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- clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - text-align: left; - font-size: 0.8em; - line-height: 1.51; - border: medium #ddd solid; - padding-bottom: .2em; - padding-top: .2em; - padding-left: .5em; - padding-right: .5em; -} - -@media handheld {.sidenote { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - text-align: left; - font-size: 0.8em; - line-height: 1.51; - border: medium #ddd solid; - padding-bottom: .2em; - padding-top: .2em; - padding-left: .5em; - padding-right: .5em; -}} - -.caption {text-align: center; font-weight: normal; padding-top: .5em; font-size: .8em;} - -.bb {border-bottom: solid 1px; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em;} - -.bl {border-left: solid 1px;} - -.bt {border-top: solid 1px;} - -.br {border-right: solid 1px;} - -@media handheld {.bb {border-bottom: solid 1px; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em;}} - -@media handheld {.bl {border-left: solid 1px;}} - -@media handheld {.bt {border-top: solid 1px;}} - -@media handheld {.br {border-right: solid 1px;}} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.u {text-decoration: underline;} - -.gesperrt -{ - letter-spacing: 0.2em; - margin-right: -0.2em; -} - -em.gesperrt -{ - font-style: normal; -} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; /* no image to be wider than screen or containing div */ - height:auto; /* keep height in proportion to width */ -} -.figcenter {padding-top: 1em; - margin: auto; max-width: 100%; - text-align: center; -} - -/* Footnotes */ - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poem { - margin-left:10%; - margin-right:10%; - text-align: left; -} - -.poem br {display: none;} - -.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pygmies and Papuans, by A. F. R. Wollaston - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Pygmies and Papuans - The Stone Age To-day in Dutch New Guinea - -Author: A. F. R. Wollaston - -Release Date: October 27, 2016 [EBook #53384] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PYGMIES AND PAPUANS *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Turgut Dincer and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f" id="f"> -<img src="images/i_f02.jpg" width="500" height="781" alt="A TAPIRO PYGMY." /></a> -<p class="caption">A TAPIRO PYGMY.</p> -<p class="right f08 padr2">[<i>Frontispiece.</i></p></div> - -<hr /> -<h1>PYGMIES & PAPUANS<br /><br /> -<small>THE STONE AGE TO-DAY<br /><br /> -IN DUTCH NEW GUINEA</small><br /><br /></h1> - -<p class="center"><small><small><small>BY</small></small></small><br /> -A. F. R. WOLLASTON<br /> -<small><small><small>AUTHOR OF “FROM RUWENZORI TO THE CONGO”</small></small></small><br /><br /><br /> -<small><small>WITH APPENDICES BY</small></small><br /> -<small>W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT, A. C. HADDON, F.R.S.</small><br /> -<small>AND SIDNEY H. RAY</small><br /><br /><br /> -<small><small><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS</i></small></small><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<small><small>NEW YORK</small></small><br /> -STURGIS & WALTON<br /> -COMPANY<br /> -1912<br /> -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="center f05"> -PRINTED BY<br /> -WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED<br /> -LONDON AND BECCLES -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="center"> -<small><small><i>TO</i></small></small><br /> -<i>ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, O.M.</i><br /> -<small><small><i>THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED</i></small></small></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE</h2> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Committee who organised the late expedition to -Dutch New Guinea, paid me the high compliment of -inviting me to write an account of our doings in that -country. The fact that it is, in a sense, the official -account of the expedition has precluded me—greatly -to the advantage of the reader—from offering my own -views on the things that we saw and on things in -general. The country that we visited was quite unknown -to Europeans, and the native races with whom we came -in contact were living in so primitive a state that the -second title of this book is literally true. The pygmies -are indeed one of the most primitive peoples now in -existence.</p> - -<p>Should any find this account lacking in thrilling -adventure, I will quote the words of a famous navigator, -who visited the coasts of New Guinea more than two -hundred years ago:—“It has been Objected against me -by some, that my Accounts and Descriptions of Things -are dry and jejune, not filled with variety of pleasant -Matter, to divert and gratify the Curious Reader. How -far this is true, I must leave to the World to judge. -But if I have been exactly and strictly careful to give -only <i>True</i> Relations and Descriptions of Things (as I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span> -am sure I have;) and if my Descriptions be such as -may be of use not only to myself, but also to others -in future Voyages; and likewise to such readers at home -as are desirous of a Plain and Just Account of the true -Nature and State of the Things described, than of a -Polite and Rhetorical Narrative: I hope all the Defects -in my Stile will meet with an easy and ready Pardon.”</p> - -<p>To Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, who has allowed me -to inscribe this volume to him as a small token of -admiration for the first and greatest of the Naturalists -who visited New Guinea, my most sincere thanks are -due.</p> - -<p>To Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, Dr. A. C. Haddon, and -Mr. Sidney Ray, who have not only assisted me with -advice but have contributed the three most valuable -articles at the end of this volume, I can only repeat my -thanks, which have been expressed elsewhere.</p> - -<p>To my fellow-members of the expedition I would like -to wish further voyages in more propitious climates.</p> - -<p class="right padr1">A.F.R.W.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">London</span>,<br /> - <i>May, 1912</i>.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">ix</a></span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table summary="contents" width="100%" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdr f08" colspan="2">PAGE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_xii">vii</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_xix">xix</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>The British Ornithologists’ Union—Members of the Expedition—Voyage -to Java—Choice of Rivers—Prosperity of Java—Half-castes—Obsequious -Javanese—The Rijst-tafel—Customs of the -Dutch—Buitenzorg Garden—Garoet</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Expedition leaves Java—The “Nias”—Escort—Macassar—Raja of -Goa—Amboina—Corals and Fishes—Ambonese Christians—Dutch -Clubs—Dobo</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>New Guinea—Its Position and Extent—Territorial Divisions—Mountain -Ranges—Numerous Rivers—The Papuans—The Discovery -of New Guinea—Early Voyagers—Spanish and Dutch—Jan -Carstensz—First Discovery of the Snow Mountains—William -Dampier in the “Roebuck”—Captain Cook in the “Endeavour”—Naturalists -and later Explorers</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER IV</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Sail from the Aru Islands—Sight New Guinea—Distant Mountains—Signal -Fires—Natives in Canoes—A British Flag—Natives on -Board—Their Behaviour—Arrival at Mimika River—Reception -at Wakatimi—Dancing and Weeping—Landing Stores—View of -the Country—Snow Mountains—Shark-fishing—Making the -Camp—Death of W. Stalker</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">x</a></span>CHAPTER V</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Arrival of our Ambonese—Coolie Considerations—Canoes of the -Natives—Making Canoes—Preliminary Exploration of the -Mimika—Variable Tides—Completing the Camp—A Plague of -Flies—Also of Crickets—Making “Atap”—Trading with the -Natives—Trade Goods</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER VI</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Difficulties of Food—Coolies’ Rations—Choice of Provisions—Transporting -Supplies up the Mimika—Description of the River—A -Day’s Work—Monotonous Scenery—Crowned Pigeons—Birds of -Paradise and Others—Snakes, Bees, and other Creatures—Rapids -and Clear Water—The Seasons—Wind—Rain—Thunderstorms—Halley’s -Comet</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER VII</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Exploration of the Kapare River—Obota—Native Geography—River -Obstructions—Hornbills and Tree Ducks—Gifts of Stones—Importance -of Steam Launch—Cultivation of Tobacco—Sago -Swamps—Manufacture of Sago—Cooking of Sago—The Dutch -Use of Convict Labour</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER VIII</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Description of Wakatimi—The Papuan House—Coconut Palms—The -Sugar Palm—Drunkenness of the Natives—Drunken Vagaries—Other -Cultivation—The Native Language—No Interpreters—The -Numerals—Difficulties of Understanding—Names of Places—Local -Differences of Pronunciation</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER IX</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>The Papuans of Wakatimi—Colour—Hair—Eyes—Nose—Tattooing—Height—Dress—Widows’ -Bonnets—Growth of Children—Preponderance</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">xi</a></span> -<i>of Men—Number of Wives—Childhood—Swimming -and other Games—Imitativeness of Children—The Search -for Food—Women as Workers—Fishing Nets—Other Methods of -Fishing—An Extract from Dampier</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER X</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Food of the Papuans—Cassowaries—The Native Dog—Question of -Cannibalism—Village Headman—The Social System of the -Papuans—The Family—Treatment of Women—Religion—Weather -Superstitions—Ceremony to avert a Flood—The Pig—A -Village Festival—Wailing at Deaths—Methods of Disposal of the -Dead—No Reverence for the Remains—Purchasing Skulls</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER XI</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Papuans’ Love of Music—Their Concerts—A Dancing House—Carving—Papuans -as Artists—Cat’s Cradle—Village Squabbles—The -Part of the Women—Wooden and Stone Clubs—Shell Knives and -Stone Axes—Bows and Arrows—Papuan Marksmen—Spears—A -most Primitive People—Disease—Prospects of their Civilisation</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER XII</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>The Camp at Parimau—A Plague of Beetles—First Discovery of the -Tapiro Pygmies—Papuans as Carriers—We visit the Clearing of -the Tapiro—Remarkable Clothing of Tapiro—Our Relations with -the Natives—System of Payment—Their Confidence in Us—Occasional -Thefts—A Customary Peace-offering—Papuans as -Naturalists</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER XIII</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Visit of Mr. Lorentz—Arrival of Steam Launch—A Sailor Drowned—Our -Second Batch of Coolies—Health of the Gurkhas—Dayaks -the Best Coolies—Sickness—Arrival of Motor Boat—Camp under -Water—Expedition moves to Parimau—Explorations beyond the -Mimika—Leeches—Floods on the Tuaba River—Overflowing -Rivers—The Wataikwa—Cutting a Track</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">xii</a></span>CHAPTER XIV</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>The Camp at the Wataikwa River—Malay Coolies—“Amok”—A -Double Murder—A View of the Snow Mountains—Felling Trees—Floods—Village -washed Away—The Wettest Season—The -Effects of Floods—Beri-beri—Arrival of C. Grant—Departure -of W. Goodfellow</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER XV</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Pygmies visit Parimau—Description of Tapiro Pygmies—Colour—Hair—Clothing—Ornaments—Netted -Bags—Flint Knives—Bone -Daggers—Sleeping Mats—Fire Stick—Method of making Fire—Cultivation -of Tobacco—Manner of Smoking—Bows and Arrows—Village -of the Pygmies—Terraced Ground—Houses on Piles—Village -Headman—Our Efforts to see the Women—Language -and Voices—Their Intelligence—Counting—Their Geographical -Distribution</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER XVI</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Communication with Amboina and Merauke—Sail in the “Valk” -to the Utakwa River—Removal of the Dutch Expedition—View -of Mount Carstensz—Dugongs—Crowded Ship—Dayaks and Live -Stock—Sea-Snakes—Excitable Convicts—The Island River—Its -Great Size—Another Dutch Expedition—Their Achievements—Houses -in the Trees—Large Village—Barn-like Houses—Naked -People—Shooting Lime—Their Skill in Paddling—Through the -Marianne Straits—An Extract from Carstensz—Merauke—Trade -in Copra—Botanic Station—The Mission—The Ké Island -Boat-builders—The Natives of Merauke described—Arrival of our -Third Batch of Coolies—The Feast of St. Nicholas—Return to -Mimika</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER XVII</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Difficulty of Cross-country Travel—Expedition moves towards the -Mountains—Arrival at the Iwaka River—Changing Scenery—The -Impassable Iwaka—A Plucky Gurkha—Building a</i> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">xiii</a></span> -<i>Bridge—We start into the Mountains—Fording Rivers—Flowers—Lack -of Water on Hillside—Curious Vegetation—Our highest Point—A -wide View—Rare Birds—Coal—Uninhabitable Country—Dreary -Jungle—Rarely any Beauty—Remarkable Trees—Occasional -Compensations</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -CHAPTER XVIII</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Departure from Parimau—Parting Gifts—Mock Lamentation—Rawling -explores Kamura River—Start for the Wania—Lose -the Propeller—A Perilous Anchorage—Unpleasant Night—Leave -the Motor Boat—Village of Nimé—Arrival of “Zwaan” with -Dayaks—Their Departure—Waiting for the Ship—Taking Leave -of the People of Wakatimi—Sail from New Guinea—Ké Islands—Banda—Hospitality -of the Netherlands Government—Lieutenant -Cramer—Sumbawa—Bali—Return to Singapore and England—One -or two Reflexions</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -APPENDIX A</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Notes on the Birds collected by the B.O.U Expedition to Dutch New -Guinea. By W. R. Ogilvie-Grant</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -APPENDIX B</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>The Pygmy Question. By Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1" colspan="2"> -APPENDIX C</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<i>Notes on Languages in the East of Netherlands New Guinea. By -Sidney H. Ray, M.A.</i></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Index</span></p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td> -</tr></table> - -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">xiv/xv</a></span></p> - -<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<p class="center">(<i>Except where it is otherwise stated, the illustrations are from photographs by the Author.</i>)</p> - -<table summary="Illustrations" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">A Tapiro Pygmy</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#f"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdr f06" colspan="2">FACING PAGE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Near the Mouth of the Mimika River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A Convict Cooly of the Dutch Escort</span></p></td><td class="tdr">12</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A Malay Cooly from Buton</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Dobo, Aru Islands</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Camp of the Expedition at Wakatimi</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> -and <span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A House for Ceremonies, Mimika</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> and -<span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Making Canoes</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Canoes, Finished and Unfinished</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Making “Atap” for Roofing</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Papuan Woman Canoeing up the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Jangbir and Herkajit</span>, (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> and <span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Hauling Canoes up the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Typical Papuans of Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Upper Waters of the Kapare River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Vegetation on the Banks of the Kapare River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Papuan Woman carrying Wooden Bowl of Sago</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Papuan Houses on the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Papuan of the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Papuan of the Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">xvi</a></span><span class="smcap">A Papuan Mother and Child</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Cicatrization</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> and <span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Papuan with Face Whitened with Sago Powder</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Women of Wakatimi</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Papuan Woman and Child</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A Papuan of Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A Papuan of Mimika</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Disposal of the Dead: A Coffin on Trestles</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Splitting Wood with Stone Axe</span>, (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G. Rawling</span> and<br /> -<span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A Tributary Stream of the Kapare River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Typical Jungle, Mimika River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">At the Edge of the Jungle</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Camp of the Expedition at Parimau</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">The Camp at Parimau: A Precaution against Floods</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">The Mimika at Parimau: Low Water</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">The same in Flood</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A Tapiro Pygmy</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Making Fire</span> (1)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Making Fire</span> (2)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Wamberi Merbiri</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A House of the Tapiro</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Mount Tapiro from the Village of the Pygmies</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Types of Tapiro Pygmies</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A Papuan with Two Tapiro</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Natives of Merauke</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Looking up the Mimika from Parimau</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Bridge made by the Expedition across the Iwaka River</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Looking West from above the Iwaka</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. H. B. Grant</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Cockscomb Mountain seen from Mt. Godman</span> (Photo by <span class="smcap">C. G.<br /> -Rawling</span> and <span class="smcap">E. S. Marshall</span>)</p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Supports of a Pandanus</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Buttressed Trees</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Screw Pines (Pandanus)</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">xvii</a></span> -<span class="smcap">At Sumbawa Pesar</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Near Buleling</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td> -</tr></table> - -<h2>COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<p class="center">(<i>from Drawings by G. C. Shortridge</i>)</p> - -<table summary="COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS"><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Carved Wooden Clubs and Stone Clubs</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Head-Dresses, Worn at Ceremonies</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Stone Axe, Head-Rests and Drums</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Blades of Paddles, and Bamboo Penis-Cases</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Bow, Arrows and Spears</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">Ornaments of Papuans</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td> -</tr></table> - -<h2>MAPS</h2> - -<table summary="MAPS"><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> -<span class="smcap">A Language Map of Netherlands New Guinea</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Map of the District Visited by the Expedition</span></p></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_353"><i>at End</i></a></td> -</tr></table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">xviii/xix</a></span></p> - -<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> wonderful fauna of New Guinea, especially the -marvellous forms of Bird- and Insect-life to be found there, -have long attracted the attention of naturalists in all parts -of the world. The exploration of this vast island during -recent years has brought to light many extraordinary and -hitherto unknown forms, more particularly new Birds of -Paradise and Gardener Bower-Birds; but until recently the -central portion was still entirely unexplored, though no -part of the globe promised to yield such an abundance -of zoological treasures to those prepared to face -the difficulties of penetrating to the great ranges of the -interior.</p> - -<p>The B.O.U. Expedition, of which the present work -is the official record, originated in the following manner. -For many years past I had been trying to organise an -exploration of the Snow Mountains, but the reported -hostility of the natives in the southern part of Dutch -New Guinea and the risks attending such an undertaking, -rendered the chances of success too small to justify the -attempt.</p> - -<p>It was in 1907 that Mr. Walter Goodfellow, well-known -as an experienced traveller and an accomplished -naturalist, informed me that he believed a properly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">xx</a></span> -equipped expedition might meet with success, and I -entered into an arrangement with him to lead a small -zoological expedition to explore the Snow Mountains. It -so happened, however, that by the time our arrangements -had been completed in December, 1908, the members of -the British Ornithologists’ Union, founded in 1858, were -celebrating their Jubilee, and it seemed fitting that they -should mark so memorable an occasion by undertaking some -great zoological exploration. I therefore laid my scheme -for exploring the Snow Mountains before the meeting, -and suggested that it should be known as the Jubilee -Expedition of the B.O.U., a proposal which was received -with enthusiasm. A Committee was formed, consisting of -Mr. F. du Cane Godman, F.R.S. (President of the -B.O.U.), Dr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S. (Editor of the <i>Ibis</i>), -Mr. E. G. B. Meade-Waldo, Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant -(Secretary), and Mr. C. E. Fagan (Treasurer). At the -request of the Royal Geographical Society it was decided -that their interests should also be represented, and that a -surveyor and an assistant-surveyor, to be selected by the -Committee, should be added, the Society undertaking to -contribute funds for that purpose. The expedition thus -became a much larger one than had been originally contemplated -and included:—</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="indent2">Mr. Walter Goodfellow (Leader),</p> - -<p class="indent2">Mr. Wilfred Stalker and Mr. Guy C. Shortridge (Collectors -of Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, etc.),</p> - -<p class="indent2">Mr. A. F. R. Wollaston (Medical Officer to the Expedition, -Entomologist, and Botanist),</p> - -<p class="indent2">Capt. C. G. Rawling, C.I.E. (Surveyor),</p> - -<p class="indent2">Dr. Eric Marshall (Assistant-Surveyor and Surgeon).</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">xxi</a></span></p> - -<p>To meet the cost of keeping such an expedition in the -field for at least a year it was necessary to raise a large -sum of money, and this I was eventually able to do, thanks -chiefly to a liberal grant from His Majesty’s Government, -and to the generosity of a number of private subscribers, -many of whom were members of the B.O.U. -The total sum raised amounted to over £9000, and -though it is impossible to give here the names of -all those who contributed, I would especially mention the -following:—</p> - -<table summary="Names"><tr> -<td class="tdl">S. G. Asher,</td><td class="tdl">Mrs. H. A. Powell,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">E. J. Brook,</td><td class="tdl">H. C. Robinson,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">J. Stewart Clark,</td><td class="tdl">Lord Rothschild,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Col. Stephenson Clarke, </td><td class="tdl">Hon. L. Walter Rothschild,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sir Jeremiah Colman,</td><td class="tdl">Hon. N. Charles Rothschild,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">H. J. Elwes,</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Baron and Baroness James A. de Rothschild,</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">F. du Cane Godman,</td><td class="tdl">P. L. Sclater,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sir Edward Grey,</td><td class="tdl">P. K. Stothert,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">J. H. Gurney,</td><td class="tdl">Oldfield Thomas,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sir William Ingram,</td><td class="tdl">E. G. B. Meade-Waldo,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lord Iveagh,</td><td class="tdl">Rowland Ward,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mrs. Charles Jenkinson,</td><td class="tdl">The Proprietors of <i>Country Life</i>,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">E. J. Johnstone,</td><td class="tdl">The Royal Society,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Campbell D. Mackellar,</td><td class="tdl">The Royal Geographical Society,</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">G. A. Macmillan,</td><td class="tdl">The Zoological Society of London.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The organization and equipment of this large expedition -caused considerable delay and it was not until -September, 1909, that the members sailed from England for -the East. Meanwhile the necessary steps were taken to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">xxii</a></span> -obtain the consent of the Netherlands Government to -allow the proposed expedition to travel in Dutch New -Guinea and to carry out the scheme of exploration. Not -only was this permission granted, thanks to the kindly -help of Sir Edward Grey and the British Minister at the -Hague, but the Government of Holland showed itself -animated with such readiness to assist the expedition -that it supplied not only an armed guard at its own -expense, but placed a gunboat at the disposal of the -Committee to convey the party from Batavia to New -Guinea.</p> - -<p>On behalf of the Committee I would again take this -opportunity of publicly expressing their most grateful -thanks to the Netherlands Government for these and many -other substantial acts of kindness, which were shown to -the members of the expedition. The Peninsular and -Oriental Steam Navigation Company did all in their -power to further the interests of the expedition, and to -them the Committee is very specially indebted. To the -proprietors of <i>Country Life</i> the thanks of the Committee -are also due for the interest and sympathy they -have displayed towards the expedition and for the assistance -they have given in helping to raise funds to carry -on the work in the field.</p> - -<p>In various numbers of <i>Country Life</i>, issued between -the 16th of April, 1910, and the 20th of May, 1911, a -series of ten articles will be found in which I contributed -a general account of New Guinea, and mentioned some -of the more important discoveries made by the members -of the expedition during their attempts to penetrate to -the Snow Mountains.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">xxiii</a></span></p> - -<p>In Appendix A to the present volume will be found -a general account of the ornithological results. A detailed -report will appear elsewhere, as also, it is hoped, a -complete account of the zoological work done by the -expedition.</p> - -<p>As the reader will learn from Mr. Wollaston’s book, -the great physical difficulties of this unexplored part of -New Guinea and other unforeseen circumstances rendered -the work of the B.O.U. Expedition quite exceptionally -arduous; and if the results of their exploration are not all -that had been hoped, it must be remembered that they -did all that was humanly possible to carry out the -dangerous task with which they had been entrusted. -Their work has added vastly to our knowledge of this -part of New Guinea, and though little collecting was -done above 4000 feet, quite a number of new, and, -in many cases, remarkably interesting forms were -obtained.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that when the higher ranges -between 5000 and 10,000 feet are explored, many other -novelties will be discovered and for this reason it has -been thought advisable to postpone the publication of -the scientific results of the B.O.U. Expedition until such -time as the second expedition under Mr. Wollaston has -returned in 1913.</p> - -<p>The death of Mr. Wilfred Stalker at a very early -period of the expedition was a sad misfortune and his -services could ill be spared; his place was, however, very -ably filled by Mr. Claude H. B. Grant, who arrived in -New Guinea some six months later.</p> - -<p>As all those who have served on committees must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">xxiv</a></span> -know, most of the work falls on one or two individuals, -and I should like here to express the thanks which we owe -to our Treasurer, Mr. C. E. Fagan, for the admirable -way in which he has carried out his very difficult task.</p> - -<p class="right padr1">W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">xxv</a></span></p> - -<p class="center">PYGMIES AND PAPUANS</p> - -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> - -<p class="center f2">PYGMIES AND PAPUANS<br /><br /></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>The British Ornithologists’ Union—Members of the Expedition—Voyage -to Java—Choice of Rivers—Prosperity of Java—Half-castes—Obsequious -Javanese—The Rijst-tafel—Customs of the -Dutch—Buitenzorg Garden—Garoet.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the autumn of 1858 a small party of naturalists, most -of them members of the University of Cambridge and -their friends and all of them interested in the study of -ornithology, met in the rooms of the late Professor Alfred -Newton at Magdalene College, Cambridge, and agreed to -found a society with the principal object of producing a -quarterly Journal of general ornithology. The Journal -was called “The Ibis,” and the Society adopted the name -of British Ornithologists’ Union, the number of members -being originally limited to twenty.</p> - -<p>In the autumn of 1908 the Society, which by that -time counted four hundred and seventy members, adopted -the suggestion, made by Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, of -celebrating its jubilee by sending an expedition to explore, -chiefly from an ornithological point of view, the unknown -range of Snow Mountains in Dutch New Guinea. A -Committee, whose Chairman was Mr. F. D. Godman, -F.R.S., President and one of the surviving original -members of the Society, was appointed to organise the -expedition, and subscriptions were obtained from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> -members and their friends. The remote destination of -the expedition aroused a good deal of public interest. -The Royal Geographical Society expressed a desire to -share in the enterprise, and it soon became evident that -it would be a mistake to limit the object of the expedition -to the pursuit of birds only. Mr. Walter Goodfellow, a -naturalist who had several times travelled in New Guinea -as well as in other parts of the world, was appointed -leader of the expedition. Mr. W. Stalker and Mr. G. C. -Shortridge, both of whom had had wide experience of -collecting in the East, were appointed naturalists. Capt. -C. G. Rawling, C.I.E., 13th Somersetshire Light Infantry, -who had travelled widely in Tibet and mapped a large -area of unknown territory in that region, was appointed -surveyor, with Mr. E. S. Marshall, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., -who had just returned from the “Furthest South” with -Sir E. H. Shackleton, as assistant surveyor and surgeon; -and the present writer, who had been medical officer, -botanist, and entomologist on the Ruwenzori Expedition -of 1906-7, undertook the same duties as before.</p> - -<p>Prolonged correspondence between the Foreign Office -and the Dutch Government resulted, thanks largely to -the personal interest of Sir Edward Grey and Lord -Acton, British Chargé d’Affaires at the Hague, in permission -being granted to the expedition to land in Dutch -New Guinea on or after January 1, 1910. The date -of landing was postponed by the Government until -January in order that there might be no interference -with the expedition of Mr. H. A. Lorentz, who it was -hoped would be the first to reach the snow in New -Guinea by way of the Noord River, a project which he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> -successfully accomplished in the month of November, -1909.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VOYAGE TO JAVA</div> - -<p>On October 29th four of us sailed from Marseilles in -the P. & O. <span class="smcap">S.S.</span> <i>Marmora</i>. Mr. Stalker and Mr. Shortridge, -who had already proceeded to the East, joined us -later at Batavia and Amboina respectively. At Singapore -we found the ten Gurkhas, ex-military police, who -had been engaged for the expedition by the recruiting -officer at Darjiling; though some of these men were -useless for the work they had to do, the others did invaluable -service as will be seen later. We left Singapore -on November 26th, and as we passed through the narrow -Riou Straits we saw the remains of the French mail -steamer <i>La Seyne</i>, which had been wrecked there with -appalling loss of life a few days earlier. It was believed -that scores of persons were devoured by sharks within -a few minutes of the accident happening. Two days’ -steaming in the Dutch packet brought us to Batavia -in Java, the city of the Government of the Netherlands -East Indies.</p> - -<p>We had hoped that our ten Gurkhas would be sufficient -escort for the expedition and that we could do -without the escort of native soldiers offered to us by the -Dutch Government, but the local authorities decided -that the escort was necessary and they appointed to -command it Lieutenant H. A. Cramer of the Infantry, -a probationer on the Staff of the Dutch East Indian -Army. The Government also undertook to transport -the whole expedition, men, stores, and equipment, from -Java to New Guinea. The undertaking was a most -generous one as the voyage from Batavia by mail steamer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> -to Dobo in the Aru Islands would have been most costly, -and from there we should have been obliged to charter -a special steamer to convey the expedition to the shores -of New Guinea.</p> - -<p>When we left England we had the intention of approaching -the Snow Mountains by way of the Utakwa -River, which was the only river shown by the maps -obtainable at that time approaching the mountains. -After a consultation with the Military and Geographical -Departments at Batavia it was decided that, owing to -the bad accounts which had been received of the Utakwa -River and the comparatively favourable reports of the -Mimika River, the latter should be chosen as the point -of our entry into the country. This decision, though we -little suspected it at the time, effectually put an end to -our chance of reaching the Snow Mountains.</p> - -<p>During the month of December, while stores were -being accumulated, and the steamer was being prepared -for our use, we had leisure to visit, and in the case of -some of us to revisit, some of the most interesting places -in Java. A large German ship filled with fourteen -hundred American tourists arrived at Batavia whilst we -were there, and the passengers “did” Java, apparently -to their satisfaction, in forty-eight hours. But a tourist -with more time could find occupation for as many days -and still leave much to be seen. Germans and Americans -outnumber English visitors by nearly fifty to one, and -it is to be deplored that Englishmen do not go there in -larger numbers, for they would see in Java, not to mention -the beauty of its scenery, perhaps the most successful -tropical dependency in the world, a vast monument to -the genius of Sir Stamford Raffles, who laid the foundation -of its prosperity less than one hundred years ago.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p004a.jpg" width="400" height="647" alt="NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA RIVER." /> -<p class="caption">NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA RIVER.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span></p> -<div class="sidenote">PROSPERITY OF JAVA</div> - -<p>Some idea of the progress which has been made may -be learnt from the fact that, whereas at the beginning -of the last century the population numbered about four -millions, there are to-day nearly ten times that number. -Wherever you go you see excellent roads, clean, and -well-ordered villages and a swarming peasant population, -quiet and industrious and apparently contented with -their lot.</p> - -<p>There are between thirty and forty volcanoes in the -island, many of them active, and the soil is extraordinarily -rich and productive, three crops in the rice -districts being harvested in rather less than two years. -So fertile is the land that in many places the steepest -slopes of the hills have been brought under cultivation -by an ingenious system of terracing and irrigation in -such a way that the higher valleys present the appearance -of great amphitheatres rising tier above tier of -brilliantly green young rice plants or of drooping yellow -heads of ripening grain. The tea plantations and the -fields of sugar-cane in Central Java not less than the -rice-growing districts impress one with the unceasing -industry of the people and the inexhaustible wealth of -the island.</p> - -<p>One of the features of life in the Dutch East Indies, -which first strikes the attention of an English visitor, is -the difference in the relation between Europeans and -natives from those which usually obtain in British -possessions as shown by the enormous number of half-castes. -Whilst we were still at Batavia the feast of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span> -Eve of St. Nicholas, which takes the place of our Christmas, -occurred. In the evening the entire “white” population -indulged in a sort of carnival; the main streets -and restaurants were crowded, bands played and carriages -laden with parents and their children drove slowly -through the throng. The spectacle, a sort of “trooping -of the colours,” was a most interesting one to the onlooker, -for one saw often in the same family children -showing every degree of colour from the fairest Dutch -hair and complexion to the darkest Javanese. It is -easy to understand how this strong mixture of races has -come about, when one learns that Dutchmen who come -out to the East Indies, whether as civilian or military -officials or as business men, almost invariably stay for -ten years without returning to Europe. They become -in that time more firmly attached to the country than is -the case in colonies where people go home at shorter -intervals, and it is not uncommon to meet Dutchmen -who have not returned to Holland for thirty or forty -years. It is not the custom to send children back to -Europe when they reach the school age; there are -excellent government schools in all the larger towns, -and it often happens that men and women grow up and -marry who have never been to Europe in their lives. -Thus it can be seen how a large half-caste population is -likely to be formed. The half-castes do not, as in British -India, form a separate caste, but are regarded as Europeans, -and there are many instances of men having more -or less of native blood in their veins reaching the highest -civilian and military rank.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span></p> -<div class="sidenote">THE RIJST-TAFEL</div> - -<p>One or two curious relics of former times, which the -visitor to Java notices, are worth recording because they -show the survival of a spirit that has almost completely -disappeared from our own dominions. When a European -walks, or as is more usual, drives along the country -roads, the natives whom he meets remove their hats -from their heads and their loads from their shoulders and -crouch humbly by the roadside. Again, on the railways -the ticket examiner approaches with a suppliant air -and begs to see your ticket, while he holds out his right -hand for it grasping his right wrist with his left hand. -In former times when a man held out his right hand to -give or take something from you his left hand was free -to stab you with his <i>kris</i>. Nowadays only a very few -privileged natives in Java are allowed to carry the -<i>kris</i>.</p> - -<p>Another very noticeable feature of life in the Dutch -East Indies, which immediately attracts the attention of -a stranger, is the astonishing number of excessively -corpulent Europeans. If you travel in the morning in -the steam tramcar which runs from the residential part -of Batavia to the business quarter of the town, you will -see as many noticeably stout men as you will see in -the City of London in a year, or, as I was credibly -informed, as you will see in the city of Amsterdam in a -month. It is fairly certain that this unhealthy state of -body of a large number of Europeans may be attributed -to the institution of the Rijst-tafel, the midday meal -of a large majority of the Dutchmen in the East.</p> - -<p>This custom is so remarkable that it is worth while -to give a description of it. The foundation of the meal, -as its name implies, is rice. You sit at table with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span> -soup plate in front of you, a smaller flat plate beside it -and a spoon, a knife and a fork. The first servant brings -a large bowl of rice from which you help yourself liberally. -The second brings a kind of vegetable stew which you -pour over the heap of rice. Then follows a remarkable -procession; I have myself seen at an hotel in Batavia -fourteen different boys bringing as many different dishes, -and I have seen stalwart Teutons taking samples from -every dish. These boys bring fish of various sorts and -of various cookeries, bones of chickens cooked in different -ways and eggs of various ages, and last of all comes a -boy bearing a large tray covered with many different -kinds of chutneys and sauces from which the connoisseur -chooses three or four. The more solid and bony portions -find a space on the small flat plate, the others are piled -in the soup plate upon the rice. As an experience once -or twice the Rijst-tafel is interesting; but as a daily -custom it is an abomination. Even when, as in private -houses, the number of dishes is perhaps not more than -three or four, the main foundation of the meal is a solid -pile of rice, which is not at all a satisfactory diet for -Europeans. The Rijst-tafel is not a traditional native -custom but a modern innovation, and there is a tendency -among the more active members of the community to -replace it by a more rational meal.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CUSTOMS OF THE DUTCH</div> - -<p>The houses of the Europeans are of the bungalow type -with high-pitched roofs of red tiles and surrounded by -wide verandahs, which are actually the living rooms of -the house. The Dutch are good gardeners and are -particularly fond of trees, which they plant close about -their houses and so ensure a pleasant shade, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> -they harbour rather more mosquitoes and other insects -than is pleasant. In strange contrast with the scrupulous -cleanliness of the houses and the tidiness of the streets, -you will see in Batavia a state of things which it is hard -to reconcile with the usual commonsense of the Dutch. -Through the middle of the town runs a canalised river -of red muddy water, partly sewer and partly bathing -place and so on of the natives, and in it are washed all -the clothes of the population, both native and European. -Your clothes return to you white enough, but you put -them on with certain qualms when you remember whence -they came. The town has an excellent supply of pure -water, and it is astonishing that the authorities do not -put an end to this most insanitary practice.</p> - -<p>Dutch people in the East Indies have modified their -habits, especially in the matter of clothing, to suit the -requirements of the climate, and while they have to some -extent sacrificed elegance to comfort, their costume is -at all events more rational than that of many Englishmen -in the East, who cling too affectionately to the -fashions of Europe and often wear too much clothing. -The men, who do the greater part of the day’s work -between seven in the morning and one o’clock, wear a -plain white suit of cotton or linen. The afternoon is -spent in taking a siesta and at about five o’clock they go -to their clubs or other amusements in the same sort of -attire as in the morning. The ladies, except in the -larger towns where European dress is the custom, appear -in public during the greater part of the day in a curiously -simple costume. The upper part of the body is clothed -in a short white cotton jacket, below which the coloured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> -native <i>sarong</i> extends midway down the leg. Low -slippers are worn on bare feet, the hair hangs undressed -down the back and the costume is usually completed -by an umbrella. It must be admitted that the effect -is not ornamental, but the costume is doubtless cool and -comfortable, and it prevents any risk there might be -of injury to the health from wearing an excessive amount -of clothing. They appear more conventionally dressed -about five o’clock, when the social business of the day -begins. The ladies pay calls while the men meet at the -club and play cards until an uncomfortably late dinner -at about nine o’clock.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BOTANIC GARDEN</div> - -<p>About an hour’s journey by railway from Batavia -is the hill station of Buitenzorg. Although it is hardly -more than eight hundred feet above the sea the climate -is noticeably cooler (the mean annual temperature is -75°), and one feels immediately more vigorous than -down in the low country. The palace of the Governor -General, formerly the house of Sir Stamford Raffles, -stands at the edge of the Botanic Garden, which alone, -even if you saw nothing else, would justify a visit to -Java. Plants from all the Tropics grow there in the -best possible conditions, and you see them to advantage -as you never can in their natural forest surroundings, -where the trunks of the trees are obscured by a tangle -of undergrowth. Every part of the garden is worth -exploring, but one of the most curious and interesting -sections is the collection of Screw-pines (<i>Pandanus</i>) -and Cycads, which have a weirdly antediluvian appearance. -Another very beautiful sight is the ponds of -Water-lilies from different parts of the world. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span> -native gardener in charge of them informed me that the -different species have different and definite hours for -the opening and closing of their flowers. I tested his -statement in two instances and found the flowers almost -exactly punctual. There was no cloud in the sky nor -appearance of any change in the weather, and the reason -for this behaviour is not easy to explain. At Sindanglaya -in the mountains a few miles distant is an offshoot from -the Buitenzorg garden, where plants of a more temperate -climate flourish, and experiments are made on plants -of economic value to the country.</p> - -<p>A few hours’ journey east from Buitenzorg is Garoet -(2,300 feet above the sea), which lies in a beautiful fertile -valley surrounded by forest-covered mountains. The -climate is an almost ideal one, the nights are cool and the -days are not too hot. A very remarkable feature of -the country about Garoet is the great flocks, or rather -droves, of ducks which you meet being driven along -the roads from the villages to their pastures in the -rice fields. These ducks differ from the ordinary domestic -duck in their extraordinary erect attitude, from which -they have been well called Penguin ducks. Whether -their upright posture is due to their walking or not I -do not know, but they are excellent walkers and are -sometimes driven long distances to their feeding grounds. -When a duck is tired and lags behind, the boy who -herds them picks it up by the neck, and you may sometimes -see him walking along with a bunch of two or -three ducks in either hand.</p> - -<p>Others of our party visited Djokjakarta and the -Buddhist Temples of Boro-Boder in Central Java and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> -mountain resort of Tosari in the volcanic region of -Eastern Java. Tosari is more than five thousand feet -above the sea, and is of great value to the Dutch as a -sanatorium for soldiers and civilians from all parts of -the Archipelago. The rainfall is comparatively scanty -and the climate is like that of Southern Europe at its -best.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_p012a.jpg" width="300" height="379" alt="A CONVICT COOLY OF THE DUTCH ESCORT." /> -<p class="caption">A CONVICT COOLY OF THE DUTCH ESCORT.<br /><br /></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_p012b.jpg" width="300" height="368" alt="A MALAY COOLY FROM BUTON." /> -<p class="caption">A MALAY COOLY FROM BUTON.</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Expedition leaves Java—The “Nias”—Escort—Macassar—Raja of -Goa—Amboina—Corals and Fishes—Ambonese Christians—Dutch -Clubs—Dobo.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> December 21st we left Batavia, and on Christmas -Day, 1909, we sailed from Soerabaja in the Government -steamer <i>Nias</i>, Capt. Hondius van Herwerden. The -<i>Nias</i>, a ship of about six hundred tons, formerly a gun-boat -in the Netherlands Indies Marine, is now stripped -of her two small guns and is used by the Government -as a special service vessel. Her last commission before -embarking us has been to transport Mr. Lorentz on his -expedition to the Noord River in New Guinea three -months earlier. Now she was full to the brim of stores -and gear of all sorts and her decks were crowded with -men. There were five of us and ten Gurkhas. The -Dutch escort consisted of Lieutenant H. A. Cramer in -command, two Dutch sergeants and one Dutch medical -orderly, forty native Javanese soldiers and sixty -convicts, most of them Javanese. The convicts were -nearly all of them men with more or less long -sentences of imprisonment and some of them were -murderers in chains, which were knocked off them -to their great relief the day after we left Soerabaja. -One of the best of the convicts, a native of Bali, was -a murderer (see illustration, page 12), who did<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> -admirable service to the expedition, and was subsequently -promoted to be <i>mandoer</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> - -<p>At Macassar we stopped a few hours only to add to -our already excessive deck cargo, and to hear a little -of the gossip of Celebes. I was interested to learn that -the power of the Raja of Goa, whom I had visited a -few years before, had come to an end. That monarch -was an interesting survivor of the old native princes -of the island. His kingdom extended to within three -miles of Macassar, and he was apparently not answerable -to any law or authority but his own. The place became -a refuge for criminals fleeing from justice, and it was -a disagreeable thorn in the side of the Dutch authorities, -who were at last compelled to send a small expedition -to annex the country. The Raja himself, it was said, -came to a very unpleasant end in a ditch.</p> - -<p>There had also been a small war on the east side of -the island, which resulted in the pacification of the large -and prosperous district of Boni. Now the Island of -Celebes, which only a few years ago was dominated by -savage tribes and where it was unsafe for an European -to travel, has been almost completely brought within -the Dutch administration, and it seems likely that its -enormous mineral and agricultural wealth will soon -make it one of the most prosperous islands of the -Archipelago.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">AMBOINA</div> - -<p>On December 30th we anchored in the harbour of -Amboina, where we were joined by the last member -of the expedition, Mr. W. Stalker, who had been for -some months collecting birds in Ceram, and recently -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span>had been engaged in Amboina in recruiting coolies for -the expedition. It had been expected that he would -go to engage coolies in the Ké Islands, a group of islands -about three hundred miles to the south-east of Amboina, -where the natives are more sturdy and less sophisticated -than the people of Amboina; but circumstances had -prevented him from going there, and we had to put up -with the very inferior Ambonese, a fact which at the -outset seriously handicapped the expedition. We stayed -for two days at Amboina, or, as the Dutch always call -it, Ambon, buying necessary stores and making arrangements -with the Dutch authorities, who agreed to send -a steamer every two months, if the weather were favourable, -to bring men and further supplies to us in New -Guinea.</p> - -<p>Amboina is an exceedingly pretty place, and a very -favourite station of the Dutch on account of its climate, -which is remarkably equable, and its freedom from -strong winds or excessive rain. There is a volcano at -the north end of the island which has slumbered since -1824, and the place is very subject to earthquakes. A -very serious one occurred as recently as 1902, which -destroyed hundreds of lives and houses, whose walls -may still be seen lying flat in the gardens, but as in other -volcanic places the inhabitants have conveniently short -memories, and the place has been re-built ready for -another visitation.</p> - -<p>Like most of the other Dutch settlements in the -East, Amboina has been laid out on a rectangular plan, -but the uniformity of the arrangement is saved from -being monotonous by the tree-planting habits of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span> -Dutch. The roads and open spaces are shaded by -Kanari trees, which also produce a most delicious nut, -and the gardens are hedged with flowering Hibiscus and -Oleander and gaudy-leafed Crotons. Roses, as well as -many other temperate plants, in addition to “hothouse” -plants, flourish in the gardens, and the verandahs -of the houses themselves are often decorated with -orchids from Ceram and the Tenimber Islands. Birds -are not common in the town itself except in captivity, -and you see, especially in the gardens of the natives’ -houses, parrots and lories, and pigeons from the Moluccas -and New Guinea, and you may even hear the call of the -Greater bird of paradise. Attracted by the many -flowering plants are swarms of butterflies, some of them -of great beauty. One of the most gorgeous of these is -the large blue <i>Papilio ulysses</i>, which floats from flower -to flower like a piece of living blue sky.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE AMBONESE</div> - -<p>The harbour of Amboina is a wide deep channel, -which nearly divides the island into two, and in it are -the wonderful sea-gardens, which aroused the enthusiasm -of Mr. Wallace.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> They are not perhaps so wonderful -as the sea-gardens at Banda and elsewhere, but to those -who have never seen such things before the many -coloured sea-weeds and corals and shells and shoals of -fantastic fishes seen through crystal water are a source -of unfailing interest. The sea is crowded with fish of -every size and form and colour. Nearly eight hundred -species have been described from Ambonese waters, -and it is worth while to visit the market in the early -morning, when the night’s haul is brought in, and before -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>the very evanescent colours of the fish have faded. -Nearly every man in the place is a fisherman during -some part of the day or night, and nobody need starve -who has the energy to throw a baited hook into the -sea. Most of the fish are caught either in nets very -similar to our seine-net or in more elaborate traps -which are mostly constructed by Chinamen.</p> - -<p>The market is also worth visiting to see the variety -of fruit and spices that grow in the island. Amboina -has a peculiar form of banana, the <i>Pisang Ambon</i>, with -white flesh, dark green skin, and a very peculiar flavour. -Besides this there are many other kinds of bananas, -mangoes, mangostines, guavas, sour-manilla, soursop, -pineapples, kanari nut, nutmeg, cloves, and a small but -very delicious fruit, the garnderia.</p> - -<p>The native inhabitants of Amboina are a curious -mixture of the aboriginal native with Portuguese, Dutch, -and Malay blood. There is a strong predominance of -the Portuguese type, which shows itself in the faces of -many of the people, who still use words of Portuguese -origin, and preserve many Portuguese names. A large -number of them are Christians, and they rejoice in such -names as Josef, Esau, Jacob, Petrus and Domingos.</p> - -<p>New Year’s Eve was celebrated by a confusion of -fireworks and gun-firing, which lasted from sunset -until the small hours of 1910, and by an afternoon -service in the Church attended by many hundreds of -people. The women, who are usually in Amboina -dressed entirely in black, wore for the occasion long -white coats, black <i>sarongs</i> and white stockings. The -men went more variously clad in straw hats, dinner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span> -jackets, low waistcoats, white or coloured starched -shirts, coloured ties, black trousers, and brown boots. -We were interested to find that the great bulk of the -stuff from which clothes are made in Amboina is imported -from England, and we were assured by a merchant -who was interested in the trade that a man can dress -himself in so-called European fashion as cheaply in -Amboina as he can in this country.</p> - -<p>An agreeable feature of life at Amboina, as at other -places in the Netherlands Indies, is the hospitality of -the Dutch people. A stranger of at all respectable -social position is expected to introduce himself to the -club, and the residents in the place feel genuinely hurt -if he fails to do so. The Societat, or “Soce,” as it is -everywhere called, is more of a café than a club according -to English ideas, and it exists for conviviality and -gossiping rather than for newspaper reading and card -playing. It is not even a restaurant in the sense that -many English clubs are; the members meet there in -the evening but they invariably dine, as they lunch, -at home. On the verandah in front of the club is a -round table, at which sit after dark large men in white -clothes smoking cigars and drinking various drinks. -The foreigner approaches with what courage he may -and introduces himself by name to the party severally. -They make a place for him in the circle and thereafter, -with a courtesy which a group of Englishmen -would find difficulty in imitating, they continue the -conversation in the language of the foreigner. An -Englishman is at first a little staggered by the number -of <i>pait</i> (<i>i.e.</i> bitter, the name for gin and bitters) and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span> -other drinks that his hosts consume, and which he is -expected to consume also, but, as I remember noticing -in the case of their neighbours the Belgians in the Congo, -it appears to do them little if any harm.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE ARAFURA SEA</div> - -<p>In the larger places there is a concert at the club -once or twice a week—at Bandoeng in Java I heard -a remarkably good string quartette—and in almost -every place there is a ladies’ night at the club once a -week, when the children come to dance to the music -of a piano or gramophone, as the case may be. It is -a pretty sight and one to make one ponder on the possible -harmony of nations—“Harmonie” is commonly a name -for the clubs in the Netherlands Indies—to see small Dutch -children dancing with little half-castes and, as I have -more than once seen, with little Celestials and Japanese.</p> - -<p>We left Amboina on New Year’s Day in a deluge of -rain, and all that day we were in sight of the forest-covered -heights of Ceram to the North. On January -2nd we passed Banda at dawn, and at sunset we got a -view of the most South-west point of New Guinea, -Cape Van de Bosch. On the morning of January 3rd -we dropped anchor in the harbour of Dobo in the Aru -Islands. For several miles before we arrived there we -had noticed a marked difference in the appearance of -the sea. Since we left Batavia we had been sailing -over a deep sea of great oceanic depths, sometimes of -two or three thousand fathoms, which was always clear -and blue or black as deep seas are. Approaching the -Aru Islands we came into the shoal waters of the Arafura -Sea, which is yellowish and opaque and never exceeds -one hundred fathoms in depth. We were, in fact, sailing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span> -over that scarcely submerged land, which joins the Aru -Islands and New Guinea with the Continent of Australia.</p> - -<p>Dobo has doubtless changed a good deal in appearance -since Mr. Wallace visited it in 1857, the majority -of the houses are now built of corrugated iron in place -of the palm leaves of fifty years ago; but it cannot -have increased greatly in size, for it is built on a small -spit of coral sand beyond which are mangrove swamps -where building is impossible. The reason of its existence -has also changed since the time when it was the -great market of all the neighbouring islands, for now -it exists solely as the centre of a pearl-fishing industry -controlled by an Australian Company, the Celebes -Trading Company. Messrs. Clarke & Ross Smith, the -heads of this business, rendered us assistance in very -many ways, and the sincerest thanks of the expedition -are due to them. The primary object of pearl-fishing -is of course the collection of pearl-shell which is used for -knife handles, buttons, and a hundred other things. -Shell of a good quality is worth more than £200 a ton. -The pearls, which are occasionally found, are merely -accidentals and profitable extras of the trade. Some -idea of the extent of this business may be learnt from the -fact that more than one hundred boats employing about -five thousand men are occupied in the various fleets.</p> - -<p>We left Dobo, the last place of civilisation that many -of us were to see for a year and more, on January 3rd; -and here, as we are almost within sight as it were of our -destination, it may be opportune to state briefly the -geographical position of New Guinea, and to give a short -account of its exploration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p020a.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="DOBO. ARU ISLANDS." /> -<p class="caption">DOBO. ARU ISLANDS.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>New Guinea—Its Position and Extent—Territorial Divisions—Mountain -Ranges—Numerous Rivers—The Papuans—The Discovery of New -Guinea—Early Voyagers—Spanish and Dutch—Jan Carstensz—First -Discovery of the Snow Mountains—William Dampier in the -“Roebuck”—Captain Cook in the “Endeavour”—Naturalists and -later Explorers.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> island of New Guinea or Papua lies to the East -of all the great islands of the Malay Archipelago and -forms a barrier between them and the Pacific Ocean. -To the South of it lies the Continent of Australia -separated from it by the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait, -which at its narrowest point is less than a hundred -miles wide. To the East is the great group of the -Solomon Islands, while on the North there are no important -masses of land between New Guinea and Japan. -The island lies wholly to the South of the Equator, -its most Northern point, the Cape of Good Hope in -the Arfak Peninsula, being 19´ S. latitude.</p> - -<p>The extreme length of the island from E. to W. is -1490 miles, and its greatest breadth from N. to S. is -rather more than 400 miles. New Guinea is the largest -of the islands of the globe, having an area of 308,000 -square miles (Borneo has about 290,000 square miles), -and it is divided amongst three countries roughly as -follows: Holland 150,000, Great Britain 90,000, and -Germany 70,000 square miles. The large territory of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> -the Dutch was acquired by them with the kingdom of -the Sultan of Ternate, who was accustomed to claim -Western New Guinea as a part of his dominions: it is -bounded on the East by the 141st parallel of East -longitude and partly by the Fly River and thus it -comprises nearly a half of the island.</p> - -<p>The Eastern half of the island is divided into a -Northern, German, and a Southern, British, part. The -German territory is called Kaiser Wilhelm Land, and -the islands adjacent to it, which have received German -substitutes for their old names of New Britain, New -Ireland, etc., are known as the Bismarck Archipelago. -British New Guinea, which is now administered by the -Federal Government of Australia, has been officially -renamed the Territory of Papua, and with it are included -the numerous islands at its Eastern extremity, the -D’Entrecasteaux and Louisiade Archipelagoes.</p> - -<p>Only in the British territory has a serious attempt -been made at settling and administering the country; -the headquarters of the Government are at Port Moresby, -and the country is divided into six magisterial districts.</p> - -<p>The German possessions are governed from Herbertshöhe -in Neu Pommern (New Britain), which is the -centre of a small amount of island trade, but the settlements -on the New Guinea mainland are few and far -between, and it cannot be pretended that the country -is German except in name.</p> - -<p>The Dutch territory has been even less brought under -control than the German. For more than half a century -there has been a mission station at Dorei in the N.W. -but until 1899 when the Dutch assumed the direct<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span> -control of the country, which was till that time nominally -governed by the Sultan of Tidor (Ternate), there was -no sign of Dutch rule in New Guinea. Now there are -Government stations with small bodies of native soldiers -at Manokware, an island in Dorei Bay, and at Fak-fak -on the shore of MacCluer Gulf; more recently a third -post has been established at Merauke on the South -coast near the boundary of British New Guinea, with -the object of subjugating the fierce Tugere tribe of -that region.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MOUNTAIN RANGES</div> - -<p>The most important physical feature of New Guinea -is the great system of mountain ranges, which run from -West to East and form the back-bone of the island. -The Arfak Peninsula in the N.W. is made entirely by -mountains which reach an altitude of more than 9000 -feet. In the great central mass of the island the -mountains begin near the S.W. coast with the Charles -Louis Mountains, which vary in height from 4000 to -9000 feet. Following these to the East they are found -to be continuous with the Snowy Mountains (now called -the Nassau Range, the objective of this expedition) -which culminate in the glacier-covered tops of Mount -Idenberg (15,379 feet), and Mount Carstensz (15,964 feet), -and to the East of these is the snow-capped Mount -Wilhelmina (15,420 feet), and Mount Juliana (about -14,764 feet).</p> - -<p>Leaving Dutch New Guinea and proceeding further -to the East we come to the Victor Emmanuel and the -Sir Arthur Gordon Ranges, which lie near the boundary -of German and British New Guinea. Still further East -is the Bismarck Range, often snow covered, and extending<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> -through the long Eastern prolongation of the island -are the great range of the Owen Stanley Mountains, -which reach their highest point in Mount Victoria -(13,150 feet), and the Stirling Range.</p> - -<p>As might be expected in so mountainous a country -there is a large number of rivers and some of them are -of great size. On the North coast the Kaiserin Augusta -River rises in Dutch territory and takes an almost -Easterly course through German New Guinea to the -sea, while the Amberno (or Mamberamo) rises probably -from the slopes of the Snowy Mountains and -flows Northwards to Point d’Urville. On the South -coast, in British New Guinea besides the Purari, Kikor -and Turama Rivers, the most important is the Fly River, -which has been explored by boat for a distance of more -than five hundred miles. In Southern Dutch New -Guinea there are almost countless rivers: chief among -them are the Digoel, which has been explored for more -than four hundred miles; the Island River, by which -a Dutch expedition has recently reached the central -watershed of New Guinea; the Noord River by which -Mr. H. Lorentz approached Mount Wilhelmina; the -Utakwa and the Utanata.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE NATIVES OF NEW GUINEA</div> - -<p>The natives of New Guinea are Papuans and the -island is indeed the centre of that race, which is found -more or less mixed with other races from the island of -Flores as far as Fiji. Though the Papuans in New -Guinea itself have been in many places altered by -immigrant races, for instance by Malays in the extreme -West, and by Polynesian and Melanesian influences in -the South and East, there yet remain large regions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span> -particularly in the Western half of the country, including -the district visited by this expedition, where the true -Papuan stock holds its own.</p> - -<p>The name Papua, it should be said, comes from -the Malay wood <i>papuwah</i>, meaning “woolly” or “fuzzy,” -and was first applied to the natives on account of their -mops of hair; later the name was applied to the island -itself.</p> - -<p>Even among those Papuans who are pure-blooded—in -so far as one may use that expression in describing -any human race—there are very considerable varieties -of appearance, but it is still possible to describe a type -to which all of them conform in the more important -particulars. The typical Papuan is rather tall and is -usually well-built. The legs of the low country people -are somewhat meagre, as is usually the case among -people who spend much of their time in canoes, whilst -those of the hill tribes are well developed. The hands -and feet are large. The colour of the skin varies from -a dark chocolate colour to a rusty black, but it seems to -be never of the shining ebony blackness of the African -negro. The lips are thick but not full, the teeth are -strong but not noticeably good, and the jaws are strong -but they can hardly be called prognathous. The -forehead is receding, the brows are strong and prominent, -and the shape of the face is somewhat oval. -The hair is black and “frizzly” rather than “woolly,” -it is crisp and hard to the touch, and in some tribes it -is grown to a considerable length and dressed in a -variety of ornamental fashions. Short hard hair is -also found frequently on the chest and on the limbs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span> -but on the face it is scanty and frequently altogether -absent.</p> - -<p>The most characteristic feature is the nose, which -is long and fleshy and somewhat “Semitic” in outline, -but flattened and depressed at the tip. But these -characteristics of the nose would not alone suffice to -distinguish the Papuans from others were it not for the -fact that the <i>alae nasi</i> are attached at a remarkably -high level on the face, and so an unusually large extent -of the <i>septum</i> of the nose is exposed. It is owing to -this curious formation of the nose that the Papuan is -enabled to perform his almost universal practice of -piercing the <i>septum nasi</i> and wearing there some ornament -of bone or shell.</p> - -<p>Apart from physical characteristics many observers -have found mental qualities in which the Papuans -differ from, and are superior to, neighbouring races; -but these things are so difficult to define, and they vary -so much according to local circumstances, that it is -not wise to use them as conclusive evidence. It may, -however, be said without fear of contradiction that -no person, who has had experience of Malays and of -Papuans, could believe for a moment that they are -anything but two very distinct races of men. The -origin of the Papuans is not definitely known, and the -existence in different parts of the island of small people, -who are possibly of Negrito stock, suggests that the -Papuans were not the original inhabitants of New -Guinea.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EARLY SPANISH NAVIGATORS</div> - -<p>The history of the earliest discovery of New Guinea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span> -is not precisely known, but it is safe to disregard the -legends of navigators having found the island before -the Portuguese reached the Moluccas and founded a -trading centre at Ternate in 1512. The earliest authentic -record is of the Portuguese Don Jorge de Meneses, who -was driven out of his way on a voyage from Goa to -Ternate in 1526, and took refuge in the island of Waigiu. -Two years later a Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra taking -spices from the Moluccas to Mexico appears to have -reached the Schouten Islands in Geelvink Bay. From -there he sailed North and discovered the Carolines and -the Mariana Islands, but unfavourable winds drove -him back to the Moluccas. In 1529 he set out again, -and sailed along a long expanse of coast, which was -doubtless the North coast of New Guinea.</p> - -<p>In 1546 Ynigo Ortiz de Retes sailed from Ternate -to Mexico in his ship <i>San Juan</i>. He touched at several -places on the North coast where he hoisted the Spanish -flag, and called the island Nueva Guinea, because the -natives appeared to him to resemble the negroes of -the Guinea coast of Africa. The name, spelt Nova -Guinea, appears printed for the first time on Mercator’s -map of 1569.</p> - -<p>The last important Spanish Expedition was that of -Luis Vaz de Torres, who sailed with two ships from -Peru, and in 1606 reached the south-east corner of -New Guinea. He sailed along the South coast from -one to the other end of the island, of which he took -possession in the name of the King of Spain. Torres’ -voyage through the strait which now bears his name -was the first to show that New Guinea was an island,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> -but the account of the voyage was not published and the -fact of his discovery remained unknown until after -1800.</p> - -<p>The seventeenth century was chiefly notable for the -explorations of the Dutch, whose East India Company -proclaimed a monopoly of trade in the Spice Islands -to the exclusion of people of other nationalities. In -1605, Willem Jansz sailed from Banda to New Guinea -in the <i>Duyfken</i>. The Ké and Aru Islands were visited -and the Cape York Peninsula of Australia was reached, -but the importance of that discovery was not realised. -On the mainland of New Guinea nine men of the ship’s -company were killed and eaten, and the expedition -returned to Banda.</p> - -<p>Jacques Le Maire and Willem Schouten made an -important voyage in 1616 in the <i>Eendracht</i>. Sailing -from Europe by way of Cape Horn they crossed the -Pacific and discovered New Ireland, where they had -trouble with the natives, who (it is interesting to note) -gave them pigs in exchange for glass beads. The -Admiralty and Vulcan Islands were seen and then, -after reaching the coast of New Guinea, they discovered -the mouth of the Kaiserin Augusta River and the -Schouten Islands.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE VOYAGE OF JAN CARSTENSZ</div> - -<p>The next important voyage, and in this chronicle -the most important of all, was that of Jan Carstensz -(or Carstenszoon) who sailed from Amboina in 1623 -with the ships <i>Pera</i> and <i>Arnhem</i>. After visiting Ké -and Aru they reached the S.W. coast of New Guinea, -where they met with trouble. “This same day -(February 11) the skipper of the yacht <i>Arnhem</i>, Dirck<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span> -Meliszoon, without knowledge of myself or the sub-cargo -or steersman of the said yacht, unadvisedly -went ashore to the open beach in the pinnace, taking -with him fifteen persons, both officers and common -sailors, and no more than four muskets, for the purpose -of fishing with a seine-net. There was great disorder -in landing, the men running off in different directions, -until at last a number of black savages came running -forth from the wood, who first seized and tore to -pieces an assistant named Jan Willemsz Van den -Briel who happened to be unarmed, after which they -slew with arrows, callaways, and with the oars which -they had snatched from the pinnace, no less than -nine of our men, who were unable to defend themselves, -at the same time wounding the remaining -seven (among them the skipper, who was the first to -take to his heels); these last seven men at last returned -on board in very sorry plight with the pinnace and -one oar, the skipper loudly lamenting his great want -of prudence, and entreating pardon for the fault he -had committed.”</p> - -<p>The incautious skipper died of his wounds on the -following day and so he did not take a part in the most -momentous discovery of the voyage. “In the morning -of the 16th (February) we took the sun’s altitude -at sunrise, which we found to be 5° 6´; the preceding -evening ditto 20° 30´; the difference being divided -by two comes to 7° 42´; increasing North-easterly -variation; the wind N. by E.; we were at about -one and a half mile’s distance from the low-lying -land in 5 or 6 fathom, clayey bottom; at a distance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span> -of about 10 miles by estimation into the interior we -saw a very high mountain range in many places white -with snow, which we thought a very singular sight, -being so near the line equinoctial. Towards the -evening we held our course E. by S., along half-submerged -land in 5, 4, 3, and 2 fathom, at which last -point we dropped anchor; we lay there for about -five hours, during which time we found the water to -have risen 4 or 5 feet; in the first watch, the wind -being N.E., we ran into deeper water and came to -anchor in 10 fathom, where we remained for the -night.”</p> - -<p>That is the brief account of the first discovery of the -Snow Mountains of New Guinea by Jan Carstensz, whose -name is now perpetuated in the highest summit of the -range. Very few ships have sailed along that coast in -three hundred years, and there are very many days in -the year when not a sign of the mountains can be seen -from the shore, so it is not very astonishing to find -ships’ captains sailing on those seas who still disbelieve -the story of the snow. On the same voyage Carstensz -crossed the straits and sailed a considerable way down -the Cape York Peninsula believing that the land was -still New Guinea.</p> - -<p>In 1636 Thomas Pool explored a large tract of the -S.W. coast; Pool himself was killed by natives, but -the expedition discovered three large rivers, the Kupera -Pukwa, Inabuka (? Neweripa), and the Utakwa. Tasman -sailed along the North coast of New Guinea in 1642 -after his discovery of Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania); -and in 1644 he was sent to find out whether there was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span> -a passage between New Guinea and the large “South -Land” (Australia). Apparently he cruised along the -coast about as far as Merauke, and also touched Australia, -but the strait was not discovered.</p> - -<p>Throughout the seventeenth century the Dutch East -India Company maintained their monopoly of the cloves -and nutmegs of the Moluccas, and great consternation -was caused when the English tried to obtain these spices -direct by sending ships to the Papuan islands. The -Moluccas were protected by forts and their harbours -safe, therefore in order to prevent the English from -obtaining the spices outside the sphere of direct Dutch -influence, all trees producing spices were destroyed.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DAMPIER AND COOK</div> - -<p>The most important of the English voyages was -that of Capt. William Dampier in the <i>Roebuck</i>. He -sailed by Brazil and the Cape of Good Hope to Western -Australia and thence to Timor. On January 1, 1700, -he sighted the mountains of New Guinea; he landed -on several islands near the coast, captured Crowned -pigeons and many kinds of fishes, which he described -in his book. Rounding the N.W. corner of the island -he sailed along the North coast and discovered that -New Britain was separated from New Guinea by a -strait to which he gave his own name.</p> - -<p>After the voyages of Philip Carteret, who proved -that New Ireland is an island, and of de Bougainville -in 1766 the most important is that of Captain James -Cook in the <i>Endeavour</i>. He sailed from Plymouth in -August 1768, rounded Cape Horn, reached and charted -New Zealand, reached the East coast of New Holland -(Australia) in April 1770, and sailed along the coast to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span> -Cape York, which he named. Looking Westward he -decided that there was a channel leading from the -Pacific to the Indian Ocean, and after sailing through -it he came to the coast of New Guinea to the N.W. of -Prince Frederick Henry Island, where he was attacked -by natives and thence he sailed to Batavia. Thus -Captain Cook by sailing through his Endeavour Strait, -now called Torres Strait after the original navigator, -repeated the discovery of Torres after an interval of -more than a century and a half, and the general position -and outline of New Guinea became known to the -world.</p> - -<p>After the voyage of Cook many important additions -were made to the charts of New Guinea and its neighbouring -islands, notably by the voyages of La Perouse -(1788), John MacCluer (1790-1793), D’Entrecasteaux -(1792-1793), Duperrey (1823-1824), D. H. Kolff (1826), -and Dumont d’Urville (1827-1828).</p> - -<p>But during all this time New Guinea was practically -no man’s land, and except at Dorei and about the -MacCluer Gulf explorations were limited to views from -the deck of a ship. Flags were hoisted now and then -and the land taken possession of in the name of various -sovereigns and companies, amongst others by the East -India Company in 1793, but no effective occupation -was ever made. The Dutch regained their title to the -Western half of the island, but it was not until 1884 -that a British Protectorate was proclaimed over the -S.E. portion of the island, and over the remainder by -Germany in the same year.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RECENT EXPLORATION</div> - -<p>Although numerous naturalists, notably Dr. A. R.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span> -Wallace, Von Rosenberg, and Bernstein, and missionaries -had spent considerable periods of time in the country, -no very serious attempt was made to penetrate into the -interior until 1876, when the Italian naturalist, d’Albertis, -explored the Fly River for more than five hundred miles. -Since that time a very large number of expeditions -have been undertaken to various parts of the island, -and it will only be possible to mention a few of them -here. In 1885 Captain Everill ascended the Strickland -tributary of the Fly River. In the same year Dr. H. O. -Forbes explored the Owen Stanley range, and in 1889 -Sir William Macgregor reached the highest point of that -range.</p> - -<p>In Dutch New Guinea very little exploration was -done until the beginning of the present century. Professor -Wichmann made scientific investigations in the -neighbourhood of Humboldt Bay in 1903. Captains -Posthumus Meyes and De Rochemont in 1904 discovered -East Bay and the Noord River, which was explored -by Mr. H. A. Lorentz in 1907.</p> - -<p>During the period from 1909 to 1911, whilst our party -was in New Guinea, there were six other expeditions -in different parts of the Dutch territory. On the N. -coast a Dutch-German boundary commission was penetrating -inland from Humboldt Bay, and a large party -under Capt. Fransse Herderschee was exploring the -Amberno River. On the West and South coasts an -expedition was exploring inland from Fak-fak, another -was surveying the Digoel and Island rivers, and a third -made an attempt to reach the Snow Mountains by -way of the Utakwa River. But the most successful of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span> -all the expeditions was that of Mr. Lorentz, who sailed -up the Noord River and in November 1909 reached -the snow on Mount Wilhelmina, two hundred and eighty-six -years after the mountains were first seen by Jan -Carstensz.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Sail from the Aru Islands—Sight New Guinea—Distant Mountains—Signal -Fires—Natives in Canoes—A British Flag—Natives on -Board—Their Behaviour—Arrival at Mimika River—Reception at -Wakatimi—Dancing and Weeping—Landing Stores—View of the -Country—Snow Mountains—Shark-Fishing—Making the Camp—Death -of W. Stalker.</i></p></blockquote> - -<div class="sidenote">ARRIVAL IN NEW GUINEA</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> we left the northernmost end of the Aru Islands -behind us the wind rose and torrents of rain descended, -and the Arafura Sea, which is almost everywhere more -or less shoal water, treated us to the first foul weather -we had experienced since leaving England. At dawn -on the 4th January we found ourselves in sight of land, -and about five miles south of the New Guinea coast. -A big bluff mountain (Mount Lakahia) a southern spur -of the Charles Louis range determined our position, and -the head of the <i>Nias</i> was immediately turned to the -East. As we steamed along the coast the light grew -stronger, and we saw in the far North-east pale clouds, -which presently resolved themselves into ghostly-looking -mountains one hundred miles away. Soon the rising -sunlight touched them and we could clearly see white -patches above the darker masses of rock and then we -knew that these were the Snow Mountains of New -Guinea, which we had come so far to see. Beyond an -impression of their remoteness and their extraordinary -steepness we did not learn much of the formation of -the mountains from that great distance and they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> -quickly hidden from our view, as we afterwards found -happened daily, by the dense white mists that rose from -the intervening land.</p> - -<p>Following the coast rather more closely we soon -found that our approach was causing some excitement -on shore. White columns of the smoke of signal fires -curled up from the low points of the land and canoes -manned by black figures paddled furiously in our wake, -while others, warned doubtless by the signals, put off -from the land ahead of us and endeavoured to intercept -us in our course.</p> - -<p>In some of the larger canoes there were as many -as twenty men, and very fine indeed they looked standing -up in the long narrow craft which they urged swiftly -forward with powerful rhythmic strokes of their long-shafted -paddles. At the beginning of each stroke the -blade of the paddle is at right angles to the boat. As -it is pulled backward the propelling surface of the -paddle is a little rotated outward, a useful precaution, -for the stroke ends with a sudden jerk as the paddle -is lifted from the water and the consequent shower of -spray is directed away from the canoe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p036.jpg" width="500" height="377" alt="Carved Wooden Clubs and Stone Clubs." /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">1. 2. 3. Carved Wooden Clubs. -4-10. Stone Clubs.</span></p></div> - -<p>The shore was low and featureless, and it was -impossible to identify the mouths of the rivers from -the very inaccurate chart. It was not safe for the -<i>Nias</i> to approach the land closely on account of the -shoal water, so Capt. Van Herwerden dropped anchor -when he had been steaming Eastwards for about eight -hours, and sent the steam launch towards an inlet, -where we could see huts, to gather information. A -bar of sand prevented the launch from entering the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span> -inlet, so they hailed a canoe which ventured within -speaking distance, and by repeating several times -“Mimika,” the only word of their language that we -knew at that time, learnt that we had overshot our -destination by a few miles. That canoe, it should be -noted, was remarkable on account of two of its crew. -One of them held aloft an ancient Union Jack; the -other was conspicuously different from the scores of -men in the canoes about us, who were all frankly in a -bare undress, by wearing an old white cotton jacket -fastened by a brass button which was ornamented with -the head of Queen Victoria. How the flag and the -coat and the button came to that outlandish place will -never be known, but it is certain that they must have -passed through very many hands before they came there, -for certainly no Englishman had ever been there before.</p> - -<p>When the launch returned to the ship a crowd of -natives, fifty or sixty at the least, came clambering on -board leaving only one or two men in each canoe to paddle -after the steamer as we slowly returned towards the -Mimika. Two men were recognised by Capt. Van -Herwerden as having belonged to a party of natives -from this coast, who had been taken some years earlier -to Merauke, the Dutch settlement near the southernmost -point of New Guinea. At Merauke they had -got into mischief and had been put in prison from which -nine of them escaped, and these two men, probably -the only survivors of the party, had contrived to find -their way along four hundred miles of coast, peopled -by hostile tribes, back to their own country.</p> - -<p>The behaviour of our new fellow passengers was very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span> -remarkable and different from what one expected, -though it was obvious enough at the first glance that -these were people totally different from the Malayan -races both in appearance and demeanour; yet there -was none of that exuberance of spirits, child-like curiosity -and exhibition of merriment and delight in their novel -surroundings described by Wallace<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> and Guillemard<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> -and which I had myself seen on the coast of German -New Guinea. A few of them shook hands, or rather -held hands, with us and talked loudly and volubly, -while the rest stared dumbly at us and then wandered -aimlessly about the ship seeking a chance to steal any -loose piece of metal. They showed no fear nor did -they betray any excitement nor any very keen curiosity -about the marvellous things that they were seeing -for the first time. They were quite unmoved by the -spectacle of the windlass lifting up the anchor, and a -casual glance down the skylight of the engine room -was enough for most of them. They appeared to take -everything for granted without question, and a stolid -stare was their only recognition of the wonderful works -of the white man’s civilisation. In one respect it is -true they were not quite so apathetic and that was in -their appetite for tobacco, which they begged from -everyone on board, brown and white alike. When they -had obtained a supply, they sat in groups about the -deck and smoked as unconcernedly as though a passage -in a steamship were an affair of every-day occurrence -in their lives.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">MOUTH OF THE MIMIKA</div> - -<p>By the time that we eventually anchored off the -mouth of the Mimika River it was beginning to grow -dark, and Capt. Van Herwerden ordered the natives -on board to leave the ship, not having noticed that the -canoes had already departed towards the shore. No -doubt this was a preconcerted scheme of the natives -who wanted to stay on board, but by dint of much -shouting two canoes were persuaded to return and take -away some of our passengers. It was then quite dark -and there was a white mist over the sea, and the spectacle -of the procession of black figures passing down the -gangway into an apparent abyss, for the canoes were -invisible in the gloom, was singularly weird. There -was not room for all in the canoes, so about a score of -fortunate ones had to stop on board, where they slept -in picturesque attitudes about the deck. Five young -men chose a place where the iron cover of the steering -chain made a pillow a few inches high; they lay on -their sides all facing the same way, their arms folded -across their chests and their bent knees fitting into the -bend of the knees of the man in front, and so close -together that the five of them occupied a space hardly -more than five feet square.</p> - -<p>Soon after daylight on the following day the steam -launch left the ship with a party to proceed up the -Mimika and find a suitable place for a base-camp. The -river has a fine wide mouth about a mile across guarded -by a sand bar, through which runs a narrow channel -navigable at all stages of the tide except during rough -weather. For some distance the river is a noble stream -two or three hundred yards wide winding in fine sweeps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span> -between low mangrove-covered banks. About three -miles from the sea the river divides into an East and -West branch. The East branch, the Mimika proper, -brings down not more than one-quarter of the volume -of water of the West branch, of which it may be said -to be a tributary. It is remarkable that the party who -visited the Mimika in 1902 apparently overlooked the -fact that the West branch is actually the main river. -Above the junction of the two branches the water of -the Mimika is of a brown chocolate colour which -proclaims it, though we did not know it at the time, -to be a mere jungle stream rising from comparatively -low ground. The water of the West branch on the -contrary is pale in colour and at times of flood almost -milky-white, being charged with lime-stone from the -high mountains where it rises.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A WELCOME OF TEARS</div> - -<p>Proceeding for two or three miles up the Mimika, -which had become above the junction a comparatively -insignificant stream forty or fifty yards across -and very tortuous, the exploring party in the steam -launch arrived at the village of Wakatimi situated -on the right bank of the river. The village was crowded -with natives, numbering perhaps one thousand people, -who gave the visitors a most remarkable reception. -As soon as the boat appeared in sight the natives -crowded down to the bank and shouted shrilly, men, -women and children. When they came nearer the -people threw themselves into the shallow water and -many of them plastered themselves with mud, while -the women performed their curious dance, if dance it -can be called. It is not a concerted performance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span> -but rather a <i>pas seul</i> executed by each woman independently -of the others, and it is a peculiarly ungraceful -exhibition. The body is bent forward from the -hips, the hands rest on the knees or on the hips, and -then with a shuffling movement of the feet the woman -swings herself from side to side or up and down, always -presenting her back and the narrow strip of barkcloth, -which usually hangs down like a tail behind, to the -astonished gaze of the spectator. She sings all the -while a monotonous whining chant and occasionally -looks back over her shoulder, as if to see that the -onlooker is properly appreciative of her charms. Many -of the people both men and women on this and other -occasions of great excitement were so overcome with -emotion that they actually shed tears of rapture.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> -For many days after this boats were constantly coming -up the river from the ship, and they were always -welcomed in a similar manner by the natives.</p> - -<p>The river was explored for a few miles further up, -but the only suitable place for a camp was found to -be on the left bank of the river immediately opposite -to Wakatimi. Lieut. Cramer and a party of his -soldiers established themselves there the same afternoon -and the work of clearing the ground and landing -the stores was immediately begun. The <i>Nias</i> was -anchored about two miles outside the river and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span>launch went very slowly when it had two or three -heavily laden boats to tow against the strong current -of the river, so the business of landing the expedition -was a very slow one, and as there was at first but very -little space for pitching tents on the camping ground -some of us remained for a few days on board. During -those days that were spent on the ship outside the -Mimika we had opportunities in the early morning -of getting a general idea of the broad features of the -country.</p> - -<p>At the top of the white sandy beach was in most -places a narrow belt of <i>Casuarina</i> trees, which are -accustomed to grow on sandy or stony soil. They -resemble pines and their pale stems have a fresh green -foliage, which is a pleasing contrast to the dense -monotonous green of the majority of the trees in the -country. Behind the <i>Casuarina</i> belt dense jungle, for -the first few miles consisting entirely of Mangroves and -beyond that of various trees, extends with hardly any -rise of altitude to the foot of the mountains thirty -miles away. This last observation was one of supreme -importance and it affected the whole prospect and -conduct of the expedition. Those of us who had been -to New Guinea before had been accustomed to seeing -a steep shore rising very quickly to the hills. This -is the usual formation along practically the whole of -the North coast of the island, also along a considerable -extent of the South-east coast and again on the West -coast in the neighbourhood of MacCluer Gulf. It -was known of course that the South coast on both -sides of the mouth of the Fly River and about Prince<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span> -Frederick Henry Island was low swampy country, -but it was assumed that, considering the fact that the -highest peaks of the Snow Mountains were known to -be not more than seventy miles from the sea, the foothills -would certainly extend to within a short distance -of the coast.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VIEW OF THE MOUNTAINS</div> - -<p>Before we had reached the country we had had -the idea that in a few days’ march we should find ourselves -in the hills at perhaps three or four thousand -feet above the sea, but the view of the country which -we saw from the <i>Nias</i> effectually put an end to any hopes -of that kind. It is probable that more searching -enquiries made at Batavia would have revealed the -existence of this wide belt of low land, but it seldom -occurs to you to question the truth of such an assumption. -However that may be, a serious mistake was -made and we paid for it dearly enough. The mountains -appeared to rise very steeply from the low ground, -and seen from a distance they appeared to be composed -of parallel ridges lying one behind the other, each one -successively higher than the one in front of it. It -was only in certain lights, and more particularly when -the clouds began to form on them, that you could -distinguish deep and narrow valleys running into the -mountains. The nearer ranges rose steeply enough, -but were not too steep to be covered with dense forest -easily discernible from a distance. The furthermost -ridge on the other hand rose in huge precipices of bare -rock, which showed reddish yellow in the morning -sunlight with here and there downward stripes of -black colour, presumably water, and in other places<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span> -streaks of pure white rock. This precipice, of which -more will be said later, grew smaller towards the West -until it ended at the deep valley, which divides the -Snow Mountains from the range of the Charles Louis -Mountains.</p> - -<p>In the opposite direction towards the East the range -rises gradually, until at a point about North-east from -the Mimika three snow-capped tops are seen. I use -the word “top” advisedly, for these three points are not -peaks but are elevations on an otherwise fairly even -mountain outline. The vertical extent of the snow -is not very great, a few hundred feet at the most, the -South face of the mountain being so steep that snow -cannot lie on it save on the horizontal terraces of the -strata, which could plainly be distinguished. Continuing -the ridge East from the three snow tops (Mount -Idenburg) is a long plain of almost level snow about -three miles long. From the East end of the snow -plain a ridge of shattered rock, looking like Dolomite -towers from that great distance, forms a connection -with Mount Carstensz, the highest point of the range.</p> - -<p>Seen from afar, Mount Carstensz appears to be of -a different formation from the rest of the range. Mr. -Dumas of the Dutch Expedition to the Utakwa River -clearly identified masses of slate on the Southern face -from a distance of twenty miles, and this would quite -account for its different appearance. There are two -principal tops, a Western black and irregular rock with -scattered patches of snow, and an Eastern top more -even in its outline and entirely covered with snow. -Between the two a glacier of moderate size flows down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> -the South face of the mountain. Still further East -from Mount Carstensz could be seen yet other ridges, -apparently a continuation of the Carstensz ridge. -Occasionally these were covered with snow in the early -morning, but no other points of permanent snow could -be seen from the Mimika, and indeed there is no other -until Mount Wilhelmina is reached more than one -hundred miles to the East. But studying the mountains -with field glasses was an occupation which could only -be pursued for a short time, for the clouds formed -early on the ridges and by nine o’clock at the latest -all the higher mountains were hidden from view.</p> - -<p>During the first two days that we lay off the Mimika -we were visited by numbers of natives in canoes, who -came some to trade and some merely to stare at the -ship and the people on board. The articles that they -brought for sale consisted chiefly of fish, coconuts and -bananas of a very poor kind, though we afterwards -came to regard these latter as a delicious luxury. They -also brought a few young pigs, young cassowaries, and -other birds and they received payment in beads, scraps -of cloth, empty bottles and tins and pieces of metal. -It is worth while to record, as showing the indolence -of these people, that on the third day no natives came -to visit us. Those who had before come to look at -us had presumably satisfied their curiosity, while the -others who had come to barter were content with the -treasures they had won, although they might have -added greatly to their wealth if they had had the energy -to catch a few fish or pick a few more coconuts.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FISHING FOR SHARKS</div> - -<p>Another occupation, which served to pass the time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span> -was fishing for the sharks with which that shallow -sea abounds. They are blunt-nosed animals with large -dusky patches on the skin. It is very seldom that you -see them at the surface of the water, and they appear -to feed always at the bottom. The first that was -caught was found to be full of fragments of large crabs. -Nobody on board was found willing to eat the flesh, -though it is probable that a few months afterwards -they would have been less fastidious, so the fish was -thrown overboard, and an hour or two later a second -shark, a monster about twelve feet long, was hauled, -on board, and on being opened it was found to be full -of large undigested lumps of (presumably) the first.</p> - -<p>On January 8th those of us who had remained on -the <i>Nias</i> left the ship and proceeded to Wakatimi, -where we found that Lieut. Cramer and his men had -already done an immense amount of work in clearing -the ground for the camp. It appeared that the place -chosen had been cleared of forest at some time, for -there were no large trees growing on it, but it was -covered with a dense jungle of shrubs and small trees, -a foot or so in thickness and a tangle of creepers. -Already in four days a strip along the river bank about -eighty yards long and thirty yards wide had been -cleared of bush, and as time went on the clearing was -gradually extended until there were twenty acres or -more of open ground about the camp.</p> - -<p>During the first two or three days the natives, who -had assembled in large numbers at the village of Wakatimi, -helped a good deal in clearing the ground and -landing the stores. When the steam launch towing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span> -the laden boats arrived at the camp they fell upon -the boats in hordes and quickly carried everything -up the steep mud bank, but this amusement palled -upon them very soon, and they stood about doing nothing -and hampered the men at their work of unpacking. -Accordingly a stout wooden fence was built about the -landward side of the camp and over this they were -content to gaze from morning till night. They stood -packed together five or six deep, and the press of those -at the back trying to catch a glimpse of what was -going on was so great that two or three times the -fence fell bodily inwards, and with it a struggling mass -of black humanity; but it was not many days before -their curiosity was satisfied, and though they did not -afford us very much assistance it was fortunate that -they were not inclined to molest or interfere with us -in any way.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OUR FIRST LOSS</div> - -<p>We had only been in our camp at Wakatimi for -one day and it already seemed as if the place was -beginning to show some sign of order, when a melancholy -tragedy threw a gloom over the spirits of the -whole expedition. On the afternoon of January 9th -Mr. Wilfred Stalker, who had had plenty of experience -of tropical and Australian jungles, went out from the -camp taking his collecting gun to shoot some birds. -The usual daily rain began at about four o’clock, but -as we were all busy with various occupations in our -tents his absence was not noticed until after six o’clock, -when it was already pitch dark and the rain was falling -in torrents. Beyond the camp was dense jungle intersected -by creeks and pools of water, difficult enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span> -to traverse by day but absolutely impassable in darkness, -so there was nothing to be done that night but -to hope anxiously that Stalker’s bushcraft had prompted -him to make a shelter of some kind, if disaster had -not already overtaken him. At dawn Lieut. Cramer -sent out parties of soldiers in all directions, and soon -all of us, Europeans, Gurkhas, and native soldiers were -out searching and shouting and firing shots. With -some difficulty we explained to the natives what had -happened, and we offered them large rewards if they -were successful in finding him, and many of them -joined with us; but though the ground was carefully -quartered and the search was continued all that day -and a part of the next not a trace of him was found -anywhere, and it was evidently hopeless that he could -ever be found alive. On the second day, when the search -had been abandoned, the natives were convinced of his -fate, and two of the more important people came over from -the village and wailed loudly outside his empty tent.</p> - -<p>On January 12th all doubts as to his end were set -at rest when a canoe manned by four Papuans, smeared -with mud as their custom is in such circumstances, -brought back his body from a creek about half a mile -from the camp, where it had been found. Up to that -moment there had been present in our minds the -horrid suspicion that he might perhaps have fallen -the victim to foul play. We thought that natives finding -him wandering alone might have been tempted -by his possessions and have murdered him, but it was -evidently not so and we could only hope that by drowning -death had come swiftly to him.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p048a.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT WAKATIMI." /> -<p class="caption">CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT WAKATIMI.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p048b.jpg" width="400" height="291" alt="A HOUSE FOR CEREMONIES, MIMIKA." /> -<p class="caption">A HOUSE FOR CEREMONIES, MIMIKA.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">WILFRED STALKER</div> - -<p>We buried him under a tree about one hundred yards -behind the camp, and in the absence of the leader of -the expedition, who had gone away with Rawling and -Cramer to reconnoitre the river above Wakatimi, I -read the short burial service. Besides Marshall and -Shortridge and myself there were a Dutch soldier, two -convicts and about fifty Papuans, who stood quietly -in a wide circle about the grave. I think the ninetieth -psalm was never read to a more remarkable congregation. -The grave was the first of the graves of many -who left their bones in New Guinea.</p> - -<p>Wilfred Stalker was in his thirty-first year when -he died. Previously he had spent many years as a -naturalist in Australia and several months in New -Guinea. Early in 1909 he returned to the East where -he spent a part of his time in engaging coolies for the -New Guinea Expedition, and he had time to make -an interesting journey in the Island of Ceram, where -he made a remarkable zoological collection. He joined -us at Amboina on January 1st so that we had not time -to know him well, but his unflagging energy in the -preparations at the base-camp, where he landed with -the first party, showed that he was a man whom the -expedition could ill afford to lose.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Arrival of our Ambonese—Coolie Considerations—Canoes of the Natives—Making -Canoes—Preliminary Exploration of the Mimika—Variable -Tides—Completing the Camp—A Plague of Flies—Also -of Crickets—Making “Atap”—Trading with the Natives—Trade -Goods.</i></p></blockquote> - -<div class="sidenote">AMBONESE COOLIES</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">After</span> all the stores and equipment of the expedition -had been landed at Wakatimi, an operation which -took six days and some ten or more journeys of the -steam launch towing many boats to accomplish, the -<i>Nias</i> returned to Dobo, and brought back from there -on the 14th January our Ambonese coolies, who had -arrived there by mail steamer from Amboina. To -those of us who had had experience of native carriers -in other countries, the appearance of the ninety-six -Ambonese came as something of a shock. When the -boats crowded with them came within sight of the camp -the natives cried out that our women were coming, and -they might well be excused for their mistake. With -their wide straw hats and coloured coats and shirts and -gay <i>sarongs</i> they had not much the appearance of men, -and we wondered what sort of people they would be -to force a way through the trackless country. When -they landed, our first impression of their unsuitableness -was rather strengthened than otherwise. Every man -(to give them a dignity which very few of them deserved) -had a large wooden or tin box as well as a huge bundle -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>of bedding and mats. Their average age appeared to -be about sixteen years, and though they were said to -be the best men obtainable in Amboina, the physique -of most of them was wretched. It was evidently useless -to keep so many feeble creatures, so it was decided -to keep fifty of the more promising and send the rest -back to Amboina by the <i>Nias</i>, which was waiting at -the mouth of the Mimika until the following day. The -whole gang was paraded and a more hopeless looking -lot it would be hard to imagine. With great difficulty -we picked out fifty who, though they had little appearance -of strength, were not obviously crippled by disease, -and the forty-six others were sent away without having -done a single day’s work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p050.jpg" width="400" height="651" alt="CANOE-MAKING: ROUGHLY SHAPING THE FELLED TREE." /> -<p class="caption">CANOE-MAKING: ROUGHLY SHAPING THE FELLED TREE.</p> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">AMBONESE COOLIES</div> - -<p>The question of coolies, as we were to find by bitter -experience during the ensuing months, is the point -that determines the success or failure of an expedition. -Mr. Stalker had left England charged with the duty -of engaging coolies for this expedition. It was hoped -that he would be able to get a number of men in the -Ké Islands, but failing to engage them there he had -seen in Amboina his only chance of recruiting a sufficient -number of men. No blame can be attached to -him, for he had had no experience of the kind before -and his instructions were not very detailed, but it was -a mistake which seriously delayed the progress of the -expedition.</p> - -<p>As well as the trouble involved in trying to make -a silk purse of efficient coolies out of the sow’s ear of -the Amboina rabble we were confronted by another -difficulty of transport. It has been mentioned above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> -(page 43) that before we arrived in the country it -was expected that we should find rising ground close -to the sea, and that in a few days’ journey at the most -we should reach an altitude of three thousand feet or -upwards, but the discovery that there was a tract of -level country hardly above sea level extending from -the coast to the foot of the mountains thirty miles -inland entirely upset our calculations. Had we known -this before we should necessarily have brought a launch -and boats to tow our stores up the many miles of -navigable river, and by so doing we should have saved -ourselves many weeks of valuable time and an infinity -of labour. It is worth while to record this fact, not -for the object of drawing attention to any deficiencies -in the organisation of the expedition, but to demonstrate -the uselessness of entering an unknown country without -having made a preliminary reconnaissance.</p> - -<p>An urgent message was despatched to the Navy -Department in Java begging them to supply us with -a steam launch at the earliest opportunity, but communications -are slow in that part of the world, and it -was not until ten weeks afterwards that the launch -arrived at the Mimika. Its career was brief and inglorious. -It made two or three journeys at snail’s -pace up the river before it finally broke down altogether -and was sent back to Java.</p> - -<p>In June we purchased from the pearlfishers at Dobo -a petrol motor-boat, which made several successful -trips up the river towing large quantities of stores, and -then it was badly damaged by coming into violent -contact with a sunken tree, and it was several months<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span> -before it could be repaired sufficiently to float. Thus -it happened that nearly all the river transport of the -expedition was laboriously carried out in canoes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE NATIVE CANOE</div> - -<p>The canoes used by the natives on the Mimika and -neighbouring rivers are simple “dug-outs,” that is they -are made from one tree trunk without any joinery at -all. They vary considerably in size but the length -of an average canoe is about thirty-five feet. The -sides curve inward towards the gunwale so that in -section the canoe forms a large segment of a circle. -The breadth at the gunwale is about eighteen inches -and the breadth at the widest part from eighteen to -twenty-four inches. The gunwales are almost horizontal, -though in some boats there is a considerable -“sheer” towards the end of the canoe. They end in -a square bow and at the stern they come together to -a fine point. The bottom of a canoe—there is no keel—slopes -finely up from the middle towards the ends -so that when the canoe is afloat several feet of its length -at bow and stern are out of water.</p> - -<p>The square bow of the canoe is carved in a more -or less symmetrical fashion and there is usually a narrow -margin of ornamental carving at intervals along the -sides. A common feature of this carving, as also of -the other native ornaments, is an object which is intended -to represent the human eye. Occasionally -they attach to the bow of the canoe, one on either -side and one in the middle, three long boards carved -in a sort of fretwork manner and painted red and white. -These project about four feet in front of the bow and -give it somewhat the appearance of a bird’s beak.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span> -The inside of the canoe is sometimes whitened with -lime or sago powder but is otherwise not ornamented. -A few feet from the stern, where the bottom begins -to slope upwards, a low partition of wood is left forming -as it were a sort of bulkhead; the space behind -this is filled with sand on which a fire is kept burning.</p> - -<p>Before we came to the country the whole business -of canoe-making from the first felling of the tree to -the final hollowing out of the inside was done with -stone axes and the carving was done with sharpened -shells, a labour which it is difficult to realise, so it is -not surprising that the natives take very great care -of their boats. They never allow water to stand in -them for long, and at the end of a storm of rain the -first thing they do is to go to the river and bail the -water out of their canoes, which they do by scooping -it out with the blade of a paddle. They also take good -care of the outside and frequently char them with fire -to kill the worms, which otherwise quickly destroy -wood in brackish water.</p> - -<p>The tree most commonly used for making canoes -is <i>Octomeles moluccana</i>, which has a smooth pale trunk -devoid of branches for a long way above the ground. -When they can do so they choose a tree growing close -to the river bank, but this is not always possible and -we found a place where a tree for a canoe had been -felled fully three hundred yards from the water. The -trunk is roughly shaped where it lies and is then hauled -with immense toil over logs laid on a rough track to the -river; thence it is towed to the village where the -hollowing and shaping is done at leisure. We saw a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span>large number of canoes made at Parimau, and in nearly -every case the balance was perfect when they were -first put into the water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p054.jpg" width="500" height="305" alt="CANOES, FINISHED AND UNFINISHED." /> -<p class="caption">CANOES, FINISHED AND UNFINISHED.</p> -</div> - -<p>The canoes are usually propelled by paddles with -long thin shafts and wide blades which are often beautifully -carved, but in shallow places or rapid water -the natives generally employ a long pole in the use of -which they are very expert. It is easy enough to -stand up and paddle or pole in large canoes, but the -smaller craft are very top-heavy, and the natives perform -wonderful feats of balancing in navigating them. -Their education begins early for we saw in one of the -villages small canoes three or four feet long, in which -the children begin to learn the craft of the waterman -almost before they have learned to walk.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PURCHASING CANOES</div> - -<p>Though the people value their canoes very highly -they were anxious enough to part with them in exchange -for our knives and pieces of metal, of which they had -none at all, and we very soon had a small fleet of canoes. -The first two were bought for a knife apiece, but the price -soon rose to an axe for a canoe, and in the course of -several months it had still further risen to two axes -or even two axes and a knife.</p> - -<p>Within a few days of the arrival of our coolies we -had purchased half a dozen canoes and preparations -were made to send an exploring party up the river. -At that time we were none of us skilful canoe-men and -it was considered safer to use the canoes as rafts by -lashing two side by side and securing a platform of -bamboos across the top. This was a most cumbrous -arrangement which added enormously to the labour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> -of paddling, and after the first journey it was never -repeated.</p> - -<p>On the 18th January, Goodfellow, Rawling, and -Shortridge with twenty-four coolies, six Gurkhas, and -a small party of Javanese soldiers in the charge of a -Dutch sergeant started up the river. They took with -them about a dozen natives, hoping that they would -work hard at paddling and would be useful in other -ways, but they were a perpetual nuisance calling out -for their wives and wanting to stop to eat or sleep; they -finished by stealing one of the canoes and deserting -the night before they would have been sent back to -their homes. With them went another of our cherished -illusions that we should be able to get a great deal of -assistance from the natives of the country. The party -proceeded up the river at an incredibly slow rate on -account of the clumsy rafts, and for four days saw no -signs of inhabitants. On the fifth day they found one -isolated hut, and two days later after passing a few -scattered huts they arrived at the village of Parimau, -above which place the river appeared to be hardly -navigable.</p> - -<p>The welcome accorded to the party by the natives -of Parimau was as enthusiastic as that at Wakatimi -described above, the people showing their delight by -smearing themselves with mud and shedding copious -tears. During the following days, when a camp was -being made, hundreds of natives flocked into the place -to see the strange white men, who were exhibited to -the new-comers with a sort of proprietary air by the -natives of Parimau.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">TIDES OF THE RIVER</div> - -<p>In the meantime a great deal of work was necessary -to put in order the base-camp at Wakatimi, and to -render it secure against an attack, should the natives -ever alter their friendly attitude towards us. The -bush was completely cleared for some distance and -a stout fence built about the camp. Then it was found -that at high tide, and especially at spring tide, a large -part of the camp was flooded and this necessitated a -great amount of levelling and trenching and banking, -a task which appealed to the fenland instinct of Cramer. -The tide made itself felt in the river for several miles -above Wakatimi, where there was a rise and fall of -about ten feet, but the exact tidal movements were -very difficult to recognise. On some days two tides -were distinctly seen, while on many others there -appeared to be only one. Their movements were further -complicated by the very variable amount of water -brought down by the river. Sometimes the river was -almost stagnant, but at other times it swept down -bank-high with a strong current for days at a time, -and no flow of the tide could be noticed. The river -Watuka, which joins the Mimika a few miles below -Wakatimi, had a much greater volume of water than -the latter river, and often when the tide was rising its -waters were easily recognisable by their white colour -floating up past the camp and holding back the waters -of the Mimika in the same way that the Blue Nile, -when it is in flood, forms a pond of the White Nile.</p> - -<p>It was unfortunate that no suitable place for the -base-camp could be found above the tidal water, because -it increased the difficulty of supplying the camp with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span> -drinking water, and at times when there was not much -fresh water coming down the river the ebb and flow -of the tide washed the refuse backwards and forwards -in front of the camp. Water was boiled and filtered -every day in quantities large enough for every man -in the camp to have as much as he wished, but the -value of this precaution was to a large extent neutralised -by the Malay habit of washing out the mouth with the -water in which the man bathes.</p> - -<p>A wooden landing stage for canoes was built out -over the muddy bank, and a bathing place was cut off -from the river by a wooden fence to protect bathers -from crocodiles and sharks, both of which were occasionally -seen, but as the natives bathed constantly -without showing any fear of either animal the precaution -was perhaps needless.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FLIES AND CRICKETS</div> - -<p>At that time when the ground was being cleared -we began to be plagued by large blue-bottle flies, which -swarmed about the camp and laid their eggs everywhere. -One of their favourite laying grounds was -in our bedding, which in a hot damp climate must -always be hung out to air when the sun shines. You -would find two folds of your blanket stuck together -with horrible masses of eggs and if, as sometimes happened, -you did not scrape them all away you would -wake up at night and find yourself crawling with -maggots. There are some people who are afraid of -spiders, but the most timorous of mortals must find -the homely spider preferable to the loathsome blow -fly. The house where we mostly lived at Wakatimi -and where we had our meals was immediately filled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span> -with blue-bottles the moment our food was brought -in, so we encouraged the larger sort of spider to live -there and one old fellow who lived under the corner -of the table used to come out at meal times and take -his toll of flies, and in the course of time he became so -tame that he would take a living fly out of your fingers.</p> - -<p>At the same time, and indeed during the whole -of our stay in the country, we were greatly annoyed -by the depredations of very large crickets. Not content -with making a most distracting noise by night these -horrible creatures did endless damage to our eatable -possessions. They invaded the sacks in which we kept -our scanty garments, socks, vests and the like, and -riddled them into holes, and they appeared to have a -special partiality for sponges and brushes, which they -devoured completely. Even more serious were their -attacks on folded tents or sacks of rice and flour, which -had to be constantly taken out of the store houses and -repaired. When these things were taken out of the -house a large number of crickets were taken out too, -and then was the chance for the Kingfishers (<i>Halcyon -sanctus</i>) which darted down and snapped them up. A -pair of these beautiful little birds haunted the camp -and became so tame that they would fly down from -the roof of a house and pick up a cricket within a foot -or two of a man.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BUILDING MATERIAL</div> - -<p>When the ground had been well cleared and levelled, -we set about the business of building barracks for the -men and store houses for the provisions and equipment. -The Dutch contingent had brought with them regulation -army barrack frames, pieces of seasoned wood of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> -definite lengths which are fitted together by bolts and -screws, and form the skeleton of excellent houses. We -had nothing of the kind, but the jungle supplied plenty -of wood and our houses, though less regular than those -of the Dutch, were very soon built. It is easy enough -to put up the framework of a house in a place where -there is plenty of timber, but the walls and the roof -are a more difficult matter. Fortunately the natives -were adepts in the art of making “atap,” which they -use for roofing their own huts, and they were soon -eagerly making it for us in exchange for our trade -goods.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p060.jpg" width="400" height="562" alt="MAKING 'ATAP' FOR ROOFING." /> -<p class="caption">MAKING “ATAP” FOR ROOFING.</p></div> - -<p>The best “atap” is made from the leaves of the -Nipa palm (<i>Nipa fruticans</i>) which grows abundantly -in the swampy country. Almost equally good “atap” -can be made from the Sago palm, but the leaves of -the Coconut palm shrivel quickly and are of no use for -the purpose. The method of the manufacture of -“atap” is briefly as follows: Leaflets of the palm are -stripped from the stem, which is then split into three -or four sticks of about an inch and a half in diameter -and five or six feet in length. The man begins by -taking up a leaf and folding it in the middle, thus breaking -the mid-rib of the leaf. He then frees the mid-rib -from the surrounding leaf for a short distance and -breaks off a piece about three inches long for use presently. -Then holding the stick near the end he pushes -the free end of the mid-rib, which is separated from -the leaf, into the soft substance of the stick and folds -the leaf once round the stick in such a way that its -two free ends lie one upon the other. He then clips -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>together the free ends with the short piece he had -broken from the mid-rib. He then repeats the process -with another leaf, making each one slightly overlap -the last, until the stick is completely covered with -folded leaves. It should be said that each leaf is about -three inches wide and four feet long so that the free -ends, when the leaf is folded, lie about two feet from -the stick. “Atap” is always made by the men, never -by the women, and a quick worker will make a complete -piece in about ten minutes.</p> - -<p>The method of roofing with “atap” is very simple. -Pieces are fixed by strands of rattan to the timbers -of the roofing beginning from below and overlapping -each other like tiles. The stick end of the “atap” is -uppermost and the free ends point downwards. When -there is no lack of “atap” and the pieces can be laid -on the roof very closely together it forms a most efficient -thatch, which keeps the house tolerably cool in the -hot weather and is impervious to the heaviest downfall -of rain.</p> - -<p>The demand for “atap” started our regular trade -with the natives, it brought us into friendly relations -with them and they soon discovered that they could -put confidence in us. When they found that we really -paid them, as we promised, in beads and cloth, there -was keen competition in the “atap” trade and they -brought us as much as we wanted. For a few pieces -only they received beads, while for ten pieces and -upwards we paid them in cloth and they adopted various -tricks to obtain cloth, when they knew that the amount -they brought was only worth beads. One of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span> -dodges was to bring old pieces of “atap” from their -own houses to increase the size of the pile, and sometimes -a man would steal two or three pieces from the pile -of another man who had already been paid, but they -were always found out and were not in the least ashamed -of themselves. It was important to keep the price -low, because we very well knew that when the people -had obtained as much cloth and as many beads as they -wanted they would never do any more work, and that -did occur after a few months. They greatly enjoyed -a little foolery. For instance, when you were paying -them in cloth it was much more appreciated if you -wound it artistically about the recipient’s head than -if you merely thrust it into his hands; and in paying -a man in beads it was thought a great joke if you let -them slowly trickle into his palm out of your closed -fist. His smile would grow with the pile of beads in -his hand, and he always hoped to find some more -concealed between your fingers.</p> - -<p>In addition to “atap” they also brought other -things for trade, sometimes fish from the sea which -were generally uneatable, and sometimes delicious prawns -six or eight inches long from the river estuary. There -was a constant trade in coconuts which grew in some -numbers about Wakatimi, and occasionally we bought -a bunch of bananas. Living birds of many kinds, -cassowaries, pigeons, kingfishers, lories and parrots were -often brought for sale, but the poor creatures were -generally taken straight from the nest, and the soldiers -and coolies who bought them quickly stuffed them -to death with rice. Some of the lories throve and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span> -became tame enough to fly about at liberty, and the -cassowaries became quite a pest in the camp.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TRADING WITH THE NATIVES</div> - -<p>So keen did the people become on trading that they -would barter all their worldly possessions for European -goods. Stone clubs and axes, bows and arrows, spears -and drums, the skulls of their forebears, indeed all -their moveable goods were brought to us for exchange. -It may sound rather a mean transaction to buy from -a Papuan a stone axe, which has probably been in -his family for generations, for a small knife or coloured -handkerchief, but he was always delighted with the -exchange and when both parties to it are satisfied a -bargain may be considered a just one.</p> - -<p>Our trade goods consisted mostly of coloured beads, -red cloth, knives of various sizes, and axes. Of these -the red cloth was by far the most useful and the most -sought after. The Dutch had cloth of various shades -and patterns, but the natives, with a true eye for colour, -knew that our red stuff suited their dark skins better -than any shade of green or blue. The axes were given -in exchange for canoes, and knives were mostly used -to pay the men who carried for us in the interior. -Fish hooks were greatly appreciated by the natives of -the coast villages, but the Jews’ harps of which we had -a large quantity, though they are greatly in demand -among the Papuans of British New Guinea and in some -of the Pacific Islands, were of no use to us for trade, -and the few we gave away were used either as ornaments -round the neck or as ear-rings. There was -always a great demand for cast-off clothing, but a Papuan -wearing a pair of tattered trousers or a fragment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span> -a shirt was so unpleasant to look at and he generally -became so demoralised in character, that we made it -a rule not to give them any of our rags. Empty bottles -were of course greatly sought after and the many -thousands of tins which we emptied during the course -of the expedition were wealth untold to a people, who -up to that time had possessed no sort of vessel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p064.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt="PAPUAN WOMAN CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA." /> -<p class="caption">PAPUAN WOMAN CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA.<br /> -(<i>Smoke is seen from the fire in the stern.</i>)</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Difficulties of Food—Coolies’ Rations—Choice of Provisions—Transporting -Supplies up the Mimika—Description of the River—A -Day’s Work—Monotonous Scenery—Crowned Pigeons—Birds of -Paradise and Others—Snakes, Bees and other Creatures—Rapids -and Clear Water—The Seasons—Wind—Rain—Thunderstorms—Halley’s -Comet.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the principal obstacles in the way of successful -exploration in Dutch New Guinea is the lack of food -in the country itself. It is true that in the low-lying -swampy districts near the coast there are plenty of -Sago-palms, but the majority of Malays are not sago -eaters except under compulsion, and the preparation -of sago to make it only tolerably palatable is a tedious -business. Moreover the first object of an expedition -to the mountains is to leave the swamps behind as -soon as possible. So it follows that every scrap of -food, for the coolies as well as for the Europeans, has -to be brought into the country from outside, and it -will be evident that, when the means of transport are -distressingly slow, the provisions must diminish considerably -in quantity as they are carried towards the -interior.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SUPPLIES</div> - -<p>The mainstay of the food of Malay coolies and -soldiers is rice, of which the daily ration is one <i>katti</i> -(1-1/3 pounds); to this is added about a quarter of a -pound of dried meat or dried fish. Once or twice a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span> -week the rice was replaced by <i>kachang ijau</i>, a small -round green bean, which is supposed to be of use in -preventing the onset of beri-beri, though it is very -doubtful whether this is the case; the beans are -boiled and are eaten either with salt or with brown -Javanese sugar. A full ration for a coolie also includes -tea, coffee, salt and chillies. When it is remembered -that the numbers of the expedition were never less than -one hundred and twenty and were often more than -one hundred and sixty, and since it was considered -advisable always to have a supply for several -months in advance in the eventuality of communication -with Amboina becoming impossible, it can be -imagined that the amount of stores necessary for the -whole party was no small thing. The management -of the stores of Cramer’s party alone, of which -every detail had to be accounted for to the Government, -occupied the full time of a Dutch sergeant and a -native clerk.</p> - -<p>Not only was a great deal of labour involved in -dealing with such an immense bulk of stores, but there -was considerable difficulty in preserving them from -the ill effects of the climate. Our first consignment of -rice arrived in sacks, and the futility of that method -of packing was apparent, when a great quantity of it -was spoilt by a shower of rain between the steamer and -the base-camp. The next lot was packed in tins with -lids; when these were turned upside down the rice -trickled out or water trickled in, and again a large -quantity was lost or spoilt. After that it was put into -tins of which the tops were soldered down, but even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> -that was not quite successful, for it often happened -that a pin-hole was left unsoldered, through which -moisture would eventually find its way and the rice -be spoilt.</p> - -<p>Even more difficult than the rice to keep dry were -the dried fish and dried meat, which were sent to us -packed in wooden boxes; the stuff quickly became -sodden from the moisture-laden atmosphere, and although -we kept coolies constantly employed in drying it in -the sun, an enormous amount of it became rotten and -was thrown away. The only effectual method of preserving -the dried meat and fish is to seal it up like -the rice in soldered tins. The tin always used for this -purpose is the rectangular tin in which kerosene oil -is imported to the East; filled with rice it weighs about -forty pounds.</p> - -<p>In writing the history of this expedition I should -not be honest if I were to refrain from mentioning the -fact that some of our own stores were, to say the least, -ill-chosen. It appeared that a large quantity of stores -had been bought from the Shackleton Expedition, -which had returned from the Antarctic a few months -before we left England. However suitable those provisions -may have been for a Polar expedition, they were -not the sort of thing one would have chosen for a -journey in the Tropics. For instance, large tins of -“bully-beef” are excellent in a cold climate, but when -you open them near the Equator you find that they -consist of pallid lumps of pink flesh swimming in a -nasty gravy. Pea-soup and pea-flour, of which we -had nearly four hundred pounds’ weight, strike terror<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span> -into the stoutest heart, when the temperature is 86° -in the shade. Pickles are all very well in their way -for those that like them, but one hundred and sixty -bottles was more than a generous allowance. <i>Punch</i>, -in commenting on a newspaper misprint which stated -that “the British Ornithologists Union Expedition -to Papua was joined at Singapore by ten pickled -Gurkhas,” suggested that it was “no doubt a misprint -for gherkins.” We were glad that Mr. Punch -was mistaken and that we had not increased our store -of pickles at Singapore.</p> - -<p>The packing was almost as remarkable as the choice -of the stores themselves: they were secured in strong -packing cases of large and variable size fastened with -bands of iron and an incredible number of nails, suitable -enough to withstand the banging of Polar storms, -but not well adapted to their present purpose. The -boxes were all too big for convenient transport, and -as each one was filled with food of one kind only every -box had to be opened at once and a selection made -from them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SUPPLIES</div> - -<p>Here it must be said that, in response to our comments -on the stores and the packing, the Committee -sent out to us an excellent supply of provisions from -Messrs. Fortnum and Mason, properly packed in light -“Vanesta” cases. These reached us at the end of -August and during the rest of our stay in the country -we fared well.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p068.jpg" width="400" height="457" alt="JANGBIR AND HERKAJIT, GURKHAS." /> -<p class="caption">JANGBIR AND HERKAJIT, GURKHAS.</p></div> - -<p>We took with us a small supply of whisky and brandy, -which was often acceptable, and I believe that in an -excessively damp climate a small quantity of alcohol -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span>may be beneficial. The Dutch took with them dry -Hollands gin, which is drunk with a small quantity of -bitters before dinner; it certainly has the effect of -coaxing your appetite for tinned foods, all of which, -when you have lived on them for a few months, have -the same dull taste.</p> - -<p>It may be thought that the above discourse on the -subject of food is unduly long, but I shall make no -apology for it, because equally with the question of -transport the question of food is of paramount importance. -The recital of some of the mistakes that -we made may serve as a warning to others, who wish -to visit a similar district. In countries like Africa -and many parts of Asia, where the people cultivate the -soil and where there are numbers of game animals, -you may always look forward to varying your fare -with some fresh food, either animal or vegetable; but -when you go to New Guinea you must be prepared to -live wholly on dried and tinned foods, and that is -only possible when they are varied and of the best -manufacture.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE MIMIKA RIVER</div> - -<p>During the first months of our stay in New Guinea -most of the energies of the expedition were spent in -transporting supplies from the base-camp at Wakatimi -to the camp at Parimau up the Mimika River. And -indeed it may be said that this was one of the principal -occupations of the expedition from beginning to end; -for our coolies were very soon worn out by sickness -and the unaccustomed labour, so that they had to be -sent back to their homes, and by the time that a fresh -batch of coolies arrived in the country the store of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> -provisions at Parimau was exhausted and the process -of taking up a fresh supply had to be begun again.</p> - -<p>It was not until our third batch of coolies came -at the end of December, that we were able to accumulate -enough stores at Parimau to serve as a base for -a moderately long expedition from that place. Before -that time it had never been possible to make a longer -march than three days from Parimau, and there had -been long periods when from lack of coolies everything -had been at a standstill. Those times were of course -excessively trying both to the health and to the tempers -of the members of the expedition. It was irksome -beyond words to see day after day the mountains in -the distance and to be unable to move a step nearer -to them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p070.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="HAULING CANOES UP THE MIMIKA." /> -<p class="caption">HAULING CANOES UP THE MIMIKA.</p></div> - -<p>The distance from Wakatimi to Parimau, though -only twenty-two miles as the crow flies, was about -forty miles by water, and it took from five to seven -days, according to the state of the river, to accomplish -the journey in canoes. While the coolies were still -comparatively fresh, we sometimes sent off as many -as six canoes at a time from Wakatimi to Parimau, -but with sickness and fatigue their numbers quickly -diminished and two or three canoes laden with stores, -accompanied by one “escort” canoe manned by -Javanese soldiers and convicts, was the size of the -usual river “transport.” The larger canoes were paddled -by five or six and the smaller by four men; the average -load carried by one canoe was about eight hundred -pounds’ weight, of which a considerable amount was -consumed on the journey. The men were given one -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>day’s rest at Parimau, they came down the river in -two days and rested for two days at Wakatimi before -starting up the river again. One of us accompanied -them on nearly every journey with a view to preventing -the men from lingering too many days on the voyage -and partly as a protection from the natives, who paid -great respect to us but were inclined to behave rudely to -the coolies, if they were not accompanied by an European.</p> - -<p>Those days of canoeing up the Mimika River were -some of the most monotonous of my life and I shall -never forget them. For the first few miles above -Wakatimi the river is about as wide as the Thames -at Windsor, the banks are covered with smallish trees -with here and there clumps of palm trees, from which -fresh young coconuts may be gathered. Occasionally -the rising tide helps you on your way, and if you are -particularly fortunate you may even see at the end -of a straight reach of the river a glimpse of the distant -mountains. But very soon the river narrows to half -its width, the huge trees of the regular New Guinea -jungle shut out all except a narrow strip of sky, and -the river twists and meanders towards all the points -of the compass, until you wonder whether it will not -eventually bring you back to the point whence you -started. There was one bend of the river which was -particularly remarkable; it made an almost complete -circle of about a mile and a half in circumference, ending -at a point exactly forty yards distant from its commencement, -so that by landing and walking across a -narrow neck you could wait for more than half an hour -for the canoes to overtake you.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span></p> - -<p>The rate of travel varied with the efficiency of the -coolies and according to the strength of the current -in the river, which was sometimes very sluggish, and -at other times came swirling down at three or four -miles an hour. We cleared camping places at various -points along the river, and, if the pace was good, the -average stage was about six hours, though it often -took ten or even twelve hours when the river was in -flood. The pleasantest camping places were on mudbanks, -where the coolies could bathe and pitch their -tents without trouble, but they were very liable to be -flooded by a sudden rise of the river during the night, -and we generally had our own tents pitched on a space -cleared in the jungle at the top of a steep bank.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CANOEING UP THE MIMIKA</div> - -<p>It will be convenient to describe a day’s voyage -up the Mimika by taking an extract from my diary:—</p> - -<p class="p padl2">“May 13. The monotony of the river is beyond -words, and one day is almost exactly like another. -I get up at six o’clock and breakfast off cocoa -and biscuits and butter, whilst the camp is coming -down, <i>i.e.</i> tents, etc., being packed. Spend the -next hour or rather more in hurrying on the -coolies with their food, which they ought always -to begin to cook half an hour earlier than they -do. See everything put into the canoes and -then start with the last. After that anything -from five to twelve hours’ sitting on a damp tent -with one’s feet in more or less (according to the -weather) water swishing from side to side of -the canoe. Sometimes I paddle, but not so much -now as I did the first time I came up the river, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>not from laziness but because the irregular time -is so horribly irritating. If the coolies would -only paddle lazily but regularly all would be -well, but they will not; they paddle all together -furiously for perhaps twenty or thirty strokes -and then vary between a haphazard rag-time -and doing nothing at all.</p> - -<p class="p padl2">“Most of the time I watch the banks go by -and wonder how long it will take us to get to -the end of this reach, which bears a remarkable -resemblance to the last and to the next. The -jungle is as ugly as it can be, rank undergrowth, -trailing rattans and scraggy rotting trees. In -forty miles I do not think there are half a dozen -big trees worth looking at. Very occasionally -you see a flowering creeper, one with clusters of -white flowers is here and there, and I have seen -a few of the gorgeous flaming D’Albertis creeper -(<i>Mucuna pruriens</i>). Butterflies are seldom seen -and birds one hardly hears at all. The banks -are steep slimy brown mud, littered with the -trunks and limbs of rotten trees, which also -stick up all over the river like horrid muddy -bones.</p> - -<p class="p padl2">“Altogether it is as gloomy and depressing as -it can be, there is no view, not even a glimpse -to shew that we are getting near a mountain -range. In the midst of all this it generally rains -hard and you arrive in camp soaking wet. Then -see everything taken out of the canoes, tents -pitched, canoes securely moored, food given out -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span>to the coolies, and by that time it is well on into -the afternoon. Wet wood is somehow coaxed -into boiling a kettle and I get a cup of tea, very -good. At six o’clock the meal of the day, rice -or a tin, but one eats very little on these journeys. -After dinner a book and tobacco and to bed about -nine o’clock, or earlier if the mosquitoes are -troublesome. It does not compare favourably -with being ‘on safari’ in Africa, and I frequently -wish myself back on one of those interminable -roads which I have so often cursed.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BIRDS</div> - -<p>But it must not be supposed that there were not -occasional pleasant moments, which to some extent -were compensation for the monotony of those days. -Sometimes you saw a Crowned Pigeon (<i>Goura sclateri</i>) -by the water’s edge, and by paddling quietly you could -approach within a few yards before it flew lazily across -the river and alighted on a low branch. The Crowned -Pigeon is one of the handsomest of New Guinea birds; -it is as big as a large domestic fowl, of an uniform mauve -grey colour with a large white patch on the wings, and -on its head is a crest of delicate grey plumes, which it -opens and shuts like a fan. These birds feed mostly -on fruits, but they also eat small molluscs and crabs, -which they pick up on the river bank. As they were -almost the only eatable birds in the country, we killed -a good many of them, but their numbers appeared to -be in no way diminished when we left the country; -the flesh is white and excessively dry.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p074.jpg" width="400" height="655" alt="A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA WITH CLOSELY PLAITED HAIR." /> -<p class="caption">A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA WITH CLOSELY PLAITED HAIR.</p></div> - -<p>The little red King Bird of Paradise (<i>Cicinnurus -regius</i>) is heard calling everywhere, and from the upper -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>waters of the river you hear the harsh cry of the Greater -Bird of Paradise (<i>Paradisea novae guineae</i>), but both -of these are birds of the dense forest and I do not -remember ever having seen one from the river.</p> - -<p>Green and red Eclectus Parrots (<i>Eclectus pectoralis</i>) -and white Lemon-crested Cockatoos are fairly numerous -and their harsh screams, though sufficiently unpleasing -are a welcome interruption of the prevailing -silence.</p> - -<p>Lories were not often seen on the river journeys, -but they were extremely common near Wakatimi, where -a certain clump of trees was used by them as a regular -roosting-place. For an hour or more before sunset -countless hundreds of Lories (<i>Eos fuscata</i>) flew in flocks -from all directions towards the roosting-trees, chattering -loudly as they flew and even louder after they had -perched. Often a branch would give way under the -living weight and then the whole throng would rise -in the air again and circle round and round before they -alighted once more and the shouting and chattering -continued until it was dark.</p> - -<p>Crocodiles were very seldom seen, but Iguanas of -two or three feet in length were often seen sunning -themselves on a log or a stump, from which they would -splash hurriedly into the water as the canoes approached. -Several times at night I heard a splash as loud as the -plunge of a man into water, but I could never discover -what was the animal that caused it; there may yet -possibly be some large unknown reptile in the river. -Snakes were sometimes seen curled up in the overhanging -vegetation and very commonly they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> -found swimming in the water; one day I counted eleven -small harmless snakes swimming within half a mile of -the same place.</p> - -<p>On many days during the months of May and June -the river swarmed with large bright yellow flies very -similar to, but about twice the size of, the Green Drake -of the fly-fisher. They hatched out about mid-day -and took longer or shorter flights over the water, rising -from it and alighting again like miniature aeroplanes. -Many of them fell a prey to swallows and bee-eaters -and other insect-eating birds, while the rest were quickly -drowned, and I have seen long stretches of the river -completely covered by the dead insects.</p> - -<p>At some of the camps on the river and elsewhere -we were a good deal bothered by small bees, the Stingless -Honey-bee (<i>Melipona praeterita</i>). These annoying -little creatures—they are about half the size of the -common house-fly—buzzed about you in swarms and -strove most persistently to settle on any exposed part -of your body in pursuit of the sweat, which is never -absent from you in those places. No matter how you -beat about and killed them they were back again immediately -and once, while writing, I kept my hands -quite still on the book and in a few moments I counted -forty-six on my two hands before their crawling became -unbearable. They have a disagreeably sticky feeling -as they crawl over you and your hands, when you have -squashed a number of them, become sticky too.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">NIGHT ON THE RIVER</div> - -<p>At night, when the rain was not drumming ceaselessly -on the roof of the tent, the silence was broken -now and then by the grating call of a Brush Turkey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> -(<i>Talegallus fuscirostris</i>)<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>; or a flock of Pale Crows -(<i>Gymnocorax senex</i>), which are curiously nocturnal in -their habits, would fly over the camp cawing like muffled -rooks. Lizards and frogs uttered all sorts of strange -cries and whistles, and the mournful unbirdlike note -of the Frogmouth (<i>Podargus papuensis</i>) was heard on -every side.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, even when there was no wind stirring, -you would hear at night a noise like thunder as some -great tree went crashing down. Most of the trees in -the jungle do not attain a very great girth, but they -grow up very rapidly to reach the light and in their -upper branches there is soon accumulated a dense mass -of climbers and parasitic plants, which in the course -of time become too heavy for the tree and cause it -to collapse. The floor of the jungle is strewn with the -limbs and trunks of fallen trees and the smell of rotting -wood is everywhere.</p> - -<p>The last, usually the fifth, day of the journey up -the river was always pleasant, partly because one knew -that there were only a few more hours of the tedious -voyage, and partly because the scenery was beginning -to change. Beautiful Tree-ferns appeared upon the -banks and the soil, firmer than in the swampy lands -near the coast, supported trees of finer growth. Scattered -pebbles and then banks of clean sand and shingle began -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span>to take the place of the hideous mud of the lower river, -and after spending, as frequently happened, many -weeks at Wakatimi, where the smallest pebble would -have been an object of wonder, it was a peculiar pleasure -to feel the grit of stones under your feet again. At -the same time the cocoa-brown water became clear -and sparkling and one drank it for the very pleasure -of drinking. Going further we came to rapids, where -the river ran over stones, or piled-up barriers of fallen -trees. Passages were cut through many of these -obstacles, but every succeeding flood brought down -more trees and new barriers were formed.</p> - -<p>When the river was low, the last four miles to -Parimau were covered by wading and hauling the canoes -over or under the great logs. Every man had to get -out of the canoe and do his share of the work, and -sometimes we had to take the cargo out as well, when -the canoe had to be dragged over a particularly high -obstacle. When the river was in flood, the last day’s -journey was the most arduous of all, and it sometimes -took twelve or fourteen hours’ hard labour to accomplish it. -The water was then too deep for poling, and -the current was so swift that vigorous paddling hardly -did more than prevent the canoe from following the -stream, and it was only by dodging from one side of -the river to the other and by hauling on overhanging -branches that progress was made.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p078.jpg" width="500" height="707" alt="Head-dresses" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Head-dresses made of plaited fibres, worn at festivals and -ceremonies. 1. is ornamented with tufts of plumes of the -Greater Bird of Paradise.</span></p></div> - -<p>Considering the want of skill of the coolies and -the great number of journeys that were made up and -down the river, it was wonderful that no accidents of -any consequence occurred. It is true that a good -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>many canoes capsized—I think all of us had at least -one involuntary ducking—but a well-laden canoe is -comparatively steady, and most of the upsets happened -to empty canoes going down the river and nothing -was lost but coolies’ scanty baggage, which was -easily replaced. The Javanese coolies of the escort, -who were even less skilled watermen than ours, suffered -rather more accidents, but one boat-load of provisions -and two rifles were the total of their losses.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE LONG WET SEASON</div> - -<p>There were periods, lasting for several weeks, when -the river was almost continually in flood, and there -were other, but always shorter, periods when the -river was low; but though we spent fifteen months in -New Guinea the time was not long enough to determine -at all accurately the limits of the seasons, for the first -three months of 1911 differed considerably from the -corresponding months of the previous year. Speaking -generally, it may be said of the Mimika district that -the weather from mid-October to the middle of April is -finer than the weather from the middle of April to the -middle of October. These two periods correspond more -or less with the monsoons, but it is notable that whereas -in British New Guinea the period of the Eastern monsoon, -May to November, is the drier, here the reverse -is the case. The finest weather appears to be in -November and December, and the wettest weather -is in July, August and September. The terms “fine” -and “wet” are used only relatively, for it is almost -always wet. In the first twelve months of our stay -rain fell on three hundred and thirty days. It was -very unfortunate that we did not provide ourselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> -with rain-gauges for use at Wakatimi and Parimau, -where interesting observations might have been recorded -for a year or more. A roughly constructed rain-gauge, -which was used for a short time, more than once recorded -a fall of over six inches of rain in one night, -and that was in the comparatively dry season of March.</p> - -<p>A great deal of the rain fell in thunderstorms. -From January 4th, 1910, to January 4th, 1911, I heard -thunder on two hundred and ninety-five days, not -including days on which I saw distant lightning but did -not hear the thunder.</p> - -<p>Before we left England it was thought that the -party ought to include a geologist, but it was impossible -to add to our numbers, which were already sufficiently -great. As it fell out, we hardly reached geological -country at all and a geologist would have spent an idle -time, but there would have been plenty of occupation -for a well equipped hydrologist.</p> - -<p>The winds, whether from the East or from the West, -were very variable both in force and constancy. Sometimes -there would blow a fierce wind for two or three -days followed by several days of calm. At other times -a steady wind would blow for two or three weeks and -so great would be the surf on the sea-shore that no -ship could approach the mouth of the river. The -wind usually dropped before sunset and the nights were -calm.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">HALLEY’S COMET</div> - -<p>It followed naturally from the heavy rainfall that -the nights were seldom clear, and at one time Marshall -waited for three months before he could take an observation -from a star. But there were times even in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> -wet weather, when the rain poured down during the -day and at night the heavens were clear. One of these -times fortunately occurred in May, when Halley’s Comet -was approaching the Earth. On May 9th the comet, -looking like a muffled star, was seen in the East and its -tail, a broad beam of brilliant light, extended upwards -through about thirty degrees. Below the comet and -a little to the South of it Venus shone like a little moon, -appearing far bigger than any planet I have ever seen. -The comet grew enormously and in the early morning -of May 14th, the last time that we saw it completely -before it had passed the Earth, the tail blazed across -the heavens like an immense search-light beam to the -zenith and beyond. On May 26th it appeared again -in the evening, reduced in size to about forty-five -degrees, and several nights we watched it growing always -smaller, until it vanished from our sight. Superlative -expressions will not describe Halley’s Comet as we -saw it in New Guinea; it was a wonderful appearance -and one never to be forgotten. Our coolies and the -Javanese declared that it portended much sickness -and death. Though we tried to question them about -it, we never learnt how it impressed the minds of the -natives.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h2> - -<p class="indent f09"><i>Exploration of the Kapare River—Obota—Native Geography—River -Obstructions—Hornbills and Tree Ducks—Gifts of Stones—Importance -of Steam Launch—Cultivation of Tobacco—Sago Swamps—Manufacture -of Sago—Cooking of Sago—The Dutch Use of -Convict Labour.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Towards</span> the end of January Capt. Rawling, who had -gone up the Mimika River with the first party to Parimau, -made an excursion to the N.W. of that place, and at -a distance of about four miles he came to a river, which -we afterwards learnt to know as the Kapare, of much -greater volume than the Mimika, and therefore likely to -spring from mountains much higher than those that gave -rise to the Mimika. Had we known at the time that -our real objective, the highest mountains of the range, -lay far to the N.E., we should have neglected the Kapare -River, and by so doing we should have spared ourselves -many weeks of labour; but at the same time we should -have missed seeing a wide area of unknown country, -and we might possibly have failed to make the discovery -of the pygmy tribe, who inhabit the hilly country between -the Kapare and the upper waters of the Mimika River.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p082.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt="UPPER WATERS OF THE KAPARE RIVER" /> -<p class="caption">UPPER WATERS OF THE KAPARE RIVER. MOUNT TAPIRO IN DISTANCE.</p></div> - -<p>It appeared that the Kapare might offer a better -route to the higher mountains than the Mimika, so it -was decided that we should explore its lower waters -and see whether it was possible to reach it from our base-camp. -Accordingly on February 14th Lieut. Cramer, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span>Marshall and I set out in three canoes, taking with us -provisions sufficient for a week’s journey. Two miles -below Wakatimi we entered and began to ascend the -Watuka River, of which, as has been noted above (p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>), -the Mimika is but a tributary. After proceeding a mile -or two up the Watuka we came to another junction -of two rivers, and for the first time we began to realise -the extraordinary network of waterways, which traverse -the low-lying lands of that part of New Guinea. We -learnt afterwards that there are inland channels joining -several of the rivers to the East of the Mimika in such a -way that it is possible to travel by water from Wakatimi -to villages far distant along the coast without going by -sea, and no doubt the same is true in a Westerly direction.</p> - -<p>The junction we had then reached was formed by a -wide river coming, apparently, from due North and a -much smaller branch, not more than ten yards wide, -but deep and swift, joining it from the West. It appeared -to be quite certain that the river we were in search of -must be the Northern branch, and we should have -followed it at once had not a number of natives appeared -on the bank, and asked us to go and visit their village, -which, they explained, was a short distance up the -Western branch.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">VISIT TO OBOTA</div> - -<p>We soon reached Obota, as the village was called, a -collection of about one hundred huts on both banks -of the narrow river, and there we were accorded the -usual welcome by a large crowd of people. As it was still -early in the day we were anxious to continue our journey, -and we proposed to go up the Northern branch, but the -natives assured us that that led to nowhere and broke<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span> -up into branches in the jungle, while the small stream -which flowed through the village was the river flowing -directly from the mountains.</p> - -<p>It should be explained that this information was -conveyed to us partly by long speeches of which we -understood little or nothing, but chiefly by means of -maps drawn on the ground. Some of the men drew -their rivers crossing one another in a rather improbable -manner, but many of them drew charts very intelligently, -and at different times we obtained from the natives a -good deal of geographical information which was substantially -correct. On this occasion their maps all -agreed in tracing the big river to branches in the jungle, -and the small river to the mountains, so we were rather -reluctantly persuaded that they were right, and we -tried to induce some of them to go with us. Many of -them offered to go the next day, but not one would -start then—it was too late, it was going to rain, they -had not eaten, and many other excuses—so we got -into our canoes and attempted to paddle up the stream -and found, what the natives doubtless knew, that we -could not advance at all. Several times we tried, but -were always driven back by the strong current, to the -great delight of the natives who lined the banks and -laughed at our feeble efforts, so there was nothing for -it but to make a camp near the village and wait till the -next day.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">RIVER OBSTACLES</div> - -<p>There was some difficulty about inducing the men -to start in the morning, for it was raining, and, like -other naked peoples, the Papuans dislike being wetted -by rain, but we got off eventually with two natives,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> -one at the bow and one at the stern, in each canoe, in -addition to the crews of four Javanese soldiers and convicts. -It was soon evident that without the help of the -natives we could not possibly have ascended the river. -For a mile or two above Obota the water ran like a mill-race -in a very narrow channel full of rocks and sunken -trees, and it was only by the most skilful poling and, -when a chance occurred, by hauling the canoes along -a side channel that we were able to proceed. When -we returned a few days later, we skimmed in fifteen -minutes down the rapids which we had taken more than -three hours to ascend.</p> - -<p>Above the rapids the river widened to about forty -yards and the strength of the current was proportionately -less, but in a few miles we met with another -difficulty. At a sharp bend of the river the whole -channel was blocked by an enormous barrier of huge -trunks and limbs of trees piled high upon each other -and wedged below into a solid mass. For larger boats -this might have meant a delay of many days spent in -cutting a channel, but the dug-out canoe is narrow and, -if not flexible, it can be squeezed through the most -unlikely openings, so that we passed the barrier without -the loss of many hours.</p> - -<p>When we started from Obota we had been doubtful -whether it was possible that so small a river could -possibly come from the mountains; but a little way -above the barrier of logs our doubts were set at rest, -when we found that our river was a mere off-shoot -from another more than twice its volume, which flowed -down to the sea at a village called Periepia. The main<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span> -river, the Kapare, where we joined it, was more than a -hundred yards wide, and in the next two days’ journey -it hardly diminished at all in size. The character of -the river differed markedly from that of the Mimika; -its bed was of sand, denoting its mountain origin, in -contrast to the brown mud of the Mimika and other -jungle rivers, and its course was a procession of magnificent -bends, quite unlike the paltry windings of the -Mimika.</p> - -<p>Paddling slowly up the river we disturbed companies -of Hornbills (<i>Rhytidoceros plicatus</i>) which were -feeding at the tops of the trees. These peculiarly hideous -birds bark like dogs, and the loud “swishing” of their -wings, as they slowly take flight, has been likened (not -inaptly) to the starting puffs of a railway train. On -this and on the other rivers we were often pleasantly -reminded of home by the note of the Common Sandpiper -(<i>Totanus hypoleucus</i>) which seemed to be quite as much -at home in New Guinea as in its northern haunts. The -last of these were seen in early April, and they began to -reappear before the end of July. Very interesting birds, -of which we saw a great number on this river, are the -black and white Tree Ducks (<i>Tadorna radjah</i>). They -have the curious habit of perching very cleverly on the -topmost branches of the trees, and they make a pretty -whistling by night.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p086.jpg" width="400" height="633" alt="VEGETATION ON THE BANKS OF THE KAPARE RIVER." /> -<p class="caption">VEGETATION ON THE BANKS OF THE KAPARE RIVER.</p></div> - -<p>There were no signs of human habitation along the -banks, until on the third day we came to a small village -of a dozen huts, in the middle of which was a tall house -built of bamboos, used for ceremonials and dancing. -The few people inhabiting the place were of a very low -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>order of intelligence, if one may judge from the apathy -with which they received us and saw us go on our way.</p> - -<p>As we proceeded further, on the fourth day the river -became a good deal smaller, having derived several -tributaries from the low hills which were by that time -not far distant on the right bank, and as the current -became increasingly swifter it was evident that the -Kapare did not promise a better means of approach by -water to the mountains than the Mimika.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE FIRST PEBBLES</div> - -<p>We were rather amused, when we came to the first -bank of shingle, by the natives who were with us bringing -us gifts of stones, as though they were something new -and rare: probably they thought that as we came, for -all they knew, from the sea, we had never seen such -things before.</p> - -<p>On the fifth day we left the baggage behind and went -on in one unladen canoe, hoping to reach the point -where Rawling had met the Kapare River by walking -overland from the Mimika, but we were stopped a few -miles short of that place by heavy rapids, which -effectually prevented any further investigation of the -river.</p> - -<p>The excursion up the Kapare was a further illustration, -if one had been needed, of the futility of undertaking -an expedition in that country without a steam -launch or motor-boat. When it was found that the -Mimika was only an insignificant river, which the first -excursion up it would have shown, the Kapare River -might have been explored from Periepia, a matter -which could have been done in two days instead of the -seven occupied by the journey in canoes, and after that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span> -other rivers to the East might have been explored until -one convenient for approaching the mountains had been -found.</p> - -<p>After spending a night on a sand bank from which -we were very nearly washed away by a sudden flood, -we paddled leisurely down the river and came in one -day again to Obota. Though the two places are so close -together and communication between them is very frequent, -the inhabitants of Obota are a much better lot of -people than those of Wakatimi. The Obota men, who -came up the river with us, worked steadily for several -days, a thing we never could persuade the Wakatimi -men to do, and, a more striking sign of their superiority, -the Obota people cultivate the soil, whereas the Wakatimi -people never do anything of the kind.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOBACCO</div> - -<p>Many acres of ground on both sides of the river were -cleared of bush and planted with bananas and sweet -potatoes; we never succeeded in obtaining any of the -latter, but bananas were brought for us to buy and in -the circumstances they seemed to us to be excellent. -The most extensive crop cultivated at Obota is tobacco; -they plant out the seedlings and shelter them with a -low roof of bent sticks covered with leaves, until the -young plants are strong enough to bear the full force of -the sun and rain. Almost every native smokes, men and -women, and very often the children. A small handful -of the dried leaves is taken and very carefully rolled -up in the form of a cigar, and then wrapped round with -a <i>sirih</i> leaf, which has been previously warmed over the -fire; the ends are bitten square, and sometimes the -leaf is tied round the middle with a thread of fibre to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span> -prevent its unrolling. The tobacco is strong in flavour, -but not at all unpleasant to smoke. The only other -place, except among the pygmy people of the hills, -where we found cultivation was up the Keaukwa River, -a few miles to the E. of the Mimika River.</p> - -<p>The distribution of tobacco in New Guinea is rather -a puzzling question. There are many places on the -coast where its use was unknown until quite recently, -while at the same time the mountain people, for example, -in the Arfak Mountains and on the upper reaches of -the Fly and Kaiserin Augusta Rivers, have been accustomed -to cultivate it and to barter it with their neighbours -in the lowlands. The Tapiro pygmy people, -who live in the mountains, cultivate tobacco and exchange -it with the Papuans of the upper Mimika who grow -none themselves. These facts have led some people -to suppose that the tobacco plant is indigenous in New -Guinea.</p> - -<p>The people of Obota were rich in worldly possessions, -for as we walked through the village we saw two Chinese -brass gongs and a large porcelain pot, which they told -us came from “Tarete.” It may be that at some time -a Malay or Arab trader from Ternate came over to this -part of the coast, but it is impossible to know; perhaps -the things had been stolen and exchanged from one -village to another, from the West end of the island, -which is often visited by Ternate traders.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SAGO</div> - -<p>But the chief reason for the prosperity of Obota is -the fact that it lies at the edge of an extensive sago -swamp, and sago is the mainstay of the food of the -Papuans. Sago is made from a palm (<i>Sagus rumphii</i>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> -which always grows in wet places, generally in low ground -near the sea, and it will even grow where the water is -brackish.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> The palm is thicker than a man’s body, -and its height is about 25 or 30 feet. The trunk is -covered with large leaves bearing long hard spines. A -mature tree produces a large vertical spike of flowers -and then dies. When they wish to collect sago, the -natives cut down a full-grown palm and clear it of its -leaves and leaf-sheaths. A wide strip of the bark is -then cut off from the side of the tree which lies uppermost -and the sago is exposed. The bark of the tree is really -nothing more than a shell about an inch in thickness, -enclosing the pith or sago, which is a brownish pulpy -substance separated by fibrous strands. The pith is -separated from the bark by means of the sago-beater, -which is a sort of wooden hammer made in two pieces, -a handle about a foot and a half long, carrying a head -about twelve inches long; the hitting face of the head -is about two inches in diameter, and it often bears a -rather sharp rim which is useful in clearing the pith from -the bark.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p090.jpg" width="400" height="513" alt="PAPUAN WOMAN CARRYING WOODEN BOWL OF SAGO." /> -<p class="caption">PAPUAN WOMAN CARRYING WOODEN BOWL OF SAGO.</p></div> - -<p>When all the pith has been beaten out of the shell -of the tree it is carried away to the nearest water, where -the sago is extracted. A trough made of two wide -basin-like leaf-bases of the sago palm is set up on -crossed sticks about three feet from the ground in such a -way that one basin is a little higher than the other. -Lumps of the pith are then kneaded in the upper part -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span>of the trough with water which is constantly poured -into it; the water carries away the sago into the lower -part of the trough, and nothing remains above but the -coarse fibrous stuff which is thrown away; the lower -trough gradually becomes filled with sago and the -water flows away. The sago, a dirty white substance -with a rather sour smell, is made into cylindrical cakes of -about 30 lbs. weight, and neatly wrapped up in leaves -of the palm to be carried back to the village. Most -of the work of collecting and preparing the sago is done -by the women.</p> - -<p>According to Mr. Wallace, one fair-sized sago palm -will supply one man with food for a year, so it will be -seen that the amount of labour required to feed a -community in a district where sago is plentiful is not -very overwhelming.</p> - -<p>The usual method of cooking employed by the -Papuans is to roll the sago into lumps about the size -of a cricket ball and roast them in the embers of a fire. -On one or two occasions I saw them prepare it in a -different way, which was to wrap up the sago in -banana leaves and cook it on hot stones; the result -was probably more wholesome food than the charred -lumps that they usually eat.</p> - -<p>Very often the natives of the Mimika eat the crude -sago, that is to say, the pith simply as it is cut out of -the tree, without having been washed or pounded. The -stuff is roasted in the usual way and the separation -of the sago is done in the mouth of the eater, who -spits out the uneatable fibre.</p> - -<p>As well as providing the Papuans with the bulk of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> -their food, the sago palm supplies them with excellent -building poles in the mid-ribs of the leaves, which -are straight and very strong, and are sometimes fifteen -to twenty feet long, and the leaflets themselves are used -for making “atap” in the districts where the <i>Nipa</i> -palm is not found.</p> - -<p>It was mentioned above that the crews of our canoes -on the excursion up the Kapare River were made up -of Javanese soldiers and convicts. Our first batch of -Ambonese coolies had by that time failed us, so Lieut. -Cramer very kindly lent us some of his men for the -occasion, and we had an opportunity of testing their -worth. Speaking generally, it is not unfair to them -to say that the Javanese are wholly unsuited to rough -work in a savage country; they are a peaceful race -of peasants and their proper place is in the rice fields. -As soldiers they appear to the civilian eye to be clodhoppers -masquerading in (usually misfitting) uniform. -They have no military bearing and no alertness, and -one ceases to wonder that when the Netherlands East -Indian native army is almost exclusively composed -of Javanese, the war-like people of Atjeh have kept -the field for so many years. It is a matter for surprise -that the Dutch do not enlist more of the warlike Bugis -of Celebes, and natives of the Moluccas, and even the -Achinese prisoners themselves; ten thousand of such -men would surely be of more worth than the 30,000 -Javanese who fill the ranks of their native army. Of -course there are exceptions; there are men among -them who have performed splendidly valorous deeds -in time of war; but the majority are of a stuff of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span> -which it would be impossible to make soldiers, they -are soft and unathletic and of a curiously feminine -form of body, as a glance at a group of bathing -Javanese will show.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CONVICT LABOUR</div> - -<p>The Javanese convicts were the same sort of material, -but their case was not quite the same as that of the -soldiers, for they had not voluntarily entered a profession -(if the condition of convict can be called a -profession) that involved service in foreign lands. The -justice of the Dutch practice of employing convicts -as coolies in military and exploring expeditions is very -much open to question, but it need not be discussed -at length here. The transport for the military operations -in Atjeh is carried out almost entirely by convict -labour, and all the Dutch exploring parties in New -Guinea have made use of convict coolies, assisted in -two instances by paid Dayaks. It is intended officially -that only long-sentence men shall go on expeditions, -so that by good behaviour they may earn some substantial -remission of their sentences, but that is not -invariably the case, for several young men left our -expedition because their terms had expired. It is also -supposed that only men shall be sent on expeditions -who volunteer to go; but the supply of convict volunteers -is not inexhaustible, and there were men with -us whose last wish would have been to come to New -Guinea.</p> - -<p>But even if they were all volunteers and all long-service -men, it is doubtful whether it is justifiable to -send any but free men to work in a country so full of -risks as New Guinea. The native of Java is a poor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span> -creature, particularly susceptible to beri-beri and other -diseases of the tropics, and when I saw convicts die, -as did unfortunately happen, I came to the conclusion -that the balance went heavily against the system. It -must, however, be recorded that the convicts are -extremely well treated. Except in the matter of pay—convicts -on expeditions receive about one guilder -(1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>) a month—they are treated in all essentials -exactly like the native soldiers; they have the same -rations of food and the same tent accommodation, -and many of them enjoy themselves a good deal more -than if they were occupied in sweeping the roads in a -town in Java. Their hours of labour in camp are -comparatively short, and the loads they are given to -carry on the march are by no means excessive. Nothing -could exceed the kindness of Cramer’s treatment of the -men under his command, and I have no doubt that the -same may be said of the treatment of convicts elsewhere.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Description of Wakatimi—The Papuan House—Coconut Palms—The -Sugar Palm—Drunkenness of the Natives—Drunken Vagaries—Other -Cultivation—The Native Language—No Interpreters—The -Numerals—Difficulties of Understanding—Names of Places—Local -Differences of Pronunciation.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> native village of Wakatimi lay directly opposite -to our base-camp on the W. bank of the Mimika, -which was there about 150 yards broad. Beyond -the margin of the river was a strip of grass intersected -by muddy creeks, where the natives moored their canoes, -and beyond that was Wakatimi. The village consisted -of a single street about two hundred yards long lined -on one side by huts, which usually numbered about -sixty. But occasionally, as for instance when we first -arrived, and once or twice subsequently when large -crowds of natives from other villages visited the place, -it happened that the street was a double row of houses, -and every available spot of dry ground was occupied.</p> - -<p>Shifting house is a very simple affair, as most of -the building materials are carried about in the canoes, -and the canoes come and go in the most casual and -unaccountable manner. Sometimes there were perhaps -a thousand people at Wakatimi, and then there would -be days when there was not a soul in the village. There -were times when for weeks together there were large -villages at the mouth of the river, and there were other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span> -times when the coast was utterly deserted and hardly -a trace of the villages remained. We were never able -to learn what it was that prompted these migrations -of the natives, but it is probable that the pursuit of -food was the guiding motive. The wandering habits -of the people will certainly make it very difficult to -administer the country and civilise the people, if an -attempt to do so is ever made.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THEIR HOUSES</div> - -<p>The typical native house of the Mimika district is -a simple rectangular structure with a framework of -light poles driven into the ground, the cross-pieces -and roof pole being tied to the uprights by strands of -rattan. In some houses the roof is a simple slope -downwards from front to back, but in most cases there -is a central ridge pole from which the roof slopes to -the back and front, that at the back being longer and -going lower than that in front. The height of the ridge -is about eight feet; after we had been for some time in -the country the people improved their building in -imitation of our houses and built their huts ten, and -even twelve feet high. The roof is made of “atap,” -the thatch described above (p. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>), and the walls are -mats made from the leaves of a Screw-pine (<i>Pandanus</i>). -The area of an average hut is about 9 by 12 feet, the -longer dimensions being from front to back.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p096.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="PAPUAN HOUSES ON THE MIMIKA." /> -<p class="caption">PAPUAN HOUSES ON THE MIMIKA.</p></div> - -<p>The floor is covered with sand to a depth of several -inches, which is prevented from escaping into the street -by a board placed on its edge along the front of the -hut. The sand is brought from the seashore and must -be of great value in preserving the health of the people: -the huts are frequently under water in the big floods -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span>and without the sand, which quickly dries, it would -be impossible for them to live there. Unfortunately -the sand aggravates the sores and ulcers from which -too many of them suffer, but that is perhaps a lesser -evil than always sleeping on sodden ground. Racks -made of sticks, on which are stowed bundles of arrows, -spears, clubs, tobacco, sago and all the other portable -property of the family, extend from one wall to another, -so that it is almost impossible to stand upright inside -a hut. The door is an opening about two feet square -in the front wall; as well as being the means of entrance -for the members of the household the door serves as -the principal means of escape for the smoke of the fire, -which is constantly kept burning inside.</p> - -<p>It is only rarely that a house remains for long -separated from others; when a second house is built -it is attached to the side of the first, and the dividing -wall is removed. In a large village the houses are built -in rows of varying length, according to the nature of -the ground, and there may be as many as fifty or -sixty joined together. If you go inside you find that it -is a single long house without any dividing walls, but -each family keeps to its own particular section and -use its own private entrance. When the place is -crowded with people, and a number of fires are burning, -the atmosphere inside the house may be more readily -imagined than described.</p> - -<p>The feature that most distinguishes Wakatimi from -all the other villages that we saw is its fine grove of -coconut palms. The village street is bordered with -them on the side opposite to the houses, and there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> -must be three or four hundred trees in all. They afford -a very pleasant shade to the village, and their graceful -trunks curving this way and that are really picturesque -and conveniently relieve the ugliness of the Papuan -houses. It is rather dangerous to live so close to coconut -trees, and sometimes when the wind blew in gusts -before the rain we heard warning shouts and the heavy -thud of a nut falling to the ground; but accidents -never seemed to happen. The nuts are, of course, a -source of great wealth to the Wakatimi people, who -exchange them for bananas and tobacco with the -people of Obota, and while we were in the country -they brought us altogether thousands of nuts for which -they received riches undreamt of before. At one or two -places near the sea, and at several places on the Mimika -River we found coconut palms, but far up the river -they did not occur, nor did we see any on the Kapare -River; and I believe all those we saw were planted -by the natives, and that none of them were self-sown.</p> - -<p>The method of cultivation is extremely simple. -A ripe nut is left out on the roof of a hut and allowed -to sprout; when the shoot is about a foot or more in -length, a small patch of ground is cleared, preferably -in a sandy place on the river bank or near the sea shore, -a hole is dug and the sprouting nut is planted. From -time to time, if he remembers to do so, the native will -clear away the strangling vegetation from the young -plant, and in about five years, under favourable conditions, -the palm begins to bear fruit.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DRUNKENNESS</div> - -<p>Growing commonly near Wakatimi is another -species of palm, which, though it has not the value<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span> -of the coconut palm, is yet more prized by the natives. -This is the Sugar palm (<i>Arenga saccharifera</i>), and from -it is made a very potent and intoxicating liquor. -When the palm is in fruit—it bears a heavy bunch -of dark green fruit—a cut is made in the stem below -the stalk of the fruit, and the juice trickles out and -is collected in the shell of a coconut. Apparently the -juice ferments very rapidly without the addition of -any other substance, for it is drunk almost as soon as -it is collected and the native becomes horribly intoxicated.</p> - -<p>During the first few weeks of our stay in the -country the people were on their good behaviour, or -else they found sufficient amusement in coming to see -us and our works, but they soon tired of that and went -back to their normal habits. Many of them went to -the drinking places by day, and we often saw them -lying or sitting at the foot of the tree, while one of their -party stood at the top of a bamboo ladder collecting -the palm wine. But the worst was a small gang of -about a dozen men, the laziest in the village, whose -custom it was to start off towards evening in canoes -to their favourite drinking tree, where they spent the -night drinking and making night hideous with their -songs and shouts. In the morning they returned raving -to the village and as often as not they started quarrelling -and fighting and knocking the houses to pieces -(a favourite occupation of the angry Papuan) before -they settled down to sleep off the effects of their -potations.</p> - -<p>As a rule, the men were the worst offenders, and -the women drank but seldom, but I well remember<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span> -one day seeing a man and his wife both hopelessly -drunk come over to our camp. It was pouring with -rain and their canoe was several inches deep in water, -but they danced up and down in it and sang a drunken -ditty; it was a ludicrous and at the same time heart-rending -exhibition. The man, when we first knew -him, was a fine fellow who one day climbed up a palm -tree to get us coconuts, a feat which no man out of -condition can perform; a few months later he was -hardly ever seen sober, and in January he died. A -smiling round-faced youth called Ukuma, who was one -of our particular friends at first and was privileged -to wander where he liked about the camp, attached -himself to the drinking party, and before we left the -country he looked an old man, and I had difficulty in -recognising him.</p> - -<table summary="a Papuan"><tr> -<td class="tdl2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_p100a.jpg" width="200" height="257" alt="A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA." /> -<p class="caption">A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA.</p></div></td> -<td class="tdl2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_p100b.jpg" width="200" height="255" alt="A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA." /> -<p class="caption">A PAPUAN OF THE MIMIKA.</p></div></td></tr></table> - -<p>Though the drunken vagaries of the natives were -usually food for tears, they sometimes provided us -with amusement. One afternoon one of the principal -men of Wakatimi came down to the river bank quite -intoxicated and took a canoe, which he paddled out -into mid-stream and there moored it. From there -he proceeded to shoot arrows vaguely and promiscuously -at the village, raving and shouting what sounded to be -horrible curses. Some of the arrows fell into the village -and some sailed over the palm trees, and now and -again he turned round and shot harmlessly into our -camp, but nobody took the slightest notice of him -except his wife, who went down to the river bank and -told him in plain language her opinion of him. This -caused him to turn his attention to her, but his aim -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span>was wild and the arrows missed their mark, so he -desisted and went back to the shore, where the woman -broke across her knee the remainder of his bundle of -arrows, while he cooled his fevered brow in the river. -Then, while she delivered a further lecture, he followed -her back to their hut looking like a whipped and -ashamed dog. It can hardly be doubted that palm -wine shortens the lives of many of the Papuans, but -one must hesitate before condemning an absolutely -untaught and savage race for excessive indulgence in -one of the pleasures that vary their monotonous lives.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FRUITS</div> - -<p>As well as coconuts the Mimika people have also -bananas, papayas (<i>Carica papaya</i>), water-melons and -pumpkins, all of them of a very inferior kind. It -cannot be said that they cultivate these fruits; they -occasionally get a banana shoot and plant it in the -ground by the riverside, where it may or may not grow -and produce fruit, but they make no clearings and take -very little trouble to ensure the life of the plant. The -papayas and the melons and pumpkins are sometimes -seen growing about the native dwellings; but they, too, -seem to be there more by accident than by any design -on the part of the people. At Obota we found a few -pineapples, which were probably the descendants of -some that were brought to the Mimika by M. Dumas -a few years earlier.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES</div> - -<p>It has been stated in the previous chapters that -the natives told us this or that, and that we asked -them for information about one thing or another. -From this the reader must not conclude that we acquired -a very complete knowledge of the native language,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> -for that, unfortunately, was not the case, and even -at the end of the fifteen months that we spent in their -country we were not able to converse with them. -Lieutenant Cramer and I compiled a vocabulary of -nearly three hundred words,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> and we talked a good -deal with the people, but we never reached the position -of being able to exchange ideas on any single subject.</p> - -<p>In the Eastern and Northern parts of New Guinea -it has always been found possible to communicate with -the natives through the medium of some known -language; even if there were many differences noticed -in the language of a new district, there were always -some common words which formed the foundation of -a more complete understanding. The Western end -of New Guinea has been for centuries visited by traders -speaking Malay dialects, some of whom have settled in -the country; or Papuans from those parts have -travelled to Malay-speaking islands and have returned -with a sufficient knowledge of the language to act as -interpreters to people visiting those districts.</p> - -<p>But the long stretch of the South-west coast from -the MacCluer Gulf as far as the Fly River has been -quite neglected by Malay-speaking traders, partly on -account of the poverty of the country and partly by -reason of the shallow sea and the frequent storms which -make navigation difficult and dangerous, so that the -Malay language was of no use to us as a means of talking -with the natives. It is true that two men from the -Mimika district had been taken a few years previously -to Fak-fak, the Dutch Government post on the South -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>side of the MacCluer Gulf, but though they spent two -years there and attempts were made to teach them -Malay, in 1910 the extent of their knowledge of the -language was the two words <i>Tida, tuan</i> (No, master).</p> - -<p>It is unfortunate that there is no common language -along the S. coast, nor even a language with words -common to all the dialects in use. We were visited -on one occasion by the Dutch Assistant Resident -from Fak-fak; the native interpreter who came with -him, and who knew all the native dialects of the Fak-fak -district, could not understand one word of the Mimika -language. On another occasion some natives from -Mimika were taken down by steamer to Merauke, the -Government post in S.W. New Guinea, not far from -the boundary of British Papua, and there they found -the language of the natives quite unintelligible to them.</p> - -<p>So we found ourselves confronted with the task of -learning a language with neither grammar, dictionary -nor interpreter. This may not seem to be an insuperable -difficulty, nor is it perhaps where Europeans -and educated people are concerned, but with Papuans -it is a very different problem. The first thing to do—and -very few of them would even grasp the idea—is -to make them understand that you wish to learn their -words. You may point at an object and look intelligent -and expectant, but they are slow to take your -meaning, and they soon tire of giving information. -The facial expression, which amongst us conveys even -to a deaf man an interrogation, means nothing to them, -nor has the sideways shake of the head a negative -meaning to Papuans.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span></p> - -<p>In trying to learn a new language of this kind most -people (I imagine) would begin, as we did, with the -numerals. But our researches in this direction did not -take us very far, for we made the interesting discovery -that they have words for one and two only; <i>ínakwa</i> -(one), <i>jamaní</i> (two). This is not to say that they cannot -reckon beyond two, for they can, by using the fingers -and thumbs, and beginning always with the thumb -of the right hand, reckon with tolerable accuracy up to -ten. For numbers above ten they use the toes, never, -so far as we observed, two or three toes, but always -all the toes together to indicate a large but uncertain -number. Sometimes they opened and closed the fingers -of both hands two or three times and uttered the word -<i>takirí</i>, which appeared to mean “many.” They did -not, as some people do, use the word which means -“hand” to indicate five or a quantity of about that -number.</p> - -<p>With patience we learnt a great number of substantives, -the names of animals, the parts of the body, -the various possessions of the natives and so forth, and -with more difficulty we learnt some of the active verbs. -But when we came to abstract ideas, our researches -ceased abruptly for lack of the question words, who, -how, where, when, etc.; these we were never able to -learn, and it is impossible to act them.</p> - -<p>Thus we were never able to find out what they -thought of various things; we could point to the moon -and be told its name, but we were never able to say, -“What is the moon?” We learnt the names of lightning -and thunder, but we never knew who they thought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> -produced them. We could not find out where their -stone axes came from, nor how old they were, nor who -made them; and a hundred other questions, which -we should have liked to put, remained unanswered.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OBTAINING INFORMATION</div> - -<p>These limitations of our knowledge of the language -were particularly annoying when we tried to find out -the simplest ties of relationship. It may be thought -very unintelligent of us that we never learnt the word -for father, in spite of many attempts to do so. If -you pointed to a child and asked a man, knowing him -to be the father, what the child was, he would slap -himself on the chest and answer, “<i>Dorota kamare</i>” (my -penis); then if you pointed to himself he would tell -you his own name, but never any word that could -possibly be construed as father. If you tried the same -thing with the mother she would point to the child and -say, “<i>Dorota auwë</i>” (my breast). The child on being -questioned pointed to the father and always said his -name, the mother it would call <i>Aína</i> (woman), but -perhaps this word also means mother.</p> - -<p>There were two men at Parimau so much alike as -to be unmistakably brothers; we learnt their names -and that they were <i>Inakwa kamare</i> (one penis), but -we never found out the name of their relationship.</p> - -<p>Seeing that some of the people have a very good -idea of drawing on the ground a map of the country, -I tried one day a graphic method of obtaining the -relationships of a man whose name and whose wife’s -name and son’s name I knew. I put sticks on the -ground to represent him and his wife and son, and then -in a tentative sort of way put in a stick to represent his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> -father, whose name he mentioned, but the game did -not interest him and my researches came to an end.</p> - -<p>Even the apparently simple matter of enquiring -the names of places is not so easy as one would think. -When the first party went up the Mimika to Parimau -they pointed to the huts and asked what the village -was called; the answer given was “Tupué,” meaning -I believe, the name of the family who lived in the huts -pointed at. For several months we called the place -Tupué, and the name appeared in various disguises -in the English newspapers. When I was at Parimau -in July, it occurred to me to doubt the name of Tupué, -which we never heard the natives use, so I questioned -a man elaborately. Pointing in the direction of Wakatimi, -I said in his language: “Many houses, Wakatimi,” -and he nodded assent; then pointing in the direction -of another village that we had visited I said: “Many -houses, Imah,” to which he agreed; then I said. -“Many houses,” and pointed towards Parimau. This -performance was repeated three times before he understood -my intention and supplied the word “Parimau,” -and then he shouted the whole story across the river -to the people in the village who received it with shouts -of laughter, and well they might. It was as if a -foreigner, who had been living for six months in a place -which he was accustomed to call Smith, enquired again -one day what its name was and found that it was -London.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p106.jpg" width="400" height="653" alt=">A PAPUAN MOTHER AND CHILD." /> -<p class="caption">A PAPUAN MOTHER AND CHILD.<br /> -(<i>On the right is seen a fishing net.</i>)</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">LANGUAGE OF MIMIKA</div> - -<p>The language spoken by the people of Mimika is by -no means unpleasant to listen to, and with the customary -sing-song intonation it would be almost musical, if it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>were not for the harsh voices of the natives, both men -and women. There are many agreeably soft gutterals, -and there is no hissing sound in the language, as they -are unable to pronounce the letter “s.” Many of -their words are really very pleasing, notably some of -their names, such as “Oonabë,” “Inamë,” “Tébo,” -“Magena,” “Awariao,” “Idoriaota,” “Poandio,” and -“Mareru,” to mention only a few; some of the names -were so long that I never succeeded in writing them -correctly.</p> - -<p>The people who lived near the upper waters of the -Mimika appeared to speak the same dialect as those -living near the coast, with one noticeable difference. -Those words containing a “k” in the language of the -people at the coast lose the “k” in the mouths of the -up-river natives, thus: <i>Ké</i> (rain) in the Wakatimi -language becomes <i>’é</i> at Parimau; <i>Kie</i> (a leech) becomes -<i>’ie</i>, <i>Pokanë</i> (an axe) becomes <i>Po’anë</i>.</p> - -<p>The only rule of grammar that we learnt was the -simple method of constructing the possessive case by -adding the suffix <i>ta</i>. Thus from <i>doro</i> (I) you have -<i>dorota</i> (mine); from <i>oro</i> (you), <i>orota</i> (your), and in the -same way <i>Tebota</i> (Tebo’s); <i>Mareruta</i> (Mareru’s), and -so on.</p> - -<p>They were curious to know our names and liked to -address us by them; Goodfellow’s and Rawling’s names -baffled them completely; Marshall’s became “Martë”; -they made a good attempt at mine in “Wollatona,” -and Cramer’s they pronounced perfectly.</p> - -<p>So far as I know, they never finish a word with a -consonant, and when they adopted a Malay or Dutch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> -word which ended in a consonant, they always added -a vowel; for instance, <i>tuana</i> (master), <i>Kapítana</i> (Captain), -<i>maíora</i> (Major).</p> - -<p>Some of their newly-constructed words will puzzle -future philologists who go there; for instance, the -Malay word <i>písau</i> (a knife) they called <i>pítau</i>, substituting -“t” for the “s” which they cannot pronounce; -<i>petau</i> was found easier to say than <i>pítau</i>, and eventually -it became changed to <i>pauti</i>, which was the finally accepted -version.</p> - -<p>Probably the best means of learning the local dialect -would be to encourage an intelligent child to visit -your camp daily, where it would learn Malay and in -course of time might be able to act as interpreter; but -the process of education would be a slow one, and it -would be constantly interrupted by the wandering -habits of the natives. The time that we spent in the -country was too short for any such attempt to be -made, and indeed it was not until we had been there -for several months that the children came fearlessly -into our camp. But now that the natives have full -confidence in Europeans a patient scholar might make -a complete study of a quite unknown language.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>The Papuans of Wakatimi—Colour—Hair—Eyes—Nose—Tattooing—Height—Dress—Widows’ -Bonnets—Growth of Children—Preponderance of Men—Number -of Wives—Childhood—Swimming and -other Games—Imitativeness of Children—The Search for Food—Women -as Workers—Fishing Nets—Other Methods of Fishing—An -Extract from Dampier.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Papuans of the Mimika district may be divided -into two classes or tribes: those who live in the -villages on the lower waters of the river and make -periodical migrations to the sea; and those who live -on the upper waters of the river near the foot of the -mountains and who never go down to the coast. -There is a wide interval of uninhabitable country -between the regions occupied by these two tribes, and -communication between them, if it takes place at all, -is very rare; but they resemble each other so closely, -both in physical characters and in their manners and -customs, that a single description will suffice for both.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> -The other native race of the district, the pygmy people -who live in the mountains, will be described in a later -chapter.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FEATURES OF THE PAPUANS</div> - -<p>The skin of the Mimika native is a very dark brown, -almost rusty black, but a dark colour without any of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span>the gloss seen in the skin of the African negro. Not -infrequently we saw men of a lighter, nearly yellow, -colour, and in the Wakatimi district there were three -pure albinos, a man, a woman and a child. The man -and woman were covered with blotches of a pinkish -pigment and were peculiarly disagreeable to look at, -the child, a sucking infant, and the offspring of black -parents, was as white as any European baby, and was -called, out of compliment to us, “Tuana.”<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> - -<p>The hair is black and thick and frizzly; it never, -or seldom grows long, so you do not see the ornamental -coiffures characteristic of the natives of some other -parts of the island; but they are skilful in plaiting -what there is of it and take some pride in the result. -Three- or four-pronged combs are worn in the hair -more as a means of carrying a useful article than as -ornaments. The hair of young children is often quite -fair, but it becomes dark as they grow up; some of the -adults have the custom, common in other places, of -dyeing the hair yellow with lime.</p> - -<p>The eye of the Papuan child is the eye of any bright -dark-eyed child here or elsewhere; the white of the -eye is white and the iris dark and clear. But very -soon the white becomes bloodshot and yellow, and the -iris blurred. The expression in the eyes is a thing -that haunts one by its forlornness and hopelessness; -it cannot be described, but you may see it in the eyes of -certain animals. They show a strong disinclination -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>to look you straight in the eyes, and when you rarely -make them do so you seem to be looking into an unlighted -and empty space.</p> - -<p>The teeth are strong, but not conspicuously white -and perfect like those of some other black races. A -good many men file or chip the upper incisors to a -point, but this has not, so far as we know, any particular -significance.</p> - -<p>The nose is almost bridgeless and is of a somewhat -hooked and fleshy type with wide nostrils. The <i>septum</i> -of the nose is pierced when the boys are young, and the -hole is kept open by a rolled-up leaf thrust through it; -in this way it is gradually dilated until the man is able -to wear a carved ornament of a piece of the bill of a -hornbill or a curved boar’s tusk, with which he decorates -himself on festal occasions. The nose-piercing is -attended with a good deal of ceremony, but we were -never fortunate enough to see it; it is done when the -child is about five years old, and the operation is made -(according to native accounts) with a piece of sharpened -bone heated in the fire. Small ornaments are sometimes -worn in holes in the <i>alae nasi</i> which are pierced -in all the children, both boys and girls, when they are -small infants.</p> - -<p>Many of the people pierce the lobes of the ear, but -the custom is not universal. The ornaments worn in -the ear are strings of two or three beads, or small rings -of plaited fibres or rattan, or the claw of a cassowary. -We took with us a large number of Jew’s harps as -trade goods, but the natives did not care for them, -and two (the only two, I believe) that we did succeed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span> -in making the people accept, were worn by them as -ear-rings. Another man, a constant smoker, in default -of a better cigar case always carried a cigar in the lobe -of his ear.</p> - -<p>Tattooing, in the proper sense of the term, is unknown -to the Mimika Papuans, but a great number of -them practise cicatrisation or scarring. The usual -places for these markings are the buttocks and the -outer side of the upper (usually the left) arm. On the -buttocks the marks are almost always the same, a cross, -about two inches square, on the left buttock, and a -cross surrounded by a circle on the right. The mark -on the arm is about four inches long and sometimes -represents a snake and sometimes a scorpion or a crayfish, -but the meaning of it, and whether or not it had -some totemistic significance we were unable to learn. -Some of the women affect a scar between the breasts, -which makes a very unsightly contraction, and we -occasionally saw people with irregular scars all over -the upper part of the breast and back, but it is probable -that most of them were the signs rather of former -quarrels than due to a spirit of coquetry.</p> - -<p>They are fond of painting their faces with a bright -red earth, lumps of which they sometimes find and -prize very highly, and not infrequently we saw men with -their faces smeared black with a mixture of fat and -charcoal, or whitened with powdered sago, but the -reason, if there were any but vanity, for this adornment -we did not discover.</p> - -<table summary="CICATRIZATION and SAGO POWDER"><tr> -<td class="tdl2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_p112a.jpg" width="200" height="254" alt="CICATRIZATION." /> -<p class="caption">CICATRIZATION.</p></div></td> - -<td class="tdl2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/i_p112b.jpg" width="200" height="250" alt="PAPUAN WITH FACE WHITENED WITH SAGO POWDER." /> -<p class="caption">PAPUAN WITH FACE WHITENED WITH SAGO POWDER.</p></div></td></tr></table> - -<p>The average height of men measured at Wakatimi -and Parimau is 5 feet 6 inches. No women were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span>measured, but it would probably be found that the -average height of the women was about two inches -less than that of the men. Such a height is small compared -with that of many races, but the first impression -you get of the Papuans is that they are tall, for they -hold themselves well, and all naked people look taller -than those who go clothed. Their legs are thin and -rather meagre, due in a great measure to the large proportion -of their lives that is spent in canoes, but they walk -with a good swinging gait and cover the ground easily.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DRESS</div> - -<p>It is a curious thing that a black man never looks -naked; a white man undressed looks a naked man, -so too does a yellow man, but a Papuan—and nobody -could wear much less in the way of clothes than he -does—always seems to be sufficiently clad. The dress -of the Papuan men, as has been suggested above, is -scanty in the extreme. They have, or had before we -visited them, no cloth except a very inferior bark cloth -made from the bark of a species of fig tree. Some of -the men wear a narrow strip of this bark cloth, which -hangs down in front from a string round the loins -and keeps up an ineffectual pretence of decency.</p> - -<p>The more usual covering is the bamboo penis-case, -which is kept in position by pulling the preputium -through a hole in the lower end of the case. There are -three or four different patterns of penis-cases, and they -are always ornamented with carved designs. Another -equally common fashion of covering is the shell; this -is an oval or roughly squared segment of a large white -sea shell, sometimes as much as six inches in diameter. -It is worn on a string which passes through two holes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> -bored in it, and is tied tightly round the loins. The -convex surface of the shell faces forwards, and the -preputium is pulled upwards and clipped under the -lower margin of the shell. Both the bamboo case and -the shell are useful as a protection against the leeches -and thorns of the jungle.</p> - -<p>Small boys go quite naked until they reach the -time of puberty, when for a short period they wear a -sort of skirt made from the shredded leaves of the -<i>pandanus</i>. Though the men like very much to wear -round their heads strips of our coloured cloth, they do -not normally use any kind of head-gear except on ceremonial -occasions, when the men who beat the drums -wear elaborate hats ornamented with the plumes of -birds of paradise. Many of the men wear arm-bands -above the elbow and leg-bands below the knee, made -of tightly woven fibre or of fine strips of rattan.</p> - -<p>The women are rather more clothed than the men, -but it cannot be said that they are at all overdressed. -The usual garment consists of a narrow belt of bark -cloth or grass round the waist, from which there hang -a narrow strip of bark cloth in front, reaching about -half way down the thigh, and a wider strip, somewhat -after the fashion of the tail of an Englishman’s evening -coat, extending as far as the knee behind. In addition -to this, many of the women wear a sort of short waistcoat -or sleeveless bodice made of plaited grass or fibre -with tags or tassels hanging down in a sort of fringe -from its lower edge. Newly-married women wear a -sort of apron, or rather a long fringe of shredded leaves, -which hangs down from the waist.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p114.jpg" width="400" height="625" alt="WOMEN OF WAKATIMI." /> -<p class="caption">WOMEN OF WAKATIMI.<br /> -(<i>On the left is a widow wearing the bonnet.</i>)</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">WIDOWS’ WEEDS</div> - -<p>The best dressed, or in any case the most dressed, -members of the community are the widows, who wear, -in addition to the other articles of female attire, what -can only be described as a poke bonnet. In some cases -the bonnet projects so far in front of the face as to -obscure the features, in some it is of a conical design, -and in others it resembles in shape nothing so much -as the morion of a mediaeval man-at-arms.</p> - -<p>Like the waistcoats worn by the women, the bonnets -are made of ingeniously plaited fibre, and both of -these look well when they are newly made, but they -very quickly become hideous with damp and dirt, and -the wearer is a person to be shunned. The small girls, -unlike the boys, wear a narrow strip of bark cloth -tucked between the legs almost as soon as they can walk. -It is perhaps worth mentioning that these people have -the art of sewing; they make eyed needles out of -sharp fish bones, and with strands of fibre they contrive -to sew pieces of bark cloth very neatly together.</p> - -<p>There are no milk-producing domesticated animals -in the country, so the women suckle their infants for -a very long time, and you may occasionally see -children of (apparently) three or four years old at their -mothers’ breasts; but whether young or old, it is very -difficult to estimate the age of these people. In the -course of a year we saw little children grow into active -boys and we saw young men become middle-aged. -I should say—but this is pure speculation—that a man -is old at forty years and a woman at an even earlier -age; it seems probable, too, that the life of a woman -is shorter than that of a man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span></p> - -<p>Partly on account of the migratory habits of the -natives, and partly owing to the fact that at no hour -of the day until nightfall are all the people in or about -the houses, it was never found possible to take a census -of a village, but from our observations we arrived at -the conclusion that the number of men was decidedly -greater than that of women.</p> - -<p>The number of a man’s wives was a favourite subject -for boasting and they often assured us that they had -two or even three wives, but we only knew two men -who certainly had two wives; on the other hand we -knew a considerable number of men who had no wives -at all. It appears that a man may take a wife from his -own village or from a village in the same district; -thus a Wakatimi man may take a wife from Obota -or Periepia, and a Parimau man from Kamura. There -were two women at Parimau who were said to come -from Wakatimi, but whether they had been voluntarily -exchanged or were the spoils of war we were not told.</p> - -<p>It was unfortunate that we learnt nothing about -the customs and ceremonies connected with marriage. -A wedding took place at Wakatimi when we all -happened to be absent, and the only definite description -that we were able to get of it was that the bride, -who arrived from another village by canoe, crawled -on her hands and knees from the water’s edge to the -village, a distance of about a hundred yards, and most -of it through mud.</p> - -<p>Beyond question, the happiest time in the lives of -the Papuans is their childhood, when they are free to -play from morning to night and need not take part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> -in the ceaseless search for food, which occupies so much -of the time of their elders. As infants they are carried -on the backs of their mothers and very often of their -fathers, secured by a wide strap of bark cloth, the ends -of which are tied across the carrier’s chest. It is -very seldom that you hear them cry and they appear -to give very little trouble; their mothers are very -careful of the cleanliness of the infants. Very early -in life they begin to walk and almost as soon they learn -to swim. In fine weather they often spend the greater -part of the day in the river and it is a very pretty sight -to see a crowd of little Papuans playing together in -the water. Sometimes they are joined by the women, -who seem to enjoy the fun quite as much as the -children. One of their favourite games is to pretend -to be a school of porpoises, whose rolling headers they -imitate admirably. They very soon become powerful -swimmers, and I remember one day seeing a small boy, -who cannot have been more than eight years old, swim -across a river in tremendous flood, while the party -of men who were with him had to seek a place where -they could safely swim across half a mile lower down.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">GAMES OF THE CHILDREN</div> - -<p>There are a number of games too that they play -on dry land: they play the universal game of lying -in wait for your enemy and suddenly pouncing out on -him; they have great battles in which they are armed -with miniature bows and arrows, and reed stems take -the place of spears, and shrill yells make up for the -lack of bloodshed. There is another game which I saw -played three or four times in exactly the same manner, -and which, by reason of it somewhat resembling a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span> -children’s game called “Nuts in May,” is perhaps worth -describing. Eight little boys, each one carrying a long -flowering grass, stood in two parties of four facing each -other a few yards apart. At first they waved their -grasses and then danced towards each other, crossed -and took the places that had been opposite to them; -this they repeated twice. Then they ran round and -round in a circle about five yards wide waving their -grasses and shouting until they stopped suddenly and -sat down in a bunch together. After a rest of about -half a minute, they jumped up and ran round again -in the same circle, now shouting and grabbing as they -ran handsful of sand, which they threw over their -heads into the air or between their legs into the face -of the one behind; then a sudden stop and again they -all sat down in a bunch. After this they jumped up, -ran all together for a few yards shouting loudly, -hurled all their grasses as high into the air as they -could, and the game was ended.</p> - -<p>Like the children of more civilised races, the young -Papuans are fond of imitating their elders. The boys -like to be seen walking about with men, to copy their -swaggering walk, and to sit about smoking idly and -watch the women at work. The little girls sometimes -contrive to make grass garments like those worn by -the women; they make small dolls’ houses in which -they themselves, or infants still smaller than they, -are the dolls, and they like to be seen baling out the -canoes or carrying sand for the houses. But in their -case pretence is soon changed to reality, and when they -are quite young they are made to accompany their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span> -mothers in the serious business of life, while the boys -are still leading a gay life with no responsibilities. -Both boys and girls very early become proficient in the -management of canoes, and a child of tender years -will confidently steer a canoe through rough water -which would end in certain shipwreck for one of us.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE BUSINESS OF LIFE</div> - -<p>The chief business in the lives of the Papuans is -that of all animals, human and others, namely, the -search for food. But while the civilised races have -learnt to foresee wants of the future, and have -established a system of agriculture which provides -food for everybody and leaves a part of the population -free to pursue other occupations, the Papuans take -no thought for the morrow, and the search for food -becomes literally a hand to mouth business, which -occupies the attentions of every member of the community.</p> - -<p>They have no cultivation in the Mimika villages, -and even at those places such as Obota (see p. 88) -where there is some cultivation, the crops that they -raise are not nearly sufficient for the whole population, -so it can easily be imagined that an improvident people -living in a country constantly liable to sudden floods, -which swamp the land for weeks at a time, is frequently -faced with a prospect of complete starvation. At -first you are inclined to think that the whole of the -business of collecting food falls on the shoulders of -the women, while the men sit at home and do nothing. -This is certainly true of a great many days in the year, -but certain tasks can only be performed by the men, -such as hunting for game in the jungle, and felling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> -trees to make the canoes, without which the people -must inevitably starve.</p> - -<p>Their working day begins fairly early, and by about -eight o’clock the village is almost deserted by the -women, who have all gone off in canoes to fish or collect -sago. As a rule, two or three women go in each canoe, -taking with them a few children, a dog or two, several -fishing nets, rolls of matting, some spears and arrows, -a little food, a bamboo filled with fresh water, if they -are going down to the river mouth, and always a fire -burning in the stern of the boat. The usual destination -of the women is the muddy creeks among the -mangrove swamps not far from the sea; there where -the water is brackish and the tide rises and falls several -feet they find in the mud banks large mussels -(<i>Cyrena</i> sp.), which contain a good deal of food, and -the shells of which are useful as knives and scrapers. -Hopping all over the mud are seen hundreds of curious -little fish (<i>Periophthalmus</i> sp.), whose eyes seem to be -starting out of their heads; these little creatures climb -up the steepest mud banks, and even up the stumps of -trees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p120.jpg" width="400" height="515" alt="PAPUAN WOMAN AND CHILD." /> -<p class="caption">PAPUAN WOMAN AND CHILD.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">FISHING</div> - -<p>The commonest type of fishing net is made in an oval -framework of wood, or strips of rattan, about 5 feet long -by 2 feet wide; the net is a close mesh of native string -stretched tightly across the frame, except at the middle, -where it sags a little. The usual method of using this -kind of net is to grasp it at both ends and by wading -through the shallow water to scoop up small fish much -in the same way as shrimps are caught. There is -another more ingenious method of using it, which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>sometimes results in large capture of little fish. When -the tide is high the bushes along the river bank and many -of the drooping branches of the trees are submerged; -the natives approach quietly in their canoes, cautiously -push the net under the submerged vegetation, and then -with a sudden jerk lift it up out of the water, in this way -capturing numbers of small fish which had been sheltering -or looking for food among the leaves.</p> - -<p>Another form of fishing net—though there is no -netting in its construction—is made of long, thin strips -of bamboo tied parallel to each other at intervals of -about half an inch, forming a sort of screen or trellis-work, -which can be rolled up if necessary. Strong -wooden stakes are driven into the mud at the mouth -of the creeks which join the river in many places, and -at high water the screens are fastened to the stakes -in such a way as to touch the bottom and close the -entrance of the creek; the water can run back when -the tide falls, but not the fish which are sometimes -caught in considerable numbers.</p> - -<p>The larger fish are all obtained by the men, who -either catch them with a hook and line, or spear them -in the shallow water near the river mouth, or along the -sea shore. We saw very few hooks; one or two were -made of rough metal, the others were neatly fashioned -from fish bones, and all of them were plain without -barbs. Now they have a large number of steel fishhooks, -which they greatly value.</p> - -<p>The commonest types of fish-spear are made of -thin bamboo or a light wood about ten feet long, and -they end in three or four sharp prongs of bamboo or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> -hardened wood. They also use a barbed spear of which -the head becomes detached from the shaft, when it -becomes fixed in a fish; a light line connecting the shaft -with the head causes the shaft to act as a drag on -the movements of the fish, which can easily be followed -up and killed; this kind of spear is only used for the -larger fish, saw-fish and the like, but I never saw it in -use. Considering the enormous number of fish that -there are—at the mouth of the river the water is sometimes -seen to be seething with large fish—it cannot -be said that the men are very clever with their spears.</p> - -<p>They also shoot fish, using single- or three-pointed -arrows; you may see a man standing quietly in a pool -of water like a heron waiting for the fish to come up to -him, or stalking a shoal of fish stealthily from the -bank; in either case he will probably shoot arrow after -arrow without effect, for they are absurdly indifferent -marksmen with the bow.</p> - -<p>The most primitive methods of all of catching fish -I saw practised one day coming down from Obota. -A native paddling in the bow of my canoe saw a large -fish near the bank, towards which he steered the canoe. -When he judged that he was near enough to it, he -hurled himself flat on to the water with a resounding -splash that drenched everything in the boat, and a -thud that would have stunned the fish at once had it -not darted off an instant earlier.</p> - -<p>The sight of a fish, however small it is, always -rouses a Papuan to action. When we were travelling -with natives, we sometimes came to pools where small -fish had been left by some receding flood. Instantly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> -their loads were thrown down and everyone darted -into the water with sticks and stones and shouts and -as much enthusiasm as if the fish had been salmon -and a full meal for everyone.</p> - -<p>There is another method of fishing which was observed -by the navigator, Captain Dampier, in use by the natives -of this region. It is so remarkable that, although we -did not see it employed by the people of the Mimika -district, I shall make no excuse for repeating it here:—</p> - -<p>“They strike Fish very ingeniously with Wooden -Fiss-gigs and have a very ingenious way of making -the Fish rise: For they have a piece of Wood curiously -carv’d and painted much like a Dolphin (and perhaps -other Figures;) these they let down into the Water -by a Line with a small weight to sink it; when they -think it low enough, they haul the Line into their -Boats very fast, and the Fish rise up after this Figure; -and they stand ready to strike them when they are -near the Surface of the Water.”<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a></p> - -<p>There are times when the natives get more fish -than they know what to do with, and other times when -no fish can be caught; but they have no idea of laying -up a store for the lean times. It is true that they char -some in the fire and keep them for a few days before -the fish putrify, but if they learnt to smoke some of their -surplus supply, they need never go hungry.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Food of the Papuans—Cassowaries—The Native Dog—Question of -Cannibalism—Village Headman—The Social System of the -Papuans—The Family—Treatment of Women—Religion—Weather -Superstitions—Ceremony to avert a Flood—The Pig—A Village -Festival—Wailing at Deaths—Methods of Disposal of the Dead—No -Reverence for the Remains—Purchasing Skulls.</i></p></blockquote> - -<div class="sidenote">FOOD OF THE NATIVES</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> search for food furnishes occasionally some very -curious scenes. One of the most remarkable occurs when -the river in flood brings down a tree-trunk in a suitable -stage of decay. A canoe is sent out with men to secure -it and tow it to the bank. When it has been left stranded -by the falling water, the people, men, women and children -come out and swarm around it like bees about a honey-pot, -and you wonder what they can be doing. When you go -close you find that some are splitting up the log with their -stone axes and others are cutting up the fragments with -sharpened shells in the same way that their ancestors—and -perhaps ours too—did centuries ago. The objects of -their search are the large white <i>larvæ</i> of a beetle, about -the size of a man’s thumb; I have seen natives eat them -just as they cut them out of the wood, but usually they -roast them in the fire and consider them a great delicacy.</p> - -<p>Nothing that can by any means be considered eatable -comes amiss to the Papuans; there are two kinds of -water tortoises which they like to eat, and rats, lizards, -frogs and snakes, and the eggs of crocodiles they devour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> -greedily. A number of different kinds of fruits, most of -them disagreeable to European tastes, are found growing -in the jungle and form a welcome addition to their fare. -Birds they get occasionally, but their skill with the bow -and arrow is not remarkable.</p> - -<p>Most of their meat is obtained by hunting with dogs -the wild pig, the wallaby and the cassowary. The pig -(<i>Sus papuensis</i>), though it is not really a native of New -Guinea, was introduced into the island so long ago that -it has become as well established as the rabbit has become -in this country. In some places, particularly near the -foot of the mountains, pigs are fairly numerous, and the -natives kill a good many; they are very savage beasts, -and I saw a native terribly gashed by a large boar, which -was shortly afterwards shot by one of our Gurkhas.</p> - -<p>The Wallaby (<i>Dorcopsis lorentzii</i>) is a small kangaroo, -about two feet in height when it stands upright; it seems -to be fairly evenly distributed all over the district. When -the natives bestir themselves they seem to be able to catch -the wallaby fairly easily; in four consecutive days we -saw the remains of thirteen brought into the village of -Parimau. The flesh is coarse and has a very strong musky -flavour.</p> - -<p>There are two kinds of Cassowary in the Mimika district, -a small species new to science (<i>Casuarius claudi</i>), -which was discovered in the mountains at an altitude of -about 1500 feet, and a large species (<i>Casuarius sclateri</i>), -which was fairly abundant everywhere. We frequently -heard their curious booming cry at night and we often saw -their tracks in the mud of the jungle or on the river bank, -but they are very shy birds and are seldom seen.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span></p> - -<p>Once I had the luck to see an old cassowary with -two young birds walking about in a stony river bed, -a place which they particularly affect, and it was a very -pretty sight to see how the mother bird, after she had -caught sight of me, drove away the chicks to a place -of safety and all the time kept herself between them -and me. The natives hunt and kill and eat a good -many cassowaries; the feathers are used for ornamental -head-dresses and belts and for decorating spears and -clubs, and the claws are often used as the points of -arrows.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE NATIVE DOGS</div> - -<p>The Papuan Dog, without whose help the native -would seldom, if ever, be able to get any meat, is a -sharp-nosed prick-eared creature about the size of a -Welsh terrier. The colour is yellow, brown or black, -and the tail, which is upstanding, is tipped with white. -Usually the hair is short and smooth, but we saw one -dog, brought down to Parimau by a party of pygmies, -which had a thick furry coat like a chow dog, which it -also resembled in the carriage of its tail. The dogs -in the village of the pygmies which we visited, were -smooth-coated like those of the Papuans, so it is -possible that that thick-coated animal came from some -remote district where the natives live at a higher altitude.</p> - -<p>The Papuan dogs are very sociable creatures, and -they like to accompany the natives on their journeys. -They are particularly fond of going in canoes on the -river, and two or three are seen in nearly every canoe -even when the people are only out fishing. Their -food is generally given to them by the women and it -consists of raw meat, when there is any, and lumps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span> -of sago. A remarkable peculiarity about them is that -they never bark, but they make up for this defect by -their extraordinary power of howling. Sometimes in -broad daylight, if there was no wind, but more often -on still fine nights, a party of dogs would sit together, -usually on the river bank, and utter a chorus of the -most piteous and blood-curdling howls. No amount -of stone-throwing or beating with sticks, freely administered -by their masters, had the smallest effect on them; -they would only move away a few yards and begin -again, apparently carried away by an ecstasy of sorrow.</p> - -<p>The natives value their dogs highly, as they well -may do, for they provide the whole of their meat supply, -and they use them to exchange for articles of which -they have great need. The people at Parimau have a -small piece of iron about the size of a chisel, used -for carving their canoes and paddles, for which the -enormous price of three dogs had been paid, so they -informed us, to the people of the Wakatimi. One -day one of our “boys” shot a dog, which had been -in the habit of stealing food from our camp. When -the natives knew that it was dead, all the people of the -village began to wail in the same manner as they do -when a person dies, and the owner of the dog smeared -himself with mud and mourned bitterly. No doubt -the display was somewhat exaggerated in the hope of -getting a compensation from us, but at the back of it -there was genuine emotion.</p> - -<p>Before leaving the subject of the food of the -Papuans and their means of obtaining it, a word must -be said on the question of cannibalism. It is popularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> -supposed that all the natives of New Guinea are -cannibals, and fears were expressed by many of our -friends that some, if not all, of us would end in a Papuan -feast. But we saw no signs of cannibalism, and we -have no reason to suppose that it is practised by the -people of the Mimika district. Men whom we questioned -about it denied it and showed expressions of disgust -at the suggestion; but that is not a complete proof -of their innocence, for I have known people elsewhere, -who were undoubtedly cannibals, deny it in the same -manner. The question of cannibalism is always difficult -to decide without direct evidence, and in the case -of these Papuans the verdict must be one of “Not -proven.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SOCIAL SYSTEM OF THE PAPUANS</div> - -<p>The account given in a preceding chapter of the -difficulties we experienced in learning the language of -the Papuans will serve to explain how it was that we -learnt so little about the nature of their social system. -The people of Wakatimi were called <i>Wakatimi-wé</i> -(people of Wakatimi), the people of Obota were -<i>Obota-wé</i>, and the people of other villages in like manner, -but we never heard one word that included them all, -nor indeed do we know whether or not they consider -themselves all to belong to the same tribe.</p> - -<p>In every village that we visited there were one or -two or even more men who called themselves <i>natoo</i>, -a word signifying “chief.” But in no case did the -<i>natoo</i> appear to have any authority over the other -people; their houses were no bigger than the rest, and -(except in one instance) they had no more personal -property than the other members of the community.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p128.jpg" width="400" height="647" alt="A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA." /> -<p class="caption">A PAPUAN OF MIMIKA.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span></p> - -<p>The exceptional case was a man of unusual intelligence -who became our intimate friend and gave us much -information for which he was always well rewarded, -so that before we left the country his house was filled -with tins and bottles, and he was the possessor of axes -and knives, yards of cloth and countless beads. In all -the ordinary affairs of life the “chiefs” and their -families have to work like everybody else, but it is -possible that in their wars, of which we saw nothing -at all, they may be persons of more consequence.</p> - -<p>Generally speaking, one would say that the society -of the Mimika Papuans is a group of small families. It -cannot by any means be described as a socialistic community; -with one exception there is no sign of community -of property, but it is rather a case of every man -for himself, or (more accurately) of every family for -itself. A canoe belongs to the family of the man who -made it; the coconut trees, which grow here and there -along the lower Mimika, do not belong to the community -but to individuals, presumably the men or -some of the men who planted them. Sometimes the -trees are protected by a fence, a very flimsy structure -of three or four sticks, placed across the track which -leads to the trees; in other cases a few palm leaves or -some pierced shells threaded on a string are tied round -the tree itself; both of these devices appear to be -enough to ensure the security of the trees. The exception -mentioned is seen when game is brought in by -the hunters; the meat, as I observed on several -occasions, is distributed to every house in the village.</p> - -<p>As I have described above (p. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>) the houses in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> -village are joined together under a common roof, but -each family enters by its own doorway, and, except -for the publicity resulting from the lack of dividing -walls or partitions, it finds itself in its own private -house. It is difficult to say exactly of what the -“family-group” consists. There are the man and his -wife and the children, and sometimes an extra man or -two, and, rarely, an extra woman, who is, I believe, -always a second wife of the man of the house; but the -position of the extra men and their relationship to -the rest of the family I cannot define. At the village -of Obota a detached house, rather larger than the rest, -was said to be occupied by young men only; we did -not see any other instance of this elsewhere.</p> - -<p>Families are small, as might be expected from the -severity of their conditions of life and the long period -of suckling by the mothers, and we did not know -definitely of any couple who had more than three living -children. Though the women do a large amount of -the work of the community they are not mere drudges; -they do a great deal of talking, and the men appear -to pay considerable respect to their opinion. This -was frequently noticeable when we wanted to buy -something, such as canoes, from a native; he would -say that he must first of all go and consult his wife, -and when he returned it often happened that, prompted -by his wife, he insisted on a higher payment than he -had asked before.</p> - -<p>On one occasion only did we see a woman ill-treated, -and the performance was a particularly brutal one. -Two men and a woman walked down from the village<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> -of Wakatimi to the river bank, dragging another woman, -who shrieked and struggled violently. After throwing -her into the mud they dragged her into the shallow -water and tried to drown her by holding her down under -a fishing-net. We shouted at them, and were just going -with some soldiers in a canoe across the river to rescue -the woman, when they desisted and allowed the poor -creature to crawl out on to the bank, where she lay for -some time exhausted. Some natives who came over to -us shortly afterwards laughed about it and treated the -whole affair as a joke.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PAPUAN SUPERSTITIONS</div> - -<p>With regard to the superstitions and beliefs of the -Papuans, owing to our unfortunate difficulties with the -language we learnt nothing whatever. Religion, in -the accepted sense of that term, I am sure they have -not. It is true that they make curious carved effigies, -but these are not idols, and there is no evidence to show -that they ever consult or worship them; on the contrary, -they treat them with contempt and often -point to them with laughter. These images are ingeniously -and skilfully carved out of wood, and they -represent a human figure always grotesque and sometimes -grossly indecent. They vary in size from a few -inches to twelve or fourteen feet, and when they are not -neglected they are ornamented with red and white -paint.</p> - -<p>We had opportunities of observing the outward -signs of what were probably superstitions in connection -with certain phenomena of the weather. For instance, -the first peal of thunder that was heard in the day—it -occurred almost every day—was greeted by the men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span> -with a long-drawn tremulous shout. On the occasion -of a particularly alarming thunderstorm, when the -lightning flashes were almost unceasing, the men came -out of doors and with long sticks beat the ground in -front of their huts; then they waved the sticks in the -air, shouting loudly meanwhile. Curiously enough the -rare whistle of a certain bird, which we never identified, -was always greeted by the men of Parimau with a shout -precisely similar to that with which they greet the -thunder.</p> - -<p>The first sight of the new moon was signalised by a -short sharp bark rather than a shout. Several times -on the day following the first sight of the new moon -I noticed a spear decorated with white feathers exposed -conspicuously in the village, but whether it had any -connection with the kalendar I cannot say.</p> - -<p>When the first drops of rain of the day began to -fall, the men were sometimes seen to snap their fingers -four times towards the four quarters of the compass.</p> - -<p>A curious ceremony was twice observed at a time -of heavy rain, when the Mimika was rising rapidly and -threatening to sweep away the village of Parimau. A -party of men walked down to the edge of the river, -and one of them with a long spear threshed the water, -while the others at each stroke shouted, “<i>Mbu</i>” (water, -flood). Then they went up to the village, and in front -of each door they dug a hole, into which they poured -a coconut-full of water; again they shouted “<i>Mbu</i>,” -and then filled up the hole with sand.</p> - -<p>That they have some belief in the supernatural is -certain. We learnt a word <i>niniki</i>, which undoubtedly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span> -means ghosts; they described <i>niniki</i> as things which -you could not see but were here and there in the air -about you. When they were asked where a dead man -had gone to, they talked of <i>niniki</i>, and pointed vaguely -to the horizon, saying the word which means “far.”</p> - -<div class="sidenote">PIGS</div> - -<p>If there is one thing in heaven or earth to which it -may be said that the Papuans pay some sort of respect -it is the pig. They hunt and kill a good many wild -pigs in the jungle and eat their flesh, but the lower -jaw of each animal is carefully cleaned and hung up -on a sort of rack in front of the houses; on one of -these racks I counted no fewer than thirty-two pigs’ -jaws. The grass and leaves in which the animal is -wrapped and the ropes used for tying it up when it is -carried home from the jungle, are not thrown away -but are hung up on a similar sort of rack in a conspicuous -place in the village.</p> - -<p>In every village there may generally be seen two -or three pigs running about freely; they are probably -not bred in the village, but are caught in the jungle, -when they are young. They very soon become quite -tame and accompany the people on their migrations -from one place to another until they are full grown, -when they provide food for a festival. The only -elaborate popular ceremony that took place while we -were in the country happened early in May at Parimau, -and the principal feature of it was the slaughter of pigs. -Unfortunately for me I was at the base-camp at the -time and did not see the festival, so I will make extracts -from Marshall’s graphic account.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">A VILLAGE FESTIVAL</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span></p> -<p>“Yesterday the natives gave us an excellent show. -For some days previously natives had been arriving -from distant parts until the small village of 40 huts -contained 400 people, and it was evident from the -tomtomming and other signs that something of importance -was about to take place. On the night of -the 3rd inst. they lit a big bonfire, and all night long -they were howling and yelling as if to drive away evil -spirits. Soon after daybreak they came over to fetch -us, and, expecting something unusual, I slipped a film -into my cinematograph camera and went over. They -gave me every opportunity of obtaining a good -picture, keeping an open space for me in the best -positions. First of all the women, draped in leaves, -slowly walked down the beach, driving two full-grown -boars in front of them, and then disappeared -in the jungle. About 150 men with faces painted -and heads and spears decorated with feathers, formed -up in three sides of a square, one end of which was -occupied by a band of tomtoms. A slow advance -on the village then commenced, the men shouting -in chorus and the women dancing on the outskirts. -The centre of the square was occupied by single -individuals, who, following each other in quick -succession, gave a warlike display, finally shooting -arrows far over the trees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p134.jpg" width="400" height="637" alt="A TYPICAL PAPUAN OF MIMIKA." /> -<p class="caption">A TYPICAL PAPUAN OF MIMIKA.</p></div> - -<p>“The next scene took place around a large sloping -erection which we soon found was an altar, on which -the two boars were about to be sacrificed. The -women and boars who had disappeared into the -forest now marched from the jungle at the far end of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span>the village. The boars were seized, and a struggle -with the animals ensued, but the two huge brutes -were bound up with rattan, chalk meanwhile being -rubbed into their eyes, apparently in order to blind -them. The women set up a tremendous wailing, -and appeared on the scene plastered in wet mud from -head to foot. The two boars, on each of which a man -sat astride, were now hoisted up and carried to the -altar, on which the animals were tightly lashed. Then -amid much shouting, tomtomming, and fanatical -displays, the boars were clubbed to death. As soon -as life was extinct, the women cut the carcases free, -and, pulling them to the ground, threw themselves -on the dead bodies, wailing loudly, and plastering -themselves with wet mud in ecstasies of grief. This -continued for some ten minutes, when the men, many -of whom were covered with mud and uttered strange -dirges, picked up the bodies, and the whole assembly -following suit marched into the river, where a much-needed -washing took place. Just previous to this -a three-year-old child, painted red and crying loudly, -had been roughly seized and dragged towards the -dais, and for a moment we thought something more -serious than a boar sacrifice was about to take place. -But we were much relieved to see that it was only -having its ears pierced. The whole performance -lasted about an hour and a half.</p> - -<p>“The afternoon was given over to innocent play, -the women and girls—many of them quite pretty—chasing -the men up to the river side and into the -water. This is one of the few ceremonies when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span> -women are allowed to beat the men, the latter not -being permitted to retaliate. The damsels finally -became so bold that they stormed the camp.”</p> - -<p>Of ceremonies connected with birth, if any take -place, we saw nothing at all. The only marriage -ceremony that took place during our stay in the country -has been referred to on a preceding page.</p> - -<p>Deaths were unfortunately more frequent, and if -they were not accompanied by any elaborate ceremonial -they were, at all events, widely advertised, sometimes -indeed even before the event itself. A wretched man -became very ill at Parimau in August, and it was soon -evident that his days were numbered. Members of -his family carried him out of the house and laid him in -the sunlight for a time, and then took him back into the -house again at least half a dozen times a day. Now -and again, when he dozed, they set up the dreadful -wail that is customary when a person dies, and he had -to wake up and assure them of his continued life. At -night his hut was crowded with sympathetic watchers, -and with the smoke of the fire and much tobacco the -atmosphere must have been nearly insupportable. As -our own house was distant only about forty yards across -the river we could plainly hear his laboured breathing, -and when it grew softer they wailed again until the -wonder was that he did not die. On the third day -they dug a grave for him, but still he lingered on, and -it was not until the fifth night, when a tremendous -flood came down and swept away the village so that -all the people had to take refuge in their canoes, that he -died.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">WAILING AT DEATH</div> - -<p>When a death occurs the people in the hut at once -begin to wail, then the people in the neighbouring huts -join in and soon the whole village is wailing. It is a -very peculiar and very striking chorus. Each individual -wails on one note, and as there are perhaps five -notes ranging from a very high pitch to a deep -murmured bass being sung at once, the effect is most -mournful. The occasional beat of a drum adds not a -little to the general effect of lamentation. It must -be admitted, however, that the wailing is not always -a musical performance. Sometimes the mourning man -behaves in the way that a child does when it is described -as “roaring”; he puckers up his face in the most -extraordinary contortions, “roars” at the top of his -voice with occasional heart-breaking sobs, while the -tears course down his face, and the complete picture -is ludicrous in the extreme.</p> - -<p>The disposal of the dead nearly always takes place -just before dawn, but the method of it is not always -the same. The most common practice is to bury the -body in a shallow grave dug in the nearest convenient -spot, sometimes within a few yards of the huts. The -body is wrapped in mats and laid flat in the grave, -which is then filled up, and its place is perhaps marked -by a stick, but in a day or two it is forgotten and people -trample on it without heed.</p> - -<p>We observed one instance of a more elaborate kind -of burial. The corpse, wrapped in leaves and mats, -was taken out into the jungle and placed on a platform -about four feet high, which had been put up for the -purpose. After placing the body on the platform the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span> -men who had carried it walked down to the river, shouted -once in unison, and then, having received an answering -shout from the men in the village, one of them threw -a small triangular piece of wood out into the stream. -In the meantime the family of the dead man disappeared -into the jungle, from which they soon emerged -quite naked, plastered all over with mud and decorated -with wisps of climbing plants. The next two days -were spent in digging a grave and making a coffin -shaped like a small canoe; this however was found -to be too small and was not used. On the third day -the body was placed in the grave, and an ornamental -post placed in the ground at each end, but contrary -to our hopes (for the state of that man was becoming -very offensive) they did not fill in the grave. They -merely covered the body with leaves and turned it -over every day. At intervals the widow, quite naked, -save for a plastering of mud, crawled on hands and knees -from her hut, which was less than five yards distant, -and visited the grave. In a few days a providential -flood came and filled up the grave and put an end to what -had become for us an almost intolerable nuisance.</p> - -<p>Both at Wakatimi and at Parimau our camp commanded -a good view of the native village, and a death -always provided us with the mild excitement of wondering -in what new way they would celebrate the event. -On one occasion when a woman died, the bereaved -husband and another man walked slowly down to the river -and waded out into about three feet of water. There -the widower submitted to being washed all over by -the other man and finally to being held under water by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> -him for half a minute or more, after which they walked -solemnly back to the village.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD</div> - -<p>Early in the morning of the day after the death of -the <i>natoo</i> of Wakatimi all the women and girls of the -village, to the number of sixty or seventy, came down -to the river, all of them without a vestige of clothing, -and in the shallow water a foot or two deep they swam -and crawled and wriggled up the river for a hundred -yards or more, wailing loudly all the time. Sometimes -they came out on to the bank and rolled in the mud, -and finally they all went out of the water and stood -wailing in front of the dead man’s house.</p> - -<p>Another method of disposing of the dead, which is -very frequently adopted, is to place the body wrapped -in mats in a rude coffin, which is usually constructed -from pieces of broken canoes. The coffin containing -the body is supported on a trestle of crossed sticks about -four feet from the ground (see illustration opposite), -and there it remains until decomposition is complete. -As these coffins are often placed within a yard or two -of the houses, it can be imagined that a Papuan village -is not always a pleasant place to visit.</p> - -<p>At the village of Nimé we saw two or three pathetic -little bundles containing the remains of infants exposed -on racks within a few feet of the houses, from which -they doubtless came.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p139.jpg" width="400" height="560" alt="DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. A COFFIN ON TRESTLES." /> -<p class="caption">DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. A COFFIN ON TRESTLES.</p></div> - -<p>When decomposition is complete no account is taken -of the bones, excepting the skull, which is taken and -preserved in the house. Sometimes it is buried in the -sand of the floor of the house, and sometimes it is tied -up in a sort of open basket-work of rattan and hung -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>up in the roof, where it becomes brown with smoke and -polished by frequent handling.</p> - -<p>Though the people take the trouble to bring the -skulls into their houses, they show no real respect for -them, and they are eager enough to part with them if a -chance occurs. Two of us went one day to Obota, a -village a few miles from Wakatimi, in the hopes of -buying some bananas. In one of the huts we saw a skull -and offered to buy it, not at all expecting that the owner -would be willing to sell, but the offer of (I think) a piece -of cloth was gladly accepted and the skull was ours. -In a few minutes, when it became known that we had -given good cloth for a common skull, everybody was -anxious to sell his family remains, and outside every -doorway were placed one or two or even three grinning -skulls. They do not treat the skulls very carefully, -and a good many were damaged, so we only bought -about half a dozen that were perfect.</p> - -<p>One day a man walked into our camp at Wakatimi -carrying a skull under his arm. He stood outside our -house for some time, grinning and saying nothing, then -he gave us unmistakably to understand that it was -the skull of his wife, who, as we knew for a fact, had only -died a short time previously. The skull was indeed -so fresh that we declined the offer.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Papuans’ Love of Music—Their Concerts—A Dancing House—Carving—Papuans -as Artists—Cat’s Cradle—Village Squabbles—The Part -of the Women—Wooden and Stone Clubs—Shell Knives and Stone -Axes—Bows and Arrows—Papuan Marksmen—Spears—A most -Primitive People—Disease—Prospects of their Civilisation.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> most pleasing characteristic of the Papuans is their -love of music. When a number of them are gathered -together and when they have eaten well, or are for any -other reason happy, they have a concert. Sometimes -the concerts take place in the afternoon and continue -till nightfall, but more often they begin after dark and -go on almost through the night. The orchestra is simple -and consists of two or three men who beat drums and -sit before a small fire in the middle. Round them are -grouped the chorus all sitting on the ground. The -drums are hollowed cylinders of wood, which are often -elaborately carved; one end is open, the other is closed -by a piece of lizard’s or snake’s skin (see illustration p. -142). When this skin becomes slack, as it very quickly -does, the drummer holds it towards the fire until it -regains its pitch. It is not the custom to tune up both -drums, when there are more than one, to the same pitch, -usually an interval of about half a tone is left between -them. The leader of the orchestra sometimes wears a -remarkable head-dress made of plaited fibre and ornamented -with bunches of plumes of the Bird of Paradise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span> -(see illustration p. 78). The effect of these plumes waving -backwards and forwards as the man moves his head -to mark the phrases of the song is exceedingly striking, -and it must be admitted that if there is anybody, who -can becomingly wear those gorgeous plumes, it is the -naked black man.</p> - -<p>The most usual kind of song begins with a slow tapping -of the drums, then these are beaten quicker and -the singer (one of the drummers) begins a sort of recitative -song, to which the chorus contributes a low humming -accompaniment. Then the drums are beaten very -loudly and rapidly, all the men in chorus sing, or rather -growl, a deep guttural note, followed by a prolonged -musical note at about the middle of the register of a -normal man’s voice, and the song ends with one or more -short sharp barks, “Wah! wah! wah!” with a loud -drum accompaniment. The song, or probably different -verses of it, is repeated very many times. The final -shouts of the song, which for want of a better word I -have called “barks,” are uttered by all the men in -unison and recall, as was pointed out by Mr. Goodfellow, -the harsh croaking call of the Greater Bird of Paradise, -which is heard almost daily in the jungle. It is possible -that the song is in some way connected with the bird -and that there is an intentional imitation of its note.</p> - -<p>The scheme of all these songs is the same, viz., a recitative -with drums and a humming accompaniment, but -some of them have really rollicking choruses, and we -used to listen to them at night with extreme pleasure as -they came, somewhat softened by distance, over the -water to our camp at Wakatimi. The voices of the men -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span>are often rich, and they have a true musical ear. Their -intervals are very similar to ours and not at all like -those of the Malays and many other Eastern singers, -who recognize perhaps five notes where we have only -two. Beside the drum the only instrument of music they -have is a straight trumpet made from a short piece of -bamboo. This produces only a single booming note and -is not used at the concerts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p142.jpg" width="500" height="758" alt="Stone Axe, Head-rests for sleeping, Drums." /> -<p class="caption">1. <span class="smcap">Stone Axe.</span><br /> -2. 3. 4. <span class="smcap">Head-rests for sleeping.</span><br /> -5. 6. 7. <span class="smcap">Drums.</span></p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">A DANCING HOUSE</div> - -<p>As an amusement of the Papuans even more important -than singing is dancing, of which they often talked, -but though we saw some of their dancing halls (see -illustration p. 48), we never had the good fortune to -witness a performance. At the coast village of Nimé, a -few miles to the East of the Mimika River, there was a -very elaborate dancing house, which must have cost an -immense amount of labour to build. The length of the -house from front to back was about 100 feet, the width -about 25 feet, and it rested on poles which were about -8 feet high in front, rising up to about 14 feet high at -the back. The side walls and the back were of “atap” -as was also the roof, which sloped from a long ridgepole -running the whole length of the house. The ridgepole -was remarkable as being made from a single tree -trunk (<i>Casuarina</i>) shaved down very smoothly to a uniform -thickness of about 10 inches; the ends of it, which -projected about 8 feet both at the front and back of -the house, were carved in very lifelike representations -of the head of a crocodile and were painted red. The -weight of the beam must have been immense and one -wondered how it had been hoisted into position. Between -the ridge of the roof and the eaves there projected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span> -both in front and at the back six other smaller poles -grotesquely carved to represent fish and reptiles and -hideous human heads. The front of the house was open, -and when you had climbed up the supporting poles and -had stepped over a low fence you found yourself in a -spacious hall with a floor well made of sheets of bark, -which sloped up gradually from front to back. Along -either side at regular intervals on the floor were sand -fireplaces and above these were wooden racks, from -which it was evident that something was hung to be -cooked. Round the walls on all sides was a strip of -carved and painted wood, and exactly in the middle -of the hall, fixed to the floor and the roof were two -posts about 3 feet apart and tied between them, at -about half the height of a man, was an elaborately -carved and painted board about twelve inches wide. -In the middle of this board was carved the eye, which -is a familiar feature of the ornamental carving on the -canoes and drums, and it appeared that this eye is the -centre of the ceremonies which take place in the house.</p> - -<p>So far as I could understand from the description of -the natives who accompanied me in my visit to the -house, the people, both men and women, who take -part in the ceremony, dance slowly upwards from the -front of the house singing as they go, and when they -reach the carved board each one in turn touches the -eye, while all the people shout together. But what the -object of the whole performance is and what the people -cook and eat, are questions to which I was unable to -find an answer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p144.jpg" width="500" height="391" alt="Bamboo Penis-cases, Carved Blades of Paddles." /> -<p class="caption">1-7. <span class="smcap">Bamboo Penis-cases.</span> 8-12. <span class="smcap">Carved Blades of Paddles.</span></p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">PAPUAN ARTISTS</div> - -<p>I have had occasion above to mention the artistic -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>carvings on the canoes and drums. Their paddles too -show a very good idea of design, as will be seen from -the illustration p. 144. Nothing amused them more -than to be provided with a pencil and pieces of paper -and to attempt to draw figures. Their efforts were not -always very successful, and some of the drawings which -I have kept would be quite unrecognisable for what -they are, if I had not labelled them at the time. Like -the young of civilised races they always preferred to -draw the figures of men and women, and some of these -are remarkable for having the mouth near the top of -the head above the level of the eyes. The method of -drawing is very simple; the pencil is held almost upright -on the paper and the outline of the figure, begun at -an arm or leg or anywhere indifferently, is drawn in -one continuous stroke without removing the pencil -from the paper. The end is always rather exciting, -like the feat of drawing a pig when you are blindfolded, -for the artist is never quite certain of finishing at the -point whence he started. Besides human figures they -liked drawing dogs, pigs, birds and fishes. Two pictures -of a dog and a bird both done by the same man are -peculiarly interesting, because they were both drawn -upside down. I watched the man making the drawings, -and when they were finished I saw that the legs of the -creatures were uppermost; so I turned the papers the -right way round and handed them back to him, but -he inverted them again and admired them in that position. -Curiously enough the same man drew human figures in -the correct attitude, head uppermost, so that the state -of his mental vision offers rather a puzzling problem.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p146.jpg" width="400" height="582" alt="Various drawings." /> -<p class="caption"><i>a.</i> Cockatoo. <i>a<sub>1</sub> b</i>. Designs for scarification. <i>b.</i> Hornbill.<br /> -<i>c.</i> Pig. <i>d.</i> Dog. <i>e.</i> Bird. <i>f.</i> Man. <i>g.</i> Woman.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span></p> - -<p>Most of them had a keen appreciation of pictures -and they were surprisingly quick in identifying photographs -of themselves; in this respect they showed a -good deal more intelligence than some of our Gurkhas, -who held a photograph sideways or upside down and -gazed at it blankly, as if they had not the faintest -idea of what it portrayed. The illustrated papers were -a source of endless delight to them, and the portraits -of beautiful ladies, who they felt sure were our wives, -were greatly admired. Horses, sheep, cattle and all -other animals were declared to be dogs.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CAT’S CRADLE</div> - -<p>Another amusement—it can hardly be called an art—of -the Papuans is the game of cat’s cradle, at which -many of them are extraordinarily proficient. It is not, -as with us, a game played by two persons; with them -the part of the second person is performed by the -player’s teeth, and he contrives to produce some wonderfully -intricate figures, none of which, I regret to say, -we had patience or skill enough to learn. The most -elaborate figure I saw was supposed to represent a bird, -and when the features of it had been pointed out some -resemblance was certainly apparent.</p> - -<p>But it must be admitted that their amusements -are not always so innocent as drawing pictures and -playing cat’s cradle. I have referred above to the -gang of drunkards, who used to create such turmoil at -Wakatimi. The people of Parimau, who had no means -of getting intoxicated, were just as quarrelsome as the -Wakatimi people, and fights were of frequent, almost -daily occurrence. Some one does something, it matters -not what, to offend some other person, and in an instant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span> -the village is in an uproar. Spears fly through the air—we -never saw anybody touched by one—and stone clubs -are brandished furiously, the combatants all shout horrible -threats at the tops of their voices, while a few people -look on stolidly or hardly take any notice at all. There -seems to be a certain etiquette about the use of clubs, -for the person about to be hit generally presents a soft -part of his person, the back or shoulders, to the clubber, -and we never saw a man intentionally hit another on -the head, a blow which might easily be fatal; but blood -flowed in plenty from the flesh wounds.</p> - -<p>The part of the women in these village squabbles is -always to scream loudly and generally to begin by banging -the houses with sticks or spears and to end with -pulling them to pieces. In a fight at Wakatimi we saw -a party of infuriated women absolutely demolish three or -four houses. The fights end almost as suddenly as they -begin and in a short time the village settles down to its -usual tranquillity. Neither the sight nor the sound of -these village quarrels is very agreeable, but they have no -regularly organised games and, at the worst, not a very -great amount of damage is done.</p> - -<p>The clubs used in these village fights and doubtless -also in their tribal wars—but of those we know nothing—are -of two kinds, wooden and stone-headed. The wooden -clubs are about four feet long and consist of a plain shaft, -of which the last foot or rather more is carved into a -saw-like cutting edge; some of these are made of a -very heavy wood and they are exceedingly formidable -weapons. A more simple type of wooden club is a plain -wooden shaft rather thinner at the handle end than at -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span>the other, round which is fixed a piece of shark’s skin or -the prickly skin from the back of the Sting Ray and -often with it is tied the saw of a small Saw fish; such -a club appears to be capable of inflicting a very nasty -wound.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p148.jpg" width="400" height="591" alt="SPLITTING WOOD WITH A STONE AXE." /> -<p class="caption">SPLITTING WOOD WITH A STONE AXE.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">STONE CLUBS</div> - -<p>There is a great variety of stone-headed clubs, but -they are all alike in being furnished with a wooden shaft, -which is usually a plain piece of wood, but occasionally -carved near the club end. The stone head is pierced in -the middle by a round hole about an inch in diameter, -through which the shaft is passed and fixed firmly by -wedges. Most of the heads are made of a rather soft -limestone, but where the people obtain it we do not -know, for there is no stone of any kind near the coast. -The simplest type is merely a round water-worn pebble -with a hole bored through it. More commonly they are -worked and the labour of producing them must have -been considerable. Some are flat discs with sharp cutting -edges or blunt and roughly milled edges, and some are -cut into the form of five or six or more pointed stars; -rarely they are triangular. Others again are round or -oval and are cut into more or less deep teeth, or they -have small bosses left projecting here and there, but no -two of them are exactly alike. The weight of the club -head is usually two or three pounds. The most savage-looking -club we saw was simply a rough lump of coral, -not trimmed in any way. It was pierced and mounted -on a finely carved shaft of extremely heavy wood, and -the whole thing must have weighed fifteen or twenty -pounds.</p> - -<p>Not a little credit is due to the Papuans for their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span> -industry in making these elaborate weapons, for it must -be remembered that until we visited the country they had -no metal tools whatever, with the exception of two or -three scraps of soft iron, and all their work was done -with shell knives and stone axes. The knives are simply -the shells of a common freshwater bivalve (<i>Cyrena</i> sp.); -when these are rubbed down on a stone, they take on an -exceedingly sharp edge and are used by the natives for -carving the canoes and drums and sharpening their spears -and arrows.</p> - -<p>The stone axes used in the Mimika district are all of -the same type, though they vary greatly in size from -about four inches to large ones of nearly twelve inches in -length. The stone of which they are made is always the -same, a quartzite. The shaft is about two feet long and -is invariably made of the butt end of a bamboo. A hole -is bored and burnt in the lower end of the bamboo, that -is to say in the solid part of the wood below the first -joint, and the pointed end of the stone is jammed into -the hole. The stone is always fixed axe-fashion, <i>i.e.</i> with -its broad surface and cutting edge in the same plane with -the long axis of the handle, and not adze-fashion, as is -the custom in some other parts of New Guinea (see -illustration p. 142). The axes quickly become blunt -with use and they are sharpened by being rubbed upon -another stone. At Wakatimi stones are very rare and -one man appeared to be the stone-smith of the village. -I remember seeing him one day sitting outside his hut -sharpening an axe, with three or four others lying beside -him waiting to be done, while a few yards away a woman -was splitting a log of wood with a stone axe. It struck -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span>me as being one of the most primitive scenes I had ever -witnessed, really a glimpse of the Stone Age.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p150.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="Bows, arrows and spears." /> -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line"> </div> -<div class="line">1. <span class="smcap">Bow.</span></div> -<div class="line">2, 7. <span class="smcap">Wooden fish spears.</span></div> -<div class="line">3. <span class="smcap">Plain Wood-pointed Arrow.</span></div> -<div class="line">4. <span class="smcap">Notched Wood-pointed Arrow.</span></div> -<div class="line">5. <span class="smcap">Arrow tipped with Cassowary claw.</span></div> -<div class="line">6. <span class="smcap">Bamboo-pointed Arrow.</span></div> -<div class="line">8. <span class="smcap">Hunting Spear, pointed with sharp bone.</span></div> -9, 10. <span class="smcap">Wooden Spear used at ceremonies.</span></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="sidenote">BOWS AND ARROWS</div> - -<p>The bows of the Mimika natives are about five feet -long and are made of a simple straight piece of a very hard -wood (usually a species of <i>pandanus</i>), tapering towards -the ends, which are sometimes ornamented with the claw -of a cassowary or a tuft of feathers and shells or the -claw of a crab. The “string” is a piece of rattan and it -requires a strong arm to bend the bow. The arrows are -of various types (see illustration p. 150); they are all -made of reed stems, and none are ever feathered nor have -they nocks. They vary only in their points, which are -sometimes merely the sharpened end of the reeds themselves -and sometimes a plain sharpened tip of hard wood -or bamboo. Some are tipped with the sharpened claw of -a cassowary or with the spine that lies along the back -of the Sting Ray, and the arrows used for shooting fish -have often three points of sharp bamboo.</p> - -<p>Most people have the idea that the savage man -performs prodigies of skill with his bow and arrows, but -whenever I saw the Papuans shooting, they made -astonishingly bad practice. I remember seeing two -Papuans trying to kill an iguana in a tree not more than -twenty feet above the ground; they shot arrow after -arrow at it, but the creature, which was as long and -almost as thick as a man’s arm, climbed slowly up from -branch to branch until it was lost to view.</p> - -<p>The hunting spears are of two kinds, a plain straight -shaft of heavy wood, very sharp and hardened by fire at -the tip; and a straight shaft of a lighter wood, to the end -of which is fixed part of a straight bone (generally the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> -<i>tibia</i>) of a pig, sharpened to a fine point. There is -another kind of spear made of a soft wood, finely pointed -and with a wide blade carved in a sort of open-work -fashion (see illustration p. 150); the blade and the point -are painted red with clay and the shaft is generally -decorated with feathers or plaited fibre. Spears of this -sort are of no use in hunting but are employed at dances -and other ceremonial functions.</p> - -<p>Two more pieces of furniture, the head-rest and the -sago bowl, complete the list of articles made by the -Papuans. The head-rests, which were seen only in the -villages of Obota and Nimé, are made of a strip of -elaborately carved wood four or five inches wide and -between two and three feet in length, and are supported -at each end by a stout wooden prop, which raises the -head-rest about four inches above the ground. The -longer head-rests are supposed to support the heads of -two sleeping persons.</p> - -<p>Fire is nearly always taken by the Papuans wherever -they go; in almost every canoe a fire is kept burning, -and when they travel through the jungle the men -carry a smouldering stick. There must be occasions -when all these fires are extinguished, but how they produce -them we were unable to learn; the Papuans of -Parimau could not make fire with the friction stick and -rattan used by their neighbours, the Tapiro Pygmies.</p> - -<p>From the description of them which has been given in -this and the two preceding chapters it will be seen that -the conditions of life of the Papuans are as primitive as -those of any people now living in the world. There are -very few other places, where you can find a people who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> -neither make nor possess any metal and who have no -knowledge of pottery. The only vessels that they have -for holding water are scraped-out coconuts and simple -pieces of bamboo. Water boiling they had never seen -before we came among them. Their implements and -weapons are, as I have shown, of the most primitive -kind, and their ornaments are of the rudest possible -description.</p> - -<p>Cultivation of the soil is only practised by the people -of one or two villages, and even then it produces but a -very small proportion of their food, so it follows that -most of their time and energies are devoted to procuring -the necessaries of life.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE</div> - -<p>The struggle for existence is keen enough, the birth-rate -is low and the rate of infant mortality is, I believe, -very high. Nor do diseases spare them; syphilis is -exceedingly prevalent, and was probably introduced by -Chinese and Malay traders to the West end of the island, -whence it has spread along the coast. Tuberculosis is -happily absent, but two natives of Wakatimi were suffering -from what appeared to be certainly leprosy. Skin -diseases, notably <i>tinea imbricata</i>, are very common; and -almost every person appears to suffer occasionally from -fever of one sort or another.</p> - -<p>But in spite of all these drawbacks the Papuans of the -Mimika are not such a very miserable people. They are -strong, those of them that survive the ordeals of infancy -and sickness; they have food in plenty to eat, if they -choose to exert themselves sufficiently to obtain it; they -have their amusements, songs and dances; and the manner -of their lives is suited to the conditions of the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> -in which they live. It is this last consideration which -ought ultimately to determine their fate: they live in a -wretchedly poor country which is constantly liable to -devastating floods, and their habit of wandering from -one place to another, where food may be obtained, is the -only way of life suitable to the physical and climatic -conditions of the country.</p> - -<p>Any attempt to “civilise” them must inevitably -destroy their primitive independence, and if it succeeded -in establishing the people in settled communities it would -reduce them at many seasons to absolute starvation. -We were visited once by the Director of the Sacred Heart -Mission at Toeal, which has done admirable work amongst -the natives of the Ké Islands and at one or two places -in New Guinea itself. When he had seen the people and -the nature of the country and had been told something -of their habits, he decided that the Mimika was not, at -present at all events, a proper field for missionary enterprise. -Setting aside all other considerations, one dares -to hope that such an interesting people may for a long -time be left undisturbed; they do no harm to their -neighbours and the effects on them of civilising influences -would be at the best uncertain.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>The Camp at Parimau—A Plague of Beetles—First Discovery of the -Tapiro Pygmies—Papuans as Carriers—We visit the Clearing of -the Tapiro—Remarkable Clothing of Tapiro—Our Relations with -the Natives—System of Payment—Their Confidence in Us—Occasional -Thefts—A Customary Peace-offering—Papuans as -Naturalists.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">While</span> it was the business of some of us during the -early months of the expedition to stop at the base-camp -and despatch canoes laden with stores up the river, -others remained at Parimau to establish there a second -permanent camp and to find, if possible, a way of -approaching the higher mountains. It should be said -that Parimau is some distance from the mountains—the -high point nearest to it. Mount Tapiro (7660 ft.) is some -twelve miles to the North, but it was no longer possible -to travel in the direction of the mountains by way of -the Mimika River, which had dwindled to a very small -size at Parimau, therefore it was necessary to find a -new route from there onward.</p> - -<p>The first camp at Parimau was made on the shallow -sandy side of the river close to the native village; the -Papuans generally place their villages on gently sloping -rather than on steep banks for convenience in hauling -up their canoes. The coolies, such as there were of -them, were occupied on the river, the natives for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span> -first few months were of little or no assistance in -building, and the work was done almost entirely by -half a dozen of the Gurkhas. Their greatest achievement -was the construction of a log-house in the best -Himalayan style, probably by far the solidest building -that was ever put up in Dutch New Guinea. The floor -was raised about three feet above the ground and it -was well that the workmanship was good, for it had -not been finished many weeks before a flood swept over -the camp and everyone took refuge in the house, the -floor of which was just awash. Afterwards the camp -was moved to the high bank across the river and the -subsequent floods swamped the house and carried it -away piecemeal, but two of the uprights survived and -were still standing a year later.</p> - -<p>We were a good deal annoyed at Parimau by the -<i>larvæ</i> of a small red and black beetle, which infested -the wood of which the frames of our huts were made. -These <i>larvæ</i>, which look like small hairy caterpillars, -were continually dropping from the roof and when they -were killed, or even touched, they emitted the most -disagreeable musky smell. They sometimes dropped -upon you during the night and the smell of them would -wake you from your sleep. The beetle itself too, if -crushed or irritated, has the same disgusting peculiarity.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DISCOVERY OF THE PYGMIES</div> - -<p>It has been mentioned above (Chapter V.) that -Captain Rawling in exploring to the N.W. of Parimau -came to the big river Kapare, which we unsuccessfully -tried to navigate in canoes from below to the point -where he had met it. While he was walking up the -river bed one day, the Papuans who were with him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span> -caught after an exciting chase two small men, whose -build and dress and appearance proclaimed them to -belong to another race than the Papuan. A day or -two later two more were captured, while they were -crossing the river; they were kindly treated and -presents were given to them, but they showed no -inclination to conduct strangers to their home, a large -clearing in the jungle on the hill side, which could be -plainly seen from the Kapare River. We learnt from -the Papuans that these little people were called Tapiro.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p> - -<p>At the beginning of March I accompanied one of the -food-transports up the Mimika and went with Rawling -out to the Kapare, where he had made a camp and was -occupied with some of the Gurkhas in cutting a track -through the jungle. By that time we had no coolies -available for land transport; in six weeks our fifty -coolies had diminished to ten, who were all wanted for -the canoes, so we were entirely dependent on native -assistance for land journeys. There was not much -difficulty in persuading people to carry loads for us -from Parimau to the nearest point of the Kapare River, -for they were accustomed to go over there to fish. But -it was a different business on the second day, when we -wanted to push the camp a few miles further up the -river so as to be in a better position for reaching the -clearing of the Tapiro. At first they resolutely refused -to start at all and retired to the shelters they had made -at a little distance from the camp. From there they -had to be led back by the hand one by one and then be -severally introduced to their loads, but even so a number -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span>of them ran away again, and it was hours before we -moved from the camp.</p> - -<p>When once they were started they went steadily -enough for about a mile and then they all put down their -loads and refused to go on, but as they had stopped in -the middle of the bed of the river it was impossible to -remain there, so with promises of cloth and beads we -urged them on a little further. The same performance -was repeated a dozen times at intervals, which became -shorter and shorter until our coaxing and cajoling availed -no longer and there was nothing for it but to stop and -make a camp. It had taken us more than four hours to -cover less than three miles, most of which was easy going -over sand and stones in the bed of the river. We should -have been awkwardly situated if they had all gone away -and left us to carry the loads, as they did a few weeks -later to Marshall, who was deserted by them and forced -to leave some of his baggage behind him. Needless to -say, these misfortunes would not have occurred if our -Malay coolies had been suited to their work. As it was, -there were considerable periods when we had either to -make use of what help the natives consented to give us, -or else be content to do nothing at all.</p> - -<p>When it suits them to do so, the Mimika Papuans -can carry very heavy loads and they manage to cover -the ground at a very respectable pace. They wrap up -the load in the mat made of <i>pandanus</i> leaves, which -every man always carries with him to serve both as a -sleeping mat and as a shelter from the rain. The mat is -securely tied by ropes of rattan or any of the other -innumerable creepers of the jungle, and two strong loops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> -are made to pass over the shoulders so that the load -may be carried on the back, ruck-sack fashion. The -women carry loads as well as the men and sometimes -also the children, when the whole family is making a -journey.</p> - -<p>From our upper camp on the Kapare River Rawling -and I made two attempts to reach the forest clearing of -the Tapiro, which could be easily seen from the camp at -a distance of about three miles in a straight line; but -though careful bearings of its direction were taken, it -turned out to be a most puzzling place to reach. Not -more than a mile above the camp the Kapare emerges -from a deep and narrow gorge in the foot hills—or rather -the spurs of the mountains, they are too steep to call -foot hills—which descend very abruptly to the almost -level country below. Just after it emerges from the -gorge, the river is joined by a stream of the clearest -water I have ever seen, which we afterwards came to call -the White Water (see illustration opposite).</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BIRDS OF PARADISE</div> - -<p>In our first attempt to reach the clearing we wandered -in the jungle for ten hours and came nowhere near to it. -But the day was not altogether wasted, for we climbed -up the hillside to about fifteen hundred feet and by -cutting down some trees we obtained a wonderful view -across the plain of the jungle to the distant sea. The air -of the jungle was heavy with the scent of the wild Vanilla, -and all around us were calling (but we could not see -them) Greater Birds of Paradise; sometimes we were -within sound of as many as six at one time. On that -day too I first saw the Rifle Bird (<i>Ptilorhis intercedens</i>), -one of the most beautiful though the least gaudy of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span>birds of Paradise, whose long-drawn whistle can never -be mistaken or forgotten.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p159.jpg" width="400" height="575" alt="A TRIBUTARY STREAM OF THE KAPARE RIVER." /> -<p class="caption">A TRIBUTARY STREAM OF THE KAPARE RIVER.</p></div> - -<p>In our second attempt we profited by some of the -mistakes made on the former, but even so the irregularity -of the ground and the complexity of the watercourses -nearly succeeded in baffling us. “Rawling and I left -camp early with two Gurkhas. A mile and a half up -the left bank of the river we struck off N.E. from the -path we followed the other day. Cut a new path -through the jungle for about a mile until we came to a -faint native track, which we followed for another mile -or so, chiefly along fallen tree trunks overhung by a -network of rattan and other creepers, a fearful struggle -to get through. Then for a mile or more up the bed -of a stony stream encumbered with the same obstructions, -dead trees and rattans, until we came to a deep -gorge with a torrent about three hundred feet below -us and on the opposite side the steep slope of another -great spur of the mountain, on which the clearing -presumably lay. We slithered and scrambled down to -the river, which was full of water and only just fordable. -Then up the other slope, not knowing at all accurately -the direction of the clearing. Very steep and the jungle -very dense with rattan and tree-ferns, so the leading -Gurkha was kept busily occupied in cutting with his -<i>kukrí</i> and progress was slow.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">WE VISIT THE PYGMIES</div> - -<p>“About one o’clock, when we had been going for -nearly six hours, the clouds came down and it began to -rain and we were ready to turn back. Luckily the -Gurkhas were convinced that the clearing was not far -ahead and when we found a pig-trap, a noose of rattan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span> -set in a faint track, it seemed that they might perhaps -be right. So we went on and in a few minutes we came -out of the forest into the clearing. About thirty yards -from us was a hut with three men standing outside it. -We called out to them and they waited until we came -up. A minute or two later two more men came out -from the forest behind us, no doubt they had been -following us unseen. The hut was a most primitive -structure of sticks roofed with leaves, leaning up -against the hillside. There was a fire in the hut and -beside it was sitting an old man covered with most -horrible sores. We went on up the hill for a couple of -hundred yards to a place (about 1900 feet above the -sea) where we had a fine view. Rawling put up the -plane-table and got angles on to several points for the -map.</p> - -<p>“During the hour or more that we stayed there, eight -men came to see us. Excepting one rather masterful -little man, who had no fear of us, they were too shy to -approach us closely and remained about ten yards -distant, but even so it was plainly evident from their -small stature alone, that they were of a different race -from the people of the low country.</p> - -<p>“The most remarkable thing about them is the case -that each man wears, his only article of clothing; it is -made of a long yellow gourd, about two inches in -diameter at the base and tapering to about half an inch -at the pointed end. It is worn with the pointed end -upwards and is kept in position by a string round the -waist. As the length of the case—some of them -measure more than fifteen inches—is more than a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> -quarter of the height of the man himself, it gives him -a most extraordinary appearance. Every man carries -a bow and arrows in his hand and a plaited fibre bag of -quite elaborate design slung on his back. Two men -wore necklaces of very rough scraps of shell and one -had a strip of fur round his head. Two others wore on -their heads curious helmet-like hats of grass ornamented -with feathers.</p> - -<p>“One man had a diminutive axe made of a piece of -soft iron about three inches long, set in a handle like -those of the stone axes. They must have some bigger -axes, as they have cut down some very large trees and -the marks on the stumps look as if they had been made -with fairly sharp instruments. The clearing altogether -is very considerable, probably fifty acres or more. -The ground is covered with the sweet-potato plant, and -in many places ‘taro’ has been carefully picked out. -They have a few coarse-looking bananas, some of which -they offered to us.</p> - -<p>“Their voices are rather high-pitched and one of -them, who met us first and called several of the others -to come and see us, ended his calls with a very curious -shrill jodelling note. When we came away we offered -them cloth and beads to come with us and show us a -better way, but they were either too frightened or too -lazy to do so. We got back to camp after ten hours’ -hard going, drenched with rain and covered with -leeches, but well-pleased with the success of the day.”<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p> - -<p>That was the last that we saw for a long time of the -Tapiro pygmies, for it was evident that the Kapare River -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span>was useless as a means of approach to the Snow Mountains -and we had to turn our attention to the country to the -N.E. of the Mimika. Moreover, it was impossible to keep -the camp there supplied with provisions, as we were at -that time entirely dependent for transport on the goodwill -of the Papuans.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">NATIVES AS CARRIERS</div> - -<p>Generally speaking we always remained on excellent -terms with the natives and very rarely had any trouble -with them. Except that we bought from them the -“atap” for our houses, we got little or no help from the -people of Wakatimi, but the people of Parimau assisted -us in a number of ways. At first, as I have shewn, we -had considerable difficulty in persuading them to work -for us as carriers; but when they found that they really -did receive the payment they were promised, they were -willing and sometimes even anxious to carry loads for us, -though we often had to wait a few days until it suited -their convenience to start. It was a pity that they were -never willing to travel further than about three days’ -march from their village, but as there were long periods -when we were entirely dependent on them for land transport, -we counted ourselves lucky in their agreeing to work -at all.</p> - -<p>Chiefly owing to the help of the natives we were able -to make and keep supplied for several months another -camp on the Wataikwa River, three days’ march north-east -from Parimau. When they went out there first, -they were accustomed to receive their pay, cloth and -beads or a small knife at the end of the journey; but -later, when wages rose, as they inevitably did with every -successive journey, it seemed to be absurd to waste<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span> -perhaps half a load by carrying axes and knives to be -given in payment at the end of the march. So a plan was -adopted of giving them at the Wataikwa camp a paper -authorising them to demand payment on their return to -Parimau, and it was a gratifying tribute to the confidence -that they had in us that they readily fell in with the -scheme. Before starting they were shewn the knife or -axe or whatever it was that they would receive for -their labour, and at the end they raced back with their -scraps of paper to Parimau, covering in a few hours the -distance that had taken them three days on the outward -journey. Some of the less energetic people in the village, -when they saw that their friends received a knife or an -axe by merely presenting a small piece of paper to the -man in charge of the camp at Parimau, thought that -they might easily earn the same reward, and they were -rather astonished to find that the small scraps of paper, -which they handed in, produced nothing at all or only a -serious physical rebuff. But they were so childlike in -their misdemeanours that one could not be seriously -angry with them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OUR RELATIONS WITH THE NATIVES</div> - -<p>They shewed their confidence in our honesty in another -very flattering way. During the period of the most -frequent floods at Parimau, when they were liable to be -washed away at any moment, the people took most of -their movable possessions out of their houses and hid -them in safe places in the jungle. But many of them -merely brought their goods across to our side of the river -and deposited them without any attempt at concealment -within a few yards of our camp, apparently knowing that -there they would be perfectly secure from theft.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span></p> - -<p>They are by nature unconscionable thieves and a -chance of stealing is to them merely a chance of acquiring -property in the easiest way. On one occasion, when a -party of our coolies were returning alone from Parimau -to Wakatimi, they were waylaid at a narrow place in -the river by some Papuans, who relieved them of their -baggage and disappeared into the jungle; most of the -stolen goods were subsequently returned, when the -natives were threatened with punishment. The same -thing happened another time when the coolies were -accompanied by armed Javanese soldiers, who apparently -forgot the use of their rifles until the thieves -had got away. But they had a proper respect for a -white man and whenever one of us, armed or not, was -with the canoes, the natives never tried to molest us. -They occasionally stole from the camps a knife or an -axe, but though they were constantly about our houses -and often inside them for hours at a time, we never lost -anything of value.</p> - -<p>A temptation, which often proved too strong for -them, was our fleet of canoes. At Wakatimi the canoes -were moored in front of the camp at the place where the -natives, who came to visit us, were accustomed to land. -They came mostly in the late afternoon and stayed till -sunset, and it happened several times that when they -went away they contrived to put two or three men into -one of our canoes and slip away with it unnoticed in the -dusk. But when on the following day we made a fuss, -the canoe was generally brought back with a long story -of its having been found floating down the river towards -the sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p> - -<p>An opportunity of looting, which was not to be -resisted, occurred one day when a party of discharged -coolies were leaving the country. The boat, in which -they were being taken off to the ship, capsized as it -came alongside the steamer and thirty coolies and all -their belongings were upset into the sea. The captain -of the ship was only anxious to save his boat and the -coolies hastened to escape from the sharks. In the -meantime a crowd of natives, who had come down in -their canoes to visit the ship, lost no time in picking up -the floating boxes and bundles of clothing, and before -anybody was aware of their action they were fast paddling -away to their villages.</p> - -<p>On such occasions and at other times when we had -reason to be angry with them, the people of Wakatimi -observed a curious custom. There was in the village a -coloured china plate and a piece of bent silver wire, -which was sometimes used by the owner as an ear-ring. -On the morning following their misdemeanour two men -came over from the village bringing the ear-ring on the -plate, which they gave to us, shook hands and departed. -Later in the day they returned and we gave them back -their gifts; this happened several times.</p> - -<p>At one time there was a serious epidemic of drunkenness -among the people of Wakatimi and they shewed -their ill-manners by shooting arrows into the camp. -This was of no consequence when only one person misbehaved -himself. But when one day a number of men -waded half-way across the river and began to send -arrows into the camp, it had to be stopped. The Dutch -sergeant, who was alone in charge of the place at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span> -time, held up his rifle, a weapon the use of which they -very well understood, and signalled to them that unless -they went away he would fire. As they took no notice -of his warning he fired, aiming at the legs of the ringleader, -but unfortunately he hit him in the groin. -Shortly afterwards, so little animosity did they show -and so complete was their confidence in us, they brought -the wretched man over to our camp, but nothing could -be done for him and in a few hours he died.</p> - -<p>They were very appreciative of medical treatment -and at different times we were able to do a good deal -for them. One man actually went so far as to pay a -fee of half a dozen coconuts for the saving of his little -daughter’s ulcerated foot, which was rapidly going from -bad to worse under native treatment. They often cut -themselves severely with our axes and knives before -they learnt their sharpness, and their wounds healed -astonishingly quickly with ordinary clean methods; -the only trouble was that they liked to take off the -bandages and use them for personal adornment.</p> - -<p>As well as acting as carriers for us, the people at -Parimau did a considerable amount of work for us -about the camp in cutting down trees, an occupation -which they always enjoyed, and in helping to build -some of the houses. They were even more useful to us -as naturalists and, thanks mainly to them, we made a -very complete collection of the reptiles of the district. -They were particularly adept at catching snakes and -often five or six men in a day would stroll into the -camp carrying a deadly poisonous snake wrapped up -in leaves. One day Goodfellow was walking through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span> -the jungle with some natives and the man in front -of him stooped down and picked up a poisonous viper -without even pausing in his stride.</p> - -<p>We always encouraged the natives to bring us snakes -in the hope of getting new species, and when we did -not want those that they brought, they were quite -content to take them away and eat them. They seemed -to have a peculiar knack of catching poisonous things, -for besides snakes they often brought scorpions and -centipedes in their parcels of leaves. With the more -delicate creatures such as lizards they were less successful -and among the hundreds that they brought us -there were very few which they had not damaged. -They always assumed an air of importance and somewhat -of mystery, when they brought some animal for -sale, and you always knew that when you had bought, -or refused, as the case might be, the creature that was -offered, the man would instantly produce something -else, but the puzzle was always to know whence he -produced it, for his scanty costume does not admit of -pockets.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Visit of Mr. Lorentz—Arrival of Steam Launch—A Sailor Drowned—Our -Second Batch of Coolies—Health of the Gurkhas—Dayaks the -best Coolies—Sickness—Arrival of Motor Boat—Camp under -Water—Expedition moves to Parimau—Explorations beyond the -Mimika—Leeches—Floods on the Tuaba River—Overflowing Rivers—The -Wataikwa—Cutting a Track.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">A pleasant</span> interlude in the monotony of the early part -of the expedition occurred one day towards the end of -March, when the natives of Wakatimi signalled in the -usual way the approach of a boat and presently a steam -launch appeared with Europeans on board. They turned -out to be the Dutch explorer, Mr. H. A. Lorentz, who -was on his way back from his second and successful -expedition to Mount Wilhelmina by way of the Noord -River, with his companions Captain J. W. van Nouhuys -and Lieutenant Habbema, and the Captain of the -Government steamer <i>Java</i>, which had anchored off the -mouth of the Mimika. Mr. Lorentz looked like a man -hardly returned from the dead, as indeed he well might, -for after climbing to the snows of Mount Wilhelmina he -had fallen down a cliff on his return, with a result of two -broken ribs and serious concussion of the brain, and he -had endured untold sufferings on his way back to the -foot of the mountain. But he had achieved the principal -object of his expedition, and his spirits were in -better condition than his body. They stayed for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> -night with us and at dinner, though I was in a minority -of one to six, with characteristic courtesy they all spoke -English; the entertainment, assisted by luxuries brought -from the <i>Java</i>, lasted until the small hours, and it was -the pleasantest evening I spent in New Guinea.</p> - -<p>The <i>Java</i> brought for us the long-expected steam -launch, and its career began, as it ended, with disaster. -Before dawn one of the men of the boat wished to fetch -something that he had left on the launch, which was -moored in the river about fifteen yards from the bank. -The sentry on duty did his best to prevent him, because -it was a rule of the camp that no man was allowed to -bathe before sunrise, but he insisted on swimming out to -the launch. In a few yards he found that the current -was stronger than he had expected, he called for help, -and in a few moments a canoe set out in the gloom to -look for him, but no more was seen of him until his -body was recovered by the natives at the mouth of the -Mimika a few days later. Shortly after the accident -happened our guests left us on their way back to Europe, -and we watched their departure with somewhat envious -eyes.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">COOLIES AND GURKHAS</div> - -<p>The history of the middle period of the expedition, -that is to say, from April to December, is chiefly a history -of floods and sickness and disappointment. In the -middle of April Goodfellow, who had gone away early in -March, returned with a fresh batch of forty-eight coolies, -whom he had recruited in Banda and Amboina. About -a half of these men were natives of the island of Buton, -and the rest were Ambonese, and though they were the -best men that could be found at such short notice, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span> -were greatly superior to our first batch of coolies, they -were really not fit for the work they had to do, and the -majority of them soon became useless to us.</p> - -<p>The steam launch towed the canoes for a short distance -up the river once or twice, but it very soon broke -down and thenceforward until the middle of June all the -transport between Wakatimi and Parimau was done by -the coolies themselves. For them it was literally a killing -work; in the first few weeks two men died, one of -pneumonia, the other of dysentery, both causes resulting -from the circumstances of their work, while several -others developed the first signs of beri-beri and had to -be sent away at the earliest opportunity.</p> - -<p>About the same time one of the Gurkhas died; he -was from the beginning a very unhealthy man, who -ought not to have been engaged for the expedition. Of -the other nine Gurkhas three were invalided home before -the end of the year and the remaining six stayed with us -until we left the country. Although they came from the -highlands of Darjeeling—or perhaps for that very reason—our -Gurkhas, who were by no means a carefully -selected lot, withstood the trials and the climate of the -country better than any of the other “native” people in -the expedition and, if expense were no drawback, it is -probable that an expedition to New Guinea would have -the best chance of success if coolies were taken from -Northern India.</p> - -<p>That is, however, rather a counsel of perfection, and -an expedition to New Guinea must make use of natives -of the Malay Archipelago. The Ambonese and the -Butonese have been tried and have been found wanting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span> -so also have the Ké Islanders and the Sundanese from -the mountains of central Java. Possibly the wild hillmen -of Timor, if enough of them could be engaged, -would work well, but the only people who have hitherto -worked successfully as coolies in Dutch New Guinea are -the hill-Dayaks of Borneo. Mr. Lorentz, who took with -him eighty Dayaks, most of them from the Mendalen -River, on his expedition to Mount Wilhelmina, spoke -with enthusiasm of the admirable behaviour of his men, -and if Indian or other Asiatic coolies are not available, -it may be said that an expedition to the mountainous -districts of Dutch New Guinea can only be properly -conducted with Dayaks.</p> - -<p>Our coolies were not the only people in the -expedition who began to feel the ill effects of the -climate; the Javanese soldiers and convicts quickly -filled the hospital which had been put up at Wakatimi, -and in May and June there were many mornings when -I saw more than forty sick men. Most of them suffered -from fever and a more or less severe form of dysentery, -and a good many cases of beri-beri occurred. Unfortunately -sickness was not confined to our native -followers only; the Europeans began also to suffer from -the very adverse conditions in which they found themselves. -One or two of the Dutch non-commissioned -officers became seriously ill; Goodfellow, who returned -with the second batch of coolies from Banda about the -middle of April, was never free from fever for more than -a few days from that time until he left the country in -October; and Shortridge became such a wreck from -almost continuous fever, which began about the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> -beginning of March, that by the end of May he had -to be sent away for three months’ change of air to -Australia. Soon after his return in August he succumbed -again to the evil climate, and though he pluckily -pretended that there was nothing the matter with him, -he went from bad to worse, and I am fully persuaded -that his almost forcible deportation at the end of -November saved his life.</p> - -<p>At the end of May, Goodfellow and Rawling went -over to Dobo, and after about eight days returned with -the motor boat, which had been bought from the pearl-fishers. -Like most things of which a great deal is expected -the motor boat turned out to be a disappointment, and it -eventually led us into serious difficulty, but for a short -time it did good service in towing boats up the river, and -it considerably shortened the voyage from Wakatimi to -Parimau.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE FIRST FLOOD</div> - -<p>The day of the arrival of the motor boat was -memorable for being the occasion of the first of the -really serious floods that beset us. Late in the evening -a party of our coolies on their way back from Parimau, -who were not due to arrive until the following day, -reached the camp at Wakatimi, most of which was by -that time under water. The journey down the river -usually occupied two days, but they had found all the -usual camping places, some of which were high above -the ordinary river bed, under water, and they had been -unable to find any safe resting-place.</p> - -<p>The three following days were among the most -unpleasant that I had ever spent, though worse were to -follow later. On the morning of the first day the water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> -fell a little and we spent laborious hours in piling up our -stores and movable gear on to the top of empty boxes, -and when those were all used on posts driven into the -ground. All through the afternoon the water rose, the -coolies’ and soldiers’ houses were quickly flooded, and -our own house, which was on the highest part of the -camp, was nearly a foot under water. On the two -succeeding days the conditions were much more serious, -and we had two feet of water in our house. The river -took a short cut over the neck of land formed by a wide -bend of the river on which the camp was placed and -flowed straight through the camp. Our beds were raised -up on empty kerosene-tin boxes, and when these were -submerged there was a mild excitement in guessing how -far up the frame-work of the bed the water would rise. -Fires were put out and cooking was impossible, so the -coolies and soldiers, who depended on their boiled rice, -had rather a hungry time. Our own food consisted of -biscuits and cold tinned stuff, which is not very exhilarating -when you have been in water all day long. An -unprejudiced observer looking in upon us from the outside -in the evening might well have wondered what kind of -lunatics we were to come to New Guinea. Goodfellow -was lying in bed very sick with fever, while Rawling and -I, up to our knees in water, were making a poor pretence -at having dinner. The only humour that we managed -to extract from the situation was in the novel experience -of being able, without moving from our seats, to wash -our plates between the first course of biscuits and -sardines and the second course of biscuits and marmalade; -the Mimika river was flowing under our chairs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> -and we had only to lower our plates into it to clean -them.</p> - -<p>On the fourth day the water fell, and the camp was -not flooded again for several weeks, but there was left -everywhere a thick deposit of mud, which kept the houses -sodden for a long time afterwards. In spite of all our -precautions, a quantity of stores were irreparably spoilt -and, worse still, the flood left behind it an increased -amount of sickness, and indeed the wonder was that the -prolonged soaking had not ill effects on every one of us.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of July Cramer and I arrived at -Parimau, bringing with us the last loads of provisions -to complete the store, which we had been working hard -for three months with our second batch of coolies to -accumulate at that place. It was hoped that that store -would be sufficient to enable us to use Parimau as a -second base camp for making a prolonged expedition -into the mountains without wasting any more time on -transports up the river; but in that we had reckoned -without the vagaries of the New Guinea climate and the -consequent diminution of the effective strength of our -coolies, who were already too few for our purpose.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EXCURSIONS BEYOND MIMIKA</div> - -<p>In the meantime Rawling and Marshall had been -making excursions to the North-east of Parimau, in the -direction of the high mountains. About five miles from -Parimau they had come to the Tuaba River and about -the same distance further on they had come to the -Kamura River, a few miles above its junction with the -Tuaba. Continuing in the same direction they came -to another river, bigger than either of the others, the -Wataikwa, which was so often impassable that it seemed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span> -likely to prevent any further progress. But a short -excursion up the valley of the Wataikwa showed the -impossibility of reaching the highest mountains by that -route, and a camp was accordingly established on the -Wataikwa with a view to crossing that river when an -opportunity should occur.</p> - -<p>These excursions were all made with the assistance of -natives, without whose assistance no advance beyond -Parimau would have been possible, so long as all the -coolies were occupied in the work on the river. Very -little reliance could be placed on the natives, when they -were working as carriers alone without coolies, and most -of us at one time or another had the disagreeable experience -of being deserted by them and left unable to move -either backwards or forwards. It was in circumstances -such as these that the Gurkhas, some of whom always -accompanied us in journeys through the jungle, shewed -to the best advantage.</p> - -<p>When the store of provisions at Parimau was completed, -the next step was to establish a further depôt of -provisions at the Wataikwa camp. Though the distance -between the two places was less than fifteen miles in a -straight line, it was a three days’ march for a loaded -coolie and two camping places were made on the way, -one on an island in the Tuaba River, the other on the -bank of the Kamura. The first day’s march from -Parimau began by crossing and recrossing the Mimika -several times and here and there wading up the river -itself. About three miles up the river we struck off -Eastwards through the jungle along a hardly visible -native track used by the people going to the village of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span> -Ibo; this was the only regular native track we used, and -these few miles across from the Mimika to the Tuaba -were the only place where we had not to cut our own -path. The mud in that part of the jungle was quite -exceptionally bad, even for New Guinea; in the comparatively -dry weather it was like walking through porridge, -and in the wet weather you were continually -struggling through liquid slime almost up to your knees.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LEECHES</div> - -<p>We were very much annoyed there, though not more -in that than in other parts of the jungle, by the leeches -which swarmed everywhere. These hateful little creatures -sit on the leaves or twigs stretched out to their -fullest length and expectant of the passer-by. It is not -necessary to believe, as some people do, that they jump -or even that they fall upon you as you pass beneath -them; there are so many that as you brush through the -jungle you must inevitably touch many outstretched -heads and as soon as they are touched they attach themselves -immediately to you. They are extremely rapid in -their movements, and their touch is so delicate that you -do not feel their presence until they have nearly gorged -themselves with blood. Your legs, unless they are well -protected with putties, are most liable to their attacks, -but you find leeches on all parts of your body, and I -have found them in my eyes and in my mouth and once -just captured one as it was preparing to enter one of my -nostrils. They are able to consume an astonishingly -large quantity of blood, and when, as often happens, -they open a small vein, the bleeding continues after they -have dropped from their feeding place. It is not advisable -to pull a leech from your body; it often results in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> -the creature leaving behind a part of its clasper, which -may give rise to a serious sore. Pigs do not appear to -be attacked by leeches, but the soft parts of the heads of -some of the cassowaries that were shot were found to be -covered with them. Cassowaries are few and far between, -and there must be millions of leeches that go through -life without once tasting blood. Some of the leeches are -prettily marked with stripes of yellow and brown, but -none that we saw in the jungle were of large size; the -longest were perhaps two inches in length.</p> - -<p>Besides leeches there was not much to distract or to -amuse us in passing through that stage of the march—certainly -there were always plenty of the Greater Birds -of Paradise to be heard calling, but they were very -seldom to be seen—and we were chiefly anxious to -struggle to the end of it ourselves and to push the coolies -along until we heard the welcome sound of heavy water -and light showed through the trees ahead. The Tuaba, -at the place where we were accustomed to cross it, is a -wide river flowing in about half a dozen channels, which -extend over half a mile or more of ground. All of these -channels are considerable torrents even in the most -favourable conditions and it is by no means easy to cross -them, but in the very frequent times of flood they are -absolutely impassable. The camping place was made on -an island across the first channel, as the river bank proper -was covered with very dense jungle, and at low water -the island was surrounded by a stretch of dry sand and -shingle, which afforded us a pleasant drying ground after -struggling through the sweltering jungle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"> -<img src="images/i_p178.jpg" width="375" height="592" alt="TYPICAL JUNGLE, MIMIKA RIVER." /> -<p class="caption">TYPICAL JUNGLE, MIMIKA RIVER.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">A DANGEROUS FLOOD</div> - -<p>But it was not always a place of calm; it could be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>quite a dangerous place, and I had a very unpleasant -experience the first time I camped there. I was on my -way out to the Wataikwa river with a Gurkha, four -coolies and about twenty natives of Parimau laden with -tins of rice. The river was comparatively low when we -pitched our camp, but it began to rain in the afternoon, -and the almost continuous thunder and the black clouds -in that direction showed us that it was raining heavily -in the mountains. By nightfall the rising flood had completely -covered the sandbank in front of the camp, and -before midnight the river was flowing right through the -camp. The coolies were taking refuge like birds in the -trees, and the water had just covered my piece of ground, -which was an inch or two higher than any other spot. -The Gurkha came and helped me to secure the stores -from the water, which was still rising fast. We arranged -all the rice tins upright, and on them we placed my bed; -on the bed we placed all the other stores and baggage, and -finally I took refuge there myself. The water rose above -the top of the rice tins and about half way up the framework -of my bed and then happily it began to fall rapidly, -and in an hour or two the camp was land again. Shoes -of mine and odd garments of the coolies were washed -away, but we had been in no danger of being swept -away, for the current was not rapid enough over the -comparatively shallow water of the island; the only risk -was from the large logs and trees which came sweeping -down on the flood. The Papuans, who were encamped -on another island a short distance below ours, had kept -up all night a constant and most melancholy wailing, -which did not at all add to the humour of the situation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span></p> - -<p>For three more days we stayed on that sandbank, -while the rain poured down and the river swept past us -on both sides, unable either to proceed or to retreat. I -made two attempts to cross the river, but found it impossible -to struggle across the flood. In the meantime -the natives, who were well able to swim naked across -the first channel, threatened all the time to return to -Parimau. A few of them did leave me, but the rest -by constant cajoling and by liberal gifts of rice, for -which they had acquired a great liking, I persuaded -to stay with me until after four days we were able to -get away.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">OVERFLOWING RIVERS</div> - -<p>From the Tuaba to the Kamura river, a distance of -about four miles, a track had been cut by Marshall and -the Gurkhas. It was a curious piece of country, almost -level and covered with not very dense jungle, but remarkable -for the number of streams flowing through it. -Between the two rivers we crossed eighteen streams of -various sizes; some were rivulets, and others swift and -strong so that one was glad of a supporting Papuan -on either hand. The Kamura river is of less size than -the Tuaba, but it is still a large river and subject to -heavy and sudden floods. It flows in a bed of sand -and shingle two or three hundred yards from bank to -bank, though, except at times of flood, it only occupies -a narrow channel. Mostly it runs swiftly over the -stones, but here and there are long stretches of still -water like the pool of a salmon river; unluckily there -are no big fish in it, or New Guinea would be a pleasanter -place than it is.</p> - -<p>It was an agreeable change to come out on to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span> -bank of the Kamura, for from there we had our first -wide view of the mountains that we hoped to reach. -The foothills, if mountains eight or nine thousand feet -high may be so described, sloped down to within a few -miles of us to the North, and behind them and stretching -far to East and West rose range beyond range of steep -and precipitous ridges, culminating in the snowy top of -Mount Carstensz, thirty miles to the North-east. Our -route took us for several miles along the course of the -Kamura; it was certainly not comfortable walking over -the big and often slippery stones and wading waist-deep -across the river three or four times to cut off big bends, -but it was pleasant indeed to have a wide free space -about us after having been for so long hemmed in by -trees, and anything was preferable to the mud and -leeches of the jungle.</p> - -<p>A few miles up the Kamura we left the main river -and turned off up the bed of a smaller river, which joins -it from the East. This is actually a branch of the -Wataikwa connecting the two rivers, and down it comes -a great volume of water when the Wataikwa is full, -while at other times it becomes almost dry. The rivers -of this district of New Guinea are somewhat peculiar in -this respect; they are very numerous, and they flow out -from the mountains in a North to South direction, with -not many miles intervening between one river and the -next. As soon as they emerge from the mountains they -find themselves on quite low ground and with forty or -more miles to run to the sea. There are no outlying -hills or depressions to guide them in any particular -course, thus it happens that they overflow in convenient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span> -directions, and connections are established between one -river and another. As well as in the case of the Wataikwa -this was observed on the Utakwa river, close to -the foot of the mountains, and I believe the same thing -happens on the Kapare river. Further on in their -courses, when they approach the mangrove swamps -near the sea, the rivers again break up into an extraordinary -network of branches. Judging from the appearance -of the country and from the considerable changes, -which we observed in the case of the Wataikwa during a -period of only a few months, it is probable that these -great rivers change their courses very often.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CUTTING A TRACK</div> - -<p>Whilst parties of coolies, rapidly diminishing in -numbers, were occupied at lengthening intervals in -transporting stores from Parimau to the camp on the -Wataikwa river, Rawling and Marshall had found a -way of crossing that river. It is true that there were -a great many days when it was quite impossible to cross -it, and there was always a certain amount of risk of -being swept away, not to mention the discomfort of -beginning your day’s work by getting wet up to your -chest; but it was absolutely necessary to continue cutting -the track, wet or dry. On the other side of the -river, they had tried to continue in the North-east direction -and had come to broken lumpy ground covered -with the densest jungle that we met with in any part -of the country. The trees were not so very big, indeed -most of them were quite small, but they were of a peculiarly -hard wood, which quickly blunted the <i>kukris</i> of -the Gurkhas and they grew so close together that it was -quite impossible to push your way between them. -Eventually a track was cut to the Iwaka River, five -miles to the east of the Wataikwa.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p182.jpg" width="400" height="598" alt="AT THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE." /> -<p class="caption">AT THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span></p> - -<p>Some idea of the difficulty of cutting this track may -be learnt, when it is said that Rawling and Marshall -with three Gurkhas and five natives were occupied for -three weeks in cutting five thousand yards of the way, -and the whole distance of five miles was cut in five -weeks. Unfortunately it was labour in vain, the path -when finished was too difficult for men to traverse with -loads. We cut another track, which avoided the hilly -ground and brought us to the Iwaka close to the point -reached by the first; by the new track, which was cut in -a week, we were able to reach the Iwaka in three hours’ -walk from the Wataikwa.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>The Camp at the Wataikwa River—Malay Coolies—“Amok”—A -Double Murder—A View of the Snow Mountains—Felling Trees—Floods—Village -washed Away—The Wettest Season—The Effects -of Floods—Beri-beri—Arrival of C. Grant—Departure of W. -Goodfellow.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">If</span> I were to write a true and complete account of the -expedition, I should fill many pages with repeated stories -of rain and floods, sickness among the coolies and our -consequent inaction; but that would be as wearisome -to the reader as it was trying to our own patience. -During July and a part of August we sent out parties of -coolies to the Wataikwa camp, where a considerable -depôt of food was formed, but about the middle of the -latter month the number of our coolies was reduced to -twenty, of whom not more than half were capable of any -hard work, and it became quite evident that any further -progress in the direction of the mountains was out of the -question until we should get a fresh supply of men.</p> - -<p>As the number of coolies grew fewer we sent natives -with them to carry stores out to the Wataikwa, but the -supply of willing natives was very uncertain and it -became a matter of some difficulty to keep up a regular -communication with that camp. Two Gurkhas and two -Javanese soldiers remained always at the Wataikwa and -one or other of us went out there and stopped to make -natural history collections or to superintend the cutting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>of the road on the other side of the river for a few weeks -at a time, while the others were at Parimau or at Wakatimi. -We managed to continue this arrangement until -the end of October, when it became no longer possible to -keep an European supplied out there; thenceforward -until the beginning of January the camp at the Wataikwa -was occupied only by the guard of Gurkhas and -Javanese, who in the meantime consumed nearly all the -stores that had been so laboriously accumulated there.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p184.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT PARIMAU." /> -<p class="caption">CAMP OF THE EXPEDITION AT PARIMAU.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">MALAY COOLIES</div> - -<p>We often said hard things to and of our Malay coolies, -but the poor wretches were not to blame for being such -incompetent carriers. At their proper occupations of -carrying cargo to and from the ships at Macassar, or -working on the boats of the pearl-fishers, or doing odd -jobs in their native places, no doubt they excelled; but -at struggling through the New Guinea jungle with even -the lightest of loads they were hopeless failures and the -wonder was that they survived as long as they did. -Taking them all round, the majority of them worked as -well as they could, and some of them even became quite -attached to us.</p> - -<p>To a large number of people the name of Malay -immediately suggests a savage person who runs <i>amok</i>, -but you may live for years in a Malay country and never -see a single <i>amok</i>. Fortunately our Malays never behaved -in this dangerous fashion, though one day a man -who was suffering from fever went suddenly mad and -inflicted a serious knife-wound on the body of another -coolie; the wounded man was successfully treated by -Marshall, who was happily but seldom required in this -way to exercise his vocation as surgeon. Malays are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span> -indeed rather too handy with their knives and a more -serious encounter took place one day between two of -Cramer’s convicts. These two men, a <i>mandoer</i> (head -man) and another, quarrelled one morning about some -trifle connected with their food, and before anybody -knew what was amiss, knives were out and one was -chasing the other through the camp. By a clever backward -thrust the pursued man dealt the pursuer a deep -wound under the heart, but he was unable to escape before -the pursuer had given him too a mortal wound. -One died in a few minutes and the other during the -course of the day, fortunately perhaps for both of them.</p> - -<p>But ordinarily our Malays were most quiet and -peaceable fellows. Certainly they were liars and thieves -when it suited their convenience to be so, but these -two faults are almost universal in the East. They were -enthusiastic fishermen (a sure sign of grace) and spent -many hours of their leisure time in angling for small -fish, which they very seldom caught. Another of their -virtues, though it sometimes became a little wearisome, -was their love of singing, in which they indulged on -fine evenings. The Ambonese used to sing, accompanied -by a soloist on a sort of penny whistle, some -really pretty songs, possibly of Portuguese origin, to -which one could listen with real pleasure. But the -singing of the Javanese, usually in a high falsetto -voice, was a burden hardly to be borne.</p> - -<p>In dealing with people like the Malays it is essential -to keep them constantly occupied in order to prevent -them from brooding too much over their untoward -circumstances and becoming, as they easily do,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span> -physically ill. Accordingly, during the times when for one -reason or another they were not carrying out loads to -the Wataikwa camp, we set them to clearing the jungle -about the camp at Parimau, and in the course of time -some ten or twelve acres were cleared. Apart from -the object of drying and letting light into the camp, -this clearing was made with the purpose of obtaining -from Parimau a view of the Snow Mountains. This -latter object was ultimately attained and proved of -great service to the surveyors, who were enabled to -fix more definitely the various points of the range seen -from a place of which they had already determined -the position by astronomical observations. To the -non-surveyor too the view of the mountains was a -boon, though rather a tantalising one, and I used to -spend many hours in the mornings, before the mists -had hidden them, in scanning the snows of Idenburg -and Carstensz and planning routes by which they might -be reached.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FELLING TREES</div> - -<p>Cutting down trees in the New Guinea jungle differs -from cutting down trees here in that the tree does not -always fall, even when the trunk is cut completely -through. Amongst the tops of the trees grows an extraordinary -network of rattans and other creepers of -sufficient strength to support a tree, even if it is inclined -to fall. We spent some time one day in firing shots -with a rifle at a single creeper, thicker than a man’s -arm, which was holding up a tree without any other -support; though I believe we sometimes pierced the -creeper with bullets, it held on and only gave way some -hours later. As a rule we did not take the trouble to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> -cut the creepers, but if a tree did not fall we cut down -those about it until they all fell together in one splendid -crash. On sloping ground the best method of felling -trees is to cut their trunks only half way through and -leave them, and then to cut completely through a big -tree above them in such a way that it will fall down -hill and complete the felling of those below it.</p> - -<p>Some of the trees that we cut down in our clearing -fell in the most unexpected directions, but though there -were some narrow escapes, there were no accidents. -The most unpleasant was a tree which fell midway -between two houses, one full of coolies and the other -full of stores, and shaved off the projecting roof of -both; it might easily have killed half-a-dozen sleeping -men, but the only harm it did was to fill the camp with -a swarm of large and furiously biting ants, which had -had a nest in its topmost branches. The natives, who -never tired of using our steel axes, helped a good deal -in felling the trees and in this way some of them earned -large quantities of coloured beads.</p> - -<p>Another occupation for the coolies in their idle -moments, and at the same time a very necessary work, -was the business of keeping the camp in a state of repair. -When the high river bank opposite the village of Parimau -was chosen for a camping ground, it was thought that -floods at all events could do no harm. The houses -nearest to the river were built five or six yards back from -the edge of the bank, which was there about fifteen feet -above the usual level of the water, and it seemed quite out -of the question that the river could ever invade the camp. -It was necessary, in order to prevent it from becoming -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span>the dumping ground of camp-refuse, to clear away the -rank vegetation that grew on the bank down to the -water’s edge, and this was the beginning of what almost -ended in our downfall. After the tangle of creepers had -been removed, the first rains began to wash the bank -away, and when the river rose three or four feet, as it -speedily did after a few hours’ downpour, it undermined -the lower part of the bank and large landslips took place -from above.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p188.jpg" width="400" height="544" alt="THE CAMP AT PARIMAU. A PRECAUTION AGAINST FLOODS." /> -<p class="caption">THE CAMP AT PARIMAU. A PRECAUTION AGAINST FLOODS.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">SECURING THE CAMP</div> - -<p>In the course of a few weeks several yards of land -disappeared, and the safety of our houses, which had -come to be almost overhanging the river, was seriously -imperilled. To save them we erected a strong palisade -of long poles thrust deeply into the bottom of the bank -and secured them by rattan ropes, which passed through -our house and were attached to posts at the back. The -interval between the palisade and the bank was -laboriously filled up with shingle from the river bed, and -this provided a never-ending occupation, because the -stones were always trickling through the palisade and -required to be renewed. The natives were of great -assistance to us in this work, and on one occasion—it was -the only time that we ever persuaded them to come into -our camp, although we lived within a few yards of their -village—the women and children came and helped in the -work and thoroughly enjoyed themselves.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FLOODS</div> - -<p>It was well that we took these precautions, for as the -weather grew steadily wetter and wetter (though that -seemed hardly possible) through July and August, so the -river rose higher and higher and each succeeding flood -was greater than the last. The night of the 18-19th of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span> -August was one that I shall never forget: it had been -raining steadily for some days and the river was fairly -full, but about sunset on the 18th the rain really began -to come down solidly, as it does in the Tropics. About -midnight a terrific thunderstorm began, which continued -with almost incessant thunder and lightning until dawn, -but long before this the river had risen many feet and -was already threatening the village. As soon as the -waters began to rise the natives appeared at the edge of -the river with blazing torches, while canoes were baled out -and brought nearer to the shore. When the flood, rising -visibly by that time, reached the lowest house, a most -extraordinary Bedlam broke loose and it sounded as if all -the people in the village were being drowned. The men -all shouted at once, the women and children screamed -and the dogs whined and howled. By the light of the -flashes of lightning we could see them scurrying hither -and thither, bundling all their belongings into the canoes -and trying to save the roofs and matting walls of their -huts by throwing them among the branches of the trees -at the back of the village. In a very short time all the -houses were swamped and the people were in their -canoes, about twenty in all, moored to the branches of -the trees along the edge of the jungle, where they kept -up an unceasing turmoil until daylight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p190a.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="THE MIMIKA AT PARIMAU. LOW WATER." /> -<p class="caption">THE MIMIKA AT PARIMAU. LOW WATER.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p190b.jpg" width="400" height="294" alt="THE SAME IN FLOOD. THE VILLAGE HAS DISAPPEARED AND THE PEOPLE ARE -IN CANOES." /> -<p class="caption">THE SAME IN FLOOD. THE VILLAGE HAS DISAPPEARED AND THE PEOPLE ARE -IN CANOES.</p></div> - -<p>In the meantime our own position was not very -secure. The river was swirling down at ten or twelve -miles an hour and bringing with it huge tree-trunks, -which carried away our fleet of canoes and threatened -to destroy our protecting palisade. If that had gone -nothing could have prevented our houses from falling -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>into the river, but happily it held well. The whole of -the jungle on our side of the river was under water and -all sorts of creatures sought the shelter of our houses, -which occupied the highest position. When even these -were flooded, armies of ants and beetles and other insects -climbed up our beds and other furniture to escape from -drowning, moths washed out of their resting places -fluttered aimlessly about, and a family of rats, which -inhabited my hut, ran about squeaking in terror.</p> - -<p>Beyond the loss of our canoes, some of which were -afterwards recovered, no great damage was done, and -the flood fell almost as quickly as it had risen. Soon -after daybreak the ground, on which the village had -been, began to appear above the falling water, and it -was seen that not one stick of the huts was standing. -But the natives were anxious to get out of their canoes, -and by mid-day half the huts in the village were re-built -with the fragments that they had crammed into the -canoes or had put up into the trees. During the next -two or three days they brought back quantities of housing -materials, which had been carried for miles down -the river, and very soon the village resumed its normal -appearance.</p> - -<p>On two subsequent occasions in the following month -the village was completely swept away by floods, and it -was a matter of surprise to us that they did not adopt -the custom of their neighbours the Tapiro pygmies and -build their houses on piles. The third great flood swept -away the sandbank on which the village stood, and they -were accordingly compelled to build their houses on the -top of a high bank further down the river. Such a place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> -as that necessitated cutting down a number of big trees, -but now that a great many of them have the steel axes, -which we gave them, it is to be hoped that they have -learnt to place their dwellings in safer positions, even -though it costs them a little extra labour.</p> - -<p>The wet season, which we hoped had reached its -maximum of wetness in July, when sometimes for -days together the rain hardly ceased, continued in a -series of greater or less floods through the months of -August and September. Often it was impossible to -move a yard from the camp, and without books life -would have been almost insupportable. On one of -the wettest of those days I came across the following -passage, which seemed to describe the situation -exactly:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">“With five ... what we call qualities of bad,</div> -<div class="line">Worse, worst, and yet worse still, and still worse yet.”</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>It need hardly be said that this very disagreeable -season produced ill effects on all the members of the -expedition. The Europeans became depressed, and if -we were not sick of life itself, we were certainly sick of -New Guinea, while in the case of the coolies and soldiers, -who were accustomed to sunnier climates, and who had -no interest or goal to look forward to in the country, the -results were disastrous indeed. Hardly a man escaped -fever of greater or less severity and chills brought on by -the unceasing rain and the consequent impossibility of -securing a change of dry clothing. Several men suffered -too from dysentery of a very intractable type, which -completely incapacitated them from any further service.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BERI-BERI</div> - -<p>But worse than either fever or dysentery was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span> -beri-beri, which made its appearance after we had been -in the country for a few months. This is not the place -to give a scientific account of beri-beri; it will suffice to -say that it is a disease, of which the most important -feature is a degeneration of the nervous system. The -results of this are seen in the curious and characteristic -walk, loss of sensation in various parts of the body, -interference with the circulation and swelling of the -body and particularly of the face and limbs, and in very -many cases sudden heart failure. It is almost conclusively -proved now that the cause of the disease is an -error of diet, and it appears to be certain that the fine -milling and polishing of the rice, which forms the staple -food of the natives of so many countries in the East, -deprives the rice of a very necessary constituent as a -food. Those people, who grind their own rice and do not -mill or polish it finely, but leave a small portion of the -husk still adhering to the grain, are free from beri-beri. -The disease varies in severity from time to time and -from place to place, but at its best it is a very deadly -scourge and it causes a very large number of deaths. -Occasionally it occurs in an epidemic form, but fortunately -that did not happen to our expedition.</p> - -<p>In the six months from the beginning of June to -the end of November, thirty-nine men shewed definite -symptoms of beri-beri, and seven deaths were directly -attributable to this cause. Our coolies, who came from -the Eastern islands of the Archipelago, were much less -susceptible to the disease than were the convicts and -soldiers, most of whom came from Java and Sumatra; -these latter contracted the disease in a much more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> -serious form and most of the fatal cases took place -among them. It was a curious circumstance that at -Parimau, which was in most respects by far the healthier -place, many more cases of beri-beri occurred than at -Wakatimi, where it is doubtful if any cases originated.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">SICKNESS</div> - -<p>Still more remarkable was the case of the camp on -the Wataikwa River, which ought to have been the -healthiest place we occupied anywhere in the country. -For several months a guard of two Javanese and two -Gurkhas was kept there to look after the store of food, -and though they were very frequently changed and -replaced by others, several of the Javanese developed -beri-beri and two of them died. The Gurkhas, perhaps -because they led more active lives than the Javanese, -remained free of the disease until one of them, Havildar -Mahesur, a most useful man, had the misfortune to -damage one of his eyes; it was necessary for him to -remain in the darkness of his tent for some days and -within a fortnight he developed all the signs of beri-beri -so that he had to be sent away from the country.</p> - -<p>A welcome interruption in those dreary months was -caused by the arrival at Parimau on August 26 of canoes -bringing Mr. C. H. B. Grant, who had come out from -England as naturalist to the expedition in the place of -W. Stalker. He brought with him two Dayak collectors<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> -and a quantity of various and excellent stores, and a -large mail, the first we had received since the end of May. -Shortridge had arrived in the country by the same ship -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>on his return from Australia, but his change of air had -not completely cured him and he was compelled to leave -the country at the end of November. Goodfellow, whose -fever continued almost without interruption, became so -weak that he also was obliged to leave the country early -in October. From that time we had only a dozen men -and no forward movement was possible until the arrival -of our third batch of coolies on the 22nd December. By -the same boat that brought the new coolies in December -came instructions to Captain Rawling to take over the -command of the expedition.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Pygmies visit Parimau—Description of Tapiro Pygmies—Colour—Hair—Clothing—Ornaments—Netted -Bags—Flint Knives—Bone -Daggers—Sleeping Mats—Fire Stick—Method of making Fire—Cultivation -of Tobacco—Manner of Smoking—Bows and Arrows—Village -of the Pygmies—Terraced Ground—Houses on Piles—Village -Headman—Our Efforts to see the Women—Language and -Voices—Their Intelligence—Counting—Their Geographical Distribution.</i></p></blockquote> - -<div class="sidenote">THE TAPIRO PYGMIES</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Pygmy people—or Tapiro as they are called by the -Papuans—whom we saw in March, visited us occasionally -in small parties of three or four at Parimau and later we -went to one of their villages in the hills, to which they -were reluctantly persuaded to show us the way. When -they come down to Parimau they were warmly welcomed -by the Papuans, with whom they seemed to be on very -friendly terms, and stayed in their houses for two or -three days. They appeared to be particularly attractive -to the women, one of whom we saw affectionately embrace -a Tapiro on his arrival; it was said that she kissed him, -but if that was so it was the only occasion on which that -form of endearment was seen practised by the Papuans. -It was noticeable that when they arrived at Parimau -they had not their bows and arrows, which they always -carry elsewhere; probably they had left them hidden in -the jungle before they came to the village. Similarly, -when we went up to visit the Tapiro, the Papuans who -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>were with us left their spears behind them at the last -camp before we reached their village.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p196.jpg" width="400" height="654" alt="A TAPIRO PYGMY." /> -<p class="caption">A TAPIRO PYGMY.</p></div> - -<p>Their visits were always very welcome because they -brought with them from the hills quantities of tobacco -to exchange with the natives of Parimau, who grow -none themselves. At first they were very shy of crossing -the river, but by the offer of gifts we persuaded -them to come into our camp, where we had better -opportunities of observing them than in the crowded -village.</p> - -<p>At one time or another we took measurements of -40 adult men, most of them men in the prime of life, -and their average height was found to be 144·9 cm. (4 ft. -9 in.). It is possible that one or two rather tall men -of 150 cm. and upwards, whose appearance led us to -suspect that they were Tapiro-Papuan half-breeds, may -have been included among those measured, but the -correction of that error will not appreciably reduce -the true average height. The height of the smallest -man measured was 132·6 cm. By contrast with the -Papuans they looked extremely small and, what was -rather a curious thing, though many of our Malay -coolies were no taller than they, the coolies looked -merely under-sized and somewhat stunted men, while -the Tapiro looked emphatically <i>little</i> men. They are -cleanly-built, active-looking little fellows, rather big in -the buttocks as mountain people are apt to be, and -their well-made calves are noticeable in contrast with -the long, straight legs of the Papuans. They walk -with an easy swinging gait, the knees a little bent and -the body slightly leaning forwards.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span></p> - -<p>The colour of their skin is paler than that of the -Papuans—some of them indeed are almost yellow—but -they are so indescribably dirty that it is not easy to -know what is their true colour; they have also an ugly -habit of smearing their faces with a black oily mixture. -Neither tattooing nor cicatrization appears to be practised -by them. The <i>septum</i> of the nose is always -pierced and in it they occasionally wear a curved boar’s -tusk planed down to a thin slip, or a short piece of -straight bone; the <i>alae nasi</i> are not pierced. The nose -is straight and very wide at the nostrils. The upper lip -of many of the men is long and curiously convex.</p> - -<p>The hair is short and woolly and black; many of -the men give a lighter shade to the hair with lime or -mud, and in two or three cases it seemed to be of a -brown colour without any artificial treatment. They -appear to begin to grow bald at a comparatively early -age. The younger men grow whiskers and the older -have short bushy black beards. There is a good deal -of short downy black hair scattered about the body. -Their eyes are noticeably larger and rounder than those of -the Papuans, and there is in them something sleepy and -dog-like which gives a pathetic expression to their faces.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">DRESS AND ORNAMENTS</div> - -<p>When we first saw them one or two men wore -curious helmet-like caps of plaited fibres and another -had a strip of fur round his head; otherwise they are -completely naked except for the remarkable gourd -case described above (p. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>). Strangely enough they -are extremely modest and unwilling to expose themselves; -when with some difficulty we had persuaded -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>a man to part with his case, he would not remove it -then and there, but always disappeared into the jungle and -returned after an interval decently covered with leaves.</p> - -<p>Their ornaments are few and simple; a number of -men wear arm-bands and leg-bands of plaited fibre -similar to those worn by the Papuans, and several of -them wear necklaces of seeds, short pieces of bamboo, -scraps of broken shell, teeth of wallabies and (in one -instance) the bones of a small mammal. The lobes of -both ears are pierced and a few men wear in one ear an -ornament made of a small piece of gourd to which are -attached seeds, scraps of fur, claws of birds and other -ornamental odds and ends. One young man, with more -originality than the rest, thrust through his front hair a -piece of sharpened bone, which projected downwards -over his face and gave him a most distinguished appearance -(see Frontispiece).</p> - -<p>The most elaborate and ornamental of their possessions -are the bags, which every man carries. Most of -them carry two, a large bag like a haversack slung -across the shoulders and usually hanging down the back, -and a small bag only a few inches square slung round -his neck and hanging down on the chest. They are -made of fine fibres of different colours, cleverly netted<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> -in ornamental patterns, and they show the best attempt -at decorative art that we saw in the country. In these -bags the Pygmy man keeps all his portable property. -The small wallet round the neck contains his bone and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span>shell ornaments when they are not in use, and his knives; -these latter are sharp flakes of a flint-like stone shaped -exactly like the flint-knives and scrapers that are found -in this country; they are used for scraping down the -wood of their bows and for pointing and ornamenting -their arrows as well as for other cutting purposes, and it -is profoundly interesting in these days of steel to see -people still using the implements of prehistoric man. -One or two men also carried in their wallets a short -dagger made of a pointed cassowary’s bone, and they -explained to us by graphic gestures how they were -accustomed to shoot a cassowary with their arrows and -then after a long chase to stab it with the dagger.</p> - -<p>The contents of the larger bag usually are the sleeping -mat, the fire-stick and rattan, and tobacco. The -sleeping mat is a fabric of <i>pandanus</i> leaves, which can -be used either as a mat to lie upon or as a shelter from -the rain; it measures usually about six by three feet and -is neatly folded to be carried in the bag. The manufacture -of these mats is always the work of the women and -is a very ingenious process. The long ribbon-like leaves -of the <i>pandanus</i> are split horizontally into two strips; -the shiny upper one alone is used and the lower is -thrown away. Strips of two leaves are placed with their -split surfaces together and their shiny surfaces outwards, -and then numbers of these pairs of split leaves are sown -together, edge to edge, until the mat is of the required -size. Thus the mat is made entirely of the outer -surfaces of the leaves; it is very strong and is quite -impervious to rain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p200.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="MAKING FIRE: (1) BY THE FRICTION OF WOOD AND RATTAN." /> -<p class="caption">MAKING FIRE: (1) BY THE FRICTION OF WOOD AND RATTAN.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">MAKING FIRE</div> - -<p>By far the most interesting of the possessions of these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>people is the apparatus for making fire, which consists -of three different parts, the split stick, the rattan, and -the tinder. The split stick is a short stick of wood an -inch or so in diameter, which is split at one end and is -held open by a small pebble placed between the split -halves. The rattan is a long piece of split rattan wound -upon itself into a neatly coiled ring (see illustration p. 202), -and the tinder is usually a lump of the fibrous sheath -of a palm shoot and sometimes a piece of dried moss.</p> - -<p>The method of making fire is as follows: In the split -of the stick, between the stone which holds the split ends -apart and the solid stick, is placed a small fragment of -tinder. The operator—if one may use so modern a word -in describing so ancient a practice—places the stick upon -the ground and secures the solid, <i>i.e.</i> the unsplit end with -his foot. Then, having unwound about a yard of the -rattan, he holds the coil in one hand and the free end in -the other and looping the middle of it underneath the -stick at the point where the tinder is placed he proceeds -to saw it backwards and forwards with extreme rapidity. -In a short space of time, varying from ten to thirty -seconds, the rattan snaps and he picks up the stick with -the tinder, which has probably by this time begun to -smoulder, and blows it into flame. At the point where -the rattan rubs on the stick a deep cut is made on the -stick, and at each successive use the stick is split a little -further down and the rattan is rubbed a little further -back, so that a well-used fire-stick is marked with a -number of dark burnt rings. It was only with the -greatest difficulty and after many attempts that we -succeeded in producing fire in this manner, but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span> -Tapiro do it with the utmost ease and they scorned our -boxes of matches, which we offered them in exchange for -their apparatus, and showed no signs of surprise at a -suddenly kindled match.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a></p> - -<p>The most frequent use of the fire-stick is in lighting -the tobacco, of which nearly every man carries a supply -in his larger bag. These people cultivate tobacco in -sufficient quantities to be able to supply the Papuans of -the low country. The leaves are dried and neatly rolled -up into long bundles weighing three or four pounds; the -flavour is strong and rather bitter, but it is not unpleasant -to smoke. The Tapiro smoke tobacco chiefly -as cigarettes, using for the wrapper a thin slip of dry -<i>pandanus</i> leaf. When, as is often the case, the wrapper -is very narrow and the tobacco is inclined to escape, the -man smokes his cigarette in a peculiar manner; he holds -the unlighted end in his fingers and with his mouth -draws out the smoke from between the edges of the -wrapper in the middle of the cigarette, this he continues -to do until the cigarette is about half consumed when he -puts the end in his mouth in the ordinary way.</p> - -<p>The Tapiro also smoke tobacco in a pipe in a fashion -of their own. The pipe is a simple cylinder of bamboo -about an inch in diameter and a few inches in length. -A small plug of tobacco is rolled up and pushed down to -about the middle of the pipe, and the smoker holding it -upright between his lips draws out the smoke from below. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>The Tapiro never make large cigars like those of the -Papuans of the Mimika, and the Papuans never smoke -pipes, nor did they take readily to those that we gave -them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p202.jpg" width="400" height="658" alt="MAKING FIRE: (2) BLOWING ON THE SMOULDERING TINDER." /> -<p class="caption">MAKING FIRE: (2) BLOWING ON THE SMOULDERING TINDER.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">WEAPONS OF THE PYGMIES</div> - -<p>Besides the bone daggers mentioned above the only -weapon of the Tapiro are the bow and arrows, which they -always carry. The bows are a very little shorter than -those of the Papuans, but otherwise they are very -similar, viz.: straight tapered strips of hard wood -“strung” with a slip of rattan. The arrows are shorter -and lighter and of finer workmanship than those of the -Mimika Papuans, but like those they have neither -feathers nor nocks. The best, which they were not at -all anxious to sell to us, are ornamented with simple -carvings and are tipped with a very sharp point of black -wood. An arrow which ended in a curious blunt lump -of wood was used, so we understood, for shooting birds.</p> - -<p>The Tapiro have no spears and neither they nor the -Mimika Papuans know the use of the sling. They set -quantities of little nooses for small animals, and we once -found a rattan noose fixed to a root of a tree and evidently -set with the purpose of catching a pig.</p> - -<p>Many of them carry in their bags a small Jew’s harp, -made of a thin piece of bamboo, from which they extract -faint music that is pleasing to their ears. Two men -possessed instruments of a more original design: these -were made of pieces of polished bone fitting together in -such a way that when one was turned round over the -other it produced peculiarly discordant squeaks, which -were highly appreciated by the player.</p> - -<p>Wamberi Merbiri or Wamberimi, the village of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> -Tapiro which was visited by different members of our -party on three separate occasions, is situated on the -lower slopes of Mount Tapiro, the mountain nearest to -Parimau, at about 1800 feet above the sea. It is in -fact within a stone’s throw of that large clearing which -Rawling and I had reached with so much difficulty, but -when approached by the track used by the people themselves -it is an easy walk of two or three hours from the -Kapare River.</p> - -<p>The track climbs by a steep almost knife-edged ridge -densely covered with forest to the rounded shoulder of -the hill where the village lies. The first sign of the -village is a flimsy fence of tall poles, which bars the track -and extends for a short distance on either side of it. -Passing through a narrow opening in the fence you come -to a cleared space occupied by three or four houses. A -couple of hundred yards beyond these and separated -from them by a small gully, which is bridged by an -enormous fallen tree, is a second group of six houses, -constituting the village of Wamberi Merbiri.</p> - -<p>The houses are scattered about over three or four -acres of steeply sloping ground, from which most of the -trees have been cleared. Between the houses the ground -has been levelled in three places to form almost level -terraces, measuring about fifteen by five yards, completely -cleared of vegetation and covered with small -stones. These terraces are held up on the lower side by -logs and stumps of trees, and the labour of making them -by people whose only tools are stone axes and pieces of -wood is difficult to imagine; they are used, so far as we -could understand, for dances and other ceremonies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p204.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="WAMBERI-MERBIRI, THE VILLAGE OF THE TAPIRO PYGMIES." /> -<p class="caption">WAMBERI-MERBIRI, THE VILLAGE OF THE TAPIRO PYGMIES.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">HOUSES OF THE PYGMIES</div> - -<p>The houses are greatly superior to those of the Mimika -Papuans, from which they differ in every respect. They -are built on piles, which raise the floor of the house from -four to ten feet above the ground according to the steepness -of the slope underneath. The walls are made of long -laths of split wood with big sheets of bark fastened on -to the outside. The roof is a fairly steep pitched angular -structure of split wood covered with over-lapping leaves -of the Fan-palm. The floor is made like the walls and -covered with large sheets of bark; in the middle of the -floor is a square sunken box filled with sand or earth in -which a fire is kept burning, and over the fire hanging -from the roof is a simple rack, on which wood is placed -to dry. The house consists of one nearly square compartment, -measuring about ten feet in each direction. -The way of entering is by a steep ladder made of two -posts tied closely together, which leads to a narrow -platform or balcony in front of the front wall of the -house. There are no notches on the posts, but the -lashings of rattan, which tie them together, answer -the purpose of steps or rungs for the feet. As well as -in the excellence of their houses, the Tapiro show another -point of superiority over the neighbouring Papuans in -their habit of using a common retiring place at the edge -of a small stream.</p> - -<p>There was an old man in the village, bald and white-bearded, -and horribly disfigured by disease,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> who appeared -to be unquestionably the headman of the place. -He sat in one of the huts all day and shouted shrilly to -the other men who were constantly going in and out to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span>speak to him, and I think it was due to him that we -were never allowed to see the women. We were particularly -anxious to see some of the women of the tribe, -and we offered them large rewards of knives and axes -merely for the sight of them. The other men were -willing enough to produce the women, and several times -they were on the point of fetching them, but were -always prevented by the old man. Finally we had a -personal interview with him, and held out three bright -axes, which made his one eye glisten with greed, but -he still remained obdurate.</p> - -<p>Though we never saw the women I have no doubt -that they saw us; at night we saw their camp fires up -on the hillside opposite the village, and when we departed -we heard their shrill voices quite close to us before we -had gone a quarter of a mile from the place. They had -no reason to distrust us when we assured them that our -only wish was to see their women, and I think the reason -for their keeping them hidden was the presence of the -Papuans who accompanied us from Parimau. The supply -of Papuan women is very scanty, and it is likely enough -that the men would seize any chance of abducting a -Tapiro woman, as indeed they boasted of having -done.</p> - -<p>The language of these Tapiro pygmy people is certainly -different from that of the Papuans, but I regret to -say that we were unable to make even the smallest -vocabulary of it. Their voices are rather high-pitched -and nasal, and many of their words contain curious -throat sounds, which I was not able to spell much less -to imitate. In talking they have a curious habit of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>protruding the lips, which recalls in a striking manner a -familiar grimace of the anthropoid apes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p206.jpg" width="500" height="363" alt="HOUSE OF THE TAPIRO." /> -<p class="caption">HOUSE OF THE TAPIRO.</p></div> - -<p>They appeared to understand a good deal that the -Papuans said to them, but I doubt if the latter understood -them when they were talking amongst themselves. -When we were trying to persuade the headman to allow -the women to be produced, it was a strange experience -to be using the Papuans, of whose language we knew -only the rudiments, as interpreters to an even less known -people.</p> - -<p>In consequence of our entire lack of knowledge of -their language we were not able to form a very reasonable -estimate of their intelligence. When they were seen -in company with the Papuans, the latter, who usually -looked dull and expressionless, appeared by contrast to -be full of life and animation. The Tapiro, as a rule, -looks blank and rather sad, and when a smile does appear -upon his face, it dawns slowly and reluctantly.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">COUNTING</div> - -<p>A rough test of an uncivilised man’s intelligence is -the extent to which he is able to count, but in the case -of the Tapiro there is an unfortunate difference of evidence -in this respect. Capt. Rawling (<i>Geograph. Journal</i>, -Vol. xxxviii., page 246) affirms that they are able to -count up to ten. If this is so, it is a very interesting -and remarkable fact. On several occasions I tried to -make these people count, with a view to learning their -numeral words, and I found that like the Papuans they -only had words for one and two, and that those two words -were the same as the Papuan words; but it appeared -that, unlike the Papuans, they had not the custom of -using their fingers and toes for the higher numbers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span></p> - -<p>On the credit side of their intelligence must be placed -their admirably constructed houses, their decorated -arrows and ingeniously woven bags, and their cultivation.</p> - -<p>As well as the village and clearing of Wambiri Merbiri -we saw other small patches of cleared ground on the -spurs of Mount Tapiro, and on the slopes of Mount -Tuaba we saw from a distance another large clearing -which we were never able to reach. Further to the East -we saw no sign of them and we were informed by the -Papuans that there were no more in that direction. That -is probably true, for the mountains are so excessively -steep to the East of Mount Tuaba that there appears to -be no country suitable for them. It seems likely that -we were fortunate enough to meet these people at the -Eastern limit of their range and that more of them would -be found living in the hills N.W. from the Kapare River -towards the Charles Louis Mountains, where the slopes -are less steep than in the Nassau Range. The thick-coated dog, -which was brought down to Parimau by the -Tapiro (see p. 126), might suggest that they have dealings -with other natives living high up in the mountains, but -so far we have no definite knowledge of the existence of -such a people.</p> - -<p>This account of our observations, which were necessarily -very superficial, will suffice to show that there is a -most promising field for some future investigator, who -has opportunity and time to spend among these most -interesting people.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p208.jpg" width="400" height="604" alt="MOUNT TAPIRO, FROM THE VILLAGE OF THE PYGMIES." /> -<p class="caption">MOUNT TAPIRO, FROM THE VILLAGE OF THE PYGMIES.</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Communication with Amboina and Merauke—Sail in the “Valk” -to the Utakwa River—Removal of the Dutch Expedition—View of -Mount Carstensz—Dugongs—Crowded Ship—Dayaks and Live -Stock—Sea-Snakes—Excitable Convicts—The Island River—Its -Great Size—Another Dutch Expedition—Their Achievements—Houses -in the Trees—Large Village—Barn-like Houses—Naked -People—Shooting Lime—Their Skill in Paddling—Through the -Marianne Straits—An Extract from Carstensz—Merauke—Trade -in Copra—Botanic Station—The Mission—The Ké Island Boat-builders—The -Natives of Merauke described—Arrival of our Third -Batch of Coolies—The Feast of St. Nicholas—Return to Mimika.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> has been mentioned in the preceding chapters that -after the expedition landed in New Guinea, a more or -less regular communication was kept up between the -Mimika and Amboina. The South-west coast of New -Guinea as far East as the Utanata River is in the -administrative district of Amboina, and beyond that, as -far as the boundary of British New Guinea, the country -is nominally under the control of the station of Merauke. -Thus the Mimika is actually within the Merauke district, -but it was for many reasons found more convenient for -the Government to communicate with the expedition -directly from Amboina rather than by way of Merauke; -accordingly the soldiers forming our escort were attached -as an outpost to the garrison of Amboina and communications -were established with that place.</p> - -<p>For several months a steamer came from Amboina<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span> -to the Mimika, bringing men and stores and letters -and taking away invalids; usually it came every six or -eight weeks, and the longest interval that occurred was -twelve weeks, during which for one reason or another -it was found impossible to send a ship to the Mimika. -In October an alteration was made, and it was decided -that the Merauke steamer, which was in regular communication -with the Dutch expeditions on the Utakwa -and Island rivers, should visit the Mimika also. It was -in consequence of this new arrangement on the part of -the Government that I was enabled to make the journey -described below, and although these places do not fall -strictly within the sphere of our expedition, yet they are -so little known that I shall make no apology for giving -a short description of them here.</p> - -<p>Towards the end of November, the Government -steamer <i>Valk</i> called at the Mimika on its way to the -Utakwa and Island rivers to take away our sick men, -who had accumulated in some numbers during the last -two months. Our work was practically at a standstill, -and nothing more could be done until our next batch of -coolies arrived, so it was agreed that I should go down -to Merauke in company with Shortridge, who was going -home an invalid, and bring back our new coolies who -were due to arrive there by the next boat early in -December.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE UTAKWA RIVER</div> - -<p>A few hours’ steaming from the Mimika brought us -to the mouth of the Utakwa, where we lay outside the -bar all night waiting for daylight to find our way into -the channel. When we had entered the river it was -evident that the Utakwa was something very different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span> -from the Mimika, which is a mere ditch in comparison -with it; it is indeed to the Mimika as the Severn is to -the Wye. It was tantalising to remember that this was -the river by which we had originally intended to enter -the country, and one could not help regretfully wondering -what would have been the result if we had followed -out that plan; but it was at the best an unprofitable -speculation, and one had to rest content (or as content -as possible) with the course we had taken. In any case -it was certain that even if we had taken the Utakwa as -our point of entering into the country, we could not -possibly have reached any considerable height in the -Snow Mountains with the means, i.e. the men, at our -disposal.</p> - -<p>Near its mouth and for some miles inland the -Utakwa is about half a mile wide and bounded by low -banks of Mangrove and Nipa-palm. The <i>Valk</i> was a -ship of about five hundred tons drawing twelve feet of -water. We steamed up the river for about seventeen -miles and there anchored, not from lack of water, but -on account of the risk of turning the ship round against -a strong current in the somewhat narrowing channel. -From the anchorage a steam launch and boats were sent -on to the base camp of the Government expedition, -which had been established rather more than thirty -miles further up the river.</p> - -<p>We waited for three days while that expedition was -being brought away, and after the first day the <i>Valk</i> -went down to the mouth of the river on account of the -mosquitoes at the anchorage; they were a small black -species, and they came out of the swamps by day as well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span> -as by night in swarms, and attacked everybody on board -so furiously that life became quite intolerable. Before -we left the anchorage up the river we saw a magnificent -view of the snows of Mount Carstensz towering up over -the morning mists. From there the Snow Mountains, -making as it were a steep wall across the view to the -North, appear far more imposing than they do in the -rather sidelong view from the Mimika; and the different -aspect of the precipices as seen from the Utakwa was -most instructive.</p> - -<p>Whilst we were waiting at the mouth of the river -we were visited by several parties of natives in canoes, -who came, they informed us, from a large village on the -Kupera Pukwa, the next river to the west of the -Utakwa. They appeared to use the same, or almost -the same, language as the people of Mimika, and they -were very anxious that we should go and visit their -village, but unfortunately we had no means of doing so.</p> - -<p>An interesting sight at the mouth of the Utakwa -were the Dugongs (<i>Halicore australis</i>), which were seen -feeding on the weeds in the shallow water and occasionally -rose up and stared at us in a curiously human -manner. They are about eight feet long and are -perfectly inoffensive creatures, but they have been -“fished” for with nets and almost exterminated in -many places on account of their valuable oil.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p212a.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES." /> -<p class="caption">TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES.</p></div> -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;"> -<img src="images/i_p212b.jpg" width="499" height="371" alt="TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES." /> -<p class="caption">TYPES OF TAPIRO PYGMIES.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">DUTCH EXPEDITION</div> - -<p>The Dutch expedition came down to us in detachments -during the three days that we waited at the -mouth of the river. There were Captain Van der Bie, in -command; Mr. J. M. Dumas, surveyor and naturalist; -three white sergeants, about fifty native soldiers and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span>convicts, and twenty Dayaks of Dutch Borneo, who -came down the river in the long canoes they had built -themselves. There was also an Australian collector, -Mr. Meek and two assistants, who had been attached to -the Dutch expedition to make collections of birds and -butterflies for a private museum in England. With Mr. -Meek were ten natives of Port Moresby in British New -Guinea, little brown, fuzzy-headed fellows full of life and -merriment; they were in every way so different from the -sombre and unemotional Papuans that it was difficult to -realise that they were both natives of the same island.</p> - -<p>The Utakwa expedition had been in the country for -seven months and had traversed a considerable extent of -country, but those months coincided with the period of -the worst weather—one cannot talk of wet and dry -seasons in that region—and like us they had suffered -from the shortcomings of their coolies; the Dayaks had -reached them too late to be of much service to the expedition. -From their base camp at the head of steam-launch -navigation they had gone two days further up -the river in canoes, and then had gone a distance of -seven marches towards Mount Carstensz. The furthest -point they reached was at an altitude of about 3000 feet, -and was less than twenty miles distant from the snow, -but the views of the country that they saw were not sufficient -to show whether that was the best route to the -highest mountains. One of the principal objects of the -Government in despatching that expedition to the Utakwa -was to discover a convenient way of crossing New -Guinea, and when it was found that the Utakwa led -apparently to the highest mountain in the island, it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> -decided to withdraw the expedition, and to concentrate -all the exploring energies on the Island River, which -seemed to offer a better prospect of accomplishing that -purpose.</p> - -<p>When all these people had been taken on board the -<i>Valk</i>, the decks of the little ship were crowded to overflowing -with gear and men and wild animals. They had -brought some young wild pigs, a number of crowned and -other kinds of pigeons, and several young cassowaries. -Mr. Dumas brought on board three eggs, from which -were hatched pretty little cassowary chicks during the -next few days. We were particularly struck by the -appearance of the Dayaks, any one of whom looked more -than a match for three of our Malay coolies. Apart from -their apparent strength, they differed noticeably from -the Malays, who like to spend their days in sleeping -between meals, in their unceasing industry; they had -brought on board quantities of bamboo, from which -they at once started making bird cages, and pieces of -hard wood, out of which they carved handles for their -knives and other ornamental objects.</p> - -<p>The ship was so heavily laden that it was impossible -to take on board all the boats that had been used by -the Utakwa expedition, and three or four were towed -in a long string astern. Fortunately the sea was exceptionally -smooth, but even so one of these, an almost -new “long-boat,” broke adrift, and we lost a day in -searching for it unsuccessfully.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CONVICT LUNATIC</div> - -<p>Whilst we were cruising about looking for the lost -boat, one of our passengers, a fever-stricken soldier from -the Mimika, caused some excitement by stabbing with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span> -his knife another man and then jumping hastily into -the sea. The sudden plunge cooled his fever and the -appearance of a sea-snake swimming not far from him -made him as anxious to return to the ship as he had -been to leave it.</p> - -<p>During the voyage down the coast we saw a number -of sea-snakes, sometimes as far as thirty or forty -miles from land, but there was no opportunity of -catching one; they appeared to be yellowish with dark -markings and were about three or four feet in length. -I was told that they sometimes travel in large numbers -together and will climb up the sides of ships at anchor, -but I cannot vouch for the correctness of this statement.</p> - -<p>Another episode, which enlivened the voyage down -to Merauke, was caused by the strange behaviour of -one of the convicts, who was being taken away from the -Mimika. This man had suffered from the common -form of delusion that everybody was against him, and -after he had run away from the camp at Wakatimi -and had spent thirty-six hours in the jungle without -food I certified that he was of unsound mind and -recommended that he should be sent back to Java. -He was found prowling about the ship with an exceedingly -sharp knife, with which (so he said) he intended -to murder me, so he was promptly secured in chains. -We made friends in a day or two and he was set at -liberty again before we reached Merauke, but I confess -I was not sorry when we were no longer together in the -same ship.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE ISLAND RIVER</div> - -<p>On the second day after leaving the Utakwa we -entered the Island River by one of its many mouths,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span> -and after we had gone up it a few miles we realised -that in the matter of size it is to the Utakwa as that -river is to the Mimika. The banks are low and swampy -and mostly covered with mangroves for several miles -from the coast. Further on the banks are a few feet -above the level of high water and we saw many trees -that looked like good timber trees and others of considerable -beauty, notably a wide-spreading acacia-like -tree (<i>Albizia moluccana</i>), and a very graceful palm -(<i>Oncosperma filamentosum</i>) like a Betel-nut palm growing -in clumps by the waterside. We noticed also a -number of Bread-fruit trees (<i>Artocarpus</i> sp.) bigger -than any I have seen elsewhere, but none of them -appeared to bear fruit.</p> - -<p>We steamed up the river for one hundred and twelve -nautical miles to the <i>Swallow</i>, the depôt ship and base -camp of the Dutch exploring expedition. The river at -that point is about three hundred yards wide, but the -current is swift and there are many shallow sand banks, -which make further navigation impossible for a ship as -large as the <i>Valk</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p216.jpg" width="400" height="641" alt="A PAPUAN WITH TWO TAPIRO PYGMIES." /> -<p class="caption">A PAPUAN WITH TWO TAPIRO PYGMIES.</p></div> - -<p>The Dutch expedition had been established for several -months in the country and had made very considerable -progress towards the North. From the <i>Swallow</i> they -had proceeded up the river two days’ journey by steam -launch and six days beyond that by canoes as far as the -river was navigable, a distance of more than one hundred -miles. Thence they had gone North, and in nine marches -they had reached a height of ten thousand feet at a point -which appeared to be on the watershed of the main -mountain range of the island. One of the principal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>objects of the expedition was to cross New Guinea from -South to North, and it was hoped that from the furthest -point they had reached they would soon arrive at one of -the upper tributaries of the Kaiserin Augusta, the large -river which enters the sea in German territory. They -were at that time busily occupied in transporting supplies -up to their furthest camp with a view to continuing the -journey, but shortly afterwards the expedition was -crippled by sickness and the project was abandoned. -We spent two days alongside of the <i>Swallow</i> transferring -to her the stores and many of the men that we had -brought from the Utakwa and taking away the sick and -time-expired members of the Island River expedition, -amongst them being Lieut. Van der Wenn of the Netherlands -Navy, who was attached to the expedition as -surveyor.</p> - -<p>On our way down the Island River we saw many -things which we had missed on the way up, because we -had entered the river and steamed up through several -hours of darkness. First we came to isolated houses by -the river bank of the same type as the Mimika houses, -but larger and better built; near them we saw a few -natives, who appeared to be very shy and retreated hastily -into the jungle when the steamer approached.</p> - -<p>Lower down, when we were within about thirty miles -of the sea, we came to a large village of fifty or sixty -houses, some of which were raised on piles near the edge -of the river and the others were built in the trees, where -they presented a most astonishing appearance. They -are square and apparently well-made houses with ridgepole -roof and walls of “atap,” the entrance is by a hole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span> -in the floor which is reached by a vertical ladder of -bamboo from the ground. One house was at a height of -certainly not less than sixty feet above the ground in a -very slender tree, and the position of the inhabitants, -when the wind blew, must have been far from enviable. -Unfortunately the sun was low and directly behind the -village so that I was unable to obtain photographs of the -tree-dwellings. The people there showed no fear of us, -but stood on the bank and shouted and waved their -spears.</p> - -<p>A few miles further down the river we came to -another large village of yet a different character. The -houses there were all built on piles, but while a few of -them were of the usual small size, the majority were -quite unlike anything else we had seen in that part of -New Guinea. They were huge barn-like structures raised -on piles ten or more feet above the ground, and the -length of some of them must have been from one hundred -and fifty to two hundred feet. It was quite evident that -these were communal dwellings, indicating a social -system entirely different from that of the surrounding -districts, and it was very tantalising to pass them within a -few yards and not to be able to visit them. The village -extended for about a mile along the East bank and the -natives that we saw must have numbered at least a -thousand. The men were all entirely naked and the -women were only dressed in the scantiest strip of bark-cloth. -In other respects they appeared, as far as one -could tell from such a rapid survey of them, to be very -similar to the Mimika Papuans in their features and -their short hair and their absence of adornments.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">INTERESTING PEOPLE</div> - -<p>Crowds of people lined the river bank and some of -them, holding short bamboos in their hands, jerked them -in our direction and from the end came out a white cloud -of powdered lime, which looked like smoke. This custom -was noticed by Rawling when he first visited the village -of Nimé, and it was recorded by some of the early -voyagers,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> but the meaning of it has not yet been -explained. The suggestion that it is a means of imitating -the appearance of fire-arms is ingenious, but it can hardly -be seriously considered.</p> - -<p>While most of the people stood on the bank to see us -pass, a number of men jumped into their canoes and came -racing after us. The current of the river was about two, -and the speed of the <i>Valk</i> was seven knots, so they had -to move quickly, but they easily overtook us and followed -us for some distance down the river. Their canoes are -simple “dug-outs,” but they differ from those of the -Mimika in coming to a fine point at both ends. The bow -is roughly notched on the upper side, which gives it -somewhat the appearance of a bird’s beak. They seem -also to be considerably lighter than the Mimika craft, and -so narrow that a man could hardly sit down in them. -The usual number of a crew is nine or ten men, who all -stand up and all paddle on the same side of the canoe. -The regular swing of their bodies and the perfect precision -of the paddling was a sight prettier than any -“eight” I have ever seen. They called to us and waved -bundles of arrows, evidently anxious to trade with us, -but the captain of the <i>Valk</i> was unable to stop, so we -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span>threw overboard for them empty tins and bottles, and it -was marvellous to see how they raced up to these things, -and with a sudden backward stroke of their paddles -brought the canoes to a standstill, while they recovered -the prize, and then raced on again.</p> - -<p>From the mouth of the Island River, as we went out -to sea, we saw through a break in the clouds to the far -North the snow on Mount Wilhelmina, which was -reached by Mr. H. A. Lorentz in November, 1909. -Steaming in a south-easterly direction we kept some -way out from the land, which is so low as to be invisible -at a distance of a few miles. When we were opposite -the Digoel, the greatest (excepting the Fly) of all the -South New Guinea rivers, we found the sea strewn with -logs and trees, in some places so many together as to -form floating islands, on which crowds of gulls and terns -were seen to settle at nightfall.</p> - -<p>The tide favouring us, we chose the Marianne Strait -between the mainland and Prince Frederick Henry -Island. Sometimes, when the south-east monsoon has -been blowing regularly for a few days, it is quite impossible -for a ship of only moderate power to steam -through it against the current. The Strait is a winding -channel about ninety miles long and has an average -width of about two miles, and it is not surprising that -early voyagers, even as late as Kolff, in the Dutch -brig-of-war, <i>Dourga</i>, in 1826, mistook it for a river. -The banks are low and forest-covered, and we only -saw two small clusters of houses. From one of these -some men put off in a canoe to intercept us and -followed us for some distance, calling “<i>Kaya-Kaya</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>” -(friend).<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> They were tall and powerful-looking men, -entirely naked except for a small shell attached to a -string about the middle, and their great mats of hair -extending down to the shoulders and beyond showed -most clearly that we had come to yet another tribe -quite distinct from the people of the Island River.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">JAN CARSTENSZ</div> - -<p>Jan Carstensz, who visited this coast in 1623, gives -a good description of the land and the people:<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> “It -is impossible to land here with boats or pinnaces -owing to the clayey and muddy bottom into which -a man will sink up to the waist, the depth of the -water being no more than three or four fathoms at -three or four miles distant from the land. The land -is low-lying and half submerged, being quite under -water at high tide; it is covered with wild trees, -those on the beach resembling the fir-trees of our -country, and seemingly bear no fruit. The natives -are coal black like the Kaffirs and they go about -stark naked. They have two holes in the midst of -the nose, with fangs of hogs or sword-fishes through -them, protruding at least three fingers’ breadth on -either side, so that in appearance they are more like -monsters than human beings, they seem to be evil-natured -and malignant. The lands which we have -up to now skirted and touched at not only are barren -and inhabited by savages, but also the sea in these -parts yields no other fish than sharks, sword-fishes, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span>and the like unnatural monsters, while the birds too -are as wild and shy as the men.” Further to the East -he found the people “cunning and suspicious, and no -stratagem on our part availed to draw them near -enough to us to enable us to catch one or two with -nooses which we had prepared for the purpose.” -Suspicion of the unknown is in the nature of savage -people, and when we read that “in order to frighten -them the corporal fired a musket, which hit them -both, so that they died on the spot,” we no longer -wonder that they appeared to Jan Carstensz to be -“evil-natured and malignant.” But times have changed -and the Dutch navigator of to-day is not less humane -than any other.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">MERAUKE</div> - -<p>After coming out of the Marianne Straits we noticed -a change in the appearance of the land; the smoke of -villages appeared at frequent intervals and the shore was -seen to be fringed by a continuous belt of coco-palms -in place of the mangrove to which we had become -accustomed. In a few hours from the Marianne Straits -we came to the mouth of the Merau River and after -steaming up it for about four miles we dropped anchor -opposite the Dutch station of Merauke, where we left -the ship and went ashore.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p222.jpg" width="500" height="338" alt="Various ornaments." /> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">1. <span class="smcap">Arm-band of Fibres, ornamented with Cowry shells.</span></div> -<div class="line">2. <span class="smcap">Part of Waist-band, ornamented with shells and seeds.</span></div> -<div class="line">3. <span class="smcap">Arm-band of Fibre.</span></div> -<div class="line">4. <span class="smcap">Basket of plaited strips of leaves.</span></div> -<div class="line">5. <span class="smcap">Bamboo ornament worn on the neck.</span></div> -<div class="line">6. <span class="smcap">Collar made of Fibre and Cassowary Feathers.</span></div> -<div class="line">7. <span class="smcap">Bamboo tobacco-pipe, used by the Tapiro Pygmies.</span></div> -<div class="line">8. <span class="smcap">Basket of Fibre.</span></div> -<div class="line">9. <span class="smcap">Part of the bill of a Hornbill, worn in the Nose.</span></div> -</div></div></div></div> - -<p>The Dutch people have an inborn preference for low-lying -land on which to place their stations, but not the -most enthusiastic fenman would have voluntarily chosen -Merauke as a place for a settlement. The reason of its -existence is a political one. Formerly the natives of the -district, the Tugeri, a very fierce and warlike people, -used to have the habit of making raids to the Eastward -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span>into British territory, whence they brought slaves and -the heads of their fallen enemies. This became such a -nuisance that the Australian Government addressed protests -to the Dutch about the lawless behaviour of their -subjects, and in 1902 the Dutch made the station of -Merauke, and established there a small garrison of about -one hundred men. The place was chosen partly because -it was in the centre of the district of the Tugeri, and -partly because on that shallow coast the Merau River -alone offered a safe harbour for ships. It is a dreary -enough place on the muddy bank of the river and surrounded -on the other sides by swamps, but the Dutch -have made the best of a bad job, and by laborious ditching -and dyking they have made the place fairly secure -from floods; in spite of all their draining, however, there -are more mosquitoes there than in any other inhabited -place I have ever visited.</p> - -<p>Like other Dutch settlements Merauke is laid out on -a regular and spacious plan, plenty of room being left -between the houses of the officials and the quarter -occupied by the shops of the Chinese, of which there are -about a dozen. There are (or were in 1910) sixteen -Europeans<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> -in the place, all of them in the employment -of the Government except two, the representatives of an -European trading firm. The principal trade of the place -is in copra obtained from the hundreds of thousands -of coco-palms, which line the neighbouring sea-shore. -These palms are the property of the natives, who are too -lazy to take advantage of the wealth that lies (or rather -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>hangs) at their doors, and they do not encourage other -people to come and make use of it.</p> - -<p>There is a small force of native police under a Dutch -officer, and a few convicts are employed in keeping the -station in order. It may not be out of place to remark -here that the nearest Dutch settlement is at Fak-fak on -the S.W. corner of the MacCluer Gulf, seven hundred -miles in a straight line from Merauke. Besides these two -places the only other Dutch garrison is at Manokwari -(Dorei Bay) on the north coast, where there has been a -mission station for more than fifty years. Apart from -civilian and military officials, missionaries and two or -three agents of a commercial firm there are no settlers in -the huge territory of Dutch New Guinea.</p> - -<p>A former Resident of Merauke, who had somewhat -inflated ideas of the future of the country, established -an experimental botanic garden on the only patch of -dry ground near Merauke. Attached to the garden is a -large building containing rooms for three Europeans, -laboratories, a dark room and so on, which (it was -hoped) would attract scientific agriculturists and botanists -from other countries to come and study the local -<i>flora</i>. But no sane person wishes to study the <i>flora</i> of -New Guinea in the middle of a swamp, and already the -scanty soil was showing signs of exhaustion at the roots -of the experimental bananas, and the practically-minded -Resident was considering the removal of the house to -Dobo or elsewhere as a dwelling for himself, when the -contemplated abandonment of Merauke as a “Residency” -should take place.</p> - -<p>Another interesting building at Merauke is the house<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> -of the Mission of the Sacred Heart, an offshoot from the -mission at Toeal. It must, I am afraid, be admitted -that Merauke is not a favourable field for missionary -enterprise, and the most notable achievements of the -good fathers there are the admirable house they have -built, and the herd of cattle which they contrive to keep. -They teach a very small class of the native children, but -nearly all of them relapse again very soon into savagery, -and the adults, who have remained faithful to the mission, -are very few, and they are not the best specimens -of their race.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">BOAT BUILDERS</div> - -<p>Recently the ubiquitous Chinese have discovered that -the sea in the neighbourhood of Merauke is a most -profitable fishing ground, and the results of their labours -are spread abroad to dry in the sun, so that there are -times when the air is almost too strong to be breathed. -The fishery has attracted some men from the Ké Islands, -who are the best boat builders in the Eastern Archipelago, -and I spent many hours watching them at their -work. Their tools consist only of an axe, an adze and -an auger, and no nails or metal are used in the construction -of a boat. The planks are about three inches thick -and are made each from a single tree hewn to the -required shape. Holes are bored at intervals along the -edge of the plank, and into these are fixed pegs of wood -which fit into corresponding holes in the edge of the succeeding -plank. When the shell of the boat is completed, -the ribs, each made from a single piece of bent wood, are -fitted to the inside. The fitting of the planks is so accurate -that the boats require little or no caulking, and they -are ready to take the water as soon as they are built.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">NATIVES OF MERAUKE</div> - -<p>But by far the most interesting feature of Merauke -are the natives of the place, whose independent mien -and conservative customs fill the observer with admiration -if not with approval. It is now nearly ten -years since the Dutch settled at Merauke, but in all -that time, apart from curbing somewhat their head-hunting -propensities, they have made very little impression -on the natives, who still cling (if one may -use somewhat of an Irishism) to their scanty costume -of nothing at all, and refuse absolutely the beads and -cloth and other “trade-goods” of the invading white -man. They stroll about the place in a most lordly -manner, and they like to visit the houses of the -Europeans, where they spend hours disdainfully watching -other people at their work.</p> - -<p>In appearance they differ from the Papuans of -the Mimika in their somewhat paler skin and in -their features, which are markedly of the (so-called) -“Semitic” type with prominent eyes and long, curving, -fleshy nose. They are very fond of personal adornment -and paint their faces with white, red, and yellow colours; -a fashionable but very unsightly decoration is to paint -the eyelids and eyelashes white. Through the <i>septum</i> of -the nose is thrust a long piece of white bone or shell, and -in the <i>alae nasi</i>, which are also pierced, are often worn -the claws of a large eagle which project forwards, and -give the man a most ferocious aspect (see illustration -opposite).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_p226a.jpg" width="300" height="374" alt="A NATIVE OF MERAUKE." /> -<p class="caption">A NATIVE OF MERAUKE.</p> - -<p>(<i>Wearing the claws of an eagle in the nose.</i>)</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p226b.jpg" width="400" height="265" alt="NATIVES OF MERAUKE." /> -<p class="caption">NATIVES OF MERAUKE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Some of the more dandyfied individuals are loaded -with necklaces of shells or teeth of dogs, sharks and -crocodiles, and bands or belts of the same things are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>crossed on the chest. Rings of boars’ tusks and plaited -fibres almost cover the upper arms, and in the ears are -worn bunches of large rings of tortoiseshell and bamboo. -The hair is long and is plaited with a mixture of mud -and grass and feathers into a solid bunch, which hangs -down beyond the level of the shoulders. In some of -these head-dresses I saw plumes of the Greater, the Red -and the King birds of Paradise; it appears that when -once they are made these head-dresses may be added to, -but they can never be undone, and they are accordingly -indescribably dirty. These people are characterised by -a pungent and most disagreeable odour, quite different -from the sickly sweet smell of the sago-eating Mimika -people.</p> - -<p>Another curious custom of the Merauke natives is -their habit of wearing round the waist a belt of pigskin, -which cannot be removed, and is so tight that -it constricts the man to an (apparently) most painful -degree; the women of the tribe do not indulge in this -practice.</p> - -<p>Two days after our arrival the monthly mail-steamer -came bringing our forty-eight new coolies from Macassar, -and on the following day it sailed again, taking Shortridge -on his way back to England. For a week longer -I received the most kind hospitality from the Resident, -Mr. E. Kalff, until we returned to the Mimika. During -that week of waiting our new coolies, who had heard -terrible stories of the Mimika, declared that they would -never go there, and they attacked with knives the -guards who were placed to keep them in order. When -I told them that if they had no liking for the Mimika<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span> -they were perfectly at liberty to go and live near -Merauke, the stories they heard of the habits of the -Tugeri put an immediate end to the strike, and they -came contentedly enough to the Mimika. They were -more fortunate than some of their predecessors, and all -returned to their homes at the end of the expedition.</p> - -<p>The Dutch have a pleasant sentiment with regard to -the customs of their native land, and at Merauke, the -most remote outpost of Holland, the feast of S. Nicholas -was celebrated with due ceremony. All the Europeans -in the place, as well as the Javanese sergeants and clerks -and their children, assembled to meet the Saint, a huge -Dutchman disguised out of all recognition, and all of us, -brown and white alike, received at his hands a present or -a mock flogging according to our deserts.</p> - -<p>After spending ten very agreeable days at Merauke -we sailed on December 18th and going by way of the -Island River, where we landed fresh men for that expedition, -we arrived again at the Mimika on the 22nd -December.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Difficulty of Cross-country Travel—Expedition moves towards the -Mountains—Arrival at the Iwaka River—Changing Scenery—The -Impassable Iwaka—A Plucky Gurkha—Building a Bridge—We -start into the Mountains—Fording Rivers—Flowers—Lack of Water -on Hillside—Curious Vegetation—Our highest Point—A wide -View—Rare Birds—Coal—Uninhabitable Country—Dreary Jungle—Rarely -any Beauty—Remarkable Trees—Occasional Compensations.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> our third and last batch of forty-eight coolies -reached the Mimika towards the end of December, it -was at once evident from their appearance that the -majority of them would not last very long, and as we -had ourselves been already for a year in the country, -it was agreed that we should make a final effort to penetrate -as far as possible towards the mountains, and -that when our means of transport came to an end we -should take our departure from New Guinea.</p> - -<p>We had long realised the impossibility of reaching -the Snow Mountains from our present base. If we -had possessed an efficient steam-launch or motor boat, -the Mimika was still too small a river and too frequently -unnavigable to be useful as a route for water transport. -Another consideration even more important than this -was the fact that had the Mimika been ten times the -size it was, it would still have taken us in a direction -many miles to the West of the mountains we hoped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span> -to reach. The result of these two circumstances was -that we travelled by water with great labour to a -place (Parimau), which was still in low and often -flooded country, and from there we had to travel across -country for many miles before we came to the first -rising ground.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CROSS-COUNTRY JOURNEYS</div> - -<p>It is difficult enough in New Guinea to make a way -up a river valley, but you always have the comforting -reflection that the river itself leads you back to your -base, when stores are exhausted and it is time to return. -But when you attempt to make a cross-country journey, -not only is the trouble of cutting a track much greater -than it is in a river bed, but there is the difficult and -often somewhat dangerous business of crossing the -rivers; added to this is the risk, which increases with -every river you cross, of being cut off for a longer or -shorter period from your base camp and supplies by -a sudden flood in those same rivers. For this reason, -when coolies were sent back from an advanced camp -to the base, they had to be supplied with an extra -allowance of food in the event of their being stopped by -floods on the way; such a proceeding meant diminishing -to some extent the store of food they had carried out -and a consequent waste of labour. It is essential, therefore, -in trying to make a long journey in such a country, -to discover beforehand the river valley which will take -you nearest to your goal and thus avoid the risks of a -long cross-country journey.</p> - -<p>No time was lost in sending a fleet of canoes heavily -laden with stores up the river from Wakatimi, and -early in January the whole expedition was assembled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> -at Parimau with supplies sufficient for three months. -On the 14th January Marshall and Grant with two -Dayak collectors, forty-six coolies, thirty-one Papuans, -and about forty soldiers and convicts, by far the largest -number of men we had ever sent off at one time, set out -for the Wataikwa river. A few of them went on with -the Europeans to the Iwaka, where a track was cut -for two marches up the valley of that river, while the -rest, after leaving their loads at the Wataikwa depôt, -returned to Parimau to fetch more loads of stores. -From the Wataikwa the coolies carried on the stores -to the upper camp on the Iwaka river, a three days’ -march, and at the beginning of February Cramer and -I went up there with the last party. About a hundred -and fifty loads of one kind or another had been carried -up from Parimau in these various excursions, but unhappily -the coolies ate up a good many of the loads -on the way, and still more unhappily many of the -coolies fell sick, so that if we had wished to send back -to Parimau for yet another transport of stores, it would -probably have ended in our having no coolies to carry -them any further.</p> - -<p>The nett result of all this carrying was that when -we arrived with the last loads at the Iwaka depôt we -found that we had only twelve days’ provisions for -our party of three Europeans, two Dayaks and the -twenty-two coolies who survived from the forty-eight -of a month earlier. Cramer had food for about the -same number of days for his party of soldiers and -convicts. Such a meagre supply of provisions as that -obviously made it out of the question for us to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> -penetrate far into the mountains; but you must in -New Guinea, as elsewhere, cut your coat according to -your cloth.</p> - -<p>The Iwaka at the place where we first came to it -is a tremendous torrent flowing in rather a narrow -stony bed. A little way further down it spreads out -into a wider channel like that of the Wataikwa, but it -is much larger than that river and though we searched -down stream for three or four miles, we found no place -where it was possible to cross.</p> - -<p>As we went up the river we very soon found that -the river banks became steeper, and it was soon evident -that we were at last among the hills. There was a -peculiar satisfaction in bending one’s legs to go up -hill after having been for so many months on almost -level ground. The track was not at all easy, for it -appeared that in many places large slices of the hillside -had slipped down, bringing with them a chaos of dead -and living trees over which we had to pick a precarious -way. In some places we crept along the edge of the -torrent, and in others we climbed high up the hillside -to avoid a precipice where the river ran through a -narrow gorge; but it was all a pleasant change from the -monotonous jungle of the plains. There was more -variety in the vegetation too as we went on; creepers -arranged themselves prettily on the rocky river bank, -and Fan-palms, which we had not seen before, grew in -groups in the more level places. There was a tree -growing in many places whose lower branches were -covered at that season with small pink flowers, which -lent a grateful splash of colour to the usually gloomy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>green of the jungle. There was an invigorating air -of mountains in the river as it came thundering over -the huge boulders in its bed, and now and again we -even got a glimpse through the trees of the mountains -themselves, apparently not so very far distant -from us.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p232.jpg" width="400" height="590" alt="LOOKING UP THE MIMIKA RIVER FROM THE CAMP AT PARIMAU." /> -<p class="caption">LOOKING UP THE MIMIKA RIVER FROM THE CAMP AT PARIMAU.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE UNFORDABLE IWAKA</div> - -<p>Two days’ scrambling up the valley brought us -to the rest of the party at the depôt camp, and there we -learnt the very unwelcome news of a discovery, which -seemed likely to put an immediate end to our explorations. -The advanced party had climbed up a spur -to the west of the river and had seen that the Iwaka, -instead of flowing (as we imagined) from the North-east -by an apparently wide valley, actually flowed from -the North through a deep, and in some places precipitous -gorge, which we could not possibly attempt -to traverse with our feeble coolies in the short time -that remained to us.</p> - -<p>If we were to advance at all, it was necessary for -us to go in a North-easterly direction, but there we seemed -to be completely cut off by the torrent of the Iwaka -River. Attempts were made both upstream and downstream -to wade across, but nobody succeeded in doing -it, and no better luck attended those who tried to make -a bridge by felling a tree across the river, the bridge -was at once swept away. As a last expedient a large -reward of money was offered to the first man who -should find a way across the river, and again they all -set out full of hope and armed with axes. The luck -fell to two of the Gurkhas, who cleverly felled a large -tree straight across the river. Had it fallen a few feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span> -to one side or the other it would not have been long -enough to reach the other bank, and if it had bent a little -more in the middle, the water would have snatched it -up like a straw and carried it away in a moment. But -it kept just clear above the water and made a safe -temporary bridge by which they could cross, and before -nightfall a single rope of rattan was securely tied across -the narrowest part of the river.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">A RATTAN BRIDGE</div> - -<p>During the night the river rose and carried away -the tree, and it seemed that with only one strand of -rattan across the river the prospect of our reaching the -other side was not very good. Nobody seemed inclined -to risk the passage, even with the promise of a large -reward, until one of the Gurkhas, Jangbir by name, -said he would go. “There was only one way to go -over—hand over hand, with a rattan round his -waist held by us in case the bridge strand broke, a -very likely thing, for it was extremely flimsy. Again -the rope to hold him had to be very thin, or the -weight would tear him from his hold. He got across -finely, being dragged out straight by the torrent, -until nearly over, when he could make no more -headway. The rope tied to his waist was paid out -fast, but was caught by the current, and then it was -touch and go. Thus he hung for half a minute, -dragged out in a horizontal position. If both rattans -gave, it meant certain death; if he let go, the great -strain would snap the rope round him with a like -result. The rope was pulled in as quickly as possible, -and then the lucky thing occurred. The strain was -too great, and the rope we were pulling on snapped. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>This freed him, and he pulled himself up further and -gained the bank.”<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p234.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt="BRIDGE MADE BY THE EXPEDITION ACROSS THE IWAKA RIVER." /> -<p class="caption">BRIDGE MADE BY THE EXPEDITION ACROSS THE IWAKA RIVER.</p></div> - -<p>When once a man was on the other side, it was -simple to throw over another rattan, and so to pull -over many more which he tied to the trees on his bank. -On our side of the river was a large boulder with a hole -conveniently bored through it, into which stout posts -were jammed Y-fashion, and over them the rattans were -strained and fastened to the trees behind. When more -men were able to cross the river, a similar structure was -erected on the other bank.</p> - -<p>The plan of the bridge was very simple, two hand-rails -made of a number of twisted rattans, and a foot -piece made of a long thin tree, which was secured to the -hand-rails by loops of rattan. The span of the bridge -was about one hundred feet, and there must have been -several hundred yards of rattan used in its construction. -The credit of the idea and of most of the work in making -the bridge is due to the Gurkhas, without whose help -we should never have crossed the Iwaka.</p> - -<p>But all this work had occupied valuable time, and -when the bridge was finished we found that we had -provisions left for only eight days longer. On -February 8th Rawling, Marshall and I, with three -Gurkhas and nineteen coolies, and Cramer with a small -party of convicts, crossed the Iwaka and made a way -Eastwards. After crossing a moderately steep ridge -we came down to a stream of marvellously clear water, -which brought us in a short time to another large river -flowing out of the mountains in a Southerly direction.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span></p> -<p>So many rivers are there in this region that this was -in some places separated by less than two miles from the -Iwaka; it was eventually found that this was a branch -of the Wania, a large river which enters the sea in a -common mouth with the Kamura, of which the Iwaka -is a tributary. It was evident that this river came from -the slopes of Mount Godman (9,500 ft.) a huge mass -immediately to the North of us, and it was our intention -to climb up on to the ridge of that mountain in the -hopes of obtaining a view of the country to the North -of it, and of the Snow Mountains.</p> - -<p>Going up the valley we found ourselves in the midst -of really beautiful scenery. The mountains soon closed -in about us, and the river, though not running through -an actual gorge, was walled by precipices of white limestone -rock, now on one side and now on the other. -This necessitated our frequently crossing the river, a -task by no means easy even when the water is low, as -it happened to be at that time. The best way of crossing -those rapid rivers is not to fight your way upwards -and across the stream, but to go rather with the stream -in a sloping direction towards the other bank, and to -go as quickly as may be. The bottom is made of very -slippery stones, and a false step means disaster, as we -all found at different times, but in that way you cross -with far less exertion than by breasting the stream.</p> - -<p>In this valley, for the first time since we came to -New Guinea, we found several flowering plants; among -the rocks by the river grew clumps of a large pink Balsam, -and on the moss at the foot of the tree trunks was a -beautiful scarlet <i>Begonia</i> with a remarkably hairy leaf.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span></p> - -<p>There was a curious green-flowered aroid with a large -blotched leaf, and growing everywhere over the cliffs -and the tree trunks were Pitcher plants (<i>Nepenthes</i>) of -two species.</p> - -<p>On the second day we camped on a sort of shelf -on the hillside, two or three hundred feet above the -river, and as our progress up the valley had been so -slow, it was certain that we should not be able to reach -the summit ridge before we were obliged to turn back -by lack of food. So it was decided to go straight up the -spur on which we then were in the hope that from the -top we might see a view of the surrounding country. -On the following day we climbed up about two -thousand feet; the hillside was exceedingly steep, and -the men had to haul themselves up by the roots of the -trees above them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">LACK OF WATER</div> - -<p>At our camp on the hillside—there was not a square -yard of level ground—we were troubled for the first time -in New Guinea by a lack of water. No rain had fallen -for two days, and the ground was so steep that all the -water had run off, and it was a long time before the -Gurkhas found a trickle of water in a gully some -distance away, whence a supply was laboriously fetched -to the camp.</p> - -<p>On the fourth day we climbed up about two -thousand feet further, but with a great deal more difficulty. -The trees became smaller as we went up, but -infinitely denser, and for a great part of the way we -scrambled up, not along the ground, but over a -fantastic network of roots and trunks of dead and living -trees, all of them covered with mosses and festooned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> -with a wonderful variety of creepers. In some places -we were clambering over the topmost branches of the -tangle of vegetation, and in others we were burrowing -into mossy caves and grottoes among the roots. It was -a weird and rather uncanny place and, except that it -lacked the beauty of colour that is found there, it -recalled the forest at ten thousand feet in Ruwenzori -more than any other place I have seen.</p> - -<p>At 5,000 feet we found ourselves on the ridge, a -narrow knife-edged spur of Mount Godman, and there -we camped. It was a most unlikely looking spot for a -camp, but the ridge beyond was a great deal worse—it -took the Gurkhas many hours to cut the narrowest -track along it for half a mile—so we had to make the -best of the place that we had reached. A number of -trees were cut down and the irregularities of the ground -were more or less filled up with the branches, and -there we pitched our tents and spread our beds. There -was a small shrub (a species of <i>Erica</i>, I think), which, -when burnt, filled the air with a delicious smell of -incense, strangely out of keeping with our surroundings.</p> - -<p>Though we had been surrounded by dense clouds -since we reached the ridge, it obstinately refused to -rain for the third day in succession, a thing quite unprecedented -in our experience of the country. Happily -the mosses, which clothed everything, were full of -moisture and we had only to squeeze them like sponges -to get water in plenty; the coolies of course complained -of the dirty colour of their rice when it was cooked in -mossy water, but we found that it gave to ours an unfamiliar -and not unpleasant taste.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p238a.jpg" width="400" height="307" alt="LOOKING WESTWARDS FROM ABOVE THE IWAKA RIVER." /> -<p class="caption">LOOKING WESTWARDS FROM ABOVE THE IWAKA RIVER.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p238b.jpg" width="400" height="304" alt="THE COCKSCOMB MOUNTAIN (10,050 FT.) SEEN FROM MOUNT GODMAN." /> -<p class="caption">THE COCKSCOMB MOUNTAIN (10,050 FT.) SEEN FROM MOUNT GODMAN.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">A WIDE VIEW</div> - -<p>The greater part of the next day was spent in cutting -a way along the ridge to a point (5800 ft.) from which -it was hoped that a view of the country might be seen. -Long before the track was cut the clouds were down -upon us, and no view could be seen, so we decided to -stay for another day, although we had only one day’s -food remaining. But the view that we saw on the -following day was more than compensation for our -rather scanty fare.</p> - -<p>Due North of us, and rising from the spur on which -we stood, was the great mass of Mount Godman, and -to the West of that the even more imposing peak of -Wataikwa Mountain (9923 ft.). Between the two -could be seen a part of the tremendous cliffs of Mount -Leonard Darwin (13,882), the southern face of which -appears to show an almost vertical precipice of upwards -of ten thousand feet. To the West ridge beyond ridge -of forest-covered heights stretched away to the ranges -of the Charles Louis Mountains in the far distance. -To the East rose the beautiful three-topped mountain -called the Cock’s Comb (10,050 ft.), behind and to the -North of which heavy banks of clouds showed where -the snows of Mount Carstensz lay hidden. Five thousand -feet below us the mountains ended almost abruptly, -and the southern half of the circuit of our view was -occupied by the hideous plain of dull green jungle to a -hazy line of the sea forty miles away. Here and there -the sunlight caught the waters of innumerable rivers, -and we could distinctly see those that we had crossed, -the Tuaba, Kamura, Wataikwa, and the Iwaka. Further -to the East was a still bigger river, the Wania, which we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span> -could trace down to its lagoon-like estuary, and beyond -it was the Aiika, and a very distant river, possibly the -Newerip.</p> - -<p>Nobody who has not spent a year and more in a -dreary jungle country, where you are seldom more -than a yard or two from the nearest tree, and where the -limit of your view is the opposite bank of a stagnant -river, can realise the rest, to the mind and to the eye -alike, that a wide horizon gives. Although there were -points of interest to be seen by the cartographical eye, -there was nothing, excepting the outlines of some of -the nearer mountains, of beauty in that view; there -were no striking features of the land and no gorgeous -effects of colour, but one will always treasure a recollection -of the physical delight of seeing far and wide -to the horizon, and of the feeling of satisfaction in looking -down godlike on the world that we had so painfully -traversed.</p> - -<p>But views, like all other good things, have their -ends, and ours was all too soon interrupted by the daily -thick blanket of white cloud, which rolled up and enveloped -us until nightfall. We groped our way back -to the camp where we found our coolies very miserable -and shivering with cold—poor wretches, they had -never before endured, nor even imagined, a temperature -so low as 50° F. To us the coolness was very pleasant, -and it provoked a hunger to which we had long been -strangers; very small quantities of boiled rice, and -<i>chupatties</i> made by the Gurkhas of mildewed and -weevilly flour, only served to stimulate our appetites -for more.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">RARE BIRDS</div> - -<p>On the following day we retreated hastily downhill -by the way we had come, and by forced marches, -perhaps a little accelerated by our lack of food, in two -days we arrived at the Iwaka camp. In the meantime -Grant had been camped with the two Dayak collectors -on a hill about three thousand feet high above the Iwaka, -where they had made a very fine collection of birds. -Among them was a new dwarf species of Cassowary -(<i>Casuarius claudi</i>) and specimens of the rare Six-plumed -Bird of Paradise (<i>Parotia meeki</i>). Another -bird very characteristic of the Iwaka and neighbouring -valleys is the Moustached Swift (<i>Macropteryx mystacea</i>), -which measures more than two feet across the wings, -and is remarkable for its long pointed tail and its -tapering white moustache. This bird seldom appears -until late in the afternoon, when it is seen sailing -majestically with outstretched wings at a height over -the river.</p> - -<p>Near the Iwaka on a hillside laid bare by a landslip -we found two seams of coal a few inches in thickness; -it was poor stuff and only burnt with difficulty -when put into a fire. Mr. Lorentz found combustible -coal in the hills near Mount Wilhelmina, and it is -probable that a careful search would reveal the existence -of better coal in this region too. Near the same place, -as well as in one or two other localities, we found indications -of petroleum, but all our searches for gold and -other precious metals resulted in nothing except -occasional traces of copper.</p> - -<p>During the following days, while we were stumbling -back to Parimau along the now familiar track, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> -wondered whether we should be the last as well as being -the first Europeans to penetrate into that forsaken -region. It has been mapped now, and our wanderings -have shown that it is not the way by which any sane -person would go who wished to explore the Snow Mountains. -It is a region absolutely without inhabitants, -and the Papuans, who live on the upper waters of the -Mimika and Kamura rivers, shun it even as a hunting -ground. There are no precious metals or other products -of the soil to be won, and not until all the other -forests in the world are cut down will its timber be of -value. So it may safely be supposed that it will long -be left untouched; the Birds of Paradise will call by -day, the cassowaries will boom by night, and the leeches -will stretch themselves anxiously on their leaves, but it -will be a long time before another white man comes to -disturb them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE DREARY JUNGLE</div> - -<p>Many people have the idea that a tropical forest is -full of gorgeous flowers, about which brilliant butterflies -are constantly flitting and birds of splendid plumage -flash from tree to tree. This idea is no doubt due in a -great measure to the habit of gathering together in hothouses -the flowering plants of all the Tropics, though -they may have come from Central America, from Africa -and from Borneo or Java. It is true that there are -many splendid birds, but the vegetation is so dense -that you seldom, if ever, see them; the brilliant butterflies -are mostly out of sight near the topmost branches -of the trees; and you may travel for days together -without seeing a single flowering plant. Many of the -trees are covered with orchids on all their branches, but -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span>they very seldom flower, and the flowers of most of them -are so insignificant that they do not attract your -attention.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p242.jpg" width="400" height="642" alt="THE SUPPORTS OF A PANDANUS (30 FEET HIGH)." /> -<p class="caption">THE SUPPORTS OF A PANDANUS (30 FEET HIGH).</p></div> - -<p>Occasionally you may see high above your head -the white flower of a <i>Dendrobium</i> or the long spike of -the gigantic <i>Grammatophyllum</i>, but I have only once -(in a small island on the North coast of New Guinea) -seen such a mass of flowering orchids as to make a splash -of colour in the view. In the Tropics there is nothing -comparable in colour with the blue hyacinths, the fields -of buttercups, or the gorse and hawthorns of this -country.</p> - -<p>But if there is little that is beautiful in the jungle -vegetation, there is a great deal that is curious and -interesting. The ubiquitous Rattans, climbing Palms, -are a constant source of wonder for their snake-like -meanderings through the jungle until they climb to -the top of some tree where they end in a bunch of leaves. -We found three species of Screw Pines (<i>Pandanus</i>), -fantastic trees on stilts, and branching like irregular -candelabra. The wood of the <i>Pandanus</i> is very tough, -and is used by the natives for making bows and spears; -the long ribbon-like leaves are used for mats and the -walls of their huts, and the fruits of some are eatable, -but exceedingly hard. One species bears a cluster of -small red fruit about the size of a banana; and another -bears a huge melon-shaped fruit of a brilliant scarlet -colour and weighing as much as thirty pounds and -upwards.</p> - -<p>Equally remarkable are the trees which stand -propped on a number of aerial roots and seem, as Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> -Wallace noted,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> to have started growing in mid air; -where several of these trees grow together, it is difficult -to say where one ends and another begins. Too rarely -you come across a magnificent forest tree (usually, I -believe, a species of <i>Dammara</i>) supported on huge -buttresses, which begin twenty or more feet above the -ground and spread out for many yards from the foot -of the tree. We had occasion to cut down some of -these trees, and found the wood intensely hard; if there -were seven or eight buttresses a single one would still -hold up the tree after all the rest had been cut. When -the tree had been felled, the stump looked like a great -starfish sprawling over the ground with a centre not -more than a foot across, while the trunk a few feet -up had been a yard or more in thickness.</p> - -<p>It has happened to me to walk through many -hundreds of miles of forest in different parts of the -world, but I have never seen any so dreary as that -New Guinea jungle with its mud, its leeches, its almost -unbroken stillness, and its universal air of death. -Happily the mind of man is of a curiously selective -habit, and it chooses to retain only the more pleasant -things; you forget the long wet weeks of rain and mud, -the hunger and the nasty food, and remember rather -those glorious moments when you came out of the -twilit jungle into an open river bed and saw the distant -mountains, or those rare sunny afternoons when the -“implacable cicala” creaked in the treetops above -your tent.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FUTURE TRAVELLERS</div> - -<p>There are indeed a thousand things to interest one -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span>in the jungle, however blank and monotonous it may -seem to be. The trouble is that so much of your attention -in these places must be devoted to the trivial duties -of the day, the eternal question of food, the care of -the sick, the precautions against floods, and so on, that -but little time is left over for studying the hidden wonders -of the world about you. The geographers and the -naturalists of the future will live in comfortable ships -on the coast, whence they will fly daily into the heart -of New Guinea where they will find things undreamt -of now. But the time for that is not yet, and in the -meantime those who plod on foot do the best they can.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Departure from Parimau—Parting Gifts—Mock Lamentation—Rawling -explores Kamura River—Start for the Wania—Lose the Propeller—A -Perilous Anchorage—Unpleasant Night—Leave the Motor Boat—Village -of Nimé—Arrival of “Zwaan” with Dayaks—Their -Departure—Waiting for the Ship—Taking Leave of the People of -Wakatimi—Sail from New Guinea—Ké Islands—Banda—Hospitality -of the Netherlands Government—Lieutenant Cramer—Sumbawa—Bali—Return -to Singapore and England—One or Two -Reflexions.</i></p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">After</span> our return to Parimau in February, Rawling and -Grant went down to Wakatimi, while Marshall and I -spent a week in visiting the village of the Tapiro in -a last but vain attempt to see the pygmy women. The -first few days of March were occupied in packing up -the accumulated odds and ends of our year’s occupation -and on the 9th of March we were ready to depart. -We had told the natives that we were going away and -for days before we went they pestered us with questions -as to whether we were coming back and what we would -give them when we went, and they quickly decided -which of our houses they intended to occupy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p246.jpg" width="400" height="633" alt="BUTTRESSED TREES." /> -<p class="caption">BUTTRESSED TREES.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">PARTING WITH THE NATIVES</div> - -<p>On the morning of our departure from Parimau -we allowed no natives to come into the camp until all -the canoes were loaded up and ready for a start. -Then we called out to them to come over and about -forty men and boys splashed across the river and came -swarming into the camp. We had kept for them a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span>number of axe-heads, knives and other pieces of steel -and iron, and when the people saw what they were -going to be given they became a crowd of madmen. -I distributed the things, while Marshall stood by with -a big piece of wood and kept them from rushing into the -place and seizing everything at once. They shouted -and raved and screamed and grew almost pale with -excitement, and the various expressions of greed and -cunning and anger and delight in their faces were most -interesting to watch.</p> - -<p>After we had given them their presents we walked -towards the canoes, and then they began to set up their -horrible wail. A few of them picked up pieces of cloth -and matting, through the middle of which they thrust -their heads and then began to howl with their hands -over their eyes. I took a last look round the houses -to see that nothing of value had been left behind and on -going to the store-house I met a man, one of our best -friends, coming out of it with a tin of rice under his -arm. He immediately put down the tin, tore off from -a climbing bean that grew by the house a trail of -leaves a yard or two long, and wound them about his -head and body. Then he burst into tears and the -most heartrending sobs, which changed in a moment, -when he caught my eye, into a shout of laughter.</p> - -<p>When we finally got into the canoes all the men -came down to the water’s edge and wailed, while some -of them sat down in the water and smeared themselves -with mud. In the meantime we could see their -women going off into the jungle carrying tins full of -their possessions to hide there, and it is probable that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span> -after we left there was a good deal of quarrelling and -fighting over the spoil. The wailing is a purely perfunctory -politeness, but I think there were a few men -who were genuinely sorry to lose us. On the following -day a strong ebb-tide bore us quickly down to Wakatimi -and our navigations of the upper Mimika river -were at an end.</p> - -<p>In the meantime Rawling had made an interesting -exploration of the coast and of the river mouths to the -East of the Mimika. The motor boat, which had been -badly damaged some months earlier, had been repaired -by two Dutch pioneer soldiers and was more or less -sea-worthy. In a four days’ trip he had entered the -Atuka river, or rather the Atuka mouth of the Kamura -river, a few miles up which he came to Atuka, a -large village of about six hundred huts surrounded -by coconut palms and tobacco plantations. Proceeding -up the river into the main Kamura river he went -on almost to the junction with the Wataikwa river, -thus filling in a large gap of unknown river. On his -way back he chose the left (East) branch and after -passing the village of Kamura, where the inhabitants -showed an inclination to plunder the boat, he came -to the lake-like estuary of the Kamura and Wania -rivers and entered the sea by a deep channel. It is -worth noting that the inhabitants of Atuka and Kamura -villages, many of whom visited us two or three -times at Wakatimi, are of a decidedly lower type (in -appearance) than the people of the Mimika district, -though the distance that separates them is only a few -miles. They have a fiercer and more brutal aspect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span> -and many of them, both men and women go completely -naked, a habit which is never practised by the people -of Wakatimi. Scarcity of petrol and an irregularly -sparking plug brought that excursion to an untimely -end, before the lower waters of the Wania had been -investigated.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">EXCURSION TO THE WANIA</div> - -<p>From our hill-top (see p. 239) the Wania was -evidently by far the most considerable of all the rivers -of the district, and apart from our desire to see the -people of the Wania, of whom the Mimika natives -always spoke with great respect, we felt bound to -explore that river as far as possible. Accordingly on -March 14, Rawling, Marshall and I, with a Dutch -pioneer, two Gurkhas and three coolies, set off in the -motor boat towing the yawl, a ship’s boat about -twenty feet long, laden with tents and provisions for -a week. In a few hours we arrived at the mouth of -the Wania river and found that owing to the low tide -there was no way of crossing the sand-bar that lay -across the entrance. This circumstance was the more -remarkable, because only a few days earlier Rawling -had come through this bar by a very deep channel. -The frequent changes in the banks make the navigation -of this coast and particularly of the river mouths -exceedingly difficult.</p> - -<p>On this occasion the sea was already rather rough, -so that we could not anchor and wait until the tide -rose, and as the wind was increasing in force there -was nothing for it but to turn back and try to take -shelter in one of the rivers between the Wania and the -Mimika, if not in the Mimika itself. All went well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span> -for a few miles and then, as happened frequently, the -leather band jumped off the driving wheel and the -engine was stopped. When it was replaced and the -engine was started again, there was no churning of -water in the stern and we realized with some consternation -that we had lost our propeller. We were about -twelve miles from the mouth of the Mimika, in a -shallow sea of less than three fathoms, with a strong -wind blowing towards the shore where the waves began -to break within a few hundred yards of us, and we -were ten men with a heavy motor boat and a heavily-laden -yawl to get along somehow. We put four men -into the yawl to row and they tried to tow, but the -current was so strong against them that they made -no headway at all, so we had to anchor where we were -and hoped for better things. We pitched and rolled -and bumped about most horribly and soon most of the -party were deadly sea-sick, perhaps luckily for them, -because in that condition one cares nothing for the -prospect of shipwreck.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_p250.jpg" width="400" height="597" alt="SCREW PINES." /> -<p class="caption">SCREW PINES (<i>Pandanus</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">AN UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCE</div> - -<p>Our anchor rope was short and none too strong, -and the rope between us and the yawl was thoroughly -rotten—it had snapped once earlier in the day—and -we expected that every sudden jerk of the lumpy sea -would break it again. Had that happened, there -might have been a nasty accident, as the men were -too sick to row, even if they had known the art, and -their chances of swimming ashore through a sea swarming -with sharks were not very bright. Our own predicament -in the helpless motor boat would have been unpleasant -too, if the yawl had gone adrift, but happily the ropes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span>held. Another drawback was that the motor boat -leaked like a sieve, so that a man was kept constantly -at work baling her out, and we did not know that the -strain might not open her old timbers even more. -There was a glorious full moon which one would have -enjoyed seeing from the smooth deck of a steamer, -but there we could only think how uncomfortable it -was lying (without having had dinner) on boxes and -tins and gear of all sorts huddled in the bottom of the -boat.</p> - -<p>The wind continued all through the night and the -sea did not moderate, so at daylight, after having been -for sixteen hours at anchor, we decided to leave the -motor boat hoping that it would not be swamped before -we were able to come back and fetch it. We all got -into the yawl, which we pulled through quite a nasty -sea for about three miles to a sand-bank in the estuary -of the Timura river, where we camped until the rising -tide enabled us to reach the mainland about midnight. -On the following day, the sea having become calmer, -we rescued the motor boat, which was by that time -half full of water, and towed it slowly to the Timura.</p> - -<p>But it was a most arduous business and without the -help of a party of natives, who fortunately came along -the coast in canoes and were prevailed upon to assist -us in paddling, we should never have been able to -bring back both of the boats. The arrival of the motor -boat at the Mimika on the fifth day, propelled by native -paddles instead of by its own power, was not a very -dignified affair—it resembled rather the formerly familiar -sight of the motor-car in tow of a horse from the plough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> -—but it was a piece of good fortune that it and we -returned at all.</p> - -<p>We stopped for a night on the way at Nimé, a village -at the mouth of the Keaukwa River. This is a very -large village—I counted four hundred and thirty huts—but -there were hardly a dozen people in the place, -the whole population having gone off on one of their -periodical migrations to a vegetable diet up the river. -It was evident from the immense piles of fishbones and -empty shells about the houses that the inhabitants must -live largely by fishing, when they are there. The houses -are better made than those at Wakatimi, and they are -arranged in terraces and crescents along the water’s -edge. It was there that we saw the elaborate dancing-houses -described above (p. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>).</p> - -<p>Just as we paddled laboriously into the Mimika -estuary we saw far down on the horizon the smoke of -a steamer, and in an hour or two a white painted vessel, -which turned out to be the Dutch Government ship -<i>Zwaan</i>, drew inshore and anchored outside the bar. -We naturally supposed that this was a ship that had -come to take away the expedition, as we had informed -the Government some months earlier that we hoped to -be ready to leave the country by the end of March. -But that communication had taken a long time, as -everything does in those regions, in reaching its destination, -and the <i>Zwaan</i> had come, not to take away -the expedition, but to bring the means of prolonging -the expedition still further.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p252.jpg" width="500" height="362" alt="AT SUMBAWA PESAR." /> -<p class="caption">AT SUMBAWA PESAR.</p></div> - -<div class="sidenote">LATE ARRIVAL OF DAYAKS</div> - -<p>It appeared that in the previous December the Committee -of the Expedition at home, hearing of our -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span>scarcity of coolies some months earlier, had decided -that a further supply of coolies should be sent to us -without delay. Though cables work quickly enough -between London and Singapore, communications beyond -that are matters of days and weeks, and it was not until -the 18th of March that the party of Dayak coolies, -who had been engaged in Sarawak by the kind permission -of H.H. the Raja, arrived at the Mimika. They -were in the charge of Mr. C. B. Kloss, Curator of the -Government Museum at Kuala Lumpor, who had -brought with him six months’ provision for himself and -the men. Almost at the same time that the Committee -in England had taken this step, we in New Guinea -had decided that three months more was as long as -we were prepared to stay in the country, and a request -had been sent to the Dutch Government to take us -away at the end of that time.</p> - -<p>When the <i>Zwaan</i> arrived we were all ready to -depart, and Cramer’s party, numbering more than a -hundred men, were chafing with impatience to get -away; it would have been impossible for the Government -to keep them there yet another six months. Even -if there had been a possibility of our staying on in the -country, the number of Dayaks, thirty-eight, was -quite insufficient for a long journey into the interior -and the prospect of reaching the moderately high -ground of Tapiro Mountain, the best that could be -hoped for, was not sufficient inducement to tempt any -one to paddle again up the Mimika river. Added to -this was the further consideration that in a week or -two the more rainy season would begin and that for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> -five or six months very little progress would be possible -even with an unlimited supply of the best coolies.</p> - -<p>So there was nothing for it but for Mr. Kloss and -the Dayaks to go back in the <i>Zwaan</i>, which sailed for -Amboina on the following day, taking also Marshall, -as many sick and useless coolies and soldiers as could -be crammed on board, and an urgent request to the -authorities to remove us as soon as might be. The -Dayak episode was altogether an unfortunate one; -had the men reached us six months earlier, we should -have made a very good use of them, few though they -were; but coming as they did when we were on the -point of leaving the country they merely illustrated -the uselessness of attempting to conduct an expedition -from the other side of the world.</p> - -<p>During the next three weeks we waited for the -ship with what patience we could. By that time we -were all somewhat stale and disinclined for any exertion, -and those days of waiting at Wakatimi seemed -interminably long. The only pleasant moments were -when on fine evenings we could sit outside and watch -the sun go down behind the palm trees across the -river and hope each time that that would be the last. -There were times when for two or three days a strong -wind blew and we could hear the surf thundering on -the beach, and we knew that even if the ship came it -could not approach the shore. Then there were false -alarms of whistles having been heard, or of boats seen -coming up the river, but our suspense at last came to -an end on April 5th, when a steam-launch towing a -string of empty boats came puffing up to the camp,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span> -where they were received with immense enthusiasm. -They came from the Dutch gunboat <i>Mataram</i>, which had -been despatched to take away the native escort, and -the next day came boats from the <i>Zwaan</i>, which had -come to transport us and our men and the remaining -stores of the expedition to Amboina. There followed -two days of busy loading and coming and going of boats, -during which our impatience to be off was a little -allayed by the forethought of one of the officers of -the <i>Mataram</i>, who stayed ashore with us and had brought -with him that rare luxury, bread, and one or two -other welcome delicacies.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">DEPARTURE FROM WAKATIMI</div> - -<p>Before sunset on April 7th the last boat was loaded -and ready to go, and we had an amusing leave-taking -with the people of Wakatimi. It was known that -we were going to depart and for some days people from -other villages had been crowding into Wakatimi. A -large number of men were waiting outside the fence -of the camp, but when we invited them to come inside -they became unaccountably shy and would not venture. -So I went outside and took one bolder fellow, a man -whom we knew well, and led him by the arm to a hut, -where there were a quantity of old mosquito nets; he -seized one and bolted as fast as he could run, apparently -thinking that there was something suspicious in this -unwonted generosity. Then a few more came very -warily after him and then fifty or sixty men dashed -into the house and out again as soon as they had -snatched up something, it mattered not what. Most of -them were armed with spears or bows and arrows, and -as there were men fighting to get into and out of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> -house at the same time it was wonderful that nobody -was damaged.</p> - -<p>When the people in Wakatimi saw what was going -on in the camp they began to yell with excitement, -and in a few seconds twenty or more canoes packed -with men came paddling madly across the river; they -were so excited that some of them upset the canoes, a -thing they very seldom do, and they had to swim to -the shore. For ten minutes or so the camp was a -pandemonium. About two hundred raving lunatics were -dashing madly from one house to another and carrying -off boxes, sacks, mosquito nets, cases of empty bottles, -bits of iron, tables, beds, mats and everything they -could possibly move. They howled and raved and -fought like wild beasts in a manner horrible to see.</p> - -<p>Several women came over and danced and sang in -a canoe just in front of the camp, while the crowd of -people who had not been able to find a place in the -canoes shrieked from the opposite bank. When they -could carry no more, they loaded their canoes to the -brim with miscellaneous cargoes and went back across -the river to the village. There they at once began -to squabble over the spoils, and the last we heard of -Wakatimi, as darkness came down, were the shrill -shrieks of quarrelsome women and the angry shouts -of men.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE LAST OF NEW GUINEA</div> - -<p>New Guinea treated us kindly in farewell, and we -steamed down the river in a glorious starlight, the -kind of night which many people think is usual in the -tropics, but is in fact most lamentably rare. We left -Cramer on board the <i>Mataram</i> and went on to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> -<i>Zwaan</i>, where we soon were lulled to sleep by the -pleasant music of the screw. Early the next morning -a dull cloud on the northern horizon was our last view -of New Guinea, and before night we had reached civilisation -again in the anchorage of Dobo.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/i_p256.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="NEAR BULELING. ISLAND OF BALI." /> -<p class="caption">NEAR BULELING. ISLAND OF BALI.</p></div> - -<p>Two days later we came to the Ké Islands and went -ashore to visit the Catholic Mission at Toeal. There is -nothing of great interest to see there except the magnificent -“iron wood” timber, which is cut in the forests -of the larger island, and is used for boat-building; it -is obtained in larger pieces than teak, and it is said to be -equally good. The fathers occupy themselves with -carpentry and boat-building and with teaching a class -of small children. The few people whom we saw -appeared to be of a mixed Malay-Papuan race and were -dressed in unspeakably dirty clothes.</p> - -<p>From Toeal we went on to Banda, where we spent -a day of pouring rain, a great pity, for a walk through -the nutmeg woods of Banda is one of the pleasantest -excursions in the islands, and a day later we dropped -anchor in the harbour of Amboina.</p> - -<p>It will be fitting to remark here that on the -outward journey from Java to New Guinea and on our -return from the Mimika to Amboina, the members of -the expedition were the guests of the Netherlands -Government. The thanks of the Secretary of State -for Foreign Affairs have been conveyed to the captains -of the ships and to the other officials, who helped the -expedition in a hundred different ways.</p> - -<p>At Amboina, where we waited a few days for the -arrival of a steamer to Singapore, we parted with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> -Cramer, who was prevented by a sharp attack of fever -from coming with us. He was the one other man, -beside Rawling, Marshall and myself, who remained -with the expedition from the beginning to the end, -and it is not paying him an empty compliment to -say that few other people would have managed more -successfully than he did to live with a party of foreigners -in circumstances, which were often exceedingly difficult.</p> - -<p>We sailed from Amboina on April 17th in the mail -steamer <i>Van Riebeeck</i>, and amongst our fellow-passengers -we found Captain Van der Bie and Lieut. Van der -Wenn (Netherlands Navy), both of whom were returning -to Java invalided from the expedition to the -Island River in New Guinea. The expedition had -penetrated a long way into the interior of the country, -but all the Europeans fell ill and the expedition was -withdrawn a few months later.</p> - -<p>After calling at Macassar we went South past the -Postilion Islands to the little known island of Sumbawa, -where we went ashore for a few hours at Sumbawa -Pesar. It looked a pretty country with well-wooded -hills and level cultivated plains. We were much struck -by the appearance of the natives, who have a longer -type of face and a much fairer skin than any other of -the Malay races I have seen. The men all go armed -with a <i>kris</i>, and they smoke cigars of an incredible -length.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ISLAND OF BALI</div> - -<p>From Sumbawa we steamed along the Northern -shore of Lombok, from whose Peak (12,000 feet), the -clouds rolled off magnificently at sunset, and early -the next morning we came into the harbour of Buleling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span> -in the island of Bali. There we took a native carriage -(<i>sado</i>), and drove a few miles out into the country to -see a very interesting Hindu temple, where there are -some remarkable good stone carvings, which shew -signs of being carefully tended. The Hindu religion -still survives, though it cannot be said to flourish, both -in this island and in Lombok. The native villages -that we saw have quite characteristic features of their -own; they are surrounded by a high mud wall with -a brick coping and are guarded by a swarm of fiercely -barking dogs. Inside the wall, if you are bold enough -to enter, you find a neatly swept compound, round the -sides of which are well-made dwelling-houses, and in -the middle are granaries of rice; both the houses and -the granaries are raised on posts several feet above -the ground and all are neatly thatched with rice straw. -In the corner of the compound is a place set apart for -a number of little stone shrines, some of them very -elaborately carved, in which votive offerings of flowers -and fruit are placed.</p> - -<p>The Balinese seem to be a sturdy and industrious -people; they have a free and independent appearance, -very different from that of their somewhat grovelling -neighbours, the Javanese. The roads are picturesquely -lined with shady trees, and a very pleasant feature of -them is the number of little mouse-coloured ponies, -which carry panniers on a high-peaked saddle and are -the coolies of Bali; most of them have an elaborate -leather harness and many carry a large number of -little bells, which make a pretty music along the roads. -They appear to be hungry little animals, and they have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span> -the rare and valuable faculty of being able to eat out of -a basket tied round their necks as they walk along. -The country, what little we saw of it, looks extremely -prosperous, and the beauty of the cultivated lands, -interrupted here and there by groves of trees and -backed by mountains, is beyond dispute.</p> - -<p>From Bali to Java is only a few hours’ steaming, -and from Batavia another ship brought us to Singapore, -where we arrived on May 2nd. A month later we -landed in England and the English Expedition to -Dutch New Guinea, 1910-11, was a thing of the past.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE END</div> - -<p>It is not easy to put down in words what were our -thoughts on our homeward journey from the Mimika -River to Plymouth Sound. Naturally enough there -were feelings of pleasant anticipation in returning to -the comforts of civilised life, and there were feelings -of profound thankfulness that we had left behind us -neither our bones nor our health, as too many others -less fortunate had done. There was also a sense of -(I think pardonable) satisfaction at having accomplished -something; the surveyors had made an accurate map -of a large tract of quite unknown country; the -naturalists had made valuable collections of birds and -animals, and some most interesting races of men had -been visited and studied.</p> - -<p>But beneath these was another feeling of vague -disappointment. We had set out full of hope, if not -of confidence, of reaching the Snow Mountains, and -the disappointment of not having set foot on them -was aggravated by the fact that we had been so long -in sight of them. It was exasperating beyond words<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span> -to see the mountains month after month only forty -miles away and not to be able to move a foot in their -direction; to study them so that we came to know -the changing patches of lower snow and almost the -very crevasses in the glaciers, and still to be forced -to be content with looking and longing for “the hills -and the snow upon the hills.”</p> - -<p>To look for fifteen months at that great rock precipice, -and those long fields of snow untrodden yet by -foot of man, to anticipate the delight of attaining to -the summits and to wonder what would be seen beyond -them on the other side, those were pleasures that kept -one’s hopes alive through long periods of dull inaction. -The aching disappointment of turning back and leaving -the mountains as remote and as mysterious as they -were before words of mine cannot express; but happily -there is always comfort to be found in the reflexion -that</p> - -<p class="center f09">“Some falls are means the happier to arise.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">262/263</a></span></p> - -<h2>APPENDIX A</h2> - -<p class="center">NOTES ON THE BIRDS COLLECTED; BY THE B.O.U. -EXPEDITION TO DUTCH NEW GUINEA</p> - -<p class="center f09"><span class="smcap">By W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT</span></p> - -<p>Our knowledge of the Birds of New Guinea is based -mainly on Count T. Salvadori’s monumental work <i>Ornitologia -della Papuasia e delle Molluche</i>, which appeared -in three large volumes in 1880-82, and on his <i>Aggiunte</i> -to the above work published in three parts in 1887-89. -Since that date our knowledge of the avi-fauna has -vastly increased and a very large number of splendid -Birds-of-Paradise and other remarkable new species have -been discovered.</p> - -<p>A list of the principal works subsequently published, -placed in chronological order, will be found at the end of -this chapter, the most important papers being no doubt -those by the Hon. Walter Rothschild and Dr. E. Hartert, -which have appeared from time to time in the Tring -Museum periodical <i>Novitates Zoologicæ</i>. Mr. Rothschild -is to be congratulated on the success which has -attended the efforts of his various collectors in New -Guinea and on the energy which he has displayed in -obtaining birds from unknown districts of the most -interesting island in the world.</p> - -<p>To give in a single chapter a brief and partly scientific, -partly popular, summary of the ornithological work -accomplished by our Expedition in Dutch New Guinea is -a more difficult task than might be imagined, for there -is not only an immense number of species to be dealt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span> -with, but in most instances very little is known about -their habits. The jungles of South-western New Guinea -are so dense that white men can scarcely traverse them, -and most of the collecting had to be done by the trained -natives from the Malay Peninsula, kindly supplied by -Mr. H. C. Robinson, and by the Gurkhas who accompanied -the Expedition.</p> - -<p>By dealing with each family in turn, I shall endeavour -to refer to all the more important species in the collection -in their proper scientific order, briefly describing -some of the more beautiful, so that those without any -special knowledge of birds may, if they care to do so, -form some idea of the marvellous types which have -been brought home from the interior of South-western -New Guinea.</p> - -<p>It is certain that the resources of that wonderful -island are not nearly exhausted: on the contrary, every -fresh collecting expedition sent to the interior produces -remarkable novelties, and large chains of high mountains -are still unexplored. The members of our Expedition -were fortunate in procuring no less than 2,200 skins of -birds in New Guinea, representing about 235 species, of -which ten proved to be new to Science. A number -of new birds were also obtained by the late Mr. Wilfred -Stalker in the mountains of Ceram, which he visited -before joining the main Expedition at Amboina. His -premature death by drowning, a few days after he landed -in New Guinea, was an immense loss to the Expedition, -though his place was ably filled by Mr. Claude Grant, -who worked with his characteristic zeal and enthusiasm.</p> - -<p>It will be noticed that the great bulk of the birds -inhabiting New Guinea belong to a comparatively small -number of families, but that each of these is represented -by a large number of different species, especially in such -groups as the Pigeons, Parrots, Flycatchers, and Honey-eaters.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span></p> - -<p>Amongst the Pigeons of which no fewer than twenty-seven -different kinds were obtained, it would seem as -though, in some instances at least, Nature had almost -come to the end of her resources in devising new and -wonderful arrangements of colour and markings; for in -some of the smaller Fruit-Pigeons, such as <i>Ptilopus -gestroi</i> and <i>P. zonurus</i> we find two perfectly distinct -species, occurring side by side, possessing almost exactly -the same remarkable scheme of colouration, and only -differing in certain minor points to be found in the -markings of the wing-coverts. Another very similar -instance is to be seen in <i>Ptilopus coronulatus</i> and <i>P. nanus</i> -almost the same colours and pattern being repeated in -both.</p> - -<p>The collection obtained by our expedition is a very -valuable one, and has added many new and interesting -forms of bird-life to the incomparable series in the -Natural History Museum, to which the bulk of the -specimens have been presented by the subscribers. A -large proportion of the birds were obtained at low elevations -from sea-level to 2,000 feet, only a comparatively -small number being procured at from 3000-4000 feet. -It is to be regretted that the immense physical difficulties -encountered and other causes prevented our collectors from -reaching a higher zone between 5000 and -10,000 feet, where no doubt much of interest remains to -be discovered by those who are fortunate enough to get -there.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span></p> - -<h3>TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SPECIES COLLECTED -AND THE FAMILIES TO WHICH THEY BELONG</h3> - -<table class="table" summary="NUMBER OF SPECIES" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl"> Family.</td><td class="tdr" colspan="3">No. of<br />species.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Corvidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Crows</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Paradiseidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Birds-of-Paradise, Bower-Birds and Manucodes</td><td class="tdr">13</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Eulabetidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tree-Starlings</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Dicruridæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Drongos</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Oriolidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Orioles</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Ploceidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Weaver-Finches</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Motacillidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wagtails</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Meliphagidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Honey-eaters</td><td class="tdr">26</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Nectariniidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sun-birds</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Dicæidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flower-peckers</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Zosteropidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">White-eyes</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Laniidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shrikes</td><td class="tdr">8</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Prionopidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wood-Shrikes</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Artamidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Swallow-Shrikes</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Timeliidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Babblers</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Campophagidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cuckoo-Shrikes</td><td class="tdr">11</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Muscicapidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flycatchers</td><td class="tdr">30</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Hirundinidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Swallows</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Pittidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pittas or Ant-Thrushes</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Cuculidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cuckoos</td><td class="tdr">11</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Cypselidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Swifts</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Caprimulgidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Nightjars</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Podargidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Frog-mouths</td><td class="tdr">3</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Bucerotidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hornbills</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Meropidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bee-eaters</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Coraciidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rollers</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Alcedinidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Kingfishers</td><td class="tdr">11</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Psittacidæ</i></td><td class="tdl">Parrots</td><td class="tdl padr5" rowspan="2"><big><big><big>}</big></big></big></td><td class="tdr vertm" rowspan="2">22</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Loriidæ</i></td><td class="tdl">Lories or Brush-tongued Parrots</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Bubonidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Horned and Wood-Owls</td><td class="tdr">7</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Phalacrocoracidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cormorants</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Anatidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ducks</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Ibididæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ibises</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Ardeidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Herons</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Œdicnemidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Stone-Plovers</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Charadriidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plovers</td><td class="tdr">8</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Laridæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Gulls and Terns</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Rallidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rails</td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Columbidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pigeons</td><td class="tdr">26</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Megapodiidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Megapodes or Mound-builders</td><td class="tdr">3</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Casuariidæ</i></td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cassowaries</td><td class="tdr">3</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr" colspan="4">——</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr" colspan="2">Total </td><td class="tdr">235</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>From the above table it will be seen that out of 235 species procured, 150 are -included in eight of the Families; <i>viz.</i> Birds-of-Paradise 13; Honey-eaters 26; -Cuckoo-Shrikes 11; Flycatchers 30; Cuckoos, 11; Kingfishers 11; Parrots, 22; -Pigeons, 26.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span></p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>CORVIDAÆ</i>—CROWS.</h3> - -<p>Though the true Crows are never brightly coloured -birds, many are extremely handsome, but this epithet -cannot be applied to the Bare-faced Crow (<i>Gymnocorax -senex</i>) which is common on the Mimika River and -distributed over New Guinea generally.</p> - -<p>The adult is brownish-black with a slight purplish -or bluish gloss on the wings, but is generally in worn -and shabby plumage. Even when freshly moulted it -is rather a disreputable looking bird, its naked pink -face, pale watery blue eyes, slate-coloured bill and livid -feet adding to its dissipated appearance. Young birds -in their first year’s plumage are even plainer than their -parents, being dull drab-brown inclining to brownish-white -on the head and neck, and appear to be clad -in sackcloth and ashes. They have a weak uncrow-like -call pitched in a high key and their flight is feeble and -seldom sustained.</p> - -<p>In addition to this Crow of unprepossessing appearance, -there is a handsome Raven (<i>Corvus orru</i>), much -like our familiar bird but smaller, which was met with -in pairs on the coast.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>PARADISEIDÆ</i>—BIRDS-OF-PARADISE AND -BOWER-BIRDS.</h3> - -<p>Closely allied to the well-known Greater Bird-of-Paradise -(<i>Paradisea apoda</i>) from the Aru Islands is the -New Guinea form <i>P. novæ-guineæ</i>, the males being -distinguished by their smaller size and by having the -long ornamental side-plumes of a much richer orange-yellow. -Though the call of this bird was frequently -heard on the upper parts of the Mimika, it was rarely -seen; but on the Wataikwa quite a number were -procured in all stages of plumage. The species was, -however, nowhere plentiful and confined to the foot-hills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span></p> - -<p>The Pygmies often brought plumes of the Lesser -Bird-of-Paradise (<i>P. minor</i>) to Parimau and traded -them with the natives, but the species was not found -on the Mimika, the Charles Louis mountains probably -forming its southern boundary.</p> - -<p>My account of the display of that species, as witnessed -in the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, will be found -in the <i>Ibis</i>, 1905, p. 429, accompanied by various -drawings and a coloured plate by Mr. G. E. Lodge. The -display resembles that of the Greater Bird-of-Paradise -(<i>P. apoda</i>) and the Red Bird-of-Paradise (<i>P. raggiana</i>) -and no doubt also that of <i>P. novæ-guineæ</i>. It is a -wonderful and beautiful sight to see these birds erect -their splendid side-plumes in an arch over the back, -which is concealed in a shivering cascade of colour, -orange and white, or red according to the species.</p> - -<p>Numbers of the beautiful little King Bird-of-Paradise -(<i>Cicinnurus regius</i>) were brought home in all stages of -plumage from the young to the fully adult male, with -its scarlet head, shading into glittering carmine on the -back and wings and into purplish-carmine on the throat, -which is bordered below by a rich dark green band. -The sides of the chest are ornamented with fan-like -arrangements of grey feathers tipped with glittering -golden green; the breast and the rest of the under-parts -are of the purest white: the outer tail-feathers are -earthy-brown edged with orange-red, while the middle -pair, which cross one another, have the bare shafts -enormously lengthened, and terminate in a tightly -curled disc, golden green above and reddish-brown -beneath.</p> - -<p>These beautiful ornaments are seen to the greatest -advantage when the King is displaying, the green-tipped -fan-like feathers on the sides and the white -feathers of the breast being spread out to form a -circular shield in front of the bird, while the green<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> -metallic discs of the long middle tail-feathers are -erected and waved overhead. An interesting description -of the display of this species is given by Sir William -Ingram in the <i>Ibis</i>, 1907, p. 225, with a coloured -plate and figures drawn by Mr. G. E. Lodge from a -living specimen.</p> - -<p>Mr. Walter Goodfellow made an interesting observation -on the habits of this species. While watching some -Pigeons on the opposite bank of the river through his -glasses he saw a small bird rise from the top of a tree -and soar into the air like a Sky-Lark. After it had -risen about 30 feet, it suddenly seemed to collapse and -dropped back into the tree as though it had been shot. -It proved to be a King Bird-of-Paradise and probably -this soaring habit is a part of the display not indulged -in by captive birds confined in comparatively small -cages.</p> - -<p>A Rifle-Bird (<i>Ptilorhis magnifica</i>) was fairly common -both on the coast and near the mountains and its call -consisting of two long-drawn notes, one ascending, the -other descending, might be heard at all hours of the day. -Its plumage is mostly velvety black on the head and -upper-parts, but the crown, middle of the throat and -chest, as well as the middle pair of tail-feathers, are -metallic blue and a bronze-green band separates the -chest from the deep purplish-maroon under-parts. The -outer flight feathers are curiously pointed and strongly -falcate and some of the side-feathers terminate in long, -narrow decomposed plumes. The long curved bill and -the legs are black, while the inside of the mouth is pale -apple-green as is the case in several other species of -Paradise-Birds.</p> - -<p>Though a well-known species, we must not omit to -mention the splendid Twelve-wired Bird-of-Paradise -(<i>Seleucides niger</i>). The plumage of the male is like dark -brown plush shot with bronze-green on the back and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> -deep violet on the wings, while the long dark breast-feathers -are edged with rich metallic emerald-green. -The long ornamental side-plumes and the rest of the -under-parts are beautiful bright cinnamon-yellow when -freshly moulted, but this colour is so volatile that it soon -fades to nearly white in skins which have been kept for -a few years. The shafts of six of the long side-plumes -on either side extend far beyond the vane of the feather -and look like twelve recurved wires, hence the bird’s -popular name. The eye is crimson, the bill black, the -gape bright apple-green, and the legs and toes yellowish -flesh-colour.</p> - -<p>The Expedition procured three examples of a new -form of <i>Parotia</i> or Six-plumed Paradise-Bird on the -Iwaka River, but unfortunately did not succeed in shooting -a fully adult male. Simultaneously A. S. Meek, who -was collecting for Mr. Rothschild, procured specimens of -the same bird on the Oetakwa River a few miles to the -east, but he likewise did not secure the fully adult male. -The species has been named <i>Parotia carolæ meeki</i> by -Mr. Rothschild.</p> - -<p>The plumage of this bird is like brownish-black plush -and equally soft to the touch. The head is ornamented -very wonderfully; on either side behind the eye there -are three long racket-like plumes on long bare shafts, (a -character common to all the members of this remarkable -genus of Paradise-Birds): the middle of the crown is of -a beautiful “old” gold colour in a setting of silvery -white and golden brown: on the occiput there is a -marvellous patch of stiff metal-like feathers, golden-green -bordered with deep violet; the sides of the head -before and behind the eye are golden-brown, the chin -and upper part of the throat deep brown, and the lower -part whitish, spotted with rufous. A lovely metallic -breast-plate of bronze-green and violet feathers with dark -middles covers the chest and the long flank-feathers are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span> -white. The two outer flight feathers are curiously -attenuated near the extremity and terminate in a sharp -point, the shaft bearing only a very narrow web. No -doubt all these ornaments are displayed in a similar -manner to those of <i>P. lawesi</i> from British New Guinea, -males of which have been living for some years in the -Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park.</p> - -<p>Another very handsome species is the Golden-winged -<i>Diphyllodes chrysoptera</i>. The male has the bill and a -bare space behind the eye bluish-white, the inside of the -mouth apple-green and the feet Prussian blue. The -head is clad in short velvety reddish-brown feathers with -two metallic green spots between the eyes; the nape -bears a frill of lengthened brown-tipped plumes; the -mantle is light golden-yellow like spun glass and forms -a lengthened tippet; the inner secondary quills and -shoulder-feathers are orange-yellow, and the back -carmine and dull orange shading into sooty black on the -upper tail-coverts. The throat is deep velvety brown, -the neck and breast rich dark green bordered below -with metallic bluish-green, and with a row of metallic -green bars like steps down the middle of the neck and -chest; the rest of the under-parts are black. The short -outer tail-feathers are sooty brown, while the middle pair -which cross one another are very long and narrow and -of a metallic bluish-green. The female is very soberly -clad, dull brown above and narrowly barred with brown -and buff below.</p> - -<p>The Bower-Birds have received their name from their -peculiar habit of constructing bowers or runs where the -males meet to play or pay their court to the females. -The bowers are built long before the birds begin to build -their nests which are placed in trees.</p> - -<p>One of the most noteworthy species procured by the -Expedition was the gorgeously coloured Bower-Bird, -<i>Xanthomelus ardens</i>. The male has the eye yellow and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span> -the head, sides of the neck and mantle orange-scarlet, -the feathers of the latter being very long and loose and -forming a dense cape; the rest of the plumage is orange-yellow -above and golden-yellow below: the ends of the -quills and the tail-feathers, being black.</p> - -<p>The female has the iris brown and is more sombrely -clad, the head and upper-parts, including the wings and -tail, being earthy-brown, while the under-parts, under -wing-coverts and wing-lining, are yellow, like those of -the male, but less bright.</p> - -<p>This beautiful species was originally described from -an imperfect native-made skin obtained by the Italian -naturalist, D’Albertis, on the Fly River. Subsequently, -Dr. H. A. Lorentz shot two adult males on the Noord -River, which were described and figured by Dr. Van Oort. -Our expedition was fortunate enough to secure not only -adult males, but also the immature male and adult female, -these latter being hitherto unknown.</p> - -<p>The display of the male bird must be a very beautiful -sight, his scarlet cape being no doubt erected, and forming -a great hood over the head.</p> - -<p>Among the Bower-Birds, one of the most interesting -was a remarkable female example of a species of <i>Chlamydodera</i> -procured on the Kamura River. Unlike any of -the allied forms, it has the under-surface washed with -yellow, and appears to be the female of <i>C. lauterbachi</i>, -of which the brilliantly coloured male was described by -Dr. Reichenow from an example procured in German -New Guinea.</p> - -<p>The male has the crown and sides of the face golden-orange, -the upper-parts olive-brown, edged with yellowish, -and the under-parts bright yellow. It is a very striking -bird and much the most brightly coloured member of the -genus.</p> - -<p>Though the two specimens were obtained in localities -so far apart, there seems to be no reason why they should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span> -not be male and female of the same species. The female -obtained by the Expedition possesses many characteristics -in common with the male type of <i>C. lauterbachi</i> and the -differences in plumage are just what one would expect -to find in the female of that species.</p> - -<p>The beautiful Cat-bird (<i>Ælurœdus stonei</i>) was fairly -plentiful, and is remarkable on account of its peculiar -colouring. The cap is brown, the back grass-green, and -the neck and under-parts buff, spotted with black, or -green on the longer flank-feathers. The eye is hazel -and the bill and legs slate-blue. The sexes are alike in -plumage. It derives its popular name from its peculiar -hissing alarm note, not unlike the sound made by an -angry cat.</p> - -<p>Of the Manucodes, four different kinds were met -with. They are all crow-like birds with brilliant metallic -black plumage glossed with purple, green or blue, and -form a link between the Paradise-Birds and the true -Crows. The Purple-and-Violet Manucode (<i>Phonygama -jamesi</i>) is distinguished by possessing tufts of long, -narrow metallic green plumes behind the eye, and by -having the neck-feathers similarly lengthened; while the -other three belonging to the genus <i>Manucodia</i> have the -head and neck covered with short curly feathers. These -curly-headed species are much alike in general appearance, -but <i>M. orientalis</i> has the short curly feathers on -the chest and breast glittering golden-green, while in -<i>M. jobiensis</i> and <i>M. altera</i> the same parts are dark steel-blue. -<i>Inter se</i> the two latter kinds differ considerably, -both structurally and in colour. <i>M. jobiensis</i> is -smaller and has the feathers of the throat rounded and -crinkled, and the upper-parts glossed with a strong shade -of violet; while <i>M. altera</i> is larger and has the throat-feathers -short but rather pointed, and the general colour -above purplish-blue or steel-blue.</p> - -<p>In most of the Manucodes the trachea is very long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span> -and convoluted, that of the Purple-and-Violet species -possessing no fewer than twelve coils which lie between -the skin and the pectoral muscles. In spite of this -marvellous instrument its cries are not nearly so loud -as those of the Birds-of-Paradise of the genus <i>Paradisea</i>.</p> - -<p>Mr. Claude Grant discovered a nest of <i>M. altera</i> with -two eggs at Parimau, an interesting find, as no properly -authenticated eggs of that species had hitherto been -obtained.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>EULABETIDÆ</i>—TREE-STARLINGS.</h3> - -<p>Among the smaller Glossy Starlings we must specially -mention a new species, <i>Calornis mystacea</i>, discovered by the -Expedition. It has the plumage purplish-bronze and is -especially remarkable in having long semi-erect plumes -on the forehead as well as long neck-hackles. Three -specimens were obtained flying in company with large -flocks of <i>C. metallica</i>, a rather widely distributed species, -which ranges to North Australia, the Moluccas and the -Solomon Islands.</p> - -<p>The Grackles or Talking Starlings are represented by -two lovely species, the first being the well-known -Dumont’s Grackle (<i>Mino dumonti</i>) a dark glossy greenish-black -bird with a yellow belly and white under tail-coverts. -It has a brown eye surrounded by a large naked orange -patch partially covered with short stiff filaments. The -second species Robertson’s Golden Grackle (<i>Melanopyrrhus -robertsoni</i>) is an equally handsome, but much rarer bird, -and the fine series of adults obtained by the Expedition -proves that it is a species quite distinct from <i>M. orientalis</i>, -the form found in British New Guinea which has a large -black patch on the occiput.</p> - -<p>Robertson’s Grackle has the cheeks and upper part of -the throat, as well as the back, wings and breast, black -glossed with green; the rest of the head, neck and chest,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span> -as well as the lower back, rump, upper tail-coverts and -belly, are orange-yellow. In the adult there is no trace -of a black patch on the occiput, but the quite young -bird has the entire crown black and specimens which -have not assumed the fully adult plumage and still -retain some black feathers on the occiput might be -mistaken for <i>M. orientalis</i>. That they have been is -proved by the fact that Count Salvadori and many others -have regarded <i>M. robertsoni</i>, Sharpe, as a synonym of -<i>M. orientalis</i>, Schlegel, but they are really quite distinct.</p> - -<p>A few very high trees left standing near the huts at -Wakatimi were the resort, morning and evening, of these -Starlings and various other species of birds. For a long -time during the hot mid-day hours Mr. Goodfellow had -observed that some bird, possessing a remarkably sweet -Thrush-like song, rested there, and, after many days of -watching, he found it to be Robertson’s Golden Grackle. -He says that the notes of this Starling would not pass -unnoticed, even in countries where the birds, as a rule, -have sweeter voices than those inhabiting New Guinea.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>DICRURIDÆ</i>—DRONGOS.</h3> - -<p>The Drongos, small Crow-like Flycatchers with -pugnacious habits, are represented in the collection -by two species—<i>Chibia carbonaria</i> and <i>Chælorhynchus -papuensis</i>.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>ORIOLIDÆ</i>—ORIOLES.</h3> - -<p>The Orioles are represented by one species only, -<i>Mimeta striata</i>, belonging to the dull coloured brown-backed -group with heavily streaked under-parts and the -sexes alike in plumage. It was commonest in the -mangrove swamps near the coast.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span></p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>PLOCEIDÆ</i>—WEAVER-BIRDS.</h3> - -<p>This widely distributed group of Weaver-Finches is -not very numerous in New Guinea and the only representative -met with was a small species, <i>Munia tristissima</i>, -which was common in the clearing round the camp at -Wakatimi.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>MOTACILLIDÆ</i>—WAGTAILS.</h3> - -<p>The Grey Wagtail (<i>Motacilla melanope</i>) and the Blue-headed -Wagtail (<i>M. flava</i>) were both met with on the -Mimika and other rivers. It is interesting to note that -both species are included in the British List, the former -being a regular breeding-species in our islands. The -birds wintering in far-off New Guinea, no doubt formed -part of the eastern colonies of these species which nest in -Siberia and visit the Indo-Malayan Islands in winter.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>MELIPHAGIDÆ</i>—HONEY-EATERS.</h3> - -<p>The Honey-eaters are very numerously represented -in South-western New Guinea and no fewer than twenty-seven -species were met with by our Expedition.</p> - -<p>The family is divided in two sections, the first -including the comparatively brightly coloured genus -<i>Myzomela</i> the members of which resemble true Sun-birds -(<i>Nectariniidæ</i>) in general appearance. Seven species were -met with; the most brilliantly coloured being <i>M. -cruentata</i> which has the plumage of the body scarlet and -the wings washed with the same colour, another species -<i>M. obscura</i> has the entire plumage smoky-grey, and four -forms are intermediate between these two types of -colouration, being partly scarlet and partly grey. The -seventh is a very small and very rare species (<i>Œdistoma -pygmæum</i>), which was described by Count Salvadori -from the Arfak Peninsula.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span></p> - -<p>The other section contains a number of larger species, -mostly with dull greenish or brownish plumage and -nearly all with a yellow tuft or patch on the ear-coverts. -Though rather uninteresting-looking birds several are -really of great scientific value, being new to the National -Collection, and one, <i>Ptilotis mimikæ</i> proved to be new to -Science. The largest form is the curious Friar-bird -(<i>Philemon novæ-guineæ</i>) with the bare sides of the face -and neck black and a swollen knob on the base of the -bill. It was generally met with in pairs and inhabited -the tops of the tallest forest trees whence its peculiar cry -might constantly be heard.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>NECTARINIIDÆ</i>—SUN-BIRDS.</h3> - -<p>The Sun-birds are represented by two species <i>Cinnyris -aspasiæ</i> and <i>C. frenata</i>. The male of the former is -deep black with a dark metallic green cap, shoulders and -lower back, and purple throat, while the female is olive -above, and dull yellow below, with a grey head and -throat. The latter species is dull yellow above, brilliant -yellow below, with a purple throat in the male, which is -absent in the female.</p> - -<p>Mr. Goodfellow tells us that among the riot of parasitic -plants which covered the trees a few Sun-birds and -Honey-eaters might always be seen. The nests of the -former, suspended from fallen and partially submerged -dead trees, were continuously swinging from side to side, -the strong current in the river keeping the trees in perpetual -motion. These nests might easily be mistaken -for a handful of drift left there by the river.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>DICÆIDÆ</i>—FLOWER-PECKERS.</h3> - -<p><i>Dicæum diversum</i> and <i>Melanocharis chloroptera</i>, a -dull-looking greenish-grey species described by Count<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span> -Salvadori, were the only Flower-peckers met with. They -are small Tit-like birds allied to the Sun-birds, but with -a short bill serrated along the edges of the mandibles. -Both species were very common everywhere except on -the coast and were extremely tame.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>ZOSTEROPIDÆ</i>—WHITE-EYES.</h3> - -<p><i>Zosterops chrysolæma</i>, a beautiful little species with -the upper-parts golden-olive, the throat and under tail-coverts -yellow, and the breast and belly pure white, was -the only species met with of this most numerous and -widely distributed group. The popular name White-eye -is derived from the ring of tiny white plumes which encircles -the eye in all. They resemble Titmice both in -their mode of life and notes. The only pair observed -were met with on the Iwaka River, and the species is -probably more numerous in the higher parts of the -mountains.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>LANIIDÆ</i>—SHRIKES.</h3> - -<p>The large Shrike-like birds with powerful hooked bills -known as the Piping-Crows are represented by two members -of the genus <i>Cracticus</i>; <i>C. cassicus</i>, a black and -white species, and <i>C. quoyi</i>, with uniform black plumage. -Both are much like their well-known Australian representatives, -but smaller. <i>C. cassicus</i> was much the -commoner bird and was generally observed feeding on -berries and fruits in high trees, its actions being very -Crow-like.</p> - -<p>The Pachycephaline group of birds allied to the true -Shrikes is represented by half-a-dozen species, two of -which proved to be undescribed: a grey form with a -white throat <i>Pachycephala approximans</i> and a black -species with a white breast and belly, <i>P. dorsalis</i>. -Brilliantly coloured orange-yellow and black, or orange<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span>yellow -and grey species were represented by <i>Pachycephala -aurea</i> and <i>Pachychare flavogrisea</i>.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>PRIONOPIDÆ</i>—WOOD-SHRIKES.</h3> - -<p>This group is represented by <i>Rhectes cristatus</i> and <i>R. -ferrugineus</i> in which both sexes are rufous and by <i>R. -nigripectus</i> with the sexes different, the male being partly -black and partly chestnut. <i>Pinarolestes megarhynchus</i>, -an allied species with the sexes alike, is brown above and -dull rufous below. Some of these Wood-Shrikes lay -peculiar looking eggs of a long oval shape and large for -the size of the bird. The ground-colour is purplish- or -pinkish-grey with scattered spots or small blotches of -dark purplish-brown or maroon-brown, often blurred at -the edges and running into the ground-colour. These -eggs have on several occasions been palmed off on -travellers in British New Guinea as eggs of the Red -Bird-of-Paradise, which they do not in any way -resemble.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>ARTAMIDÆ</i>—SWALLOW-SHRIKES.</h3> - -<p>These birds which closely resemble Swallows in their -mode of life are represented by one species only, <i>Artamus -leucopygialis</i>, a grey bird with the breast and rump white. -It was common along the coast, and was generally seen -either perched on some dead tree or skimming swiftly -over the sands.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>TIMELIIDÆ</i>—BABBLERS.</h3> - -<p>We now come to the Timeline group of birds: of -these we may mention two striking-looking species of -<i>Eupetes</i>. One, <i>E. nigricrissus</i>, with the plumage slate-blue -and the throat white, edged with black, was met -with on the Mimika; the other, <i>E. pulcher</i>, was only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span> -seen further east on the Wataikwa River. It is very -similar to the above, but has the crown and back rich-chestnut, -instead of slate. Both species are ground-birds -and usually found in pairs; they are rather difficult to -procure as, when disturbed, they instantly conceal themselves -among the trunks of the trees and vegetation. -The Scimitar Babblers were represented by the reddish-brown -<i>Pomatorhinus isidori</i>.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>CAMPOPHAGIDÆ</i>—CUCKOO-SHRIKES.</h3> - -<p>The Cuckoo-Shrikes are well represented in the collection, -no fewer than eleven species having been obtained. -They belong to four genera and vary much in colour: -the large <i>Graucalus cæruleogrisea</i> has the entire plumage -bluish-grey, except the axillaries and under wing-coverts -which are pale cinnamon and the male has a black patch -in front of eye. Another genus <i>Edoliisoma</i> is represented -by <i>E. melas</i> of which the male is entirely black, and the -female chestnut and brown. A very attractive and -brilliantly coloured species is <i>Campochæra sloetii</i>, forming -a marked contrast to other members of the group. The -greater part of its plumage is orange-yellow, the forehead -white, the middle of the crown yellow and the wings black -and white; the male has the cheeks, throat and chest black -glossed with dull green, while in the female these parts -are dull grey. Several examples of this very rare Cuckoo-Shrike -were procured on the Mimika River. It is no -doubt most nearly allied to the Minivets (<i>Pericrocotus</i>) -which inhabit the Indo-Chinese countries and islands, -the predominant colour of most of the males being scarlet -and of the females yellow.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>MUSCICAPIDÆ</i>—FLYCATCHERS.</h3> - -<p>Flycatchers are very numerously represented and -among them two new forms were discovered, a Fan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span>tailed -Flycatcher (<i>Rhipidura streptophora</i>) and a broad-billed -species <i>Myiagra mimikæ</i>. Among the more notable -forms we may mention <i>Monarcha aruensis</i>, a brilliant -yellow and black species; <i>Todopsis bonapartei</i>, the male -being vivid ultramarine-blue, purple and black, while the -female differs in having the back and sides dark chestnut -and the breast mostly white; lastly <i>Peltops blainvillei</i>, a -black bird with the rump, vent and tail-coverts scarlet, a -large white patch on each side of the head and another -on the middle of the mantle; the sexes are alike in -plumage.</p> - -<p>The Fan-tailed Flycatchers were commonly seen on -the Mimika River in May and June when numbers were -busy hawking the canary-coloured May-flies which -swarmed at that time.</p> - -<p>The Black-and-white Flycatcher (<i>Malurus alboscapulatus</i>) -frequented the tall grasses near the camp on the -Wataikwa River. It was a delightful little bird, very -tame and might constantly be seen crossing the open -spaces with an undulating flight.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>HIRUNDINIDÆ</i>—SWALLOWS.</h3> - -<p>Two species of Swallows were met with <i>Hirundo -javanica</i> and <i>H. gutturalis</i>.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>PITTIDÆ</i>—PITTAS OR ANT-THRUSHES.</h3> - -<p>Of the Ant-Thrushes or Pittas two species were met -with, both brilliantly plumaged birds. <i>Pitta mackloti</i> -which was far the commoner of the two, has a dark -crown, reddish-chestnut nape, and greenish-blue upper-parts; -the throat is black, the chest shining greyish-blue -and the breast and belly scarlet, divided from the chest -by a wide black band.</p> - -<p>The other species, <i>Pitta novæ-guineæ</i>, which was much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span> -less frequently met with, has the head and neck black -and the rest of the plumage dark green washed with -bluish on the breast, which is black down the middle. -The shoulders are shining silvery-blue and the vent and -under tail-coverts scarlet.</p> - -<p>These long-legged Thrush-like birds are entirely -terrestrial in their habits and frequent the depths of the -forests. They can hop with great agility and escape on -the slightest alarm, but are easily taken in snares.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>CUCULIDÆ</i>—CUCKOOS.</h3> - -<p>Among the Cuckoos, the largest is a species of -“Crow-pheasant” or “Lark-heeled” Cuckoo, <i>Centropus -menebiki</i>, a bird of black plumage glossed with dark green, -with a large whitish-horn bill and heavy slate-coloured -legs and toes.</p> - -<p>An allied, but smaller and rarer species, <i>C. bernsteini</i>, -was met with near the mouth of the Mimika. It is very -similar in plumage to the above, but is easily distinguished -by its smaller size, black bill and long, nearly -straight hind-claw. Both are almost entirely ground-birds -of skulking habits. Several other species of -Cuckoo were met with, and among these <i>Cuculus micropterus</i>, -the eastern form of the Common Cuckoo, closely -resembling our familiar bird. The rarest species -obtained was <i>Microdynamis parva</i>, a remarkable little -Cuckoo about the size of a Thrush, first described by -Count Salvadori in 1875. The origin of the type -specimen is uncertain, but it is believed to have been -obtained by Beccari in the Moluccas. Subsequently, Dr. -H. O. Forbes procured female examples in the Astrolabe -Mountains. Mr. Claude Grant obtained an adult male -and female which form a valuable addition to the -National Collection. The general plumage is brown, -but in the male the top of the head and the malar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span> -stripe are black, glossed with steel-blue and the cheeks -and throat are cinnamon. In both sexes the bill is -short, thick and curved. The male has the eye bright -red, while in the female it is hazel.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>CYPSELIDÆ</i>—SWIFTS.</h3> - -<p>The Swifts, though of especial interest, are not very -numerously represented in the collection. The commonest -species was that known as the Esculent Swiftlet (<i>Collocalia -fuciphaga</i>) which produces the best kind of edible -nest.</p> - -<p>A very interesting discovery was the existence in -New Guinea of the large fork-tailed species <i>Collocalia -whiteheadi</i> originally described by myself from the highlands -of Luzon, Philippine Islands.</p> - -<p>A remarkable Spine-tailed Swift (<i>Chætura novæ-guineæ</i>) -is new to the National Collection. It was fairly -common on the Mimika River and originally described -by Count Salvadori from specimens procured by D’Albertis -on the Fly River.</p> - -<p>A pair of the magnificent Moustached Swift (<i>Macropteryx -mystacea</i>) with a wing expanse of more than two -feet were also procured. The plumage of this bird is -mostly grey, but the crown, wings, and long deeply-forked -tail are black glossed with purplish-blue. The -eye-brows and moustache-stripes as well as the scapulars -are white, the two former being composed of lengthened, -narrow, pointed plumes. The male has a small chestnut -spot behind the ear-coverts which is absent in the female. -The nesting-habits of this species are very curious, it -makes a very small exposed half-saucer-shaped nest of -bark and feathers gummed by saliva to a branch or -stump barely large enough to contain the single white -egg, and ridiculously small in comparison with the size -of the bird. When incubating, the greater part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span> -bird’s body must rest on the branch to which the nest -is attached.</p> - -<h3>FAMILIES <i>CAPRIMULGIDÆ</i> AND <i>PODARGIDÆ</i>—NIGHTJARS -AND FROG-MOUTHS.</h3> - -<p>The common Nightjar of the country found along -the shingly banks of the rivers was <i>Caprimulgus macrurus</i>, -a widely distributed species. After the ground had been -cleared for the base camp at Wakatimi it was visited -every evening by a number of Nightjars, which no doubt -found such a large open space an admirable hunting-ground -and the members of the Expedition derived great -pleasure from watching their graceful evolutions. Another -very rare Nightjar was <i>Lyncornis papuensis</i>, not previously -included in the National Collection. Frog-mouths -were represented by the larger species <i>Podargus -papuensis</i> and the smaller, <i>P. ocellatus</i>. At some of the -stopping places on the river night was made hideous -by their mournful cries repeated to distraction on every -side, and ending up with a sharp snap.</p> - -<p>A single example of the rare Wallace’s Owlet-Nightjar -(<i>Ægotheles wallacei</i>) was collected by Mr. G. C. Shortridge -on the Wataikwa River. It has a peculiar uniform -blackish upper plumage, without any trace of a distinct -nuchal collar. No doubt, like its Australian ally, it -roosts in holes in trees during the daytime and captures -its prey on the wing at night, like the true Nightjars, -though the flight is said to be less tortuous.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>BUCEROTIDÆ</i>—HORNBILLS.</h3> - -<p>The only representative of the <i>Bucerotidæ</i> is the -Wreathed Hornbill (<i>Rhytidoceros plicatus</i>) a large bird -with a casque formed of overlapping plates on the base -of the upper mandible. The male is black with the head -and neck chestnut and the tail white, while the female<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span> -differs in having the head and neck black. It was plentiful -everywhere and its flesh was reported to be good eating. -It frequented the fruit-bearing trees in company with -various species of Pigeons and Mr. Claude Grant on one -or two occasions observed pairs at what he took to be -their nesting-holes high up in the bare trunks of very tall -trees. Their heavy noisy flight and raucous call, continually -repeated, renders these birds difficult to overlook.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>MEROPIDÆ</i>—BEE-EATERS.</h3> - -<p>A species of Bee-eater, <i>Merops ornata</i>, was common -about the base camp. It ranges to Australia, the -Moluccas and westwards to the Lesser Sunda group. Mr. -Goodfellow says it swarmed in some places after the -month of April; though previous to that date none had -been met with.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>CORACIIDÆ</i>—ROLLERS.</h3> - -<p>Two species of Rollers inhabit the Mimika district -<i>Eurystomus crassirostris</i>, a greenish-blue species with -brilliant ultramarine throat, quills and tail-feathers and -vermilion bill and feet; and a smaller species <i>E. australis</i> -with brownish-green upper-parts, verditer-blue breast -and bluish-green bases to the tail-feathers.</p> - -<p>Both Bee-eaters and Rollers were common in flocks -along the banks of the Mimika during April and May -when preying on the canary-coloured May-fly, which -swarmed on the waters at that season.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>ALCEDINIDÆ</i>—KINGFISHERS.</h3> - -<p>Kingfishers were well represented in the Mimika -district and Mr. Goodfellow says that the Sacred Kingfisher -(<i>Halcyon sanctus</i>) was undoubtedly the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span> -conspicuous bird about the base camp, where its harsh -cry could be heard all through the hot hours of the day. -The huts and storehouses were infested by myriads of -black crickets, which take the place of the cockroaches -found in other countries and commit fearful havoc -among stores and personal possessions. The constant -packing up of goods to send up river drove thousands of -these insects to seek shelter in other parts of the camp, -and, at such times, Kingfishers became very tame and -darted in and out among the buildings, taking advantage -of the feast thus afforded. Mr. Claude Grant shot a -single specimen of the lovely Kingfisher <i>H. nigrocyanea</i>, -the only one obtained. It has the crown, wings, upper -tail-coverts, tail, and breast dark ultramarine blue, the -rump cobalt-blue, the throat and a band across the -breast pure white, and the remainder of the plumage -black. Another species met with at the base camp was -<i>H. macleayi</i> with purple head, wings and tail, verditer-blue -back, white lores, collar and under-parts, and -cinnamon flanks. Only one example of this fine bird was -procured. Others were the dark purplish-blue and -chestnut <i>Alcyone lessoni</i>, about the size of our Common -Kingfisher and the much smaller <i>A. pusilla</i> similarly -coloured above, but with the under-parts pure white.</p> - -<p><i>Ceyx solitaria</i>, a closely allied species, with purple -spangled upper-parts and cinnamon-yellow under-parts -was also found on the Mimika and Mr. Goodfellow was -surprised to find this diminutive species which he had -believed to be exclusively a fish-eater, greedily devouring -a canary-coloured May-fly which swarmed on the waters -of the Mimika during April and May.</p> - -<p>On the river a few specimens of the large “Jackass” -Kingfisher (<i>Dacelo intermedia</i>) were obtained, but the -species was by no means common. The most conspicuous -bird was Gaudichaud’s Kingfisher (<i>Sauromarptis gaudichaudi</i>) -and its loud grating call might be heard in all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span> -directions. The adult is a very handsome bird, the black -of the upper-parts being relieved by the electric-blue tips -to the wing-coverts and feathers of the lower back and -rump, the wings and tail are washed with dull purplish-blue, -the throat is white and extends in a buff collar -round the neck, the under wing-coverts are buff and the -breast and rest of the under-parts deep chestnut. The -natives brought numbers of the half-fledged young of -this species to the base camp during May and June and -many were purchased by the Javanese soldiers and -convicts; but as they fed them on boiled rice only, their -lives were brief. The great Shoe-billed Kingfisher -(<i>Clytoceyx</i>) was not met with by the members of our -Expedition, but Dr. Van Oort has described a new form -which he calls <i>Clytoceyx rex imperator</i>, from a specimen -procured by Dr. Lorentz on the Noord River. Another -large species, <i>Melidora macrorhinus</i>, with a curious brown -spotted plumage above was not uncommon; it usually -frequented the lower branches and undergrowth within a -few feet of the ground and when disturbed merely -mounted to a more conspicuous perch.</p> - -<p>The lovely Racquet-tailed species of the genus -<i>Tanysiptera</i> were not procured, though Dr. H. A. -Lorentz met with a specimen on the Noord River.</p> - -<h3>FAMILIES <i>PSITTACIDÆ</i> AND <i>LORIIDÆ</i>—PARROTS -AND LORIES.</h3> - -<p>Another very numerously represented group is the -Parrots of which twenty-two different species were -procured, varying in size from the Great Black Cockatoo -(<i>Microglossus aterrimus</i>), which is about the size of a -Raven and has an enormously powerful bill, to the -tiny Pygmy Parrot (<i>Nasiterna keiensis</i>) which is about -the size of a Golden-crested Wren. This latter species -has recently been described by Mr. Walter Rothschild -as new, under the name of <i>Nasiterna viridipectus</i> from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span> -specimens obtained by A. S. Meek in the Oetakwa district, -but they do not seem to differ from the birds found -on the Kei and Aru Islands and also in the neighbourhood -of the Fly River. The plumage is green, paler -below, the crown dull orange, the shoulders spotted -with black, the middle-tail feathers blue and the outer -pairs black with yellow and green tips. A few solitary -Black Cockatoos might be seen on the lower River, -sitting on the tops of the highest trees; their loud -whistle always attracted attention and even on their -high perches their red faces and erect crests were conspicuous. -The Common Cockatoo of the country was -<i>Cacatua triton</i>, a moderate sized species with a yellow -crest which was met with in small numbers throughout -the mangrove belt, but it was a shy bird and when -approached always flew away, screaming. Lories of -different kinds were numerous and included some of the -most brilliantly coloured species, <i>Lorius erythrothorax</i> -combining in its plumage black, crimson, scarlet, purple, -blue, green and bright yellow. The adult has the under -wing-coverts uniform scarlet in marked contrast to the -bright yellow inner webs of the primary quills, but in -younger birds the smaller under wing-coverts are mottled -with scarlet, blue, black, green and yellow and the long -outer series are yellow with greyish-black ends, making -a dark band at the base of the quills. In this stage the -bird has been described by Dr. A. B. Meyer as <i>Lorius -salvadorii</i>.</p> - -<p>A less brilliantly coloured and more common species -in the neighbourhood of the Mimika was <i>Eos fuscatus</i> -which has the general colour above sooty-black shaded -on the middle of the crown, neck, etc. with reddish-orange -and the under-parts widely banded with scarlet. -A lovely species with a longer tail was <i>Trichoglossus -cyanogrammus</i> which is green with a blue face and greenish-yellow -collar, and has the scarlet chest-feathers edged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span> -with purple, while the belly and flanks are yellow barred -with green.</p> - -<p>The tiniest Lory is <i>Loriculus meeki</i>, a minute species, -about the size of a Blue Titmouse, with brilliant green -plumage, orange-yellow forehead, and the rump and -upper tail-coverts as well as a spot on the throat scarlet. -The female differs in having the forehead and cheeks -verditer-green.</p> - -<p>The genus <i>Geoffroyus</i> is represented by two species: -the commoner <i>G. aruensis</i> with the plumage green, the -male having the crown and nape violet-blue and the -rest of the head and neck scarlet, while in the female -these parts are brown; also the much rarer <i>G. simplex</i> -which is entirely green with a dull lilac blue ring round the -neck. This latter is a very rare bird in collections, but -was seen on the higher parts of the mountains above the -Iwaka River in flocks of upwards of twenty individuals.</p> - -<p>Other small and brilliantly coloured species of Lories -are <i>Charmosynopsis pulchella</i> and <i>C. multistriata</i>, the -latter a remarkable new species with green plumage, and -the whole of the under-parts streaked with bright yellow. -It was recently described by Mr. Rothschild from a male, -shot by A. S. Meek on the Oetakwa River; a second -specimen, a female, was obtained on the Mimika by -Mr. Goodfellow. We must also mention <i>Chalcopsittacus -scintillans</i>, <i>Hypocharmosyna placens</i>, <i>Charmosyna josephinæ</i>, -the rare <i>Glossopsittacus goldiei</i>, and three species -of <i>Cyclopsittacus</i>, viz. <i>C. melanogenys</i>, which is green -with a white throat, black cheeks, deep orange breast, -and ultramarine wings; <i>C. diophthalmus</i>; and <i>C. godmani</i>, -a new and handsome species with the general -colour green, the head and nape orange-scarlet, the -upper mantle orange-yellow, the cheeks covered with -long, pointed, yellowish feathers, and the chest verditer-blue.</p> - -<p>Behind the camp at Wakatimi lay a swamp which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span> -Mr. Goodfellow tells us was every night the roosting-place -of thousands of Lories, chiefly <i>Eos fuscatus</i>, and -there were also smaller flocks of <i>Trichoglossus cyanogrammus</i>. -Long before sunset and until it was quite -dusk flocks of many hundred birds coming from all -directions flew over with a deafening noise. Often some -weak branch would give way under their weight, causing -a panic just as the noise was beginning to subside, and -clouds of these birds would again circle around, seeking -a fresh roosting place and keeping up a continual din.</p> - -<p>One of the most peculiar Parrots, and bearing a -marked external resemblance to the Kea of New Zealand, -is the Vulturine Parrot (<i>Dasyptilus pesqueti</i>) which has -the black skin of the face almost entirely bare, the -plumage black and scarlet on the wings, rump and belly, -the breast feathers having pale sandy margins. Its -hoarse, grating call, quite unlike that of any other -species, could be heard a long way off, and was continually -uttered when on the wing. Mr. Goodfellow -says it usually moves about in parties of four or five -individuals, and that occasionally as many as seven may -be seen together. When not feeding they always select -the tallest trees to rest in, preferring dead ones which -tower about the general level of the jungle, and in -which they remain for hours at a time in rain or sunshine. -They do not climb after the usual manner of -Parrots, but jump from branch to branch with a jerky -movement, like the Lories, and with a rapid flicking -movement of the wings. They feed entirely on soft -fruits, chiefly wild figs. Apparently the species feeds on -the plains and retires to the mountains to roost, for -every evening flocks or pairs were observed passing high -over the camp at Parimau, and making their way -towards the Saddle-peak range.</p> - -<p>A handsome new Parroquet of the genus <i>Aprosmictus</i> -was discovered, and has been named <i>A. wilhelminæ</i>, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> -honour of the Queen of Holland. The male has the -head, neck and under-parts scarlet, the wings green, with -a pale yellow green band across the coverts, the mantle -and back mostly deep purplish-blue, and the tail black -tinged with purplish.</p> - -<p>Finally, the Eclectus Parrot (<i>Eclectus pectoralis</i>) was -common. The remarkable difference in the colouration -of the sexes might lead some to believe that they belonged -to quite different species, the male being mostly green -with scarlet sides and under wing-coverts, while the -female is maroon with the head, neck and breast scarlet, -and the mantle, belly, sides and under wing-coverts blue.</p> - -<h3>FAMILIES <i>BUBONIDÆ</i> AND <i>STRIGIDÆ</i>—WOOD-OWLS AND -BARN-OWLS.</h3> - -<p>The only Owl of which examples were obtained was -a small species of Brown Hawk-Owl (<i>Ninox theomaca</i>), -with the upper-parts, back, wings and tail uniform dark -brown, and the under-parts deep chestnut. It was a -strictly nocturnal species, and confined to the jungle along -the base of the mountains, where its weird double call -“yon-yon” might constantly be heard after dark.</p> - -<p>A form of the Barn-Owl (<i>Strix novæ-hollandiæ</i>), -which occurs in the district, was not obtained by the -Expedition.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>FALCONIDÆ</i>—EAGLES AND HAWKS.</h3> - -<p>New Guinea possesses a very remarkable Harpy-Eagle -(<i>Harpyopsis novæ-guineæ</i>) allied to the Harpy Eagles of -America and to the Great Monkey-eating Eagle (<i>Pithecophaga -jefferyi</i>) which inhabits the forests of the Philippine -Islands. The New Guinea bird is like a large -Goshawk, having a long tail and comparatively short and -rounded wings; the feet are armed with very powerful -claws, but in strength and power it is far inferior to its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span> -great Philippine ally or to the still more powerful species -inhabiting Central America. Mr. Claude Grant says that -this species was seldom met with; it has a rather loud -cry and a beautiful soaring flight, often in ascending -circles. Besides this large Eagle, two species of Goshawk -<i>Astur etorques</i> and <i>A. poliocephalus</i> were met with, likewise -a small chestnut and white Brahminy Kite (<i>Haliastur -girrenera</i>). A small Sparrow-Hawk was obtained near -the mouth of the Mimika River, but being in immature -plumage its identification is at present uncertain. Reinwardt’s -Cuckoo-Falcon (<i>Baza reinwardti</i>) with a crested -head and banded breast, was rather a rare bird and -appears to feed largely on insects.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>PHALACROCORACIDÆ</i>—CORMORANTS.</h3> - -<p>The small black-backed white-breasted species <i>Phalacrocorax -melanoleucus</i> is the only representative of this -group. Several specimens were shot on the upper waters -of the Mimika, at Parimau and at the base camp at -Wakatimi.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>ANATIDÆ</i>—DUCKS.</h3> - -<p>The handsome white-necked Sheld-duck (<i>Tadorna -radjah</i>) differs from the Australian form in being much -darker on the back, the plumage being practically black -with indistinct mottlings of dull rufous on the mantle. -This dark form, found also in the Moluccas, was common -about the mouth of the Mimika River. The more rufous-backed -Australian form has been named <i>T. rufitergum</i> by -Dr. Hartert.</p> - -<p>The only other species of duck brought home was an -immature male Garganey (<i>Querquedula discors</i>) shot on -the Kapare River.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span></p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>IBIDIDÆ</i>—IBISES.</h3> - -<p>The Eastern form of the Sacred Ibis (<i>Ibis stictipennis</i>) -was met with at the mouth of the Mimika. It is easily -distinguished from its western ally by having the innermost -secondaries mottled with black and white.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>ARDEIDÆ</i>—HERONS.</h3> - -<p>Several different species of Herons were procured including -the Night Heron (<i>Nycticorax caledonica</i>); the -Yellow-necked Heron (<i>Dupetor flavicollis</i>); the White -Heron (<i>Herodias timoriensis</i>); and a Tiger-Bittern -(<i>Tigrisoma heliosylus</i>). The last named is a very fine bird -with the general colour above black boldly barred with -rufous and buff; the under-parts buff barred on the neck -and chest with black. The feathers on the neck and -chest are very long and broad and no doubt form a most -imposing ruff when the bird is displaying.</p> - -<h3>FAMILIES <i>ŒDICNEMIDÆ</i>, <i>CHARADRIIDÆ</i> AND <i>LARIDÆ</i>—STONE-PLOVERS, -PLOVERS, AND GULLS.</h3> - -<p>A number of small wading birds were also procured -near the mouth of the river, and two species of Terns, -but as all belong to well-known, widely distributed species, -there is no special interest attaching to them. I may -however mention that the great Australian Curlew -(<i>Numenius cyanopus</i>), and the large Australian Thicknee -(<i>Esacus magnirostris</i>) were among the species found at -the mouth of the Mimika.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>RALLIDÆ</i>—RAILS.</h3> - -<p>The only Rail met with was an example of <i>Rallina -tricolor</i> which has the head, neck and chest bright chestnut, -and the rest of the plumage dark brown with white -bars on the wing-feathers. It is also met with in some -of the Papuan Islands and in North-eastern Australia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span></p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>COLUMBIDÆ</i>—PIGEONS.</h3> - -<p>Pigeons were very numerously represented, no fewer -than twenty-six different species being obtained by -the Expedition. Some of the smaller forms are among -the most beautifully coloured birds met with in New -Guinea. The Crowned Pigeons (Goura) are represented -by <i>G. sclateri</i> which was fairly common near the base -camp and met with in all places visited by the Expedition. -In spite of the numbers shot for food during the -whole time the Expedition remained in the country, -the supply did not appear to diminish. This fine Pigeon -and a few others afforded the only fresh meat to be had. -On the canoe-journeys up the river Sclater’s Goura was -frequently met with in the early mornings in parties of -two or three searching for aquatic life along the muddy -banks. When disturbed they did not immediately take -flight, but with raised wings pirouetted around for a few -seconds and then flew to the nearest high tree. Mr. -Goodfellow found the remains of small crabs in their -stomachs and a large percentage of the birds shot were -infested by a small red parasite, the same, or similar to -that which is known in other parts of New Guinea as -“Scrub-itch.”</p> - -<p>Another very handsome bird is the Ground-Pigeon -(<i>Otidiphaps nobilis</i>) with the head bluish-black, the nape -dull metallic green, the mantle and wings purplish-chestnut -and the rest of the plumage deep purple, all being -more or less metallic. Its long legs and the upward -carriage of its long tail give it much the appearance of a -Bantam hen. It was fairly common, but being extremely -shy was rarely met with.</p> - -<p>Among the larger Fruit-Pigeons we must specially -mention <i>Carpophaga pinon</i> which has the general appearance -of a large Wood-Pigeon. It was met with in large -flocks and proved an excellent bird for the table. Another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> -very striking species, of rather lesser proportions and -very much rarer, was Muller’s Fruit-Pigeon (<i>Carpophaga -mulleri</i>) easily distinguished by its white throat, the bold -black ring round its neck and its shining chestnut mantle. -Among the handsomest was <i>Carpophaga rufiventris</i>, a -bird with the breast cinnamon and the wings and back -metallic green, copper and purple. Lastly a very striking -form was the large creamy-white Pigeon (<i>Myristicivora -spilorrhoa</i>) with the flight feathers, tips of the tail-feathers -and under tail-coverts blackish. It appears -to be entirely confined to the mangrove swamps and was -observed breeding in May along the creeks near the -mouth of the river, no less than seven nests being found -in one tree.</p> - -<p>As already stated among the smaller Fruit-Pigeons -many are very beautifully marked and brilliantly -coloured, but always with the most harmonious shades. -It would seem as though Nature had almost exhausted -her scheme of colouration in dealing with some of these -birds; for we find two totally different species, <i>Ptilopus -zonurus</i> and <i>P. gestroi</i>, occurring together in which the -markings and colours of the plumage are almost identical; -on the under-surface the two species are practically alike, -both have the chin and throat pale lavender, extending -in a ring round the neck, the throat orange, the chest -washed with vinous and the remainder of the under-parts -green; on the upper-surface, the top of the head and -nape are greenish-yellow and the rest of the upper-parts -green, but in <i>P. zonurus</i> the median wing-coverts are -green with a subterminal spot of bright pink, while in -<i>P. gestroi</i> the least wing-coverts are crimson and the -next series grey fringed with greenish-yellow. Another -parallel case of close resemblance is found between the -small <i>Ptilopus nanus</i> and the larger <i>P. coronulatus</i>. -Though really extremely distinct species the under-parts -are very similarly coloured both being green with a bright<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> -magenta patch on the middle of the breast and the belly -and under-tail coverts mostly bright yellow: viewed -from the upper surface the two birds are, however, very -different, <i>P. coronulatus</i> having the crown lilac-pink, -edged posteriorly with bands of crimson and yellow, -while <i>P. nanus</i> has the head green, but the ends of the -scapulars and secondaries are deep shining bluish-green, -tipped with bright yellow. Even more brilliantly -coloured species than the above are <i>Ptilopus pulchellus</i>, -<i>P. superbus</i>, <i>P. aurantiifrons</i> and <i>P. bellus</i>.</p> - -<p>Near the camp at Wataikwa large flocks of D’Albertis’ -Pigeon (<i>Gymnophaps albertisii</i>) were observed coming in -every evening from their feeding-grounds on the high -mountains to roost on the plains below. Mr. Goodfellow -tells us that their flight is extremely rapid and that their -strange aerial evolutions remind one of the common -“Tumbler” Pigeons.</p> - -<p>The Long-tailed Cuckoo-Doves were represented -by the very large <i>Reinwardtœnas griseotincta</i> and the -smaller chestnut-plumaged <i>Macropygia griseinucha</i>; the -former being a large and abnormally long-tailed bird -with the head, mantle and under-parts grey, and the -back and tail chestnut.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>MEGAPODIIDÆ</i>—MEGAPODES OR MOUND-BUILDERS.</h3> - -<p>The Game-birds are represented by three species of -Mound-builders, two being Brush-Turkeys and the other -a true Megapode (<i>Megapodius freycineti</i>). The fact that -two closely allied species of Brush-Turkeys are found in -the same district is of considerable interest. The common -species of the country <i>Talegallus fuscirostris</i> has a very -wide coastal range, being also found in S.E. New -Guinea and extending along the north coast to the -middle of Geelvinck Bay. The other species <i>T. cuvieri</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span> -is of western origin being hitherto known from the Arfak -Peninsula, and the islands of Salwatti, Mysol and Gilolo. -Its occurrence on the Iwaka river was quite unexpected -and no doubt the range of the two species overlap in the -neighbourhood of the Mimika in the south and in the -vicinity of Rubi on Geelvinck Bay in the north. In -both the plumage is black, but <i>T. cuvieri</i> is a larger bird -than <i>T. fuscirostris</i> and is easily recognised by having -the tibia feathered right down to the tibio-tarsal joint -and the bill orange-red instead of sooty-brown.</p> - -<p>All these species are of the greatest interest on -account of their remarkable nesting habits, and their -nesting mounds of decaying vegetable matter were -conspicuous objects in the jungle. The eggs, which are -very large for the size of the birds, are buried among -the débris which the birds rake together into a large -heap, the young being hatched, as in an incubator, by the -warmth of the decaying leaves. The parent bird, after -burying its eggs, takes no further notice of them, but the -young on leaving the shell are fully feathered and able -to fly and take care of themselves.</p> - -<h3>FAMILY <i>CASUARIIDÆ</i>—CASSOWARIES.</h3> - -<p>The discovery made by Mr. Walter Goodfellow that -two distinct forms of two-wattled Cassowary occur side -by side on the Mimika River has greatly modified Mr. -Rothschild’s views on the classification of the genus, and -he now finds that the ten forms possessing two wattles, -when placed side by side fall naturally into two groups, -one consisting of the Common Cassowary (<i>Casuarius -casuarius</i>), divisible into six sub-species or races, and -the other of <i>C. bicarunculatus</i> which may be divided -into four sub-species. The large forms found on the -Mimika are <i>C. sclateri</i>, representing the first group, and -<i>C. intensus</i> representing the second. Both these birds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> -have a large elevated casque or helmet and differ chiefly -in the pattern and colouration of the bare neck-wattles.</p> - -<p>These Cassowaries were seen at various times searching -for food in the pools and shallow waters of the -river-beds, and during the cross-country marches would -sometimes dash across the trail, affording but a momentary -glimpse.</p> - -<p>The natives have distinct names for the male and -female birds and judging from the quantities of feathers -in their possession must often succeed in capturing them. -Eggs and newly-hatched chicks were brought in during -January and February. On one occasion at Parimau -some eggs must have been kept by the natives for a few -days before they hatched, for young were brought to the -camp which had evidently just emerged from the shells.</p> - -<p>A very interesting discovery was made by Mr. Claude -Grant on the foot-hills, where he met with a new dwarf -species of Cassowary, <i>C. claudii</i>. It is allied to <i>C. papuanus</i>, -but has the hind part of the crown and occiput -black instead of white. Like that bird it has a low -triangular casque and belongs to a different section of -the genus from the two larger species already mentioned.</p> - -<p><i>C. claudii</i> has very brilliantly coloured soft parts. -The occiput and sides of the head are entirely black; -between the gape and the ear is a patch of deep plum-colour; -the upper half of the back of the neck is electric-blue, -shading into violet-blue on the sides and fore-part -of the neck including the throat; the lower half of the -back of the neck is orange-chrome, this colour extending -down the upper margin of a bare magenta-coloured area -situated on each side of the feathered part of the neck. -This fine bird is now mounted and on exhibition in the -Bird Gallery at the Natural History Museum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="indent">LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PAPERS RELATING TO THE BIRDS -OF NEW GUINEA, INCLUDING THE KEI AND ARU -ISLANDS.</h3> - -<table summary="PRINCIPAL PAPERS" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl">1875-88.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Gould.</i> Birds of New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands. -(Completed by R. B. Sharpe) (1875-88).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1880-82<br />& 1889-91.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molluche. Vols. I-III. - (1880-82). Aggiunte, pts. I.-III. (1889-91).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1883.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ramsay.</i> Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. VIII. pp. 15-29 (1883).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1884.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. XVII. pp. 405-408 (1884).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Zeit. Ges. Orn 1. pp. 269-296, pls. XIV.-XVIII. (1884).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1885.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch and Meyer.</i> Zeit. ges. Orn. II. pp. 369-391, pls. XV.-XXII. (1885).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Guillemard.</i> P.Z.S. 1885, pp. 615-665, pl. XXXIX.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1886.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Monat. Schutze Vogelw. 1886, pp. 85-88, pl.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> P.Z.S. 1886, pp. 297-298.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch and Meyer.</i> Zeit. ges. Orn. III. pp. 1-29, pls. I.-VI. (1886).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Zeit. ges. Orn. III. pp. 30-38 (1886).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ibis 1886, pp. 151-155.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1887.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ramsay.</i> Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2) II. pp. 239-240 (1887).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Bartlett.</i> P.Z.S. 1887, p. 392.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Le Nat. I. pp. 180-182 (1887).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1888.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Reisen in Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und Englisch New-Guinea -in dem Jahren 1884 u. 1885 an Bord des Deutschen Damfers<br /> -“Samoa.” Leipsig, 1888.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Cabanis.</i> J.f.O. 1888, p. 119.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1889.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Cabanis.</i> J.f.O. 1889, p. 62, pls. 1 & 2.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> J.f.O. 1889, pp. 321-326.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland VI. pp. 245-248 (1889).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1890.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> British New Guinea. Report of the Administration for the -period 4th Sept. 1888 to 30th June, 1889.<br /> -App. G. Report on Birds from British New Guinea, pp. 105-116 (1890).<br /> -(Reprinted, Ibis 1891, pp. 25-41).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Goodwin.</i> Ibis 1890, pp. 150-156.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Ibis 1890, p. 412, pl. XII.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvad.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) IX. pp. 554-592 (1890).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1891.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Le Nat. V. pp. 260-261 (1891).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sclater.</i> Ibis 1891, p. 414, pl. X.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Abh. Zool. Mus. Dresden 1891, No. 4, pp. 1-17.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1891-98.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Monogr. <i>Paradiseidæ</i> and <i>Ptilonorhynchidæ</i> (1891-98)</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1892.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Ann. Queensland Mus. II. pp. 4-11 (1892).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Annual Report Brit. New Guinea, 1890-91. App. CC. -pp. 93-97. pl. (1892).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvad.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) X. pp. 797-834 (1892).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> J.f.O. 1892, pp. 254-266.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Crowley.</i> Bull. B.O.C. 1. p. XVI. (1892).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1893.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1892-93, No. 3. pp. 1-33, pls. 1 & 2.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Nouv. Archiv. Mus. Paris, (3) IV. pp. 218-220, pl. XV.; -V. pp. 295-299, pl. VI.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sclater.</i> Ibis 1893, pp. 243-246, pl. VII. text fig.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch.</i> Ibis 1893, pp. 463-464.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Ibis 1893, pp. 481-483, pl. XIII.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1894.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Annual Report, Brit. New Guinea, 1894, pp. 99-105.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvad.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) XIV. pp. 150-152 (1894).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. VI., VII., XI., XII. (1894).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1894.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span></td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. p. XI. (1894).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. XII.-XV. (1894).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> Orn. Monatsb. II. p. 22 (1894).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1894-95. No. 2. pp. 1-4. pl. (1894).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Büttikofer.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XVI. pp. 161-165 (1894).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Mead.</i> Amer. Natural. XXVIII. pp. 915-920. pls. XXIX.-XXXI. -(1894).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1895.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. p. XVII. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Meyer.</i> Abh. Zool. Mus. Dres. 1894-95, no. 5. pp. 1-11. pls. 1 & 2. -No. 10. pp. 1-2, pl. I. figs. 1-4 (1895).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. II. pp. 22, 59, 480, pls. III. & V. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. II. p. 67 (1895).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. IV. pp. XXI., XXVI., XLII. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. V. p. XV. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Mead.</i> Amer. Natural. XXIX. pp. 1-9, 409-417, 627-636, 1056-1065, -pl. VII. (1895).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sanyal.</i> P.Z.S. 1895, pp. 541-542.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Bull. Mus. Paris. 1895, pp. 47-50.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sclater.</i> Ibis 1895, pp. 343, 344, pl. VIII.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1896.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. III., pp. 8, 252, 530, 534, pl. I. -(1896).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. III., pp. 10-19 (1896).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. (2) XVI., pp. 55-120 (1896).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Bull. B.O.C. V. p. XXII. (1896).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VI. pp. XV.-XVI. (1896).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Oustalet.</i> Nouv. Archiv. Mus. Paris (3) VIII. pp. 263-267, pls. XIV. -& XV. (1896).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1897.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VI. pp. XV., XVI., XXIV., XXV., XL., -XLV., LIV. (1897).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VII. pp. XXI.-XXII. (1897).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> Orn. Monatsb. V. pp. 24-26, 161, 178, 179 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Kleinschmidt.</i> Orn. Monatsb. V. p. 46 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Kleinschmidt.</i> J.f.O. 1897, pp. 174-178, text-fig.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> J.f.O. 1897, pp. 201-224, pls. V. & VI.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. IV. p. 169, pl. II. fig. 2 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. IV. p. 396 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Ibis 1897, pp. 250-252, 371-392, pl. VII.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Termes, Füzetek XX. pp. 17-54, pls. 1 & 2 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Mead.</i> Amer. Natural. XXXI. pp. 204-210 (1897).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1898.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VIII. pp. VIII. & IX. (1898).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. VIII. p. XIV. (1898).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Das Tierreich <i>Paradiseidæ</i>, 52 pp. Berlin, 1898.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>De Vis.</i> Annual Report, New Guinea, App. AA. Report on birds for -1896-97, pp. 81-90 (1898).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XX. pp. 129-136 (1898).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. V. pp. 84-87, 418, 509, 513, pl. XVIII. (1898).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> J.f.O. 1898, pp. 124-128, pl. 1.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Caley-Webster.</i> Through New Guinea and the Cannibal Countries. -Appendices on birds by Messrs. Rothschild and Hartert (1898).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1899.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) XIX. pp. 578-582 (1899).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. VI. pp. 75 & 218, pls. II. & III. (1899).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. VI. p. 219, pl. IV. (1899).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Termes, Füzetek. XXII. pp. 375-428, pls. XV.-XVII. -(1899).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1900.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXII. pp. 49-69 & 70 (1900).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. X. pp. C. CI. (1900).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XI. pp. 25, 26, 30 (1900).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Orn. Monatsb. VIII. pp. 1-4 (1900).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Renshaw.</i> Nature Notes XI. pp. 164-167 (1900).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Currie.</i> P.U.S. Nat. Mus. XXII. pp. 497-499, pl. XVII. (1900).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1900.<span class="pagenum">301</span></td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Le Souëf.</i> Ibis 1900, pp. 612, 617, text-fig. 1.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1901.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XII. p. 34 (1901).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Reichenow.</i> Orn. Monatsb. IX. pp. 185-186 (1901).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Termes Füzetek, XXIV. p. 73 (1901).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. VIII. pp. 1, 93 (1901).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. VIII. pp. 53, 102, pls. II.-IV. -(1901).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1902.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Weiske.</i> Ein Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der Laubenvogel. Monat. -Schutze Vogelw. XXVII. pp. 41-45 (1902).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sclater.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIII. p. 23 (1902).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1903.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIII. p. 32 (1903).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Finsch.</i> Orn. Monatsb. XI. p. 167 (1903).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Renshaw.</i> Avicult. Mag. (2) II. pp. 26-27, fig. (1903).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. X. pp. 65-89, pl. I. 196-231, -435-480, pls. XIII. & XIV. (1903).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. X. pp. 232-254 (1903).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1904.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIV. pp. 38-40 (1904).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIV. p. 40 (1904).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1905.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Ibis 1905, pp. 429-440, pl. VIII. text-figs. 22-26.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Pycraft.</i> Ibis 1905, pp. 440-453.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XV. p. 91 (1905).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ibis 1905, pp. 401-429, 535-542.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1905-10.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> In Wytsman, Genera Avium. Psittaci, pts. 5, 11, & 12 -(1905-1910).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1906.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ibis, 1906, pp. 124-131, 326-333; 451-465, 642-659.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIX. pp. 7-8, 27 (1906).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Foerster and Rothschild.</i> Two new birds of Paradise Zool. Mus. Tring. -3 pp. Tring. 1st October, 1906.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXVIII. p. 129-130 (1906).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XIX. p. 39 (1906).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>North.</i> Vict. Nat. XXII. pp. 147, 156-8, pl. (1906).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1907.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Salvadori.</i> Ibis 1907, pp. 122-151; 311-322.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ingram, (Sir W.).</i> Ibis 1907, pp. 225-229, pl. V. text-figs. 8 & 9.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Simpson.</i> Ibis 1907, pp. 380-387, text-figs.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. XIV. pp. 433, 447 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. XIV. p. 504, pls. V.-VII. (1907).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 25 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 26 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>North.</i> Vict. Nat. XXIV. p. 136 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ingram</i>, (C.). Avicult. Mag. (2) V. p. 364, pl. (1907).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Le Souëf.</i> Emu. VI. p. 119-120 (1907).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1908.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXIX. pp. 170-180, 2 pls. pp. 204-206 -1 pl. (1908).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXX. pp. 127-128 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Nov. Zool. XV. p. 392 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sharpe.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXI. p. 67 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXIII. p. 7 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Goodfellow.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXIII. pp. 35-39 (1908).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1909.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Beaufort.</i> Nova Guinea V. Zoologie Livr. 3, pp. 389-420 (1909).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Nova Guinea IX., Zoologie Livr. 1. Birds from South-western -and Southern New Guinea, pp. 51-107, pl. III. (1909).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXX. pp. 225-244 (1909).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Horsbrugh</i>, (C. B.). Ibis, 1909, pp. 197-213.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Sassi.</i> J.f.O. 1909, pp. 365-383.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Nehrkorn.</i> Orn. Monatsb. XVII. p. 44 (1909).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Astley.</i> Avicult. Mag. (2) VII. pp. 156-158 (1909).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1910.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Van Oort.</i> Notes Leyden Mus. XXXII. pp. 78-82, 211-216 (1910).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Madarasz.</i> Ann. Hist. Nat. Mus. Nat. Hung. Budapest VIII., pp. 172-174, -pl. II. (1910).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Goodfellow.</i> Avicult. Mag. (3) 1, pp. 277-286 (1910).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1910.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span></td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. p. 10 (1910).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. pp. 13, 35, 36, 45 (1910).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. XVII. p. 484, pl. X. (eggs) (1910).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1911.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Ibis 1911, pp. 350-367, pls. V. & VI.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild and Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. XVIII. pp. 159-167 (1911).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXVII. pp. 66, 68, 83, 84 (1911).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1912.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Ibis 1912, pp. 109-112, pl. II.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Ogilvie-Grant.</i> Ibis 1912, pp. 112-118, pl. III.</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Hartert.</i> Nov. Zool. XVIII. p. 604. pls. VII. & VIII. (1912).</p></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Rothschild.</i> Bull. B.O.C. XXIX. pp. 50-52 (1912).</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span></p> - -<h2>APPENDIX B</h2> - -<h3>THE PYGMY QUESTION</h3> - -<p class="center f09"><span class="smcap">By Dr. A. C. HADDON, F.R.S.</span></p> - -<p>Pygmies, as their name implies, are very short men, -and the first question to decide is whether this short -stature is normal or merely a dwarfing due to unfavourable -environment. Although stature cannot be taken as -a trustworthy criterion of race, since it is very variable -within certain limits among most races, there are certain -peoples who may be described as normally tall, medium, -or short. The average human stature appears to be -about 1·675 m. (5 ft. 6 ins.). Those peoples who are -1·725 (5 ft. 8 ins.) or more in height are said to be tall, -those below 1·625 m. (5 ft. 4 ins.) are short, while those -who fall below 1·5 m. (4 ft. 11 ins.) are now usually -termed pygmies. One has only to turn to the investigations -of the Dordogne district by Collignon and others to -see how profoundly <i>la misère</i> can affect the stature of a -population living under adverse conditions, for example -in the canton of Saint Mathieu there are 8·8 per cent. -with a stature below 1·5 m. But when one finds within -one area, as in the East Indian region, distinct peoples -of medium, short and pygmy stature, living under conditions -which appear to be very similar, one is inclined -to suspect a racial difference between them, and the -suspicion becomes confirmed if we find other characters -associated with pygmy stature.</p> - -<p>Pygmy peoples are widely distributed in Central<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span> -Africa, but these Negrillos, as they are often termed, do -not concern us now.</p> - -<p>Asiatic pygmies have long been known, but it is only -comparatively recently that they have been studied -seriously, and even now there remains much to be -discovered about them. There are two main stocks on -the eastern border of the Indian Ocean, who have a very -short stature and are respectively characterised by curly -or wavy hair and by hair that grows in close small spirals—the -so-called woolly hair.</p> - -<p>(i.) The Sakai or Senoi of the southern portion of the -Malay Peninsula are typical examples of the former -stock, their average stature is slightly above the pygmy -limit, but they need not detain us longer as they belong -to a different race of mankind from the woolly-haired -stock. It may be mentioned however that cymotrichous -(curly-haired), dolichocephalic (narrow-headed), dark-skinned -peoples of very short stature, racially akin to the -Sakai, have been found in East Sumatra and in Celebes -(Toala) more or less mixed with alien blood; and quite -recently Moszkowski, as will be mentioned later, has -suggested that the islands of Geelvink Bay, Netherlands -New Guinea, were originally inhabited by the same stock. -All these peoples together with the Vedda and some -jungle tribes of the Deccan are now regarded as remnants -of a once widely distributed race to which the term Pre-Dravidian -has been applied; it is also believed by many -students that the chief element in the Australians is of -similar origin.</p> - -<p>(ii.) For a long time it has been known that there are -three groups of ulotrichous (woolly-haired), brachycephalic -(broad-headed), dark-skinned, pygmy peoples -inhabiting respectively the Andaman Islands, the Malay -Peninsula and the Philippines; to this race the name -Negrito is universally applied. We can now include in -it a fourth element from New Guinea. The physical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span> -characters of these several groups may be summarised as -follows:</p> - -<p>1. The <span class="smcap">Andamanese</span>, who are sometimes erroneously -called Mincopies, inhabit the Andaman Islands in -the Bay of Bengal. Their head <i>hair</i> is extremely -frizzly (woolly), fine in texture, lustreless and seldom -more than two or three inches long, or five inches when -untwisted, its colour varies between black, greyish -black, and sooty, the last perhaps predominating. Hair -only occasionally grows on the face and then but -scantily. There is little or no hair over the surface of -the body. The <i>skin</i> has several shades of colour between -bronze or dark copper, sooty, and black, the predominating -colour being a dull leaden hue like that of a black-leaded -stove. The average <i>stature</i> of 48 males is 1·492 m. -(4 ft. 10-3/4 ins.), the extremes being 1·365 m. (4 ft. 5-3/4 ins.) -and 1·632 m. (5 ft. 4-1/4 ins.). The <i>head</i> is moderately -brachycephalic, the average <i>cranial index</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the ratio -of the breadth to the length, the length being taken as -100) in male skulls is 81, thus the <i>cephalic index</i> of the -living would be about 83. The <i>features</i> may be described -as: face broad at the cheek-bones; eyes prominent; -nose much sunken at the root, straight and small; lips -full but not everted; chin small; the jaws do not -project.</p> - -<p>2. The <span class="smcap">Semang</span> live in the central region of the -Malay Peninsula, some of them are known under the -names of Udai, Pangan, Hami and Semán. The <i>hair</i> -of the head is short, universally woolly, and black. -Skeat says it is of a brownish black, not a bluish black -like that of the Malays, and Martin alludes to a reddish -shimmer when light falls on it, but says there is not a -brownish shimmer as in the Sakai. Hair is rare and -scanty on face and body. Skeat describes the <i>skin</i> -colour as dark chocolate brown approximating in some -Kedah Negritos to glossy black, and Martin says the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span> -skin of the chest is dark brown with reddish tinges, -while that of the face is mainly dark brown, the remainder -being medium brown, with reddish or pure -brown tinges. The data for the <i>stature</i> are not very -satisfactory, the best are a series of 17 males by Annandale -and Robinson, the average being 1·528 m. -(5 ft. 0-1/4 in.), with extreme, of 1·372 m. (4 ft. 6 ins.) and -1·604 (5 ft. 3 ins.). The average <i>cephalic index</i> is -about 78 or 79, the extremes ranging from about 74 to -about 84. The Semang are thus mesaticephalic on the -average. According to Skeat the <i>face</i> is round; the -forehead rounded, narrow and projecting, or as it were -“swollen”; the nose short and flattened, the nostrils -much distended, the breadth remarkably great, five -adult males having an average nasal index of 101·2, the -20 measured by Annandale and Robinson varied from -81·3 to 108·8 with an average of 97·1, but four men -measured by Martin had an average index of 83·5. The -cheek-bones are broad; jaws often protrude slightly; lips -not as a rule thick, Martin remarks that very characteristic -of both the Semang and the Sakai is the great -thickening of the integumental part of the upper lip, -the whole mouth region projecting from the lower edge -of the nose; this convexity occurs in 70 per cent., and -is well shown in his photographs.</p> - -<p>3. The <span class="smcap">Aeta</span> live in the mountainous districts of -the larger islands and in some of the smaller islands -of the Philippines. It is convenient to retain this name -for the variously named groups of Philippine Negritos, -many of whom show admixture with other peoples. -The <i>hair</i> of the head is universally woolly except when -mixture may be suspected or is known; Reed says it is -uniformly of a dirty black colour, sometimes sunburnt -on the top to reddish brown; Worcester describes it as -usually black but it may be reddish brown, and Meyer as -a dark seal-brown to black. Reed says that the beard is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span> -very scanty but all adult males have some and that -there is very little body hair, but Worcester states that -the men often have abundant beards and a thick growth -of hair on the arms, chest and legs. The <i>skin</i> is described -as being of a dark chocolate brown, rather than -black, with a yellowish tinge on the exposed parts -(Reed), sooty black (Sawyer), or dark, sooty brown -(Worcester). The average <i>stature</i> of 48 men is 1·463 m. -(4 ft. 9-1/2 ins.), ranging from 1·282 m. (4 ft. 2-1/2 ins.) to -1·6 m. (5 ft. 3 ins.), but some of these were not pure -breeds (Reed); other observations also show a considerable -range in height. The <i>cephalic index</i> of 16 -males averages 82·2, ranging from 78·8 to 92·3, ten -range between 80 and 85 (Reed). <i>Features</i>: typically -the nose is broad, flat, bridgeless, with prominent -arched alæ and nostrils invariably visible from the front. -Of 76 persons measured by Reed 4 males and 3 -females had nasal indices below 89, 10 and 3 of 90-99, -20 and 13 of 100-109, 7 and 7 of 110-119, 6 and 3 above -120; the median of the males is 102, the extremes being -83·3 and 125, the median of the females is 105, their -extremes being 79·5 and 140·7; in other words they are -extremely platyrhine. The eyes are round. The lips -are moderately thick, but not protruding. A somewhat -pronounced convexity is sometimes seen between the -upper lip and the nose in the photographs of Meyer’s -and Folkmar’s Albums. Meyer says the projecting jaw -gives an ape-like appearance to the face, but Reed says -the Aeta have practically no prognathism, a statement -which is borne out by his and Folkmar’s photographs.</p> - -<p>4. The discovery of pygmies in Netherlands New Guinea -by the Expedition has drawn public attention to a -problem of perennial interest to ethnologists. Nearly -twenty-five years ago Sir William Flower stated, “that -it (the Negrito race) has contributed considerably to form -the population of New Guinea is unquestionable. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span> -many parts of that great island, small round-headed -tribes live more or less distinct from the larger and -longer-headed people who make up the bulk of the -population.” (Lecture at the Royal Institution, April -13, 1888, reprinted in <i>Essays on Museums</i>, 1898, p. 302.) -No further information is given, nor are his authorities -mentioned. Perhaps he was alluding to the following -statement by de Quatrefages, “L’extension des Négritos -en Mélanésie est bien plus considérable. Ici leurs tribus -sont mêlées et juxtaposées à celles des Papouas probablement -dans toute la Nouvelle Guinée” (<i>Rev. d’Ethn.</i>, 1882, -p. 185); subsequently he wrote, “La confusion regrettable -(namely the confusion of the brachycephalic -Negrito-Papuans with the dolichocephalic Papuans, of -which Earl, Wallace, Meyer and others have been guilty) -est cause que l’on n’a pas recherché les traits differentiels -qui peuvent distinguer les Negritos-Papous des vrais -Papouas au point de vue de l’état social, des mœurs, des -croyances, des industries.” (<i>Les Pygmées</i>, 1887, p. 97, -English Translation, 1895, p. 62.) Dr. A. B. Meyer, -from whose essay these quotations have been taken, -adds, “No, the confusion has not been in this case in -the heads of the travellers; a Negritic race, side by side -with the Papuan race, nobody has been able to discover, -just because it does not exist, and it does not exist -because the Papuan race, in spite of its variability, is on -the one hand a uniform race, and on the other as good -as identical with the Negritos.” (<i>The Distribution of the -Negritos</i>, 1899, p. 85.) When reviewing this essay in -<i>Nature</i> (Sept. 7, 1899, p. 433), I stated that I was inclined -to adopt the view that the various types exhibited by -the natives of New Guinea “point to a crossing of different -elements,” and do not “simply reveal the variability -of the race,” as Dr. Meyer provisionally believed. -While agreeing with Dr. Meyer that the “different conditions -of existence” (p. 80) in New Guinea probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span> -have reacted on the physical characters of the natives -(about which, however, we have extremely little precise -information), we have now sufficient evidence to prove -that the indigenous or true Papuan population has been -modified in places by intrusions from elsewhere, and of -late years data have been accumulating which point to -the existence of a pygmy population. Shortly before his -death, Dr. Meyer drew my attention to a more recent -statement of his views, in which he says, “Although I -formerly stated (<i>Negritos</i>, p. 87) that the question -whether the Papuans, <i>i.e.</i> the inhabitants of New Guinea, -are a uniform race with a wide range of variation or a -mixed race is not yet ripe for pronouncement, I am now -more inclined, after Mr. Ray’s discovery of the Papuan -linguistic family, to look upon them as a mixed race of -‘Negritos’ and Malays in the wider sense. I am eagerly -looking forward to the exploration of the interior of that -great island, for may it not be possible there to discover -the Negrito element in that old and more constant form -in which it persists in the Philippines, Andamans, and in -Malakka.” (<i>Globus</i>, <span class="smcap">XCIV.</span>, 1908, p. 192.) This later -view appears to me to be less tenable than his earlier -one, as it is difficult to see how a mixture of pygmy, -woolly-haired brachycephals with short, straight-haired -brachycephals (Malays) could give rise to the taller, -woolly-haired dolichocephalic Papuans.</p> - -<p>The racial history of New Guinea has proved to be -unexpectedly complicated. We are now justified in -recognising at least two indigenous elements, the Negrito -and Papuan; the effect of the island populations to the -east has not yet been determined, but in the south-west -two immigrations at least from Melanesia have taken -place, which, with Seligmann, we may term Papuo-Melanesian. -(<i>Journ. R. Anth. Inst.</i>, <span class="smcap">XXXIX.</span> 1909, -pp. 246, 315; and <i>The Melanesians of Brit. New Guinea</i>, -1910.) It is, however, almost certain that future<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span> -researches will reveal that the problem is not so simple -as that just indicated.</p> - -<p>Writing in 1902, Dr. Weule states (<i>Globus</i>, <span class="smcap">LXXXII.</span> -p. 247) that he has no further doubts as to the existence -of pygmies in New Guinea, though it is not yet clear -whether they live in definite groups or as scattered -remnants among the taller peoples. He points out that -information as to the pygmies was of necessity scanty, -as expeditions had always followed the course of rivers -where encounter with them might least be expected, -since they are for the most part mountain people. -Through the activity of Sir William MacGregor and -others, British New Guinea is “the least unknown” part -of the whole island; there is therefore more likelihood of -pygmy peoples being discovered in German or Netherlands -New Guinea, the latter being entirely a <i>terra incognita</i> -from the geographical standpoint. Dr. Weule’s -article contains various references to previous literature -on the pygmy question, and three photographs of -pygmies from the middle Ramu are reproduced, which -show three men well under 142 cm. (4 ft. 8-3/4 ins.) in -height.</p> - -<p>The later history of the discovery of a pygmy substratum -in the population of parts of New Guinea is as -follows:—</p> - -<p>Dr. M. Krieger had visited the Sattelberg and the -neighbourhood of Simbang where he heard reports of -dwarfs from natives, but no European had seen them -(<i>Neu Guinea</i>, 1899, p. 143); subsequently Dr. R. Pöch -stayed from December 1904 to February 1905 in the Kai -area, which lies inland from Finschhafen in German New -Guinea. In the <i>Mitt. aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten</i>, -1907, he writes (p. 225): “During the first part of the -time I remained chiefly on the Sattelberg itself, and -observed and measured the various Kai frequenting the -Mission Station. In them I became acquainted with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span> -mountain tribe entirely different from the coast peoples -previously visited. In fifty men I found the average -height to be 152·5 cm. (5 ft.); the skulls are, as a rule, -mesocephalic to brachycephalic. Towards the coast -(Jabim) dolichocephaly becomes more usual and the -type also changes. Very small people are not infrequently -met with among the Kai.” Among 300 adult -males he found twelve ranging from 133 to 145·6 cm. -(4 ft. 4-1/2 ins. to 4 ft. 9-1/4 ins.). “For the present,” he adds, -“it cannot be determined whether this is merely a -variation in stature or whether we have here survivals -of an older smaller race not yet entirely merged in the -Kai” (<i>cf.</i> also <i>Sitzungsber. der Anth. Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, -1905, pp. 40 ff.). In the <i>Zeitschr. f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XXXIX.</span>, 1907, -p. 384, he states that on the north coast of British New -Guinea and in Normanby Island he often came across very -small people. Dr. O. Reche, in describing a journey up the -Kaiserin-Augusta river, says that, “the population consists -of three clearly distinguishable types or races, two -of which have long, very narrow skulls, and one a short -broad skull. Inland from the river bank there seems to -be in addition to these a pygmy-like people of small -growth; at all events, I found in some of the villages -situated on the upper river, among other skulls, some -which were remarkably small and of a special type, and -which must have been taken from enemies living further -inland.” (<i>Globus</i>, <span class="smcap">XCVII.</span> 1910, p. 286.)</p> - -<p>Neuhauss studied the Sattelberg natives and is very -certain that a pygmy element occurs there. He notes -the stockiness of certain individuals, who have a long -powerful trunk and short limbs, whereas the Papuans -are lean and slender; the shortest man measured by him -was 1·355 m. (4 ft. 5-1/2 ins.). Again, the <i>cephalic index</i> of -260 Papuans averages 76·8, while that of thirty-two short -individuals averages 78·8, and on the Sattelberg 79·7, -some even ranging from 83-84·6. He also noticed that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span> -the ears were short, wide and without lobe; the hands -and feet were unusually small. Von Luschan draws -attention to the convexity of the whole upper lip area -as in African pygmies. Neuhauss insists that the -pygmies are almost merged into the rest of the population, -and that their low stature is not due to poor -conditions. (<i>Zs. f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLIII.</span>, 1911, p. 280.)</p> - -<p>Dr. M. Moszkowski found that in Geelvink Bay the -hair is not always ulotrichous (woolly), as is usual with -Papuans, especially on Biak and Padeido Islands the hair -often recalls the cymotrichous (curly) hair of Veddas. -Other points of resemblance with wild tribes of Further -Asia are:—A very dainty graceful bone-structure, small -hands and feet, relatively short limbs compared to the -trunk, low stature, few being above 156 cm. and most -below 150 cm. (4 ft. 11 ins.), and now and then the -characteristic convex upper lip of the wild tribes (<i>Zs. f. -Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLIII.</span> 1911, pp. 317, 318). On these grounds -Moszkowski inclines to think that the islands of Geelvink -Bay were originally peopled by pre-Malayan wild tribes -allied to the Vedda, Sakai, Toala, etc., and thus the -present population is the result of crossing between these -and immigrant Melanesians; true Malays came later. -Moszkowski has not yet published any head measurements -of these interesting people, and the evidence is insufficient -to decide whether this is a Pre-Dravidian or a -Negrito element in the population of these islands, the -curly character of the hair may be due as elsewhere in -New Guinea to racial mixture; the photograph of a -“Vedda-type” from Padeido island is by no means -convincing (<i>l.c.</i> p. 318).</p> - -<p>Finally Guppy, Ribbe and Rascher report the occurrence -of very short people in the interior of the larger -islands of the Bismarck Archipelago and of the Solomon -Islands; recently Thurnwald refers to very small people -in the mountainous interior of Bougainville who speak a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span> -non-Melanesian language, one man from Mari mountain -had a stature of 1·39 m. (4 ft. 6-1/2 ins.). In the mountains -the mixed population consists of types recalling the -Solomon Islanders and “representatives of a small short-legged, -broad-faced, short-skulled, very hairy, wide-nosed -people.” (<i>Zs. f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLII.</span> 1910, p. 109.)</p> - -<p>Discussing the pygmies of Melanesia von Luschan referred -in 1910 (<i>Zs. f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLII.</span>, p. 939) to bones brought -a century ago from the Admiralty Islands which must -have belonged to individuals 1·32-1·35 m. (4 ft. 4 ins.-4 ft. -5 ins.) in stature; it is unlikely that the type persists, -though Moseley mentions an unusually short man, -a little over 5 ft. (<i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> 1877, p. 384). In -the collection made by the German Marine Expedition -there are a number of extremely small skulls from New -Ireland, which von Luschan is convinced belong to -pygmies. Finsch brought from New Britain over thirty -years ago the smallest known skull of a normal adult -person; it came from the S.W. coast of Gazelle -Peninsula. Like four other extremely small feminine -skulls from New Britain this one is dolichocephalic (ceph. -index 73). Von Luschan is of opinion that the small -people of Melanesia represent an older stratum of population -than their tall neighbours.</p> - -<p>While other travellers have come across what is now -accepted as a pygmy element in the population, the -members of this Expedition have for the first time -proved the existence of a pygmy people, known as the -<span class="smcap"><i>Tapiro</i></span>, who may be regarded as predominantly Negritos. -The <i>hair</i> is short, woolly and black, but seemed brown -in two or three cases, there is a good deal of hair on the -face and of short downy hair scattered about the body. -The <i>skin</i> is of a lighter colour than that of the neighbouring -Papuans, some individuals being almost yellow. The -<i>stature</i> averages 1·449 m. (4 ft. 9 ins.), ranging from -1·326 m. (4 ft. 4-1/4 ins.) to 1·529 m. (5 ft. 0-1/4in.). The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span> -<i>cephalic index</i> averages 79·5, varying from 66·9 to 85·1. -<i>Features</i>: The nose is straight and though described as -“very wide at the nostrils,” the mean of the indices is -only 83, the extremes being 65·5 to 94. The eyes are -noticeably larger and rounder than those of Papuans. -“The upper lip of many of the men is long and curiously -convex.”</p> - -<p>At the same time that the Expedition discovered -pygmies in Netherlands New Guinea, Mr. R. W. Williamson -was investigating the Mafulu, a mountain people on -the upper waters of the Angabunga river in the Mekeo -District. He has shown (<i>The Mafulu Mountain People -of British New Guinea</i>, 1912) that in all probability these -and some neighbouring tribes are a mixture of Negritos, -Papuans and Papuo-Melanesians. Their invariably -woolly <i>hair</i> is generally dark brown, often quite dark, -approaching to black and sometimes perhaps quite black, -but frequently it is lighter and often not what we in -Europe should call dark; a beard and moustache are -quite unusual. The <i>skin</i> is dark sooty-brown. The -average stature is 1·551 m. (5 ft. 1 in.) ranging from -1·47 m. (4 ft. 10 ins.) to 1·63 m. (5 ft. 4 ins.). They are -fairly strong and muscular, but rather slender and slight -in development. The average <i>cephalic index</i> is 80 and -ranges from 74·7 to 86·8. <i>Features</i>: The average nasal -index is 84·3, the extremes being 71·4 and 100. The -eyes are dark brown and very bright. The lips are fine -and delicate.</p> - -<p>It is worth noting that Pöch had in 1906 measured -two Fergusson Island men with statures 1·403 and -1·425 m. (4 ft. 7-1/4 ins., 4 ft. 8 ins.), who told him that “all -the people in that tribe were as small or smaller.” (<i>Zs. -f. Ethnol.</i> <span class="smcap">XLII.</span> 1910, p. 941.)</p> - -<p>On reading through the brief synopses which I have -given it is apparent that, with the possible exception of -the Andamanese, each of the Negrito peoples shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> -considerable diversity in its physical characters and this -is more evident when more detailed accounts and photographs -are studied. There appears to be sufficient -evidence to show that a very ancient ulotrichous, low -brachycephalic, pygmy population once extended over -the Malay Peninsula and a great part (at least) of -Melanesia and New Guinea, but the existing groups do -not appear to be homogeneous judging from the diversity -in stature, head index and nasal index. Stature, as has -already been stated, is always recognised as subject to -considerable variation, but the bulk of the measurements -of these peoples fall below 1·5 m., and therefore indicate -a predominant very short population. The head indices -mainly show low brachycephaly; the occasional very low -indices may be due either to a Pre-Dravidian mixture or -in New Guinea, at all events, to a Papuan strain. The -former existence of a Pre-Dravidian stock in New Guinea -is highly probable, nor must it be overlooked that there -may have been a hitherto undescribed pygmy or very -short dolichocephalic ulotrichous stock in New Guinea -and Melanesia. The nasal index of these Negrito peoples -is very suggestive of racial complexity. Judging from -photographs, in the absence of measurements, the -Andamanese have by no means a broad nose, and a -mesorhine index is found in all the other groups, some -of the Tapiro and Mafulu are even leptorhine. A constantly -recurring feature is the convex upper lip, but -that also occurs among the Sakai. The problem now is -to determine what foreign elements have modified these -pygmies, and whether the Negrito stock itself will not -have to be subdivided into at least two groups.</p> - -<p>The Negritos have certain cultural characters more -or less in common, some of which differentiate them -from their neighbours. There is very little artificial -deformation of the person. The Tapiro and Mafulu -alone do not tattoo or scarify the skin; Skeat says that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span> -the Semang “do not appear as a race to tattoo or -scarify,” and the Aeta scarify only occasionally. The -nasal septum is not pierced for a nose-stick by the -Andamanese and Aeta nor among the purer Semang -tribes, but the Tapiro and Mafulu do so. The Semang -women possess numerous bamboo combs which are -engraved with curious designs of a magical import, -similar combs are possessed by nearly every Aeta man -and woman. The Andamanese have no combs.</p> - -<p>With regard to clothing, the male Andamanese are -nude, the females wear a small apron of leaves or a single -leaf, but one tribe, the Jarawa, go nude. The male -Semang frequently wear a loin-cloth, or simply leaves -retained by a string girdle, sometimes the women wear -this too or a fringed girdle made of the long black strings -of a fungus, but more usually a waist-cloth. The Aeta -men wear a loin-cloth and the women a waist-cloth. -The Mafulu men and women wear a perineal band of -bark cloth, while the Tapiro men wear a unique gourd -penis-sheath. A gourd or calabash is also worn by men -on the north coast of New Guinea, but not further west -than Cape Bonpland, in this case the hole is in the side -and not at the end as among the Tapiro.</p> - -<p>The Negritos are collectors and hunters, and never -cultivate the soil unless they have been modified by -contact with more advanced peoples.</p> - -<p>The Andamanese make three kinds of simple huts on -the ground and large communal huts are sometimes -built. The Semang construct “bee-hive” and long -communal huts and weather screens similar to those of -the Andamanese. They also erect tree shelters, but -direct evidence is very scanty that pure Semang inhabit -huts with a flooring raised on piles; they sleep on bamboo -platforms. The Aeta usually make very simple huts -sometimes with a raised bamboo sleeping platform inside. -The pile dwellings of the Tapiro have evidently been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span> -copied from those of other tribes in the interior. The -Mafulu build a different kind of pile dwelling which has -a peculiar hood-like porch.</p> - -<p>All the Negritos have the bow and arrow. The Great -Andamanese bow is peculiar while that of the Little -Andamanese appears to resemble that of the Semang. -The Great Andamanese and the Tapiro have very long -bows. Harpoon arrows with iron points are used by the -Andamanese and Aeta, the arrows of the Andamanese, -Semang and Aeta are nocked, but only those of the two -latter are feathered. No nocked or feathered arrows -occur in New Guinea. Only the Semang and Aeta are -known to poison their arrows, and they may have -borrowed the idea from the poisoned darts of the blow-pipe. -Some Semang have adopted the blow-pipe.</p> - -<p>The Andamanese appear to be one of the very few -people who possess fire but do not know how to make -it afresh. The Semang usually make fire by “rubbing -together short blocks of wood, bamboo or cane. A -common method consists in passing a rattan line round -the portion of a dried branch, and holding the branch -down by the feet whilst the line is rapidly worked to -and fro with the hands.” Flint and steel are also used. -(The Sakai employ similar methods.) (<i>Skeat and Blagden</i>, -<span class="smcap">I</span>, pp. 111-114, 119.) Among the Aeta flint and steel -have almost replaced the old method of making fire by -one piece of split bamboo being sawed rapidly across -another piece. Semper collected from Negritos of N.E. -Luzon, a split stick, bark fibre and a strip of rattan -used in fire-making, these are described and figured by -A. B. Meyer (<i>Publ. der K. Ethn. Mus. zu. Dresden</i>, <span class="smcap">IX</span>, -<i>Negritos</i>, p. 5, pl. 11, fig. 7 a-c). It is interesting to find -that the Tapiro employ the same method and apparatus -(p. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>). Thus there occurs among Negritos in the -Philippines and New Guinea the method of making -fire by partly splitting a dry stick, keeping the ends<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span> -open by inserting a piece of wood or a stone in the cleft, -stuffing some tinder into the narrow part of the slit and -then drawing rapidly a strip of rattan to and fro across -this spot till a spark ignites the tinder. Pöch found it -among the Poum, dwelling in the mountains inland from -the Kai (<i>Geog. Jnl.</i> <span class="smcap">XXX</span>, 1907, p. 612, and <i>Mitt. Anth. Ges. -in Wien</i>, <span class="smcap">XXXVII.</span> 1907, p. 59, fig. 2, 3). Precisely the -same method was described by the Rev. Dr. W. G. Lawes -who found it among the Koiari of Tabure on Mt. Warirata -(<i>Proc. R. Geog. Soc.</i> <span class="smcap">V</span>, 1883, p. 357). Finsch -collected the apparatus from the same people (<i>Ann. -des K.K. naturhist. Hofmus. in Wien</i>, <span class="smcap">III</span>, 1888, p. 323; -Leo Frobenius, <i>The Childhood of Man</i>, 1909, fig. 313, -but Frobenius is mistaken in representing the rattan -as going twice round the stick). Dr. H. O. Forbes had -found it at Ubumkara on the Naoro, also in the Central -Division (<i>P.R.G.S.</i> <span class="smcap">XII.</span> 1890, p. 562). Mr. C. A. W. -Monckton noticed it in 1906 among the Kambisa tribe, -in the valley of the Chirima, Mt. Albert Edward (<i>Ann. -Rep. Brit. New Guinea</i>, 1907). Pöch suggests that N. -von Miklucho-Maclay was wrong in thinking that the -strip was rubbed in the split of a stick (<i>l.c.</i> p. 61); -this is the earliest Papuan record (1872).</p> - -<p>From the above account it is possible that the split -stick and rattan strip method of fire-making may be a -criterion of Negrito culture, but it should be noted that the -stick is not reported as split among the Semang, and that -the unsplit stick is found among the Sakai and the Kayans -and Kenyahs of Sarawak who are not Negritos. Also the -split stick is found at several spots in the mountainous -interior of the south-east peninsula of New Guinea where -Negrito influence has not yet been recorded, but Mr. -Williamson’s observations are very suggestive in this -respect. Pöch (<i>l.c.</i> p. 62) points out that this method is -nearest akin to “fire-sawing with bamboo, both in -principle and distribution,” of which he gives details. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span> -somewhat similar method is that described by W. E. -Roth. A split hearth-stick is held by the feet, but fire -is made by sawing with another piece of wood, a device -which appears to be widely spread in Queensland and -occurs also on the Lachlan River, N.S.W. (<i>N. Queensland -Ethnogr. Bull.</i> 7, 1904, sect. 9, pl. <span class="smcap">II</span>. figs. 17, 18).</p> - -<p>So far as is known the social structure of the Negritos -is very simple. Among the Andamanese there is no -division of the community into two moieties, no clan -system nor totemism, neither has a classificatory system -of kinship been recorded; the social unit appears to be -the family, and the power of the head-man is very -limited. Our knowledge concerning the Semang and -Aeta is extremely imperfect but they probably resemble -the Andamanese in these points. The Andamanese and -Semang are strictly monogamous, polygyny is allowed -among the Aeta, but monogamy prevails. The only -restriction at all on marriage appears to be the prohibition -of marriage between near kindred, and divorce is very -rare. All bury their dead, but it is considered by the -Andamanese more complimentary to place the dead on a -platform which is generally built in a large tree, and the -more honourable practice of the Semang is to expose -the dead in trees. The Mafulu bury ordinary people, -but the corpses of chiefs are placed in an open box either -on a platform or in the fork of a kind of fig tree. -Nothing is known about the social life of the Tapiro, -and Williamson says, “The very simple ideas of the -Mafulu, as compared with the Papuans and Melanesians, -in matters of social organization, implements, arts and -crafts, religion and other things may well, I think, be -associated with a primitive Negrito origin” (<i>l.c.</i> p. 306).</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span></p> - -<h3>SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h3> - -<p class="p f085">This is not the place to attempt to give a record of the very voluminous -bibliography of the Negritos, and most of the works here recorded are those from -which the foregoing facts have been collected. Books referred to in the text are, -with one or two exceptions, not here repeated.</p> - -<p class="center f085"><i>The General Question.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot3"> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Danielli, G., “Studi di Antropogeografia generale.” <i>Memorie Geografiche</i>, -N. 18. Vol. VI. 1912.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Flower, W. H. <i>The Pygmy Races of Men.</i> Royal Inst. Lecture, 1888, reprinted -in <i>Essays on Museums</i>, 1898.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Lapicque, L. “La Race Negrito.” <i>Ann. de Géographie</i>, 1896, p. 407.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Meyer, A. B. <i>The Distribution of the Negritos</i>, 1899; translation with additions -from <i>Publikationen d. K. Ethn. Mus. zu Dresden</i>, IX. 1893.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Quatrefages, A. de. <i>The Pygmies</i>, 1895. (English Translation).</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Schmidt, W. <i>Die Stellung der Pygmäenvölker in der Entwicklungsgeschichte des -Menschen</i>, 1910.</p> - -<p class="p padl2 f085">Pater W. Schmidt has gone into the whole pygmy question with great -thoroughness. He extends his comparison to the African pygmies -(Negrillos), between whom and the Asiatic pygmies he attempts to prove a -connection through Southern India. Emphasis is laid on the “infantile” -physical characters of both African and Asiatic pygmies and the extremely -primitive features of their culture. He is inclined to regard the Pre-Dravidian -Vedda, Senoi and Toala as of mixed pygmy origin, finding -support for this theory in the proximity of the Senoi to the Semang in the -Malay Peninsula. The eastward extension of the pygmies into Melanesia -and New Guinea is not dealt with.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Tyson, E. <i>A Philological Essay concerning the Pygmies of the Ancients</i>, 1699. -Edited by B. C. A. Windle, 1894.</p> - -<p class="center f085"><i>The Andamanese.</i></p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Dobson, G. E., “On the Andamans and Andamanese.” <i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> -IV. 1875, p. 457.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Flower, W. H., “On the Osteology and Affinities of the Natives of the -Andaman Islands,” <i>J.A.I.</i>, IX. 1879, p. 108, <i>cf.</i> also X., p. 124, XIV., p. 115, -XVIII., p. 73.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Lane Fox, A., “Observations on Mr. Man’s Collection of Andamanese and -Nicobarese Objects,” <i>J.A.I.</i>, VII. 1877, p. 434.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Man, E. H., “On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands,” <i>J.A.I.</i>, -XII. 1882-3, pp. 69, 117, 327, <i>cf.</i> also VII. p. 105, XI. p. 268.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Portman, M. V., “Notes on the Andamanese,” <i>J.A.I.</i>, XXV. 1896, p. 361.</p> - -<p class="center f085"><i>The Semang.</i></p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Skeat, W. W., and Blagden, C. O., <i>Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula</i>, 1906.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Martin, R., <i>Die Inlandstämme der Malayischen Halbinsel</i>, 1905.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Annandale, N., and Robinson, H. C., <i>Fasciculi Malayensis</i>, Anthropology, -Part I, 1903, p. 105.</p> - -<p class="center f085"><i>The Aeta.</i></p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Folkmar, D., <i>Album of Philippine Types</i>, Manila, 1904.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Koeze, G. A., “Crania Ethnica Philippinica,” <i>Publicatiën uit ’s rijks ethnographisch -Museum</i>, Serie II. No. 3, Haarlem, 1901-1904.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Meyer, A. B., <i>Album of Filipino Types</i>, 1885, Vol. II., 1891, and Vol. III., 1904, -with photographs taken by Dr. A. Schadenberg.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Meyer, A. B., “Die Philippinen, II., Negritos,” <i>Publikationen des K. Ethnogr. -Mus. zu Dresden</i>, IX. 1893 (and <i>cf.</i> <i>J.A.I.</i>, XXV. p. 172).</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Reed, W. A., “Negritos of Zambales,” <i>Department of the Interior, Ethnological -Survey Publications</i>, II. Manila, 1904.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Sawyer, F. H., <i>The Inhabitants of the Philippines</i>, 1900.</p> - -<p class="indent2 f085">Worcester, Dean C., “The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon,” <i>The -Philippine Journal of Science</i>, I. 1906, p. 791.</p></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span></p> - -<p class="center padb1"><span class="smcap">Measurements of 22 Tapiro Pygmies (Males).</span></p> - -<table class="tableleft" summary="key" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">KEY:</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">A. No. of man.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">B. Height of stature.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">C. Girth of chest.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">D. Vertexto tragus.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">E. Head length.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">F. Head breadth.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">G. Face breadth.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">H. Bigonial breadth.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">I. Face length.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">J. Nose length.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">K. Nose breadth.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">L. Interocular breadth.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="3">Indices.</td><td class="tdr f3" rowspan="3">{</td> -<td class="tdl">a. Head index.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">b. Face Index.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">c. Nasal Index.</td></tr></table> -<p> </p> -<table class="table2" summary="Measurements" border='0'><tr> -<td class="tdc bt bb width3 vertb" rowspan="2">A.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">B.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">C.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">D.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">E.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">F.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">G.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">H.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">I.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">J.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">K.</td> -<td class="tdc bt bb bl width3 vertb" rowspan="2">L.</td> - <td class="tdc bl bt" colspan="3">Indices<br /> -╭━━━^━━━╮</td></tr><tr> -<td class='tdc bb bl br width3'>a.</td> -<td class='tdc bb br width3'>b.</td> -<td class='tdc bb width3'>c.</td> - </tr> -<tr><td class="tdc padt1">17</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">152·7</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">80·5</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">18·2</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">14·1</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">12·7</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">10·7</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">5·1</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">3·9</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">3·4</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">77·5</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">78·7</td><td class="tdc bl padt1">76·5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">18</td><td class="tdc bl">148·0</td><td class="tdc bl">77·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·7</td><td class="tdc bl">17·7</td><td class="tdc bl">13·8</td><td class="tdc bl">13·4</td><td class="tdc bl">12·7</td><td class="tdc bl">10·0</td><td class="tdc bl">4·7</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">2·8</td><td class="tdc bl">78·0</td><td class="tdc bl">74·6</td><td class="tdc bl">87·2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">19</td><td class="tdc bl">142·5</td><td class="tdc bl">71·0</td><td class="tdc bl">11·2</td><td class="tdc bl">18·1</td><td class="tdc bl">13·9</td><td class="tdc bl">13·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11.5</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">3·6</td><td class="tdc bl">3·4</td><td class="tdc bl">76·8</td><td class="tdc bl">87·8</td><td class="tdc bl">65·5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">20</td><td class="tdc bl">142·1</td><td class="tdc bl">71·5</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">17·2</td><td class="tdc bl">11·5</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·0</td><td class="tdc bl">10·3</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">66·9</td><td class="tdc bl">79·5</td><td class="tdc bl">85·4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">21</td><td class="tdc bl">147·9</td><td class="tdc bl">78·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·6</td><td class="tdc bl">17·4</td><td class="tdc bl">13·7</td><td class="tdc bl">12·5</td><td class="tdc bl">9·3</td><td class="tdc bl">11·7</td><td class="tdc bl">6·0</td><td class="tdc bl">4·5</td><td class="tdc bl">3.2</td><td class="tdc bl">78·7</td><td class="tdc bl">93·6</td><td class="tdc bl">75·0</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">22</td><td class="tdc bl">140·2</td><td class="tdc bl">74·0</td><td class="tdc bl">11·2</td><td class="tdc bl">17·7</td><td class="tdc bl">14·2</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">10·7</td><td class="tdc bl">10·6</td><td class="tdc bl">5·2</td><td class="tdc bl">4·2</td><td class="tdc bl">3·4</td><td class="tdc bl">80·2</td><td class="tdc bl">81·5</td><td class="tdc bl">80·8</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">23</td><td class="tdc bl">145·4</td><td class="tdc bl">74·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·9</td><td class="tdc bl">17·8</td><td class="tdc bl">14·3</td><td class="tdc bl">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl">12·5</td><td class="tdc bl">10·6</td><td class="tdc bl">4·5</td><td class="tdc bl">3·9</td><td class="tdc bl">3·3</td><td class="tdc bl">80·3</td><td class="tdc bl">77·9</td><td class="tdc bl">86·7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">24</td><td class="tdc bl">152·9</td><td class="tdc bl">78·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·1</td><td class="tdc bl">17·7</td><td class="tdc bl">14·3</td><td class="tdc bl">12·7</td><td class="tdc bl">11·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11·6</td><td class="tdc bl">5·2</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·2</td><td class="tdc bl">80·8</td><td class="tdc bl">91·3</td><td class="tdc bl">84·6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">25</td><td class="tdc bl">138·9</td><td class="tdc bl">74·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·6</td><td class="tdc bl">16·7</td><td class="tdc bl">14·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11·8</td><td class="tdc bl">9·6</td><td class="tdc bl">10·4</td><td class="tdc bl">5·0</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">2·8</td><td class="tdc bl">84·4</td><td class="tdc bl">88·1</td><td class="tdc bl">88·0</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">26</td><td class="tdc bl">149·0</td><td class="tdc bl">72·7</td><td class="tdc bl">12·6</td><td class="tdc bl">17·4</td><td class="tdc bl">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl">12·3</td><td class="tdc bl">11·8</td><td class="tdc bl">10·7</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">3·9</td><td class="tdc bl">3·2</td><td class="tdc bl">78·2</td><td class="tdc bl">87·0</td><td class="tdc bl">81·3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">27</td><td class="tdc bl">148·2</td><td class="tdc bl">81·4</td><td class="tdc bl">11·3</td><td class="tdc bl">18·5</td><td class="tdc bl">13·9</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">11·3</td><td class="tdc bl">5·2</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·2</td><td class="tdc bl">75·1</td><td class="tdc bl">88·3</td><td class="tdc bl">84·6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">28</td><td class="tdc bl">132·6</td><td class="tdc bl">72·8</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">17·5</td><td class="tdc bl">14·7</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">9·8</td><td class="tdc bl">11·2</td><td class="tdc bl">5·1</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·0</td><td class="tdc bl">84·0</td><td class="tdc bl">87·5</td><td class="tdc bl">80·4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">29</td><td class="tdc bl">150·7</td><td class="tdc bl">79·5</td><td class="tdc bl">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl">17·4</td><td class="tdc bl">14·8</td><td class="tdc bl">13·6</td><td class="tdc bl">12·3</td><td class="tdc bl">11·1</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·4</td><td class="tdc bl">85·1</td><td class="tdc bl">81·6</td><td class="tdc bl">80·0</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">30</td><td class="tdc bl">148·8</td><td class="tdc bl">74·0</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">18·1</td><td class="tdc bl">14·1</td><td class="tdc bl">12·6</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">10·6</td><td class="tdc bl">4·9</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·3</td><td class="tdc bl">77·9</td><td class="tdc bl">84·1</td><td class="tdc bl">89·8</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">31</td><td class="tdc bl">150·1</td><td class="tdc bl">79·0</td><td class="tdc bl">13·5</td><td class="tdc bl">17·8</td><td class="tdc bl">14·8</td><td class="tdc bl">13·1</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·2</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">4·4</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">83·2</td><td class="tdc bl">93·1</td><td class="tdc bl">80·0</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">32</td><td class="tdc bl">139·8</td><td class="tdc bl">76·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·5</td><td class="tdc bl">17·4</td><td class="tdc bl">14·7</td><td class="tdc bl">13·4</td><td class="tdc bl">10·8</td><td class="tdc bl">10·4</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">84·5</td><td class="tdc bl">77·6</td><td class="tdc bl">74·6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">33</td><td class="tdc bl">134·3</td><td class="tdc bl">71·8</td><td class="tdc bl">12·2</td><td class="tdc bl">16·2</td><td class="tdc bl">13·4</td><td class="tdc bl">13·2</td><td class="tdc bl">11·7</td><td class="tdc bl">10·6</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">82·7</td><td class="tdc bl">80·3</td><td class="tdc bl">85·4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">34</td><td class="tdc bl">150·6</td><td class="tdc bl">78·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">18·2</td><td class="tdc bl">14·6</td><td class="tdc bl">13·8</td><td class="tdc bl">11·4</td><td class="tdc bl">11·6</td><td class="tdc bl">5·9</td><td class="tdc bl">5·0</td><td class="tdc bl">3·6</td><td class="tdc bl">80·2</td><td class="tdc bl">84·1</td><td class="tdc bl">84·8</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">35</td><td class="tdc bl">144·2</td><td class="tdc bl">79·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·0</td><td class="tdc bl">17·8</td><td class="tdc bl">13·7</td><td class="tdc bl">13·5</td><td class="tdc bl">12·8</td><td class="tdc bl">11·2</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">4·1</td><td class="tdc bl">3·1</td><td class="tdc bl">77·0</td><td class="tdc bl">83·0</td><td class="tdc bl">85·4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">36</td><td class="tdc bl">144·8</td><td class="tdc bl">77·7</td><td class="tdc bl">11·1</td><td class="tdc bl">18·1</td><td class="tdc bl">13·9</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">12·2</td><td class="tdc bl">11·0</td><td class="tdc bl">5·1</td><td class="tdc bl">4·8</td><td class="tdc bl">3·3</td><td class="tdc bl">76·8</td><td class="tdc bl">84·6</td><td class="tdc bl">94·1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">37</td><td class="tdc bl">140·5</td><td class="tdc bl">71·3</td><td class="tdc bl">12·2</td><td class="tdc bl">18·4</td><td class="tdc bl">14·6</td><td class="tdc bl">13·0</td><td class="tdc bl">9·7</td><td class="tdc bl">12·5</td><td class="tdc bl">5·5</td><td class="tdc bl">3·9</td><td class="tdc bl">3·3</td><td class="tdc bl">80·7</td><td class="tdc bl">96·2</td><td class="tdc bl">70·9</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bb padb1">38</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">142·8</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">79·0</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">11·5</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">18·1</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">14·2</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">13·4</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">11·9</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">12·1</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">6·1</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">4·3</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">3·0</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">78·5</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">90·3</td><td class="tdc bl bb padb1">70·5</td></tr> - -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span></p> - -<h2>APPENDIX C</h2> - -<p class="center">NOTES ON LANGUAGES IN THE EAST OF -NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By SIDNEY H. RAY, M.A.</span></p> - -<h3>I. INTRODUCTION</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> considering the languages of Netherlands New Guinea -it is convenient to divide the territory into six geographical -divisions. These are:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot3"> - -<p class="indent2">1. The North-western Coast and Islands (Waigiu, -Salawati, and Misol).</p> - -<p class="indent2">2. The Western shore of Geelvink Bay and the islands -adjacent (Mefor, Biak, and Jobi).</p> - -<p class="indent2">3. The Peninsula of Kumava (Orange Nassau) with -the islands between Ceram and the Ké group.</p> - -<p class="indent2">4. The Southern and Eastern Shores of Geelvink -Bay.</p> - -<p class="indent2">5. The North Coast from Kurudu Islands to Humboldt -Bay.</p> - -<p class="indent2">6. The South-eastern Coast from Kamrau Inlet to -the Bensbach River on the boundary between -Netherlands and British territory.</p></div> - -<p>The present notice only refers to languages in the -three last of these divisions.</p> - -<p>At the Western end of the South shore of Geelvink -Bay is the district of Wandammen, of which the language -is fairly well known. For this we have a vocabulary -with grammatical examples (9),<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> and also for Windessi, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span>which is the same language, a mission text-book. Eastward -from Wandammen the numerals only are recorded -(7), but at the Southern point of the Bay, in the district -around Jamur Lake we have the collections made by -Van der Sande during the Wichmann Expedition of 1903 -(8). He gives a vocabulary of Angadi, an island in the -Jamur Lake, some words of the Nagramadu dialect on -the North-west, and the numerals of Goreda on the South -of the lake. The languages of the Western Shore of -Geelvink Bay are represented only by numerals (7) but -there is more information of the language of Pauwi at the -mouth of the Wamberam or Amberno or Mamberamo -River, where F. van Braam Morris collected a vocabulary -published by Robidé van der Aa in 1885 (6). This was -considered faulty by de Clercq.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p> - -<p>Westward along the Northern coast very little -linguistic material is available, and the few words recorded -show great differences. The places of which the -speech is known are, on the mainland: Takar, Tarfia and -Tana Merah, and on the islands: Liki (in the Kumamba -Group), Moar (called also Wakde), Masimasi and Jamna -(4, 5).</p> - -<p>For the region about Humboldt Bay we have short -vocabularies of Jotafa by various collectors, and a fuller -one by G. L. Bink (2), also Sentani lists by P. E. Moolenburg -(3) and van der Sande (8). Moolenburg also gives -a list from Seka, West of the Bay.</p> - -<p>For the Southern shore of Netherlands New Guinea, -we have nothing but vocabularies, none of very large -extent, the most extensive being that of Merauke in the -extreme West (15) which has also been ably discussed by -Dr. N. Adriani.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p> - -<p>Commencing at Kamrau Inlet, the languages of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span>shore and islands are illustrated by the Kowiai vocabularies -of Miklucho-Maclay (13), the papers of G. W. Earl<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> -and the lists of S. Muller (10), the last two being derived -from the collections made during the voyage of the -<i>Triton</i> under Lieut. Modera in 1828. The following -languages are named:—</p> - -<p class="p f09 padl2"> -Lobo at Triton Bay (including Namatote, Aiduma, Mawara, and Kaju-Mera).<br /> -Wuaussirau, inland on the Kamaka-Wallar Lake.<br /> -Mairassis, inland from Lobo.<br /> -Lakahia, on Telok Lakahia.<br /> -Kiruru, on Telok Kiruru.<br /> -Utanata, on the Utanata River. -</p> - -<p>Westward of the Utanata a vocabulary of the language -spoken on the Mimika River people was obtained by Mr. -Wollaston in 1910-11. A list of the same language is -given also in the account of the South-west New Guinea -Expedition of the Royal Netherlands Geographical -Association.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> The latter work contains a few words of -the language used at the mouth of the Kupĕra Pukwa -River.</p> - -<p>The language of Mĕraukĕ has been recorded by J. -Seijne Kok (15), and by J. C. Montague and E. F. Bik,[C] -that of Toro by S. Bik.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p> - -<h3>II. CLASSIFICATION OF THE LANGUAGES.</h3> - -<p>Of the three languages in the northern part of Eastern -Netherlands New Guinea that of the Jotafa of Humboldt -Bay has been ably discussed by Dr. Kern,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> who -decides that in phonology, construction, numeration and -word store it presents many points of agreement with -the Mefoor or Nufōr of the North-west. But it undoubtedly -also contains many words which are of non-Indonesian -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span> -origin. The Sentani and Pawi languages -seem to have very few or no words similar to the -Indonesian, and may probably be found to be Papuan -languages. But nothing is known of the grammar. The -language of Wandammen presents agreements with the -Mefoor (or Nufōr) in vocabulary and also in some points -of grammar. It will probably be found to fall into the -same class as the Nufōr and Jotafa. The languages of -the north coast and islands also show a mixture of -Indonesian with other words. So little is known of the -structure of the languages in the Kumava Peninsula that -their place cannot be determined with certainty. The -numerals and much of the vocabulary appear to be -Indonesian,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> but there are Papuan forms in the -Grammar.</p> - -<p>The Lobo languages of the Kowiai district on the -south coast appear to be Indonesian, but those inland -and south of Geelvink Bay have a distinct connection -with those on the south coast west of the Kowiai district, -and with those at the Utanata River and beyond the -Mimika, at least as far as the Kupera Pukwa River. -Beyond this point nothing is recorded until Princess -Marianne Strait is reached, and here of two words -known, one is Mĕraukĕ.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> The latter language extends -to the Boundary. All west of the Lobo appear to be -Papuan.</p> - -<p>Using the scanty means available, the languages of -the Eastern part of Netherlands New Guinea may be -thus provisionally classified:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span></p> - -<h4>NORTH COAST AND ISLANDS (INCLUDING EAST AND -SOUTH SHORE OF GEELVINK BAY).</h4> - -<table class="tableleft" summary="NORTH COAST AND ISLANDS" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Papuan.</i></td><td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl">West of Lake Sentani.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl">Lake Sentani.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Moki (?)</td><td class="tdl">Hinterland of Tana Mera Bay.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">...</td><td class="tdl">Tana Mera.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Tarfia (?)</td><td class="tdl">Coast West of Tana Mera Bay.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Takar</td><td class="tdl">Mainland East of Mamberamo R.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Wamberan</td><td class="tdl">? Mamberamo R.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl">Villages on Lower Mamberamo R.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl">Island in Jamur Lake.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Goreda</td><td class="tdl">South of Lake Jamur.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl">North-West of L. Jamur.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Manikion</td><td class="tdl">North of McCleur Inlet (Telok Berau).</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Indonesian</i><a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> </td><td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl">Humboldt Bay.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Jamna</td><td class="tdl">Island opposite Takar.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Masimasi</td><td class="tdl">Island West of Jamna.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Moar</td><td class="tdl">Islands West of Masimasi.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Kumamba</td><td class="tdl">Islands and Coast West of Moar and Takar.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Waropin</td><td class="tdl">East shore of Geelvink Bay.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Mohr</td><td class="tdl">Island opposite Waropin.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Tandia</td><td class="tdl">Coast South of Waropin.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Jaur</td><td class="tdl">South-West shore of Geelvink Bay.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Dasener</td><td class="tdl">West of Jaur.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Wandammen </td><td class="tdl">North of Dasener.</td></tr> -</table> - -<h4>SOUTH COAST.</h4> - -<table class="tableleft" summary="SOUTH COAST." border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Papuan.</i></td><td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl">Inland from Lobo.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl">On Kamaka Wallar Lake.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl">On Telok Lakahia.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl">On Telok Kiruru.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Utanata</td><td class="tdl">Inland from Utanata River.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Mimika</td><td class="tdl">Inland from Mimika River.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa </td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa River.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Mĕraukĕ</td><td class="tdl">Coast between the Kumbĕ River and the -British Boundary.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Toro</td><td class="tdl">Bensbach R.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>Indonesian. </i></td><td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl">North of Kumava Peninsula.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Kapauer</td><td class="tdl">North-West of Kumava Peninsula.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl">South of Kumava Peninsula.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl">Kowiai Coast and Islands of Namatote, Mawara, -Aiduma, and Kaju-mera.</td></tr> -</table> - -<h3>III. COMPARATIVE NOTES ON THE ANGADI-MIMIKA GROUP -OF LANGUAGES.</h3> - -<p>This group consists of the Angadi, Nagramadu, -Goreda, Utanata, Lakahia, Mimika and Kupera Pukwa -dialects, and perhaps also Kiruru.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span></p> - -<p>1. <i>Sound changes.</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p> - -<p>A comparison of vocabularies shows a certain amount -of sound change between the dialects. Thus Angadi <i>m</i> -becomes <i>b</i> in Utanata and Mimika and <i>vice versa</i>.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p> - -<table class="table" width="90%" summary="dialects" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Ex. </td><td class="tdl">Angadi <i>muti</i>, Mimika and Utanata <i>buïti</i>, bamboo.<br /> -Angadi <i>mopere</i>, Nagramadu <i>mobere(bu)</i>, Mimika <i>bopere</i>, navel.<br /> -Angadi <i>mirimoi</i>, Utanata <i>birimbu</i>, Mimika <i>birim</i>, nose.<br /> -Angadi <i>mau</i>, Utanata <i>mouw</i>, Mimika <i>bauwe</i>, foot.<br /> -Angadi <i>tohoma-pare</i>, Mimika <i>to-mari</i>, arm.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The Angadi <i>m</i> is represented sometimes by <i>mb</i> in -Mimika, but is retained in Lakahia and Kiruru. Utanata -examples are not found.</p> - -<table class="table" width="90%" summary="dialects" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Ex. </td><td class="tdl"> -Angadi <i>mi</i>, Lakahia <i>mu</i>, Kiruru <i>mi</i>, Mimika <i>mbi</i>, <i>mbu</i>, water.<br /> -Angadi <i>metaho</i>, Mimika <i>mbatau</i>, spit.<br /> -Angadi <i>imiri</i>, Mimika <i>imbiri</i>, shin.<br /> -Mimika <i>amuri</i> is Kupera Pukwa <i>ambori</i>.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Angadi in some words loses <i>k</i> or <i>g</i> which appears in -Mimika and Lakahia.</p> - -<table class="table" width="90%" summary="dialects" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Ex.</td><td class="tdl">Angadi <i>irĕa</i>, Mimika <i>irĕka</i>, Utanata <i>eriki</i>, fish.<br /> -Angadi <i>kauwa</i>, Mimika <i>kaukwa</i>, woman.<br /> -Angadi <i>maare</i>, Mimika <i>makarĕ</i>, armlet.<br /> -Angadi <i>măe</i>, Mimika <i>mbage</i>, Utanata <i>make</i>, cry, weep.<br /> -Angadi <i>hehe</i>, Lakahia <i>eika</i>, finger-nail.<br /> -Angadi <i>(nata)pairi</i>, Mimika <i>pigeri</i>, skin.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>A few words show an interchange of <i>r</i> and <i>n</i> between -Mimika and Lakahia.</p> - -<table class="table" width="90%" summary="dialects" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Mimika <i>marĕ</i>, Lakahia <i>mana</i>, finger. (Utanata <i>to-mare</i>, Angadi <i>mahare</i>, hand.)<br /> -Mimika <i>iribu</i>, Utanata and Angadi <i>iripu</i>, Lakahia <i>ini-fa</i>, knee.<br /> -Mimika <i>amuri</i>, Utanata <i>amure</i>, Angadi <i>amore</i>, Lakahia <i>amuno</i>, bow, Kupera -Pukwa <i>ambori</i>.</td></tr></table> - -<p>2. <i>Vocabulary.</i></p> - -<p>The great likeness of the dialects may be illustrated -by the following examples:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span></p> - -<table summary="dialects" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"><i>Angadi.</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>Utanata.</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>Mimika.</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Arm.</td><td class="tdl"><i>to</i> (in compounds)</td><td class="tdl"><i>tō</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>to</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>esu-rua</i> (?)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Arrow.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ka-tiaro</i> (in bundle)</td><td class="tdl"><i>tiăre</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>tiari</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Boat.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ku</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ku</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ku</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Chin.</td><td class="tdl"><i>kepare</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>kepare</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Coconut.</td><td class="tdl"><i>utiri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uteri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uteri</i></td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa <i>otiri</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Dog.</td><td class="tdl"><i>uwiri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>wuri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>wiri</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>iwora</i>, Nagramadu -<i>iwŏra</i>, Kupera Pukwa <i>uweri</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Ear.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ihani</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>iänī</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ene</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Eye.</td><td class="tdl"><i>măme</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mame</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mame</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Fire.</td><td class="tdl"><i>utămai</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uta</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uta</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>ŭsia</i>, Kiruru <i>uta</i>, -Nagramadu <i>uha</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Give.</td><td class="tdl"><i>kema</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>kema</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Hair.</td><td class="tdl"><i>rup-ere</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uirī</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>viri</i></td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa, <i>uïri</i></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Hand. <i>mahare</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>tu-mare</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>marĕ</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia, <i>mana</i> (finger).</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Head.</td><td class="tdl"><i>rupau</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>upauw</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>kapa-uĕ</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>uwua</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">House.</td><td class="tdl"><i>kăme</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>kamī</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>kamĕ</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Iron.</td><td class="tdl"><i>jau</i> (pot)</td><td class="tdl">(<i>puruti</i>)</td><td class="tdl"><i>tau</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Laugh.</td><td class="tdl"><i>oko</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>oku</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>oko</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lip.</td><td class="tdl"><i>iri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>iri</i> (mouth)</td><td class="tdl"><i>iri</i></td><td class="tdl">Kiruru <i>uru</i> (mouth).</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Moon.</td><td class="tdl"><i>pură</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>uran</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>pura</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>bura</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mountain</td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl">(<i>pamogo</i>)</td><td class="tdl"><i>pukare</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>bugura</i>, Wuaussirau<br /> -<i>wara</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Neck.</td><td class="tdl"><i>amoiï</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ema</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ima</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>umia</i>, Nagramadu -<i>umeke</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Paddle.</td><td class="tdl"><i>pá</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>pō</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>poh</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>boa</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Pig.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ŏhŏ</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ū</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>u</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>u(fa)</i>, Nagramadu -<i>ŏhă</i>, Kupera Pukwa <i>uwĕ</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Rain.</td><td class="tdl"><i>keke</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>komak</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ke</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>ge(fa)</i>, Kiruru <i>kē</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sago.</td><td class="tdl"><i>amata</i></td><td class="tdl">(<i>kinani</i>)</td><td class="tdl"><i>amota</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>ama</i>, Nagramadu -<i>ĕma</i>, Kupera Pukwa <i>amĕta</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sleep.</td><td class="tdl"><i>ete</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ete</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ete</i></td><td class="tdl">Kupera Pukwa <i>ete</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sugarcane.</td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>mone</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mŏni</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>moni(fa)</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sun.</td><td class="tdl"><i>jăū</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>youw</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>yau</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>aya</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tongue.</td><td class="tdl"><i>mere</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mare</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>malī</i></td><td class="tdl">Lakahia <i>mara</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tooth.</td><td class="tdl"><i>titi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>titi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>titi</i></td><td class="tdl">Nagramadu <i>si</i>.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wind.</td><td class="tdl"><i>kimiri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>lowri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>kimire</i></td><td class="tdl">Kiruru <i>kemuru</i>.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>3. <i>Pronouns.</i> These are given only in Mimika for the -singular number, and in Utanata for the first person -singular, but the words for “I,” Mimika <i>doro</i> and Utanata -<i>area</i> are unlike. In Mimika the possessive is shown by -the suffix <i>-ta</i>, which is used also with other words. -<i>Dorota</i>, mine, <i>oro-ta</i>, yours, <i>amare-ta</i> his, <i>wehwaída-ta</i> of -another man. <i>Wehwaída</i> is compounded apparently of -<i>uwe</i> (<i>rí</i>) man and <i>awaída</i> other. In Mairassis “I” is -<i>omona</i>.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Numerals.</i> No numerals are given by Müller or -Earl for Utanata. “People of Utanata had very little -knowledge of counting. When wishing to make known<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span> -any number, they made use of the word <i>awerí</i> and -counted on their fingers and toes.”<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> In Angadi, Nagramadu, -Goreda, Lakahia and Mimika, the numbers appear -as follows:</p> - -<table summary="numbers" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdc"> </td><td class="tdc">Angadi.</td><td class="tdc">Nagramadu.</td><td class="tdc">Goreda.</td><td class="tdc">Lakahia.</td><td class="tdc">Mimika.</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">1. </td><td class="tdl"><i>janăūwă</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>nadi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>unakwa</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>onarawa</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>inakwa</i></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">2. </td><td class="tdl"><i>jaminatia</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ăbåmă</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>jămanini</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>aboma</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>yamani</i></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">3. </td><td class="tdl"><i>jaminati-janăūwa</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ăbåmă-nadi</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl">(<i>torua</i>)</td><td class="tdl"><i>yamani-inakwa</i></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">4. </td><td class="tdl"><i>awaitămă-jaminatia </i></td><td class="tdl"><i>abama-båmŏ</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>(fāt)</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>ama-yamani</i></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">5. </td><td class="tdl"><i>măhăre-ajăherauri</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>măma-riba</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>maheri-herori </i></td><td class="tdl">(<i>rim</i>)</td><td class="tdl">..</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">6. </td><td class="tdl"><i>măhăre-janăūwa</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>mariba-nadi</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl"><i>rim-onarawa</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">10. </td><td class="tdl"><i>măhăre-jăminatia</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>măma răbåmă</i></td><td class="tdl"><i>tăoru</i></td><td class="tdl">..</td><td class="tdl">..</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>These show a numeration only as far as two. -“Three” and “four” are made by additions, 2 + 1 = 3 -and 2 + 2 = 4, except in Angadi where <i>awaitămă-jaminatia</i> -means “another two” with which cf. the -Mimika <i>awaida</i>, other. <i>Măhăre</i>, <i>maheri</i>, <i>mari</i> in the -words for “five” also mean “hand,” abbreviated to <i>mă</i> in -<i>măma</i> of Nagramadu. The Goreda <i>tăoru</i> given for -“ten,” is the Angadi <i>tăöru</i>, much, Mimika <i>takiri</i>, many. -In Lakahia the words for “three,” “four,” “five,” “six” -have the Ceram numerals which are also used in Lobo -and Namatote. The Mairassis and Wuaussirau numerals -agree with one another, but differ entirely from those of -the Angadi-Mimika group.</p> - -<table summary="numbers" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">One</td><td class="tdc">Two</td><td class="tdc">Three</td><td class="tdc">Four</td><td class="tdc">Five</td><td class="tdc">Six</td><td class="tdc">Ten</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl"><i> tangauw</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> amoōi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> karia</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> āi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> iworo</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> iwora-mōi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> werowa-mōi</i></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl"><i> anau</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> amōi</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> karia</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> aiwera</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> iworo</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> iwor-tanau</i></td><td class="tdl"><i> iwor-toki-tani</i></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The low numeration in all these languages may be -regarded as an indication of their Papuan character.</p> - -<p>5. <i>Construction.</i></p> - -<p>A few grammatical forms which appear to be indicated -in the vocabularies may be noted here.</p> - -<p><i>a.</i> The possessive with pronouns and pronominal -words is indicated by a suffix <i>-ta</i>. Mimika, <i>doro-ta</i>, of -me, mine; <i>oro-ta</i>, thine; <i>amare-ta</i>, his; <i>wehwaída-ta</i>, of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span>another man. In Angadi several compound words end -in <i>nata</i>, which thus appears to be a noun, <i>na</i> (thing?), -with the possessive suffix; and it seems possible to -explain such words as <i>ută-nata</i>, firewood; <i>kara nata</i>, -head of javelin—<i>i.e.</i> fire-thing-of, javelin-thing-of. Cf. -also <i>nata pairi</i> given by v. d. Sande for “skin,” with -Mimika <i>pīgīri</i>, skin, which suggests that <i>nata pairi</i> means -skin of something.</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> The adjective follows the noun. Utanata <i>warari -napetike</i>, water big, river.</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> A noun in the genitive relation precedes its substantive. -Mimika <i>bau mame</i>, leg’s eye, ankle; <i>iwau -makarĕ</i>, belly’s band. Angadi <i>mahare hehe</i>, finger nail; -<i>māū hehe</i>, toe nail; <i>mirimoi ipa</i>, nose hole, nostril; <i>ihani -ipa</i>, hole in ear lobe; <i>ămore eme</i>, bow’s rattan, bowstring.</p> - -<p><i>d.</i> The subject precedes the verb. Angadi <i>jăū hinau-mara</i>, -sun rises (?), morning; <i>jăū emapojemia</i>, sun sets (?), -evening.</p> - -<p><i>e.</i> The object also precedes the verb. Angadi <i>ihani -aimeri</i>, ear pierce; <i>mirimoi aimeri</i>, nose pierce.</p> - -<p>These five points indicate a Papuan structure of the -languages.</p> - -<p>6. <i>Comparison with Merauke and the Languages of British -New Guinea West of the Fly River.</i></p> - -<p>The Papuan languages usually show so few agreements -in vocabulary that the likeness of words, unless -frequent, cannot be held to establish relationship. In -the comparative vocabulary, words and numerals are -added from the languages on British Territory.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> These -show a few likenesses, which may, however, be accidental.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> -<p class="indent">Arm. Mimika <i>to</i>, Dungerwab <i>tond</i>, Dabu <i>tang</i>, Miriam <i>tag</i>, Kiwai <i>tu</i></p> -<p class="indent">Arrow. Mimika <i>tiari</i>, Kiwai <i>tere</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Arrow barb. Mimika <i>imari</i>, Kiwai <i>were</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Basket. Mimika <i>temone</i>, Kunini <i>diba</i>, Jibu <i>dimba</i>, -Mimika <i>eta</i>, Kiwai <i>sito</i>, Mowata <i>hito</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Bird. Mimika <i>pateru</i>, Bugi <i>pa</i> (?), Dabu <i>papa</i> (?).</p> -<p class="indent">Earth. Mimika <i>tiri</i>, Bangu <i>tiritari</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Eat. Mimika <i>namuka</i>, Bangu <i>jamukwa</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Elbow. Mimika <i>to-mame</i>, Mowata <i>tu-pape</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Fire. Mimika <i>uta</i>, Miriam <i>ur</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Forehead. Mimika <i>metar(re)</i>, Bangu <i>mithago</i>, Miriam <i>mat</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Head. Mimika <i>kapane</i>, Bangu <i>kambu</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Iron. Mimika <i>tau</i>, Dungerwab <i>tod</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Nose. Mimika <i>birim</i>, Dabu <i>murung</i>, Saibai, Miriam <i>pit</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Pig. Mimika <i>ap</i>, Meranke <i>sapi</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Rat. Mimika <i>kemako</i>, Bugi <i>makata</i>, Saibai <i>makas</i>, Miriam <i>mokeis</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Shore. Mimika <i>tiri</i>, Dungerwab <i>tredre</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Sleep. Mimika <i>ete</i>, Bangu <i>ete-betha</i>, Dungerwab <i>eda-bel</i>, Miriam <i>ut-eid</i>.</p> -<p class="indent">Tree. Mimika <i>uti</i>, Kiwai <i>ota</i>.</p> -</div> - -<h3>IV. MALAYAN INFLUENCE ON THE SOUTH COAST OF -NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA.</h3> - -<p>In a discussion of the languages of the south-eastern -shores of Netherlands New Guinea, the extent of Malay -influence in that region must be taken into account. -Mr. William Churchill has lately put forward a theory -that the Polynesian people entered the Pacific not only -by coasting along the northern shores of New Guinea to -the Solomon Group, but also by a passage through Torres -Straits, and thence along the south-eastern coast of -British New Guinea to the New Hebrides.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> On tracing -the languages westward from Polynesia, it is an indisputable -fact that many words which are identical with Polynesian -are found in use along the shores of British New -Guinea, though they are not used in a Polynesian syntax, -or in the simplified forms usual in the Eastern tongues. -It is also a fact that many of these same words are -current also in the western islands of Indonesia. For -example, <i>hua</i>, fruit; <i>ina</i>, mother; <i>lala</i>, blood; <i>lau</i>, leaf; -<i>au</i>, I; <i>ruma</i>, house; <i>inu</i>, drink; <i>utu</i>, louse; <i>tohu</i>, sugar -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span>cane, and many other words are identical in the south-east -of British New Guinea and in Ceram. But in -British New Guinea the languages which show likeness -to Polynesian end abruptly at Cape Possession, and are -not found west of that point.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> Hence it becomes important -to inquire how far the similar tongues of Amboyna -and Ceram have influenced the New Guinea languages to -the east of them. That there is such an influence is -plain from the vocabularies of the languages. Indonesian -words, such as the Onin (10) <i>kayu</i>, wood; <i>tanigan</i>, -ear; <i>nifan</i>, tooth; <i>fenu</i>, turtle; <i>mani</i>, bird; <i>afi</i>, fire, are -of common occurrence in the islands of the Arafura Sea, -and on the coast of the mainland. But these words are -more common in the west, and gradually disappear -towards Torres Straits, and are not found beyond. In -Rosenberg’s Karufa list (12) we find such characteristically -Indonesian words as <i>ulu</i>, hair; <i>mata</i>, eye; <i>uhru</i>, -mouth; <i>taruya</i>, ear; <i>nima</i>, hand; <i>ora</i>, sun; <i>uran</i>, moon; -<i>niyu</i>, coconut. Words of this kind are found also in -Lobo (10) and Namatote (13), as, for example, <i>wuran</i>, -moon; <i>labi</i>, fire; <i>nima</i>, hand; <i>nena</i>, mother; <i>rara</i>, -blood; <i>metan</i>, black; <i>tobu</i>, sugar cane; <i>wosa</i>, paddle; -<i>matoran</i>, sit; <i>mariri</i>, stand. Some of these words seem -to have passed into Utanata (10) and Lakahia (13), and -apparently, though not so freely, into Wuaussirau (13), -Mairassis (10), and Mimika (14). The Kiruru vocabulary -of Maclay does not appear to show any words of this -kind. The following are examples of Indonesian or -Ceram words in the Utanata-Mimika group of languages.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> -<p class="indent">Utanata <i>uran</i>, Lakahia <i>bura</i>, Mairassis <i>furan</i>, Mimika <i>pura</i>, Ceram <i>wulana</i>, -moon. The Angadi has also <i>pura</i>.</p> - -<p class="indent">Lakahia <i>bugura</i>, Wuaussirau <i>wara</i>, Mimika <i>pukare</i>, Ceram <i>uhara</i>, mountain. -Utanata has <i>pamogo</i>.</p> - -<p class="indent">Utanata <i>pō</i>, Lakahia <i>boa</i>, Mimika <i>poh</i>, Ceram <i>wosa</i>, paddle.</p> - -<p class="indent">Utanata <i>kai</i>, Ceram <i>kai</i>, wood. For this the Mimika is <i>uti</i>.</p> -</div> -<p>A word of much interest in this region is <i>turika</i> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span>or <i>turi</i>. This is given by Muller in his Ceram list as -<i>turika</i>, knife, in Lobo <i>turi</i>, Onin <i>tuni</i>. Maclay gives the -Ceram (Keffing) as <i>turito</i>, Namatote and Wuaussirau <i>turi</i>, -also for “knife.” The word does not appear in Angadi -or in the list of Ekris (19). Though not apparently used -in Merauke <i>turik</i> has travelled eastward as far as Torres -Straits and the Fly River, and even to the borders of the -Papuan Gulf. Thus Bangu <i>turik</i>, Dabu <i>turikata</i>, Sisiami -(Bamu R.) <i>turuko</i>, and Tirio <i>turuko</i> mean “knife” (<i>i.e.</i> iron -knife). In Bugi, Saibai, Mowata and Kiwai, <i>turika</i> and -in Murray Island <i>tulik</i> mean “iron.”<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></p> - -<p>Dr. N. Adriani has pointed out some words adopted -from Malay in Merauke and also some apparent agreements -between that language and Indonesian languages -generally,<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> but there is no evidence of any language from -Ceram having passed through the Torres Straits. Agreements -between the Merauke and Papuan languages to the -east are also pointed out by Dr. Adriani<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> but these are no -evidence of the passage of a Polynesian fleet, as they -are not Polynesian words, and the languages using them -have no Polynesian syntax. Mr. Churchill’s theory of -the Polynesian entry into the Pacific by way of Torres -Straits cannot therefore be maintained.</p> - -<h3>V. A COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF LANGUAGES IN THE -NORTH EAST AND SOUTH EAST OF NETHERLANDS -NEW GUINEA AND OF BRITISH NEW GUINEA WEST -OF THE FLY RIVER.</h3> - -<p>The following vocabulary is arranged strictly in -Geographical order. The North Eastern Languages -follow from East to West, from Seka to Manikion, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span>the South Eastern from Onin to the Boundary and -thence along the South Coast of British Territory to the -Western or Right Bank of the Fly River.</p> - -<p>The following authorities have been quoted:—<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>1. <i>Seka.</i> P. E. Moolenburg. Tijd. v. Indische Taal -xlvii. 1904.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Jotafa</i> [and <i>Sentani</i> in ( )]. G. L. Bink in ibid. -xlv. 1902.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Sentani.</i> P. E. Moolenburg. Bijdragen. t.d. -Taal. Ned Indië (7) v. 1906.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Tanah Merah</i>, <i>Tarfia</i>, <i>Takar</i>, <i>Jamna</i>, <i>Masimasi</i>, -<i>Moar</i> (i.e. <i>Wakde</i>) and <i>Kumamba</i>. G. G. -Batten. Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago, -1894.</p> - -<p>5. <i>Arimoa.</i> A. B. Meyer. Über die Mafoor’sche, -1874.</p> - -<p>6. <i>Pauwi.</i> P. J. B. C. Robidé v. d. Aa. “Reisen van -Braam Morris.” Bijd. t.d. Taal. Ned. Indië. (4) -x. 1885.</p> - -<p>7. <i>Wamberan</i>, <i>Waropin</i>, <i>Mohr</i>, <i>Tandia</i>, <i>Dasener</i>, -<i>Jaur</i>. Fabritius. Tijd. v. Indische Taal. iv. -1885.</p> - -<p>8. <i>Angadi</i>, <i>Goreda</i>, <i>Nagramadu</i>, <i>Manikion</i>. G. A. J. -v. d. Sande in “Nova Guinea.” Vol. III. -1907.</p> - -<p>9. <i>Wandammen.</i> G. L. Bink. Tijd. v. Indische -Taal. xxxiv. 1891.</p> - -<p>10. <i>Onin</i>, <i>Lobo</i>, <i>Mairassis</i>, <i>Utanata</i>. S. Muller. -Reisen, 1857.</p> - -<p>11. <i>Kapaur.</i> C. J. F. le Cocq d’Armandville. Tijd. -v. Indische Taal. xlvi. 1903.</p> - -<p>12. <i>Karufa.</i> H. v. Rosenberg. Der Malayische -Archipel. 1878.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span></p> - -<p>13. <i>Namatote</i>, <i>Wuaussirau</i>, <i>Lakahia</i>, <i>Kiruru</i>. N. v. -Miklucho Maclay. Tijd. v. Indische Taal. xxiii. -1876.</p> - -<p>14. <i>Mimika.</i> MS. Dr. A. F. R. Wollaston.</p> - -<p>15. <i>Merauke.</i> J. Seijne Kok. Verband. v. h. Batav. -Genootsch. v. Kunsten lvi. 1906.</p> - -<p>16. <i>Bangu</i>, <i>Bugi</i>, <i>Dabu</i>, <i>Mowata</i>, <i>Kunini</i>, <i>Jibu</i>, -<i>Tagota</i>. Reports of Cambridge Anthropological -Expedition. Vol. III. 1907.</p> - -<p>17. <i>Parb</i>, <i>Saibai</i>, <i>Kiwai</i>, and <i>Tirio</i>. MSS. S. H. -Ray.</p> - -<p>18. <i>Nufor.</i> J. L. v. Hasselt. Hollandsch. Noefoorsch -Woordenboek, 1876.</p> - -<p>19. <i>Ceram.</i> A. v. Ekris. Woordenlijst v. Ambonsche -Eilanden. Mededeel. v. h. Ned. Zendings -Genoots, viii. 1864-65.</p> - -<p>20. <i>Tuburuasa</i>, <i>Karas</i>. (<i>Islands between Ceram and -Onin.</i>) P. J. B. C. Robidé v. d. Aa. Reisen -naar Ned. Nieuw-Guinea, 1879.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span></p> - -<h3>COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.</h3> - -<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl bt bb"> </td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Man.<br />Man.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Woman.<br /> Vrouw.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Head.<br />Hoofd.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Eye.<br />Oog.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Ear.<br />Oor.</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">subi</td><td class="tdl bl">rutja</td><td class="tdl bl">re</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">tante</td><td class="tdl bl">moi</td><td class="tdl bl">rabunadu</td><td class="tdl bl">windu</td><td class="tdl bl">tĕni</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">doh</td><td class="tdl bl">mī</td><td class="tdl bl">farem,<br />(panem</td><td class="tdl bl">yŏrå, (yeroh</td><td class="tdl bl">anggei,<br />(angei</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Arimoa</td><td class="tdl bl">kabun<br />(<i>white</i></td><td class="tdl bl vertt">...</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">dabro</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">masamana</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">seroro</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">maomba</td><td class="tdl bl">nedba</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">kikia</td><td class="tdl bl">knĭperemba</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">were</td><td class="tdl bl">kauwă</td><td class="tdl bl">rupau</td><td class="tdl bl">măme</td><td class="tdl bl">ihani</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">yabimă</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">ehăra</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wandammen </td><td class="tdl bl">mua</td><td class="tdl bl">babien</td><td class="tdl bl">rupai</td><td class="tdl bl">rĕne</td><td class="tdl bl">tatelajau</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">marara</td><td class="tdl bl">matapais</td><td class="tdl bl">onimpatin</td><td class="tdl bl">matapatin</td><td class="tdl bl">tanigan</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kapaur</td><td class="tdl bl">neméhār</td><td class="tdl bl">tombŏhār</td><td class="tdl bl">kenda</td><td class="tdl bl">kendep</td><td class="tdl bl">per</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">mutangki</td><td class="tdl bl">maisoida</td><td class="tdl bl">umuh</td><td class="tdl bl">mata</td><td class="tdl bl">taringa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">murwana</td><td class="tdl bl">merwine</td><td class="tdl bl">umu</td><td class="tdl bl">matatungu</td><td class="tdl bl">zingangu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">marowana</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mawina</td><td class="tdl bl">monongo,<br />umun</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">matalongo</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">tringango</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">fatakowa</td><td class="tdl bl">ewei</td><td class="tdl bl">nanguwu</td><td class="tdl bl">nambutu</td><td class="tdl bl">newirana</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">taturobu</td><td class="tdl bl">ewei</td><td class="tdl bl">kotera</td><td class="tdl bl">obiatu</td><td class="tdl bl">obiru</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">odacira</td><td class="tdl bl">yama</td><td class="tdl bl">uwua</td><td class="tdl bl">managa</td><td class="tdl bl">yawana</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">yawatsha</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Utanata</td><td class="tdl bl">marowana</td><td class="tdl bl">kuranī</td><td class="tdl bl">upauw</td><td class="tdl bl">mameh</td><td class="tdl bl">ianī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">uweri</td><td class="tdl bl">kaukwa,<br />aina</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">kapane</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mame</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">ene</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">amnangga</td><td class="tdl bl">bubtī, savĕ,<br />īsus(?) iwogĕ</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">pa</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">kīndĕ</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">kambīt</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">kambu</td><td class="tdl bl">ti</td><td class="tdl bl">taroba, tarup</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">ar</td><td class="tdl bl">temarb</td><td class="tdl bl">mor</td><td class="tdl bl">taramb</td><td class="tdl bl">tongal</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">la</td><td class="tdl bl">mala</td><td class="tdl bl">beneqet</td><td class="tdl bl">kalye</td><td class="tdl bl">laandra</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">rabu</td><td class="tdl bl">mure</td><td class="tdl bl">bunkut</td><td class="tdl bl">ikapa</td><td class="tdl bl">ran, ika</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">garakazi</td><td class="tdl bl">ipökazi</td><td class="tdl bl">kuikö</td><td class="tdl bl">dan, purka</td><td class="tdl bl">kaura</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">auana</td><td class="tdl bl">orobo</td><td class="tdl bl">epuru</td><td class="tdl bl">damari</td><td class="tdl bl">hepate, gare</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">binam, ima</td><td class="tdl bl">magebi, ule</td><td class="tdl bl">mope</td><td class="tdl bl">ireu</td><td class="tdl bl">tablame</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">vientete, rega</td><td class="tdl bl">konga</td><td class="tdl bl">mopu</td><td class="tdl bl">yere</td><td class="tdl bl">yekrom</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">dubu</td><td class="tdl bl">orobo</td><td class="tdl bl">epuru</td><td class="tdl bl">damari</td><td class="tdl bl">sepate, gare</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">amiami</td><td class="tdl bl">kinasu</td><td class="tdl bl">yapuru</td><td class="tdl bl">pariti</td><td class="tdl bl">pamata</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">moream</td><td class="tdl bl">kana</td><td class="tdl bl">pari</td><td class="tdl bl">tuap</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">snun</td><td class="tdl bl">bien</td><td class="tdl bl">rewuri</td><td class="tdl bl">mgasi</td><td class="tdl bl">knasi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Ceram</td><td class="tdl bl">malona,<br />mandai,<br />makwai,<br />manawal</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mahina,<br />bina, leuto<br />pepina</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">uru, ulu</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mata, maa</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">tarina, talina</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tuburuasa</td><td class="tdl bl">maruana</td><td class="tdl bl">mapata</td><td class="tdl bl">unīn</td><td class="tdl bl">matanpuon</td><td class="tdl bl">taningan</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl bb">Karas</td><td class="tdl bl bb">kianam</td><td class="tdl bl bb">paas</td><td class="tdl bb bl">nakalun</td><td class="tdl bb bl">kangiri</td><td class="tdl bb bl">kulokeim</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span></p> - -<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl bt bb"> </td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Nose.<br />Neus.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Tongue.<br />Tong.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Tooth.<br />Tand.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Hand.<br />Hand.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Sun.<br />Zon.</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">hā</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">na (nabērā,<br /><i>arm</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">su</td><td class="tdl bl">meriki</td><td class="tdl bl">ñoh</td><td class="tdl bl">tibimi</td><td class="tdl bl">tap</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">yoi</td><td class="tdl bl">fēuw</td><td class="tdl bl">je, (tje</td><td class="tdl bl">megeragera,<br />(posadi</td><td class="tdl bl">su</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Arimoa</td><td class="tdl bl">sirino</td><td class="tdl bl">mataro</td><td class="tdl bl">umata</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">kimparia</td><td class="tdl bl">kimsiba</td><td class="tdl bl">kabrua</td><td class="tdl bl">kibawia (<i>arm</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">tebia</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">mirimoi</td><td class="tdl bl">mere</td><td class="tdl bl">titi</td><td class="tdl bl">mahare</td><td class="tdl bl">yăū</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">yămănărai</td><td class="tdl bl">si</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wandammen </td><td class="tdl bl">swŏnê</td><td class="tdl bl">taperê</td><td class="tdl bl">derĕnesi</td><td class="tdl bl">waraba</td><td class="tdl bl">wor</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">wirin</td><td class="tdl bl">eri</td><td class="tdl bl">nifan</td><td class="tdl bl">nemien</td><td class="tdl bl">rera</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Kapaur</td><td class="tdl bl">kănomba,<br />kănunga</td><td class="tdl bl">gengabu</td><td class="tdl bl">mĕhien-tāb</td><td class="tdl bl">tān</td><td class="tdl bl">kĕmina</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">sikai</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">nimang-uta</td><td class="tdl bl">ohra</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">iyaongu</td><td class="tdl bl">yaeiyongu</td><td class="tdl bl">zwiutiongu</td><td class="tdl bl">siŭsiongu</td><td class="tdl bl">oro-matawuti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">sikaiongo</td><td class="tdl bl">kariongo</td><td class="tdl bl">ruwotongo</td><td class="tdl bl">nimango-uta</td><td class="tdl bl">orah</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">nambi</td><td class="tdl bl">nenegun</td><td class="tdl bl">sika</td><td class="tdl bl">okorwita</td><td class="tdl bl">onguru</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">ombi</td><td class="tdl bl">onsabi</td><td class="tdl bl">oras</td><td class="tdl bl">uadu</td><td class="tdl bl">unguru</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">onoma</td><td class="tdl bl">mara</td><td class="tdl bl">ifa</td><td class="tdl bl">esurua</td><td class="tdl bl">aya</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl bl">unuga</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">uru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">yauburawa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Utanata</td><td class="tdl bl">birimbu</td><td class="tdl bl">mare</td><td class="tdl bl">titi</td><td class="tdl bl">mareh</td><td class="tdl bl">dyauw</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl">bīrim</td><td class="tdl bl">malī</td><td class="tdl bl">titi</td><td class="tdl bl">marĕ</td><td class="tdl bl">yau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">anggīp</td><td class="tdl bl">unum</td><td class="tdl bl">manggat</td><td class="tdl bl">sangga</td><td class="tdl bl">katŏnī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">thamina</td><td class="tdl bl">ter</td><td class="tdl bl">tambia</td><td class="tdl bl">epotha</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">mebele</td><td class="tdl bl">penji</td><td class="tdl bl">tol</td><td class="tdl bl">tond</td><td class="tdl bl">abiard</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">wede</td><td class="tdl bl">dangamai</td><td class="tdl bl">lenge</td><td class="tdl bl">trang-qab</td><td class="tdl bl">yabada</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">murung</td><td class="tdl bl">dogmar</td><td class="tdl bl">ngui, ngoia</td><td class="tdl bl">tang-kor</td><td class="tdl bl">yabada</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">piti</td><td class="tdl bl">nöi</td><td class="tdl bl">dang</td><td class="tdl bl">get</td><td class="tdl bl">goiga</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">wodi</td><td class="tdl bl">watotorope</td><td class="tdl bl">ibuanara</td><td class="tdl bl">tu-pata (<i>palm</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">iwio</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">keke</td><td class="tdl bl">weta</td><td class="tdl bl">giriu</td><td class="tdl bl">imwe</td><td class="tdl bl">bimu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">soku</td><td class="tdl bl">vrate</td><td class="tdl bl">orkak</td><td class="tdl bl">yema</td><td class="tdl bl">loma</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">wodi</td><td class="tdl bl">wototorope</td><td class="tdl bl">iawa</td><td class="tdl bl">tu-pata (<i>palm</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">sai</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">norose</td><td class="tdl bl">ima</td><td class="tdl bl">sū</td><td class="tdl bl">tikiri</td><td class="tdl bl">uainea</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">miu</td><td class="tdl bl">uo</td><td class="tdl bl">kam</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">dari</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">snŏri</td><td class="tdl bl">kaprēndi</td><td class="tdl bl">nasi</td><td class="tdl bl">rwasi</td><td class="tdl bl">ori</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Ceram</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">hiru, inu,<br />ninu, ili</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">mei, mē, mā</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">niki, niri,<br /> nityi, nio</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">rima, lima,<br />barau</td><td class="tdl bl">rematai,<br />leamatai,<br />leamanyo,<br />deamatae</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Tuburuasa</td><td class="tdl bl">nirīng</td><td class="tdl bl">kwēri</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">tangan</td><td class="tdl bl">nera</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt bb">Karas</td><td class="tdl bb bl">bustang</td><td class="tdl bb bl">belein</td><td class="tdl bb bl">...</td><td class="tdl bb bl">taan</td><td class="tdl bb">ïōn</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span></p> - -<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl bt bb"> </td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Moon.<br />Maan.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Star.<br />Ster.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Rain.<br />Regen.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Stone.<br />Steen.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Fire.<br />Vuur.</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">sembi</td><td class="tdl bl">endor</td><td class="tdl bl">tāb</td><td class="tdl bl">āt</td><td class="tdl bl">aijări</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">ara, (aroh</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">(ya</td><td class="tdl bl">tuga, (duwa</td><td class="tdl bl">ī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Arimoa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">fati</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">pură</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">kehe</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">ută-mai</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">emoya</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">uhă</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wandammen </td><td class="tdl bl">sembai</td><td class="tdl bl">siberere</td><td class="tdl bl">rama</td><td class="tdl bl">rebuki</td><td class="tdl bl">adia, adyat</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">punono</td><td class="tdl bl">apatin-no-farere</td><td class="tdl bl">unano</td><td class="tdl bl">pāti</td><td class="tdl bl">api</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Kapaur</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">koba, keba,<br />kabah</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">mbāb</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kĕri</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">wār</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">tōm</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">uran</td><td class="tdl bl">ŏma</td><td class="tdl bl">kama</td><td class="tdl bl">langerah</td><td class="tdl bl">lawi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">wuran</td><td class="tdl bl">omoma</td><td class="tdl bl">omo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">labi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">furan</td><td class="tdl bl">komakoma</td><td class="tdl bl">komah</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">lawi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">furan</td><td class="tdl bl">waniwani</td><td class="tdl bl">yamo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">iworo</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">angane</td><td class="tdl bl">onburi</td><td class="tdl bl">yamu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">iworo</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">bura</td><td class="tdl bl">mawena</td><td class="tdl bl">gefa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">ŭsia</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">imaru</td><td class="tdl bl">kē</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">uta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Utanata</td><td class="tdl bl">uran</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">koma</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">uta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl">pura</td><td class="tdl bl">mako</td><td class="tdl bl">ke</td><td class="tdl bl">omanī</td><td class="tdl bl">uta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">mandau</td><td class="tdl bl">ovom, uvum</td><td class="tdl bl">heĕ</td><td class="tdl bl">katarĕ</td><td class="tdl bl">takavĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">narunjar</td><td class="tdl bl">tan</td><td class="tdl bl">meni</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">tugiu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">nou</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">pend</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">kak</td><td class="tdl bl">qatai</td><td class="tdl bl">yugula</td><td class="tdl bl">dader</td><td class="tdl bl">iu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">qar, qak</td><td class="tdl bl">piro</td><td class="tdl bl">igurai</td><td class="tdl bl">dadar</td><td class="tdl bl">yu, dumbrel</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">mulpal, kizai</td><td class="tdl bl">titui</td><td class="tdl bl">ari</td><td class="tdl bl">kula</td><td class="tdl bl">mui</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">ganume</td><td class="tdl bl">zogubo</td><td class="tdl bl">wiari</td><td class="tdl bl">nora-api</td><td class="tdl bl">era</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">mabie</td><td class="tdl bl">wale</td><td class="tdl bl">ngupe</td><td class="tdl bl">magezuli</td><td class="tdl bl">muie</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">mobi</td><td class="tdl bl">guje</td><td class="tdl bl">piro</td><td class="tdl bl">nora</td><td class="tdl bl">para</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">sagana</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">gugi</td><td class="tdl bl">mauburo,<br />wisai</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kuraere</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">era</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">korame</td><td class="tdl bl">apapa</td><td class="tdl bl">iōuko</td><td class="tdl bl">kuma</td><td class="tdl bl">suze</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">mano</td><td class="tdl bl">durupa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">tamaga</td><td class="tdl bl">jau</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">paik</td><td class="tdl bl">ătaruwa,<br />samfari</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">mĕkem,</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kĕru</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">fōr</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Ceram</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">huran, ulano,<br />buran</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">marit, kolomali,<br />kamali, umalio</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">uran, ulan,<br />kial</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">hatu, batu</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">hau, au</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tuburuasa</td><td class="tdl bl">puna</td><td class="tdl bl">finma</td><td class="tdl bl">unang</td><td class="tdl bl">pati</td><td class="tdl bl">lawi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl bb">Karas</td><td class="tdl bl bb">pak</td><td class="tdl bl bb">masseer</td><td class="tdl bl bb">kekal</td><td class="tdl bl bb">jaar</td><td class="tdl bl bb">dien</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span></p> - -<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl bt bb"> </td><td class="tdc bt bb bl"> Water.<br /> Water.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Pig.<br />Varken.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Fish.<br />Visch.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Coconut.<br />Kokos-noot.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">House.<br />Huis.</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">pā</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">nanu</td><td class="tdl bl">por</td><td class="tdl bl">igeh</td><td class="tdl bl">nīno</td><td class="tdl bl">duma</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">bu</td><td class="tdl bl">(yoku</td><td class="tdl bl">ka</td><td class="tdl bl">koh</td><td class="tdl bl">ime</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Arimoa</td><td class="tdl bl">dano</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">niwi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">memba</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">hŭsia</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">mi</td><td class="tdl bl">ŏhŏ</td><td class="tdl bl">ireă</td><td class="tdl bl">utiri</td><td class="tdl bl">kãme</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">ŏhă</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">măgrabe</td><td class="tdl bl">ya</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wandammen </td><td class="tdl bl">kambu</td><td class="tdl bl">pisai</td><td class="tdl bl">diya</td><td class="tdl bl">ankadi</td><td class="tdl bl">anio</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">weari</td><td class="tdl bl">papio</td><td class="tdl bl">sairi</td><td class="tdl bl">ruroh</td><td class="tdl bl">rumaso</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kapaur</td><td class="tdl bl">kĕra</td><td class="tdl bl">ndur, kalapaji,<br />măma </td><td class="tdl bl">heir</td><td class="tdl bl">no’ur</td><td class="tdl bl">wuri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">ualar</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">dohndi</td><td class="tdl bl">niyu</td><td class="tdl bl">tsaring</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">wălar</td><td class="tdl bl">boi</td><td class="tdl bl">dondi</td><td class="tdl bl">niu (?)</td><td class="tdl bl">sarin</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">walar</td><td class="tdl bl">bōi</td><td class="tdl bl">donde</td><td class="tdl bl">niu</td><td class="tdl bl">sarin</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">wata</td><td class="tdl bl">bemba</td><td class="tdl bl">kuratu</td><td class="tdl bl">owah</td><td class="tdl bl">watara</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">kai</td><td class="tdl bl">wembe</td><td class="tdl bl">kuratu</td><td class="tdl bl">obo</td><td class="tdl bl">wata</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">mura</td><td class="tdl bl">ufa</td><td class="tdl bl">nema</td><td class="tdl bl">wuina</td><td class="tdl bl">yafa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kiruru</td><td class="tdl bl">mi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Utanata</td><td class="tdl bl">warari</td><td class="tdl bl">uh</td><td class="tdl bl">erika</td><td class="tdl bl">uteri</td><td class="tdl bl">kami</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl">mbi, mbu</td><td class="tdl bl">u, api</td><td class="tdl bl">irĕka</td><td class="tdl bl">utēri</td><td class="tdl bl">kamĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">daka</td><td class="tdl bl">basikĕ</td><td class="tdl bl">pararĕ,<br />parara</td><td class="tdl bl">misĕ, onggat,<br />wīmap</td><td class="tdl bl">sava, aha</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">tauqar</td><td class="tdl bl">rougu</td><td class="tdl bl">thaua</td><td class="tdl bl">nangar</td><td class="tdl bl">boot, munka</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">nou</td><td class="tdl bl">kimb</td><td class="tdl bl">angur</td><td class="tdl bl">argh, kwogh,<br />keu</td><td class="tdl bl">mongo</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">ngi</td><td class="tdl bl">simbel</td><td class="tdl bl">galba</td><td class="tdl bl">nge</td><td class="tdl bl">māē</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">ine</td><td class="tdl bl">mule,chimela,<br />sasa</td><td class="tdl bl">pudi</td><td class="tdl bl">ngoi, guvi</td><td class="tdl bl">ma</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">nguki</td><td class="tdl bl">burum</td><td class="tdl bl">wapi</td><td class="tdl bl">urab</td><td class="tdl bl">mud</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">obo</td><td class="tdl bl">boromo</td><td class="tdl bl">arimina</td><td class="tdl bl">oi</td><td class="tdl bl">moto</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">nīe</td><td class="tdl bl">blome</td><td class="tdl bl">ibu</td><td class="tdl bl">ia</td><td class="tdl bl">mete</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">nia</td><td class="tdl bl">woroma</td><td class="tdl bl">waji</td><td class="tdl bl">u</td><td class="tdl bl">meta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">obo</td><td class="tdl bl">boromo</td><td class="tdl bl">irisina</td><td class="tdl bl">oi</td><td class="tdl bl">moto</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">opa</td><td class="tdl bl">sepera</td><td class="tdl bl">kopoma</td><td class="tdl bl">sapu-mutira</td><td class="tdl bl">turie</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">mauka</td><td class="tdl bl">minao</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">wār</td><td class="tdl bl">beyen</td><td class="tdl bl">iyen</td><td class="tdl bl">srabon</td><td class="tdl bl">rum</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Ceram</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">waer, wael,<br />kwael</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">hahu, apal</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">ian, iano</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">niwer, niwel,<br />nimel, nikwel,<br />noolo</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">ruma, luma</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tuburuasa</td><td class="tdl bl">wêre</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">se</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">kapalla</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl bb">Karas</td><td class="tdl bl bb">pere</td><td class="tdl bl bb">...</td><td class="tdl bl bb">soor</td><td class="tdl bl bb">...</td><td class="tdl bl bb">kawe</td></tr> -</table> -<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span></p> - -<h3>COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY, NUMERALS.</h3> - -<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl bt bb"> </td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">One. Een.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Two. Twee.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Three. Drie.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Four. Vier.</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">ahi (ari?)</td><td class="tdl bl">hitjun</td><td class="tdl bl">hetun</td><td class="tdl bl">nabu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">the</td><td class="tdl bl">ros</td><td class="tdl bl">for</td><td class="tdl bl">au</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">imbai</td><td class="tdl bl">be</td><td class="tdl bl">name</td><td class="tdl bl">gŭri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tana Merah</td><td class="tdl bl">ogosarai</td><td class="tdl bl">saibona</td><td class="tdl bl">ondoafi</td><td class="tdl bl">soronto</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tarfia</td><td class="tdl bl">tukse</td><td class="tdl bl">arho</td><td class="tdl bl">tor</td><td class="tdl bl">fauk</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Takar</td><td class="tdl bl">afateni</td><td class="tdl bl">nawa</td><td class="tdl bl">nawa-jengki</td><td class="tdl bl">nawa-nawa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jamna</td><td class="tdl bl">tes</td><td class="tdl bl">ru</td><td class="tdl bl">tau</td><td class="tdl bl">fau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Masimasi</td><td class="tdl bl">kīs</td><td class="tdl bl">ru</td><td class="tdl bl">tou</td><td class="tdl bl">fo</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Moar</td><td class="tdl bl">hibeti</td><td class="tdl bl">ru</td><td class="tdl bl">tou</td><td class="tdl bl">fau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kumamba</td><td class="tdl bl">tès</td><td class="tdl bl">lu</td><td class="tdl bl">taur</td><td class="tdl bl">fau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-sari</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-ri</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-rosi</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-rasi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wamberan</td><td class="tdl bl">tenama</td><td class="tdl bl">bisa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Waropin</td><td class="tdl bl">wo-sio</td><td class="tdl bl">wo-ruo</td><td class="tdl bl">wo-ro</td><td class="tdl bl">wo-ako</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mohr</td><td class="tdl bl">tata</td><td class="tdl bl">ruru</td><td class="tdl bl">oro</td><td class="tdl bl">ao</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">janăūwă</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">jăminatia</td><td class="tdl bl">jaminati-janăūwă</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">awaitămă-jaminatia</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Goreda</td><td class="tdl bl">unakwa</td><td class="tdl bl">jămanini</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">nadi</td><td class="tdl bl">ăbåmă</td><td class="tdl bl">ăbåmă-nadi</td><td class="tdl bl">ăbåmŏ-båmŏ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tandia</td><td class="tdl bl">nei</td><td class="tdl bl">rusi</td><td class="tdl bl">turusi</td><td class="tdl bl">attesi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Dasener</td><td class="tdl bl">joser</td><td class="tdl bl">suru</td><td class="tdl bl">toru</td><td class="tdl bl">ati</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jaur</td><td class="tdl bl">rebe</td><td class="tdl bl">redu</td><td class="tdl bl">reü</td><td class="tdl bl">rea</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Wandammen</td><td class="tdl bl">siri</td><td class="tdl bl">mondu</td><td class="tdl bl">tŏru</td><td class="tdl bl">atê</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Manikion</td><td class="tdl bl">hom</td><td class="tdl bl">hŏai</td><td class="tdl bl">homoi</td><td class="tdl bl">hŏku</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">sa</td><td class="tdl bl">nuwa</td><td class="tdl bl">teni</td><td class="tdl bl">fāt</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kapauer</td><td class="tdl bl">hĕre-wo</td><td class="tdl bl">hĕre-rīk</td><td class="tdl bl">hĕre-terī</td><td class="tdl bl">hère-ngara</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">simoksi</td><td class="tdl bl">rueiti</td><td class="tdl bl">tohru</td><td class="tdl bl">bahdi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">samosi</td><td class="tdl bl">rueiti</td><td class="tdl bl">toru</td><td class="tdl bl">fāt</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">samosi</td><td class="tdl bl">rueti</td><td class="tdl bl">tuwru</td><td class="tdl bl">fāt</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">tangauw</td><td class="tdl bl">amōi</td><td class="tdl bl">karia</td><td class="tdl bl">āi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">anau</td><td class="tdl bl">amoi</td><td class="tdl bl">karia</td><td class="tdl bl">aiwera</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">onarawa</td><td class="tdl bl">aboma</td><td class="tdl bl">torua</td><td class="tdl bl">fāt</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">inakwa</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">yamani</td><td class="tdl bl">yamani-īnakwa</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">ama-yamani</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">zakod</td><td class="tdl bl">iena</td><td class="tdl bl">iena-zakod</td><td class="tdl bl">iena-iena</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">nambu, nambi</td><td class="tdl bl">yethombi,<br />kethembi</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">yetho</td><td class="tdl bl vertt">asar</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">ambiur</td><td class="tdl bl">tumbi</td><td class="tdl bl">lambi</td><td class="tdl bl">tutubiar</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">tarangesa</td><td class="tdl bl">metakina</td><td class="tdl bl">gingi-metakina</td><td class="tdl bl">topea</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">tupi-dibi</td><td class="tdl bl">kumi-rivi</td><td class="tdl bl">kumi-reriga</td><td class="tdl bl">kumi-rivi-kumi-rivi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">wara, urapon</td><td class="tdl bl">uka, ukasar</td><td class="tdl bl">uka-modobigal</td><td class="tdl bl">uka-uka</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">nau</td><td class="tdl bl">netoa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">iepa</td><td class="tdl bl">neneni</td><td class="tdl bl">nesae</td><td class="tdl bl">neneni-neneni</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt">Jibu</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">yepa</td><td class="tdl bl">kuraiepa<br />(<i>finger</i>)</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kuraiepa</td><td class="tdl vertt bl">kuraiepa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">nau</td><td class="tdl bl">netewa</td><td class="tdl bl">netewa-nau</td><td class="tdl bl">netewa-netewa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">oroka</td><td class="tdl bl">miseka</td><td class="tdl bl">misorako</td><td class="tdl bl">miseka-miseka</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">uradaga</td><td class="tdl bl">mitiga</td><td class="tdl bl">nan</td><td class="tdl bl">mitiga-mitiga</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">sai, ŏsēr</td><td class="tdl bl">dui, suru</td><td class="tdl bl">kior</td><td class="tdl bl">fiak</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertt bb">Ceram</td><td class="tdl vertt bl bb">isa, sā</td><td class="tdl bl bb">rua, lua,<br />dua, roti</td><td class="tdl bl bb">teru, telu,<br />tolu, toru</td><td class="tdl bl bb">haa, hata,<br />ata, fāt</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span></p> - -<table summary="COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY." border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl bt bb"> </td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Five. Vijf.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Six. Zes.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Ten. Tien.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Twenty. Twintig.</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Seka</td><td class="tdl bl">naplan</td><td class="tdl bl">naplahi</td><td class="tdl bl">amplahari</td><td class="tdl bl">amplanaplan</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jotafa</td><td class="tdl bl">mimiām</td><td class="tdl bl">măndŏsīm</td><td class="tdl bl">ronduminarōs</td><td class="tdl bl">manisayām</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Sentani</td><td class="tdl bl">mehembai</td><td class="tdl bl">mehinimbai</td><td class="tdl bl">mehinmehembai</td><td class="tdl bl">megohri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tana Merah</td><td class="tdl bl">ogosarai</td><td class="tdl bl">demean</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tarfia</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">mana-tuksi</td><td class="tdl bl">mafarufaru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Takar</td><td class="tdl bl">nawa-nawa-jengki</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jamna</td><td class="tdl bl">jim, rim</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">sinafui</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Masimasi</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">sanafu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Moar</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kumamba</td><td class="tdl bl">lim</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">sanafun</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Pauwi</td><td class="tdl bl">pa-rinisi</td><td class="tdl bl">ponensi</td><td class="tdl bl">putaonsi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wamberan</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Waropin</td><td class="tdl bl">rimo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mohr</td><td class="tdl bl">rimo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Angadi</td><td class="tdl bl">măhărè-ajăhe-rauri</td><td class="tdl bl">măhărè-jană-ūwă</td><td class="tdl bl">măhăre-jămi-natia</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Goreda</td><td class="tdl bl">mahère-hèrori</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">tăóru</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nagramadu</td><td class="tdl bl">măma-riba</td><td class="tdl bl">mariba-nadi</td><td class="tdl bl">măma-răbåmă</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tandia</td><td class="tdl bl">marasi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Dasener</td><td class="tdl bl">rimbi</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jaur</td><td class="tdl bl">breiare</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wandammen</td><td class="tdl bl">rīm</td><td class="tdl bl">rīmi-siri</td><td class="tdl bl">sura</td><td class="tdl bl">snun-tupesi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Manikion</td><td class="tdl bl">sirkem</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Onin</td><td class="tdl bl">nima</td><td class="tdl bl">nem</td><td class="tdl bl">pusua</td><td class="tdl bl">puti-nuwa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kapauer</td><td class="tdl bl">hĕre-tembu</td><td class="tdl bl">here-tembu-here-wo</td><td class="tdl bl">pra’a</td><td class="tdl bl">to mdijowo</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Karufa</td><td class="tdl bl">rimi</td><td class="tdl bl">rom-simoksi</td><td class="tdl bl">putja</td><td class="tdl bl">siúmput-rueiti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Namatote</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">rim-samoti</td><td class="tdl bl">futsa</td><td class="tdl bl">ombutueti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lobo</td><td class="tdl bl">rimi</td><td class="tdl bl">rim-samosi</td><td class="tdl bl">wutsya</td><td class="tdl bl">sekumat-rueti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mairassis</td><td class="tdl bl">iworo</td><td class="tdl bl">iwora-mōi (? 7)</td><td class="tdl bl">werowa-moi</td><td class="tdl bl">yauw-nat-makia</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Wuaussirau</td><td class="tdl bl">iworo</td><td class="tdl bl">iwor-tanau</td><td class="tdl bl">iwor-toki-tani</td><td class="tdl bl">toki-amoi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Lakahia</td><td class="tdl bl">rim</td><td class="tdl bl">rim-onarawa</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mimika</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Merauke</td><td class="tdl bl">iena-iena-zakod</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bangu</td><td class="tdl bl">tambothoi</td><td class="tdl bl">nimbo</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Parb</td><td class="tdl bl">tumbi-tumbi-yambia</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bugi</td><td class="tdl bl">manda</td><td class="tdl bl">gaben</td><td class="tdl bl">dala</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Dabu</td><td class="tdl bl">tumu</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Saibai</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mowata</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kunini</td><td class="tdl bl">imegube</td><td class="tdl bl">matemate (<i>wrist</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">dare (<i>breast</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Jibu</td><td class="tdl bl">kuraiepa</td><td class="tdl bl">ribenda (<i>wrist</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">mua (<i>breast</i>)</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kiwai</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tirio</td><td class="tdl bl">miseka-miseka-oroka</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Tagota</td><td class="tdl bl">uradaga (?)</td><td class="tdl bl">moti-taba-nan</td><td class="tdl bl">moti-tatan</td><td class="tdl bl">...</td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td><td class="tdl bl bb"></td></tr><tr class="padtop"> -<td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Nufōr</td><td class="tdl bl">rīm</td><td class="tdl bl">onem</td><td class="tdl bl">samfur</td><td class="tdl bl">samfur-di-suru</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl bb">Ceram</td><td class="tdl bl bb">rima, lima, dima</td><td class="tdl bl bb">nē, nena, nō, onam</td><td class="tdl bl bb">husane, husā, utsya</td><td class="tdl bl bb">huturua</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1500px;"><a href="images/i_p342.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p342.jpg" width="1500" height="1286" alt="LANGUAGE MAP" /></a> -<p class="caption">LANGUAGE MAP<br /> -of the<br /> -Eastern Part of Netherlands New Guinea<br /> -Sidney H. Ray</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span></p> - -<p class="center">LIST OF WORDS USED BY THE PAPUANS IN THE DISTRICT -OF THE MIMIKA RIVER, S. W. DUTCH NEW GUINEA.</p> - -<table summary="LIST OF WORDS" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Above</td><td class="tdl">Opo</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Acid</td><td class="tdr"><big><big><big>{</big></big></big></td><td class="tdl">Tite<br />Imakemàn</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Animal</td><td class="tdl">Irĕka (also<br />“fish”</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ankle</td><td class="tdl">Bau-mámĕ</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ant</td><td class="tdl">Wámé</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm">Arm</td><td class="tdr"><big><big><big>{</big></big></big></td><td class="tdl">To-marī<br />To</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Arm-band</td><td class="tdl">Maka-rĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Arrive</td><td class="tdl">Mainaumà</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Arrow</td><td class="tdl">Tīari</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(barb of)</td><td class="tdl">Imari</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Atap</td><td class="tdl">Wurī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Axilla</td><td class="tdl">Emmabu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Back (of man)</td><td class="tdl">Ata</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bamboo</td><td class="tdl">Búiti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Banana</td><td class="tdl">Kau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(plantation of)</td><td class="tdl">Kauti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Band (of rattan worn round middle) </td><td class="tdl">Iwau-mákarĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bandicoot</td><td class="tdl">Púruga</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bark (of tree)</td><td class="tdl">Pīkī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Basket</td><td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><big><big><big>{</big></big></big></td><td class="tdl">Temme</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Eta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Beads</td><td class="tdl">Kamburi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bean</td><td class="tdl">Kawetī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="4">Beard</td><td class="tdr f4" rowspan="4">{</td><td class="tdl">Keparise</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Kepa bíri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Burídi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Pakúti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bed (mat)</td><td class="tdl">Kápiri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bee</td><td class="tdl">Imoho</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Beetle</td><td class="tdl">Buruta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Belch</td><td class="tdl">Mbau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Belly</td><td class="tdl">Iwau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Big</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">Atwa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Iwáko</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Bird</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">Páteru</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Páturu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">(of Paradise</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">Yamuku</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Yau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Bitter</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">Tite</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Imakemàn</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Black</td><td class="tdl">Ikako</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Blood</td><td class="tdl">Maréte</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Blunt</td><td class="tdl">Yamenà</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boat</td><td class="tdl">Ku</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bodice (of woven fibre)</td><td class="tdl">Paitĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Body</td><td class="tdl">Nata</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bottle</td><td class="tdl">Kárepa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bow</td><td class="tdl">Amúri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Bow-string</td><td class="tdl">Kima</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Breast (of woman)</td><td class="tdl">Auwĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(of man)</td><td class="tdl">Pītī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Breathe</td><td class="tdl">Túa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Broken</td><td class="tdl">Táka</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Butterfly</td><td class="tdl">Wīrī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Buttock</td><td class="tdl">Atabú</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Calf (of leg)</td><td class="tdl">Ewambugu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Canoe</td><td class="tdl">Ku</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cap (worn by widows)</td><td class="tdl">Ubauta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Carve (to)</td><td class="tdl">Maramu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cassowary</td><td class="tdl">Tu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Centipede</td><td class="tdl">Arowī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Coconut</td><td class="tdl">Utēri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cheek</td><td class="tdl">Awár(re)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Child</td><td class="tdl">Aidru</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chin</td><td class="tdl">Kepáre</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cicada</td><td class="tdl">Wéako</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cloth</td><td class="tdl">Pīkī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Club</td><td class="tdl">Moánne</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Clouds</td><td class="tdl">Apu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cockatoo</td><td class="tdl">Pukī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cold</td><td class="tdl">Yu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Comb</td><td class="tdl">Ta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Copulate</td><td class="tdl">Ipĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cough</td><td class="tdl">Otah</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="3">Crab</td><td class="tdr f3" rowspan="3">{</td><td class="tdl">Peja</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Epor(re)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Bī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Crayfish</td><td class="tdl">Bĭ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Crocodile</td><td class="tdl">Tīmaku</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cry (weep)</td><td class="tdl">Mbágĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cut (to)</td><td class="tdl">Embe</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cuscus (Phalanger)</td><td class="tdl">Apui</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Dance</td><td class="tdl">Dirin-dirin</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Deep</td><td class="tdl">Emúku</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Dog</td><td class="tdl">Wīrī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Drink</td><td class="tdl">Tomagu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Drum</td><td class="tdl">Emmĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ear</td><td class="tdl">Éne</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ear-ring</td><td class="tdl">Tīrawōnĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Earth (sand)</td><td class="tdl">Tīrī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Eat</td><td class="tdl">Namúka</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Eel</td><td class="tdl">Mbatarúbia</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Egg</td><td class="tdl">Tareté</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Elbow</td><td class="tdl">To-mámé</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Exchange</td><td class="tdl">Akóra</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Eye</td><td class="tdl">Mámé</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Eyebrow</td><td class="tdl">Mambīrī<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span></td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Far</td><td class="tdl">Awakopíre</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fat</td><td class="tdl">Atwa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Feather</td><td class="tdl">Idī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Finger</td><td class="tdl">Márĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Finger-nail</td><td class="tdl">Marē</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fire</td><td class="tdl">Utá</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(stick)</td><td class="tdl">Utamau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fish</td><td class="tdl">Irĕka</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fly (insect)</td><td class="tdl">Oboö</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flying-fox</td><td class="tdl">Iéa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Foot</td><td class="tdl">Bauwe</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Forehead</td><td class="tdl">Métár(re)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ghost</td><td class="tdl">Níniki</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Give</td><td class="tdl">Kéma</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Grass</td><td class="tdl">Umetir(re)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Grasshopper</td><td class="tdl">Atŏkŏ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Green</td><td class="tdl">Otopu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hair</td><td class="tdl">Vīrī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hand</td><td class="tdl">Marĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">He</td><td class="tdl">Amárepa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Head</td><td class="tdl">Kapa-uĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Heavy</td><td class="tdl">Ikīti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Heel</td><td class="tdl">Mbautep(e)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">His</td><td class="tdl">Amareta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hiccough</td><td class="tdl">Urri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hornbill</td><td class="tdl">Kumai</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hornet</td><td class="tdl">Imŏkŏ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">House</td><td class="tdl">Kámĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">I</td><td class="tdl">Doro</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ill</td><td class="tdl">Namúti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Image (carved)</td><td class="tdl">Betoro</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Iron</td><td class="tdl">Tau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Knee</td><td class="tdl">Irību</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lance</td><td class="tdl">Uruna</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Laugh</td><td class="tdl">Oko</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Leaf</td><td class="tdl">E</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Leg</td><td class="tdl">Atīrī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lightning</td><td class="tdl">Marapiti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lips</td><td class="tdl">Irī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Little</td><td class="tdl">Mimiti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lizard</td><td class="tdl">Inamo</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Lizard (frilled)</td><td class="tdl">Wago</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Loins</td><td class="tdl">Yaïmi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Man</td><td class="tdl">Uweri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Many</td><td class="tdl">Tákiri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mat (of pandanus)</td><td class="tdl">Au</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Melon</td><td class="tdl">Anĕtĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mine</td><td class="tdl">Dorota</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Moon</td><td class="tdl">Pura</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mosquito</td><td class="tdl">Itjī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mountain</td><td class="tdl">Púkare</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mouth</td><td class="tdl">Ba</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Moustache</td><td class="tdl">Mbu-tīrĭ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Navel</td><td class="tdl">Boporĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Neck</td><td class="tdl">Ima</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">New</td><td class="tdl">Aigu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Nod</td><td class="tdl">Kiparu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Nose</td><td class="tdl">Bīrim</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(secretion of)</td><td class="tdl">Bīndī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Old man of village</td><td class="tdl">Natu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">One</td><td class="tdl">Inakwa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Orchid</td><td class="tdl">Idarōnĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Other</td><td class="tdl">Awaida</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Other man</td><td class="tdl">Wehwaida</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Other man’s</td><td class="tdl">Wehwaidata</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Paddle</td><td class="tdl">Poh</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Palate</td><td class="tdl">Tībanne</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Papaya</td><td class="tdl">Tĕnà</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Parrot</td><td class="tdl">Akīma</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pearl</td><td class="tdl">Omab(e)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Penis</td><td class="tdl">Kamàrē</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(case)</td><td class="tdl">Kamare-po(ko)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Pig</td><td class="tdr f2" rowspan="2">{</td><td class="tdl">U</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Api</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pigeon</td><td class="tdl">Parúa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pillow (wooden)</td><td class="tdl">Yamate</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pine-apple</td><td class="tdl">Makadĕtĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Prawn</td><td class="tdl">Mbi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pumpkin</td><td class="tdl">Nabru</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Python</td><td class="tdl">Pīmī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rain</td><td class="tdl">Ke</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rainbow</td><td class="tdl">Parakĕta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rapids</td><td class="tdl">Kamáwa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rat</td><td class="tdl">Kemako</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rattan</td><td class="tdl">Kima</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Red</td><td class="tdl">Epĕró</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ribs</td><td class="tdl">Párĕrŏ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rice</td><td class="tdl">Wátē</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Ripe</td><td class="tdl">Pu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">River</td><td class="tdl">Iuata</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Road (track)</td><td class="tdl">Mako</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rope</td><td class="tdl">Temmà</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sacrum</td><td class="tdl">Wagamau(e)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sago</td><td class="tdl">Amŏta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(beater)</td><td class="tdl">Wapúri</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sago-bowl</td><td class="tdl">Pámagu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sap</td><td class="tdl">Namī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Scorpion</td><td class="tdl">Purumbaä</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sea</td><td class="tdl">Takarī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shallow</td><td class="tdl">Taparī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sharp</td><td class="tdl">Yánakŏ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shell</td><td class="tdl">Parau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shell-fish</td><td class="tdl">Uwo</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shin</td><td class="tdl">Imbīrī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shore</td><td class="tdl">Tīrī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shoulder</td><td class="tdl">Ta-rī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Shoulder-blade</td><td class="tdl">To-bābŭ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Skin</td><td class="tdl">Pīgerī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span>Skull</td><td class="tdl">Upau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sleep</td><td class="tdl">Eté</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Snail</td><td class="tdl">Tapoko</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Snake</td><td class="tdl">Apako</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sneeze</td><td class="tdl">Yaiē</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Spear</td><td class="tdl">Uruna</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(wooden)</td><td class="tdl">Potaku</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Spit</td><td class="tdl">Mbatau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Star</td><td class="tdl">Mako</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Steal</td><td class="tdl">Otemu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Stick (of club)</td><td class="tdl">Wu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sting-ray</td><td class="tdl">Kaū</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Stone</td><td class="tdl">Omanī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Suck</td><td class="tdl">Au</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sugar-cane</td><td class="tdl">Mŏnī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sun</td><td class="tdl">Yau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sweat</td><td class="tdl">Papitī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sweet potato</td><td class="tdl">Pamu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Swim</td><td class="tdl">Tīmago</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tear (a)</td><td class="tdl">Bágumbú</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Thigh</td><td class="tdl">I</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Throat</td><td class="tdl">Kīmárĭ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Thumb</td><td class="tdl f2 padr5" rowspan="2">}</td><td class="tdl vertm" rowspan="2">Ipau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Great Toe</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Thunder</td><td class="tdl">Uraki</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tired</td><td class="tdl">Toh</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tobacco</td><td class="tdl">Kapakī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">To-day</td><td class="tdl">Wauwà</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Toes</td><td class="tdl">Bauwē</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">To-morrow</td><td class="tdl">Kaúmuta</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tongue</td><td class="tdl">Malī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tooth</td><td class="tdl">Tītī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Tree</td><td class="tdl">Uti</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Turtle</td><td class="tdl">Mbiambu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Two</td><td class="tdl">Yamani</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Upset</td><td class="tdl">Pīro</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Viper</td><td class="tdl">Mágu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Vomit</td><td class="tdl">Mbau</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Water</td><td class="tdl">Mbi</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Mbu</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">(make)</td><td class="tdl">Gīgī</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wet</td><td class="tdl">Nata</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Whistle</td><td class="tdl">Wiramogo</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">White</td><td class="tdl">Naputiàre</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wind</td><td class="tdl">Kīmīr(e)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl vertm" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Woman</td><td class="tdl">Kaukwa</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">Aina</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wound</td><td class="tdl">Natŭ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Wrist</td><td class="tdl">Marapŭmĕ</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Yawn</td><td class="tdl">Mbápoh</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Yellow</td><td class="tdl">Taier(re)</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">You</td><td class="tdl">Oro</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Your</td><td class="tdl">Orota</td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">346-347</a></span></p> - -<h2>INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="IX"><li class="li padt1 padl8"> -A</li><li> -Acton, Lord, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li><li> -Albinos, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li><li> -Alcohol, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li><li> -Amberno River, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li> -Amboina, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,<a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<ul><li> -communication with, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li><li> -inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li><li> -market at, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li></ul></li><li> -Ambonese coolies, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li><li> -Ambonese, dress of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<ul><li> -names of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li></ul></li><li> -<i>Amok</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li><li> -Arafura Sea, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li><li> -Arfak Mountains, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li><li> -Arrows, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li> -Aru Islands, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li><li> -<i>Atap</i>, method of making, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li><li> -Atuka River, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li> -Atjeh, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> -B</li><li> -Balfour, H., <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li><li> -Bali, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li><li> -Bamboo, throwing lime from, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li><li> -Banana, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li><li> -Banda, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li><li> -Batavia, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<ul><li> -washing in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li></ul></li><li> -Bees, stingless honey-, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li><li> -Beetles, as food, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;<ul><li> -larva of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li></ul></li><li> -Beri-beri, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li><li> -Bird of Paradise, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li><li> -Birds, collection of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li> -Boat-builders, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li><li> -Boni, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li> -Bonnets of widows, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li><li> -Borneo, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li><li> -Boro-Boder, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li> -Botanic station at Merauke, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li><li> -Bougainville, de, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Bows, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li> -Bridge, building a, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li><li> -British New Guinea, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li> -British Ornithologists’ Union, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li> -Brush Turkey, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li><li> -Buddhist Temples, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li> -Buitenzorg garden, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li> -Buleling, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li> -Butonese, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li><li> -Butterflies, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> -C</li><li> -Camp, health of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<ul><li> -repairing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li></ul></li><li> -Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li><li> -Canoes, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;<ul><li> -building of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li><li> -description of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li><li> -method of paddling, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li><li> -the price of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li></ul></li><li> -Carstensz, Mt., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li><li> -Carstensz, Jan, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li><li> -Cape York, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Carteret, Philip, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Cassowaries, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li><li> -Cassowary, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li> -Casuarina trees, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li> -Cat’s cradle, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li><li> -Celebes, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li> -Celebes Trading Company, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li> -Ceram, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li> -Ceremonies, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li><li> -Charles Louis Mountains, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li><li> -Chief, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li><li> -Children, games of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li><li> -Chinese, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li><li> -Christians at Amboina, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span> -Cicatrisation, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li><li> -Clothing of Dutch, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<ul><li> -of natives, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li></ul></li><li> -Clouds on mountains, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li><li> -Clubs, Dutch, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<ul><li> -stoneheaded, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li><li> -wooden, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li></ul></li><li> -Coal, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li> -Coast, description of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<ul><li> -navigation of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li></ul></li><li> -Coconuts, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li><li> -Comet, Halley’s, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li><li> -Convicts, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<ul><li> -madness of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li></ul></li><li> -Cook, Captain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li><li> -Coolies, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;<ul><li> -Ambonese, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li><li> -failure of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li><li> -feebleness of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li><li> -sickness of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li></ul></li><li> -Corals, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li> -Counting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li><li> -Cramer, H. A., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li> -Crickets, a plague of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li><li> -Crocodiles, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li><li> -Crowned pigeon, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li><li> -Crows, pale, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li><li> -Cultivation, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<ul><li> -in Java, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li></ul></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> -D</li><li> -Daggers of bone, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li> -d’Albertis, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li> -Dampier, Captain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li><li> -Dancing, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<ul><li> -houses, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li></ul></li><li> -Darwin, Mt. Leonard, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li><li> -Dayaks, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;<ul><li> -arrival of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li><li> -industry of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li></ul></li><li> -Dead, disposal of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-140</li><li> -Death, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li><li> -Digoel River, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li> -Disease, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li><li> -Djokjakarta, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li> -Dobo, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li><li> -Dog, Papuan, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li><li> -Dorei, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li> -Drawing, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li><li> -Drowning of sailor, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li><li> -Drums, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li><li> -Ducks, penguin, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<ul><li> -perching in trees, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li></ul></li><li> -Dugongs, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li><li> -Dumas, J. M., <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li><li> -Dumas, Mr., <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li><li> -Dutch, Government, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<ul><li> -food of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li><li> -house of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li><li> -habits of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li><li> -tree-planting by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li><li> -hospitality of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li><li> -rule in New Guinea, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li><li> -explorations of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li><li> -East India Company, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li><li> -Expeditions, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li></ul></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> - -E</li><li> -Earthquake at Amboina, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li><li> -Effigies, carved, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li><li> -<i>Endeavour</i>, voyage of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Escort, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li><li> -Expedition, members of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<ul><li> -leave Java, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li></ul></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> - -F</li><li> -Fak-fak, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li><li> -Families, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li><li> -Festival, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li><li> -Fiji, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li> -Fire, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li><li> -Fire-making, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li><li> -Fish, many coloured, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li> -Fishing-net, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li><li> -Flies, a plague of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<ul><li> -on water, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li></ul></li><li> -Flint knives, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li><li> -Flood, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li><li> -Flores, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li> -Flowers, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li><li> -Fly River, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li> -Food of natives, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li><li> -Forbes, H. O., <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li> -Forest, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-245</li><li> -Fortnum and Mason, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li><li> -Frogmouth, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> - -G</li><li> -Garden at Amboina, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li> -Garoet, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li> -Geographical Society, Royal, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li><li> -German New Guinea, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span> -Ghosts, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li><li> -Goa, Raja of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li> -Godman, F. D., <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li> -Godman, Mt., <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li><li> -Goodfellow, W., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li><li> -Grant, C. H. B., <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li> -Grant, W. R. Ogilvie, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li> -Grey, Sir E., <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li><li> -Guillemard, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li><li> -Gurkhas, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> -H</li><li> -Habbema, Lieut., <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li><li> -Half-castes, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li><li> -Halley’s Comet, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li><li> -Head-rests, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li><li> -Herwerden, Captain, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li><li> -Hindu Temple, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li><li> -Hornbills, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li><li> -Houses of the natives, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;<ul><li> -in trees, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li><li> -communal, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li></ul></li><li> -Humboldt Bay, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> - -I</li><li> -<i>Ibis</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li> -Iguanas, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li><li> -Intoxication of natives, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li><li> -Incense, smell of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li><li> -Island River, Dutch Expedition, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<ul><li> -description of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li></ul></li><li> -Iwaka River, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li class="li padt1 padl8"> - -J</li><li> -Java, prosperity of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<ul><li> -half-castes in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li></ul></li><li> -Javanese soldiers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li><li> -Jew’s harp, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li> -Jungle, clearing the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -K</li><li> -Kaiserin Augusta River, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li><li> -Kalff, Mr. E., <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li><li> -Kamura River, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li> -Kapare River, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li><li> -Ké Islands, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<ul><li> -natives of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li></ul></li><li> -Kingfishers, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li><li> -Kloss, C. B., <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li><li> -Kolff, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li><li> -Kris, abolition of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -L</li><li> -Language, difficulty of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li><li> -La Perouse, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -<i>La Seyne</i>, wreck of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li><li> -Leeches, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li><li> -Le Maire, Jacques, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li><li> -Lombok, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li> -Lorentz, H. A., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li> -Lories, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -M</li><li> -Macassar, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li> -MacCluer Gulf, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li> -MacCluer, John, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Macgregor, Sir W., <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li> -Malays, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;<ul><li> -food of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li><li> -music of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li></ul></li><li> -Mangrove, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li> -Marianne Strait, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li><li> -Marriage, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li><li> -Marshall, E. S., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li> -Medical treatment, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li><li> -Meek, Mr., <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li> -Megapode, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li><li> -Meneses, Don Torge de, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li> -Merauke, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;<ul><li> -communication with, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li><li> -natives of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li></ul></li><li> -Mimika, first voyage on, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;<ul><li> -description of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li><li> -water of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li><li> -tides on the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li><li> -obstacles in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li></ul></li><li> -Mission at Dorei, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li> -Missions, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li><li> -Mosquitoes, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li><li> -Motor-boat, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span> -Murderer, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li><li> -Music, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -N</li><li> -Natives, trading with, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<ul><li> -communicating with, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li><li> -dislike of rain, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li><li> -migrations of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li><li> -language of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_322">Appendix C</a>;</li><li> -description of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li><li> -height of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li><li> -clothing of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li><li> -age of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li><li> -food of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li><li> -social system of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li><li> -property of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li><li> -music of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li><li> -dancing of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li><li> -as artists, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li><li> -mock sorrow of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li><li> -quarrels of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li><li> -as marksmen, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li><li> -health of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li><li> -as carriers, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li><li> -our relations with, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li><li> -as thieves, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li></ul></li><li> -Naturalists, explorations by, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -New Guinea, position of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<ul><li> -size of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li><li> -mountains of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li><li> -natives of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li><li> -discovery of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li><li> -name of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li><li> -recent explorations of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li><li> -first sight of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li><li> -shore of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li><li> -lack of food, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li><li> -rivers of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li><li> -departure from, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li></ul></li><li> -Newton, Professor Alfred, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li> -<i>Nias</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li><li> -Nimé, dancing house at, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li><li> -Noord River, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li><li> -Nouhuys, J. W. van, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li><li> -Numerals, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -O</li><li> -Obota, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li><li> -Ogilvie-Grant, W. R., <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -P</li><li> -Palm, coconut, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li><li> -Pandanus, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li> -Papua, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<ul><li> -meaning of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li></ul></li><li> -Papuans, description of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<ul><li> -behavior of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li><li> -dress of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li><li> -apathy of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li><li> -asleep, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li><li> -dancing, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li><li> -as traders, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li><li> -communicating with, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li><li> -dislike of rain, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li><li> -food of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li><li> -migrations of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li><li> -drink of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li><li> -language of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_322">Appendix C</a>;</li><li> -height of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li><li> -age of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li><li> -social system of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li><li> -property of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li><li> -music of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li><li> -as artists, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li><li> -quarrels of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li><li> -as marksmen, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li><li> -health of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li></ul></li><li> -Paradise, bird of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li><li> -Parimau, arrival at, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;<ul><li> -departure from, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li></ul></li><li> -Payment of natives, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li><li> -Peace-offering, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li><li> -Pearls, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li> -Pearl-shell, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li> -Penguin ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li> -Periepia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li><li> -Petroleum, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li> -Pickles, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li><li> -Pig, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-136</li><li> -Pigeons, crowned, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li><li> -Pineapples, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li><li> -Plants, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li> -Plants at Buitenzorg, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li> -Ponies, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li><li> -Pool, Thomas, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li> -Port Moresby, natives of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li> -Portuguese, remains of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<ul><li> -navigators, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li></ul></li><li> -Precipice, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li><li> -Prince Frederick Henry Island, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li><li> -Propeller, loss of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li><li> -Provisions, storing of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<ul><li> -packing of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li><li> -depôt of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li></ul></li><li> -Pygmies, discovery of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<ul><li> -visit to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li><li> -dress of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li><li> -description of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li><li> -voices of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li><li> -visit Parimau, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li><li> -measurements of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_303">Appendix B</a>;</li><li> -ornaments of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li><li> -possessions of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li><li> -methods of smoking, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li><li> -village of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li><li> -houses of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li><li> -women of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li><li> -intelligence of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li><li> -distribution of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li></ul></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -R</li><li> -Races, mixture of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<ul><li> -harmony of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li></ul></li><li> -Raffles, Sir Stamford, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span> -Rain, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li><li> -Rattan, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li> -Rawling, C. G., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-5, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li> -Relationship, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li><li> -Reptiles, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li><li> -Retes, Ynigo Ortiz de, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li> -Rice, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<ul><li> -cultivation in Java, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li></ul></li><li> -Rifle bird, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li><li> -Rijst-tafel, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li><li> -Rivers, branching, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;<ul><li> -crossing, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li><li> -in New Guinea, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li></ul></li><li> -Robinson, H. C., <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li><li> -<i>Roebuck</i>, voyage of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Ruwenzori, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -S</li><li> -Sago, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-92</li><li> -St. Nicholas, feast of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li><li> -Sandpiper, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li><li> -Sarawak, H. H. the Raja of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li><li> -Sarong, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li> -Schouten Islands, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li> -Schouten, Willem, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li><li> -Screw-pines, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li> -Sea, depth of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li><li> -Sea-snakes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li><li> -Seasons, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;<ul><li> -wet, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li></ul></li><li> -Shackleton Expedition, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li><li> -Sharks, fishing for, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li><li> -Shortridge, G. C., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li><li> -Sickness, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-192</li><li> -Sindanglaya, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li> -Skulls, preservation of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li><li> -Smith, Stamford, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li><li> -Snakes, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li><li> -Snow Mountains, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<ul><li> -discovery of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li><li> -first sight of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li><li> -distant view of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li><li> -attempt to reach, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li></ul></li><li> -Social system, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li><li> -Soldiers, native, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li><li> -Songs, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li><li> -Spanish navigators, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li> -Spears, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li> -Spices, Dutch monopoly of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Spiders, tameness of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li><li> -Stalker, W., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<ul><li> -death of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li><li> -funeral of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li></ul></li><li> -Steam-launch, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li><li> -Stone Age, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li> -Stone implements, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li><li> -Stones, gifts of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li><li> -Sugar-palm, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li><li> -Sumbawa, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li> -Superstitions, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li><li> -Swift, Moustached, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li> -Swimming, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -T</li><li> -Tapiro (<i>see</i> Pygmies)</li><li> -Tasman, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li> -Tattooing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li><li> -Tears, a welcome of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li><li> -Temples at Boro-Boder, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li> -Ternate, Sultan of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<ul><li> -traders of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li></ul></li><li> -Thunderstorms, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li><li> -Tides of the river, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li><li> -Timura River, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li><li> -Tobacco, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li><li> -cultivation of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li><li> -Torres, Luis Vaz de, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li> -Torres Strait, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Tosari, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li><li> -Track, used by natives, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;<ul><li> -cutting a, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li></ul></li><li> -Trade goods, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li><li> -Transport, difficulty of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li><li> -Travelling, difficult, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li><li> -Trees, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;<ul><li> -falling at night, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li><li> -cutting down, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li><li> -houses in, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li></ul></li><li> -Tuaba River, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li><li> -Tugeri, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li><li> -Tugeri tribe, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -U</li><li> -Utakwa, Dutch expedition to, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li><li> -Utakwa River, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -V</li><li> -Van der Bie, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li><li> -Vanilla, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span> -Vegetation, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li><li> -View, a rare, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li><li> -Volcano, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li><li> -Volcanoes in Java, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li><li class="li padl8 padt1"> - -W</li><li> -Wailing at death, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li><li> -Wakatimi, arrival at, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;<ul><li> -camp at, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li><li> -description of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li><li> -departure from, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li></ul></li><li> -Wallaby, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li><li> -Wallace, A. R., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li><li> -Wamberi Merbiri, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li> -Wania, excursion to, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li><li> -Wania River, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li><li> -Wataikwa, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li> -Wataikwa River, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li><li> -Water, lack of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;<ul><li> -squeezed from moss, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li></ul></li><li> -Water-lilies, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li><li> -Weather, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li><li> -Wilhelmina, Mt., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li><li> -Wives, number of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li><li> -Women, 148;<ul><li> -clothing of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li><li> -treatment of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li><li> -dress of Dutch, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li><li> -Pygmies, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li></ul></li> -</ul> - - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1500px;"><a href="images/i_p353.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_p353.jpg" width="1500" height="1400" alt="DUTCH NEW GUINEA" /></a> - -<p class="caption">PART OF<br /> - -<big>DUTCH NEW GUINEA</big><br /> - -drawn by<br /> - -Captain. C. G. Rawling, C.I.E. and M<sup>r</sup>. E. Marshall, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.<br /> - -to illustrate the explorations of<br /> - -THE BRITISH EXPEDITION<br /> - -1909-11.</p> - -<p class="center">—Note—</p> - -<p><i>This map is based on a plane table -survey, adjusted to points fixed by -theodolite angles, and astronomical -observations for latitude and azimuth. -Heights of peaks are from theodolite -vertical angles.</i></p></div> - -<p class="center">THE END</p> - -<p class="center">PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> leader of a gang.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> <i>Malay Archipelago</i>, Chapter XX.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> <i>Malay Archipelago</i>, Chapter XXIX.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> F. H. H. Guillemard, <i>The Cruise of the “Marchesa,”</i> Chapter XXI.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> A note in the <i>Geographical Journal</i>, Vol. xxxviii. p. 211, points -out the interesting fact that this custom of shedding tears in welcome -was observed by some of the early travellers in many places on the -American Continent, both North and South. It has also been noticed -among the Andamanese and other Negroid inhabitants of South-Eastern -Asia and Australasia.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Like the Megapodes the Brush Turkeys are most interesting -birds, which have the habit of making large mounds of rubbish in -which they place their eggs, where they are hatched by the heat of -fermentation. This species is about the size of a domestic hen, and -its large brown egg is very good eating.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> The very interesting discovery was made by Mr. Staniforth -Smith of sago growing at an altitude of 3500 feet in the region of -Kikor River, British New Guinea.—<i>Geog. Journal</i>, vol. xxxix. p. 329.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> See <a href="#Page_322">Appendix C.</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> The number of individuals examined was not very great and -the difference in their measurements are so insignificant, that they -may be considered all to belong to one race.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> <i>Tuan</i> = master, v. p. 103. The natives always addressed us as -“Tuana,” and many babies, of whom their parents were particularly -proud, were called “Tuana.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> <i>A Continuation of a Voyage to New Holland, etc., in the year 1699</i>, -by Captain William Dampier.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> <i>Standard</i>, 4, 8, 1910.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> The accent is placed on the first syllable—Tápĭro.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Extract from diary, 12th March 1910. A.F.R.W.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> The services of these two men were secured to the expedition -through the generosity of Mr. H. C. Robinson, Director of the Museums -of the Federated Malay States.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> For their cranial measurements see <a href="#Page_303"><i>Appendix</i>.</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> The stitch used is a “figure of eight.” An exactly similar -pattern is used by the natives near Humboldt Bay, North Dutch -New Guinea, in making caps. See Van der Sande, <i>Nova Guinea</i>, -Vol. III. Illustration, p. 37.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> I am informed by Mr. H. Balfour, of the Pitt Rivers Museum, -Oxford, that a similar method of making fire is employed by people -in Assam, the Chittagong Hills, at certain places in the Malay Peninsula, -in Borneo, at numerous places in different parts of New Guinea, -and at one place in West Africa.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> I saw three men who showed unmistakable signs of syphilis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> “Capt. Cook, H.M.S. <i>Endeavour</i>, 1770.” “Kolff’s Voyages in -Dutch Brig of War <i>Dourga</i>, 1825-6.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> This is the usual friendly greeting of the people in the Merauke -district. The word is now used by the Dutch as a slang name for the -natives of any part of New Guinea.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> Voyage of the ships <i>Pera</i> and <i>Arnhem</i>, under command of Jan -Carstenszoon or Carstensz, 1623.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> Here, as elsewhere in the Dutch colonies, half-castes in official -positions are reckoned as Europeans.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Capt. C. G. Rawling. <i>Country Life.</i> 20 May, 1911.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> <i>Malay Archipelago.</i> Chapter V.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> The numerals in brackets refer to the list of authorities prefixed to the -comparative vocabulary.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> <i>Cf.</i> Translation by G. G. Batten in “Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago,” -1894.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> Dr. N. Adriani. Eenige opmerkingen over de Mĕraukĕ-Taal naar aanleiding -der Woordenlijst van Contr. J. Seijne Kok, in “De Zuidwest Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie -van het Kon. Ned. Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, 1904-5.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> G. W. Earl, Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, Papuans, 1853, Appendix, -and Jour. Roy. Geographical Society, 1837, p. 393-395.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> De Zuidwest Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie van het Kon. Ned. Aardrijkskundig -Genootschap, 1904-5. Leiden, 1908.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> <i>Cf.</i> Internat. Archiv. für Ethnographie, 16, 1905, and Reports of Cambridge -Anthropological Expedition, III., p. 387.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> H. Kern. Over de taal der Jotafa’s aan de Humboldtbaai, Bijdragen tot de -Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië, 6 Volg. deel VII.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> <i>Cf.</i> G. von der Gabelentz und A. B. Muller, Melanesischen Sprachen, 1882, -p. 536-541. Also C. J. F. le Cocq d’Armandville in Tijds. v. Taal, etc., 46, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> P. J. B. C. Robidé van der Aa in Bijdragen tot de Taal etc., 1883, p. 197. The -word is <i>mes</i>, coconut, the Mĕraukĕ <i>mise</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> The term “Indonesian” is used here only to imply that the languages so -designated appear to contain some words and constructions which are found -commonly in the languages of the Indian Archipelago. The data are too few for -definite classification. The term “Papuan” may be taken to mean “non-Indonesian” -or “Non-Malayo-Polynesian” with a similar limitation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> In the Examples following, the vowels should be sounded as in Italian, and -the consonants as in English. The Dutch <i>oe</i> and <i>ie</i> are written <i>u</i> and <i>ī</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> This interchange is very common in the languages of the Papuan Gulf. -<i>Cf.</i> Reports of Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, III., pp. 325, 334.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> G. W. Earl in Jour. Royal Geographical Society, 1837, p. 394.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Those quoted are: <i>Dungerwab</i> (or <i>Parb</i>) on Wai Kasa R., <i>Bangu</i>, Morehead -River; <i>Bugi</i>, Mai Kasa River, <i>Dabu</i>, Paho R., <i>Mowata</i>, mouth of Binaturi R., -<i>Saibai Is.</i> in Western Torres Straits, <i>Miriam</i>, Murray Is. Torres Straits, <i>Kunini</i> and -<i>Jibu</i> West shore of Fly Delta, <i>Kiwai Is.</i> in Fly Delta.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> William Churchill, “The Polynesian Wanderings.” Washington. 1911. -Pp. v., 147.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> Reports of Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, III, p. 290.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> The writer was however told by Murray Island natives that “tulik” was the -name of the old shell axe.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> Eenige opmerkingen over de Mĕraukĕ-taal, in “De Zuidwest Nieuw-Guinea-expeditie -van het Kon. Ned. Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, 1904-5,” p. 661-2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> Op. cit., p. 664-665.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> The number prefixed is that by which these authorities have been referred to -in the preceding pages.</p></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Pygmies and Papuans, by A. F. R. 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