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diff --git a/old/53447-0.txt b/old/53447-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0d1106c..0000000 --- a/old/53447-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4970 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fishing Industry, by W. E. Gibbs - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Fishing Industry - -Author: W. E. Gibbs - -Release Date: November 4, 2016 [EBook #53447] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FISHING INDUSTRY *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Brian Wilcox, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from -page images generously made available by Internet Archive -(https://archive.org) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - Italic text is marked _thus_. - Bold text is marked =thus= - -The spelling, punctuation and hyphenation is as the original, with the -exception of apparent printer’s errors. - - - - - HALL, RUSSELL & Co. - LIMITED - - _Shipbuilders, Engineers - and Boilermakers_ - - ABERDEEN - - _SPECIALITY_ - - _The designing and building of_ - STEAM - TRAWLERS - and - FISHING VESSELS - _for_ NORTH SEA - ICELANDIC - NEWFOUNDLAND - AND TROPICAL FISHING - - TELEGRAMS: “HALRUSSEL, ABERDEEN” - - - - - TELEGRAMS. MASSEY HULL - - TELEPHONES:—{ HULL. 5213 NAT. (6 LINES) - { GRIMSBY. 2615 NAT. - - W. A. MASSEY & SONS LIMITED. - - _Ship Salesmen_, _Valuers_, BROKERS for the SALE & PURCHASE of every - description of Shipping property. - - STEAM TRAWLERS, - and every kind of - Fishing Vessel a speciality. - - Contractors to the British Admiralty - Crown Agents for the Colonies, - &c., &c. - - Head Office, - ALFRED GELDER STREET, - HULL. - - Branch Offices at - GRIMSBY, GOOLE - and IMMINGHAM. - - - - -THE FISHING INDUSTRY - - - - - PITMAN’S - COMMON COMMODITIES - AND INDUSTRIES SERIES - -Each book in crown 8vo, illustrated, 3/-net - - - =TEA.= By A. IBBETSON - =COFFEE.= By B. B. KEABLE - =SUGAR.= By GEO. MARTINEAU, C.B. - =OILS.= By C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL, B.A., F.I.C. - =WHEAT.= By ANDREW MILLAR. - =RUBBER.= By C. BEADLE and H. P. STEVENS, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C. - =IRON AND STEEL.= By C. HOOD - =COPPER.= By H. K. PICARD - =COAL.= By F. H. WILSON, M.I.M.E. - =TIMBER.= By W. BULLOCK - =COTTON.= By R. J. PEAKE - =SILK.= By LUTHER HOOPER - =WOOL.= By J. A. HUNTER - =LINEN.= By ALFRED S. MOORE - =TOBACCO.= By A. E. TANNER - =LEATHER.= By K. J. ADCOCK - =KNITTED FABRICS.= By J. CHAMBERLAIN and J. H. QUILTER - =CLAYS.= By ALFRED S. SEARLE - =PAPER.= By HARRY A. MADDOX - =SOAP.= By W. A. SIMMONS, B.Sc. - =THE MOTOR INDUSTRY.= By HORACE WYATT, B.A. - =GLASS AND GLASS MAKING.= By PERCIVAL MARSON - =GUMS AND RESINS.= By E. J. PARRY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. - =THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.= By J. S. HARDING - =GAS AND GAS MAKING.= By W. H. Y. WEBBER - =FURNITURE.= By H. E. BINSTEAD - =COAL TAR.= By A. R. WARNES - =PETROLEUM.= By A. LIDGETT - =SALT.= By A. F. CALVERT - =ZINC.= By T. E. LONES, M.A., B.Sc. - =PHOTOGRAPHY.= By WM. GAMBLE - =ASBESTOS.= By A. L. SUMMERS - =SILVER.= By BENJAMIN WHITE - =CARPETS.= By REGINALD S. BRINTON - =PAINTS AND VARNISHES.= By A. S. JENNINGS - =CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES.= By T. WOODHOUSE and P. KILGOUR - =ACIDS AND ALKALIS.= By G. H. J. ADLAM - =ELECTRICITY.= By R. E. NEALE, B.Sc., Hons. - =ALUMINIUM.= By G. MORTIMER - =GOLD.= By BENJAMIN WHITE - =BUTTER AND CHEESE.= By C. W. WALKER-TISDALE and JEAN JONES - =THE BRITISH CORN TRADE.= By A. BARKER - =LEAD.= By J. A. SMYTHE, D.Sc. - =ENGRAVING.= By T. W. LASCELLES - =STONES AND QUARRIES.= By J. ALLEN HOWE, O.B.E., B.Sc. - =EXPLOSIVES.= By S. I. LEVY, B.Sc. - =THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY.= By B. W. POOLE, M.U.K.A. - =TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, AND WIRELESS.= By J. POOLE - =PERFUMERY.= By E. J. PARRY - =THE ELECTRIC LAMP INDUSTRY.= By G. ARNCLIFFE PERCIVAL - =ICE AND COLD STORAGE.= By B. H. SPRINGETT - =GLOVES AND THE GLOVE TRADE.= By B. E. ELLIS - =JUTE.= By T. WOODHOUSE and P. KILGOUR - =DRUGS IN COMMERCE.= By J. HUMPHREY - =THE FILM INDUSTRY.= By DAVIDSON BOUGHEY - =CYCLE INDUSTRY.= By W. GREW - =SULPHUR.= By HAROLD A. AUDEN - =TEXTILE BLEACHING.= By ALEC B. STEVEN - =PLAYER PLANO.= By D. MILLER WILSON - =WINE AND THE WINE TRADE.= By ANDRE L. SIMON - =IRONFOUNDING.= By B. WHITELEY - =COTTON SPINNING.= By A. S. WADE - =ALCOHOL IN COMMERCE.= By C. SIMMONDS, O.B.E., B.Sc., F.I.C. - =CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE.= By W. NOBLE TWELVETREES - =SPONGES.= By E. J. J. CRESSWELL - =WALL PAPER.= By G. WHITELEY WARD - =CLOCKS AND WATCHES.= By G. L. OVERTON - =INCANDESCENT LIGHTING.= By S. I. LEVY, B.A., B.Sc., F.I.C. - =THE FISHING INDUSTRY.= By Dr. W. E. GIBBS - =OIL FOR POWER PURPOSES.= By S. H. NORTH - =STARCH AND STARCH PRODUCTS.= By H. A. AUDEN, D.Sc., F.C.S. - =TALKING MACHINES.= By O. MITCHELL - =NICKEL.= By B. H. WHITE - - -[Illustration: HAULING THE TRAWL - -_Frontispiece._] - - - - -_PITMAN’S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES_ - - -THE FISHING INDUSTRY - - -BY - -W. E. GIBBS, D.Sc. - -[Illustration: Printer’s mark] - - LONDON - SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. - PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2 - BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK - 1922 - - - - - PRINTED BY - SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. - BATH, ENGLAND - - - - -PREFACE - - -In this little book I have tried to describe concisely, yet clearly and -comprehensively, the great work of our sea fisheries. It is notoriously -difficult to write a small book on a large subject, and I expect there -are many who will detect sins of omission. - -The book is chiefly concerned with fisheries for edible fish. I have -included a chapter on whale fisheries, since whale oil is now used -largely in the manufacture of such food substances as lard substitute -and margarine. No account of seal “fishing” is included, as seals are -not fished but are generally hunted on shore. I have not included -fisheries for pearls, sponges or seaweed. To its cost the nation knows -little of the methods and organization and achievements of the Fishing -Industry. I sincerely hope that this little book may do something to -stimulate a wider and deeper interest in this vitally important British -industry. - - * * * * * - -My cordial thanks are due to Mr. J. A. Robertson, O.B.E., of Fleetwood, -and to Mr. W. T. Sinderson, of Grimsby, who have very kindly read -through the manuscript and given me the benefit of their valuable -experience and advice. - -I am indebted to Prof. James Johnstone, of Liverpool University, for -much of the information contained in Chapters I and II, and also for -permission to use the illustrations on pages 17 and 29. - -For other illustrations I make grateful acknowledgement as follows: for -Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17 and 19, from _The Sea Fisheries_, to the -author, Dr. J. Travis Jenkins, and the publishers, Messrs. Constable; -for the frontispiece and No 18, to the Grimsby Coal, Salt and Tanning -Co; for Nos. 11, 14 and 20 to Mr. Walter Wood, of the Mission to Deep -Sea Fishermen. - -Mr. R. A. Fleming, of Liverpool University, very kindly copied Nos. 2, -3, 4 and 5 for me from Day’s _British Fishes_. - -Chapter V is based upon Bitting’s monograph on “the preparation of the -cod and other salt fish for the market.” (U.S. Dept. Agric. Bur. of -Chem. Bull. No. 133). - -W. E. G. - -RUNCORN, 1922. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAP. PAGE - - PREFACE V - - I. INTRODUCTION 1 - - II. CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS OF FISHES 16 - - III. METHODS OF FISHING 42 - - IV. THE HERRING FISHING INDUSTRY 54 - - V. THE NEWFOUNDLAND COD FISHERY 69 - - VI. TRAWL FISHERIES 77 - - VII. SHELLFISH 90 - - VIII. FISHERIES FOR WHALES 99 - - IX. THE CURING AND PRESERVATION OF FISH 107 - - X. THE FOOD VALUE OF FISH 115 - - XI. FISH PRODUCTS 124 - - INDEX 133 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIG. PAGE - - HAULING THE TRAWL _Frontispiece_ - - 1. METAMORPHOSIS OF PLAICE 17 - - 2. COD 20 - - 3. LEMON SOLE 23 - - 4. SKATE 23 - - 5. HERRING 26 - - 6. PLANKTON 29 - - 7. HERRING EGGS 33 - - 8. PLANKTON CONTAINING FISH EGGS 33 - - 9. TRAWLING (_circa_ 1750) 45 - - 10. DRIFTING (_circa_ 1750) 49 - - 11. SINGLE-BOATER AT FOLKESTONE 51 - - 12. HERRING DRIFTER 57 - - 13. CURING YARD (YARMOUTH) 59 - - 14. SCOTTISH FISHER GIRLS 61 - - 15. SECTION OF MODERN TRAWLER 79 - - 16. PLANS OF MODERN TRAWLER 82 - - 17. THE OTTER TRAWL 85 - - 18. THE CATCH ABOARD 87 - - 19. CHART OF TRAWLING GROUNDS _between pp._ 88 and 89 - - 20. A WHALE’S MOUTH 101 - - - - - THE - FISHING INDUSTRY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTION - - -In its essential features the story of the gradual rise and development -of the fishing industry closely resembles that of its sister industry, -agriculture. In both cases man became skilled in harvesting long -before he understood anything of the art of cultivation. Primitive -man roamed from place to place in the wake of the annual wave of -harvest, gathering wild crops of grain, berries and fruits. Ultimately -he became alive to the significance of seed, and the nomad settled -down to raise crops year after year in the same place. Gradually he -acquired a knowledge of the conditions of temperature, moisture, and -quality of soil that favoured the growth of his plants. Finally, he -discovered the principle of the rotation of crops, and, by this, -not only increased the productivity of his land but also laid the -foundations of a systematic agriculture. Of recent years agriculture -has been rapidly developing into a science. Chemistry, physics, botany, -plant physiology, and bacteriology, all contribute increasingly to a -full understanding of the inner processes of the growing plant, and -indicate more and more clearly the exact relations that exist between -the conditions of growth and the character and amount of the resulting -product. - -The art of fishing is one of the oldest in the world, yet even to this -day the fisherman is simply a hunter, gathering where he has not sown, -and differing little, save in mechanical efficiency, from his primitive -ancestor fishing with spear and trap. - -Only in recent years has any systematic attempt been made to understand -something of the forces that produce the annual harvest of the sea. We -know very little about the habits of the various fishes that constitute -this harvest—their food, their migrations, their reproductive -processes, and, in general, the conditions upon which their healthy -life and development depend. We have developed highly efficient fishing -implements, but we have yet to learn to use them wisely and not too -well; to increase the fertility of the various fishing grounds rather -than depopulate them by over-fishing and the destruction of immature -fish. - -The fisherman’s harvest differs from that of the farmer in one -important respect. Fishes grow for three or four, or more, years before -they are mature. Now, only mature fish as a rule have any considerable -commercial value, and only mature fish are able to reproduce their kind -and so maintain the existence of the fishery. On the fishing grounds, -both mature and immature fish are mingled together, and in capturing -the one it is practically impossible to avoid netting the other. To -some extent the capture of immature fish is avoided by making the -mesh of the net of such a size that the smaller fish can escape. With -drift nets only mature fish are caught, the small ones escaping; but -with trawl nets it is otherwise. The trawl net is essentially a large -string bag that is drawn open-mouthed along the sea bottom, scooping -up wholesale all bottom-living fish, such as cod, haddock, sole and -plaice. All go into the net, both large and small, and, although the -young fish ultimately escape through the meshes, many of them are -damaged in so doing, while many young, flat fish, lying on the sea -bottom, are damaged by the foot rope of the net, as it passes over -them. Certain fishing grounds, such as the Dogger Bank, were almost -depopulated of flat fish in the years just previous to the war. - -Fortunately for the future of the fisheries, the trawl, can only be -worked on smooth ground, and at depths not exceeding two hundred and -fifty fathoms, so that only a small percentage of the actual fishing -grounds is affected by it. Also, when a fishing ground shows signs of -becoming exhausted by over-fishing, it is less frequented by fishermen, -owing to the reduced catches that can be obtained, and thus it tends -automatically to recover. Nevertheless, it is desirable that fishing -should be so organized and restrained, that the fertility of the -fishing grounds is not imperilled. In the distant future it may become -possible to re-stock partially exhausted grounds with young fish, -artificially reared in a hatchery. - -Oceanography—the study of the ocean and its inhabitants—is one of -the youngest of sciences. Yet, to an island people such as we are, -it should be one of the most important, for it is only by the study -of oceanography that we can hope to found a systematic, organized -aquiculture. - -The beginning of a simple aquiculture is to be seen in the cultivation -of shellfish, such as oysters and mussels, by the inshore fishermen. - -Of recent years, experiments have been carried out by the Fishery -Boards of England, Scotland, Germany, and the United States of America, -with the object of increasing the productivity of certain fishing -grounds by adding large numbers of artificially hatched, young fish. -For some years the Fishery Board for Scotland added annually about -twenty million plaice larvae to certain confined sea areas (Upper Loch -Fyne), and found, as a result, that the number of young plaice on the -shallow beaches was doubled. - -In some cases a new species of fish has been introduced into a -particular fishing ground, with marked success. Thus the U.S.A. -fisheries collected and hatched the eggs of the shad on the Atlantic -coast and introduced the larvae into the Pacific, with the result that -a profitable shad fishery has now been established on the Californian -coast. - -The application of science to the fishing industry is not restricted to -biological investigations of the food, habits and development of living -fishes. It is developing new processes for the better preservation of -edible fish for food purposes, so that the large quantities of fish -caught periodically—for example, in the summer herring fishery—may be -stored up for gradual consumption during the winter. It has shown that -fish waste can be manufactured into glue, cattle food, and fertilizers. -It has developed into a profitable industry the extraction of oils from -both edible and inedible fish, and the conversion of these oils into -hard fats, suitable for the manufacture of soap and margarine. It has -demonstrated that the skins of certain fish, notably the shark, can be -tanned to make excellent leather. - -With the exception of these pioneer experiments and investigations, -however, the fishing industry of to-day is simply an organized art—the -art of catching wild fish. The story of the industry is essentially -a description of the methods that are used for capturing the various -species of fish that are of commercial importance, and for handling, -curing, and disposing of the catch. - -Great Britain is situated in the midst of the greatest fishing grounds -of the world. The British fishing industry is the most efficient and -the most highly developed of any. Consequently, since fishing methods -are essentially the same everywhere, it will be sufficient for us to -consider, with few exceptions, the methods and equipment that are used -by our own fishermen around our own shores. - -There is direct evidence that, as early as the third century, A.D., -fish were caught in considerable quantities round the coast of Britain -by the natives and used as food. Little is known about the early -development of a fishing industry in this country. We know that in -the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, fish was in demand throughout -the country, partly because of the religious observance of fast days, -and partly, no doubt, because it afforded a welcome change in the -regular winter diet of salted meat. In those days there was no winter -root crop, so that cattle were killed in autumn and salted down for -consumption during the winter. - -In disposing of their catch, the fishermen were handicapped by the -almost complete lack of transport facilities from the coast inland. -Their produce would be distributed by pack-horse, so that fresh fish -would be practically unknown beyond a distance of a few miles from the -coast. Consequently, all fish for inland markets were salted. The fish -were pickled in brine, as the art of dry-salting was then unknown in -this country. - -To develop a successful fishing industry, it was necessary, then, as -it is to-day, either to dispose of the catch quickly on the spot, -or to preserve the fish so that it could be transported to distant -markets. In 1347, a Dutchman, William Beukels, of Biervelt, invented an -improved means of curing and pickling herring, which was essentially -the modern process of gutting the fish and packing them in dry salt. -At this time the Baltic herring fishery, carried on by the Hanseatic -League, dominated the markets of Europe. But the new method of curing, -exploited by the Dutch, improved the quality and keeping powers of -the fish to such an extent that, by the end of the fifteenth century, -the Dutch fishing industry was supreme, and had become a powerful and -valuable national enterprise. In the sixteenth century, as many as -two thousand Dutch herring “busses” (as the boats were called) would -gather on St. John’s day at Brassa Sound, in the Shetlands, to begin -the summer herring fishery. The fish were caught with drift nets, were -salted and packed in barrels, and carried home by the fast-sailing, -attendant “yaggers.” Ashore they were repacked in fresh salt in new -barrels. Over a million barrels were packed in a year. When caught, -the fish would be worth about a million pounds, and when retailed -about two million pounds. Contemporary illustrations of the methods of -curing and salting then in use reveal the astonishing fact that even -to the smallest detail the methods that were employed in Holland in -Elizabeth’s day are identical with those that are employed at Yarmouth -to-day. - -As a direct result of the great development of their trade in salted -herrings, the Dutch gradually gained a naval and maritime supremacy -in Europe which they maintained until it was wrested from them by the -English. - -English sea-power in the early years of the sixteenth century was in a -decadent condition. The ports and harbours had been neglected, and had -become silted up, so that the condition of the shipping industry in -general, and of the Navy in particular, had reached a very low ebb. In -1561, Mr. Secretary Cecil, alarmed by the growing menace of the Dutch -naval ascendancy, proposed three remedies for restoring the strength -and importance of the navy. He proposed: - -(1) That the fishing industry be promoted, as it provided a valuable -recruiting ground for the navy; - -(2) That merchandise be extended, and so provide increased employment -for the shipping industry; - -(3) That piracy be encouraged, privately-owned privateers forming -valuable auxiliaries in time of war. - -He thought that the fishing industry could be stimulated immediately -by renewing the fast days, which had fallen into disuse since the -abolition of the monasteries. - -He suggested that two days a week—Wednesday and Friday—should be -meatless days. - -In 1563, he tried a measure of Protection, a Navigation Act being -passed, making it illegal to buy or sell foreign-caught fish, and -attempts were made to prevent Dutch and other foreigners from fishing -in English waters. These measures, although passed by Parliament, do -not appear to have been enforced. - -James I issued two proclamations, imposing licences and dues upon -foreign fishing vessels fishing in British waters. No attention was -paid to these, and it was left to Charles I, some years later, to -enforce them. Other steps taken by both Charles I and Charles II -consisted mainly in the formation of Royal Fishery Companies. Various -fishery companies and societies succeeded one another up to the end -of the eighteenth century. They do not appear to have been successful -in establishing a flourishing fishing industry, and in 1718 (George -I) an act was passed by which fishermen were to be rewarded for their -catch by a bounty. Bounties were to be paid for several kinds of fish: -thus, for every barrel of white herrings of 32 gallons, exported beyond -the seas, the bounty was 2s. 8d.; for full red herrings, 1s. 9d. per -barrel; for empty red herrings, 1s. per barrel. - -The conditions upon which the bounty was to be paid were fully set -forth in a later act in 1750 (George II). The construction of herring -vessels was encouraged by a bounty of 30s. per ton, paid out of the -Customs, for decked fishing vessels of from twenty to eighty tons. - -The time and place of fishing were stipulated, as well as rules for the -proper management and prosecution of the fishery. Each vessel was to -have on board twelve Winchester bushels of salt for every last of fish -such vessel was capable of holding, the salt to be contained in new -barrels. - -In 1757, the bounty was increased to 50s. per ton, but was reduced to -30s. again in 1771. It was further reduced to 20s. in 1787, and an -additional bounty of 4s. per barrel added. This was made proportional -to the tonnage, so that no vessel could claim more than 30s. per -ton—unless the vessel caught over three barrels per ton, in which case -a bounty of 1s. per barrel was granted upon the surplus quantity. - -While the bounty often undoubtedly encouraged the development of the -fishery, the development was not so rapid or so extensive as it would -otherwise have been, owing to the duty on imported salt. The weight of -the duty was such that the fishermen threw fish overboard rather than -cure it, only landing that which could be brought in fresh. - -In 1808 the bounty was raised to £3 per ton on every British built and -British owned fishing boat of not less than sixty tons burden, properly -manned, registered, and navigated and employed in herring fishing. The -maximum tonnage on which the bounty was payable was one hundred tons. -Two shillings per barrel was paid on properly cured and packed herrings. - -After the peace of 1815, the naval wars and the press gangs had reduced -the sea fisheries to negligible proportions, but the existing bounties -were continued until 1829, and encouraged the rapid revival of the -industry. By 1829, the fishing industry was well established, and -thereafter steadily developed in value and importance. - -The modern organization and development of the fishing industry began -between 1870 and 1880, following the introduction of steam fishing -vessels. The old sailing smacks and drifters were necessarily limited -in their scope and capacity. They could only fish in certain weathers; -they required skilled handling; their effective area of operation was -restricted by the necessity for bringing the catch ashore as fresh as -possible; their trawling power depended upon the wind. - -A sail boat was generally the property of a small family group -of fishermen, who worked the boat and fished, while one of their -number—the ship’s husband—stayed ashore to purchase stores and tackle, -and dispose of the catch. The proceeds of the boat were shared among -the owners. These privately owned sail boats were to be found in every -little harbour on every coast of Britain. The fishermen themselves were -a fine, sturdy, independent class of men, skilful seamen, and all-round -fishermen, able to turn their hands to any form of fishing, whether -lining, trawling, or drifting. - -The introduction of steam trawlers and drifters has completely changed -the character and organization of the fishing industry. Instead of -being individualistic, it has become collective, and instead of being -the common industry of every seaside village, it has become controlled -by large limited liability companies, and centralized in a few large -ports. - -Steamers were first used in 1870, to collect the catch from the sail -boats on the fishing grounds, bringing it home with all speed while -the fishing boats remained at sea. This naturally enabled the fishing -boats to catch more fish, and also made possible the use of larger -boats fishing further afield. A logical development of this step was -the construction of actual steam-driven fishing boats—trawlers and -drifters. These steamers soon proved to be superior to the sail boats. -They were able to fish in all weathers, even in a calm. Owing to their -greater power, also, they were able to use much larger nets and fish in -deeper waters. - -Steam trawlers and drifters are much more expensive than smacks or -sailing drifters. They can only be berthed and handled satisfactorily -in harbours that are equipped for the unloading and dispatching of -large quantities of fish. From the very beginning these steamers were -owned by large limited companies rather than by individuals, and the -industry has tended to become more and more centralized at certain -large ports, for example, Aberdeen, Hull, Grimsby, Yarmouth, Lowestoft, -Milford Haven, and Fleetwood. The rise and development of many of these -ports, for example, Aberdeen and Fleetwood, has been in direct response -to the demands made upon them by the new steam fishing industry. - -The introduction of steam fishing made longer voyages possible, and led -to the development of new fishing grounds. Steam trawlers from British -ports now fish as far north as Iceland and the White Sea, as far west -as Newfoundland, and as far south as Morocco, making voyages of many -week’s duration. - -The re-organization of the fishing industry led to specialization -amongst the fishermen themselves. The old sailing fisherman was -essentially an all-round man. He was equally expert at lining, drifting -and trawling. The skipper of a steamer, however, is a specialist; he -is either a liner-, a drifter-, or a trawler-man. Generally, also, he -keeps to a given region—Iceland, the White Sea, the North of Scotland, -the North Sea, or the Bay of Biscay. - -In the three years preceding the war (1911 to 1914) the development -of the steam fishing industry had become almost stationary. This -was probably due in part to over-capitalization, resulting in lower -profits. It was feared also that the greatly increased efficiency of -the steam trawlers tended to produce a condition of over-fishing in -certain areas, with the result that catches obtained in those areas -progressively diminished; for example, the average catch per boat per -day in the North Sea during three successive periods was as follows— - - 1903 to 1906 17·2 cwts. - 1907 to 1910 16·7 „ - 1911 to 1913 15·3 „ - -The fishermen became alarmed and development was arrested. This -tendency to over-fish certain grounds has been effectively checked -during the war by the almost complete cessation of offshore fishing. -There is thus every probability that such grounds have now recovered, -and further that, in many cases, grounds such as the Dogger Bank, that -had become almost depopulated, will have become restocked. - -The successful development of steam fishing has necessarily reacted -upon the prosperity of the individual fishermen in the various fishing -villages, with their smaller, privately-owned sail boats. They were -faced with two alternatives: either to combine together to acquire -steamers, and so maintain their position in the offshore fisheries, -or to devote their attention to the development of inshore fishing. -Many of the larger sailing drifters have now been fitted with petrol -engines, which make it possible for them to compete with the steam -drifters for herring and mackerel. - -Generally speaking, however, the outlook for the small fishermen -of the English and Scottish coast villages—the real fisher folk—is -discouraging. The tendency of legislation, however, just before the war -was to encourage this class of fishermen by restricting the operations -of the steam trawlers in certain localities. In 1910-1914, with the -object of protecting the inshore fishermen, the Fishery Board of -Scotland prohibited trawling in the Moray Firth area, only drifting -and lining being permitted. Since this prohibition only applied to -British subjects, certain East Coast fishing companies evaded it by -transferring their vessels to foreign flags, registering them in a -foreign port and employing a foreigner as a dummy skipper. The Board -secured convictions against these offenders in the Sheriff’s Court, -but the convictions were upset subsequently by the Foreign Office. The -original prohibition was then strengthened by a new law which made it -illegal to land fish in Scotland, if caught by vessels registered in a -foreign port. - -During the war, the inshore fisherman found himself in a comparatively -advantageous position, as the high price of coal made steam fishing -less profitable. Further, the offshore trawling grounds were mostly -closed, and the majority of the steam trawlers and drifters were on -war-service. For the time being, therefore, inshore fishing with smacks -was placed at an advantage. - -A number of fishermen’s co-operative societies were formed to organize -the sale and distribution of the produce of these inshore fisheries. -This also tended to make the position of the inshore fisherman more -secure. - -The old order changeth, and although there is that connected with this -transformation in the fishing industry which is to be regretted, yet, -on the whole, the developments of the past forty years have undoubtedly -transformed the fishing industry into a very efficient and valuable -national asset. Individually, the present-day steam fisherman is very -much inferior to his sailing predecessor. The centralization of the -industry in a few big ports, although undoubtedly making for much -greater efficiency, bears hardly on the type of the old class of expert -fishermen; but these are the almost inevitable consequences of such a -transition. - -But what is the present condition of the industry, and what is its -future likely to be? The prosperity of the inshore fisherman, as well -as that of his offshore rival, is vitally important to the welfare -of this country; there should be room and opportunity enough for -both. The inshore fisherman, protected by legislation and secured -by well-organized co-operation, can increase very considerably the -amount of our available home-grown food supply. The superior power and -equipment of the big steam trawlers and drifters, properly utilized and -encouraged, should be one of the most valuable industrial assets of the -State. We are not a great food-producing nation; on the contrary, in -the years before the war, we actually imported more than 40 per cent of -our total food requirements. We are surrounded by seas that teem with -every form of edible fish. British enterprise has built up a fishing -industry which is the greatest and most efficient in the world. In -1914, our fishing boats were practically equal in numbers and equipment -to those of all the other countries in North-West Europe put together. -Nearly 70 per cent of the fishing boats in the North Sea were British. -The total produce of our sea fisheries has nearly doubled since the -beginning of the century. The annual catch in the last few years before -the war averaged over a million tons. It was worth about fifteen -million pounds when landed, and may be valued at nearly fifty million -pounds by the time it reached the consumers. Of all this splendid food -that is obtained at our very doors by our own people, less than half -is retained for consumption in this country. Out of 600,000 tons of -herrings landed annually in this country before the war, over 500,000 -were exported, chiefly to European countries. Herrings have a high -food value, and contain a large amount of easily digested fat, and -if all the herrings landed in this country were consumed at home, it -would only allow two herrings a week to each adult individual in all -the population. An increased home consumption of fish, would effect a -corresponding saving in imported meat. - -Owing to this remarkably small home demand for fish, the fisherman has -had to depend upon foreign markets, chiefly Germany, Poland, Russia and -the Levant. The present adverse rate of exchange with these countries, -and the increased cost of fishing operations, make it impossible for -the foreign importer to take our fish, except on terms which our -fishermen cannot consider. These markets are therefore closed, and -unless other outlets are found for its produce, the industry will be -threatened with ruin. - -In 1920, the Government guaranteed the cure of herrings up to 880,000 -barrels; unfortunately, they were only able to dispose of them in -European markets at a great loss. The Government, therefore, have -decided this year (1921) to withdraw their guarantee. - -It would seem that, in view of the present failure of the foreign -markets, vigorous steps should be taken to encourage the consumption of -fish in this country, and so preserve this valuable industry from ruin. -A national scheme of development should be inaugurated, having for its -objects, (1) the systematic exploitation of local and periodic coastal -fisheries; (2) the discovery of methods of preserving for future -consumption fish that cannot be disposed of just when it is caught; (3) -the education of the public to use more freely the large supplies of -excellent fish food that are available at our very doors. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS OF FISHES - - -Fishes are the most primitive vertebrate, i.e. backboned, creatures -known. All reptiles, birds, and animals have gradually evolved from -fish-like ancestors by a series of age-long processes, the stages of -which are recorded in fossilized remains that are found in various -rock strata throughout the world. A fish lives exclusively in water. -It has no lungs, but extracts oxygen from the water as it passes over -the surface of its gills. Instead of limbs, it has fins, with which -it balances itself and propels itself through the water. Its skin is -either bare, e.g. the cat fish, or is covered with scales, e.g. the -herring, or with bony plates, e.g. the sturgeon. The skin of certain -sharks is studded with minute teeth and produces, when cured, the -well-known shagreen leather. In nearly all cases the skin of fishes -is liberally supplied with small glands which constantly produce a -lubricating mucus. This mucus greatly reduces friction between the fish -and the water through which it moves. - -The body of a fish is adapted to move swiftly and smoothly through -the water; it is shaped more or less like a torpedo, but this form is -greatly modified in different species. Certain species of fish living -at the bottom of the sea, for example skates and rays, have become -flattened, as though by a pressure applied vertically downwards. -Others, for example plaice, flounder, sole, appear to have been -flattened sideways. In the various members of the eel family, the body -is greatly elongated. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1] - -The body of a fish is generally coloured and marked in such a way -that it becomes practically invisible when seen from above or below, -the under-surface being silvery white, and the upper surface generally -olive or blackish-green. Sometimes, as in the mackerel, the upper -surface is mottled, resembling rippled water. - -Most small fish in ponds and streams reflect their surroundings so -well, and are coloured and marked in such a way, that they are almost -invisible to the large fish, for example pike, that prey upon them. -Generally, they reveal their presence by the flash of light reflected -from above by their scales, as they turn suddenly to snap at a morsel -of food. In the same way, many predatory fish, e.g. the angler fish, -resemble their surroundings so closely that the fish for which they are -lying in wait swim within easy reach of them without perceiving their -danger. Many fishes, particularly in tropical waters, are remarkable -for their bright and gorgeous colouring. It is impossible to preserve -these colours in their natural brightness after the fish have been -taken from the water, but amongst the brightly coloured corals, and -anemones and seaweeds, in the crystal clear water of their natural -environment, they flit like gorgeous tropical birds in a tropical -forest. - -=Distribution.= Fishes are found in practically every ocean, lake and -river in the world, with a few notable exceptions, such as the Dead -Sea, in which the concentration of salt is too high. They appear to -exist at all depths of water, and have been found in the sea as deep -down as 2,720 fathoms. Fish living at this depth generally possess -enormous mouths, long, attenuated, soft bodies, and are equipped with -highly developed phosphorescent organs. - -The distribution of a particular species appears to depend upon the -salinity of the water, the temperature of the water, the kind and -quantity of food available and the prevailing intensity of sunlight. -It is possible to divide fish into four well-defined groups, according -to the salinity of the water in which they are found: (1) Marine fish: -those that live always in the sea, for example herring, haddock, -shark. (2) Fresh-water fish: those that live always in fresh water, -for example carp, trout, pike. (3) Many fish live in brackish water, -and appear to be able to accommodate themselves easily to considerable -changes in salinity, e.g. sticklebacks, gobies, grey mullets and -blennies. Such species naturally are widely distributed; thus, a -particular kind of grey mullet (_Mugil capito_) is found without any -appreciable difference in form on nearly every coast of the Atlantic -Ocean. (4) The fourth group of fish are migratory. Some species, for -example salmon and shad, live and develop in salt water, but ascend -rivers to spawn, i.e. to lay their eggs, in fresh water. Others, such -as eels and certain pleuronectids, for example the flounder, live and -develop in fresh water, and descend rivers to the sea to spawn. Many -fresh water fish, e.g. trout, forsake the large streams in the spring -and ascend small brooks, where the young can be reared in greater -safety. - -Of these different groups or species, the marine fishes are -industrially by far the most important, for at least two-thirds of -all the fish in the world live in the sea, and the capture of these -sea-fish in enormous quantities constitutes the fishing industry, with -which we are concerned. - -The different species of marine fishes can be divided into three -well-marked groups, according to their habits and habitats. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2 - -COD (_Gadus morrhua_) - - Length up to 5 ft.; usually caught at about 3 ft. - - _Food._—Small crustaceans, molluscs, and young fish. - - _Range._—North of Norway and Iceland to the Bay of Biscay, and - from Greenland to New York.] - -(1) There are the true deep-sea fishes that live at the bottom of -the sea, for example cod, haddock, plaice, sole. These are called -“demersal” fish. Fish, like birds, inhabit a medium that is -continuous throughout the world. A glance at the map of the world will -show that the three great oceans—Atlantic, Indian and Pacific—are -united in the southern hemisphere. In Tertiary times, it is practically -certain that the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans were also united -at Darien, and that the Mediterranean was united with the Red Sea. -Apart, therefore, from differences in local conditions, for example -of temperature and food supply, there is practically no obstacle to -the world-wide distribution of any particular species of fish. At -the bottom of the sea, the temperature, the food supply, and the -general conditions of life are singularly uniform all over the world, -consequently there are no barriers at all to the dispersion of demersal -fish, and we find various species widely distributed in all seas. -Demersal fish, on the whole, are more primitive in type than those that -live nearer the surface. They have well-developed senses of touch and -smell by means of which they hunt for their food. They differ markedly -in structure and shape from surface or shallow-water fish, their bodies -being designed to resist the greater pressure of deep water. The -body is generally lean and is enclosed by a wall of muscular fibre. -Shallow-water fish, if introduced into deep water, would be crushed -inward by the pressure. Similarly, the deep-living, demersal fish are -unable to accommodate themselves to shallow water and, if placed in it, -soon become unhealthy. A cod floats helplessly on its side when placed -in shallow water, owing to the dilatation of its swimming bladder. If -the bladder is pricked it collapses, and the fish is able to regain an -upright position. This is done when cod and other similar demersal fish -are kept alive in sea-water tanks on board ship, to be delivered to -the markets alive. In Denmark, fish are delivered alive to the shops. -When fishes from great depths are brought to the surface, their bodies -break into pieces owing to the reduced external pressure, the scales -start from their skin and the eyes from their sockets. - -There are two distinct types of demersal fish: the “round” and -the “flat.” The body of a round fish is more or less circular in -cross-section, for example cod, while that of a flat fish is flattened, -for example sole, ray. - -The most important edible demersal fish can be classified as follows— - -(_a_) The _Gadidae_—related to the cod. - - Cod—inhabits northern waters, notably the North of Britain, Iceland - and Newfoundland. - - Ling—inhabits northern waters: West of Scotland and Ireland, and - North towards Iceland and Newfoundland. - - Haddock—inhabits northern waters. Nearly half the total catch is - obtained in the North Sea, from the White Sea to the Bay of Biscay. - - Whiting—found in great numbers in the North Sea. It is more coastal - than the cod or haddock. - - Hake—found from Norway to the Mediterranean. The greater part of the - catch is obtained off the south-west of Ireland. Hake is also caught - off Morocco and in the Bay of Biscay. - -(_b_) The _Pleuronectidae_—related to the plaice and sole. - - Sole—a shallow-water fish, common in the Irish Sea, and particularly - abundant in southern waters down to Morocco. - - Plaice—inhabits northern waters—all round Britain and Iceland. - - Flounder—inhabits estuaries, for example, of the North Sea and the - Baltic. - - Halibut—inhabits northern waters. It attains a large size, six feet - or more. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3 - -LEMON SOLE (_Pleuronectes microcephalus_) - - Length up to 16 ins. - _Food._—Small crustaceans and worms. - _Range._—From North of Europe to the Bay of Biscay.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4 - -SKATE (_Raia batis_) - - Length up to 7 ft. - _Food._—Crustaceans and molluscs, and fish. - _Range._—Round the British Isles and along the coast of Western - Europe.] - - Turbot—not very abundant. It inhabits the deeper parts of the North - Sea. - - Brill—inhabits southern waters, and is fairly abundant. - -(_c_) The _Raüdac_. - - Skates and rays—found all round Britain, more particularly the - Western area of the English channel. - -(2) The various species of fish that inhabit the surface waters of the -sea are called “pelagic.” They include the herring, mackerel, tunny, -flying fish, sword fish, and many sharks, also various marine mammals, -such as whales, grampuses, porpoises, dolphins. Amongst pelagic fish -are included some of the smallest (plankton) as well as some of the -largest (whales) of all living creatures. Pelagic fish pass their whole -life swimming at or near the surface. They enter the shallow water -offshore only for prey or, in some cases, periodically to spawn. The -majority spawn in the open sea, far from land. Unlike demersal fishes, -the distribution of the different species of pelagic fishes depends -very much upon local conditions of light, water temperature, and the -character and quantity of food available. They do not hunt their food -individually to the same extent as demersal fishes, but generally -filter it from the water as it passes through their gill-openings. -Although not so widely dispersed as demersal fish, they are, in -favourable circumstances, dispersed over large areas by swimming and by -ocean currents. - -All pelagic fish are “round.” With the exception of the mackerel, the -important edible pelagic fishes belong to the herring family, and are -known as the Clupeidae. They include— - - Herring—found from the White Sea to the Bay of Biscay. It is the - most abundant of all food fishes. - - Sprat—found from the North of Europe to the Mediterranean. - - Pilchard—ranges from the English Channel to Madeira and the - Mediterranean. Skipper “sardines” are young herring, pilchard, and - brisling. - - There is also— - - Mackerel—found from the North Sea to Madeira and the Mediterranean. - -(3) The shallow-water of the seashore is inhabited by certain animals -(shellfish) not found elsewhere, including various mollusca, e.g. -mussel, cockle, oyster and periwinkle, and crustacea, e.g. lobster, -crab, prawn, shrimp. In addition to these, there are various species of -immature offshore fish, e.g. plaice and dabs. The inhabitants of this -shallow, coastal water are called “littoral” fish. The distribution of -such littoral fish depends not only upon the water temperature and the -amount of light, but also upon the character of the shore—whether it -is rocky, or soft and sandy—and more especially upon the animal and -vegetable products of the adjacent land, e.g. plants, seaweed, worms. -Littoral fish do not swim very far, but become scattered inadvertently -over considerable distances by currents and other mechanical means. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5 - -HERRING (_Clupea harengus_) - - Length slightly above 12 ins. - - _Food._—Plankton (_copepoda_). - - _Range._—From the White Sea to the Bay of Biscay.] - -Certain kinds of shellfish, for example oysters, mussels, cockles, -live in the sand or attached to the stones or seaweed on the seashore, -generally between high and low watermarks. They obtain their food -from the water as it streams over their gills. They require adequate -room for growth and development, and constant irrigation by water -containing sufficient floating food. When mussel beds or oyster beds -become overcrowded, the fish are ill-nourished, their health is -impaired and their growth is arrested. It has been shown that, if they -are transferred to new beds, their condition rapidly improves and -ultimately they increase considerably in size. All edible shellfish -need systematic care and attention. Their cultivation by man affords -the simplest instance of an attempt at a systematic aquiculture. - -=Food.= The surface water of the sea abounds in minute forms of -vegetable and animal life. This vast floating population of microscopic -organisms is called the “plankton.” Just as man and all land animals -depend ultimately for their food supply upon grass and other -green-leaved plants which, under the influence of sunlight, are able -to transform the inorganic constituents of the atmosphere and the soil -into organic foodstuffs—albumen, fat, carbohydrates—so the minute -unicellular marine plants of the plankton are able, under the influence -of sunlight, to convert the inorganic constituents of their environment -into fat, albumen and carbohydrate. Upon these minute organisms, -therefore, directly or indirectly, all marine life depends. - -In addition to these minute plants, the plankton contains nearly all -forms of marine life at some stage or other of their life history. Fish -are only found in it as eggs, or larvae. Crustacea of all kinds are -present, and form one of its most important constituents. Crabs and -lobsters spend their larval, free-swimming career among the plankton, -until they reach the adult stage and settle down to the bottom. Various -minute crustacea, known as “Copepoda” (lit., oar-footed) spend the -whole of their lives drifting about in the surface water. They occur -in incredibly large numbers, and are the most abundant of all forms of -marine life. These copepoda form the main source of the food of pelagic -fish, such as the herring, mackerel and sprat. - -The larvae of the edible molluscs, oyster, mussel, cockle, develop in -the warm surface water until they settle to the bottom and begin their -adult life. - -There are also many larval forms of marine worms and jellyfish, and -many kinds of microscopic, unicellular organisms, some of which are -vegetable and others are clearly animal. The chief animal forms belong -either to the Infusoria, the Foraminifera or the Radiolaria. The shells -of the two latter forms accumulate at the bottom of the sea, producing -the deposits known as the Globigerina and Radiolarian oozes. In this -way, chalk deposits were formed in primitive times. - -The most important vegetable planktonic organisms are the Diatoms. -Their accumulated shells form important deep-sea deposits. - -The numerous varieties of planktonic life can thus be divided into two -groups: those minute animal and vegetable organisms that pass the whole -of their existence at the surface of the sea—the true constituents of -plankton all the year round—and the eggs and larvae of many species -of fish that are found among the plankton only at certain times of the -year—notably in spring and summer. - -The quantity of organic food substances such as albumen, fat and -carbohydrate, that is contained in the plankton produced annually by -a given area of the sea, has been compared with the quantity of such -substances produced by a similar area of land in crops such as pasture, -hay, lupine and peas. In this way, it has been estimated that the -productivity of the sea is about 20 per cent less than that of average -land. - -[Illustration: PLANKTON: LARVAE - -1. Crab zoea; 2. Fish egg; 3. Sea Urchin pluteus; 4. Barnacle nauplius; -5. Fish larva; 6. Mussel larva; 7. Copepod nauplius; 8. Worm larva.] - -[Illustration: PLANKTON: UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS - -1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18. Diatoms; 4, 5, 7, 9, -Peridinians 8. An Algal spore; 14. Noctiluca; 15. A Radiolarian. - -FIG. 6] - -Unlike that of the land, the productivity of the sea is greater in -colder latitudes than in the tropics. This somewhat unexpected fact is -attributable to the action of denitrifying bacteria which, flourishing -more readily in warm, tropical waters, effectively reduce the amount -of available nitrogen compounds in the water. In colder waters, -denitrifying bacteria are less active, and nitrates and nitrites are -available in larger quantities for the nourishment of the plankton. - -All the great fisheries of the world are prosecuted in cold or -temperate seas; as examples of this we have the Banks of Newfoundland, -the cod fisheries of Norway, and the great trawling grounds of the -North Sea and the North Atlantic. - -All fish, during the larval stage of their development, feed first upon -the contents of the yolk sac which, when they are hatched, is attached -to their ventral surface. When the yolk is absorbed, the larvae feed -upon the microscopic plankton that abound in the water on every side. -The surface water, with its warm temperature, high plankton content -and sunlight, forms an ideal nursery for the very young fish of all -species. Demersal fish, as they complete the larval stage of their -development and descend into deeper water, have to rely for their food -either upon the various species of young shellfish and crustacea that -drop from the surface water as they develop, or hunt for their food -amongst the small fish, mollusca, crustacea, worms and seaweeds of the -sea-bottom. Plaice feed chiefly upon cockles and other mollusca, which -in their turn feed upon diatoms. The cod is almost omnivorous, greedily -devouring small fish, crustacea, worms or mollusca; its favourite food, -however, is shrimps and prawns. These, in their turn, feed upon smaller -invertebrates, for example small jellyfish and larval molluscs, and -these upon microscopic plankton. - -Pelagic fish, herrings and mackerel, feed almost entirely upon the -larger plankton, mainly copepoda (small, shrimp-like crustacea). These -may be present in the surface water in enormous quantities at certain -times. In many cases, shoals of herring or mackerel probably follow -special swarms of copepoda. Mackerel also feed upon young fish, hermit -crabs, and prawns. - -With a few notable exceptions, the various species of demersal fish -feed upon smaller fish. Thus— - -The hake, normally a deep-water fish, ventures inshore in pursuit of -herrings, pilchards, mackerel. - -The ling, turbot, brill, dog fish live entirely upon small fish. The -dog fish swarms on certain fishing grounds and is often a serious pest -to the drift-net fishermen, destroying their nets as well as the fish -that are attached to them. - -The whiting, like the cod, feeds upon small fish, and upon crustacea -and mollusca. - -The food of the haddock consists of mollusca, crustacea and marine -worms, etc. - -The sole lives on small crustacea, for example shrimps, and marine -worms. - -Skates and rays feed upon mollusca and crustacea. - -Most shellfish live in shallow water and feed upon the plankton. - -The methods by which fish obtain their food differ greatly according -to the species of the fish. Pelagic fish, e.g. herring and mackerel, -sprat and pilchard, obtain their food almost automatically as they -swim open-mouthed through the water in which it abounds. These direct -plankton-feeders possess comb-like structures—the gill-rakers—attached -behind the gill openings, and as the food-bearing water streams through -the mouth and gill openings of the fish, these structures strain the -food from it. The fish licks the plankton from its gill-rakers with its -tongue and swallows it. - -Many pelagic fish, e.g. carp, trout, salmon, look for their food while -swimming through the well-lighted surface water. - -Demersal fish—flat fish, cod, haddock, etc.—seek their food by scent -and touch. The cod possesses a barbel attached to its chin, by means of -which it feels for its food. - -The Angler or Devil fish is a curious creature, from three to four -feet long, and appearing to consist almost entirely of head. It has a -large mouth, and teeth that are hinged so as to admit food, but prevent -it from escaping. The devil fish has a long feeler on the top of its -head, terminating in a tassel which, moved by the water, attracts the -attention of small fish and lures them to their fate. This tassel is -a sensory organ and, when it is touched by the small fish, the angler -fish snaps upwards with unerring aim at a point immediately in advance -of the tassel. - -The dog fish seeks its food exclusively by scent. If its sense of smell -be destroyed, it ceases to feed spontaneously. - -The sole also seeks its food by smell. It is quite unable to recognize -a worm by sight or touch, even when hung just above its head, but feels -aimlessly over the ground seeking it by smell. - -=Reproduction.= Fish are male and female and, with few exceptions, -reproduce their kind by laying eggs. The number of eggs laid by an -individual female fish during a single spawning varies greatly, -according to the species. The average number of eggs spawned by a -single female fish in the course of one season, is— - - Ling 18,500,000 - Turbot 8,600,000 - Cod 4,500,000 - Flounder 1,000,000 - Sole 570,000 - Haddock 450,000 - Plaice 300,000 - Herring 32,000 - Shark } {A few—not more - Dog fish} {than a dozen. - Skate } - -[Illustration: FIG. 7 - -HERRING EGGS—×5] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8 - -PLANKTON CONTAINING FISH EGGS—×3 - -The large egg is that of a plaice: the smaller ones are cod and whiting. - -The copepod is a calanus.] - -The eggs of the cod, whiting, haddock, fluke, plaice, etc., are -relatively small, varying from 1/6 of an inch in the case of a halibut, -to 1/25 of an inch in a flounder. The eggs are discharged into the -water by the female. This process takes place gradually, and generally -occupies many weeks. A few of the eggs come to maturity at a time, and -are extruded. They are fertilized in the water by the spermatazoa of -the male, which are discharged into the water at the same time as the -eggs. The fish, both male and female, are closely crowded together on -the spawning grounds, so that the fertilization of the eggs is fairly -complete. With few exceptions, the eggs of most species are buoyant -and float to the surface, where they drift in the warm surface water -until, happily, they hatch. Unhappily, however, a very large proportion -of them never reach maturity, for, either as eggs, embryos or larvae, -or post larval young fishes, they soon fall a prey to marauding fish. -It is estimated that, of the thirty-two thousand eggs laid annually by -each female herring, not more than two reach maturity. - -The spawning grounds of the herring are not definitely known. Research -is being carried out at present with a view to solving this question. -Haddock are to be caught in various likely parts of the sea, marked -with the place of capture, and their interiors examined for herring -spawn. - -Certain demersal fish, notably shark, dog fish and skate, deposit a -few large, demersal eggs—about a dozen in the year—in a carefully -selected spot. The incubation period of these eggs is unusually long, -being from six months to over a year, according to the species and the -temperature of the water. - -Parental care is exhibited by very few fishes in this part of the -world, although many foreign fish build nests and care for their -young, often carrying them in their mouths. Certain kinds of dog fish -and angel fish keep their young inside their oviducts until they -are completely formed. The only notable example of a fish common to -British waters that exercises parental care is the stickleback. Spawn -is deposited by a number of different females in a nest constructed -of stones and weed, and is guarded by a male until all the eggs are -hatched. - -The eggs of the crustacea, for example the lobster, are found attached -in large numbers to the swimmerets—feathery processes that are -situated underneath the tail. When in this condition, the lobster is -known as “berried,” and, if captured, should be returned to the sea. -The eggs are sticky and are laid while the lobster lies on her back, -and so become attached to the hairs of these feathery processes. -Berried crabs, prawns and shrimps may also be observed on the seashore -in the spring and early summer. - -The mollusca, e.g. mussels, periwinkles, oysters, deposit their eggs -in the sea-water. The eggs float to the surface, hatch out, and drift -about with the other constituents of the plankton. The fully developed -larvae fall to the sea bottom and become attached to seaweed and stones. - -The period of incubation of fish eggs varies according to the species -of fish, and for the same species is prolonged by a low temperature. -Plaice eggs, fertilized in January, hatched in eighteen days; others, -fertilized in April, were hatched in nine days. - -All fish, on emerging from the egg, enter upon a larval stage in which -they resemble each other very closely (_see_ Fig. 1). (Thus, the larvae -of plaice are quite symmetrical, like those of the cod or other round -fish.) The newly hatched larvae drift helpless in the water for two or -three weeks, during which time they subsist upon the contents of the -yolk sac, which they carry attached to their ventral surface. When this -is exhausted, they feed upon the microscopic plankton which abound in -the surrounding water. - -The characteristic forms of the different species of flat fish are -gradually assumed by the young fish during the period of their larval -development. The appearance of a newly-hatched young plaice exhibits -little change during the first week or so, other than that due to -the gradual disappearance of the yolk sac. The young fish grows very -slowly, and, twenty-one days after hatching, is only 3/8 of an inch -in length. For thirty days the development of the young fish is -entirely symmetrical. During the succeeding fifteen days, the shape -and appearance of the fish become profoundly modified. The left eye -gradually moves upwards and forwards, until it attains its final -position above and in front of the right eye. At the same time, the -fish gradually acquires a new swimming position, finally swimming on -what is really its left side. This left side becomes colourless. With -these changes in form and habit, there proceeds a transformation in the -diet of the fish. At twenty-one days it feeds upon the young stages of -various crustacea. Gradually it acquires a taste for copepoda and the -larvae of mollusca and crustacea. After its metamorphosis is complete, -it feeds upon various worms, small shrimps and small, bottom-living -crustacea. The adult plaice feeds upon mollusca of the cockle and -mussel families. - -=The Migration of Fishes.= Fishes, like birds, migrate over great -distances at certain seasons of the year. In most cases, this migration -occurs just before spawning, and is evidently connected directly with -the spawning instinct. True marine fishes, such as the herring, -haddock, plaice, cod, associate in vast numbers at spawning time, -choosing a locality in which the temperature and food supply will be -favourable to the development of the young larvae. Generally, the -spawning ground is in deep water. The eggs are buoyant, and drift up to -the warm surface water and hatch out amongst the plankton. The herring -differs from most other pelagic fish in laying its eggs in relatively -shallow water, over a rocky bottom covered with seaweed. The eggs are -denser than sea-water and are covered with an adhesive substance, so -that they sink to the bottom and become attached to the stones and -seaweed. - -It is at the time of this annual migration to the spawning grounds that -the fish are most profitably caught, for not only are they gathered -together in large numbers, but, just before spawning, the fat content -and general condition of the fish, and therefore its food value, reach -a maximum. After spawning, the food value of the fish is at a minimum, -and remains comparatively low until a few months before the next -spawning. - -The plaice migrates in the autumn from the feeding grounds in various -parts of the North Sea to the spawning grounds near the Straits of -Dover. Spawning takes place between December and March. In the spring -and summer it returns northwards to the feeding grounds in the centre -of the North Sea. - -In the Irish Sea, there are two distinct annual migrations of plaice. -The first occurs in summer (from June to September), the larger plaice -moving from the warmer, shallow water inshore to the deeper, cooler -waters offshore. In winter and spring, (from October to May), the -mature plaice migrate from Morecambe and Liverpool bays to the spawning -ground in deep water to the North-East of Douglas (Isle of Man). - -In winter, also (from November to January), a large number of plaice -gather in Red Wharf Bay, off the north coast of Anglesey, probably -because it is sheltered from the prevailing south-east winds. In -February they commence their spawning migration round the coast of -Anglesey to Cardigan Bay. - -Certain species of fish, instead of migrating from one part of the sea -to another, migrate from the sea to rivers (anadromous), or from rivers -to the sea (katadromous). - -Thus, in the spring or autumn, according to species, the anadromous -salmon and shad ascend rivers to spawn. The eggs are deposited on clean -gravel in clean water, where they are likely to remain undisturbed. The -salmon does not feed when in the river, and after spawning, becomes -very thin and in poor condition. - -The Alaskan salmon, from which the bulk of American canned salmon -comes, exists in five species. It has a similar spawning habit to the -British salmon, except that the same species always tends to use the -same rivers. Once having spawned, the fish dies, so that the parents -never see their offspring. The young larvae hatch out in the fresh -water and make their way to the sea, where they pass the whole of their -lives until they are mature, some years later, and then, in their turn, -ascend the rivers to spawn. - -Eels are normally fresh-water fish. After living for six or seven -years in rivers and ponds and streams, they become mature and migrate -to the sea to spawn. This spawning always takes place in deep water -(over five hundred fathoms), the particular region chosen depending -upon the species. Eels from the British Isles and North-West Europe -spawn in deep Atlantic, some hundreds of miles west of Ireland. In -the autumn, the mature eels move down the rivers to the sea. When -approaching maturity, the yellowish coat of the eel changes to silver. -These “silver” eels pass into the sea and are never seen again. It -is probable that the eel only spawns once in its life and then dies. -The spawn floats to the surface and hatches out into curious little -transparent, leaf-shaped larvae. These larvae develop rapidly into -elvers and commence the return journey to the shores and rivers. In the -spring, the young eels ascend the rivers in enormous swarms. Many of -them leave the rivers and travel over damp ground and grass to isolated -pools and lakes. It is probable that the eels that are found in the -Thames travelled overland from the Severn. - -The Baltic flounder migrates in winter from rivers and estuaries to -the open sea, and spawns in spring in deep water. It returns in the -summer when the spawning is over. By observing the movements of marked -fish, it has been shown that the fish move at an average rate of from -three to four miles per day. During its seaward migration, the flounder -takes no food, but uses the material stored up in its tissues for the -development of its reproductive organs. - -In addition to these spawning migrations, there are migrations that are -prompted by a search for food, or for warmer or colder water. - -In northern and temperate seas, the surface water grows warmer with the -spring. This warming influence spreads northwards from the equator, -producing what is known as the annual wave of sea temperature. A direct -result of the rise of temperature and the increased sunshine is a -rapid increase in the amount and quality of the plankton. It is not -surprising, therefore, that fish migrate in the wake of this annual -wave of sea temperature, attracted by the increased food supply, and -possibly, also, by the warmer water. - -The mackerel is a southern fish, and prefers the warm water of the -Mediterranean and West African coast. In spring, as the wave of rising -sea temperature travels northwards, it migrates to the English Channel -and the North Sea. This migration is often directly associated with the -presence, in large quantities at that season, of a particular kind of -copepod in the surface water of the English Channel. - -=Phosphorescence.= Many marine creatures, ranging from deep-sea fish -living in the dark abysses of the ocean to various species of the -minute plankton drifting in the surface water, possess phosphorescent -organs, which emit light of low intensity similar to that of a -glow-worm and firefly. In many cases the light appears to possess some -important function, and highly specialized organs are developed. In -such cases the light is only emitted in response to some stimulus—thus, -the phosphorescence of the surface water of the sea, when disturbed by -the blade of an oar, is due to the disturbance of myriads of minute -planktonic organisms, equipped with phosphorescent organs, either -protozoa or protophyta; many pelagic copepods are phosphorescent. In -other cases, phosphorescence appears to be a more or less accidental -by-product of some other process, and of little or no significance. The -substance which produces the glow is contained in the slimy secretion -produced by the epidermal glands of the fish, and, as phosphorescence -can only occur in the presence of oxygen, it is evident that the light -is produced by the slow oxidation of this substance. The colour of the -light emitted by marine organisms is generally blue or light green, but -red and lilac also have been observed. The distribution and colour of -the light or lights produced by individual fish vary with the different -species. In many cases it would appear that these points of light -provide the means by which fish recognize each other in the dark depths -of the ocean. Some fishes possess highly developed phosphorescent -organs known as photophores, consisting essentially of a group of -gland cells that secrete the phosphorescent fluid. These organs are -generally distributed in rows along the sides and ventral surface of -the fish. Some fishes possess more complex and highly developed organs -containing, in addition to the gland cells, a system of blood vessels -and nerves, a transparent, protecting membrane and reflector, an -iris-like diaphragm and a lens. These more complex organs are generally -larger and less numerous than the simpler ones. Possibly they are used -to search for, or to attract, prey. - -The phosphorescence of decaying fish and meat is due to the presence -on the fish or meat of certain bacteria of putrefaction, which are -themselves phosphorescent. When seen under the microscope, the -individual bacteria appear as shining points of light. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -METHODS OF FISHING - - -Fish may be captured with spear, trap, line or net. Which of these -methods is employed necessarily depends very much upon the size and -habits of the fish, and upon the skill and available equipment of the -fishermen. - -Spears and traps were used in prehistoric times and survive to this day -in various forms, e.g. harpoons, lobster pots, hedge baulks, fishing -weirs and the various ingenious traps and entanglements that are used -by primitive races in all parts of the world. The logical development -of the spear and the trap into the line and the net was made possible -by the invention of string. - -To design and construct a trap, it is generally necessary to know -something of the habits of the fish to be caught. Hedge-baulks and -fishing weirs are fairly extensive enclosures made of brushwood, -basket work, stakes or stones, constructed on the foreshore in such a -way that at high tide the sea carries the fish into the enclosure and -leaves them there when it recedes. These fishing weirs are probably the -primitive origin of most forms of fishing nets. - -The crab or lobster pot or creel is constructed of basket-work, in -shape somewhat like a safety inkpot, so that the lobster or crab can -easily enter it, but, once in, is unable to escape. Lobster pots, -suitably baited with fish and weighted, are distributed over the -fishing ground—a rocky bottom full of crevices—from small, open boats, -and are gathered the next day. - -Fishing with hook and line is also a very ancient method. Before the -discovery of metals, the hooks were made of bone. Some people—notably -the Chinese—frequently use unbaited hooks, and rely upon the jerk of -the hook at the right moment to secure the fish. Generally, however, -the hook is suitably baited, the method being used chiefly for fish -that seek their food by scent or sight, e.g. cod and shark. Line -fishing for cod is still employed on a large scale off the North of -Scotland and the coast of Newfoundland. - -In lining, the fish are caught individually. A “line” may be as much -as seven miles long. Short pieces of line from two to three feet long -are attached to it at regular intervals. These lines are called the -“snoods,” and carry the hooks. The line is usually shot at night, and -fished in the morning. In most cases line fishing is rapidly being -superseded by trawling. - -The invention of netting marked a notable advance in the primitive -development of the fishing industry. The net in all its various forms -and applications is the characteristic and all-important implement of -the fishing industry. A net may be used either to surround a fish and -drag it out of the water, as in seining or trawling, or it may be used -to enmesh the fish, as in drift netting. The rise and development of -the sea fishing industry has been due very largely to the gradually -improved efficiency of the net. - -Nets were originally used on the shore. A long strip of netting was -attached to upright stakes, to form an enclosure with an opening -towards the sea, constructed like a fishing weir in such a way that -the fish enter the enclosure at high tide and are unable to escape. -Such devices constructed on shore are known as “fixed engines”; they -include stake nets, poke nets, stream nets and purse nets. The net may -simply form the wall of an enclosure (stake net). This enclosure may -be furnished with a pocket at one corner (poke net). It may consist -essentially of one long, deep pocket kept open by rings or stakes at -intervals (purse and hose nets). It may be simply a wall of netting -into which the fish thrust their heads; owing to their gill openings -they are unable to withdraw and so become entangled (stream net). - -The first development of a movable net was the seine or drag net. The -seine is a semi-circular drag net, which is shot in shallow water so -as to enclose an area of water close to the shore. It is then hauled -ashore, and gathers up the fish that are in the enclosed area of water. -Such a net is limited to inshore use. Generally, a line is attached to -each end of the net. The free end of one of these lines is made fast to -the shore by a stake, and the net is paid out from a small boat. When -the whole of the net has been paid out, the boat travels round until -the net forms a semi-circle of which the diameter is parallel to the -shore; the net is then hauled in. - -The seine net was used in ancient times by Phoenicians, Greeks, and -other Mediterranean peoples. Various types of seines are in common use -to-day. In Denmark a seine net is employed to catch eels and plaice. -On the Cornish coast pilchards are caught with a large seine up to -two hundred fathoms long and eight fathoms deep. In the United States -a seine is used in water of any depth to catch mackerel. Rings are -attached to the foot-rope of the net, and by passing a line through -these rings and drawing it tight, the net is transformed into a bowl of -netting. This is called the purse seine. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9 - -TRAWLING (_circa_ 1750)] - -The seine was first improved by the addition of a pocket at its centre. -Then the sides or wings were gradually lengthened, until finally it -developed into a deep, conical, bag-shaped net, furnished with long -arms or wings. This was dragged along the bottom, behind a boat in -full sail. The net was weighted and its mouth kept open by attaching -its upper edge to a beam of wood (beam trawl). When the net was full -of fish, it was run ashore. Ultimately, instead of drawing the net -ashore, the fishermen remained at sea and hauled the net on board with -a winch. In this way the seine net gradually developed into the trawl -net. The trawl net marked a big improvement, for it could be fished in -deeper water further from shore, and thus greatly increased the scope -of fishing operations, and led to the rapid growth and improvement of -demersal fishing. - -Trawling is said to have been invented at the end of the seventeenth -century by the Brixham fishermen. The first trawlers were quite small -vessels, and were followed towards the end of the eighteenth century by -the smack. The smack reached its maximum size and efficiency at about -the middle of the nineteenth century. Some of the smacks that are still -fishing from Brixham—durable, seaworthy, and with beautiful lines—are -probably a hundred years old. - -In 1870, there were a thousand first-class smacks in the North Sea, -three hundred in the English Channel, and over a hundred in the Irish -Sea. - -The smacks were fitted with a tank in the well of the ship, in which -the fish were kept in sea-water and brought in alive. In Denmark -to-day, plaice are brought ashore and sold alive. - -The subsequent development of trawl fishing has been in the -construction of larger nets, worked by more powerful trawling vessels -driven by steam. - -The size of beam trawl that can be worked by a large sailing smack is -limited by the trawling power of the vessel, and also by the difficulty -of constructing and handling very long beams. The maximum length of -beam in general use by sailing smacks is fifty feet. The length of -the net, from its mouth to the narrow of “cod” end, rarely exceeds -a hundred feet. To each end of the beam is attached a triangular -trawl-head of iron, which moves along the ground and serves to keep -the beam about three and a half feet above the ground. These trawl -crossheads are attached to the ship by bridles and warp. - -The upper edge of the net is attached to the beam, the lower edge being -attached to a stout rope—the foot-rope—the ends of which are made fast -to the crossheads. This foot-rope, being considerably longer than the -beam, sweeps along the ground abaft of the beam, to form a deep curve -known as the “bosom” of the net. The result is that, when the foot-rope -disturbs the fish so that they leap to avoid it, the beam has passed on -overhead and they leap into the net. - -Pockets are formed in the sides of the net by lacing the top and bottom -together for about two-thirds of the distance from the mouth of the -net towards the cod end. The mouth of a pocket is at the cod end of -the net, so that fish reaching the cod end and attempting to return to -the mouth of the net, generally enter the pockets. A flap of netting -suspended some distance inside the mouth of the net serves as a valve. -It is easily lifted by the incoming fish, but tends to prevent their -escape. - -The netting is of hemp, the mesh gradually increasing from one inch at -the cod end to about two inches near the mouth, and is preserved with -tar. - -When fishing, the vessel moves ahead at a steady, slow rate of from two -to three miles per hour, dragging the trawl behind it. Smacks always -trawl with the tide. If they trawl against the tide, the net is lifted -from the ground. - -During fishing the cod end is closed by the cod line, but at the -conclusion of the trawl the net is hoisted aboard, mouth upwards, and -the contents are discharged upon the deck by drawing the cod line. - -The otter trawl that is used by modern steam trawlers is from seventy -to one hundred and twenty feet wide across the mouth, according to the -character of the fishing, and a hundred and ten feet long from the -mouth to the cod end. The otter trawl is shown in Fig. 17. It differs -from the beam trawl in that its mouth is kept open, not by being -attached to a beam, but by otter boards, which are attached one to -each side of the mouth of the net. These are attached to the net and -to the warps by which the net is towed in such a way that the pressure -of the water upon them causes them to diverge, thus keeping the mouth -of the net open. The size of a beam trawl is necessarily limited by -the length of beam obtainable. The size of the otter trawl, however, -is obviously only limited by the power of the steam trawler. The otter -boards measure 11 ft. by 4 ft. 6 ins., are shod with iron, and weigh -15 cwts. each. The warps, as the ropes are called which attach the -otter boards to the ship, are from three hundred to a thousand fathoms -long—generally a little over three times as long as the depth of the -water in which the trawl is to be used. Each board is attached to the -steamer by a separate warp. The upper edge of the mouth of the net is -attached to a strong rope, called the “head” rope. The lower edge of -the mouth of the net is also attached to a strong rope, called the -“foot” rope. As in the beam trawl, the foot rope is considerably longer -than the head line, and forms a bosom. Traps and pockets also are -inserted in the sides of the net. When trawling on rough ground, the -foot rope is furnished with large, heavy, wooden rollers, called the -“bobbins.” - -Trawl fishing, until quite recently, was almost entirely confined to -demersal fish, such as cod, plaice, haddock and halibut. In recent -years, however, considerable quantities of herring have been caught by -trawlers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10 - -DRIFTING (_circa_ 1750)] - -=Drifting.= The drift net is essentially a completely submerged, -vertical curtain of netting, one end of which is attached to a boat -called a drifter. The net extends in a straight line from the boat, -and may be as much as three miles long. Unlike the trawl net, the -drift net generally catches one kind of fish only—either herring or -mackerel—drift net fishing being carried on at a time when these fish -come together in shoals near the surface for the purpose of spawning. -The trawl obviously only captures fish living at the bottom. At the -same time, of course, it captures all the fish at the bottom, whether -immature, or useless star fish, etc. The drift net, on the other hand, -is generally used for a particular kind of fish—herring, mackerel, -sprat—and only catches fish above a certain size. - -A drifter may be as much as 90 ft. long, with 20 ft. beam and 10 ft. -draught. Its foremast is so constructed that it may be lowered when -the vessel is steaming against a head wind, or when it is fishing. -The ordinary sailing drifter is rapidly being superseded by the -steam drifter, partly because the greater power of the steam driven -boat increases its capacity and scope, and, further, owing to the -centralization of the industry at a few big ports at certain times of -the year, these harbours are so crowded that it is almost impossible to -handle a sailing drifter in them. Many of the larger sailing drifters -have been equipped with petrol engines which largely discount this -disadvantage. A steam drifter can travel at from 11 to 12 knots, and -both steamers and sailers carry a fishing crew of seven men and a boy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11 - -A SINGLE-BOATER AT FOLKESTONE] - -=Inshore Fisheries.= The development of steam fishing—trawling and -drifting—has resulted in the re-grouping of the fishing industry into -two well-marked divisions. Fisheries, whether trawling, drifting or -lining, that are carried on in deep water far from shore in large -steamers, for the most part owned by limited liability companies, are -known as offshore fisheries. The fisheries of the seashore, carried -on by small, privately-owned, sailing smacks and cutters within -territorial waters, are distinguished by the term “inshore fisheries.” -The inshore fisheries are mainly for shellfish, crabs, lobsters, -shrimps and immature deep sea fish such as plaice, soles, flounders, -dabs, codling and sprats. - -Shrimps and whiting are caught with trawl nets of 25 ft. beam or less, -and of about 1/4 in. mesh. The net is generally drawn behind a small -cutter, but frequently it is used in shallow water with a horse and -cart. These nets are generally made of flax or cotton, and are either -tanned or tarred, in order to preserve them. - -Smaller, fine-meshed, trawl nets are used for catching shrimps and also -immature plaice, soles and dabs. These shrimp nets are either attached -to a long handle and pushed through the water in front of the fisherman -(push nets), or drawn behind a small boat or a horse and cart (trawl -nets). - -Larger fish are sometimes caught in shallow water by casting a net over -the fish so as to enclose it (cast nets). The fisherman of the Eastern -Mediterranean uses a cast net with conspicuous skill. The net is -essentially a circular disc of netting, to the circumference of which -small weights are attached at regular intervals. A cord is attached to -the centre of the net, and the fisherman, standing knee-deep in the -water, grasps the net by its centre, swinging it round his head, and -casts it so that as it approaches the water it opens out, and with a -soft splash sinks through the water until it lies outstretched over the -fish. It is then drawn up by the string attached to its centre, and the -weighted edges fall together enclosing the fish. - -Fish are often caught on shores and in rivers by causing them to pass -between converging walls of stakes or basket work, until they enter an -enclosure, the floor of which is covered by a net. When the fish have -gathered in the enclosure, the net is pulled up. - -The simplest form of inshore fishery is that for periwinkles, in which -they are simply picked off the rock. Mussels live on the sea bottom, on -the lower half of the foreshore. They generally attach themselves to a -stone by a thread. They are usually collected at low tide by hand or, -when submerged, are raked from the bottom. The rake is from 2 to 3 ft. -wide, and is furnished with teeth 10 ins. long, the back of the rake -being covered with netting. Sometimes the mussels are submerged even at -low water and then a short rake is used. - -Cockles live about an inch or so below the surface of the sand, and -maintain a connection with the water above by means of small tunnels -in the sand. They occur abundantly in many places between high and -low watermark. When the cockles are abundant they are raked out of -the sand, the rake being from 10 ins. to 1 ft. wide, with teeth 1 in. -long. The cockles are riddled, the small ones being rejected. When the -cockles do not exist in such large numbers, they are obtained by means -of a “jumbo.” This is essentially a block of wood, 3 or 4 ft. long, and -1 ft. wide, furnished with two upright handles. The jumbo is rocked to -and fro on the surface of the sand, with the result that the cockles -are gradually worked up to the surface. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE HERRING FISHING INDUSTRY - - -Herrings abound in the waters round the coast of Great Britain. -Ordinarily they are widely scattered in deep water, but at certain -times of the year they come together in shoals in the warmer water near -the surface for the purpose of spawning. It is at this time that they -are of greatest value for food purposes and, being gathered together in -shoals, are most economically caught. - -The herring may spawn at any time of the year. In this respect it -differs from all other British marine food fishes. Most British caught -herrings spawn during September and Autumn. Very little spawning -takes place during late winter and spring, i.e. just after minimum -sea temperature. Each local race (or species) appears to spawn at a -constant time of the year. The date of the annual spawning, and hence -the herring fishing season, varies from point to point round the coast. -Herrings caught at different places show well-marked differences in -appearance and quality, which are evidently due to differences in -species and feeding ground. The food value of the herring will depend -also upon the time of the year at which spawning occurs. Thus, in the -Irish Sea, there are two races of herrings—the Manx and the Welsh. The -Manx herring spawns in summer (September), and is rich in fat; the -Welsh herring spawns in winter (November and December), and is poor -in fat. Herrings are first caught off the West coast of Scotland in -the waters round the Hebrides. This fishing begins in the middle of -May, its chief centre being Stornoway. In early June herrings are -caught in the waters round the Orkneys and Shetlands, and then in -succession off Wick, Fraserburgh and Peterhead, and the Northumberland -coast (Eyemouth, Berwick and Sea Houses). About the middle of July the -herring fishery season begins at Blyth and Shields, and at Scarborough -and Grimsby towards the end of July. At Yarmouth and Lowestoft it -begins early in October. The last herrings to be caught in British -waters are caught round Devon and Cornwall in December. - -Of the various kinds of herring obtained at different places, the -largest and finest fish are those caught in Downings Bay off the North -of Ireland, Castle Bay off the Island of Barra in the South Hebrides, -and off the Shetlands. Herrings differ very much in their suitability -for handling, keeping and curing. Most herrings have a small gut which -is easily removed without seriously damaging the body of the fish. -Blyth and Shields herrings, however, are very rich and fat, and have -a specially big, distended gut. Such herrings are difficult to clean -because, when this large gut is removed, the belly of the fish is so -tender that it is often broken. Herrings caught off these ports are fat -and oily, so that many are landed in a broken condition. The Yarmouth -herring is firm and hard, and is the best adapted for handling and -curing. - -Unlike that of the cod, the flesh of the herring is very rich in oil -and fat. The body flesh of the herring consists essentially of two -well-developed layers of adipose tissue, alternating with two layers -of muscular tissue. The fat in this adipose tissue is very liquid and -oily, and tends to make the fish tender. The actual amount of body fat -varies widely throughout the year. It gradually rises to a maximum -before spawning takes place, and diminishes slightly before spawning -and afterwards rapidly to a minimum. Thus, the fat content of Manx -summer herrings is about 2 per cent during the winter, and rises -rapidly in June and July, until in August, just before spawning, it is -over 30 per cent. The herring has a small liver which also contains -some oil. - -Fishing is carried out with drifters. Practically all drifters to-day -are steam-driven, although recently a number of motor-driven drifters -have come into use. Motor-driven drifters are mostly sailing boats -converted. Each drifter carries a crew of seven men, including the -skipper and engineer. The boats are largely privately owned and the -crew work on a share basis. A number of boats are owned by companies. - -The boats from the various fishing ports work round the coast, -following the fishing from port to port. At Yarmouth during the fishery -season there are about 1,200 drifters from nearly all the fishing ports -round the coast. Stornoway, Wick, Fraserburgh, Peterhead, Aberdeen, -Berwick, Whitby, and Yarmouth are all well represented. - -Each boat carries from 70 to 80 nets. The nets are approximately 1 -in. mesh. Each net is essentially a long rectangular curtain, hanging -vertically in the water. Its upper edge, which is about 55 yds. long, -is buoyed up by about 80 to 84 corks distributed equidistantly along -it from end to end. The net is about 6 yds. wide. Each net hangs with -its upper edge about 2 fathoms below the surface of the water, being -attached at each corner to two pellets or bladders, resembling large -footballs, and serving as floats. - -Fishing nets and sails are often coated with warm gelatine, and then -immersed in a strong solution of tannin. This renders the gelatine -insoluble and preserves the nets against the attacks of destructive -organisms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12 - -HERRING DRIFTER] - -When fishing, the boat takes up a position stern on to the tide. The -nets are paid out over the bow and connected up in line, and carried -by the tide till they form one long line, one end of which is attached -to the drifter. The position of the nets is indicated by the line of -bladder floats. - -The fish swim against the nets, push their heads through, and then, -owing to their gill openings, find that they cannot withdraw their -heads, and in this way are caught in enormous numbers. Generally, -fishing goes on all night, and in the morning the nets are hauled in, -and, together with the attached fish, are thrown into the hold situated -amidships. The drifters then return with all possible speed to the -fish wharf. While the boats are returning to port, the men draw the -nets from the hold and shake them free from any entangled fish. When -the drifter reaches port, she moors alongside the fish wharf, bow on, -and unloads her cargo of fish, using her derrick mast. The fish are -unloaded in a round basket which is stamped by the Fishery Board’s -officer as holding a quarter of a “cran.” The word “cran” is derived -from the “crown” branded by the Fishery Board’s officer on each of the -two wooden shafts in the basket. - -The cran is the measure which is universally used in the trade. At -Yarmouth and Lowestoft originally herrings were counted out and sold -by the “last.” A cran averages from 900 to 1,000 herrings and weighs -approximately 3 cwts. A “last” equals ten crans, and originally -consisted of 13,200 herrings, counted out. This method, of course, was -too slow and has now been abandoned. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13 - -CURING YARD AT YARMOUTH] - -The herrings, as they are removed from the ship, are put into special -baskets called “swills,” each swill holding half a cran. The swills -containing the day’s catch are arranged in rows on the fish wharf, -opposite each drifter. It is a great sight to see about four or five -hundred drifters lying, bow on, alongside the fish wharf for about -2-1/2 miles, all unloading fish as fast as they can. - -A good day’s catch would consist of about 90 crans. A good catch, -therefore, would average about 100,000 herrings, and would weigh about -13 tons. Some boats come in with as many as 160 crans of fish, and -the total “cranage” for a day may exceed 30,000. The total catch for -Yarmouth on a good day would be about 30,000,000 herrings, weighing -about 4,000 tons. - -Sometimes when the catch has been poor, the drifters remain out on the -fishing grounds for another day, rather than come home with a small -catch. In this case, the two catches are kept separate, the first catch -being called “overdays.” Overdays are worth about half the price of -fresh fish and are, of course, less suitable for high grade curing. - -After it has been purchased by the curer, the fresh herring may develop -into a salted herring, a red herring, a bloater, or a kipper, depending -upon the degree of salting and smoking to which it is subjected. -Herrings are sometimes put into cold storage, to be withdrawn -subsequently as occasion demands, either to be salted or, more -frequently, to be consumed fresh. Cold storage affords a convenient -method of preserving herrings when there is a glut, for at such times -it is often impossible to deal with the herrings adequately in the -ordinary curing yards. - -=Salted Herrings.= The fresh herrings are delivered to the curer’s -yards. Here, the fish are emptied into broad, shallow troughs, which -generally run from end to end of the yard. The troughs are about 4 -ft. wide, and are generally made of wood and arranged at a convenient -working height. Usually, the trough is situated just inside the -boundary wall, and the fish are delivered into it through large -openings in the wall. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14 - -SCOTTISH FISHER GIRLS] - -The fish are gutted and salted by Scottish girls—many of them from -the Hebrides—who come to Yarmouth and other places in the season for -this purpose. These girls are all brought up in Scottish villages, and -are extraordinarily expert in all the operations connected with the -cleaning and salting of the fish. They work in crews of three, and take -very good care that each member of the crew is a good worker, as they -are paid according to the amount of work they do. - -Each girl receives 25s. a week as a kind of subsistence allowance, and -is paid 1s. a barrel for the work she does. - -As the fish are delivered into the gutting trough, they are liberally -sprinkled with salt, thus enabling the women to grasp the fish easily, -as otherwise the fish are too slippery for quick handling. - -The women work standing in a row beside the trough. They pick up a -fish, gut it by inserting a sharp knife just below and behind the -gills, and with a quick, upward cut, bring away the gut. The guts drop -into small tubs placed in front of each worker, and are collected -periodically and sold to manufacturers of manure. Behind each woman -are three shallow tubs or baskets, and after she has gutted a fish, -she throws it behind her into one of the three tubs, according to -its quality and size. In this way, the two operations of gutting and -selecting the fish are combined. As the tubs of gutted fish become -filled, they are taken away by other girls to the barrel packers, and -are packed in separate barrels, according to quality or size. The -barrels are arranged in long rows, generally parallel to, and at some -distance behind, the gutting trough. A girl will pack about three -barrels in an hour. - -The gutted fish are first of all emptied into large, shallow tubs -called “rousing tubs,” placed just behind the row of barrels, and are -again sprinkled with salt. - -The packer takes an armful of fish from the rousing tub and drops them -into the barrel. Each time the fish are taken from the rousing tub -the contents of the tub are well stirred up. The fish are then packed -in the barrel in layers, bellies upward, and each layer is liberally -sprinkled with salt. In this way each individual fish is first of -all thickly coated with salt in the rousing tub, and adjacent layers -of fish in the barrel are also separated by a layer of salt. In this -packing process, it is important that the fishery salt used should be -coarse, reasonably hard, slow in dissolving and present in considerable -excess. It should be coarse enough to prevent the fish from touching -each other, thus enabling the brine to penetrate to every part. It -should be hard enough to withstand the pressure of the fish in the -barrel. It should dissolve slowly, so that the salting process takes -place gradually, enough salt remaining undissolved throughout the -process to keep the fish from touching. Altogether, about 1 cwt. of -salt is used for each barrel of herrings cured. - -The barrel, when fully packed, is covered over and left for about -eight days. During this time, the salt extracts water from the fish -and dissolves in it to form a saturated brine. The efficiency of this -salting process necessarily depends upon the salt being present in -considerable excess, so that the brine formed is kept saturated, and -consequently continues to withdraw water from the fish. - -At the end of eight days, the barrels are opened, an inch hole is -drilled in the side at the bilge, and the pickle allowed to run out. -It is found that, owing to the withdrawal of water from them, the -herrings have shrunk considerably, and some more salted herrings are -added to the barrel, until it is full again. It is then fastened down -permanently, turned over on its side and filled with brine pickle, and -corked up. - -The brine pickle which is formed during the eight days is not allowed -to run to waste, but is used for filling up the barrels after they have -been repacked. This brine pickle contains amino bases, together with -small quantities of coagulable proteids, and is of distinct nutritive -value. The Poles and Russians, who are great consumers of these -salted herrings, actually use the pickle as a kind of sauce or gravy, -dipping their bread in it. This, together with the general demand for -salted herrings in these two countries, may very largely be due to the -comparative scarcity and high price of salt there. - -A cran of herrings (about 1,000 fish, weighing approximately 3 cwts.) -uses up 1 cwt. of salt and, when completely salted, just fills a -barrel. The curer estimates that 5 to 6 tons of salt will be sufficient -for 100 crans of herrings. Herrings salted in this proportion should -be exported and consumed before the warm weather comes, as they are -liable to decay if the temperature rises above 70° F. The herrings -that were packed for the British Government (1920-1921) were salted -more heavily than usual (7 to 8 tons of salt per 100 crans), as, owing -to the uncertain condition of the Russian and German markets, it was -necessary to keep some of the fish in stock for a considerable time. -Such a heavily-salted fish would be unpalatable to the home consumer. - -In Yarmouth and Lowestoft, and also in Scotland, 100 crans of herrings -should fill, when cured, from 125 to 130 barrels. - -Herrings are sometimes salted at sea, 1 ton of salt being used to each -last (10 crans) of herrings. Such herrings are mostly used to make “red -herrings.” - -=Red Herrings.= A considerable trade in red herrings is done with -the Mediterranean and the Levant. For this trade, the fish must -be thoroughly smoke-cured, otherwise they will not keep in the -comparatively warm climate. The fish are first of all dry-salted in -concrete tanks about 10 ft. square and 6 ft. deep, arranged under the -floor of the curing house. Fresh fish and salt are simply thrown in and -mixed up, and left to develop their own pickle. - -Generally speaking, 1 ton of salt is used to 10 crans of herrings, and -each tank will hold from 20 to 30 crans of the fish. The fish should -be left in these salting tanks for five days at least; sometimes, of -course, they are left for months, according to the trade, in which case -the tanks practically serve as storage tanks for the salted fish. The -fish are removed from the tank as required, washed, and put on “speets” -and smoked. A “speet” is a wooden rod about 3 ft. 6 ins. long and -pointed at one end. The fish are threaded on the speet through the gill -openings and mouth, each speet holding from 20 to 30 fish. The speets -are then stacked horizontally on racks in the smoke house “loves” -(lofts), about 6 ins. apart and about 12 ins. above each other, until -the smoke house is filled from the roof to within a few feet of the -floor. When the smoke-house is filled, fires are lighted on the floor. -Generally, the fuel used is oak turnings, shavings, and sawdust. This -material burns quickly, and gives a very resinous smoke which not only -dries the fish, but also permeates it thoroughly. - -The rate of curing and the character of the finished product depend -upon the temperature of the smoke, and the proportion of antiseptic -resinous materials in it. When the oak or other suitable hard wood fuel -is in the form of turnings or dust it burns quickly, and thus produces -a fairly hot smoke, containing antiseptic substances—for example, -guaiacol and creosol. Such a smoke will cure the fish quickly. - -If oak billets or logs are used they burn comparatively slowly. The -smoke, therefore, is not so hot and, since slow combustion in this case -probably means more complete combustion, the proportion of resinous -constituents in the smoke is liable to be considerably diminished. When -oak billets are used, therefore, curing takes place much more slowly. - -The temperature in the smoke house will also depend very much upon the -prevailing weather temperature outside. In cold weather it is difficult -to keep the temperature up sufficiently. The curing takes longer, and -results in a hard cured product. In very warm weather, on the other -hand, it is difficult to keep the temperature down, and a “fired” fish -is sometimes produced, i.e. one which is half-cooked and soft. Such a -fish is clearly unsuitable for packing for export. - -Generally speaking, the temperature of the smoke should be such that -the curing takes about 10 days. - -After smoking, the fish are taken off the speets and selected according -to quality. Those which are large and perfect fetch a better price, and -command an entirely different market from those which are damaged or -broken. - -During the smoking of red herrings, the fires are lit each night, and -simply allowed to burn themselves out. - -=Bloaters.= There are two kinds of bloaters: those intended for the -home trade and those intended for the Mediterranean trade. For the home -trade the herring is lightly salted by immersing it in brine for two -hours or less. It is then dried in the smoke-house for one night, using -billets. Unlike “reds” or kippers, it is not cured by the smoke, but -simply dried. The bloaters for the Mediterranean trade are salted in -concrete tanks in exactly the same way as red herrings, but, instead of -being smoke-_cured_ for 10 days or so, they are simply smoke-_dried_ -for two days. - -=Kippers.= Kippering is the only process in the herring industry in -which the fish are split before curing. Fresh herrings (sometimes -over-day herrings) are bought early in the morning from the drifters -and taken to the curing yard. They are split down the back, close to -the backbone, and gutted and thrown into large, open baskets. The -basket and its contents (about 50 herrings) are then plunged into a -tank of running water, and violently agitated to wash blood and slime -from the fish. The fish are then thrown into brine in large tanks about -6 ft. by 5 ft. by 4 ft., until the tank is full. Salt is then sprinkled -on the surface, and the fish are left from half to one hour, according -to their size. - -They are then hung on kipper speets. A kipper speet differs from a -bloater speet. It is a square bar of wood about 3-1/2 ft. long, and of -1 in. square cross-section. It is supported horizontally. The split -herrings are opened out and impaled upon hooks at intervals along -each side of the speet. Each speet in this way will carry about eight -or nine herrings a side. The speets are then stacked on racks in the -“loves” of the smoke-house, are smoked over-night, using fires of oak -turnings and sawdust, and are packed the next morning in boxes. - -The herring is probably the most abundant food fish known. During the -autumn herring fishery of 1920, over 1,000,000 crans of herrings were -landed at Yarmouth and Lowestoft. If we assume that one cran measure -contains 1,000 herrings, we see that over 1,000,000,000 herrings were -caught in less than 4 months, and this probably represents only a -small fraction of the number present on the fishing grounds. In 1913, -11,762,748 cwts. of herrings, of value £4,412,838, were landed in Great -Britain. In the same year, the exports of herrings from the British -Isles were as follows— - - Fresh herrings 1,464,296 cwts. worth £1,212,493 - Cured herrings 8,797,106 „ „ 5,333,113 - ---------- ---------- - Total 10,261,402 „ „ £6,545,606 - ========== ========== - -The quantity of herrings caught by other European countries is as -follows-- - - cwts. £ - - France (1911) 7,846,503 529,739 - Germany (1913) Fresh 148,354 75,738 - „ „ Salted 1,030,039 563,033 - Holland (1911) 1,685,751 919,973 - Norway (1912) 4,404,400 580,570 - Denmark (1912) 845,295 140,051 - Sweden (1912) 861,420 205,555 - Belgium (1911) 13,000 5,000 - ---------- --------- - 16,834,762 3,019,659 - ========== ========= - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE NEWFOUNDLAND COD FISHERY - - -The cod is widely distributed in the northern and temperate seas of -Europe and America. It lives close to the bottom, in from 25 to 50 -fathoms of water, and feeds upon fish, small crustacea, worms and -mollusca. The cod spawns in the Spring. Of the 4,000,000 or so eggs -that are spawned by a single female cod, comparatively few are hatched, -and fewer still reach maturity. The young are about 1 in. long by the -beginning of the summer, and become fit for the market at the end of -the second year. Usually, the fish are mature at the end of the third -year, and then measure about 3 ft. in length, and weigh from 12 to 20 -lbs. They are in the finest condition in October, November and December. - -In addition to its great value as a food fish, the cod, like the -sturgeon, yields isinglass (a pure fish gelatine) from its swimming -bladder, and oil from its liver. Cod-liver oil is largely used as a -remedy for scrofulous complaints—probably owing to its content of -vitamins. It is also used effectively in cases of pulmonary consumption. - -Cod is fished along the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and on -the Banks. The Banks stretch for about 300 miles in a south-east -direction from the coast of Newfoundland towards the middle of the -North Atlantic. They are swept by the cold Labrador current. A branch -of the Gulf Stream passes over the southern portion of the Banks. These -currents bring enormous quantities of plankton and small fish, which -provide excellent food for the many varieties of fish and small, -invertebrate, marine animals that inhabit the Banks. These, in their -turn, provide abundant food for the cod. - -The cod, together with other demersal fish, including haddock, hake -and pollack, is caught with baited hooks and lines. This fishery has -continued with unbroken prosperity for nearly four centuries. In -addition to the Newfoundland boats, a large number of American boats -set out for the Banks from Gloucester (Mass.). Most of the boats are -sailing boats of about 35 tons capacity, and of sturdy construction. -Each boat carries eight dories—small row-boats about 15 ft. -long—amidships. The crew consists of a captain and cook, and sixteen -men—two for each dory. - -The “Banks” stretch for about 300 miles, by 200 miles wide, in a -south-easterly direction, towards the centre of the North Atlantic. The -depths in which the fishing is carried on range from 20 to 120 fathoms -off the coast of Newfoundland, from 15 to 90 fathoms on the Banks, and -from 100 to 135 fathoms at the edge of the Banks. The vessel starts -out for the fishing grounds with about 400 hogsheads of salt, and from -15,000 to 25,000 lbs. of bait. The bait is generally frozen squid -and herring. Capelan is also used as bait, but has to be obtained at -Miquelon, the last port of call before putting out to the Banks. The -bait must be well iced, as the cod will not bite well if the bait be -tainted. - -During the second trip, squid is used as bait and is caught on the -fishing grounds. - -As the boat approaches the fishing grounds, the dories are made ready. -Each dory carries four tubs of baited lines. A tub contains nine -lines, each 50 fathoms long. When fishing, these lines are all strung -together, so that each dory will run a string 1,800 fathoms long—about -two miles. Each line carries about 90 hooks—that is, 3,200 hooks to -each dory. A vessel with eight dories will thus set about 16 miles of -line, carrying about 25,000 hooks. The hooks are attached to the lines -by means of shorter lines called “gangings”—in Scotland they are known -as “snoods”—about 2 ft. long. The complete line, as set by a dory, is -called a “trawl.” - -On arriving at the fishing grounds, soundings are made to determine the -depth and character of the bottom. The best fishing is obtained over a -gravel bottom. The trawls are then set while the vessel is in motion (a -flying set), and if the fish are found to be abundant the vessel drops -anchor. - -The flying set is carried out as follows: The dories are towed astern -and, when the right spot has been selected, are dropped at regular -intervals until all are away. Each dory as it is dropped rows off at -right angles to the course of the vessel, and in the same general -direction, throwing out its trawl as it proceeds until it is all set. -The vessel then returns diagonally across the fishing grounds to the -starting point, picking up the dories as their trawls are set. After -a time, the dories are dropped again in the same order as before, and -the men haul up the trawls and take the fish off. Each dory is then -picked up in succession together with her catch. If this flying set is -successful, and other conditions are favourable, the vessel drops her -anchor and fishing proceeds. - -The manner in which the trawls are set depends upon the tide. They are -always set as far as possible with the tide. Thus, the dories on the -side of the vessel against which the tide is flowing row out against -the tide, until they are about a trawl-length from the ship. They then -set the end of the trawl at the point, and work towards the vessel. -On the other side of the vessel the trawl is set from the vessel with -the tide towards the dory. Each end of the trawl is attached to an -anchor by a line 1 fathom in length, and to a buoy by a line 25 fathoms -longer than the depth of the water at that point. Thus, the trawl is -situated just above the ground. The trawls are set once a day and drawn -three hours afterwards, or set in the afternoon and drawn the following -morning. The shorter the time between setting and drawing, the better -the condition of the fish. In hauling the trawl, one man stands in the -bow of the boat and hauls in the trawl, detaching the fish, the other -man receiving the trawl and coiling it. A dory carries on an average -1,000 lbs. of fish, and may sometimes make two or three trips before -the line is cleared. - -The fish are “gaffed” from the dories to the fishing vessel and are -kept on deck, packed between division boards to prevent sliding or -turning of the fish by the movements of the vessel. - -When the fish are all aboard, they are split and cleaned and salted -down. The crew is divided into splitting gangs, each consisting of -three men—the throater, the gutter, and the splitter. The throater -grasps the fish by the head with the left hand, and, holding it with -its back on the edge of a tub, cuts its throat just behind the gills, -and makes a slit down the belly. The head is then broken off by -downward pressure against the edge of the tub, and the fish is passed -on to the gutter. He opens the belly with his left hand, removes the -liver for oil, and tears out the viscera. The fish then goes to the -splitter, who completes the ventral splitting of the fish and removes -the backbone. - -After being well washed, care being taken to remove all blood, the fish -are passed down a canvas chute into the hold, where they are carefully -salted and piled in “kenches.” The fish are laid on their backs -alternately nape and tail, salt being liberally sprinkled between the -adjacent layers. Nearly 1-1/2 bushels of salt are used per 100 lbs. of -fish. The pickle formed by the salt and the juices of the fish drains -away to the bottom of the hold, from which it is pumped overboard. -As the kench or pile settles, more fish are added, so as to keep the -compartment full. Kenching begins in the forward compartment of the -hold, and is carried on from side to side of the vessel. Each kench is -about 4 ft. by 7 ft., and the full height of the hold. The refuse is -thrown overboard. - -In addition to the “trawl” fishing, many boats use hand-lines. For this -purpose, the lines are somewhat smaller, and only 13 ft. long. About -100 barrels of bait are taken (slack-salted clams obtained on the coast -of Maine), any additional bait that may be required being caught on the -fishing grounds—squids, hagdens, and clams taken from the stomachs of -fish. - -When the vessel reaches the fishing grounds, the dories row away in -all directions, each man for himself. The dory is anchored in water -from 18 to 40 fathoms deep. Each fisherman uses two lines carrying two -hooks a piece. The boats generally go out at sunrise and return to the -fishing boat about six hours later. Two boatloads—that is, 2,000 lbs. -of fish—make a good day’s work. - -On returning to the vessel the fish are pitched on deck and counted, -only cod of over 22 ins. length being considered. Smaller fish, and the -“shack”—pollack, haddock, cusk and hake—being counted separately. The -fish are then dressed and salted, as already described. - -In some cases, hand-line fishing is carried on from the deck of the -fishing boat itself, while the boat drifts. Each man uses one line -carrying two hooks. The bait consists of iced cockles, broken with a -hammer. The positions on the deck are followed by the crew in rotation, -to give all an equal chance. As the fish are “landed” they are thrown -on to the deck, each man keeping his count by cutting out the tongues -and keeping them in a separate bucket. - -On the Georges Bank, south-east of Gloucester, which is one of the -favourite fishing grounds, the fish are caught by hand-line from the -deck of the ship while at anchor. Frozen herring are used as bait, when -possible. All the fish caught on the Georges Bank are salted, except -the halibut, which is iced. Some idea of the value of these grounds is -gained from the fact that a single fisherman may take 500 fish in a -day. The Georges Bank area yields about 70 per cent of the total catch, -the Grand and Western Banks accounting for the remaining 30 per cent. -Approximately 60 per cent of the fish are brought in iced, and 40 per -cent salted. - -On returning to port the fish are pitchforked on to the wharf, and -sorted into snappers (less than 16 ins. from nape to tail), medium, -and large (over 22 ins.) Generally, they are divided as follows: 4 per -cent snappers, 41 per cent medium, and 55 per cent large. Each class -is weighed separately and carefully examined for any indication of -spoilage. Any suspected fish are thrown out. The fish are then washed -and put with salt into butts in the store. Fish that are brought in -iced whole are sorted and weighed, and then beheaded, gutted, and split -and salted. About eight bushels of salt are used to each hogshead of -fish. The fish are kept, salted down in hogsheads until required, care -being taken that the fish are kept covered with strong brine. - -After salting, the fish are dried. The salting process effects partial -drying by extracting a large proportion of the flesh fluids of the -fish. The extraction of water by the salt is assisted by kenching, the -fish at the bottom of the kench being pressed down by the weight of -those above. - -The fish are taken from the butts as required, and are piled in a kench -about 4 ft. high, to express and drain off the pickle. At the end of -two days the fish are re-piled, the top fish becoming the bottom, and -so subjected to full pressure. If the weather is unfavourable for -drying, they are re-kenched every two or three days. - -The fish are then dried by exposing them to wind and sun on a bed of -latticework about 8 ft. wide and 30 ins. above the ground, and as long -as necessary, called a “flake.” The drying yard is known as the flake -yard. The latticework is constructed of triangular-section, wooden -laths, placed about 3 ins. apart, the fish resting on the upper edges -of the laths. - -In the hot weather, the fish are protected from sunburn by canvas -awnings, and from rain at night by coops. - -With a warm sun and a good breeze, drying will be complete in about 10 -hours. Thorough drying throughout the body of the fish is accomplished -by drying on the flakes until the surface is dry and crystallized. The -fish is then kenched, and the dry surface salt extracts more moisture -from the interior. The fish is then dried again, thus ensuring a much -more complete result. - -Fish are also dried in some factories in large, steam-heated shelf -driers. This method is inclined to be too rapid, with the result that -the fish are only surface dried instead of being uniformly dried right -through. - -After drying, the fish are kenched in the store until required. They -are then skinned, the bones are removed, and they are moulded into -blocks which are cut up into cakes for packing and export. - -It is estimated that the loss in weight during the different operations -is as follows— - - Dressing 40 per cent - Salting (full pickle) 17 „ - Drying 4 „ - Skinning and boning 13 „ - ----------- - Total loss 74 „ - =========== - -The fresh waste, skins, bones, etc., of the fish are worked up for -glue, the residue being manufactured into fertilizer. The best glue is -obtained from the skins. The cod and cusk skins are superior in this to -the skins of hake and haddock. - -The oil is extracted from the livers. That from fresh livers is refined -and used for medicinal purposes, while that from old livers is used for -tanning chamois leather. The value of this oil is considerable, as much -as £150 being received by a boat in one trip for the oil alone. - -In 1914, Newfoundland exported 60,000 tons of cod meat, worth -£1,600,000. The chief market is the Mediterranean. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -TRAWL FISHERIES - - -Unlike the drift net, which only catches fish of one species and of -fairly uniform size when they are swimming near the surface, the trawl -net scoops up practically all the inhabitants of the sea bottom, -including round fish, e.g. cod and haddock; flat fish, e.g. sole and -plaice, as well as various invertebrates (jelly fish), and marine -plants and stones. The trawl is essentially a flattened, conical net -that is dragged open-mouthed along the sea bottom. The two kinds of -trawl in common use—the beam trawl and the otter trawl—differ in the -method that is adopted for keeping open the mouth of the net. The beam -trawl is used by sailing vessels, the otter trawl by steamers. - -Sailing trawlers are divided into two classes: first class smacks -and second class cutters. The smack is a two masted vessel with fore -and aft rig, generally making a five or six day voyage, and trawling -in depths of up to 40 fathoms. The cutter makes shorter voyages—20 -hours—and generally keeps within territorial waters. - -To work a beam trawl successfully, it is necessary to know the -character of the sea bottom, whether rough or smooth, and also the time -and direction of the tide. The net is trawled with the tide a little -faster than it is running, so that sufficient resistance is encountered -to keep the net extended. In shooting the trawl, great care must be -taken to make it alight on its runners in the correct position for -trawling. If the net be twisted, or if it alight upside down, it has -been shot “foul,” and has to be hauled up and shot again. In preparing -for a shot the net is lowered over the side by adjusting the bridle -ropes, and the beam is coaxed into its proper position while the net -is still near the surface. The net is then gradually lowered, the boat -moving slowly forward. The trawl is generally hauled for the duration -of a tide—that is, six hours—during which time it will travel about -15 miles. The net is generally hauled in by a steam capstan, driven -by a small donkey engine. When the trawl comes alongside, the beam is -secured and the net is gradually hauled over the side by hand until -the cod end appears; this is then made fast to a rope and tackle, -and hauled above the deck. The cod line is untied and the fish are -discharged upon the deck. - -Since trawling is generally carried out on smooth ground, the greater -proportion of the catch consists of certain kinds of demersal fishes -that frequent sand and gravel. Of these, the most important are cod, -haddock, whiting, ling, hake, catfish, sole, plaice, turbot, and brill. -Certain of these species also frequent rocky ground, and are taken in -such areas by the line fishermen. - -Generally speaking, line fishermen work in deeper water than trawlers -and capture larger fish, though of fewer species, e.g. cod, halibut, -ling, skates and rays. - -The original sailing trawlers are rapidly being superseded by steam -trawlers. The first steam trawling company was formed in 1882. It -had a capital of £20,000 and a fleet of four vessels. It trawled on -the Dogger Bank for three years with marked success. After this the -future of steam trawling was assured. The steam trawler is many times -more efficient than a smack, for it can fish in nearly all weathers, -including calm, and it can trawl over rough bottoms, owing to its -greater power, and can go much further afield. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15 - -MODERN STEAM TRAWLER (SECTION) - - Total length, 160 ft. - Length between perpendiculars, 148·5 ft. - Greatest breadth (frame), 23 ft. - Draught, 13-3/4 ft. - - _Explanation of Section._—1. Wheelhouse. 2. Captain’s cabin. 3. - Collision bulkhead. 4. Crew’s quarters. 5. Store for gear, nets, - etc. 6. Chain locker. 7. Fish-pounds (on deck). 8. Fish-hold. 9. - Cross bunker (for coal). 10. Main bunker. 11. Passage to bunker. - 12. Steam-winch. 13. Stokehold. 14. Lifeboat. 15. Triple expansion - engines (650 indicated h.p.). 16. Bathroom. 17. Mate’s quarters. 18. - Dining-room and berths for engineers. 19. Storeroom.] - -Modern British steam trawlers travel as far afield as Iceland, -Newfoundland and Morocco. - -Steam trawling developed rapidly, and resulted in a correspondingly -rapid decrease in the number of sailing trawlers. Between 1893 and -1903, the number of first class smacks in Great Britain decreased from -over 2,000 with an average tonnage (net) of 57·4 to less than 900 with -an average tonnage (net) of 40. From 1903 until the present day, the -number had remained between 900 and 800; it would seem, therefore, -that the relative numbers and importance of smacks and steam trawlers -gradually attained to a condition of equilibrium. Between 1900 and 1906 -the increasing importance of steam trawling received a temporary check. -A steam trawler in those days would cost about £10,000 to construct and -about £5,000 a year to operate; their commercial success, therefore, -depended upon correspondingly large and valuable catches of fish being -obtained. When first introduced on the fishing grounds round the coast -their superior efficiency and speed amply compensated for their high -cost. About 1900, however, the catch obtained by these vessels on -the home fishing grounds began to diminish, and the fishermen became -alarmed lest the greatly increased efficiency of steam trawling should -prove to be its own undoing, and result in the depopulation of the -fishing grounds by over-fishing. Between 1900 and 1906, the number -of steam trawlers fishing from British ports only increased by 200, -whereas, during the preceding 10 years, the numbers had increased from -a few hundred to over 2,000. - -The anticipated exhaustion of the home grounds led to the steam trawler -prospecting further afield. These longer voyages, as far as Iceland and -the White Sea and Morocco, were very successful. The result of this -was that larger steam trawlers were built, capable of undertaking -long voyages of many weeks’ duration. Between 1900 and 1906 the -average net tonnage of the steam trawlers increased from 54 to 62. The -steam trawlers, in opening up new and more distant fishing grounds, -left the home grounds to the smacks. Consequently we find that the -smacks confined their operation to the smooth ground in home waters, -leaving the rough and more distant grounds to the steam trawlers. A -direct result of this gradual redistribution of the fisheries between -sailing smacks and steamers was the development of specialized fishing -ports. Such ports as Lowestoft, Brixham and Ramsgate, off which good -fish are obtainable and which are within easy access of good markets, -have retained their importance as smack ports; on the other hand, the -development of steam trawling has led to the rapid growth of deep -water ports, such as Fleetwood, Grimsby, Hull, Aberdeen, and Milford -Haven. In Grimsby, originally one of the greatest strongholds of -smack fishing, smacks have been entirely displaced by steam trawlers, -owing to the special facilities which the port offers in being near -cheap coal, in possessing deep water, and in being in direct rail -communication with large markets for trawl fish. - -There is no doubt that the rapid development of steam trawling was -accelerated by the invention of the otter trawl. This is not only a -larger net than the beam trawl, but is for all but small, flat fish, -a much more efficient instrument. From the study of market statistics -between the years 1889 and 1898 Garstang has calculated that a steamer -caught on the average between four and seven times as much fish in the -year as a sailing smack. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16 - - I.—PLAN ON DECK. - II.—PLAN BELOW DECK. - - _Plan of Arrangements on and below Deck._—(I) On deck: 1. Winch. 2. - Hatches. 3. Gallows. 4. Bollards. 5. Fish-pounds. 6. Steam-winch (for - trawl). 7. Blocks. 8. Officers’ messroom. 9. Galley. 10. Ventilators. - 11. Funnel. 12. Bunker-hatches. 13. Engine-room skylight. 14. - Bathroom. 15. Mate’s cabin. 16. Lifeboat. - - (II) Below deck: 1. Collision bulkhead. 2. Crew’s quarters. 3. - Storeroom. 4. Iceroom. 5. Fish-hold. 6. Reserve coal bunker. 7. Main - bunker. 8. Side bunkers. 9. Stokehold. 10. Main pump. 11. Auxiliary - pump. 12. Engines. 13. Dynamo. 14. Cabin. 15 and 16. Chief and second - engineers’ quarters.] - -A modern steam trawler is from 150 to 160 ft. long by 25 ft. beam and -12 ft. depth, constructed with a high bow and a low, flat stern. Her -net tonnage is from 60 to 200, her bunker capacity 250 tons, with -storage room for up to 120 tons of fish. She is fitted with triple -expansion engines of from 40 to 85 horse power. The forward part of -the ship is occupied by the living quarters of the crew, rope and -net store, iceroom, and fish-hold. Larger vessels, making trips to -distant grounds, will take as much as 30 tons of broken ice; this ice -is distributed over the fish in layers, after they have been cleaned -and gutted. In practically all modern fishing ports there is a special -ice factory situated near the quay, and ice is manufactured by the -ammonia process, crushed, and delivered to the ships through zinc-lined -chutes. The fish-hold in the forward part of the ship extends right -across the ship and is from 9 to 10 ft. high, divided by a partition -into two compartments, each compartment fitted with two shelves 5 ft. -long, on which the fish are piled. These shelves reduce compression and -facilitate the storage of the fish, the front of each compartment being -closed with boards as it becomes full. She generally carries three or -four trawl nets, one on her starboard and the other on her port, one or -two being down below in reserve. The boat is fitted with four gallows, -two forward and two aft, one on each side of the boat. These gallows -are used for lifting the otter boards out of the water when the trawl -is hauled in. - -The ship carries nine hands, consisting of skipper, mate, boatswain, -two deck hands, cook, two engineers and a fireman. - -On the fishing grounds, fishing is continuous. The net is trawled for -from two to four hours, although on grounds where fish is plentiful -(e.g. Iceland) the trawl is frequently hauled every half-hour. It is -then hauled aboard, and the cod end containing the fish is swung over -the deck. The cod line is unfastened so that the cod end of the net -opens, and the fish are discharged into a pound formed on the deck by -horizontal 9″ × 3″ deal boards. The net is cleaned and shot again. - -On smooth ground trawling is commercially possible at all depths down -to 300 fathoms. In few cases, however, is trawling carried on at -greater depths than 200 fathoms. - -Owing to the large amount of stores and repairs, etc., connected -with the maintenance of a fleet of steam trawlers, most large owners -maintain fairly elaborate premises in the neighbourhood of the fish -dock. These premises generally consist of a net-making hall in which -nets are made by women working with shuttles, a large bath of tar or -tanning material below in which the net is soaked, also a wood yard -and blacksmith’s shop, containing a steam hammer, a plumber’s shop, -a boat-builder’s shop, a large store-room fitted with the necessary -stores and spares. - -During the war the steam trawlers were commandeered by the Government -for use as patrol boats and mine sweepers. It is estimated that 10 -per cent of our steam trawlers and drifters and their crews were lost -during the war. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17 - - A.—The otter trawl. - - B.—Attachment of board to net. OB. Otter board. B. Iron brackets. - - C. Chain to connect with warps. M. Metal strengthening pieces. M′. - Iron shoe. HL. Head line. UW. Upper wing. LW. Lower wing. LL. Lacing - connecting wings. GR. Ground rope. D. Balch of lower wing. SSS. Twine - settings connecting balch to ground rope. A. Headline and lacing - connected to board by shackle. B. Toe of ground rope connected to - board by shackle. - - C.—Bosom of a bobbin foot-rope for use on rough ground. AB. Balch - line on head of belly and connecting with bosom of wings. SS. Wire - seizings connecting balch to small intermediate bobbins, 6″ diameter - (EE). Large bobbins up to 24″ diameter (FF).] - -When steam trawling was first introduced it aroused general -opposition, for there was not only the fear that their efficiency -would lead to over-fishing in certain grounds, but it was said that -the trawl, when dragged along the bottom, destroyed the eggs and -killed the immature fish. The line fisherman found that steam trawling -made it more difficult to catch demersal fish with baited hooks. He -attributed this to the effect of over-fishing, but it is probable that -contact with the otter trawls had made the fish rather more shy and, -therefore, more difficult to catch by this method. It is unlikely that -steam trawling will lead to serious over-fishing, except possibly -amongst such sedentary fish as soles and plaice. It must be remembered -that trawling is only commercially possible on comparatively smooth -ground and down to depths of about 200 fathoms. Probably, therefore, -the actual area trawled is only a small proportion of the total area -that is inhabited by fish. It is possible, of course, that extensive -and long continued trawling in a confined and relatively isolated area -may scare the fish away; it is probable, however, that any area in -which over-fishing appears to have produced temporary exhaustion will -tend to recover automatically, since it would naturally be abandoned -temporarily by the trawlers for more profitable fishing grounds. -There is no doubt that trawling, unless the size of the mesh is -carefully controlled, tends to remove large numbers of immature fish. -Generally in ordinary beam trawling—cod, plaice, haddock, etc.—the mesh -varies from 3 ins. diameter near the mouth of the net to about 1-1/4 -ins. diameter at the cod end. If a much smaller mesh were used the -resistance encountered by a full-sized net would be so great that it -would be almost impossible to draw the net through the water. Smaller -trawls of 1/2 in. mesh are used in shallow coastal waters for catching -shrimps, small plaice and whiting. The size of mesh largely determines -the size of fish that will be retained by the net, since the smaller, -immature fish readily escape through the meshes. Of recent years the -various fishery boards, with a view to preventing the catching of such -small, immature fish, have increased the size of mesh that is to be -used—particularly when trawling within the three mile limit, where the -greatest proportion of immature fish is generally encountered. For -steam trawlers working in deep water a 2-1/2 in. mesh is generally -used, but within the three mile limit it is frequently increased from 3 -to 3-1/2 ins. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18 - -THE CATCH ABOARD] - -Herring are caught with drift nets at night near the surface. In the -daytime they frequent the sea bottom and can then be caught with a -trawl net. Trawling for herrings was first practised by the fishermen -of Milford Haven and Fleetwood in 1901. They used an ordinary otter -trawl lined with a piece of herring net. A specially constructed -herring trawl is now used, of which the cod end is made of 2-1/2 in. -mesh instead of the usual 3-1/2 in. - -When trawling for herrings the steamer goes at full speed, generally -for two to four hours, unless a shoal is encountered, when half-an-hour -is frequently sufficient. - -Herrings are trawled in from 70 to 100 fathoms of water over a soft -bottom. The main centre for trawled herrings is North-West of Ireland, -other fisheries being carried on off the South-West of Ireland, the -West of Scotland, and in the North Sea. In 1913 over 500,000 cwts. of -herrings were taken with trawl nets in these areas. - -This method of catching herrings aroused serious opposition among the -drift net fishermen. They asserted that the trawl catches and destroys -a high proportion of immature fish, and also destroys the herring eggs -as it passes along the sea bottom. In 1913 the matter was investigated -by a Parliamentary Committee, but any Government action was checked by -the outbreak of war. - -Since 1905 the trawling grounds frequented by British steam trawlers -have been divided for statistical purposes into eighteen fishing areas. -The names and areas of these regions are shown in the chart of the -trawling grounds (Fig. 19). - -Table I shows in hundredweights the average catch per day’s absence -from port in different areas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19 - -CHART - -SHOWING - -TRAWLING GROUNDS - -Frequented by British Trawlers, the “Regions” into which they are -divided for statistical purposes, and the approximate area of each in -square miles (Nautical) calculated from the 3 mile limit to the 200 -metre line. - - NO. OF REGION. NAME. APPROX. AREA IN - SQ. MLS. NAUTICAL - - I. White Sea 128,917 - - II. Coast of Norway 29,648 - - III. Baltic Sea 134,891 - - IV. North Sea 129,804* - - V. North of Scotland 18,096 - (Orkney and Shetland) - - VI. Westward of Scotland 32,099 - - VII. Iceland 36,608 - - VIII. Faröe 4,949 - - IX. Rockall 3,430 - - X. West of Ireland 9,066 - - XI. Irish Sea 15,743 - - XII. Southward of Ireland 50,416 - - XIII. Bristol Channel 8,613 - - XIV. English Channel 25,238 - - XV. West of France 25,422 - - XVI. North of Spain 5,464 - - XVII. Coast of Portugal 9,997 - - XVIII. Coast of Morocco 10,499 - ------- - Total 678,900 - ------- - - *_Excluding Area G, over 200 metres, and the Moray Firth_] - - -TABLE I - - 1906 1913 1920 - - White Sea 40·15 44·12 25·45 - Iceland 44·22 46·10 58·54 - Faröe 31·19 28·19 27·03 - Rockall 38·98 39·27 49·53 - North of Scotland 25·01 25·76 27·31 - North Sea 17·60 14·08 24·94 - English Channel 11·36 8·95 25·70 - Irish Sea 15·66 11·94 18·79 - Bristol Channel 13·15 13·98 26·38 - West of Scotland 21·18 28·11 28·17 - West of Ireland 21·48 30·22 25·87 - South of Ireland 26·97 23·74 26·63 - Biscay 15·98 13·22 18·73 - Portugal and Morocco 6·55 13·81 19·29 - -In England and Wales more fish is landed by trawlers than by all -other methods of fishing combined. Trawl-caught fish—soles, plaice, -turbot, halibut, cod—are much more valuable than fish caught by drift -nets, e.g. herring and mackerel. In England and Wales, in 1913, the -weight of pelagic fish caught amounted to 389,262 tons, and of demersal -fish 418,038 tons. Although the quantity of the demersal fish was, -therefore, only little larger than of the pelagic fish, its value was -£7,463,003, compared with £2,531,979, the value of the pelagic fish. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -SHELLFISH - - -Shellfish are divided into two classes: Crustacea, including the -lobster, crab, shrimp, prawn, and mollusca, including the oyster, -mussel, cockle and periwinkle. Shellfish generally abound in -comparatively shallow water near the shore. - -Perhaps the most important members of the crustacea are the various -minute, pelagic copepoda, of which incalculable myriads form an -important constituent of the plankton in all seas. These copepoda live -upon the diatoms and other microscopic, marine vegetable life floating -at the surface of the sea. The most important edible members of the -crustacea are the lobster and the shrimp. - -The lobster is found along the coasts of the North Atlantic and -Mediterranean, particularly along the European coasts from Norway -to the Mediterranean, and off North America from Labrador to Cape -Hatteras, The lobster lives in shallow water at about 12 fathoms depth, -and frequents a rocky bottom. The lobster’s eggs remain attached to -the female until the larvae hatch out. From 10,000 to 12,000 eggs -are carried in this way by a female lobster. She protects them from -the ravages of fish that will otherwise consume them as food, and by -keeping them constantly irrigated with fresh sea-water she promotes -their healthy life and development. The eggs may take as long as twelve -months to hatch, and although “berried” lobsters are seen in greatest -numbers in the spring they are also captured at all seasons of the -year. - -When hatched the young lobster larvae leave their mother and float up -to the surface water, where they develop for a time among the plankton. -During the larval period the lobster is a free and active swimmer. - -The young larvae are consumed in large quantities by fish such as -herring, mackerel and sprat, especially during the summer months when -they are most abundant. While developing into a complete lobster it -passes through at least three distinct changes of form. When the larva -has attained the length of about 3/5 in. it already possesses many of -the characteristic features of the adult. Soon afterwards, it sinks to -the sea bottom and gradually grows into a complete adult. During the -growth of the lobster it frequently casts its shell and grows a new -one. Growth only takes place when the shell is cast and while the new -shell is hardening. During the first few weeks of its life the lobster -casts its shell about once a week, but this casting happens less and -less frequently as the lobster grows older. The new shell is formed -beneath the old one, and although at first quite soft rapidly hardens -when the old one has been cast off. Most adult lobsters cast their -shells in July, August and September. - -A lobster grows slowly, and when from 9 to 10 ins. long is probably -from four to five years old. It becomes mature when about 6 ins. -long—that is when about three years old. - -The lobster is usually caught in creels or “pots” baited with portions -of stale fish—generally flounder, skate, eels, etc. Lobster fisheries -tend to deteriorate in value very rapidly. Owing to the lobsters’ keen -sense of smell, the method of capture by means of creels or pots is -very efficient, so that the lobsters are caught in great numbers, with -the result that the fishery soon shows signs of exhaustion, the average -size of the lobster caught becoming smaller. The lobster fishery is -entirely confined to the shallow water near the shore, and can only -be replenished and maintained by the young lobsters that hatch out in -that neighbourhood. Large quantities of lobster spawn are destroyed -every year when berried lobsters are caught. It is estimated that, on -an average, 30 per cent of the lobsters caught are berried females. The -fishermen either remove the spawn and throw it back into the sea—where, -of course, it almost certainly becomes fish food—or sell it to be used -in making certain special sauces. - -Various attempts have been made by legislation in different countries -to prevent the capture of berried females, and so protect the lobster -spawn, but, since berried females are found all the year round and -comprise about 30 per cent of all the lobsters captured, it is -practically impossible to prohibit the capture of berried lobsters -without seriously penalizing the fishermen. - -A better policy would be to hatch lobster eggs in large numbers -artificially, and when the young lobsters are well established add them -to the natural stock. This is actually done on a large scale and with -excellent results in America and Norway. - -In Europe lobsters are generally sent to market in a fresh state, but -in America they form the basis of an extensive canning industry. In -1913 over 2,500,000 lobsters were captured round the coasts of Great -Britain and Ireland, the total value of the fish being more than -£110,000. - -Shrimping is one of the most important methods of inshore fishing, and -gives employment to a large number of fishermen round our coasts. The -shrimp is found on sandy or muddy ground in shallow water near the -coast. A female shrimp, like the lobster and the crab, carries its eggs -under its tail. - -Shrimps are caught with a fine-meshed trawl net, drawn by a boat or by -horse and cart, or with push nets or hose nets. One great objection to -shrimping is that the shallow, sandy areas on which it takes place are -much frequented by young fish—particularly dabs, plaice, soles, whiting -and codling. Owing to the small mesh of the shrimp trawl, these small -fish are captured in large numbers and are generally dead or dying when -discharged from the net. Generally, the shrimps are separated from the -small fish by riddling, and the smaller shrimps are then separated from -the larger ones by a second riddling process, and are returned to the -sea. The shrimps are thrown into boiling salt water, rapidly stirred -for a few seconds, and spread out on the deck to cool. From three to -four hauls are made per day, a good day’s fishing consisting of from 30 -to 40 quarts of shrimps. Large numbers of shrimps are potted. - -The other important group of shellfish is the mollusca. Molluscs, i.e. -“soft creatures,” are essentially soft, mobile animals, protected -by shells. They are classed as bi-valves, for example oyster and -mussel, and uni-valves, for example limpet and whelk. There is no real -difference between a bi-valve and a uni-valve, for what appear to be -the two shells of the bi-valve are really one shell divided into two -parts by a line of soft, uncalcified material which forms a hinge -between the two halves of the shell; this hinge tends to keep the shell -open, but the muscular action of the living animal inside keeps it -closed when required. - -With the exception of the mussel, very few shellfish actually live -on the shore between the tide marks. Most of the seashore shells are -brought by the sea from animals that lived in from 10 to 20 fathoms of -water. The cockle lives buried in the sand, about an inch below the -surface. The oyster lives on stones and shells below low-water mark. - -All molluscs are attached tightly to the shell at one or two points, -and cannot be removed from the shell alive. In the case of the -bi-valves the animal is attached to the two shells by a muscle which -draws the two valves of the bi-valve together. When this muscle is -relaxed, for example in normal circumstances, when feeding at the -bottom of the sea—the shell remains open. Some shellfish—notably the -scallop—actually swim by opening and shutting the two valves of their -shell. - -The most important uni-valves are the periwinkle, the limpet and the -whelk. Uni-valves possess a well-marked head and neck, a pair of eyes -and a mouth. They are remarkable for the possession of a tongue, formed -like a ribbon rasp, furnished on its upper surface with a large number -of small teeth. The number and arrangement of these teeth differ in -different species. With this ribbon rasp the uni-valve, for example a -dog-whelk, can rasp a hole through the shell of an oyster and feed upon -the contents. - -Bi-valves do not possess a ribbon rasp, neither have they a projecting -head, nor in most cases any eye. They possess a mouth, furnished with -four flapper-like lips or gill plates. They feed on microscopic, -floating plants that are drawn within their mouth by currents set up -in the water by the rhythmic vibrations—from three to four hundred -strokes per minute—of millions of hairs that hang down from soft -plates supported under the protecting arch of the shell and called -the “beard.” These currents of water not only bring food to the mouth -of the bi-valve, but also irrigate the gill plates and so enable the -animal to breathe. The oyster lies on the sea bottom with its muscle -relaxed and its shell gaping. - -A North European oyster acts alternately as female and male. It -produces eggs—as many as a million in a season—and a fortnight -after the eggs have been shed, the same oyster produces millions of -spermatazoa, which form a cloud of fine dust in the water. These -spermatazoa rapidly scatter in all directions, and, entering the -tubular reproductive sacs of oysters that are producing eggs, fertilize -them. - -American and Portuguese oysters are definitely male and female, the -eggs being discharged by the female and fertilized subsequently in the -sea by the male. - -The eggs remain attached to the parent’s gill plates, and in a day or -so develop into minute, shell-less oysters. The parent oyster is then -said to be “white-sick.” About two days later the young oysters have -become dark-coloured and are found to have formed minute convex shells, -rather like those of a cockle. The parent is then “black-sick.” A week -later the young oysters escape and rise in thousands to the surface -water, swimming by means of fine hairs or cilia that are attached to -the upper edge of the shells. They are carried far and wide by tides -and surface currents. Many are eaten by young fish and shrimps. As -they grow the shells become heavier, and after a time they sink to the -sea bottom. This is known as the “fall of spat.” If they fall on stony -ground, where they will be well irrigated and nourished through the -movement of the water, they will thrive. Many, however, fall on soft, -unsuitable ground and perish. - -The European oysters spawn in the summer (from May to September). They -become mature in three years, are at their prime in from five to seven -years, and rarely live longer than ten years. - -Oysters are gathered from natural beds or from artificial grounds. -The oyster breeders place movable tiles or frames for the spat to -fall on. When the young have become affixed to these “stools” they are -frequently carried away to develop in a different locality. The oysters -are finally fattened in sea ponds or inlets that contain a large diatom -population. At Marennes, on the west coast of France, the water in -which the oysters are grown contains a particular blue diatom. After -feeding upon these diatoms, the beard of the oyster becomes stained a -bluish-green colour—the well-known “Marennes vertes” oysters. - -A natural oyster bed is formed on stony ground free from mud and -sand, so that the oyster, after becoming attached to a stone, is -completely surrounded by clear sea-water. Oysters do not flourish in -water containing less salt than ordinary sea-water. Thus, there are no -oysters in the Baltic Sea. - -The chief enemies of the oyster are the dog-whelk that bores through -the shell, and the starfish that pulls the valves apart and attacks the -oyster inside. - -The oyster is widely distributed in tropical and temperate seas all -over the world. The approximate value of the annual oyster crop of the -world is £4,000,000, representing a crop of 10 billion oysters. - -In Europe up to 75 per cent of the oysters are reared from spat in -artificial beds—not more than 7 per cent being “native.” In the United -States, however, over 40 per cent are still obtained from natural beds. - -The simplest form of oyster culture is the preservation of the -natural bed. These beds are easily destroyed or made unproductive by -over-dredging. Colonies are broken up. Other animals are admitted. -Breeding oysters are covered up by stones and shells, and suffocated. -Ridges suitable for the development of the spat are broken down. - -After the beds have been properly protected and preserved the next -stage is to extend the area of the natural beds. This involves a -knowledge of the conditions of depth, temperature, salinity and -character of bottom that are necessary to the successful growth of the -oyster. Finally the productivity of an oyster “park” and the quality of -its produce can be greatly improved by providing artificial “stools” -for the reception and development of the spat. Many substances can be -used for this purpose. The Romans used earthenware tiles, and similar -tiles are used to this day in France. Brushwood, trees, stones and -stakes, and old oyster shells (cultch) are also used. - -The earthenware tiles used in France are hollowed on one side to -receive the spat, and are coated with lime to facilitate the removal of -the oysters when they are a year old. They are then from 1/2 to 1 inch -in diameter, and are picked off the stools and placed on stands where -they are thinned out from time to time as they grow. - -The chief oyster fisheries in Britain are at Whitstable, Colchester and -Brightlingsea. Nearly 40,000,000 oysters were gathered on the coasts of -England and Wales in 1920, and were sold for about £250,000. - -Perhaps the next most important edible bi-valve is the mussel. -Frequently, mussel beds are situated near the mouth of rivers, -and consequently tend to be contaminated by sewage. It has been -established by various investigators—notably Dr. Klein and Professor -James Johnstone—that mussels are able to cleanse themselves of sewage -pollution in a comparatively short time if they are re-laid in -sterilized water. Experiments on a large scale have been carried out -with the mussel beds at the mouth of the Conway river since September, -1916. The mussels are gathered from the beds and placed about two deep -on wooden grids in a large concrete cleansing tank of 40,000 gallons -capacity. The mussels are first thoroughly hosed with water at high -pressure to remove all adherent mud, etc. The tank is then filled with -sterilized sea-water and the mussels are allowed to remain in it for 24 -hours. During this period the mussels effectually free themselves from -bacteria. The tank is then emptied, the mussels are hosed again, the -tank is again filled with sterile water and after a further 24 hours is -emptied. The mussels are once more flushed with the hose. After this -treatment the mussels reach a high standard of purity. The scheme has -proved to be a complete success, not only from a scientific point of -view, but also as a commercial proposition. The sum of 1s. per bag of -mussels (140 lbs.) is charged to the fishermen for this treatment. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -FISHERIES FOR WHALES - - -Whales are the most important members of a large family of land -animals including also the seals, walrus, and porpoise, that have -gradually become adapted to live in the sea. They have acquired an -externally fish-like form, but in every other respect they retain the -characteristic features of mammalian structure. They are warm-blooded, -air-breathing quadrupeds, that suckle their young. In the whale, the -fore-limbs have become simple five-fingered flippers, while only -isolated, vestigial bones of the hind-limbs remain buried uselessly in -the body. Unlike fishes, the tail is set horizontally, thus enabling -the creature to rise easily to the surface to breathe. The warm-blooded -body is kept warm by a layer of fat placed immediately beneath the -skin, and varying in thickness from 8 to 20 ins., and known as the -blubber. The nostrils, instead of being situated at the end of the -snout, are placed far back at the apex of the head to form the blowhole. - -Whales are divided into two well-marked groups, known as the whaleboned -and the toothed whales respectively, according to the particular form -of their dentition. - -The most important of the whaleboned whales is the Greenland, or Arctic -Right, whale. It attains a length of upwards of 45 to 50 ft., and -is remarkable for the enormous extent of its head and mouth cavity. -The head extends for a third of the length of the body, so that the -mouth cavity may be as much as 18 ft. long, 12 ft. broad and 11 ft. in -height, the dimensions of a small chapel! The upper jaw is narrower -than the lower and arches backwards, thus increasing the actual -height of the mouth cavity and providing ample room for the blades of -whalebone with which the jaws are furnished in place of teeth. These -blades of whalebone number about 380, and range in length from 8 ft. -to, in exceptional cases, 12 ft. They are suspended in the mouth of the -whale like stalactites, set fairly close together, and, since the edges -of each blade are fringed with fine whalebone, the whole arrangement -forms a very efficient strainer. This enables the whale to feed upon -the plankton—or “krill,” as it is called by the whalers—and small -fish, e.g. herring and capelan. The whale fills his enormous cavern of -a mouth with water containing the floating food particles, and then, -by raising his tongue, slowly expels the water through the whalebone -sieve. The food particles are retained by the whalebone, and are then -licked off and swallowed. - -The Greenland whale inhabits the Arctic seas north of latitude 54°N. -A closely related variety, the Bowhead whale, forms the basis of a -fishery in the Behring Sea. - -The largest whales known are the so-called Rorqual whales. The name of -these whales is derived from the large number of longitudinal folds or -pleatings that form a characteristic feature of their throat. Rorqual -whales attain a length of from 80 to 85 ft. The head is relatively -small, and the long, slender body carries a distinct dorsal fin. The -whalebone is coarse and short. The Rorqual whales are the most abundant -and widely distributed of all whales. They are found in all open seas, -with the exception of those in the extreme Arctic and Antarctic regions. - -The Southern Right whale, or Black whale, is found in the temperate -seas of both Northern and Southern hemispheres. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20 - -A WHALE’S MOUTH - -The carcass is ready for cutting up at a Shetland whaling station.] - -Of the toothed whales, the most important is the Cachalot or Sperm -whale. It is chiefly captured in Southern seas, and is killed in -large numbers for the sake of the spermaceti and sperm oil that occur -in large quantities in its head cavity. Sperm and other toothed whales -feed upon fish and cuttlefish. - -The breeding habits and migrations of the different species of whales -are at present little understood. During the summer, when the water in -the Polar circles swarms with certain varieties of pelagic crustacea, -the whales congregate in these regions and are then most profitably -hunted. At the end of the summer they appear to migrate towards warmer -water nearer the Equator. They bring forth their young in warm, shallow -water, and return to the whaling grounds in the spring. A young whale -calf may be as much as 20 ft. long at birth. - -Whales were captured by the Norwegians over 1,000 years ago. In the -Middle Ages—from the ninth to the seventeenth centuries—the Basques -hunted the Black whale in the Bay of Biscay, and supplied Europe -with oil and whalebone. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, -as the Biscay whales became rare and more difficult to find, the -whalers ventured further afield, and in 1612 discovered the Greenland -whale. The Black or Biscay whale is now almost extinct, and there is -every likelihood that the Greenland Right whale will also soon be -exterminated. The capture of Sperm and Rorqual whales, although equally -important, is a comparatively modern development. - -Modern whale fishing has become a very efficient art, owing largely -to the invention of the shot-harpoon by a Norwegian, Sven Foyn, in -1870. This harpoon is discharged from a gun from the deck of a fast -steamship. It penetrates the body of the whale in the vital region just -behind the flipper. The invention of this weapon has made the killing -of whales a matter of comparative ease and certainty. The inevitable -consequence of this is that the whales are being killed in such large -numbers that they are in danger of general extermination. Even before -the introduction of the shot-harpoon, whales were being destroyed at -an astonishing rate. Thus, during 40 years in the middle of the last -century, over 300,000 whales were captured by the United States whale -fisheries alone. The value of these whales was £65,000,000, so that -each whale realized on an average £216. Of recent years—before 1914—a -single large Greenland whale has realized as much as £900 for whalebone -and £300 for oil. At the present time, over 20,000 whales are killed -each year. - -The old eighteenth century whaler of about 400 tons burden carried -about 30 officers and men, and was equipped for a three years’ voyage. -Each whaler carried six whale boats. These whaleboats were about 27 ft. -long and built sharp at each end. Each boat was furnished with mast and -sails, and was provided with two 200-fathom whale lines. When a whale -was sighted four of these boats, each manned by six men, started in -pursuit. The boats ranged themselves alongside the whale and a harpoon -was driven into it from each boat. The whale immediately dived to the -bottom of the sea and remained there sometimes for as long as forty -minutes. When he returned to the surface to breathe, more harpoons were -thrown and he dived again. Ultimately, owing to loss of blood, the -whale kept near the surface and was then dispatched by a lance thrust -behind the flipper into the vital parts. - -The modern Greenland whaler is an iron vessel of about 500 tons. She -is fitted with auxiliary engines of 75 horse-power. She carries from -fifty to sixty hands and eight whaleboats. She is fitted with tanks for -250 tons of oil. Before the war she would cost about £17,500 to build -and £500 a month to maintain. Each whaleboat carries a harpoon gun in -order to make sure of the first harpoon getting a good hold. - -In Rorqual fishing, off Newfoundland, the harpoon is tipped with a bomb -and time fuse. This explosive harpoon is discharged into the whale from -the deck of the whaler—a fast steamer—and explodes with fatal effect. - -The chief whale fisheries are carried on off Greenland for the -Greenland whale, off the coast of Newfoundland for Rorquals. There -is the Norwegian bottlenosed-whale fishery around Iceland, and the -American Bowhead-whale fishery in the Behring Sea. In Southern Seas -the Humpback, Fin whale, and Blue whale (Sibbald’s Rorqual) constitute -an overwhelming majority of the whales captured. The Right whale and -the Sperm whale, although captured in relatively small numbers, are -individually more valuable. Other smaller species, e.g. the Sei whale -(Rudolph’s Rorqual), the lesser Rorqual and the Killer or Grampus, are -also found in large numbers in the Antarctic. - -When the whale has been killed it is either made fast alongside the -whaler and cut up, or it is towed ashore to a “factory” to be cut up -and stripped. The blubber is stripped off, cut up into small pieces, -and boiled down with water to separate the oil. The yield of oil varies -for different species, as shown in Table II. The whalebone is removed -and, if a Sperm whale, the oil is removed from the skull cavity with -buckets. An average large Sperm whale will yield from 2-1/2 to 3 tons -of Sperm oil. - - -TABLE II - - Average Yield of Oil in Barrels - Species of Whale. (6 Barrels = 1 Ton). - - Right 60 to 70 - Blue 70 „ 80 - Fin 35 „ 50 - Sei 10 „ 15 - Humpback 25 „ 35 - Sperm 60 „ 65 - -Whale oil is marketed in five grades: Nos. 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. Nos. 0 -and 1 are made entirely from blubber; No. 2 from tongues and kidney fat -and from the residue of the blubber boilings; No. 3 is made from the -flesh and bones, and No. 4 from refuse. The different grades contain -progressively from 1/2 to 1 per cent water and dirt, and from 2 to 30 -per cent free fatty acid. - -Grades 0, 1 and 2 of whale oil are used in the manufacture of soap, -glycerine being obtained from it as a by-product. In its natural -condition the oil is soft, and has to be “hardened” before it can be -used for soap making. The hardened whale oil is white, odourless and -tasteless, and is an excellent substitute for tallow. In this condition -it is also used as a substitute for lard and, to a small extent, is -used in making margarine. - -Grades 3 and 4 are used in the manufacture of lubricating greases. -Whale oil alone is used for shafting and machinery bearings. When mixed -with mineral oil, it is used for looms, spindles and textile machinery. -Whale oil is also used as an illuminant, for currying leather, and in -making chamois leather, for batching flax and other vegetable fibres, -and in oiling wool for combing. - -In 1913, the world’s annual catch of whale oil had reached 800,000 -barrels. During the war the supply was considerably less, for example -in 1917 it was only 358,000 barrels. - -=Whalebone.= Whalebone from the mouths of the Right or whaleboned -whales is in considerable demand among dressmakers and milliners. -Its principal use is in the brush trade, chiefly in making brushes -for mechanical purposes. It is prepared for use by being boiled in -water for about 12 hours until it is quite soft. It is then cut into -strips or bristles or filaments, according to the use for which it is -intended. It is light, flexible, tough and fibrous. - -=Sperm Oil.= Sperm oil is really a liquid wax. It is an excellent -lubricant—particularly for rapidly moving machinery, e.g. spinning -spindles, or for delicate machinery such as watches. It does not become -gummy or rancid, and retains its viscosity at high temperatures. It has -no corrosive action. - -When cooled to low temperatures, it deposits a solid -wax—spermaceti—which is used in the manufacture of high grade candles. -Sperm oil is also used for dressing leather, in oil tempering steel, -and as an illuminant. - -=Ambergris.= Ambergris is a solid, fatty, inflammable substance, dull -grey in colour, which occurs as a concretion in the intestines of sperm -whales. It is generally found floating in the sea or on the shore. It -is used in the perfume industry mixed with other perfumes. - -The development of the whaling industry in the south seas has led to -the industrial development of previously uninhabited islands. On South -Georgia, which was previously uninhabited, actual industrial villages -have been established. A church has been erected, and there are three -slips for cutting up the whales, two guano factories, reservoirs -for the oil, and houses for the staff. This Antarctic island has a -floating population of many hundreds of sailors and workmen. A doctor -resides there during the whaling season and, since 1908, the British -Government has established a post office in this polar land. In 1922 -the eyes of all the world were turned to this far-away land, the Gate -of the Antarctic, as the body of Sir Ernest Shackleton, the hero of the -Antarctic, was laid to rest there. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE CURING AND PRESERVATION OF FISH - - -The preservation of fishes for use as food long after they have -been caught is a matter of constantly increasing importance to the -prosperity of the fishing industry. In most other food supplying -industries the produce can be kept fresh for the market comparatively -easily. Dry grain will keep indefinitely; vegetables and fruits with -proper care will generally remain “fresh” long enough to reach distant -markets. Oxen, sheep and pigs may be transported to the market alive, -and then slaughtered as required. But a fish as soon as it is taken -from the water dies and speedily begins to decay. - -Fish, like other foodstuffs, whether animal or vegetable, decays as -a result of the growth in it and on it of certain micro-organisms -(bacteria, moulds). These micro-organisms swarm in the air and on -exposed surfaces all the world over. Generally speaking, they flourish -best at ordinary temperatures and in a moist environment. - -Foodstuffs can be preserved from decay only by preventing the growth -and development of these decay organisms. They can be killed outright -by any of the ordinary sterilizing processes such as exposure to -sufficient extremes of heat or cold, or by treatment with disinfectant -substances (germicides) such as carbolic acid or hypochlorites. -Clearly, however, foodstuffs cannot be preserved indefinitely by the -simple process of killing all the organisms that are resident on the -foodstuff at the time of treatment, for, as soon as the foodstuff is -exposed to the air, it will become infected afresh. - -They can be preserved— - -(1) By boiling, and packing immediately afterwards in air-free -containers. - -This process is, of course, the basis of the great meat packing -industry. The meat is packed in a tin, the tin and its contents are -heated in steam or boiling water until the meat is cooked and all the -decay organisms are destroyed. The tin is then sealed, air-free and -air-tight. - -(2) By freezing. - -Cold storage is a widely used method of preserving foodstuffs. The low -temperature prevents the growth and development of decay organisms and, -as long as the foodstuff is kept sufficiently cold, arrests decay. - -Prehistoric animals long extinct are sometimes found firmly embedded in -the Polar ice, as fresh as they were on the day they were drowned. - -It is found that the stability and subsequent quality of frozen meat or -fish depend directly upon the manner in which it has been frozen. It -may be frozen in air, or when immersed in brine. Of these two methods -the latter is much quicker, because brine is over twenty-five times -as good a conductor of heat as air is. During the slower air-freezing -process the quality of the flesh is impaired by the separation of the -contained water into comparatively large crystals of ice. This leads to -the displacement of the membrane and tissues of the meat, so that in -thawing again the meat drips and becomes tough. When immersed in brine -freezing occurs too rapidly for this separation of water to occur to -any marked extent. - -The keeping qualities of brine-frozen fish also are greater than those -of air-frozen fish, owing to the protecting coating of ice which -effectively prevents contact with bacteria or mould spores. - -(3) By drying. - -Primitive man preserved his meat by drying it in the sun, or in -the smoke of a fire. To-day the preparation of fish, dried fruits, -desiccated vegetables, etc., is a world-wide industry. - -Generally speaking, decay organisms can only develop in a moist -environment. All fresh foodstuffs contain a large proportion of water. -The removal of this water effectively checks decay. Drying alone, -however, does not always produce a permanent “cure,” as the foodstuff -is always liable to get moist again. For that reason it is customary to -combine the drying process with treatment with an antiseptic substance -such as salt. Smoke drying is better than sun drying, for although the -ultra-violet rays of the direct sunlight effectively kill bacteria and -mould spores wood smoke contains antiseptic substances with which the -meat becomes impregnated, so that even the chance of any subsequent -infection is greatly reduced. - -(4) By treating with an antiseptic substance such as salt. - -Antiseptic substances differ from disinfectant substances in that they -do not kill micro-organisms, but only arrest their development. - -As a rule, they are effective preserving agents, and do not make the -food poisonous or unpalatable. - -All these methods can be, and are, used for preserving fish, the method -most commonly used being treatment with salt. Fish, however, are often -kept in ice on board during a fishing trip and are then either packed -in ice for transit under special storage conditions (if required fresh) -or they are salted down. - -=Methods of Salting.= Different methods of salting are used, according -to the character of the fish and the locality. The fish are either -cleaned (split and gutted) or salted “round” (whole). In general, the -method used is one of the following— - -(1) DRY-SALTING. The fish are cleaned, rolled in dry salt, and packed -in layers in open casks. Each layer of fish is covered with a layer of -salt. - -(2) BRINE PICKLING. The fish are immersed in saturated brine, salt -being added from day to day to restore the strength of the brine as it -becomes weakened by the water which it extracts from the fish. - -(3) KENCHING. The fish, either split or round, are piled in layers in -the hold of the ship, or on the floor of the warehouse, each layer -being covered in turn with a layer of salt. The brine, as it forms, is -allowed to drain away. - -Of all these three methods, the first is undoubtedly more effective, -more economical, and requires less attention than the second. The -third method is often used on board ship and sometimes on shore as -a temporary expedient when the catch is too large for the number of -containers available. - -In the dry-salt method, the fish are packed tightly in the casks, and -are not afterwards disturbed. When cured they possess a characteristic -dry, shrunken appearance. - -Fish pickled in brine need attention every day. The brine has to be -closely watched so that it shall not become too weak. Fresh salt has to -be added daily, and the fish stirred up with wooden paddles to ensure -uniform pickling. - -Fish cured in this way are softer and more plump than those cured by -the dry-salting method. - -When a fish is packed in salt the salt rapidly extracts water from the -flesh and a strong brine results. - -The salt dissolves in the remaining flesh juices of the fish, and -rapidly diffuses throughout the fish, thoroughly permeating it. By this -process, therefore, the fish is partially dried and becomes thoroughly -impregnated with salt. - -The gradual change in the composition of the flesh is reflected in the -following analysis— - - ---------------------------------+--------+--------+------- - Sample. | % | % | % - | Water. | NaCl. | Fat. - ---------------------------------+--------+--------+------- - Fresh herring, ungutted | 67·33 | 0·63 | 13·78 - | | | - Herring lightly salted, before | | | - gutting | 66·33 | 1·27 | 12·11 - | | | - Herring from rousing tub, gutted | | | - and salted, ready to pack into | | | - barrel | 61·09 | 1·41 | 16·14 - | | | - Herring, after 7 days salted in | | | - barrel | 52·67 | 7·43 | 17·10 - | | | - Herring, after 8 days salted in | | | - barrel | 46·90 | 11·49 | 22·50 - ---------------------------------+--------+--------+------- - -The efficiency of the cure and the appearance of the finished product -will be influenced by the following factors— - - (_a_) The temperature—whether summer or winter; - (_b_) The freshness of the fish; - (_c_) The quality of the salt—its purity and grain; - (_d_) The quantity of salt used; - (_e_) The duration of the process. - -(_a_) _The Temperature._ As soon as a fish is dead, it commences to -decay. - -In hot weather, decay proceeds more rapidly and the interior portion -of the meat may become soured before the salt reaches it. Clearly, if -the rate at which the salt penetrates the fish is retarded by the salt -being impure, or of too fine a grain, or by the brine being too weak, -the probability of the fish being spoilt is very much increased. - -The dry salt method leads to a much quicker penetration of the fish -than the brine method, and should always be used in warm weather. - -(_b_) _The Freshness of the Fish._ The decay processes gather impetus -day by day. It is clear, therefore, that in order to avoid the -possibility of “souring,” the fish should be salted with the least -possible delay. - -(_c_) _The Quality of the Salt._ (1) _Its Purity._ The impurities -commonly present in Fishery Salt are the sulphates and chlorides of -calcium and magnesium. - -The following analysis show the composition of typical samples of -Fishery Salt. - - -----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - | German | | | | - Composition. | Rock |Italian.|Spanish.|French. |English. - | Salt. | | | | - -----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - | % | % | % | % | % - Salt (Sodium chloride) | 97·28 | 96·59 | 96·63 | 95·86 | 98·9 - | | | | | - Calcium chloride | -- | 0·32 | -- | 0·16 | -- - | | | | | - Magnesium chloride | 0·25 | 1·19 | 0·96 | 0·35 | 0·08 - | | | | | - Magnesium sulphate | -- | 1·75 | 0·73 | -- | -- - | | | | | - Sodium sulphate | 0·44 | -- | -- | -- | 0·04 - | | | | | - Sodium bicarbonate | 0·01 | -- | -- | -- | -- - | | | | | - Insoluble (Calcium | | | | | - sulphate, sand, etc.)| 2·02 | 0·15 | 1·68 | 3·63 | 0·98 - -----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 - +--------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - Moisture | 0·20 | 6·54 | 4·47 | 1·39 | 3·25 - -----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - -The Spanish and Italian salts are solar salts, obtained by evaporating -sea-water by the heat of the sun. Solar salt nearly always contains -more magnesium salts than brine salt does. This constitutes a serious -disadvantage to the fish curer. - -Of the calcium salts which occur as impurities in Fishery Salt, the -sulphate is practically insoluble in brine, and is probably without -action upon the salting process. - -Calcium chloride, on the other hand, resembles magnesium chloride and -is an undesirable constituent of Fishery Salt, for calcium chloride, -and to a lesser extent magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate, -diminish the rate at which the salt penetrates the fish. Curing will, -therefore, be delayed, and in warm weather (above 70°F.) this may -result in the souring of the fish. - -To obtain rapid and thorough curing, therefore, it is -necessary—especially in warm weather—to use salt which contains as -little calcium and magnesium salts as possible. - -Pure salt, used dry, produces a soft, yellow-meated fish which is -flexible in the hand. Salt containing calcium chloride or magnesium -chloride produces a harder and stiffer fish with a markedly whiter -colour. - -Salted fish can only be stored satisfactorily in a dry place. Fish -which has been cured with impure salt is hygroscopic and will run wet -in the store. - -This hygroscopic moisture weakens the preserving action of the salt. -Fish that has been cured with a pure salt will keep much drier under -ordinary storage conditions. - -(2) _Its Grain._ The crystals of Fishery Salt should be coarse and -hard. Coarse crystals dissolve slowly, and so produce a more gradual -cure than fine-grained salt does. Fine-grained salt extracts the water -so rapidly from the surface tissues that it coagulates them. This -retards the further penetration of the salt into the fish, so that the -fish has the appearance of being slack salted. - -=Round versus Cleaned Fish.= The thoroughness with which a cut fish is -cleaned and washed influences the temperature at which the fish can -be salted successfully, and materially affects the quality and taste -of the product. Tressler[1] has shown that the chief cause of fish -spoiling when salted in hot weather is the decomposition of the blood -which remains in the flesh. Even in cold weather, it is found that the -extra washing and cleaning greatly improve the quality of the fish. As -the presence of blood in the fish also leads to discolouration during -the salting process, a thoroughly cleaned and washed fish is, after -salting, much whiter in appearance and has a finer taste. - -Many fish are skinned before they are salted. It has been observed that -a skinned fish will cure almost twice as quickly as an unskinned fish. -This is because salt penetrates the meat of the fish at approximately -twice the rate at which it penetrates the skin. It is desirable, -therefore, particularly in hot climates, to skin the fish before -salting. This, of course, is only commercially practicable with certain -large kinds of fish such as cod. - -=The Reddening of Salted Fish.= Salted fish sometimes undergo a change, -either during the salting process if improperly carried out, or more -generally in the store, which is characterized by the development -on the surface of the fish of irregular red and brown patches. This -reddening occurs not only on the fish, but also on the floors and walls -of the curing factories, on the sides and decks of fishing boats, and -even on the salt itself. It occurs most readily in warm weather. - -The reddening has been shown to be due to the growth of a -micro-organism (a micro-coccus). With this micro-coccus are generally -associated a bacillus and a micro-fungus which produce the brown mould -on the fish. - -Fish become infected with these micro-organisms by contact with boats -or docks or warehouses. - -Every precaution should be taken to keep such places clean and properly -disinfected. - -The “rusting” of fatty fish, e.g. herring, is due to the oxidation of -certain free, fatty acids split off from the fats by enzyme action. - -[Footnote 1: U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Document No. 884 (1920).] - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE FOOD VALUE OF FISH - - -With few exceptions, the different species of fishes that are caught -industrially are important because of their food value. - -Some fishes are unsuitable for food because they have an unattractive -taste; others are directly poisonous. Thus, in the Japanese fish of the -genus tetrodon, the roe is poisonous, although the remainder of the -fish is edible. Some fishes are poisonous during the spawning season. -Others are provided with a special poison gland connected with special -spines or barbs. In edible fishes, given the suitable conditions, -poisons may be formed by bacterial activity in the flesh of the fish. -Poisons so formed give rise to the kind of fish poisoning known as -botulism. Cases of botulism have resulted from eating canned salmon and -sardines that have become spoiled. In some cases, bacteria present in a -diseased fish may produce poisonous substances in the body of the fish. -Bacillus paratyphosus has been isolated from some poisonous fish, and -certain poison-producing bacteria have been found in others.[2] - -Certain shellfish are notoriously liable to be poisonous. The exact -nature of the microbes concerned in the production of poisonous -substances in shellfish is at present unknown; it is clear, however, -that such poisonous substances may be produced in shellfish in three -ways— - -(1) Microbes of various infectious diseases, such as typhoid fever, may -be absorbed by the shellfish from sewage. - -(2) The shellfish may be diseased, or be seriously contaminated, by -living in dirty water. - -(3) Decomposition may set in after the shellfish have been removed from -the water—particularly if they have been kept too long in a warm place. - -It has been found recently that shellfish that have been deliberately -fattened on sewage can be effectively cleansed in such a way as to -get rid of ingested sewage bacteria. This process has been carried -out successfully on a commercial scale at Conway by the Ministry of -Agriculture and Fisheries. Danger from infected shellfish may also be -safely avoided by boiling them. When shellfish are gathered at the -right season of the year and from suitable localities, they are a -perfectly safe and wholesome food. - -Of the many species of edible fishes that are known and used, the -number is by no means complete, and new species are added from time to -time. Thus, in 1916, the United States Bureau of Fisheries introduced -a new edible fish (_Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps_), which they -christened the tile fish. After this fishery had been in existence for -twelve months, the known catch of tile fish amounted to over 10,000,000 -lbs., valued at more than $400,000. In 1917, the same Bureau introduced -the dog-fish under a new name. As people were prejudiced against the -name “dog fish,” the Bureau altered it to “gray fish,” “which is -descriptive, not preoccupied, and altogether unobjectionable.” The -fish is now caught in large numbers, and forms the basis of a very -flourishing canning industry. Attempts have been made recently to -utilize as food the edible portions of the shark (which is closely -related to the dog fish) and the porpoise. - -The food value of most fishes varies very much according to the -condition of the fish when it is caught—that is whether it is spawning -or not. Further, it may be considerably modified by the changes that -take place subsequently in the composition of the flesh during the -processes of curing, cooking or preserving. - -Generally speaking, all marine fish annually pass through a well-marked -series of seasonal changes, the stages of which appear to depend upon -changes in the temperature, salinity and alkalinity of the sea. These -changes are directly connected with the development of roe and milt, -with the fluctuation in the percentage of oil and fat in the liver -and body tissues, and also with the rate of growth. Thus the chemical -composition of the fish, and hence its food value, varies greatly -according to the season at which it is caught. - -Norwegian brisling (“Skipper Sardines”) are caught in the summer just -before spawning time. At this time the fat content is high; in winter -the fat content is low, and the fish possesses small commercial value. - -The gradual change in the composition and food value (in calories per -pound) of the herring as spawning time approaches is well shown in -Table III. (Prof. J. Johnstone, Trans., Liverpool Biolog. Soc., Vol. -xxxiii (1919), p. 106.) - - -TABLE III - -MANX SUMMER HERRINGS, 1916 - -COMPOSITION OF THE FLESH OF THE FISH: MONTHLY MEANS - - ------+----------+------+-------+--------+------+------+------- - Date.|Condition.|Water.|Oil and|Proteid.| Ash. |Total.| Food - | | | Fat. | | | | Value. - ------+----------+------+-------+--------+------+------+------- - May |Empty | 75·0 | 2·5 | 21·1 | 2·3 |100·9 | 1,100 - June |Filling | 66·1 | 11·4 | 18·6 | 2·0 | 98·1 | 1,806 - July |Filling | 55·8 | 21·6 | 18·4 | 2·3 | 98·1 | 2,762 - August|Half full | 48·4 | 31·5 | 16·5 | 2·3 | 98·7 | 3,608 - Sept. |Full | 51·9 | 25·2 | 17·3 | 2·6 | 97·0 | 3,050 - ------+----------+------+-------+--------+------+------+------- - -The herrings are caught in September when they assemble in shoals for -the purpose of spawning. They are thus most easily caught at the time -when their food value is at a maximum. - -The flesh of clupeoid fish—herrings, sprats, pilchards, -sardines—contains a quantity of oil disseminated throughout the flesh -in the form of fine globules. From the above table it will be seen that -the percentage of oil in the flesh of the herring may be as low as 2·5 -per cent in May, and as much as 31·5 per cent in August. In summer the -adipose tissue forms two distinct layers, one situated just below the -skin, the other being parallel to the first, but separated from it by -a layer of muscular tissue. In winter the oil content becomes so small -that these layers of adipose tissue disappear. A comparatively small -amount of oil is contained in the liver of the fish. - -In gadoid fishes, e.g. cod, as well as in skates and rays, the oil is -almost entirely confined to the liver. During the summer the liver -grows larger and richer in oil, until sometimes the oil amounts to -more than half the total weight of the liver. (When cod are caught the -livers are removed and kept apart, to be treated subsequently for their -oil.) The percentage of oil in the flesh of the cod varies from 0·1 per -cent to 1·0 per cent. Unlike that of the herring, therefore, the food -value of the flesh of the cod does not fluctuate markedly according to -the season. - -When fish are dry-salted a certain proportion of the proteins and -mineral salts in the flesh is extracted by the brine pickle that is -formed. In Russia and Poland, where the greater proportion of salted -herrings are consumed, the peasants eat them without further cooking, -and also consume the pickle. - -A great gain in food value per pound results from the removal of -so much water from the flesh of the fish. Freshly caught cod flesh -contains about 80 per cent water and 17 per cent protein; after being -dry-salted for export it contains about 25 per cent of water and 55 per -cent protein. - -Thus, 1 lb. of dry cod is equal in food value to about 3 lbs. of fresh -cod. The increased food value of salted fish will be seen from the -following analyses— - - -THE EFFECT OF CURING AND DRYING UPON THE FOOD VALUE OF DIFFERENT FISHES - - -----------------+--------+------+-------------+-----+------+------- - Food. |Protein.| Fat. |Carbohydrate.| Ash.|Water.|Food - | | | | | |Value. - -----------------+--------+------+-------------+-----+------+------- - | | | | | | Cal. - | | | | | |per lb. - Haddock (fresh) | 12·0 | 0·2 | — | 0·9 | 51·6 | 232 - „ (smoked) | 14·9 | 0·2 | — | 3·4 | 57·4 | 286 - Herring (fresh) | 14·0 | 10·4 | — | 1·5 | 45·7 | 699 - „ (salted) | 21·2 | 15·4 | — | 7·7 | 30·9 | 944 - „ (bloater)| 15·7 | 9·6 | — | 1·5 | 52·0 | 697 - „ (kipper) | 14·1 | 11·1 | — | 3·4 | 46·9 | 730 - Sprats (fresh) | 12·6 | 10·7 | — | 1·3 | 49·4 | 686 - „ (smoked) | 21·2 | 14·9 | — | 3·2 | 39·4 |1,023 - -----------------+--------+------+-------------+-----+------+------- - -Thus, the food value of salted sprats or herrings per pound is 50 per -cent more than that of the same fish when fresh. - -The original food value of a fish is generally diminished by the -cooking process. The fish may be boiled or broiled for direct -consumption, or it may be steam cooked in cans and sealed up for future -consumption, as in the canning industry. When oily fishes, such as -herrings, are cooked, the oil globules burst and some of the oil is -lost, and the food value of the fish becomes correspondingly less. When -salted fish is soaked in fresh water before being cooked, some of the -gelatin and other coagulable proteins are extracted from the flesh. -This loss of protein can be checked either by broiling the fish, when -the protein near the surface becomes coagulated and so prevents the -loss of protein from the interior of the fish, or by placing the fish -that is to be boiled direct into boiling water, and not into the cold -water before the heating has begun. - -In addition to this diminution of the food content of the fish, the -process of cooking, contrary to general expectation, also diminishes -slightly its digestibility. - -In the canning process the fish to be canned are cleaned (gutted) -and boned, and packed into tins, together with the necessary sauce -or seasoning. The tins are then closed, a small hole being left -temporarily in the lid. The tins are placed on steam-heated racks, and -the contents thoroughly cooked. In this way the contents are sterilized -as well as cooked, and the air originally present in the tin is all -driven out by the steam through the small hole in the lid. This hole is -sealed with a spot of solder while the contents of the tin are still -at boiling point. The tin and its contents are allowed to cool down, -and are dispatched to the store-room. During storage the contents of -the sealed tin gradually “mature.” This maturing process may last from -six months to ten years. During this period the bones soften, the flesh -becomes soft and pasty, and the taste becomes richer. The precise -nature of the changes that take place during this maturing process is -not fully understood; probably maturing is partly due to the action of -certain enzymes in the flesh of the fish, and partly to the slow but -continuous chemical action of the various juices present in the tin. -Attempts to pickle herrings from the Zuyder Zee have been unsuccessful -owing to a lack of the enzyme action that makes other herrings tender -when pickled. The enzyme, although present, is apparently rendered -inactive by the presence of an anti-enzyme. - -The last, but by no means the least, important factor to be considered -in estimating the food value of any particular fish is its retail -price. The price of the different kinds of fishes is by no means -proportional to their individual food values. It is determined -primarily by the abundance or otherwise of the available supply of each -individual species. Thus, the various pelagic fish—mackerel, herring, -sprat—that are easily caught in enormous quantities at certain seasons -of the year are by far the most valuable. Of trawl-caught fish, cod -and whiting are more plentiful and are, therefore, cheaper than hake, -although, again, the cheaper fish has the greater food value. - -In some cases certain fish, although fairly abundant, are in poor -demand owing to some prejudice on the part of the public, and are -generally sold in poorer districts, or to the fried fish trade, at a -disproportionately low price, for example skate, dog-fish, angler fish, -john dory. - -Taste and appearance also contribute to the popularity and, therefore, -indirectly to the retail price of fish, such as the sole and the salmon. - -In Table IV the present retail prices (Sept., 1921) and the food values -of a number of different fishes are compared. From these figures, the -actual food value per shillingsworth of each fish has been calculated. - -The cheapest fish, therefore, are also those possessing the greatest -food value, e.g. the herring in all its forms, dried cod and ling, and -mackerel. These compare favourably both in cost and food value with -meat, such as beef and mutton. - - -TABLE IV - -FOOD VALUE PER SHILLINGSWORTH OF DIFFERENT FISHES - - -----------------+--------+------------+---------- - | | Retail |Food Value - Fish. | Food | Price | per - | Value. | Sept. 1921 |Shilling. - -----------------+--------+------------+---------- - | Cals. | per lb. | - | per lb.| _s._ _d._ | - Halibut (cuts) | 258 | 2 3 | 115 - Sole | 346 | 2 6 | 138 - Turbot | 270 | 1 6 | 180 - Brill | 327 | 1 8 | 196 - Haddock | 232 | 1 2 | 198 - Hake | 256 | 1 3 | 204 - Smoked haddock | 286 | 1 3 | 228 - Plaice | 367 | 1 6 | 244 - Cod (section) | 296 | 1 1 | 252 - Whiting | 215 | - 10 | 258 - Salmon (section) | 847 | 3 - | 282 - Eels | 799 | 1 10 | 436 - Dried ling | 560 | 1 - | 560 - Mackerel | 515 | - 10 | 618 - Dried cod | 750 | 1 - | 750 - Kippered herring | 730 | - 9 | 972 - Herring | 709 | - 8 | 1062 - Bloaters | 715 | - 8 | 1072 - Red herrings | 1220 | - 8 | 1830 - Salt herrings | 1129 | - 5 | 2712 - -----------------+--------+------------+---------- - -Finally, the popularity or otherwise of any foodstuff necessarily -depends upon its flavour. Fishes differ greatly in this respect. In -many cases the flavour of a fish can be seriously impaired by an -unsuitable method of cooking. A full-flavoured fish like the mackerel -lends itself to a variety of methods of cooking, equally good results -being obtained by baking, grilling, frying in fillets or boiling. The -plaice, sole, ling, hake, mullet, and turbot are essentially fish for -frying, while cod, haddock and whiting are best boiled. To prepare a -fish for the table requires considerable skill, but it is an art that, -once acquired, can be used to render even what are regarded as inferior -varieties both wholesome and palatable. In this country, fishes have -long been a neglected form of food. They have a high food value, they -are easily digestible, and are cheap and plentiful. - -It has been shown recently that edible fish contain vitamins. Vitamins -are complex chemical compounds of hitherto unknown composition, and -of little understood properties, that occur in minute quantities in -a great variety of natural food stuffs. These vitamins appear to -be essential to healthy animal existence. Without them, the body -rapidly becomes attacked by certain diseases, e.g. rickets, beri-beri, -scurvy, and unless this deficiency of the diet is corrected, death -soon follows. Three different vitamins have been discovered, known as -vitamins A, B, and C. Vitamin A is contained in the oily part of most -fish, while Vitamin B is present in certain fish roes. - -[Footnote 2: Marshall, _Microbiology_.] - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -FISH PRODUCTS - - -The industrial value and importance of fishes is by no means limited -to their use as food. They yield large quantities of valuable oil. The -fish waste, or offal, chiefly heads, skins, bones and viscera—that -is discarded by the fish curer, is worked up to yield fish glue, -fertilizers and cattle food. The skins of certain large fishes, for -example the shark, are tanned and manufactured into a valuable leather. - -The story of the fishing industry would not be complete without a brief -description of the methods by which these products are manufactured. - -=Fish Oils.= The various kinds of oil that are obtained from different -species of fish and other marine animals, such as whales and seals, may -be divided into three classes, according to the part of the fish from -which they are extracted. - -(1) Fish oils proper are disseminated throughout the flesh of the fish -in the form of fine globules. They are extracted from the entire fish, -e.g. herring, sardine, sprat, menhaden. - -(2) Liver oils are located in the fish liver, e.g. cod, shark. - -(3) Blubber oils constitute a thick layer of adipose tissue just under -the skin of the marine mammalia, e.g. whale, seal, dolphin, porpoise. - -In oily fish, such as herrings and sprats, each minute globule of oil -is enclosed within a thin skin. It is practically impossible to rupture -this skin and liberate the oil simply by the application of pressure. -When, however, these globules are heated the skin shrivels, the oil -globules expand and burst the skin, and the liquid oil is liberated and -can then be extracted from the flesh by pressure. To obtain the oil, -therefore, the fish are boiled or steam heated in large vats until the -oil is set free. The hot mass is then placed in a press and the oil -squeezed out. The residue is made into cattle food and fertilizer. - -In obtaining the best sorts of liver oils, e.g. codliver oil, the -livers are taken from the fish as soon as they are caught, and are -heated in steam-jacketed vessels until the cell membranes burst and the -oil exudes. The oil is then separated by pressure. - -Inferior qualities of oil are obtained by treating putrid livers in the -same way at the end of the voyage. These tainted liver oils are unfit -for medicinal purposes, but are used in large quantities in the leather -industry. - -Blubber (which is from 8 to 20 ins. thick) is stripped from the whale -as soon after capture as possible. Generally the dead whale is made -fast alongside the whaler, a deep, spiral cut is made round its body, -and the blubber is stripped off and hauled aboard. This is then cut -into pieces, chopped up in mincing machines and fed into melting -pans and heated with steam, often under pressure. The oil gradually -exudes and collects upon the water, the cell membranes, etc.—the -greaves—settling to the bottom. At the conclusion of the boil, the oil -is drawn off from above the aqueous (gluey) layer, and is clarified by -straining through sieves or filters. The “greaves” is placed in hair -or woollen bags and submitted to hydraulic pressure, by which means a -further quantity of oil is obtained. - -Fish oils, unless specially purified for medicinal purposes, are -dark-coloured liquids, with a characteristic, unpleasant, fishy smell, -due to the presence of small quantities of fishy decomposition -products, for example trimethylamine. - -When cooled, many samples of fish oil deposit solid masses of fish -tallow (fish stearine). - -Fish oils, and, to a less extent, the marine animal oils, e.g. whale, -seal, porpoise, are drying oils like linseed oil, that is they possess -to a very marked degree a capacity for absorbing oxygen from the air, -and so become thickened and viscous. This thickening is generally -induced by blowing air through the warm oil. Oils that have been -thickened in this way are known as “blown” oils. - -Blown fish oils are mixed with mineral oils for use as lubricants for -heavy machinery. They have been used as vehicles for paints in place -of linseed oil, but with somewhat disappointing results. They are used -successfully in place of linseed oil in the manufacture of printers’ -ink, and in making paints for painting smoke stacks. Such paints resist -successfully the action of heat and light. - -More particularly, they are used in the leather industry. Fish oils are -used chiefly in the manufacture of chamois leather. Ordinary chamois -or wash-leather is made from the flesh-splits of sheep skins. The skin -is well washed and softened, and freed from hair by treatment with -lime. It is then split, and the loose and fatty middle layer removed -by a sharp knife. The lime is removed by a short bran-drench and the -superfluous moisture is pressed out. The skin is thus rendered porous -and easily able to absorb the oil. It is stretched on a table and oiled -with fish or whale oil. The oiled skin is folded up and worked for two -or three hours in the faller stocks and then shaken out and hung up -for a short time to cool and partially dry. The process is repeated a -number of times, until all the water originally present in the skin -has been replaced by oil. The oiled skins are then piled in a warm -place. The oil gradually oxidizes—probably owing to some fermentation -process—and the skins become yellow and very hot. From time to time the -skins are strewn on the floor to cool and then re-piled, the process -being repeated until the oxidation of the oil is complete. In France -the freshly-oiled skins are hung in hot stoves, and the oxidation of -the oil is completed in one operation. - -The skins are then dipped in water and passed through hydraulic -presses, by which the surplus oil is removed. This surplus thick, -oxidized oil is known as “degras” or “moellon,” and is used for -stuffing leathers that have already been tanned. Stuffed leathers are -supple and impervious to water, and are used for harness, belting, -etc. A further quantity of oil may be removed from the “chamoised” -leather by treating it with potash or carbonate of soda, “sod” oil -being recovered from the extract by neutralization with sulphuric acid. -The value of sod oil for oiling dressed leather is due to a resinous -acid of unknown composition, that is soluble in alkali but insoluble in -petroleum ether. - -Enamel or patent leather is generally coated, after tanning, with -a linseed oil varnish, boiled with prussian blue, and dried in a -steam heated chest at 70° to 80°C., the process being repeated -until a sufficiently thick coat is produced. Fish oils are now used -successfully in place of linseed oil. The enamel leather produced, -although not quite so glossy as that made with linseed oil, is said to -be more pliable. - -Fish oils are also employed in the manufacture of such closely-related, -although happily diverse, substances as soap and margarine. All -animal and vegetable fats and oils are essentially compounds of -glycerine, with one or other of three acids: palmitic, stearic and -oleic. Palmitic and stearic acids and their compounds are solids at -the ordinary temperature, whereas oleic acid and its compounds are -liquid. This difference appears to be connected in some way with the -molecular structure of these substances. When oleic acid is heated -with hydrogen gas under pressure, in the presence of finely-divided -nickel, it absorbs hydrogen and is transformed into stearic acid. Oleic -acid, therefore, is said to be unsaturated with respect to hydrogen, -whereas stearic acid is called a saturated acid. This process, whereby -a liquid oil is transformed into a solid fat, is called hydrogenation, -or hardening. - -Both the margarine industry and the soap industry require large -quantities of hard fats. Originally the soap industry absorbed the -available supplies of hard animal fats such as beef suet, hog’s lard, -and mutton suet. The margarine industry depended upon these same -supplies of animal fats, and the rapid growth in the production of -margarine during recent years has seriously diminished the supply of -hard fats necessary for the manufacture of soap. - -The hydrogenation of whale oil and various fish oils has now made -it possible to supply this demand, and has also made possible the -industrial utilization of substances, such as fish oils, for which -formerly comparatively little use could be found. - -Hardened whale oil melts at 40° to 50°C., and is a white solid entirely -devoid of taste or smell. It is used for making soap, and as a lard -substitute for cooking purposes. - -=Fish Glue.= Fish glue is the most important liquid glue on the market. -The bulk of the fish glue manufactured to-day is made from the waste -and offal that are discarded by the curers. This waste consists of -heads, bones, viscera and skins. The best glue is obtained from the -skins of non-oily, demersal fish, for example cod, haddock, soles, -plaice and hake. - -The waste is washed in running water to free it from salt. Sometimes -the waste—particularly the heads—is decomposed with hydrochloric -acid and afterwards neutralized with lime. It is then charged into a -cooker provided with a perforated, false bottom. The stock is covered -with water and heated with steam. The glue is extracted and gradually -concentrates in the water. When this glue liquor is sufficiently -concentrated (from 5 to 6 per cent), it is run off (the first run) and -more water is added to the waste and the cooking continued. After about -10 hours cooking, nearly all the glue has been extracted and the liquor -is again run off (the second run). The cooked waste is then withdrawn, -and any remaining glue liquor is pressed out of it and added to the -second run. From 2 to 4 per cent of phenol or boric acid are added to -prevent decomposition by bacteria. - -The glue liquor is evaporated down to a concentration of 32 per cent in -open vats or closed evaporators, and is bleached with sulphurous acid. -A small amount of some essential oil, e.g. cassia, clove, wintergreen, -is added to check mould growth and mask the fishy odour. Glue is also -made in a similar way from the “greaves” obtained from whale blubber. - -Fish glue is manufactured in three grades. - -GRADE I is made from skins, only the first run being used. It is used -for photo-engraving work, for the production of half-tone plates. - -GRADE II is made from second run skin liquors and fish waste. It is -sold in small cans and bottles for general repair work. - -GRADE III is prepared from fish heads, and is sold in large cans and -barrels for sizing, box making, cabinet making, and general joiner -work. - -The glue is sometimes made more flexible by the addition of glycerine -and glucose. The flexibility of fish glue makes it useful for the -manufacture of court plaster, labels, stamps, and in book-binding. - -The residue from the press is dried and sold as chicken feed or -fertilizer. For the latter purpose it is frequently mixed with -Carnallite. - -=Fish Gelatine.= Fish gelatine or isinglass is obtained from the -swimming bladder of the sturgeon and also of the cod. The bladders are -exported, either opened (pipe isinglass) or washed, split open and -dried (purse, lump or leaf isinglass). - -Isinglass is the purified and dried inner skin of the bladder. It has -but feeble adhesive power. It is used for clarifying wines, ciders and -beers, and for making jellies and plasters. - -=Fertilizers.= In many places near the sea, fish are employed whole as -manure. Sprats particularly are caught in large numbers and distributed -over the fields, and left to decompose. Fresh sprats contain 63·7 per -cent of water, 1·94 per cent nitrogen, 2·1 per cent ash (0·43 potash -and 0·90 phosphoric acid). - -Fish guano or fish manure is generally prepared from the fish waste -discarded by the curer. An average sample of this manufactured fish -manure will contain 12 per cent water, 60 per cent organic matter, -yielding 10 per cent ammonia, 16 per cent of calcium phosphate, and a -residue of salt, sand, magnesia and potash, the amount of potash being -inconsiderable. Fish guano is mainly valuable as a source of ammonia, -the ammonia content ranging from 6 to 11 per cent, according to the -kind of fish used and its previous history, e.g. whether fresh or -salted. - -In many places, such as London, the fish offal from the shops and -restaurants is collected, dried and ground up for use as manure. -In Germany in 1918 herrings’ heads were removed by the curers to be -utilized for the production of oil, albumen, and phosphate of lime. -The herring meal contained up to 50 per cent of albumen and calcium -phosphate, the latter being obtained from the bones and heads. The -albumen was extracted chemically and prepared for human consumption. -The oil was extracted with benzol or other solvents, and, after -hardening, was used in the manufacture of butter substitutes. Fish -waste or offal is fed into a continuous cooker. This cooker consists -essentially of a long, cylindrical vessel, through which runs a hollow -steel shaft on which are mounted perforated radial vanes in such a way -that the whole arrangement forms a spiral conveyor. By means of the -hollow shaft and vanes, steam is blown into the mass of fish waste as -it travels slowly through the vessel, so that it is completely cooked -and disintegrated by the time that it emerges at the other end. - -The cooked mass is then fed into a press in which a screw conveyor -urges it through a gradually tapering cylinder with perforated sides. -In this way the oil is extracted from it, and it is then dried and -disintegrated by a rotary drier. - -There is always a little residual oil in fish manure that tends to -delay its decomposition in the soil. It is important, therefore, that -the oil be removed as completely as possible. - -Dry fish manure requires careful storing, as the presence of this small -amount of oxidizable oil tends to promote spontaneous combustion. - -In addition to its value as a fertilizer, the high content of protein -(albumen)—namely, 50 per cent—makes fish meal a suitable food for -live-stock and poultry. - -The commercial importance of this industry will be realized when we -remember that practically half of the total catch of fish in the world -is discarded by the curers as waste. - -=Fish Leather.= The hides of such marine mammals as the walrus and the -seal have long formed the basis of a regular tanning industry. - -Of recent years, however, particularly in America, successful attempts -have been made to tan the skins of certain fish, notably the shark. The -skins are treated with alkali to remove fat and oil, the alkali is then -neutralized with acid, after which the skins are washed and tanned. The -leather is said to be soft and pliable, and well adapted for many uses. - -Shark skins are also tanned hard, and used to print a grain on -imitation pigskin. - -Shark fishing was commenced off the American coast in October, 1918. -The fish are hunted from fast, powerful motor boats, with specially -constructed nets. A small shark 5 ft. long will yield a hide 10 sq. ft. -in area. - -Shark skin is naturally very tough and durable, and in its untanned -condition is used by jewellers as a natural emery paper for grinding -and polishing metal surfaces. It is also used as an abrasive in working -hard woods and ivory. - -A method has been devised by which a shark skin can be split into -three. The first split, after tanning, is strong and thick, and -suitable for high grade, heavy shoes. The second furnishes leather -suitable for second grade foot wear, and the third resembles suede and -is used in making fancy articles. In addition to the shark’s skin, -the fins, blood, teeth, flesh, and oil of the fish are also utilized -commercially and yield a satisfactory profit. - - - - -INDEX - - - Ambergris, 106 - - Anadromous fish, 38 - - Angler (devil) fish, 18, 32 - - - Beam trawl, 46, 77, 86 - - Berried lobsters, etc., 35 - - Bivalve, 94 - - Black (southern right) whale, 100, 102 - - Bloater, 60, 66 - - Blue whale, 104 - - Brill, 24, 31, 78 - - Brine pickling, 5, 110 - - - Cachalot (sperm) whale, 100, 104 - - Canning of fish, 92, 93, 108, 120 - - Capelan, 70, 100 - - Cast net, 52 - - Cat-fish, 16 - - Clams, 73 - - Cockle, 25, 27, 53, 74, 90, 93 - - Cod, 2, 19, 21, 22, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37, 43, 48, 69, 78, 86, 89 - - —— fishing, 69-76 - - —— liver oil, 69, 76 - - Cold storage, 108 - - Cooking of fish, 122 - - Copepoda, 27, 30, 36, 90 - - Crab, 25, 35, 52, 90 - - Cran, 58, 64 - - Crustacea, 25, 27, 30, 31, 36, 90, 102 - - Cutter, 77 - - - Demersal fish, 19, 21, 31, 89 - - Diatom, 28, 90, 96 - - Distribution of fishes, 18-27 - - Dog-fish, 31, 32, 34, 35, 116 - - —— whelk, 94, 96 - - Dolphin, 24 - - Dory fishing, 70 - - Drifter, 10, 50, 56 - - Drifting, 50, 56-8, 88 - - Drift net, 50, 56, 77 - - Drying of fish, 75, 108 - - - Eel, 16, 38, 44 - - Eggs of fishes, 27, 28, 32, 34, 35, 69, 90 - - - Fin whale, 104 - - Fish fertilizer, 4, 62, 76, 130 - - —— glue, 4, 76, 128 - - —— hatching, 3, 4, 92 - - —— leather, 4, 132 - - —— meal, 4 - - —— oil, 4, 76, 124-8 - - Fishery salt, 112-114 - - Fishing grounds, 10, 30, 69, 80-81, 83 - - —— traps, 42 - - —— weirs, 42 - - Fixed engines, 43 - - Flake drying, 75 - - Flounder, 16, 19, 22, 32, 39 - - Food of fishes, 25, 27, 30, 31, 69, 94 - - —— value of fish, 37, 54, 115 - - - Gills, 16, 24, 25, 31, 94, 95 - - Grampus whale, 24, 104 - - Grayfish, 116 - - Greenland (Arctic right) whale, 99, 102 - - Gutting fish, 72, 113 - - - Haddock, 2, 19, 22, 31, 32, 34, 37, 48, 70, 78, 86, 119 - - Hake, 22, 31, 70, 78 - - Halibut, 22, 48, 89 - - Harpoon, 42, 102, 104 - - Herring, 19, 24, 27, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 50, 54, 55, 70, 74, 89, - 91, 100, 111, 117, 119 - - —— fishing, 5, 9, 14, 48, 50, 54, 60, 67, 68, 88 - - Hose net, 44 - - Humpback whale, 104 - - - Ice, 83 - - Immature fish, 3, 52, 86, 88 - - Incubation period of fish eggs, 35 - - Inshore fisheries, 11-13, 15, 50 - - Isinglass, 69, 130 - - - Jelly fish, 28, 30, 77 - - - Katadromous fish, 38 - - Kenching, 72, 110 - - Kipper, 60, 66 - - - Larvae of fishes, 27, 30, 34, 35, 36, 38, 91 - - ”Last” of herrings, 58 - - Limpet, 94 - - Line fishing, 42, 43, 70-72, 73, 74, 78 - - Ling, 22, 31, 32, 78 - - Littoral fishes, 21 - - Lobster, 25, 35, 52, 90-92 - - Lobster pots (creels), 42, 91 - - - Mackerel, 18, 25, 27, 30, 31, 39, 44, 50, 89 - - Mesh of nets, 47, 52, 86, 88 - - Migration of fishes, 36-40 - - Mollusca, 25, 27, 30, 31, 36, 90, 93, 94 - - Mullet, 19 - - Mussel, 25, 27, 35, 53, 90, 93, 97-98 - - - Nets, 43 - - - Otter trawl, 48, 81 - - Overday herrings, 60, 66 - - Overfishing, 3, 11, 80, 84, 86, 91, 96 - - Oyster, 25, 27, 35, 90, 93, 94-97 - - —— culture, 95-97 - - - Pelagic fishes, 24, 30, 31, 89 - - Periwinkle, 25, 35, 53, 94 - - Phosphorescence, 18, 40, 41 - - Pilchard, 25, 31, 44 - - Plaice, 2, 16, 19, 22, 25, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 44, 46, 48, - 78, 86, 89 - - Plankton, 24, 27, 28-31, 33, 35, 36, 40, 69, 90, 94, 100 - - Poke net, 44 - - Porpoise, 24, 99 - - Prawn, 25, 30, 35, 90 - - Preservation of fish, 15, 107 (_See also_ canning, drying, salting.) - - Productivity of the sea, 28 - - Purse net, 44 - - —— seine, 44 - - Push net, 52 - - Red herring, 60, 64 - - Reddening of salted fish, 114 - - Reproduction of fishes, 32, 95, 102 - - Rorqual whale, 100, 102, 104 - - - Salmon, 19, 31, 38 - - Salt herring, 60 - - Salting of fish, 5, 6, 62-64, 72, 74, 109 - - Seal, 99 - - Sei whale, 104 - - Seine, 44 - - Shad, 4, 19, 38 - - Shark, 4, 16, 19, 24, 32, 34, 43, 132 - - Shellfish, 90-99 - - Shrimp, 25, 30, 35, 52, 86, 90, 92, 93 - - Skate (ray), 6, 22, 24, 32, 34, 78 - - Skin of fishes, 4, 16, 132 - - Smack, 9, 46, 77 - - Smoking of fish, 64, 65, 66 - - Sole, 2, 16, 19, 22, 31, 32, 78, 86, 89 - - Spawning of fishes, 19, 24, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 50, 54-55, 90, - 95, 117 - - Spermaceti, 102, 106 - - Sperm oil, 102, 104, 106 - - Sperm whale, 100, 104 - - Sprat, 25, 27, 50, 91, 119 - - Squid, 70 - - Stake net, 43 - - Starfish, 50, 96 - - Steam fishing, 9, 78, 80, 84 - - Steam trawler, 10, 77, 81 - - Stickleback, 19, 35 - - Sturgeon, 16 - - - Tile fish, 116 - - Trawl (line fishing), 71 - - —— net (_See_ beam trawl, otter trawl.) - - —— —— (shrimps), 2, 52, 93 - - Trawling, 2, 3, 9, 10, 46, 77-89 - - —— for herrings, 88-89 - - Tunny, 24 - - Turbot, 24, 31, 32, 78, 89 - - - Univalve, 94 - - - Vitamins, 123 - - - Walrus, 99 - - War service of fishermen, 84 - - Whale, 24, 99 - - —— bone, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105 - - —— fisheries, 99 - - —— oil (blubber), 103, 104, 105 - - Whaler, 103 - - Whaling, 103 - - Whelk, 94 - - Whiting, 22, 31, 34, 52, 78, 86 - - -_Printed in Bath, England, by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd._ - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Fishing Industry, by W. 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