war. It is exemplified by the whole series -of terrible lunges at her enemies she has made. The -strategic significance of these has, perhaps, become -less as the moral necessity for them has become -greater. France, Flanders, Russia, and the Balkans -have in turn had to supply the moral food of victory -and attack without which she would soon have -starved. There is a quality at which the imagination -cannot but be appalled in this fate of a great and -wonderful nation, however much her alienation of -herself from the instincts of mankind may have -frozen the natural currents of pity. Panting with -the exhaustion of her frightful blow at Russia, she -must yet turn with who knows what weariness to -yet another enterprise, in which to find the moral -necessities which the Russian campaign was already -ceasing to supply. It is to a similar mechanism that -we must look to trace the ultimate source of the -submarine and aircraft campaigns against England. -Strategically, these proceedings may or may not -have been regarded hopefully; possibly they were -based on a definite military plan, though they do -not to us have that appearance. Very probably -they were expected to disorganize English morale. -Behind them both, however, whether consciously or -not, was the moral necessity to do something against -England. This is indicated by the circumstances -and the periods of the war at which they were -seriously taken up. As both the submarine and -the Zeppelin campaigns involve no great expenditure -or dissipation of power, the fact that their -value is moral rather than military, and concerned -<span class="xxpn" id="p189">{189}</span> -with the morale of their inventors rather than that -of their victims, is chiefly of academic interest as -throwing further light on the nature of Germany’s -strength and weakness.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">Its attitude towards discipline displays the German -mind in a relation sufficiently instructive to merit -some comment here. When Germany has been -reproached with being contented to remain in what -is, by comparison with other peoples, a condition -of political infantilism, with allowing the personal -liberty of her citizens to be restricted on all hands, -and their political responsibility to be kept within -the narrowest limits, the answer of the political -theorists has generally contained two distinct and -contradictory apologetic theses. It has been said -that the German, recognizing the value of State -organization, and that strict discipline is a necessary -preliminary to it, consciously resigns the illusory -privileges of the democrat in order to gain power, -and submits to a kind of social contract which is -unquestionably advantageous in the long run. The -mere statement of such a proposition is enough to -refute it, and we need give no further attention -to an intellectualist fallacy so venerable and so -completely inconsistent with experience. It is also -said, however, that the German has a natural aptitude -for discipline amounting to genius. In a sense -a little less flattering than it is intended to have, -this proposition is as true as that of the social contract -is false. The aggressive social type lends -itself naturally to discipline, and shows it in its -grossest forms. The socialized type is, of course, -capable of discipline, otherwise a State would be -impossible, but the discipline that prevails in it is -apt to become indirect, less harshly compulsory and -more dependent on goodwill.</p> - -<p>It is perhaps natural that units within which -<span class="xxpn" id="p190">{190}</span> -ferocity and hardness are tolerated and encouraged -should depend on a correspondingly savage method -of enforcing their will. The flock of sheep has its -shepherd, but the pack of hounds has its <i>Whips</i>. -In human societies of the same type we should -expect to find, therefore, a general acquiescence in -the value of discipline, and a toleration of its enforcement, -because, rather than in spite of, its being -harsh. This seems to be the mechanism which -underlies what is to the Englishman the mystery -of German submission to direction and discipline. -That an able-bodied soldier should submit to being -lashed across the face by his officer for some trivial -breach of etiquette—a type of incident common and -well witnessed to—is evidence of a state of mind -in <i>both</i> parties utterly incomprehensible to our feelings. -The hypothesis I am suggesting would explain -it by comparison with the only available similar -phenomenon—the submission of a dog to a thrashing -administered by his master. The dog illustrates -very well that in a predaceous social animal -the enforcement of a harsh and even brutal discipline -is not only a possible but also a perfectly satisfactory -procedure in the psychological sense. That -other common victim of man’s brutality—the horse—provides -an interesting complement to the proposition -by showing that in a protectively social animal -a savage enforcement of discipline is psychologically -unsatisfactory. It seems justifiable, therefore, to -conclude that the aggressive gregariousness of the -Germans is the instinctive source of the marvellous -discipline of their soldiers, and the contribution it -makes to their amazing bravery. It must not be -taken as any disrespect for that wonderful quality, -but as a desire to penetrate as far as possible into -its meaning, that compels one to point out that -the theoretical considerations I have advanced are -confirmed by the generally admitted dependence of -<span class="xxpn" id="p191">{191}</span> -the German soldier on his officers and the at least -respectably attested liability he shows to the indulgence -of an inhuman savagery towards any one who -is not his master by suggestion or by force of arms.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">In the attempt I have made to get some insight -into the German mind, and to define the meaning -of its ideals, and needs, and impulses in biological -terms, I have had to contend with the constant bias -one has naturally been influenced by in discussing -a people not only intensely hostile, but also animated -by what I have tried to show is an alien type of -the social habit. Nevertheless, there seem to be -certain broad conclusions which may be usefully -recalled in summary here as constituting reasonable -probabilities. My purpose will have been -effected if these are sufficiently consistent to afford -a point of view slightly different from the customary -one, and yielding some practical insight into the -facts.</p> - -<p>Germany presents to the biological psychologist -the remarkable paradox of being in the first place -a State consciously directed towards a definite series -of ideals and ambitions, and deliberately organized -to obtain them, and in the second place a State in -which prevails a primitive type of the gregarious -instinct—the aggressive—a type which shows the -closest resemblance in its needs, its ideals, and its -reactions to the society of the wolf pack. Thus -she displays, in one respect, what I have shown -to be the summit of gregarious evolution, and in -another its very antithesis—a type of society which -has always been transient, and has failed to satisfy -the needs of modern civilized man.</p> - -<p>When I compare German society with the wolf -pack, and the feelings, desires, and impulses of the -individual German with those of the wolf or dog, -I am not intending to use a vague analogy, but -<span class="xxpn" id="p192">{192}</span> -to call attention to a real and gross identity. The -aggressive social animal has a complete and consistent -series of psychical reactions, which will necessarily -be traceable in his feelings and his behaviour, -whether he is a biped or a quadruped, a man or -an insect. The psychical necessity that makes the -wolf brave in a massed attack is the same as that -which makes the German brave in a massed attack; -the psychical necessity which makes the dog submit -to the whip of his master and profit by it makes -the German soldier submit to the lash of his officer -and profit by it. The instinctive process which -makes the dog among his fellows irritable, suspicious, -ceremonious, sensitive about his honour, and -immediately ready to fight for it is identical in -the German and produces identical effects.</p> - -<p>The number and minuteness of the coincidences -of behaviour between the German and other aggressive -social species, the number and precision of -the differences between the German and the other -types of social animals make up together a body -of evidence which is difficult to ignore.</p> - -<p>Moreover, we see Germany compelled to submit -to disadvantages, consequent upon her social type, -which, we may suppose, she would have avoided -had they not been too deeply ingrained for even -her thoroughness to remove. Thus she is unable -to make or keep friends amongst nations of the -socialized type; her instinctive valuation of fear -as a compelling influence has allowed her to indulge -the threatenings and warlike gestures which have -alienated all the strong nations, and intimidated -successfully only the weak—England, for example, -is an enemy entirely of her own making; she -has been forced to conduct the war on a plan -of ceaseless and frightfully costly aggression, -because her morale could have survived no other -method. -<span class="xxpn" id="p193">{193}</span></p> - -<p>The ultimate object of science is foresight. It -may fairly be asked, therefore, supposing these -speculations to have any scientific justification, what -light do they throw on the future? It would be -foolish to suppose that speculations so general can -yield, in forecasting the future, a precision which -they do not pretend to possess. Keeping, however, -to the level of very general inference, two -observations may be hazarded.</p> - -<p>First, the ultimate destiny of Germany cannot -be regarded as very much in doubt. If we are -content to look beyond this war, however it may -issue, and take in a longer stretch of time, we can -say with quite a reasonable degree of assurance -that Germanic power, of the type we know and fear -to-day, is impermanent. Germany has left the path -of natural evolution, or rather, perhaps, has never -found it. Unless, therefore, her civilization undergoes -a radical change, and comes to be founded on -a different series of instinctive impulses, it will -disappear from the earth. All the advantages she -has derived from conscious direction and organization -will not avail to change her fate, because -conscious direction is potent only when it works -hand in hand with Nature, and its first task—which -the directors of Germany have neglected—is to find -out the path which man must follow.</p> - -<p>Secondly, a word may be ventured about the -war in so far as the consideration of Germany alone -can guide us. As I have tried to show, her morale -is more rigidly conditioned than that of her -opponents. They have merely to maintain their -resistance, to do which they have certain psychological -advantages, and they must win. She must -continue aggressive efforts, and if these can be held -by her enemies—not more—she must go on galvanizing -her weary nerves until they fail to respond. I -am not for a moment venturing to suppose myself -<span class="xxpn" id="p194">{194}</span> -competent to give the slightest hint upon the conduct -of the war; I am merely pointing out what I regard -as a psychological fact. Whether it has any -practical military value is not in my province to -decide.</p> - -<p>If one claimed the liberty of all free men, to have -over and above considered judgment a real guess, -one would be inclined to venture the opinion -that, however well things go with the enemies of -Germany, there will not be much fighting on -German soil.</p> - -<p>The proposition that the strength and weakness -of Germany are rigidly conditioned by definite and -ascertainable psychological necessities is, if it is -valid, chiefly of interest to the strategist and those -who are responsible for the general lines of the -campaign against her. We may well, however, ask -whether psychological principle yields any hint of -guidance in the solution of the further and equally -important problem of how her enemies are to secure -and render permanent the fruits of the victory upon -which they are resolved.</p> - -<p>This problem has already been the subject of a -good deal of controversy, which is likely to increase -as the matter comes more and more into the field of -practical affairs.</p> - -<p>Two types of solution have been expounded which, -apart from what inessential agreement they may -show in demanding the resurrection of such small -nations as Germany has been able to assassinate, -differ profoundly in the treatment they propose for -the actual enemy herself. Both profess to be based -upon the desire for a really permanent peace, and the -establishment of a truly stable equilibrium between -the antagonists. It is upon the means by which this -result is to be secured that differences arise.</p> - -<p>The official solution, and that almost universally -accepted by the bulk of the people, insists that the -<span class="xxpn" id="p195">{195}</span> -“military domination of Prussia,” “German militarism,” -or the “German military system” as it is -variously phrased, must be wholly and finally -destroyed. This doctrine has received many interpretations. -In spite, however, of criticism by moderates -on the one hand and by unpractically ferocious -root-and-branch men on the other, it seems to -remain—significantly enough—an expression of -policy which the common man feels for the time to -be adequate.</p> - -<p>The most considerable criticism has come from -the small class of accomplished and intellectual -writers who from their pacifist and “international” -tendencies have to some extent been accused, no -doubt falsely, of being pro-German in the sense -of anti-English. The complaint of this school -against the official declaration of policy is, that it -does not disclose a sufficiently definite object or the -means by which this object is to be attained. We -are told that as a nation we do not know what we -are fighting for, and, what amounts to the same -thing, that we cannot attain the object we profess -to pursue by the exercise of military force however -drastically it may be applied. We are warned -that we should seek a “reasonable” peace and -one which by its moderation would have an -educative effect upon the German people, that to -crush and especially in any way to dismember the -German Empire would confirm its people in their -belief that this war is a war of aggression by -envious neighbours, and make revenge a national -aspiration.</p> - -<p>Such criticism has not always been very effectually -answered, and the generally current feeling has -proved disconcertingly inarticulate in the presence -of its agile and well-equipped opponents. Indeed, -upon the ordinary assumptions of political debate, -it is doubtful whether any quite satisfactory answer -<span class="xxpn" id="p196">{196}</span> -can be produced. It is just, however, these very -assumptions which must be abandoned and replaced -by more appropriate psychological principles when -we are trying to obtain light upon the relations of -two peoples of profoundly different social type and -instinctive reaction. The common man seems to -be dimly aware of this difference though he cannot -define it; the intellectual of what, for want of a -better term, I may call the pacifist type in all its -various grades, proceeds upon the assumption that -no such difference exists. Much as one must respect -the courage and capacity of many of these latter, -one cannot but recognize that their conceptions, -however logical and however ingenious, lack the -invigorating contact with reality which the instinctive -feelings of the common man have not altogether -failed to attain.</p> - -<p>Let us now consider what guidance in the solution -of the problem can be got from a consideration -of the peculiarities of the social type which the -Germans of the present day so characteristically -present.</p> - -<p>Regarded from this point of view, the war is seen -to be directed against a social type which, when -endowed with the technical resources of modern -civilization, is, and must continue to be, a dangerous -anachronism. A people of the aggressive social -habit can never be in a state of stable equilibrium -with its neighbours. The constitution of its society -presents a rigid barrier to smooth and continuous -internal integration; its energy, therefore, must be -occupied upon essentially, though not always superficially, -external objects, and its history will necessarily -be made up of alternating periods of -aggression and periods of preparation. Such a -people has no conception of the benign use of power. -It must regard war as an end in itself, as the summit -of its national activities, as the recurring apogee -<span class="xxpn" id="p197">{197}</span> -of its secular orbit; it must regard peace as a -necessary and somewhat irksome preparation for war -in which it may savour reminiscently the joys of -conquest by dragooning its new territories and -drastically imposing upon them its national type. -This instinctive insistence upon uniformity makes -every conquest by such a people an impoverishment -of the human race, and makes the resistance of -such aggression an elementary human duty.</p> - -<p>In every particular Germany has proved true to -her social type, and every detail of her history for -the last fifty years betrays the lupine quality of -her ideals and her morals.</p> - -<p>We have seen that in all gregarious animals -the social instinct must follow one of three principal -types, each of which will produce a herd having -special activities and reactions. The major units -of the human species appear limited to a similar -number of categories, but it is probable that -the perpetuation of a given type in a given herd -is not chiefly a matter of heredity in the individual. -The individual is gregarious by inheritance; -the type according to which his gregarious -reactions are manifested is not inherited, but will -depend upon the form current in the herd to which -he belongs, and handed down in it from generation -to generation. Thus it has happened that nations -have been able in the course of their history to pass -from the aggressive to the socialized type. The -change has perhaps been rendered possible by the -existence of class segregation of a not too rigid -kind, and has doubtless depended upon a progressive -intercommunication and the consequently -developing altruism. The extremely rigid Prussian -social system seems clearly to be associated with the -persistence of the aggressive form of society.</p> - -<p>In considering the permanent deliverance of -Europe from the elements in Germany for which -<span class="xxpn" id="p198">{198}</span> -there can be no possible toleration, we therefore -have not to deal with characters which must be -regarded as inherited in the biological sense. We -have to deal rather with a group of reactions which, -while owing their unity, coherence, and power to -the inherited qualities of the gregarious mind, owe -their perpetuation to organized State suggestion, to -tradition, and to their past success as a national -method.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that the success of the -German Empire has consolidated the hold of the -aggressive social type upon its people, and has -guarded it from the eroding effects of increasing -communication with other peoples and knowledge -of the world. As I have already tried to show, -the moral power of such peoples is intimately -associated with the continuance of aggression and -of success. The German Empire has had no experience -of failure, and for this reason has been able -to maintain its ideals and aspirations untouched by -modern influences. It needs no psychological insight -to foretell that if the result of this war can be in -any way regarded as a success for Germany, she -will be thereby confirmed in her present ideals, -however great her sufferings may have been, and -however complete her exhaustion. It must be remembered -that this type of people is capable of -interpreting facts in accordance with its prejudices -to an almost incredible extent, as we have seen -time and again in the course of the war. The -proof that the aggressive national type is intolerable -in modern Europe, if it can be afforded by -force of arms, must therefore be made very plain, -or it will have no value as a lesson. Proof of failure -adequate to convince a people of the socialized type -might be quite inadequate to convince a people -of the lupine type in whom, from the nature of the -case, mental resistiveness is so much more -<span class="xxpn" id="p199">{199}</span> -impenetrable. This is the psychological fact of which -the statesmen of Europe will have to be, above -all things, aware when questions of peace come -seriously to be discussed, for otherwise they will -risk the loss of all the blood and treasure which -have been expended without any corresponding gain -for civilization.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">We have -been warned that to “humiliate” Germany -will merely be to set her upon the preparation -of vengeance, and to confirm her belief in the -supreme value of military strength. This opinion -affects to be based on a knowledge of human nature, -but its pretensions are not very well founded. The -passion of revenge is habitually over-estimated as -a motive—possibly through the influence of the -novelists and playwrights to whom it is so useful. -When we examine man’s behaviour objectively we -find that revenge, however deathless a passion it -is vowed to be at emotional moments, is in actual -life constantly having to give way to more urgent -and more recent needs and feelings. Between -nations there is no reason to suppose that it has -any more reality as a motive of policy, though it -perhaps has slightly more value as a consolatory -pose.</p> - -<p>It is curious that the naïve over-estimation of -the revenge ideal should have been uninfluenced by -so obvious an example as the relations of France -and Germany. In 1870 the former was “humiliated” -with brutal completeness and every element -of insult. She talked of revenge, as she could -scarcely fail to do, but she soon showed that her -grasp on reality was too firm to allow her policy -to be moved by that childish passion. Characteristically, -it was the victorious aggressor who believed -in her longing for revenge, and who at length -attacked her again. -<span class="xxpn" id="p200">{200}</span></p> - -<p>A psychological hint of great value may be obtained -from our knowledge of those animals whose -gregariousness, like that of the Germans, is of the -aggressive type. When it is thought necessary to -correct a dog by corporal measures, it is found -that the best effect is got by what is rather callously -called a “sound” thrashing. The animal must -be left in no doubt as to who is the master, and -his punishment must not be diluted by hesitation, -nervousness, or compunction on the part of the -punisher. The experience then becomes one from -which the dog is capable of learning, and if the -sense of mastery conveyed to him is unmistakable, -he can assimilate the lesson without reservation or -the desire for revenge. However repulsive the idea -may be to creatures of the socialized type, no sentimentalism -and no pacifist theorizing can conceal -the fact that the respect of a dog can be won by -violence. If there is any truth in the view I have -expressed that the moral reactions of Germany follow -the gregarious type which is illustrated by the wolf -and the dog, it follows that her respect is to be -won by a thorough and drastic beating, and it is -just that elementary respect for other nations, of -which she is now entirely free, which it is the duty -of Europe to teach her. If she is allowed to escape -under conditions which in any way can be sophisticated -into a victory, or, at any rate, not a defeat, -she will continue to hate us as she continued to hate -her victim France.</p> - -<p>To the politician, devoted as he necessarily is to -the exclusively human point of view, it may seem -fantastic and scandalous to look for help in international -policy to the conduct of dogs. The gulf -between the two fields is not perhaps so impassably -profound as he would like to think, but, however -that may be, the analogy I have drawn is not unsupported -by evidence of a more respectable kind. -<span class="xxpn" id="p201">{201}</span> -The susceptibility of the individual German to a -harsh and even brutally enforced discipline is well -known. The common soldier submits to be beaten -by his sergeant, and is the better soldier for it; -both submit to the bullying of their officer -apparently also with profit; the common student -is scarcely less completely subject to his professor, -and becomes thereby a model of scientific excellence; -the common citizen submits to the commands -of his superiors, however unreasonably -conceived and insultingly conveyed, and becomes -a model of disciplined behaviour; finally the head -of the State, combining the most drastic methods -of the sergeant, the professor, and the official, wins -not merely a slavish respect, but a veritable apotheosis.</p> - -<p>Germany has shown unmistakably the way to her -heart; it is for Europe to take it.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">E<b>NGLAND</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">AGAINST</span> - <span class="smcap">G<b>ERMANY—</b>E<b>NGLAND.</b></span></h3> -</div> - -<p>It is one of the most impressive facts about the -war, that while Germany is the very type of a -perfected aggressive herd, England is perhaps the -most complete example of a socialized herd. -Corresponding with this biological difference is the -striking difference in their history. Germany has -modelled her soul upon the wolf’s, and has rushed -through the possibilities of her archetype in fifty -feverish years of development; already she is a -finished product, her moral ideal is fulfilled and -leaves her nothing to strive for except the imposition -of it upon the world. England has taken as her -model the bee, and still lags infinitely far behind -the fulfilment of her ideal. In the unbroken security -of her land, for near a thousand years, she has -leisurely, perhaps lazily, and with infinite slowness, -pursued her path towards a social integration of an -<span class="xxpn" id="p202">{202}</span> -ever closer and deeper kind. She has stolidly, -even stupidly, and always in a grossly practical -spirit, held herself to the task of shaping a society -in which free men could live and yet be citizens. -She has had no theory of herself, no consciousness of -her destiny, no will to power. She has had almost -no national heroes, and has always been constitutionally -frigid to her great men, grudging them -the material for their experimentations on her people, -indifferent to their expositions of her duty and her -imperial destiny, granting them a chance to die for -her with no more encouragement than an impatient -sigh. She has allowed an empire to be won for -her by her restless younger sons, has shown no -gratification in their conquests, and so far from -thrilling with the exultation of the conqueror, has -always at the earliest moment set her new dominions -at work upon the problem in which her wholly -unromantic absorption has never relaxed. And after -a thousand years she seems as far as ever from -her goal. Her society is irregular, disorganized, -inco-ordinate, split into classes at war with one -another, weighted at one end with poverty, squalor, -ignorance, and disease, weighted at the other end -by ignorance, prejudice, and corpulent self-satisfaction. -Nevertheless, her patience is no more -shaken by what she is lectured upon as failure -than was her composure by what she was assured -was imperial success. She is no less bound by -her fate than is Germany, and must continue her -path until she reaches its infinitely remoter goal. -Nations may model themselves on her expedients, -and found the architecture of their liberty on the -tabernacles she has set up by the wayside to rest in -for a night—she will continue on her road unconscious -of herself or her greatness, absent-mindedly -polite to genius, pleasantly tickled by prophets with -very loud voices, but apt to go to sleep under -<span class="xxpn" id="p203">{203}</span> -sermons, too awkward to boast or bluster, too -composed to seem strong, too dull to be flattered, -too patient to be flurried, and withal inflexibly -practical and indifferent to dreams.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">No more perfect illustration of the characteristics -of the two nations could be found than their attitude -before the war. England the empiric, dimly conscious -of trouble, was puzzled, restless, and uneasy -in the face of a problem she was threatened with -some day having to study; Germany, the theorist, -cool, “objective,” conscious of herself, was convinced -there was no problem at all.</p> - -<p>In studying the mind of England in the spirit of -the biological psychologist, it is necessary to keep -in mind the society of the bee, just as in studying -the German mind it was necessary to keep in mind -the society of the wolf.</p> - -<p>One of the most striking phenomena which -observers of the bee have noticed is the absence of -any obvious means of direction or government in -the hive. The queen seems to be valued merely -for her functions, which are in no way directive. -Decisions of policy of the greatest moment appear, -as far as we can detect, to arise spontaneously among -the workers, and whether the future is to prove -them right or wrong, are carried out without protest -or disagreement. This capacity for unanimous -decisions is obviously connected with the limited -mental development of the individual, as is shown -by the fact that in man it is very much more feeble. -In spite of this, the unanimity of the hive is wonderfully -effective and surprisingly successful. Speculators -upon the physiology and psychology of bees -have been forced—very tentatively of course—to -imagine that creatures living in such intensely close -communion are able to communicate to one another, -and, as it were, to a common stock, such extremely -<span class="xxpn" id="p204">{204}</span> -simple conceptions as they can be supposed to -entertain, and produce, so to say, a communal mind -which comes to have, at any rate in times of crisis, -a quasi-independent existence. The conception is -difficult to express in concrete terms, and even to -grasp in more than an occasional intuitive flash. -Whether we are to entertain such a conception or -are to reject it, the fact remains that societies of -a very closely communal habit are apt to give the -appearance of being ruled by a kind of common -mind—a veritable spirit of the hive—although no -trace of any directive apparatus can be detected.</p> - -<p>A close study of England gives the impression of -some agency comparable with a “spirit of the hive” -being at work within it. The impression is not -perhaps to be taken as altogether fantastic, when we -remember how her insular station and her long -history have forced upon her a physical seclusion -and unity resembling, though of course far less -complete than, that of the hive. I am of course not -unaware that disquisitions upon the national spirit -are very familiar to us. These, however, are so -loosely conceived, so much concerned with purely -conventional personifications of quite imaginary -qualities, that I cannot regard them as referring -to the phenomenon I am trying to describe.</p> - -<p>The conception in my mind is that of an old and -isolated people, developing, by the slow mingling -and attrition of their ideas, and needs, and impulses, -a certain deeply lying unity which becomes a kind -of “instinct” for national life, and gives to national -policy, without the conscious knowledge of any -individual citizen, without the direction of statesmen, -and perhaps in spite of them all, a continuity of -trend, and even an intelligence, by which events may -be influenced in a profoundly important way.</p> - -<p>The making of some such assumption, helped as -it is by the analogy of the bee, seems to be -<span class="xxpn" id="p205">{205}</span> -necessary when we consider at all objectively the history -of England and her Empire. She has done so -much without any leading, so much in spite of her -ostensible leaders, so often a great policy or a -successful stroke has been apparently accidental. -So much of her work that seemed, while it was -doing, to be local and narrow in conception and -motive displays at a distance evidences of design on -the great scale. Her contests with Philip of Spain, -with Louis XIV, with Napoleon, and the foundation -of her Colonial Empire, would seem to be the -grandiose conceptions of some supreme genius did -we not know how they were undertaken and in -what spirit pursued.</p> - -<p>It appears, then, that England has something -with which to retort upon the conscious direction -to which Germany owes so much of her strength. -Among the number of embattled principles and -counter principles which this war has brought into -the field, we must include as not the least interesting -the duel between conscious national direction on the -one side and unconscious national will and knowledge -on the other.</p> - -<p>It is quite outside my province to touch upon -the diplomatic events which led up to the war. They -seem to me to be irrelevant to the biological type -of analysis we are trying to pursue. There can be -no doubt at all that the ordinary consciousness of -the vast majority of citizens of this country was -intensely averse from the idea of war. Those -who were in general bellicose were for the -moment decidedly out of influence. Can we -suppose, however, that the deep, still spirit of -the hive that whispers unrecognized in us all had -failed to note that strange, gesticulating object across -the North Sea? In its vast, simple memory would -come up other objects that had gone on like that. -It would remember a mailed fist that had been -<span class="xxpn" id="p206">{206}</span> -flourished across the Bay of Biscay three hundred -years ago, a little man in shining armour who had -strutted threateningly on the other shore of the -Channel, and the other little man who had stood -there among his armies, and rattled his sabre in -the scabbard. It had marked them all down in their -time, and it remembered the old vocabulary. It -would turn wearily and a little impatiently to this -new portent over the North Sea. . . . Wise with -the experience of a thousand years, it would know -when to strike.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">Such deeply buried combined national impulses -as we are here glancing at are far removed from -the influence of pacifist or jingo. Any attempt to -define them must be a matter of guesswork and -groping, in which the element of speculation is -far in excess of the element of ascertained fact. It -seems, however, that, as in the case of the bee, -they concern chiefly actual decisions of crucial -matters of policy. To put this suggestion in another -form, we might say the spirit of the people makes the -great wars, but it leaves the statesman to conduct -them. It may make, therefore, a decision of incredible -profundity, launch the people on the necessary -course at the necessary moment, and then leave -them to flounder through the difficulties of their -journey as best they can. Herein is the contrast -it presents with the German resource of conscious -direction—superficial, apt to blunder in all the larger, -deeper matters of human nature, but constant, alert, -and ingenious in making immediate use of every -available means and penetrating every department -of activity.</p> - -<p>During the conduct of war it is only in the -simplest, broadest matters that the spirit of the people -can bring its wisdom to bear. One of the most -striking manifestations of it has, for example, been -<span class="xxpn" id="p207">{207}</span> -the way in which it has shown a knowledge that the -war would be long and hard. The bad news has been, -in general, received without complaint, reproach, or -agitation, the good news, such as it has been, with -a resolute determination not to exult or rejoice. -That so many months of a deadly war have produced -no <i>popular</i> expression of exultation or dismay -is a substantial evidence of moral power, and not -the less impressive for being so plainly the work -of the common man himself.</p> - -<p>Such manifestations of the spirit of the people -are rare, and meet with very little encouragement -from those who have access to the public. It is -astonishing how absent the gift of interpretation -seems to be. A few, a very few, stand -out as being able to catch those whispers of immemorial -wisdom; many seem to be occupied in -confusing them with a harsh and discordant -clamour of speech.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">If we are correct in our analogy of the bee and -the wolf, England has one great moral advantage -over Germany, namely, that there is in the structure -of her society no inherent obstacle to perfect unity -among her people. The utmost unity Germany can -compass is that of the aggressive type, which brings -with it a harsh, non-altruistic relation among individuals, -and can yield its full moral value only -during the maintenance of successful attack. England, -on the other hand, having followed the -socialized type of gregariousness, is free to integrate -her society to an indefinite extent. The -development of the altruistic relation among her -individuals lies in her natural path. Her system of -social segregation is not necessarily a rigid one, -and if she can bring about an adequate acceleration -of the perfectly natural consolidation towards -which she is, and has slowly been, tending, she will -<span class="xxpn" id="p208">{208}</span> -attain access to a store of moral power literally -inexhaustible, and will reach a moral cohesion which -no hardship can shake, and an endurance which -no power on earth can overcome.</p> - -<p>These are no figures of speech, but plain biological -fact, capable of immediate practical application -and yielding an immediate result. It must -be admitted that she has made little progress towards -this consummation since the beginning of the -war. Leaders, including not only governing politicians -but also those who in any way have -access to public notice, tend to enjoin a -merely conventional unity, which is almost functionless -in the promotion of moral strength. It is -not much more than an agreement to say we are -united; it produces no true unity of spirit and no -power in the individual to deny himself the indulgence -of his egoistic impulses in action and in -speech, and is therefore as irritating as it is useless. -It is unfortunate that the education and circumstances -of many public men deny them any opportunity of -learning the very elementary principles which are -necessary for the development of a nation’s moral -resources. Occasionally one or another catches -an intuitive glimpse of some fragment of the -required knowledge, but never enough to enable -him to develop any effective influence. For the -most part their impulses are as likely to be destructive -of the desired effect as favourable to it. -In the past England’s wars have always been conducted -in an atmosphere of disunion, of acrimony, -and of criticism designed to embarrass the Government -rather than, as it professes, to strengthen the -country. It is a testimony to the moral sturdiness -of the people, and to the power and subtlety of the -spirit of the hive, that success has been possible -in such conditions. When one remembers how -England has flourished on domestic discord in -<span class="xxpn" id="p209">{209}</span> -critical times, one is tempted to believe that she derives -some mysterious power from such a state, and that -the abolition of discord might not be for her the -advantageous change it appears so evidently to be. -Consideration, however, must show that this hypothesis -is inadmissible, and that England has won -through on these occasions in spite of the handicap -discord has put upon her. In the present war, -tough and hard as is her moral fibre, she will need -every element of her power to avoid the weariness -and enfeeblement that will otherwise come upon -her before her task is done.</p> - -<p>Throughout the months of warfare that have -already passed no evidence has become public of -any recognition that the moral power of a nation -depends upon causes which can be identified, formulated, -and controlled. It seems to be unknown -that that domination of egoistic impulses by social -impulses which we call a satisfactory morale is -capable of direct cultivation as such, that by it the -resources of the nation are made completely available -to the nation’s leaders, that without it every -demand upon the citizen is liable to be grudgingly -met or altogether repudiated.</p> - -<p>We are told by physicians that uninstructed -patients are apt to insist upon the relief of their -symptoms, and to care nothing for the cure of -their diseases, that a man will demand a bottle of -medicine to stop the pain of an ulcer in his stomach, -but will refuse to allow the examination that would -establish the nature of his disease. The statesman -embarrassed by the manifestations of an imperfect -morale seems to incline to a similar method. When -he finds he cannot get soldiers at the necessary rate, -he would invent a remedy for that particular -symptom. When he has difficulties in getting one -or another industrial class to suspend its charters -in the interests of the State, he must have a new -<span class="xxpn" id="p210">{210}</span> -and special nostrum for that. When he would relax -the caution of the capitalist or restrain the wastefulness -of the self-indulgent, again other remedies must -be found. And so he passes from crisis to crisis, -never knowing from moment to moment what trouble -will break out next, harassed, it is to be supposed, -by the doubt whether his stock of potions and pills -will hold out, and how long their very moderate -efficiency will continue.</p> - -<p>None of these troubles is a disease in itself; all -are evidences of an imperfect national morale, and -any attempt to deal with them that does not reach -their common cause will necessarily therefore be -unsatisfactory and impermanent.</p> - -<p>The sole basis of a satisfactory morale in a people -of the social type that obtains in England is a true -national unity, which is therefore the singular and -complete remedy for all the civil difficulties incident -upon a great and dangerous war.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">It is -impossible to form any guess whether England -will keep to her traditional methods or will -depart so far from them as to take a bold and -comprehensive view of her present and her growing -moral needs. A carefully conceived and daringly -carried out organization of a real national unity would -have no great difficulty in a country so rich in -practical genius; it would make an end once for -all of every internal difficulty of the State, and -would convert the nation into an engine of war -which nothing could resist.</p> - -<p>The more probable and the characteristic event -will be a mere continuation in the old way. It will -exemplify our usual and often admirable enough -contempt for theoretical considerations and dreams, -our want of interest in knowledge and foresight, -our willingness to take any risk rather than endure -the horrid pains of thought. -<span class="xxpn" id="p211">{211}</span></p> - -<p>When we remember how costly is our traditional -method, how long and painful it makes the way, -how doubtful it even makes the goal, it is impossible -for the most philosophic to restrain a sigh for the -needless suffering it entails, and a thrill of alarm -for the dangers it gives our path, the darkness around -us and ahead, the unimaginable end.</p> - -<hr class="hr34" /> - -<p>To the student, the end of the chapter is a chance -to turn from the study of detail and allow his mind -to range through a larger atmosphere and over -a longer sequence. Closing our small chapter, we -also may look at large over the great expanse of the -biological series in whose illimitable panorama the -war that covers our nearer skies with its blood-red -cloud is no bigger than a pin point. As we -contemplate in imagination the first minute spot -of living jelly that crept and hungered in the mud, -we can see the interplay of its necessities and its -powers already pushing it along the path at the end -of which we stand. Inherent in the dot of magic -substance that was no longer mere carbon, hydrogen, -oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and a little phosphorus, -was the capacity to combine with its fellows and to -profit by the fellowship, however loose. In the -slow process of time combination brought freedom -which, just like ours, was freedom to vary and, -varying, to specialize. So in time great States of -cells grew up, their individual citizen cells specialized -to the finest pitch, perfect in communion with one -another, co-ordinate in all their activities, incorporated -with the State.</p> - -<p>These new and splendid organizations, by the -very fact of giving freedom to the individual cells, -had lost it themselves. Still, they retained their -capacity for combination, and where the need of -<span class="xxpn" id="p212">{212}</span> -freedom was greatest they found it again in a new -combination on a bigger scale. Thus again was -obtained freedom to vary, to specialize, to react. -Over the world fellowships of all grades and almost -all types of creatures sprang up. Specialization, -communion, co-ordination again appeared on the new -plane. It was as if Nature, to protect her children -against herself, was trying to crowd as much living -matter into one unit as she could. She had failed -with her giant lizards, with the mammoth and the -mastodon. She would try a new method which -should dispense with gross physical aggregations, -but should minister to the same needs and afford the -same powers. The body should be left free, the -mind alone should be incorporated in the new unit. -The non-material nexus proved as efficient as the -physical one had been. The flock, the herd, the -pack, the swarm, new creatures all, flourished and -ranged the world. Their power depended on the -capacity for intercommunication amongst their -members and expanded until the limits of this were -reached. As long as intercommunication was limited -the full possibilities of the new experiment were -concealed, but at length appeared a creature in -whom this capacity could develop indefinitely. At -once a power of a new magnitude was manifest. -Puny as were his individuals, man’s capacity for -communication soon made him master of the world. -The very quality, however, which gave him success -introduced a new complication of his fate. His -brain power allowed him to speak and understand -and so to communicate and combine more effectively -than any other animal; his brain power gave him -individuality and egoism, and the possibility of -varied reaction which enabled him to obey the voice -of instinct after the fashion of his own heart. All -combination therefore was irregular, inco-ordinate, -and only very slowly progressive. He has even at -<span class="xxpn" id="p213">{213}</span> -times wandered into blind paths where the possibility -of progressive combination is lost.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless the needs and capacities that were -at work in the primeval amœba are at work in him. -In his very flesh and bones is the impulse towards -closer and closer union in larger and larger fellowships. -To-day he is fighting his way towards that -goal, fighting for the perfect unit which Nature has -so long foreshadowed, in which there shall be a -complete communion of its members, unobstructed -by egoism or hatred, by harshness or arrogance or -the wolfish lust for blood. That perfect unit will -be a new creature, recognizable as a single entity; -to its million-minded power and knowledge no -barrier will be insurmountable, no gulf impassable, -no task too great.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="h2nobreak" id="p214">POSTSCRIPT OF 1919</h2> - -<h3><span class="smcap">P<b>REJUDICE</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">IN</span> - <span class="smcap">T<b>IME</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smcap">W<b>AR.</b></span></h3></div> - -<p class="pfirst">With the exception of the two preliminary essays, -the foregoing chapters were written in the autumn -of 1915. As the chief purpose of the book was to -expound the conception that psychology is a science -practically useful in actual affairs, it was inevitable -that a great deal of the exemplary matter by -which it was attempted to illustrate the theoretical -discussion should be related to the war of 1914–1918. -Rich, however, as this subject was in -material with which to illustrate a psychological -inquiry, it presented also the great difficulty of -being surrounded and permeated by prejudices of -the most deeply impassioned kind, prejudices, moreover, -in one direction or another from which no -inhabitant of one of the belligerent countries could -have the least expectation of being free. To yield -to the temptation offered by the psychological richness -of war themes might thus be to sacrifice the -detachment of mind and coolness of judgment without -which scientific investigation is impossible. It -had to be admitted, in fact, that there were strong -grounds for such epistemological pessimism, and -it will perhaps be useful in a broad way to define -some of these here.</p> - -<p>In normal times a modern nation is made up of -a society in which no regard is paid to moral -unity, and in which therefore common feeling is to -<span class="xxpn" id="p215">{215}</span> -a great extent unorganized and inco-ordinate. In -such a society the individual citizen cannot derive -from the nation as a whole the full satisfaction -of the needs special to him as a gregarious animal. -The national feeling he experiences when at home -among his fellows is too vague and remote to -call forth the sense of moral vigour and security -that his nature demands. As has already been -pointed -out<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc19" href="#fn19">19</a> the necessary consequence is the -segregation of society into innumerable minor -groups, each constituting in itself a small herd, -and dispensing to its members the moral energy -that in a fully organized society would come from -the nation as a whole. Of such minor herds some -are much more distinct from the common body than -others. Some engage a part only of the life of -their members, so that the individual citizen may -belong to a number of groups and derive such -moral energy as he possesses from a variety of -sources. Thus in a fully segregated society in -time of peace the moral support of the citizen -comes from his social class and his immediate circle, -his professional associations, his church, his chapel, -his trade union and his clubs, rather than directly -from the nation in which he is a unit. Indeed, -so far from looking to the nation at large for the -fulfilment of its natural function of providing “all -hope, all sustainment, all reward,” he is apt to regard -it as embodied by the tax-gatherer, the policeman, -and the bureaucrat, at its best remote and indifferent, -at its worst hostile and oppressive.</p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn19" href="#afnanc19">19</a> -Pp. <a href="#p137">137</a>, -<a href="#p138">138</a> <i>supra</i>.</p></div> - -<p>The more distinct of these intra-national groups -may not only be very fully isolated from the common -body, but may be the seat of an actual corporate -hostility to it, or rather to the aggregated minor -groups which have come officially to represent it. -When war breaks upon a society thus constituted -<span class="xxpn" id="p216">{216}</span> -the intense stimulation of herd instinct that results -tends to break down the moral restrictions set up -by segregation, to throw back the individual citizen -on to the nation at large for the satisfaction of -his moral needs, and to replace class feeling by -national feeling. The apprehended danger of the -given war is the measure of the completeness with -which occurs such a solution of minor groups into -the national body. The extent of such solution -and the consequently increased homogeneity it -effects in the nation will determine the extent to -which national feeling develops, the degree to which -it approaches unanimity, and consequently the vigour -with which the war is defended and conducted. -If a minor group has already developed a certain -hostility to the common body and resists the solvent -effect of the outbreak of war, it becomes a potential -source of anti-national feeling and of opposition to the -national policy. Surrounded as it necessarily will be -by an atmosphere of hostility, its character as a herd -becomes hardened and invigorated, and it can endow -its members with all the gifts of moral vigour and -resistiveness a herd can give. Thus we may say, -that in a country at war <i>every</i> citizen is exposed -to the extremely powerful stimulation of herd instinct -characteristic of that state. In the individual who -follows in feeling the general body of his fellows, -and in him who belongs to a dissentient minority, -the reactions peculiar to the gregarious animal will -be energetically manifested. Of such reactions, that -which interests us particularly at the moment is -the moulding of opinion in accordance with instinctive -pressure, and we arrive at the conclusion that -our citizen of the majority is no more—if no less—liable -to the distortion of opinion than our citizen -of the minority. Whence we conclude that in a -country at war <i>all</i> opinion is necessarily more or -less subject to prejudice, and that this liability to -<span class="xxpn" id="p217">{217}</span> -bias is a herd mechanism, and owes its vigour to -that potent instinct.</p> - -<p>It is undoubtedly depressing to have to recognize -this universality of prejudice and to have to abandon -the opinion sometimes held that the characteristics -of herd belief are limited to the judgments of the -vulgar. The selectness of a minority in no way -guarantees it against the fallacies of the mob. A -minority sufficiently unpopular is, in a sense, a mob -in which smallness is compensated for by density. -The moral vigour and fortitude which unpopular -minorities enjoy are evidences of herd instinct in -vigorous action; the less admirable liability to -prejudice being a part of the same instinctive -process is a necessary accompaniment. We may -lay it down, then, as fundamental that all opinion -among the members of a nation at war is liable -to prejudice, and when we remember with what -vehemence such opinion is pronounced and with -what fortitude it is defended we may regard as -at least highly probable that such opinion always -actually is prejudiced—rests, that is to say, on -instinct rather than reason. Now, it is common -knowledge that in the present state of society -opinion in a given country is always divided as to -the justice of an actual war. All of it sharing the -common characteristic of war opinion in being -prejudiced, some will pronounce more or less clearly -that the war is just and necessary, some will -pronounce more or less clearly against that view; -there will be a division into what we may call -pro-national and anti-national currents of opinion, -each accompanied respectively by its counterpart -of what we may call anti-hostile and pro-hostile -opinion. It is a significant fact that the relative -development of pro-national and anti-national -feeling varies according to the degree in which -the given war is apprehended as dangerous. A -<span class="xxpn" id="p218">{218}</span> -war apprehended as dangerous produces a more -complete solution of the minor herds of society -into the common body than does a war not so -regarded; in consequence there is a nearer -approach to homogeneity, and pro-national opinion -is far in excess of anti-national opinion, which, if -recognizable, is confined to insignificant minorities. -A war regarded as not dangerous produces a less -complete solution in the common body, a less degree -of homogeneity, and allows anti-national opinion, -that is, doubt of the justice of the war and opposition -to the national policy, to develop on a large -scale. These phenomena have been clearly visible -in the history of recent wars. The South African -War of 1899–1902 was not apprehended as -dangerous in this country, and in consequence, -though pro-national opinion prevailed among the -majority, anti-national opinion was current in a -large and respectable minority. The war of 1914–1918, -regarded from the first as of the greatest -gravity, gave to pro-national opinion an enormous -preponderance, and restricted anti-national opinion -within very narrow limits. The Russo-Japanese -War provided an excellent double illustration of -these mechanisms. On the Russian side regarded as -not dangerous, it left national opinion greatly -divided, and made the conduct of the war confused -and languid; on the Japanese side apprehended -as highly dangerous, it produced an enormous preponderance -of pro-national opinion, and made the -conduct of the war correspondingly vigorous. In -the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 a further -point is illustrated. The essential factor in the -stimulation of herd instinct by war is not the actual -danger of a given war, but the apprehended danger -of it. The Prussians were dangerous enough to -France, but were not generally regarded as such -by the French, and in consequence national -<span class="xxpn" id="p219">{219}</span> -homogeneity did not develop as it did on a later occasion -in face of the same menace.</p> - -<p>If pro-national and anti-national opinion, if belief -and doubt in the justice of a given war, vary in -relation to a single predominantly important psychological -factor—the apprehended danger to the nation -of the war in question—it is obvious that the -ostensible and proclaimed grounds upon which such -opinion is founded are less decisive than is -commonly supposed. Finding, as we do, that -the way in which a people responds to the outbreak -of war depends certainly in the main and -probably altogether on a condition not necessarily -dependent on the causes of the war, it is obvious -that the moral justifications which are usually -regarded as so important in determining the people’s -response are in fact comparatively insignificant. -This conclusion agrees with the observed fact that -no nation at war ever lacks the conviction that its -cause is just. In the war of 1914–1918 each of -the belligerents was animated by a passion of -certainty that its participation was unavoidable and -its purpose good and noble; each side defended -its cause with arguments perfectly convincing and -unanswerable to itself and wholly without effect on -the enemy. Such passion, such certitude, such -impenetrability were obviously products of something -other than reason, and do not in themselves -and directly give us any information as to the -objective realities of the distribution of justice -between the two sides. The sense of rectitude is -in fact and manifestly a product of mere belligerency, -and one which a nation at war may confidently -expect to possess, no matter how nefarious its -objects may ultimately appear to be in the eyes -of general justice. The fact that such a sense of -rectitude is a universal and inevitable accompaniment -of war, and as strong in a predatory and -<span class="xxpn" id="p220">{220}</span> -criminal belligerent as in a generally pacific one, -gives us a convenient measure of the extent to -which prejudice must prevail in -warfare.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc20" href="#fn20">20</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn20" href="#afnanc20">20</a> -It is important that it should be quite clear that we have -been speaking here of the reaction of the general body of a nation to -the occurrence of war, and not of the reasons for which a given war was -undertaken. In England and in Germany the feeling of the people that -the late war was just and necessary was equally intense and equally a -direct consequence of the danger to the herd it represented. It was -therefore a non-rational instinctive response without reference to -objective justice in either case. Had the threat to the herd on either -side seemed less grave, opinion as to the justice of the war would in -that country have been correspondingly more divided. By her calculated -truculence in the years before the war Germany—intending doubtless to -intimidate a decaying people—had made it certain that when the threat -to this country did come it should be apprehended at once as dangerous -to the last degree, and had thus herself organized the practical -unanimity of her chief enemy. All such reactions upon the outbreak of -war are instinctively determined. It is the burden of the statesman -that his decision in a crisis in favour of war <i>automatically</i> renders -impossible <i>rational</i> confirmation by the people.</p></div> - -<p>We thus arrive at the discouraging conclusion -that in a belligerent country all opinion in any -way connected with the war is subject to prejudice, -either pro-national or anti-national, and is very -likely in consequence to be of impaired validity. -Must we then conclude further that speculation upon -war themes is so liable to distortion that reasoned -judgments of any practical value are impossible? -Now, it is guidance in just such a difficulty as -this that a psychology having any pretensions to -be called practical may fairly be expected to yield, -and psychology does in fact provide certain broad -precautionary principles, which, although by no -means infallible guides, do profess to be able to -keep within bounds the disturbing effects of -prejudice on judgment and so render possible the -not wholly unprofitable discussion even of matters -the most deeply implicated by war-time passion.</p> - -<p>First among such principles is the recognition of -the fact that prejudice does not display itself as -such to direct introspection. One who is being -<span class="xxpn" id="p221">{221}</span> -influenced by prejudice will never be able to detect -his biassed judgments by an apparent defect in -their plausibility or by any characteristic logical -weakness. Agreement or disagreement with common -opinion will as such be no help, since prejudice -infests minorities no less than majorities. To -suppose that when one has admitted the liability -to prejudice one can free oneself from it by a -direct voluntary effort is a common belief and an -entirely fallacious one. Such a task is far beyond -the powers of the most fully instructed mind, and -is not likely to be undertaken except by those who -have least chance of success. Prejudice, in fact, -is for the individual like the ether of the physicist, -infinitely pervasive and potent, but insusceptible of -direct detection; its presence is to be assumed as -general, but it escapes before immediate search by -introspection as the ether eludes the balance and the -test-tube.</p> - -<p>Secondly, it is possible for the investigator, -having admitted the existence of prejudice as a -condition of thought, to recognize the general direction -of its action in his own mind, to recognize, -that is to say, whether the tone of it is pro-national -or anti-national, and thus to obtain a certain orientation -for his efforts to neutralize it. Having frankly -recognized this general tendency in his thinking, -he will be able to do something towards correcting -it by making allowance for it in his conclusion -as a whole. If his tendency of feeling is pro-national, -he will say to himself of any judgment -favourable to his country, “This is a conclusion -likely to have been influenced by prejudice, therefore -for all the precautions I may have taken in -forming it, and whatever scientific care and caution -I may have used, in spite even of its agreeable -appearance of self-evident truth, I must regard its -validity as subject to some subtraction before it -<span class="xxpn" id="p222">{222}</span> -can safely be made the basis for further speculation.” -If his tendency of feeling is anti-national, -he will have a similar task of attenuation to carry -out upon the conclusions unfavourable to his country -that he may reach, and will be prudent to make -very drastic deductions in view of the supposed -immunity to prejudice with which minorities are -rather apt to assume the absence of vulgar approval -endows -them.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc21" href="#fn21">21</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn21" href="#afnanc21">21</a> -It is perhaps of interest to note in passing that war-time opinion -and prejudice are characteristically pro-national and anti-national, -rather than anti-hostile and pro-hostile respectively. The impulse that -might have led an isolated German to defend the English at the -expense of his countrymen, or an isolated Englishman to defend the -Germans at the expense of his countrymen, was in its psychological -essence anti-national and animated by no love of the enemy; it was -an instinctive revolt against his country, or rather the groups which -in the process of social segregation had come to represent it. Such -terms, therefore, as pro-German, and in another association pro-Boer, -though doubtless convenient implements of abuse, were inexactly -descriptive psychologically. “Anti-English” would have been more -just, but immensely less effective, as vituperation, for the prejudice it -was desired to decry was for the most part a hostility not to the nation, -but to its official embodiment. Probably, however, it was the very -element of injustice in the term pro-German that made it so -satisfactory a vehicle for exasperated feeling.</p></div> - -<p>Finally, one who attempts to deal usefully with -matters in which strong feeling is inevitable will -do well, however thoroughly he may try to guard -himself from the effects of prejudice, to bring his -speculative conclusions into such form that they -are automatically tested by the progress of events. -Symmetry and internal consistency are unfortunately -but too often accepted as evidences of objective -validity. That the items of a series of conclusions -fit into one another neatly and compose a system -logically sound and attractive to the intellect gives -us practically no information of their truth. For -this a frequently repeated contact with external -reality is necessary, and of such contacts the most -thoroughly satisfactory one is the power to foretell -the course of events. Foresight is the supreme -<span class="xxpn" id="p223">{223}</span> -test of scientific validity, and the more a line of -argument is liable to deflection by non-rational -processes the more urgent is the need for it constantly -to be put into forms which will allow its -capacity for foresight to be tested. This was the -one great advantage amongst heavy handicaps -enjoyed by those who ventured into speculation -upon the international situation during the late war. -Events were moving so quickly from crisis to crisis -that it was possible for the psychologist to see -his judgments confirmed or corrected almost from -day to day, to see in the authentic fabric of reality -as it left the loom where he had had any kind -of foreknowledge, where he had been altogether -unprepared, and where he had failed in foresight -of some development that should have been within -his powers.</p> - -<p>These three principles were those in accordance -with which it was attempted to conduct the discussion -in this book of topics connected with the -war. The writer was aware that neither was he -by nature or art immune to prejudice nor able -by some miracle of will power to lay down passion -when he took up the pen, and he admitted to -himself with what frankness he could command -the liability under which his conclusions would lie -of having been arrived at under the influence of -pro-national prejudice. He hoped, however, that -a liberal allowance for the direction of his instinctive -bias and a grateful use of the diurnal corrective -of events might enable him to reach at any rate -some conclusions not altogether without a useful -tincture of validity.</p> - -<p>It was possible, moreover, to put certain conclusions -in a form which the development of the -war must confirm or disprove, and it may be interesting -as a test of what was put forward as an -essay in an essentially practical psychology briefly -<span class="xxpn" id="p224">{224}</span> -to review these theoretical anticipations in the light -of what actually has happened.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">P<b>SYCHOLOGICAL</b></span> - <span class="smcap">A<b>NTICIPATIONS</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>The hypothesis was put forward that in the -German people the reactions in which the herd -instinct was manifesting itself were in accordance -with the type to be seen in the predaceous social -animals rather than the type which seems to be -characteristic of modern Western civilizations. The -next step was naturally to inquire whether the known -characters of what we called aggressive gregariousness -were able to account for the observed German -peculiarities in reaction, and then to indicate what -special features we might expect to appear in -Germany under the developing stress of war if -our hypothesis was sound.</p> - -<p>Under the guidance of the hypothesis we found -reason to believe that the morale of the German -people was of a special kind, and essentially dependent -for the remarkable vigour it then showed upon -the possibility of continued successful aggression. -This suggestion was borne out by the long series -of offensive movements, increasing in weight and -culminating in the spring of 1918, in the great -attacks on which Germany broke herself. From -the way in which these movements were announced -and expected it became evident that during an -enforced defensive the morale of Germany declined -more rapidly than did that of her opponents. This -was the essential confirmation of the psychological -view we had put forward. Apart from all question -of the strategic and merely military advantages of -the offensive it was plain that Germany’s moral need -for the posture of attack was peculiarly and characteristically -great. That she continually and convincedly—though -perhaps injudiciously—declared the -war to be one of defence only, that she had -<span class="xxpn" id="p225">{225}</span> -everything to hope from disunion among her enemies -and little to fear from disunion among her friends, -that she was in assured possession of the most -important industrial districts of France, that she -had successfully brought into something like -equilibrium the resistance to the effects of the -blockade, and had proved like her animal prototypes -only to be more fierce and eager when she -was hungry—all of these strong objective reasons -for fighting a defensive delaying war were over-whelmed -by the crucially important requirement of -keeping the aggressive spirit strung up to the highest -pitch. The fighting spirit must be that of attack -and conquest, or it would break altogether. Our -hypothesis, therefore, enabled us to foresee that she -would have to go on torturing her declining frame -with one great effort after another until she had -fought herself to a standstill, and then, if her enemies -but just succeeded in holding her, her morale would -begin to decline, and to decline with terrible abruptness. -We were even able to regard it as probable -that for all the talk of the war on the German -side being defensive only, for all the passionate -devotion to the Fatherland and the profound belief -in the sanctity of its frontiers, as a matter of cold -and dry reality, if it came to invasion, Germany -would not be defended by its inhabitants.</p> - -<p>Another subject upon which the psychological -method of inquiry professed to yield some degree -of foresight was that—at that time—fruitful cause -of discussion, the objects for which the enemies -of Germany were fighting. Opinion at that time -was much ruled by the conception of a Germany -gradually forced back upon and beyond her -frontiers, grim, implacable, irreconcilable, her -national spirit energized and made resilient by -humiliation, and clinging unconquerably to the -thought of a resurrection of her glory through the -<span class="xxpn" id="p226">{226}</span> -faith of her sons. Under the influence of ideas of -this romantic type, it was not always possible for -opinion to be very precise upon what was to be -made the object of the war in order to secure from -Germany the safety of the civilizations opposed to -hers. Psychologically, however, the moral condition -of a beaten Germany seemed relatively easy -to foretell. If the behaviour of other predaceous -types was of any value as a guide, it was plain -that a sound beating alone and in itself would -produce all the effect that was needful. There -could be no fear of the national morale being -invigorated by defeat, but an enemy successfully -invading Germany would necessarily find the one -essential condition on which any subsequent security -must be set up—the replacement of the aggressive -and predaceous morale by complete moral -collapse. These were the considerations that -enabled one to say that considered psychologically -the mere beating of Germany was the single object -of the war. The completeness of the moral -collapse which accompanied her beating seems to -have been found remarkable and astonishing by -very many, but can have been so only to those who -had not interested themselves in the psychological -aspects of the problem.</p> - -<p>In stating, in 1915, these conclusions as to the -social type and moral structure of Germany and -in formulating the indications they seemed to give -of the course of future events, it was necessary to -make considerable deductions from the precision -and detail with which one made one’s small efforts -at foresight in order to allow for the effects one’s -pro-national bias may have had in deflecting judgment. -Enough, however, was stated definitely to -enable the progress of events very clearly to confirm -or disprove the conclusions arrived at. The -not inconsiderable correspondences between the -<span class="xxpn" id="p227">{227}</span> -theoretical considerations and the actual development -of events is perhaps enough to suggest that the -method of speculation used has a certain validity.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">In considering the psychological case of England -we came to the conclusion that her morale depended -on mechanisms different from those which were -in action in Germany, and indicating that social -development had in her followed a different type. -We saw reason to suppose that this social type -would be very much more resistant to discouragement -and disaster than the aggressive type embodied -in Germany, and that if England won the war it -would be by virtue of the toughness of her nerve. -The form of social organization represented by -England was seen to contain a germ of strength -not possessed by her enemy, an intensely resistant -nucleus of moral power that underlay the immeasurable -waste and the inextricable confusion of her -methods. If the moral structure of Germany was -of its kind fully developed, it was also primitive; -if the moral structure of England was embryonic, -it was also integrative and still capable of growth. -If it was very obvious at that time how immensely -responsive to intelligent and conscious direction the -moral powers of England would have been, if it -was obvious how largely such direction would have -diminished the total cost of the war in time and -suffering, if it was obvious that such direction would -not, and almost certainly could not, be forthcoming, -it was equally clear that the muddle, the mediocrity, -the vociferation with which the war was being conducted -were phenomena within the normal of the -type and evolutionary stage of our society, and were -not much more than froth on the surface of an -invisible and unsounded stream.</p> - -<p>If one had been content to estimate the moral -condition of England at that time by the utterance of -<span class="xxpn" id="p228">{228}</span> -all ordinary organs of expression—public speeches, -leading articles and so forth—one could scarcely -have failed to reach the gloomiest conclusions. So -common were ill-will, acrimony, suspicion and -intrigue, so often was apparent self-possession mere -languor, and apparent energy mere querulousness, -so strong, in fact, were all the ordinary evidences -of moral disintegration that an actual collapse might -have seemed almost within sight. As a matter -of fact, from the very necessities of her social type, -in England the organs of public expression were -characteristically not representative of the national -mood; probably far less than were those of Germany -representative of the German mood. Thus it came -about that the actual driving force—the will of -the common man, as inflexible as it was inarticulate—remained -intact behind all the ambiguous manifestations -which went forth as the voice of England. -This is the psychological secret of the socialized -type of gregarious animal. As evolved in England -to-day, this type cannot attain to the conscious -direction of its destiny, and cannot submit to the -fertilizing discipline of science; it cannot select its -agents or justly estimate their capacity, but it -possesses the power of evolving under pressure a -common purpose of great stability. Such a common -purpose is necessarily simple, direct, and barely -conscious; high-flown imperialism and elaborate -policies are altogether beyond its range, and it can -scarcely accomplish an intellectual process more -complex than the recognition of an enemy. The -conviction that the hostility between England and -Germany was absolute and irreconcilable, and the -war a matter of national life and death, was just -such a primitive judgment as could be arrived at, -and it gave rise to a common purpose as stable -as it was -simple.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc22" href="#fn22">22</a> -<span class="xxpn" id="p229">{229}</span></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn22" href="#afnanc22">22</a> -There can be little doubt that national consciousness with -regard to the war was very much less developed in this country than -in Germany. The theory of his country’s purpose in the war was -far less a matter of interest and speculation to the average Englishman -than it was to the average German. The German was far more fully aware -of the relation the situation bore to general politics and to history, -and was much more preoccupied with the defence of his country’s case -by rational methods and accepted principles, and he displayed from -the first great faith in the value of a propaganda which should -appeal to reason. Clumsy and futile as so much of this intellectual -effort was ultimately seen to be, it did show that the interest in -national affairs was more conscious and elaborate, and stood from the -intellectual point of view at a higher level than it did in England.</p></div> - -<p>The relatively complex national consciousness that -is necessary to evolve a positive movement of -national expansion or a definite policy of colonization -and aggrandisement seems to be hostile to -the development of a common purpose of the most -powerful kind. Thus we find moral vigour and -stability attaining their greatest strength in a nation -that has no definite theory of its destiny, and that -is content to allow confusion of thought and vagueness -of aim to be common and even characteristic -in its public life. In such a people national consciousness -is of the most elementary kind, and -only the simplest conceptions can be effectively -apprehended by it. Negative judgments are in -general simpler than positive ones, and the simplest -of all, perhaps, is the identification of an enemy. -The history of England seems to show with remarkable -constancy that the national consciousness has -been in its most effective action limited to those -elementary conceptions which have been simple and -broad enough to manifest themselves in a common -purpose of great strength and tenacity. England -has, in fact, been made by her enemies. Rightly or -wrongly, Philip of Spain, Louis XIV, Napoleon, -Germany, impressed themselves on the elementary -consciousness of England as enemies, and excited -in response a unity of purpose that was characteristically -as immune from the effects of discouragement, -disaster and fatigue as it was independent of -reasoned political theory. -<span class="xxpn" id="p230">{230}</span></p> - -<p>Each of these enemies, in contrast with England, -had the definite consciousness of a more or less -elaborate political aim, and some of them embodied -principles or methods in advance of those which -obtained in England in corresponding fields. -Whatever loftiness of aim they had availed them -no more than their respect for principle and the -intellect, and they all came to regret the mostly -inadvertent effect of their pretensions in exciting -the hostility of a people capable of an essential -moral cohesion. The power of England would -seem to have resided almost exclusively in this -capacity for developing under pressure a common -purpose. The immense moral energy she has been -able to put forth in a crisis has enabled her to -inspire such leaders as she has needed for the -moment, but she has been characteristically infertile -in the production of true leaders who could impose -themselves upon her efficiently. Thus among her -great men, for one true leader, such as Oliver -Cromwell, who failed, there have been a score -of successful mouthpieces and instruments of her -purpose, such as Pitt and Wellington. The vigour -of her great moments has always been the product of -moral unity induced by the pressure of a supposed -enemy, and therefore it has always tended to die -down when the danger has passed. As the greatness -of her leaders has been less a product of -their own genius than that of the moral stimulus -which has reached them from the nation at large, -when the stimulus has been withdrawn with the -cessation of danger, these men have almost invariably -come to appear in times of peace of a less -dominating capacity than their performance during -the stress of war might have indicated. The great -wars of England have usually, then, been the affair of -the common man; he has supplied the impulse that -has made and the moral vigour that has conducted -<span class="xxpn" id="p231">{231}</span> -them, he has created and inspired his leaders and -has endowed his representatives in the field and -on the sea with their stern and enduring pugnacity.</p> - -<p>These conclusions have been confirmed by the -way in which the war progressed and came to -an end. The war became more and more fully a -contest of moral forces until it ended in the unique -event of a surrender practically unconditional that -was not preceded by a total physical defeat. -German morale proved throughout extremely sensitive -to any suspension of the aggressive posture, -and showed the unsuitability of its type in modern -conditions by undergoing at the mere threat of -disaster a disintegration so absolute that it must -remain a classical and perfect example in the records -of psychology. There can be no doubt that had -there been among her enemies the least understanding -of her moral type and state, her collapse -could have been brought about with comparative -ease at a much earlier date. English morale, on -the other hand, seemed actually to be invigorated -by defeat, and even remained untouched by the -more serious trials of uninspired and mediocre -direction, of ill-will, petty tyranny, and confusion.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">The confrontation in war of two types of social -structure differing so radically and by such clearly -defined characters as did Germany and England -was, as has been already suggested, a remarkable -instance of statecraft being forced into a region of -very much greater reality than that in which it -usually operates. The historical scale of events, -with its narrow range, its reckoning by dynasties and -parliaments, its judgments in terms of tribal censure -and approbation, was found momentarily to march -with the biological scale where events are measured -by the survival or extinction of species, where time -acquires a new meaning, and the individual man, -<span class="xxpn" id="p232">{232}</span> -however conspicuous historically, takes on the insect-like -sameness of his fellows. Here was an experiment -set out in Nature’s laboratory, and for the -first time the issues were so narrowly focussed as -to be within the apprehension of the very subjects -of the research. The matter to be tested concerned -the whole validity of gregariousness. Two types -were confronted. In one the social habit had taken -a form that limited the participation of the individual -in the social unit; a rigid segregation of the -society made it impossible to admit the moral equality -of its members, and resulted in the activities of -the social instinct being available solely through -leadership; it was a led society where internal -cohesion and integration were replaced by what -we may call external cohesion—a migratory society -developing its highest manifestations of the herd when -it was being successfully led. In the other type the -social habit had tended, however slowly and incompletely, -towards the unlimited participation of the -individual in the social unit. The tendency of the -society was towards integration and internal cohesion; -it was therefore unaggressive, refractory to leadership, -and apt to develop its highest herd manifestations -when threatened and attacked. The former -enjoyed all the advantages of a led society. It -was tractable, and its leaders could impose upon it -a relative uniformity of outlook and a high standard -of general training. The latter had no advantage -save the potentiality—and it was little more—of -unlimited internal cohesion. It was intractable to -leadership, and in consequence knowledge and -training were limited and extremely localized within -it; it had no approach to unity of outlook, and -its interests were necessarily concentrated on its -internal rather than its external relations.</p> - -<p>If the former type proved the stronger, any progressive -evolution of society in a direction that -<span class="xxpn" id="p233">{233}</span> -promised the largest extension of human powers -would become very, improbable; the internal -cohesion of social units would have appeared to -be subject to limits, and the most hopeful prospective -solution of human difficulties would have -vanished. Conceivably accidental factors might -have decided the issue of the experiment and left -the principle still in doubt. As it happened, every -element of chance that intruded went against the -type that ultimately proved the stronger, and in -the final decision the moral element was so conspicuously -more significant than the physical that -the experiment has yielded a result which seems -to be singularly conclusive and -unexceptionable.<a class="afnanc" id="afnanc23" href="#fn23">23</a></p> - -<div class="dfootnote"> - -<p class="pfirst"><a class="afnlbl" id="fn23" href="#afnanc23">23</a> -Anxiety has frequently been expressed since the armistice -of November, 1918, as to whether Germany has properly assimilated the -lesson of her defeat, and undergone the desired change of heart. In -the face of such doubts it is well to remember that there is another -conclusion about the assimilation of which there need be no anxiety. -It is at any rate clearly proved that Germany’s enemies were able to -beat her in spite of all the disadvantages of exterior lines, divided -counsels, divergent points of view and inadequate preparation. The -prestige of invulnerability need never be allowed again to accumulate -about a social group of the aggressive migratory type, and to sit like -an incubus upon a terrorized world.</p></div> - -<p>The result of the experiment has been decisive, -and it is still a possibility that the progressive -integration of society will ultimately yield a medium -in which the utmost needs of the individual and of -the race will be reconciled and satisfied. Had the -more primitive social type—the migratory, aggressive -society of leadership and the pack—had this proved -still the master of the less primitive socialized and -integrative type, the ultimate outlook for the race -would have indeed been black. This is by no -means to deny that German civilization had a vigour, -a respect for knowledge, and even a benignity within -which comfortable life was possible. But it is to -assert that it was a regression, a choice of the -easy path, a surrender to the tamer platitudes of -<span class="xxpn" id="p234">{234}</span> -the spirit that no aggressive vigour could altogether -mask. To live dangerously was supposed to be -its ideal, but dread was the very atmosphere it -breathed. Its armies could be thrown into hysterical -convulsions by the thought of the <i>franc-tireur</i>, and -the flesh of its leaders made to creep by such -naïve and transpontine machinations as its enemies -ambitiously called propaganda. The minds that -could make bugbears out of such material were -little likely to attempt or permit the life of arduous -and desperate spiritual adventure that was in the -mind of the philosopher when he called on his -disciples to live dangerously.</p> - -<p>This great experiment was conducted under the -very eyes of humanity, and the conditions were -unique in this that they would have permitted the -effective intervention of the conscious human will. -As it happened the evolution of society had not -reached a stage at which an informed and scientific -statecraft was possible. The experiment, therefore, -went through without any general view of the whole -situation being attained. Had such been possible, -there can be no doubt at all that the war could -have been shortened enough to keep the world -back from the neighbourhood of spiritual and even -material bankruptcy in which it finds itself to-day. -The armed confrontation of the two types, while -it has yielded a result that may well fill us with -hope, took place at a moment of human evolution -when it was bound to be immensely expensive. -Material development had far exceeded social -development, mankind, so to say, had become clever -without becoming wise, and the war had to be -fought as a purely destructive effort. Had it come -at a later stage of evolution, so great a mobilization -of social power as the war caused might have been -taken advantage of to unify the nation to a completely -coherent structure which the cessation of -<span class="xxpn" id="p235">{235}</span> -the external stimulating pressure would have left -firmly and nobly established.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">A<b>FTER</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">THE</span> - <span class="smcap">W<b>AR.</b></span></h3> - -<p>The psychological situation left by the conclusion -of the war is likely to attract an increasing amount -of attention as time passes, and it may be of interest -to examine it in the light of the principles that -we have been making use of in dealing with the -war.</p></div> - -<p>It is a fact fundamental in psychology that the -state of war furnishes the most powerful of all -stimuli to the social instinct. It sets in motion a tide -of common feeling by the power of which union -and energy of purpose and self-sacrifice for the -good of the social unit become possible to a degree -unknown under any other circumstances. The war -furnished many instances of the almost miraculous -efficacy of this stimulus. Perhaps the most effective -example of all, even by the side of the steely -fortitude of France and the adventurous desperation -of England, was the fact that the dying Austrian -Empire could be galvanized for four years into -aggressive gestures lifelike beyond simulation.</p> - -<p>The effect of this great liberation of feeling was -to supersede the precarious equilibrium of society -by a state very much more stable. Before the war -moral power had come to the individual chiefly -from the lesser herds in which he took part, and -but little from the nation as a whole. Society had -the appearance of stability because the forces at -work were relatively small in proportion to the -inertia of the whole fabric. But the actual firmness -of the structure was small, and the individual led -a life emotionally thin and tame because the social -feelings were localized and faint. With the outbreak -of war the national unit became the source -of moral power, social feeling became wide in its -<span class="xxpn" id="p236">{236}</span> -basis and strong in intensity. To the individual -life became more intense and more significant, and -in essence, in spite of horror and pain, better worth -living; the social fabric, moreover, displayed a -new stability and a capacity for resisting disturbances -that would have effectually upset its -equilibrium in time of peace. The art of government, -in fact, became actually easier to practise, though -it had a superficial appearance of being more -difficult from the comparative rapidity with which -the progress of events unmasked the quack. -Successful practitioners were, it will be remembered, -always ready to call attention to the unprecedented -difficulty of their labours, while shrewdly -enough profiting by the fact that in the actual -tasks of government—the creation of interest, the -development of unity and the nourishing of impulse—their -difficulties had wholly disappeared.</p> - -<p>With the cessation of war this great stream of -moral power began rapidly to dry up at its source. -Thinly continuing to trickle for a time as it were -from habit, it is already almost dry. There is -doubtless a tendency among responsible personages -to persuade themselves that it still flows with all -the power that made the war a veritable golden -age of government. Such a persuasion is natural -and fully to be expected. It would be difficult -for those who have directed with whatever want of -skill a power so great to avoid coming in time -to be a little confused between the direction of -power and the production of it, and to think that -they still command the moral resources which war -gave so abundantly. Such a mistake is likely to -prove one of the elements of danger, though -perhaps only a minor one, in the present situation.</p> - -<p>Western society, with perhaps even Western civilization, -is in a situation of great interest to the -sociologist, and probably also of some considerable -<span class="xxpn" id="p237">{237}</span> -danger. There are certain chief elements of -danger which we may attempt to define.</p> - -<p>First, with the end of the war the mental orientation -of the individual has undergone a great -change. National feeling is no longer able to supply -him with moral vigour and interest. He must -turn once more to his class for what the nation -as a whole has been so much more efficiently supplying. -Life has regained for him much of its old -tameness, the nation in which he has lived vividly -during the war is resuming its vagueness and -becoming once more merely the state, remote and -quasi-hostile. But the war has shown him what -interest and moral vigour are in life, and he will -not easily accept the absence of these; he has -acquired the appetite for them, he has, so to speak, -tasted blood. The tasteless social dietary of pre-war -England is not likely to satisfy his invigorated -palate.</p> - -<p>Secondly, the transition from war to peace is in -an imperfectly organized society a process necessarily -dangerous because it involves the change from -a condition of relative moral stability to one of -relative moral instability. To get back to the -precise state of delicately balanced but essentially -insecure equilibrium of society before the war -would seem, in fact, already shown to be impossible. -The war ran its course without any attempt being -made to replace the system of class segregation, -through which the social instinct works in our -society, by any more satisfactory mechanism. -Before the war class segregation had reached a condition -in which the individual had ceased to be -conscious of the national unit as possessing any -practical significance for himself while his class -was the largest unit he was capable of recognizing -as a source of moral power and an object -of effort. There was no class which as such and -<span class="xxpn" id="p238">{238}</span> -in relation to other classes was capable of submitting -to any restraint or self-sacrifice in the -interests of the nation as a whole. Of course, -in each case it was possible for a class by a -very easy process of rationalization to show that its -interests were those of the nation at large, but -this was merely the effect of the moral blindness -to which class segregation inevitably leads. Since -every one of us is classified somehow, it is not -easy to grasp how completely class segregation -obtains throughout our society, and how fully in -times of peace it replaces national unity. Those -occupying the lower social strata may be very fully -aware of the intensity of class feeling and how -complete a substitute for national feeling it affords -at the upper end of the social scale, just as those -in the upper strata may be very much alive to -the class bitterness of their inferiors; but it is difficult -for both to believe how complete are segregation -and its consequences throughout the whole -social gamut.</p> - -<p>It is to this state of society that the return from -the relative unity of war must be. The few conventional -restraints upon the extremity of class -feeling that were in any kind of activity before -the war have been very greatly weakened. Change -has become familiar, violence has been glorified -in theory and shown to be effective in practice, -the prestige of age has been undermined, and the -sanctity of established things defied.</p> - -<p>It would, indeed, seem that to re-establish a society -based solely on class segregation, and relying upon -the maintenance by it of a state of equilibrium, will -be a matter of some difficulty, and it will probably -be a mistake to depend altogether on fatigue, on -the relaxation of feeling, and on the celebration of -victory as stabilizing forces.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, there is no reason to suppose that the -<span class="xxpn" id="p239">{239}</span> -tendencies of society which made possible so huge -a disaster as the war have been in any way corrected -by it. Great efforts are being made at present to -establish conditions which will prevent future wars. -Such efforts are entirely admirable, but it must -be remembered that after all war is no more than -a symptom of social defects. If, therefore, war as -a symptom is merely suppressed, valuable as that -will be in controlling the waste and destruction of -life and effort, indeed indispensable to any kind -of vigorous mental life, it may leave untouched -potentialities of disaster comparable even with war -itself.</p> - -<p>It was pointed out many years ago in the essays -incorporated in this book that human society tends -to restrict influence and leadership to minds of a -certain type, and that these minds tend to have -special and characteristic defects. Thus human -affairs are in general under the direction of a -class of thought that is not merely not the best -of which the mind is capable, but tends to certain -characteristic fallacies and to certain characteristic -kinds of blindness and incapacity. The class of -mind to which power in society gravitates I have -ventured to describe as the stable type. Its characteristic -virtues and deficiencies have been described -more than once in this book, and we need do no -more here than recall its vigour and resistiveness, its -accessibility to the voice of the herd and its resistiveness -to and even horror of the new in feeling -and experience. The predominance of this type -has been rigorously maintained throughout the war. -This is why the war has been fought with a mere -modicum of help from the human intellect, and why -the result must be regarded as a triumph for the -common man rather than for the ruling classes. -The war was won by the inflexible resolution of -the common citizen and the common soldier. No -<span class="xxpn" id="p240">{240}</span> -country has shown itself to be directed by the higher -powers of the intellect, and nowhere has the continued -action of clear, temperate, vigorous, and comprehensive -thought made itself manifest, because -even the utmost urgency of warfare failed to -dislodge the stable-minded type from its monopoly -of prestige and power. What the necessities of -war could not do there is certainly no magic in -peace to bring about. Society, therefore, is setting -out upon what is generally regarded as a new era -of hope without the defect that made the war -possible having in any degree been corrected. -Certain supposedly immutable principles such as -democracy and national self-determination are -regarded by some as being mankind’s guarantees -against disaster. To the psychologist such principles -represent mere vague and fluctuating drifts -of feeling, arising out of deep instinctive needs, but -not fully and powerfully embodying such; as -automatic safeguards of society their claims are -altogether bogus, and cannot be ranked as -perceptibly higher than those of the ordinary run -of political nostrums and doctrinaire specifics. -Society can never be safe until the direction of -it is entrusted only to those who possess high -capacity rigorously trained and acute sensitiveness -to experience and to feeling.</p> - -<p>Statecraft, after all, is a difficult art, and it seems -unreasonable to leave the choice of those who -practise it to accident, to heredity, or to the -possession of the wholly irrelevant gifts that take -the fancy of the crowd. The result of such methods -of selection is not even a mere random choice from -the whole population, but shows a steady drift -towards the establishment in power of a type in -certain ways almost characteristically unfitted for -the tasks of government. The fact that man has -always shirked the heavy intellectual and moral -<span class="xxpn" id="p241">{241}</span> -labour of founding a scientific and truly expert -statecraft may contain a germ of hope for the -future, in that it shows where effort may be usefully -expended. But it cannot but justify uneasiness as -to the immediate future of society. The essential -factor in society is the subordination of the -individual will to social needs. Our statecraft is -still ignorant of how this can be made a fair and -honest bargain to the individual and to the state, -and recent events have convinced a very large proportion -of mankind that accepted methods of -establishing this social cohesion have proved to them -at any rate the worst of bargains.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">T<b>HE</b></span> - <span class="smcap">I<b>NSTABILITY</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smcap">C<b>IVILIZATION.</b></span></h3> -</div> -<p>The foregoing considerations are enough, perhaps, -to make one wonder whether, after all, Western -civilization may not be about to follow its unnumbered -predecessors into decay and dissolution. -There can be no doubt that such a suspicion is -oppressing many thoughtful minds at the present -time. It is not likely to be dispelled by the contemplation -of history or by the nature of recent events. -Indeed, the view can be maintained very plausibly -that all civilizations must tend ultimately to break -down, that they reach sooner or later a period when -their original vigour is worn out, and then collapse -through internal disruption or outside pressure. It -is even believed by some that Western civilization -already shows the evidences of decline which in -its predecessors have been the forerunners of destruction. -When we remember that our very short -period of recorded history includes the dissolution of -civilizations so elaborate as those of the Chaldeans, -the Assyrians, the Egyptians, and of the Incas, that -a social structure so complex as that but lately -disclosed in Crete could leave no trace in human -<span class="xxpn" id="p242">{242}</span> -memory but a faint and dubious whisper of tradition, -and that the dawn of history finds civilization -already old, we can scarcely resist the conclusion that -social life has, more often than one can bear to -contemplate, swung laboriously up to a meaningless -apogee and then lapsed again into darkness. We -know enough of man to be aware that each of -these unnumbered upward movements must have -been infinitely painful, must have been at least as -fruitful of torture, oppression, and anguish as the -ones of which we know the history, and yet each -was no more than the swing of a pendulum and a -mere fruitless oscillation landing man once more -at his starting point, impoverished and broken, with -perhaps more often than not no transmissible vestige -of his greatness.</p> - -<p>If we limit our view to the historical scale of -time and the exclusively human outlook, we seem -almost forced to accept the dreadful hypothesis that -in the very structure and substance of all human -constructive social efforts there is embodied a principle -of death, that there is no progressive impulse -but must become fatigued, that the intellect can -provide no permanent defence against a vigorous -barbarism, that social complexity is necessarily -weaker than social simplicity, and that fineness of -moral fibre must in the long run succumb to the -primitive and coarse.</p> - -<p>Let us consider, however, what comments may -be made on this hypothesis in view of the biological -conceptions of man which have been put forward -in this book. At the same time an opportunity -is afforded to put in a more continuous form the -view of society that has necessarily been touched -on so far in an interrupted and incidental way.</p> - -<p>Whatever may be one’s view as to the larger -pretensions that are put forward as to the significance -and destiny of man, there can be no doubt -<span class="xxpn" id="p243">{243}</span> -that it is indispensable to recognize the full implications -of his status as an animal completely -indigenous in the zoological series. The whole of -his physical and mental structure is congruous with -that of other living beings, and is constantly giving -evidence of the complicated network of relationships -by which he is bound to them.</p> - -<p>The accumulation of knowledge is steadily amplifying -the range over which this congruity with the -natural order can be demonstrated, and is showing -more and more fully that practical understanding -and foresight of man’s behaviour are attained in -proportion as this hypothesis of the complete -“naturalness” of man is adhered to.</p> - -<p>The endowment of instinct that man possesses -is in every detail cognate with that of other animals, -provides no element that is not fully represented -elsewhere, and above all—however little the individual -man may be inclined to admit it—is in no -degree less vigorous and intense or less important -in relation to feeling and activity than it is in related -animals. This supremely important side of mental -life, then, will be capable of continuous illustration -and illumination by biological methods. It is on -the intellectual side of mental life that man’s congruity -with other animals is least obvious at first -sight. The departure from type, however, is -probably a matter of degree only, and not of quality. -Put in the most general terms, the work of the intellect -is to cause delay between stimulus and response, -and under circumstances to modify the direction -of the latter. We may suppose all stimulation -to necessitate response, and that such response must -ultimately occur with undiminished total energy. -The intellect, however, is capable of delaying such -response, and within limits of directing its path -so that it may superficially show no relation to the -stimulus of which it is the discharge. If we extend -<span class="xxpn" id="p244">{244}</span> -the word stimulation to include the impulses arising -from instinct, and grant that the delaying and -deflecting influence of the intellect may be indefinitely -enlarged, we have an animal in which instinct -is as vigorous as in any of its primitive ancestors, -but which is superficially scarcely an instinctive -animal at all. Such is the case of man. His instinctive -impulses are so greatly masked by the variety -of response that his intellect opens to him that he -has been commonly regarded until quite recent -times as a practically non-instinctive creature, -capable of determining by reason his conduct and -even his desires. Such a conception made it almost -impossible to gain any help in human psychology -from the study of other animals, and scarcely less -difficult to evolve a psychology which would be -of the least use in foreseeing and controlling the -behaviour of man.</p> - -<p>No understanding of the causes of stability and -instability in human society is possible until the -undiminished vigour of instinct in man is fully -recognized.</p> - -<p>The significance of this rich instinctive endowment -lies in the fact that mental health depends -upon instinct finding a balanced but vigorous expression -in functional activity. The response to instinct -may be infinitely varied, and may even, under -certain circumstances, be not more than symbolic -without harm to the individual as a social unit, but -there are limits beyond which the restriction of -it to indirect and symbolic modes of expression -cannot be carried without serious effects on -personality. The individual in whom direct instinctive -expression is unduly limited acquires a spiritual -meagreness which makes him the worst possible -social material.</p> - -<p>All recorded history shows that society developing -under the conditions that have obtained up -<span class="xxpn" id="p245">{245}</span> -to the present time—developing, that is to say, -spontaneously under the random influences of an -uncontrolled environment of the individual—does not -permit to the average man that balanced instinctive -expression which is indispensable for the formation -of a rich, vigorous, and functionally active personality. -It has been one of my chief efforts in this -book to show that the social instinct, while in itself -the very foundation of society, takes, when its action -is undirected and uncontrolled, a principal part in -restricting the completeness and efficacy of the social -impulse. This instinct is doubly responsible for -the defects which have always inhered in society -through the personal impoverishment of its individual -constituents. In the first place, it is the -great agent by which the egoistic instincts are -driven into dwarfed, distorted, and symbolic modes -of expression without any regard for the objective -social necessity of such oppressive regulation. In -the second place, it is an instinct which, while it -embodies one of the deepest and potentially most -invigorating passions of the soul, tends automatically -to fall out of vigorous and constant activity with -the expansion of societies. It is the common -character of large societies to suffer heavily from -the restrictive effect on personality of the social -instinct, and at the same time to suffer in the highest -degree from the debilitation of the common social -impulse. Only in the smallest groups, such as -perhaps was early republican Rome, can the common -impulse inform and invigorate the whole society. -As the group expands and ceases to feel the constant -pressure of an environment it no longer has to -fear, the common impulse droops, and the society -becomes segregated into classes, each of which -a lesser herd within the main body and under the -reciprocated pressure of its fellows, now yields to -its members the social feeling which the main body -<span class="xxpn" id="p246">{246}</span> -can no longer provide. The passage of the small, -vigorous, homogeneous and fiercely patriotic group -into the large, lax, segregated and ultimately -decadent group is a commonplace of history. In -highly segregated peoples the restrictive effect of -the social instinct upon personality has usually been -to some extent relaxed, and a relatively rich personal -development has been possible. Such an amplification -has always, however, been limited to -privileged classes, has always been accompanied by -a weakening of the national bond, and a tendency -of the privileged class to the sincere conviction -that its interests are identical with those of the -nation. No nation has ever succeeded in liberating -the personality of its citizens from the restrictive -action of the social instinct and at the same time -in maintaining national homogeneity and common -impulse. In a small community intercommunication -among its individual members is free enough to -keep common feeling intense and vigorous. As -the community increases in size the general intercommunication -becomes attenuated, and with this -common feeling is correspondingly weakened. If -there were no other mechanism capable of inducing -common action than the faint social stimulus coming -from the nation at large, a segregated society would -be incapable of national enterprise. There is, however, -another mechanism which we may call -leadership, using the word in a certain special -sense. All social groups are more or less capable -of being led, and it is manifest that the leadership -of individuals, or perhaps more usually of classes, -has been a dominant influence in the expansion and -enterprise of all civilizations of which we have any -knowledge. It is only in the small communities -that we can detect evidence of a true common -impulse shared alike by all the members acting as -the cause of expansion. In larger groups, -<span class="xxpn" id="p247">{247}</span> -autocracies and dynasties, Pharaohs and Nebuchadnezzars -have imposed the impulse of expansion upon -the people, and by virtue of human susceptibility -to leadership have secured a virtual, though only a -secondary, common purpose.</p> - -<p>Now leadership, potent as it undoubtedly is in -calling forth the energy of the social instinct, is -essentially a limited and therefore an exhaustible -force. It depends for continued vigour upon -successful enterprise. While it is succeeding there -are only wide limits to the moral power it can -set free and command, but in the face of misfortune -and disaster its limitations become obvious, and its -power inevitably declines. On the other hand, the -moral power yielded by a true community of -feeling, and not imposed by leadership, is enormously -more resistant and even indestructible by failure -and defeat. History gives many examples of the -encounters of communities of these two types—the -led society and the homogeneous society—and in -spite of the invariably greater size and physical -power of the former, frequently records the astoundingly -successful resistance its greater moral vigour -has given to the latter. This is perhaps why -Carthage beat in vain against little Rome, and -certainly why Austria failed to subdue Switzerland.</p> - -<p>All large societies that have had their day and -have fallen from their zenith by internal dissolution -or outward attack have been given their impulse -to expansion by leadership and have depended on -it for their moral power. If society is to continue -to depend for its enterprise and expansion upon -leadership, and can find no more satisfactory source -of moral power, it is, to say the least, highly -probable that civilizations will continue to rise and -fall in a dreadful sameness of alternating aspiration -and despair until perhaps some lucky accident of -<span class="xxpn" id="p248">{248}</span> -confusion finds for humanity in extinction the rest -it could never win for itself in life.</p> - -<p>There is, however, reason to suppose that susceptibility -to leadership is a characteristic of relatively -primitive social types, and tends to diminish with -increasing social complexity. I have already called -attention to and attempted to define the apparently -specific psychological differences between Germany -and England before and during the war. These -differences I attributed to variations in the type of -reaction to herd instinct shown by the two peoples. -The aggressive social type represented by Germany -and analogous with that characteristic of the predaceous -social animals I regarded as being relatively -primitive and simple. The socialized type represented -by England and presenting analogies with -that characteristic of many social insects I regarded -as being, though imperfect as are all the human -examples available for study up to the present time, -more complex and less primitive, and representing -at any rate a tendency towards a satisfactory solution -of the problems with which man as a gregarious -animal is surrounded. Now, it is a very obvious -fact that the susceptibility to leadership shown by -Germany and by England before the war was -remarkably different. The common citizen of -Germany was strikingly open to and dependent upon -discipline and leadership, and seemed to have a -positive satisfaction in leaving to his masters the -management of his social problems and accepting -with alacrity the solutions that were imposed upon -him. The nation consequently presented a close -knit uniformity of purpose, a singleness of national -consciousness and effort that gave it an aspect of -moral power of the most formidable kind. In -England a very different state of affairs prevailed. -The common citizen was apt to meet with indifference -or resentment all efforts to change the social -<span class="xxpn" id="p249">{249}</span> -structure, and it had long been a political axiom -that “reform” should always await an irresistible -demand for it. Instances will be within every one’s -memory of politicians who met with crushing rebuffs -through regarding the supposed desirability of a -reform as a justification for imposing it. This -almost sullen indifference to great projects and -ideals, this unwillingness to take thought in the -interests of the nation and the empire in spite of -the apostolic zeal of the most eloquent political -prophets, was generally regarded as evidence of -a weakness and slackness in the body politic that -could not but threaten disaster. And yet in the -trials of the war the moral stability of England -showed itself to be superior to that of Germany, -which, in those rough waters, it jostled as mercilessly -and as effectually as did the brass pot the earthen -crock in the fable.</p> - -<p>During the war itself the submission to leadership -that England showed was characteristic of the -socialized type. It was to a great extent spontaneous, -voluntary, and undisciplined, and gave -repeated evidence that the passage of inspiration -was essentially from the common people to its -leaders rather than from the leaders to the common -people. When the current of inspiration sets persistently -in this direction, as it unquestionably did in -England, it is very plain that the primitive type -of leadership that has led so many civilizations -to disaster is no longer in unmodified action.</p> - -<p>Germany has provided the most complete example -of a culture of leadership that has ever been -recorded, and has gone through the phases of her -evolution with a precision which should make her -case an illustration classical for all history. With -a people showing strongly the characteristics of the -aggressive social type, and a social structure deeply -and rigidly segregated, the nation was ideally -<span class="xxpn" id="p250">{250}</span> -susceptible to discipline and leadership, and a -leading class was available which possessed an -almost superhuman prestige. The opportunity given -to leadership was exploited with great energy and -thoroughness and with an intelligence that by its -intensity almost made up for being nowhere really -profound. With all these advantages and the full -uses of the huge resources science has made available -to intelligently concerted effort, an extremely -formidable power was created. The peoples of -the socialized type towards whom from the first its -hostility was scarcely veiled were under obvious -disadvantages in rivalry with it. Their social type -made it impossible for them to combine and organize -themselves against what was to them no more than -a vaguely hypothetical danger. Against peaceful -conquest by Germany in the industrial sphere -England was therefore practically helpless, and to -it would probably in time have succumbed. -Paradox as it may seem, there can be no doubt -that it was in war only that England could contend -with Germany on equal terms. Paradoxically again, -it was war for which England was reluctant and -Germany was eager.</p> - -<p>War brought Germany into contact with the, to -her, inexplicable ferocity of peoples of the socialized -type under attack, and it was by this disappointment -that the first blow to her morale was struck. -The wastage of modern warfare must very soon -have begun to impair the isolation and prestige of -the officer class through increasingly free importation -from without the pale. With this necessarily -began to be sapped the absolute and rigid segregation -on which leadership of the type we are considering -so largely depends. At the same time, -the general tendency of the increasing pressure of -war is to wear down class segregation over the -whole social field. This tendency which intensified -<span class="xxpn" id="p251">{251}</span> -and invigorated the morale of her enemies would -work steadily against the leadership morale of -Germany. These factors must no doubt be added -to the moral need for aggression, the exhaustion -consequent upon forced offensives, and the specific -intolerance of failure and retreat that combined to -bring down the strongest example of the predaceous -led society that history records.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3><span class="smcap">S<b>OME</b></span> - <span class="smcap">C<b>HARACTERS</b></span> - <span class="smmaj">OF</span> - <span class="smmaj">A</span> - <span class="smcap">R<b>ATIONAL</b></span> - <span class="smcap">S<b>TATECRAFT.</b></span></h3></div> - -<p>If the foregoing discussion has been sound, we may -attribute the impermanence of all civilizations of -which we have knowledge to the failure of society -to preserve with increasing magnitude of its communities -a true homogeneity and a progressive -integration of its elements. We have seen that -there is a type of society—distinguished here as -the socialized type—in which a trace of this integrative -tendency can be detected at work. Under the -threat of war this tendency is accelerated in its action, -and can attain a moderate, though very far indeed -from a complete, degree of development. In the -absence of such a powerful stimulus to homogeneity, -however, segregation reasserts itself, and the society, -necessarily deprived by its type of the advantages -of leadership, becomes confused, disunited, and -threatened with disruption. It seems probable, -indeed, that the integrative tendency unaided and -uncontrolled is too weak to surmount the obstacles -with which it has to contend, and to anticipate disruption -by welding the elements of society into -a common life and common purpose. It has already -been repeatedly suggested that these difficulties, due -as they are to the human power of various reaction, -can be met only by the interposition of the intellect -as an active factor in the problem of the direction -of society. In other words, the progressive evolution -of society has reached a point where the -<span class="xxpn" id="p252">{252}</span> -construction and use of a scientific statecraft will -become an indispensable factor in further development -and the only means of arresting the dreary -oscillations between progress and relapse which have -been so ominous a feature in human history. We -are perhaps in a position to-day to suggest tentatively -some of the principles on which such a -statecraft might be built.</p> - -<p>It would have to be based on a full recognition -of the biological status of man, and to work out -the tendencies which as an animal he is pursuing -and must pursue. If we have evidence of the only -course evolution can follow satisfactorily, then it is -clear that any social and legislative effort not in -line with that course must be entirely wasted. Moreover, -since we are proceeding on the hypothesis -that direct conscious effort is now a necessary factor -in the process, we must clear our minds of the -optimistic determinism which regards man as a -special pet of nature and the pessimistic determinism -which would reduce him to a mere spectator of his -destiny. The trained and conscious mind must come -to be regarded as a definite factor in man’s environment, -capable of occupying there a larger and -larger area.</p> - -<p>Such a statecraft would recognize how fully man -is an instinctive being and how his mental vigour -and stability depend entirely upon instinctive expression -being adequate. The tyrannous power of the -social instinct in repressing and distorting instinctive -expression would have to be controlled and -directed with the purpose of enlarging the personal -and social effectiveness of the individual to the -maximum extent; the social instinct would no -longer be left to operate on the individual under -the random direction of custom and habit, of fashion -and social whim, or for the satisfaction of the -jealousy of age. -<span class="xxpn" id="p253">{253}</span></p> - -<p>Perhaps most important of all, a scientific statecraft -would understand that the social instinct itself -is as deep and powerful as any, and hungrily demands -intense and positive gratification and expression. -The social instinct drives the individual to seek -union with some community of his fellows. The -whole national body is in the present state of society -the smallest unit in which the individual can find -complete and permanent satisfaction. As long as -the average man’s sense of possession in the state is -kept so low as it is at present, as long as the sense -of moral inequality between himself and his fellows -is so vigorously maintained, so long will he continue -to make his class rather than his nation the object -of social passion, and so long will society continue -to breed within itself a principle of death.</p> - -<p>The exploration of the psychology of man’s social -relations has been left almost exclusively to the -operation of what we may call the method of -prophetic intuition, and there is no branch of knowledge -where the fumbling methods of unclarified -intuition have introduced more confusion. Intuitions -in the sphere of feeling—moral intuitions—have -more than the usual tendency of intuitions to -appear as half-truths surrounded and corrupted by -fantasies of the seer and isolated from correlation -with the rest of knowledge. Let us consider, for -example, the intuitional doctrine of philosophic -anarchism. The nucleus of truth in this is the -series of perfectly sound psychological conceptions -that all social discipline should be, as experienced -by the individual, spontaneous and voluntary, that -man possesses the instinctive endowment which -renders possible a voluntary organization of society, -and that in such a society order would be -more effectively maintained than under our present -partially compulsory system. This nucleus, which -of course is not understood or expressed in these -<span class="xxpn" id="p254">{254}</span> -definite psychological terms by the anarchist, is apt -to be associated with dogmas which altogether -obscure its strictly unassailable truth. Communism, -again, is another doctrine which contains its core of -psychological truth, namely, that individual property -is an economic convention rather than a psychological -necessity, and that social inequality is an -infirmity of the state rather than its foundation stone. -As it is exemplified in practice, however, communism -is so deeply tainted by the belief in an inverted -class segregation of its own, and by a horror of -knowledge, that its elements of reality are wholly -obscured and rendered useless.</p> - -<p>Every doctrine that makes disciples freely must -contain in it some embodiment of psychological -reality, however exiguous; but where it has been -arrived at by the methods of the prophet, there -is no reason to expect that stress will be laid on -the true more than on the false elements of the -doctrinal scheme, and experience shows that the -inessential falsity has for the expositor as many, -if not more, attractions than the essential truth. An -expert statecraft would be able to identify the real -elements of discovery that were present in any fresh -prophetic appeal to public belief, and would be able -at any rate to save the state from the condition of -petrified embarrassment into which it now falls when -faced by social dogmas and experiments which win -attention and adhesion while at the same time they -outrage convention and common sense.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">The examination of the functional satisfactoriness -of society, which has been a chief object of this -book, has yielded a certain general body of conclusions. -An attempt will now be made to -summarize these in a compact and even dogmatic -form, and to add what further element of definition -seems indispensable for clearness. -<span class="xxpn" id="p255">{255}</span></p> - -<p>1. All societies of which we have any knowledge -have shown two general defects—they have proved -unable to develop and direct more than a small -fraction of the resources they theoretically possess, -and they have been impermanent, so that time after -time laborious accumulations of constructive effort -have been wasted. According to our analysis these -defects are due to the drift of power into the hands -of the stable-minded class, and to the derivation of -moral power and enterprise from the mechanisms -of leadership and class segregation.</p> - -<p>2. A society, in order to have stability and full -functional effectiveness, must be capable of a continually -progressive absorption of its individual -members into the general body—an uninterrupted -movement towards a complete moral homogeneity.</p> - -<p>3. A tendency towards a progressive integration -of this kind can be detected in society to-day -by direct observation. It is weak and its effects -are fluctuating, so that there is doubt whether it -can, unless directly encouraged by human effort, -counteract the forces which up till now have always -limited social evolution to movements of oscillation -rather than of true progress.</p> - -<p>4. The only way in which society can be made -safe from disruption or decay is by the intervention -of the conscious and instructed intellect as a factor -among the forces ruling its development.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">This last doctrine has been repeatedly stated, but -we have perhaps scarcely defined it precisely enough -to avoid misunderstanding. Some such definition -is our concluding task. Of all the elements we -find in a general examination of the whole biological -series the human intellect is the one that most clearly -gives the impression of a new and intrusive factor. -The instinctive side of man, with its derivatives, -such as his morals, his altruism, and his aspirations, -<span class="xxpn" id="p256">{256}</span> -falls very easily into line with the rest of the natural -order, and is seen to be at work in modes which -nowhere show any essential new departure. The -intellect, however, brings with it a capacity for -purpose as distinct from and additional to desire, -and this does apparently introduce a factor virtually -new to the biological series. The part that the -purposive foresight of the intellect has been allowed -to take in human affairs has always been limited -by instinctive inhibitions. This limitation has effectually -prevented man from defining his situation in -the world, and he remains a captive in the house -of circumstance, restrained as effectually by the mere -painted canvas of habit, convention, and fear as by -the solid masonry of essential instinctive needs. -Being denied the freedom, which is its indispensable -source of vigour, the intellect has necessarily failed -to get a clear, comprehensive, and temperate view -of man’s status and prospects, and has, of course, -shrunk from the yet more exacting task of making -itself responsible for his destiny. Nowhere has -been and is the domination of the herd more absolute -than in the field of speculation concerning man’s -general position and fate, and in consequence -prodigies of genius have been expended in obscuring -the simple truth that there is no responsibility for -man’s destiny anywhere at all outside his own -responsibility, and that there is no remedy for his -ills outside his own efforts. Western civilization -has recently lost ten millions of its best lives as a -result of the exclusion of the intellect from the -general direction of society. So terrific an object -lesson has made it plain enough how easy it is for -man, all undirected and unwarned as he is, to sink to -the irresponsible destructiveness of the monkey.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">Such ostensible direction as societies obtain -derives its sanction from one or more of three -<span class="xxpn" id="p257">{257}</span> -sources—the hereditary, the representative, and the -official. No direction can be effective in the way -needed for the preservation of society unless it -comes from minds broad in outlook, deep in -sympathy, sensitive to the new and strange in experience, -capable of resisting habit, convention, and the -other sterilizing influences of the herd, deeply -learned in the human mind and vividly aware of -the world. Plainly enough, neither of the classes -enumerated above is any more likely to possess -these characteristics than any one else. To the -representative and official classes there even attaches, -at any rate theoretically, the suspicion that the -methods by which they are chosen and promoted, -while they obviously in no way favour fitness, may -actually tend to favour unfitness. Of the hereditary -class it may at any rate be said that while it does -not in any special degree include the fit, its composition -is random and in no way tainted by popular -standards of suitability or by the prejudices and -conventions of the examination room. It would -seem, then, that none of the methods by which society -appoints its directors shows any promise of working -towards the effective intervention of the intellect in -social affairs. In reaching this conclusion we have -perhaps passed too lightly over the claims of the -trained official as a possible nucleus of an ultimate -scientific statecraft. The present-day controversies -as to the nationalization of various industries give -an especial interest to this very problem, and illustrate -how unpromising a source of knowledge is -political discussion. One group of advocates points -to the obvious economies of conducting industry -on the great scale and without the destructive effects -of competition; the other group points to the -infirmities which always have infected officially conducted -enterprises. Both sides would seem to be -perfectly right so far and both to be wrong when -<span class="xxpn" id="p258">{258}</span> -the first goes on to affirm that governments as they -now are can and do conduct industrial affairs quite -satisfactorily, and the second goes on to affirm that -the only mechanism by which society can get its -work effectively done is commercial competition, and -that the only adequate motive is greed. It seems -to have escaped the notice of both parties to the -controversy that no civilized country has evolved, -or begun to evolve, or thought of evolving a method -of selecting and training its public servants that -bears any rational relation to their fitness for the -art of government. It is not here denied that selection -and training are both of them severe in many -countries. Mere severity, however, as long as it -is quite without relevance, is manifestly worthless. -We are forced to the conclusion, therefore, that to -expect an effective statecraft to be evolved from -the official, whether of the Chinese, the Prussian, -or any other type, is a mere dream. To encourage -such a hope would be to strengthen the grip of -the unsatisfactory stable-minded class upon the gullet -of society. The evidence then shows that among -the mechanisms whereby the directors of society -are chosen there is none that favours that intervention -of the conscious and instructed intellect that we -have suggested is necessary to the effective evolution -of civilization. Nowhere in the structure of -society is there a class tending to develop towards -this goal. Since from the point of view of social -effectiveness segregation into classes has been -entirely random, the appearance of such a -class would have been indeed an extraordinary -accident. Good as are the grounds for hoping that -human society may ultimately mature into a coherent -structure possessed of comprehensive and intelligent -direction, it would be no more than idle optimism -to suppose that there is any institution or class now -existing which promises to inspire a fundamental -<span class="xxpn" id="p259">{259}</span> -reconstruction. If the effective intrusion of the -intellect into social affairs does happily occur, it -will come from no organ of society now recognizable, -but through a slow elevation of the general standard -of consciousness up to the level at which will be -possible a kind of freemasonry and syndicalism of -the intellect. Under such circumstances free communication -through class barriers would be possible, -and an orientation of feeling quite independent of -the current social segregation would become -manifest.</p> - -<p class="padtopb">Throughout -the enormously long period during -which modern man has been established on the -earth human society has been left to the uncontrolled -contention of constructive and destructive -forces, and in the long run the destructive have -always proved the stronger. Whether the general -level of consciousness will reach the height necessary -to give a decisive predominance to constructive -tendencies, and whether such a development will -occur in time to save Western civilization from the -fate of its predecessors, are open questions. The -small segment of the social process of which we -have direct knowledge in the events of the day -has no very encouraging appearance. Segregation -has reasserted itself effectively; the dominion of -the stable and resistive mind is as firmly established -as ever, and no less dull and dangerous; while it -is plain how far, in the atmosphere of relaxation -and fatigue, the social inspiration of the common -man has sunk from the high constancy of spirit by -which throughout the long pilgrimage of war so -many weary feet have been upborne, so many dry -lips refreshed.</p> - -<div class="dindex section"> -<ul class="fsz6"><li class="ltrspca"> -<h2 class="h2nobreak" id="p261">INDEX</h2> -<ul> -<li><span class="smcap">A<b>FFIRMATIONS</b></span> of the herd, belief in normal, <a href="#p039">39</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">A<b>GE</b></span> and the herd instinct, <a href="#p086">86</a> -<ul> -<li>――, the predominance of, <a href="#p087">87</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">A<b>GE</b></span> <span class="smmaj">AND</span> <span class="smcap">Y<b>OUTH</b></span>, jealousy between, <a href="#p086">86</a> -<ul> -<li>――, reactions of, in relation to sex, <a href="#p084">84</a>, <a href="#p085">85</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">A<b>LCOHOLISM</b></span>, psychological meaning of, <a href="#p058">58</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">A<b>LTRUISM</b></span>, instinctive meaning of, <a href="#p122">122</a>–<a href="#p124">124</a> -<ul> -<li>――, a natural instinctive product, <a href="#p046">46</a></li> -<li>――, not a judgment, <a href="#p046">46</a></li> -<li>――, energy of, <a href="#p047">47</a></li> -</ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">A<b>NARCHISM</b></span>, psychological basis of, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">A<b>NTHROPOMORPHISM</b></span> in psychology, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">B<b>EER</b></span>, and comparative psychology, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">B<b>ELIEF</b></span>, non-rational and rational, distinction of, <a href="#p043">43</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a> -<ul> -<li>――, characters of, <a href="#p044">44</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">B<b>ETHE</b></span>, and comparative psychology, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">B<b>INET</b></span>, <a href="#p034">34</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">B<b>REEDING</b></span> against degeneracy, objections to, <a href="#p064">64</a> -<ul> -<li>―― for rationality, objections to, <a href="#p045">45</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>AT</b></span> <span class="smmaj">AND</span> <span class="smcap">D<b>OG</b></span>, instinctive differences in feeling, <a href="#p098">98</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>ERTITUDE</b></span> and knowledge, <a href="#p035">35</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>HURCH</b></span>, the, in wartime, <a href="#p154">154</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>IVILIZATION</b></span>, its influence on instinct in man, <a href="#p093">93</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>IVILIZATIONS</b></span>, the decline of, <a href="#p241">241</a>, <a href="#p242">242</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>OMMUNISM</b></span>, psychological basis of, <a href="#p254">254</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>ONFLICT</b></span> in the adult, superficial aspects of, <a href="#p052">52</a>, <a href="#p053">53</a> -<ul> -<li>―― in childhood and adolescence, <a href="#p049">49</a></li> -<li>―― in civilized man, <a href="#p049">49</a></li> -</ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>ONSCIENCE</b></span>, peculiar to - gregarious animals, <a href="#p040">40</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">C<b>ONVERSATION</b></span> as a mode of recognition, <a href="#p119">119</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">D<b>ARWINISM</b></span> as a herd affirmation, <a href="#p039">39</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">D<b>EDUCTIVE</b></span> <span class="smcap">M<b>ETHOD</b></span> in psychology, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">D<b>UTY</b></span>, <a href="#p048">48</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">E<b>NGLAND</b></span>, social type, <a href="#p201">201</a>, <a href="#p202">202</a> -<ul> -<li>――, morale of, <a href="#p207">207</a>–<a href="#p209">209</a></li> -<li>――, and the spirit of the hive, <a href="#p203">203</a>–<a href="#p206">206</a></li> -</ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">E<b>NVIRONMENT</b></span> <span class="smmaj">OF</span> <span class="smmaj">THE</span> <span class="smcap">M<b>IND</b></span>, importance of, <a href="#p063">63</a> -<ul> -<li>――, need for rational adjustment of, <a href="#p064">64</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">F<b>REUD’S</b></span> <span class="smcap">P<b>SYCHOLOGY</b></span>, general discussion of, <a href="#p076">76</a> -<ul> -<li>――, as an embryology of the mind, <a href="#p088">88</a></li> -<li>――, biological criticism of, <a href="#p077">77</a>, <a href="#p078">78</a></li> -<li>――, evolution of the “normal” mind, <a href="#p073">73</a></li> -<li>――, hypothesis of mental development, <a href="#p072">72</a></li> -<li>――, importance of conflict, <a href="#p072">72</a></li> -<li>――, nature of mental conflict, <a href="#p073">73</a></li> -<li>――, suggested deficiencies of, <a href="#p088">88</a>, <a href="#p089">89</a></li> -<li>――, the unconscious, <a href="#p074">74</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">G<b>ERMANY</b></span>, features of government, <a href="#p163">163</a>–<a href="#p165">165</a> -<ul> -<li>――, aggressive social type, <a href="#p167">167</a>, <a href="#p168">168</a></li> -<li>――, social structure, <a href="#p169">169</a>, <a href="#p170">170</a></li> -<li>――, observed mental characters, <a href="#p173">173</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> -<li>――, conscious direction of the State, <a href="#p163">163</a>, <a href="#p169">169</a>, <a href="#p191">191</a></li> -<li>――, in relation to other nations, <a href="#p179">179</a>–<a href="#p182">182</a></li> -<li>――, morale of, <a href="#p182">182</a>–<a href="#p188">188</a></li> -<li>――, discipline, <a href="#p189">189</a>–<a href="#p191">191</a></li> -<li>――, conditions of morale in, <a href="#p193">193</a>, <a href="#p194">194</a></li> -<li>――, objects of war with, <a href="#p194">194</a>–<a href="#p201">201</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">G<b>OVERNMENT</b></span>, Sources of, <a href="#p257">257</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUSNESS</b></span>, not a superficial character, <a href="#p019">19</a> -<ul> -<li>――, widespread occurrence in nature, <a href="#p020">20</a></li> -<li>―― in man, probably primitive, <a href="#p022">22</a></li> -<li>――, mental equivalents of, <a href="#p031">31</a>–<a href="#p033">33</a></li> -<li>――, biological meaning of, <a href="#p101">101</a>, <a href="#p102">102</a></li> -<li>――, analogy to multicellular structure, <a href="#p103">103</a></li> -<li>――, meaning of wide distribution of, <a href="#p103">103</a>, <a href="#p104">104</a></li> -<li>――, specialization and co-ordination, <a href="#p105">105</a>, <a href="#p106">106</a></li> -<li>――, varieties of, <a href="#p107">107</a>, <a href="#p108">108</a></li> -<li>――, in insects, <a href="#p105">105</a>–<a href="#p107">107</a></li> -<li>――, in mammals, <a href="#p107">107</a>, <a href="#p108">108</a></li> -<li>――, protective and aggressive, <a href="#p110">110</a>, <a href="#p111">111</a></li> -<li>―― in man, disadvantages of: - <ul class="ulina"> - <li>disease, <a href="#p133">133</a>;</li> - <li>resistiveness, <a href="#p133">133</a></li></ul></li> -<li>―― in man, defects - <ul class="ulina"> - <li>of specialization, <a href="#p135">135</a>;</li> - <li>of homogeneity, <a href="#p137">137</a></li></ul></li> -<li>――, aggressive, protective, socialized, <a href="#p166">166</a>, <a href="#p167">167</a></li> -</ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUS</b></span> <span class="smcap">A<b>NIMAL</b></span>, special characteristics of, <a href="#p028">28</a> -<ul> -<li>――, general characteristics of, <a href="#p029">29</a></li> -<li>――, characters of, <a href="#p108">108</a>, <a href="#p109">109</a></li> -<li>――, fear in, <a href="#p111">111</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUS</b></span> <span class="smcap">C<b>HARACTERS</b></span> <span class="smmaj">IN</span> <span class="smcap">M<b>AN</b></span>: -<ul class="ulina"> -<li>intolerance of solitude, <a href="#p113">113</a>;</li> -<li>religion, <a href="#p113">113</a>;</li> -<li>sensitiveness to the herd, <a href="#p114">114</a>;</li> -<li>mob violence and panic, <a href="#p115">115</a>;</li> -<li>susceptibility to leadership, <a href="#p115">115</a>;</li> -<li>recognition by the herd, <a href="#p118">118</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">H<b>AECKEL</b></span>, <a href="#p024">24</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">H<b>ERD</b></span> <span class="smcap">I<b>NSTINCT</b></span>, contrasted with other instincts, <a href="#p047">47</a> -<ul> -<li>――, mode of action of, <a href="#p048">48</a></li> -<li>―― in the individual, special character of, <a href="#p098">98</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">H<b>ISTORY</b></span>, biological interpretation of, <a href="#p099">99</a>, <a href="#p100">100</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">H<b>UMAN</b></span> <span class="smcap">C<b>ONDUCT</b></span>, apparent complexity of, <a href="#p013">13</a>, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">H<b>UXLEY</b></span>, antithesis of cosmical and ethical processes, <a href="#p024">24</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">I<b>NSTINCT</b></span>, definition of, <a href="#p094">94</a> -<ul> -<li>――, mental manifestations of, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> -<li>――, disguised but not diminished in man, <a href="#p099">99</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">I<b>NSTINCTIVE</b></span> <span class="smcap">A<b>CTIVITIES</b></span>, obscured in proportion to brain-power, <a href="#p097">97</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">I<b>NSTINCTIVE</b></span> <span class="smcap">E<b>XPRESSION</b></span>, essential to mental health, <a href="#p244">244</a>, <a href="#p245">245</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">I<b>NTELLECT</b></span>, the, essential function of, <a href="#p243">243</a> -<ul> -<li>――, biological aspect of, <a href="#p255">255</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">J<b>AMES,</b></span> <span class="smcap">W<b>ILLIAM</b></span>, introspective aspect of instinct, <a href="#p015">15</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">L<b>EADERSHIP</b></span>, <a href="#p116">116</a>, <a href="#p117">117</a> -<ul> -<li>―― in society, <a href="#p246">246</a></li> -<li>―― a substitute for common impulse, <a href="#p247">247</a></li> -<li>――, defects of, <a href="#p247">247</a></li> -<li>―― in Germany and in England, <a href="#p248">248</a>–<a href="#p250">250</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">L<b>E</b></span> <span class="smcap">B<b>ON,</b></span> <span class="smcap">G<b>USTAVE</b></span>, <a href="#p026">26</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>AN</b></span> as an animal, a fundamental conception, <a href="#p066">66</a>, <a href="#p067">67</a>, <a href="#p243">243</a> -<ul> -<li>―― as a gregarious animal, vagueness of earlier conceptions, <a href="#p021">21</a></li> -<li>―― as an instinctive animal, current view of, <a href="#p093">93</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>ENTAL</b></span> <span class="smcap">C<b>APACITY</b></span> and instinctive expression, <a href="#p121">121</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>ENTAL</b></span> <span class="smcap">C<b>ONFLICT,</b></span> discussed in relation to Freud’s doctrines, <a href="#p079">79</a>–<a href="#p081">81</a> -<ul> -<li>――, the antagonism to instinctive impulses, <a href="#p082">82</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>ENTAL</b></span> <span class="smcap">C<b>ONFLICT</b></span>, source of the repressive impulse in, <a href="#p082">82</a>, <a href="#p083">83</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>ENTAL</b></span> <span class="smcap">I<b>NSTABILITY</b></span>, and conflict, <a href="#p057">57</a> -<ul> -<li>――, in modern society, <a href="#p056">56</a>, <a href="#p057">57</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>INORITIES</b></span> and prejudice, <a href="#p216">216</a>, <a href="#p217">217</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>ORALE</b></span>, in England, <a href="#p207">207</a>–<a href="#p209">209</a> -<ul> -<li>――, in Germany, <a href="#p182">182</a>–<a href="#p188">188</a></li> -<li>――, maintenance of, <a href="#p147">147</a>–<a href="#p155">155</a></li> -<li>――, relation of homogeneity to, <a href="#p144">144</a>–<a href="#p147">147</a></li> -<li>―― and officialism, <a href="#p155">155</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>ULTICELLULARITY</b></span> and natural selection, <a href="#p018">18</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">M<b>ULTICELLULAR</b></span> <span class="smcap">O<b>RGANISMS</b></span>, the, <a href="#p018">18</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">N<b>ATIONAL</b></span> consciousness, <a href="#p228">228</a> -<ul> -<li>――, simplicity of, in England, <a href="#p228">228</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">N<b>ATIONAL</b></span> feeling in war, <a href="#p216">216</a>–<a href="#p218">218</a> -<ul> -<li>――, growth and common impulse, <a href="#p245">245</a>, <a href="#p246">246</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">N<b>ATIONAL</b></span> industry and private enterprise, <a href="#p257">257</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">N<b>ATIONAL</b></span> types contrasted, <a href="#p232">232</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">N<b>ON-RATIONAL</b></span> <span class="smcap">O<b>PINION</b></span>, frequency of, <a href="#p035">35</a>, <a href="#p036">36</a>, <a href="#p093">93</a>, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> - -<li>“<span class="smcap">N<b>ORMAL</b></span>” type of mind, <a href="#p053">53</a>, <a href="#p054">54</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">N<b>UEL</b></span> and comparative psychology, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">P<b>ACIFISM</b></span>, <a href="#p125">125</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">P<b>EARSON,</b></span> <span class="smcap">K<b>ARL</b></span>, biological significance of - gregariousness, <a href="#p023">23</a>, <a href="#p024">24</a> -<ul> -<li>――, possibility of sociology as a science, <a href="#p012">12</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">P<b>ERSONALITY</b></span>, elements in the evolution of, <a href="#p087">87</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">P<b>REJUDICE</b></span>, precautions against, <a href="#p220">220</a>–<a href="#p222">222</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">P<b>RIMITIVE</b></span> <span class="smcap">M<b>AN</b></span>, rigidity of mental life, <a href="#p034">34</a></li> - -<li id="p264"><span class="smcap">P<b>SYCHO-ANALYSIS</b></span>, - characteristics of, <a href="#p070">70</a>, - <a href="#p071">71</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">P<b>SYCHOLOGICAL</b></span> <span class="smcap">E<b>NQUIRY</b></span>, biological method, <a href="#p091">91</a>, <a href="#p092">92</a> -<ul> -<li>――, primitive introspective method, <a href="#p068">68</a>, <a href="#p069">69</a></li> -<li>――, objective introspective method of Freud, <a href="#p070">70</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">P<b>SYCHOLOGY</b></span> of instinctive man, failure of earlier speculations, <a href="#p016">16</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">R<b>ATIONALIZATION</b></span>, <a href="#p038">38</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">R<b>ATIONAL</b></span> statecraft, need of, <a href="#p241">241</a>, <a href="#p251">251</a> -<ul> -<li>――, basis of, <a href="#p252">252</a>, <a href="#p253">253</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">R<b>ECOGNITION</b></span>, <a href="#p118">118</a>, <a href="#p119">119</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">R<b>ELIGION</b></span> and the social animal, <a href="#p050">50</a>, <a href="#p051">51</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>EGREGATION</b></span> of society, effects of, <a href="#p215">215</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>ENSITIVENESS</b></span> to feeling, importance and danger of, <a href="#p064">64</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>IDIS,</b></span> <span class="smcap">B<b>ORIS</b></span>, and the social instinct in man, <a href="#p026">26</a>, <a href="#p027">27</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>OCIAL</b></span> <span class="smcap">E<b>VOLUTION</b></span>, in insects, relation to brain-power, <a href="#p062">62</a> -<ul> -<li>――, in man, delayed by capacity for reaction, <a href="#p062">62</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>OCIAL</b></span> <span class="smcap">P<b>SYCHOLOGY</b></span>, continuous with individual psychology, <a href="#p012">12</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>OCIAL</b></span> stability, an effect of war, <a href="#p235">235</a>, <a href="#p236">236</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>OCIAL</b></span> instability, a sequel of war, <a href="#p236">236</a>, <a href="#p237">237</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>OCIOLOGY</b></span>, definition of, <a href="#p011">11</a> -<ul> -<li>――, psychological principles of, <a href="#p255">255</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>OLITARY</b></span> <span class="smmaj">AND</span> <span class="smcap">G<b>REGARIOUS</b></span> <span class="smcap">A<b>NIMALS</b></span>, elementary differences, <a href="#p017">17</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>OMBART,</b></span> <span class="smcap">W<b>ERNER</b></span>, Germans the representatives of God, <a href="#p177">177</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>PEECH</b></span> in man, and gregariousness, <a href="#p034">34</a>, <a href="#p040">40</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>PENCER</b></span>, <a href="#p024">24</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>TABLE-MINDED</b></span> type, <a href="#p054">54</a>, <a href="#p055">55</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">S<b>UGGESTION</b></span> and reason not necessarily opposed, <a href="#p045">45</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">U<b>EXKÜLL</b></span> and comparative psychology, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">U<b>NSTABLE-MINDED</b></span> type, <a href="#p058">58</a>, <a href="#p059">59</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">V<b>ARIED</b></span> <span class="smcap">R<b>EACTION</b></span> and capacity for communication, -importance to the herd of, <a href="#p061">61</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">W<b>AR</b></span>, instinctive reactions to, <a href="#p140">140</a>–<a href="#p143">143</a> -<ul> -<li>―― and rumour, <a href="#p144">144</a></li> -<li>―― as a biological necessity, <a href="#p126">126</a>–<a href="#p132">132</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">W<b>ARD,</b></span> <span class="smcap">L<b>ESTER</b></span>, views on gregariousness in man, <a href="#p024">24</a>, <a href="#p025">25</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">W<b>ELLS,</b></span> H. G., impossibility of sociology as a science, <a href="#p012">12</a></li> - -<li><span class="smcap">W<b>OLF</b></span> <span class="smcap">P<b>ACK</b></span>, the, as an organism, <a href="#p029">29</a></li> -</ul></li></ul> - -<div class="fsz8 padtopa"><i>Printed in Great Britain by</i></div> - -<div class="fsz8">UNWIN BROTHERS, - LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON</div> -</div><!--dindex--> - -<div class="section transnote">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - -<ul> -<li>Original spelling and grammar have been generally retained, with -some exceptions noted below. Original printed page numbers are shown -like this: {52}. Footnotes have been relabeled 1–23, and moved from -within paragraphs to nearby locations between paragraphs. A few full -stops and commas were added where they were required but were not -clearly visible in the original print. The transcriber produced the -cover image and hereby assigns it to the public domain. Original -page images are available from archive.org—search for -"instinctsofherdi00trot". -</li> - -<li>Page <a href="#p239">239</a>. The phrase “but it is must -be remembered” was changed to “but it must -be remembered”.</li> - -<li>Page <a href="#p264">264</a>. Index entry “<span class="smcap">U<b>EXKULL</b></span>” was changed -to “<span class="smcap">U<b>EXKÜLL</b></span>” to agree -with the text on page <a href="#p014">14</a>.</li></ul> - -</div><!--transnote--> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War, by -Wilfred Trotter - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSTINCTS OF THE HERD *** - -***** This file should be named 53453-h.htm or 53453-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/4/5/53453/ - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team, with -RichardW, at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced -from images generously made available by The Internet -Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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